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diff --git a/14971-h/14971-h.htm b/14971-h/14971-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7b560a --- /dev/null +++ b/14971-h/14971-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,25758 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of History of Holland, by GEORGE +EDMUNDSON.</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + +A { + TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +P { + MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; +} +H1 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H2 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H3 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H4 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H5 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H6 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} + +HR { width: 100%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } +img {border: 0;} + + +A:link { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +LINK { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:visited { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:hover { + COLOR: red; +} + + +BODY { + MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; +} +.linenum { + LEFT: 4%; POSITION: absolute; TOP: auto; +} +.note { + MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 2em; +} +.blkquot { + MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 4em; +} +.pagenum { + FONT-SIZE: smaller; LEFT: 92%; POSITION: absolute; TEXT-ALIGN: right; +} +.newpage { + display: none; +} +.sidenote { + CLEAR: right; MARGIN-TOP: 1em; PADDING-LEFT: 1em; FONT-SIZE: smaller; FLOAT: right; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; WIDTH: 20%; +} + +ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red; border-bottom-width:1px;} + +.poem { + MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; TEXT-ALIGN: left; +} + + + +.poem BR { + DISPLAY: none; +} +.poem .stanza { + MARGIN: 1em 0em; +} +.poem SPAN { + DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 3em; MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-INDENT: -3em; +} +.poem SPAN.i2 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; +} +.poem SPAN.i4 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; +} +.poem .caesura { + VERTICAL-ALIGN: -200%; +} +LI.indent { + MARGIN-LEFT: 5%; +} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Holland, by George Edmundson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of Holland + +Author: George Edmundson + +Release Date: February 8, 2005 [EBook #14971] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HOLLAND *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading +Team. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<br /> + + + +<h5>CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br > + C.F. CLAY, MANAGER <br > +LONDON: FETTER LANE, E.C.4</h5> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + + +<div style= +" background-color: white; color: black; border-style: ridge;"> +<center> +<h1>HISTORY OF HOLLAND</h1> +</center> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h2>GEORGE EDMUNDSON<br /> + D. LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.</h2> + +<br /> +<center> +<h6>SOMETIME FELLOW OF BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD HON. MEMBER OF THE +DUTCH HISTORICAL SOCIETY, UTRECHT FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE NETHERLAND +SOCIETY OF LITERATURE, LEYDEN</h6> +</center> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<h4>CAMBRIDGE<br /> + +AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> + +1922</h4> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<p><small> NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.<br /> + BOMBAY }<br /> + CALCUTTA} MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.<br /> + MADRAS }<br /> + TORONTO: THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. <br /> + TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA</small></p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h3><a href="#TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS</a></h3> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_v" id= +"page_v">[v]</a></span> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<a name="PREFACE"></a> +<h3>GENERAL PREFACE</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<p><i>The aim of this series is to sketch the history of Modern +Europe, with that of its chief colonies and conquests, from about +the end of the fifteenth century down to the present time. In one +or two cases the story commences at an earlier date; in the case of +the colonies it generally begins later. The histories of the +different countries are described, as a rule, separately; for it is +believed that, except in epochs like that of the French Revolution +and Napoleon I, the connection of events will thus be better +understood and the continuity of historical development more +clearly displayed</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The series is intended for the use of all persons anxious to +understand the nature of existing political conditions. 'The roots +of the present lie deep in the past'; and the real significance of +contemporary events cannot be grasped unless the historical causes +which have led to them are known. The plan adopted makes it +possible to treat the history of the last four centuries in +considerable detail, and to embody the most important results of +modern research. It is hoped therefore that the series will be +useful not only to beginners but to students who have already +acquired some general knowledge of European History. For those who +wish to carry their studies further, the bibliography appended to +each volume will act as a guide to original sources of information +and works of a more special character</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Considerable attention is paid to political geography; and +each volume is furnished with such maps and plans as may be +requisite for the illustration of the text</i>.</p> + +<p>G.W. PROTHERO.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_vii" id= +"page_vii">[vii]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<a name="PROLOGUE"></a> + +<h2>PROLOGUE</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<p>The title, "History of Holland," given to this volume is fully +justified by the predominant part which the great maritime province +of Holland took in the War of Independence and throughout the whole +of the subsequent history of the Dutch state and people. In every +language the country, comprising the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, +Utrecht, Friesland, Gelderland, Overyssel and Groningen, has, from +the close of the sixteenth century to our own day, been currently +spoken of as Holland, and the people (with the solitary exception +of ourselves) as 'Hollanders<a name="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>.' It is only rarely that the +terms the Republic of the United Provinces, or of the United +Netherlands, and in later times the Kingdom of the Netherlands, are +found outside official documents. Just as the title "History of +England" gradually includes the histories of Wales, of Scotland, of +Ireland, and finally of the widespread British Empire, so is it in +a smaller way with the history that is told in the following pages. +That history, to be really complete, should begin with an account +of mediaeval Holland in the feudal times which preceded the +Burgundian period; and such an account was indeed actually written, +but the plan of this work, which forms one of the volumes of a +series, precluded its publication.</p> + +<p>The character, however, of the people of the province of +Holland, and of its sister and closely allied province of Zeeland, +its qualities of toughness, of endurance, of seamanship and +maritime enterprise, spring from the peculiar amphibious nature of +the country, which differs from that of any other country in the +world. The age-long struggle against the ocean and the river +floods, which has converted the marshes, that lay around the mouths +of the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, by toilsome labour and +skill into fertile and productive soil, has left its impress on the +whole history of this people. Nor must it be forgotten how largely +this building up of the elaborate system of dykes, dams and canals +by which this water-logged land was transformed into the Holland of +the closing<span class="newpage"><a name="page_viii" id= +"page_viii">[pg.viii]</a></span> decades of the sixteenth century, +enabled her people to offer such obstinate and successful +resistance to the mighty power of Philip II.</p> + +<p>The earliest dynasty of the Counts of Holland—Dirks, +Floris, and Williams—was a very remarkable one. Not only did +it rule for an unusually long period, 922 to 1299, but in this long +period without exception all the Counts of Holland were strong and +capable rulers. The fiefs of the first two Dirks lay in what is now +known as North Holland, in the district called Kennemerland. It was +Dirk III who seized from the bishops of Utrecht some swampy land +amidst the channels forming the mouth of the Meuse, which, from the +bush which covered it, was named Holt-land (Holland or Wood-land). +Here he erected, in 1015, a stronghold to collect tolls from +passing ships. This stronghold was the beginning of the town of +Dordrecht, and from here a little later the name Holland was +gradually applied to the whole county. Of his successors the most +illustrious was William II (1234 to 1256) who was crowned King of +the Romans at Aachen, and would have received from Pope Innocent IV +the imperial crown at Rome, had he not been unfortunately drowned +while attempting to cross on horseback an ice-bound marsh.</p> + +<p>In 1299 the male line of this dynasty became extinct; and John +of Avennes, Count of Hainault, nephew of William II, succeeded. His +son, William III, after a long struggle with the Counts of +Flanders, conquered Zeeland and became Count henceforth of Holland, +Zeeland and Hainault. His son, William IV, died childless; and the +succession then passed to his sister Margaret, the wife of the +Emperor Lewis of Bavaria. It was contested by her second son +William, who, after a long drawn-out strife with his mother, +became, in 1354, Count of Holland and Zeeland with the title +William V, Margaret retaining the county of Hainault. Becoming +insane, his brother Albert in 1358 took over the reins of +government. In his time the two factions, known by the nicknames of +"the Hooks" and "the Cods," kept the land in a continual state of +disorder and practically of civil war. They had already been active +for many years. The Hooks were supported by the nobles, by the +peasantry and by that large part of the poorer townsfolk that was +excluded from all share in the municipal government. The Cods +represented the interests of the powerful burgher corporations. In +later times these same principles and interests divided the +Orangist and the States parties, and were inherited from the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_ix" id="page_ix">[pg.ix]</a></span> +Hooks and Cods of mediaeval Holland. The marriages of Albert's son, +William, with Margaret the sister of John the Fearless, Duke of +Burgundy, and of John the Fearless with Albert's daughter, +Margaret, were to have momentous consequences. Albert died in 1404 +and was succeeded by William VI, who before his death in 1417 +caused the nobles and towns to take the oath of allegiance to his +daughter and only child, Jacoba or Jacqueline.<a name= +"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + +<p>Jacoba, brave, beautiful and gifted, for eleven years maintained +her rights against many adversaries, chief among them her powerful +and ambitious cousin, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Her +courage and many adventures transformed her into a veritable +heroine of romance. By her three marriages with John, Duke of +Brabant, with Humphry, Duke of Gloucester, and, finally, with Frans +van Borselen, she had no children. Her hopeless fight with Philip +of Burgundy's superior resources ended at last in the so-called +"Reconciliation of Delft" in 1428, by which, while retaining the +title of countess, she handed over the government to Philip and +acknowledged his right of succession to the Countship upon her +death, which took place in 1436.</p> + +<p>G.E.</p> + +<p><i>November</i>, 1921</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<table summary="toc"> +<tr> +<td><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"><b>TABLE OF CONTENTS</b></a></td><td></td> +<td align="right">page</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>GENERAL PREFACE</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_v">v</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>PROLOGUE</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_vii">vii-ix</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I. The Bugundian Netherlands</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_1">1-11</a></td> + +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>II. Habsburg Rule in the Netherlands</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_12">12-26</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>III. The Prelude to the Revolt</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_27">27-46</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>IV. The Revolt of the Netherlands</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_47">47-68</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>V. William the Silent</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_69">69-81</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>VI. The Beginnings of the Dutch Republic</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_82">82-109</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>VII. The System of Government</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110-118</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>VIII. The Twelve Years' Truce</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_119">119-126</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>IX. Maurice and Oldenbarneveldt</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_127">127-138</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>X. From the end of the Twelve Years' Truce <br /> + to the Peace of Munster, 1621-1648.<br /> + The Stadholderate of Frederick Henry of Orange</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_139">139-158</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XI. The East and West India Companies. <br /> + Commercial and Economic Expansion</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_159">159-185</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XII. Letters, Science and Art</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_186">186-201</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIII. The Stadholderate of William II. <br /> + The Great Assembly</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_202">202-211</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XIV. Rise of John de Witt.<br /> + The First English War </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_212">212-224</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XV. The Administration of John de Witt, 1654-1665,<br /> + from the Peace of Westminster to<br /> + the Out-break of the Second English War </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_225">225-235</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XVI. The last years of De Witt's Administration, 1665-1672. +<br /> The Second English War. + <br /> The Triple Alliance. + <br /> The French Invasion </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_236">236-250</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XVII. War with France and England. <br /> + William III, + Stadholder. <br /> + Murder of the brothers De + Witt, 1672 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_251">251-257</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XVIII. The Stadholderate of William III, + 1672-1688</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_258">258-273</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XIX. The King-Stadholder, 1688-1702</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_274"> 274-284</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XX. The War of the Spanish Succession and<br /> + the Treaties of Utrecht, 1702-1715 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_285">285-297</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XXI. The Stadholderless Republic, 1715-1740 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_298">298-305</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> XXII. The Austrian Succession War and <br /> +William IV, 1740-1751</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_306">306-315</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XXIII. The Regency of Anne and of +Brunswick, 1751-1766 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_316">316-320</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XXIV. William V. First Period, 1766-1780</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_321">321-326</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XXV. Stadholderate of William V (<i>continued</i>),<br /> + 1780-1788. The English War.<br /> + Patriot Movement. Civil War. <br /> + Prussian Intervention. </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_327">327-336</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> XXVI. The Orange Restoration. <br /> +Downfall of the Republic, 1788-1795</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_337">337-343</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XXVII. The Batavian Republic, 1795-1806</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_344">344-356</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XXVIII. The Kingdom of Holland and <br /> +the French Annexation, 1806-1814</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_357">357-366</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XXIX. The Formation of the Kingdom of the + Netherlands, 1814-1815 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_367">367-375</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XXX. The Kingdom of the Netherlands--Union<br /> +of Holland and Belgium, 1815-1830 +</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_376">376-388</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XXXI. The Belgian Revolution. <br /> The Separation of + Holland and Belgium, 1830-1842 +</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_389">389-404</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>XXXII. William I abdicates. <br /> +Reign of William II.<br /> + Revision of the Constitution, 1842-1849 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_405">405-410</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>XXXIII. Reign of William III to the death of + Thorbecke, 1849-1872</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_411">411-418</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> XXXIV. The later reign of William III, <br /> and the + Regency of Queen Emma, 1872-1898</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_419">419-425</a></td> +<td> +</tr><tr> +<td>XXXV. The Reign of Queen Wilhelmina, 1898-1917 </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_426">426-428</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> EPILOGUE</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_429"> 429-432</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>BIBLIOGRAPHY </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_433">433-444</a></td> +<td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>MAPS<br /> + THE NETHERLANDS, <i>about</i> 1550<br /> + THE NETHERLANDS, <i>after</i> 1648</td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#map_01">After p. 444</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> INDEX </td><td></td> +<td align="right"><a href="#page_433">445-464</a></td> +<td> +</tr> + + +</table> + + + + + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_1" id="page_1">[pg.1]</a></span> +<p>THE BURGUNDIAN NETHERLANDS</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The last duke of the ancient Capetian house of Burgundy dying in +1361 without heirs male, the duchy fell into the possession of the +French crown, and was by King John II bestowed upon his youngest +son, Philip the Hardy, Duke of Touraine, as a reward, it is said, +for the valour he displayed in the battle of Poictiers. The county +of Burgundy, generally known as Franche-Comté, was not +included in this donation, for it was an imperial fief; and it fell +by inheritance in the female line to Margaret, dowager Countess of +Flanders, widow of Count Louis II, who was killed at Crécy. +The duchy and the county were soon, however, to be re-united, for +Philip married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis de Male, +Count of Flanders, and granddaughter of the above-named Margaret. +In right of his wife he became, on the death of Louis de Male in +1384, the ruler of Flanders, Mechlin, Artois, Nevers and +Franche-Comté. Thus the foundation was laid of a great +territorial domain between France and Germany, and Philip the Hardy +seems from the first to have been possessed by the ambitious design +of working for the restoration of a powerful middle kingdom, which +should embrace the territories assigned to Lothaire in the +tripartite division of the Carolingian empire by the treaty of +Verdun (843). For this he worked ceaselessly during his long reign +of forty years, and with singular ability and courage. Before his +death he had by the splendour of his court, his wealth and his +successes in arms and diplomacy, come to be recognised as a +sovereign of great weight and influence, in all but name a king. +The Burgundian policy and tradition, which he established, found in +his successors John the Fearless (murdered in 1419) and John's son, +Philip the Good, men of like character and filled with the same +ambitions as himself. The double marriage of John with Margaret, +the sister of William VI of Holland, and of William VI with +Margaret of Burgundy, largely helped forward their projects of +aggrandisement. Philip the Good was, however, a much abler ruler +than his father, a far-seeing<span class="newpage"><a name="page_2" +id="page_2">[pg.2]</a></span> statesman, who pursued his plans with +a patient and unscrupulous pertinacity, of which a conspicuous +example is to be found in his long protracted struggle with his +cousin Jacoba, the only child and heiress of William of Holland, +whose misfortunes and courage have made her one of the most +romantic figures of history. By a mixture of force and intrigue +Philip, in 1433, at last compelled Jacoba to abdicate, and he +became Count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainault. Nor was this by any +means the end of his acquisitions. Joanna, Duchess of Brabant +(1355-1404) in her own right, was aunt on the mother's side to +Margaret of Flanders, wife of Philip the Hardy. Dying without +heirs, she bequeathed Brabant, Limburg and Antwerp to her +great-nephew, Anthony of Burgundy, younger brother of John the +Fearless. Anthony was killed at Agincourt and was succeeded first +by his son John IV, the husband of Jacoba of Holland, and on his +death without an heir in 1427, by his second son, Philip of St Pol, +who also died childless in 1430. From him his cousin Philip the +Good inherited the duchies of Brabant and Limburg and the +marquisate of Antwerp. Already he had purchased in 1421 the +territory of Namur from the last Count John III, who had fallen +into heavy debt; and in 1443 he likewise purchased the duchy of +Luxemburg from the Duchess Elizabeth of Görlitz, who had +married in second wedlock Anthony, Duke of Brabant, and afterwards +John of Bavaria, but who had no children by either of her +marriages. Thus in 1443 Philip had become by one means or another +sovereign under various titles of the largest and most important +part of the Netherlands, and he increased his influence by securing +in 1456 the election of his illegitimate son David, as Bishop of +Utrecht. Thus a great step forward had been taken for the +restoration of the middle kingdom, which had been the dream of +Philip the Hardy, and which now seemed to be well-nigh on the point +of accomplishment.</p> + +<p>The year 1433, the date of the incorporation of Holland and +Zeeland in the Burgundian dominion, is therefore a convenient +starting-point for a consideration of the character of the +Burgundian rule in the Netherlands, and of the changes which the +concentration of sovereign power in the hands of a single ruler +brought into the relations of the various provinces with one +another and into their internal administration. The Netherlands +become now for the first time something more than a geographical +expression for a<span class="newpage"><a name="page_3" id= +"page_3">[pg.3]</a></span> number of petty feudal states, +practically independent and almost always at strife. Henceforward +there was peace; and throughout the whole of this northern part of +his domains it was the constant policy of Philip gradually to +abolish provincialism and to establish a centralised government. He +was far too wise a statesman to attempt to abolish suddenly or +arbitrarily the various rights and privileges, which the Flemings, +Brabanters and Hollanders had wrung from their sovereigns, and to +which they were deeply attached; but, while respecting these, he +endeavoured to restrict them as far as possible to local usage, and +to centralise the general administration of the whole of the "pays +de par deçà" (as the Burgundian dukes were accustomed +to name their Netherland dominions) by the summoning of +representatives of the Provincial States to an assembly styled the +States-General, and by the creation of a common Court of +Appeal.</p> + +<p>The first time the States-General were called together by Philip +was in 1465 for the purpose of obtaining a loan for the war with +France and the recognition of his son Charles as his successor; and +from this time forward at irregular intervals, but with increasing +frequency, the practice of summoning this body went on. The +States-General (in a sense) represented the Netherlands as a whole; +and it was a matter of great convenience for the sovereign, +especially when large levies of money had to be raised, to be +enabled thus to bring his proposals before a single assembly, +instead of before a number of separate and independent provincial +states. Nevertheless, it must be borne in mind that the +States-General had, as such, no authority to act on behalf of these +several provincial states. Each of these sent their deputies to the +General Assembly, but these deputies had to refer all matters to +their principals before they could give their assent, and each body +of deputies gave this assent separately, and without regard to the +others. It was thus but a first provisional step towards unity of +administration, but it did tend to promote a feeling of community +of interests between the provinces and to lead to the deputies +having intercourse with one another and interchanging their views +upon the various important subjects that were brought before their +consideration. The period of disturbance and the weakening of the +authority of the sovereign, which followed the death of Charles the +Bold, led to the States-General obtaining a position of increased +importance; and they<span class="newpage"><a name="page_4" id= +"page_4">[pg.4]</a></span> may from that time be regarded as +forming a regular and necessary part of the machinery of government +in the Burgundian Netherlands. The States-General however, like the +Provincial States, could only meet when summoned by the sovereign +or his stadholder; and the causes for which they were summoned were +such special occasions as the accession of a new sovereign or the +appointment of a new stadholder, or more usually for sanctioning +the requests for levies of money, which were required for the +maintenance of splendid courts and the cost of frequent wars. For +not only the Burgundian princes properly so-called, but even +Charles V, had mainly to depend upon the wealth of the Netherlands +for their financial needs. And here a distinction must be drawn. +For solemn occasions, such as the accession of a new sovereign, or +the acceptance of a newly appointed governor, representatives of +all the provinces (eventually seventeen) were summoned, but for +ordinary meetings for the purpose of money levies only those of the +so-called patrimonial or old Burgundian provinces came together. +The demands for tribute on the provinces acquired later, such as +Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland and Overyssel, were made to each +of these provinces separately, and they jealously claimed their +right to be thus separately dealt with. In the case of the other +provinces the States-General, as has been already stated, could +only grant the money after obtaining from each province +represented, severally, its assent; and this was often not gained +until after considerable delay and much bargaining. Once granted, +however, the assessment regulating the quota, which the different +provinces had to contribute, was determined on the basis of the +so-called <i>quotisatie</i> or <i>settinge</i> drawn up in 1462 on +the occasion of a tribute for 10 years, which Charles the Bold, as +his father's stadholder in the "pays de par deçà," +then demanded. The relative wealth of the provinces may be judged +from the fact that at this date Flanders and Brabant each paid a +quarter of the whole levy, Holland one sixth, Zeeland one quarter +of Holland's share.</p> + +<p>As regards the provincial government the Burgundian princes left +undisturbed the local and historical customs and usages, and each +province had its individual characteristics. At the head of each +provincial government (with the exception of Brabant, at whose +capital, Brussels, the sovereign himself or his regent resided) was +placed a governor, with the title of Stadholder, who was the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_5" id="page_5">[pg.5]</a></span> +representative of the sovereign and had large patronage. It was his +duty to enforce edicts, preserve order, and keep a watchful eye +over the administration of justice. He nominated to many municipal +offices, but had little or no control over finance. The raising of +troops and their command in the field was entrusted to a +captain-general, who might not be the same person as the +stadholder, though the offices were sometimes united. In the +northern Netherlands there was but one stadholder for the three +provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and one (at a somewhat +later date) for Friesland, Groningen, Drente and Overyssel.</p> + +<p>The desire of the Burgundian princes to consolidate their +dominions into a unified sovereignty found itself thwarted by many +obstacles and especially by the lack of any supreme tribunal of +appeal. It was galling to them that the <i>Parlement</i> of Paris +should still exercise appellate jurisdiction in Crown-Flanders and +Artois, and the Imperial Diet in some of the other provinces. +Already in 1428 Philip had erected the Court of Holland at the +Hague to exercise large powers of jurisdiction and financial +control in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland; and in 1473 +Charles the Bold set up at Mechlin the body known as the Great +Council, to act as a court of appeal from the provincial courts. It +was to be, in the Netherlands, what the <i>Parlement</i> of Paris +was in France. The Great Council, which had grown out of the Privy +Council attached to the person of the prince, and which under the +direction of the Chancellor of Burgundy administered the affairs of +the government, more particularly justice and finance, was in 1473, +as stated above, re-constituted as a Court of Appeal in legal +matters, a new Chamber of Accounts being at the same time created +to deal with finance. These efforts at centralisation of authority +were undoubtedly for the good of the country as a whole, but such +was the intensity of provincial jealousy and particularism that +they were bitterly resented and opposed.</p> + +<p>In order to strengthen the sovereign's influence in the towns, +and to lessen the power of the Gilds, Philip established in +Holland, and so far as he could elsewhere, what were called "vaste +Colleges" or fixed committees of notables, to which were entrusted +the election of the town officials and the municipal +administration. These bodies were composed of a number of the +richest and most influential burghers, who were styled the +Twenty-four, the Forty, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_6" id= +"page_6">[pg.6]</a></span> the Sixty or the Eighty, according to +the number fixed for any particular town. These men were appointed +for life and their successors were chosen by co-option, so that the +town corporations gradually became closed hereditary aristocracies, +and the mass of the citizens were deprived of all voice in their +own affairs. The <i>Schout</i> or chief judge was chosen directly +by the sovereign or his stadholder, who also nominated the +<i>Schepens</i> or sheriffs from a list containing a double number, +which was submitted to him.</p> + +<p>The reign of Philip the Good was marked by a great advance in +the material prosperity of the land. Bruges, Ghent, Ypres and +Antwerp were among the most flourishing commercial and industrial +cities in the world, and when, through the silting up of the +waterway, Bruges ceased to be a seaport, Antwerp rapidly rose to +pre-eminence in her place, so that a few decades later her wharves +were crowded with shipping, and her warehouses with goods from +every part of Europe. In fact during the whole of the Burgundian +period the southern Netherlands were the richest domain in +Christendom, and continued to be so until the disastrous times of +Philip II of Spain. Meanwhile Holland and Zeeland, though unable to +compete with Brabant and Flanders in the populousness of their +towns and the extent of their trade, were provinces of growing +importance. Their strength lay in their sturdy and enterprising +sea-faring population. The Hollanders had for many years been the +rivals of the Hanse Towns for the Baltic trade. War broke out in +1438 and hostilities continued for three years with the result that +the Hanse League was beaten, and henceforth the Hollanders were +able without further let or hindrance more and more to become the +chief carriers of the "Eastland" traffic. Amsterdam was already a +flourishing port, though as yet it could make no pretension of +competing with Antwerp. The herring fisheries were, however, the +staple industry of Holland and Zeeland. The discovery of the art of +curing herrings by William Beukelsz of Biervliet (died 1447) had +converted a perishable article of food into a marketable commodity; +and not only did the fisheries give lucrative employment to many +thousands of the inhabitants of these maritime provinces, but they +also became the foundation on which was to be built their future +commercial supremacy.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_7" id= +"page_7">[pg.7]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Burgundian dukes were among the most powerful rulers of +their time—the equals of kings in all but name—and they +far surpassed all contemporary sovereigns in their lavish display +and the splendour of their court. The festival at Bruges in 1430 in +celebration of the marriage of Philip the Good and Isabel of +Portugal, at which the Order of the Golden Fleece was instituted, +excited universal wonder; while his successor, Charles the Bold, +contrived to surpass even his father in the splendour of his +espousals with Margaret of York in 1468, and at his conference with +the Emperor Frederick III at Trier in 1473. On this last occasion +he wore a mantle encrusted all over with diamonds.</p> + +<p>The foundation of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1430 was an +event of great importance, as marking a step forward on the part of +Philip in its assumption of quasi-regal attributes. The title was +very appropriate, for it pointed to the wool and cloth trade as +being the source of the wealth of Flanders. The Order comprised +thirty-one knights, chosen from the flower of the Burgundian nobles +and the chief councillors of the sovereign. The statutes of the +Order set forth in detail the privileges of the members, and their +duties and obligations to their prince. They had a prescriptive +claim to be consulted on all matters of importance, to be selected +for the chief government posts, and to serve on military councils. +The knights were exempt from the jurisdiction of all courts, save +that of their own chapter.</p> + +<p>Philip died in 1467 and was succeeded by his son, Charles, who +had already exercised for some years authority in the Netherlands +as his father's deputy. Charles, as his surname <i>le +Téméraire</i> witnesses, was a man of impulsive and +autocratic temperament, but at the same time a hard worker, a great +organiser, and a brilliant soldier. Consumed with ambition to +realise that restoration of a great middle Lotharingian kingdom +stretching from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, for which his +father had been working during his long and successful reign, he +threw himself with almost passionate energy into the accomplishment +of his task. With this object he was the first sovereign to depart +from feudal usages and to maintain a standing army. He appeared at +one time to be on the point of accomplishing his aim. Lorraine, +which divided his southern from his northern possessions, was for a +short time in his possession. Intervening in Gelderland between the +Duke Arnold of Egmont<span class="newpage"><a name="page_8" id= +"page_8">[pg.8]</a></span> and his son Adolf, he took the latter +prisoner and obtained the duchy in pledge from the former. +Uprisings in the Flemish towns against heavy taxation and arbitrary +rule were put down with a strong hand. In September, 1474, the +duke, accompanied by a splendid suite, met the emperor Frederick +III at Trier to receive the coveted crown from the imperial hands. +It was arranged that Charles' only daughter and heiress should be +betrothed to Maximilian of Austria, the emperor's eldest son, and +the very day and hour for the coronation were fixed. But the +Burgundian had an enemy in Louis XI of France, who was as prudent +and far-seeing as his rival was rash and impetuous, and who was far +more than his match in political craft and cunning. French secret +agents stirred up Frederick's suspicions against Charles' designs, +and the emperor suddenly left Trier, where he had felt humiliated +by the splendour of his powerful vassal.</p> + +<p>The duke was furious at his disappointment, but was only the +more obstinately bent on carrying out his plans. But Louis had been +meanwhile forming a strong league (League of Constance, March 1474) +of various states threatened by Charles' ambitious projects. Duke +Sigismund of Austria, Baden, Basel, Elsass, and the Swiss Cantons +united under the leadership of France to resist them. Charles led +an army of 60,000 men to aid the Archbishop of Cologne against his +subjects, but spent eleven months in a fruitless attempt to take a +small fortified town, Neuss, in which a considerable portion of his +army perished. He was compelled to raise large sums of money from +his unwilling subjects in the Netherlands to repair his losses, and +in 1475 he attacked Duke Réné of Lorraine, captured +Nancy and conquered the duchy, which had hitherto separated his +Netherland from his French possessions. It was the first step in +the accomplishment of his scheme for the restoration of the +Lotharingian kingdom. In Elsass, however, the populace had risen in +insurrection against the tyranny of the Burgundian governor, Peter +van Hagenbach, and had tried and executed him. Finding that the +Swiss had aided the rebels, Charles now, without waiting to +consolidate his conquest of Lorraine, determined to lead his army +into Switzerland. At the head of a splendidly equipped force he +encountered the Confederates near Granson (March 2, 1476) and was +utterly routed, his own seal and order of the Golden Fleece, with +vast booty, falling into the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_9" +id="page_9">[pg.9]</a></span> hands of the victors. A few months +later, having recruited and reorganised his beaten army, he again +led them against the Swiss. The encounter took place (June 21, +1476) at Morat and once more the chivalry of Burgundy suffered +complete defeat. Charles fled from the field, half insane with rage +and disappointment, when the news that Duke Réné had +reconquered Lorraine roused him from his torpor. He hastily +gathered together a fresh army and laid siege to Nancy. But in +siege operations he had no skill, and in the depth of winter +(January 5, 1477) he was attacked by the Swiss and Lorrainers +outside the walls of the town. A panic seized the Burgundians; +Charles in person in vain strove to stem their flight, and he +perished by an unknown hand. His body was found later, stripped +naked, lying frozen in a pool.</p> + +<p>Charles left an only child, Mary, not yet twenty years of age. +Mary found herself in a most difficult and trying situation. Louis +XI, the hereditary enemy of her house, at once took possession of +the duchy of Burgundy, which by failure of heirs-male had reverted +to its liege-lord. The sovereignty of the county of Burgundy +(Franche-Comté), being an imperial fief descending in the +female line, she retained; but, before her authority had been +established, Louis had succeeded in persuading the states of the +county to place themselves under a French protectorate. French +armies overran Artois, Hainault and Picardy, and were threatening +Flanders, where there was in every city a party of French +sympathisers. Gelderland welcomed the exiled duke, Adolf, as their +sovereign. Everywhere throughout the provinces the despotic rule of +Duke Charles and his heavy exactions had aroused seething +discontent. Mary was virtually a prisoner in the hands of her +Flemish subjects; and, before they consented to support her cause, +there was a universal demand for a redress of grievances. But Mary +showed herself possessed of courage and statesmanship beyond her +years, and she had at this critical moment in her step-mother, +Margaret of York, an experienced and capable adviser at her side. A +meeting of the States-General was at once summoned to Ghent. It met +on February 3, 1477, Mary's 20th birthday. Representatives came +from Flanders, Brabant, Artois and Namur, in the southern, and from +Holland and Zeeland in the northern Netherlands. Mary saw there was +no course open to her but to accede to their demands. Only eight +days after the Assembly met, the charter of Netherland<span class="newpage"><a name="page_10" id="page_10">[pg.10]</a></span> +liberties, called The Great Privilege, was agreed to and signed. By +this Act all previous ordinances conflicting with ancient +privileges were abolished. The newly-established Court of Appeal at +Mechlin was replaced by a Great Council of twenty-four members +chosen by the sovereign from the various states, which should +advise and assist in the administration of government. Mary +undertook not to marry or to declare war without the assent of the +States-General. The States-General and the Provincial States were +to meet as often as they wished, without the summons of the +sovereign. All officials were to be native-born; no Netherlander +was to be tried by foreign judges; there were to be no forced +loans, no alterations in the coinage. All edicts or ordinances +infringing provincial rights were to be <i>ipso facto</i> null and +void. By placing her seal to this document Mary virtually abdicated +the absolute sovereign power which had been exercised by her +predecessors, and undid at a stroke the results of their really +statesmanlike efforts to create out of a number of semi-autonomous +provinces a unified State. Many of their acts and methods had been +harsh and autocratic, especially those of Charles the Bold, but who +can doubt that on the whole their policy was wise and salutary? In +Holland and Zeeland a Council was erected consisting of a +Stadholder and eight councillors (six Hollanders and two +Zeelanders) of whom two were to be nobles, the others jurists. +Wolferd van Borselen, lord of Veere, was appointed Stadholder.</p> + +<p>The Great Privilege granted, the States willingly raised a force +of 34,000 men to resist the French invasion, and adequate means for +carrying on the war. But the troubles of the youthful Mary were not +yet over. The hand of the heiress of so many rich domains was +eagerly sought for (1) by Louis of France for the dauphin, a youth +of 17 years; (2) by Maximilian of Austria to whom she had been +promised in marriage; (3) by Adolf, Duke of Gelderland, who was +favoured by the States-General. Adolf, however, was killed in +battle. In Flanders there was a party who favoured the French and +actually engaged in intrigues with Louis, but the mass of the +people were intensely averse to French domination. To such an +extent was this the case that two influential officials, the lords +Hugonet and Humbercourt, on whom suspicion fell of treacherous +correspondence with the French king, were seized, tried by a +special tribunal, and, despite the tears and entreaties of the +duchess,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_11" id= +"page_11">[pg.11]</a></span> were condemned and beheaded in the +market-place of Ghent. Maximilian became therefore the accepted +suitor; and on August 19, 1477, his marriage with Mary took place +at Bruges. This marriage was to have momentous consequences, not +only for the Netherlands, but for Europe. The union was a happy +one, but, unfortunately, of brief duration. On March 29, 1482, Mary +died from the effects of a fall from her horse, leaving two +children, Philip and Margaret.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_12" id= +"page_12">[pg.12]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>HABSBURG RULE IN THE NETHERLANDS</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Maximilian, on the death of Mary, found himself in a very +difficult position. The archduke was a man of high-soaring ideas, +chivalrous, brave even to the point of audacity, full of expedients +and never daunted by failure, but he was deficient in stability of +character, and always hampered throughout his life by lack of +funds. He had in 1477 set himself to the task of defending Flanders +and the southern provinces of the Netherlands against French +attack, and not without considerable success. In 1482, as guardian +of his four-year old son Philip, the heir to the domains of the +house of Burgundy, he became regent of the Netherlands. His +authority however was little recognised. Gelderland and Utrecht +fell away altogether. Liège acknowledged William de la Marck +as its ruler. Holland and Zeeland were torn by contending factions. +Flanders, the centre of the Burgundian power, was specially hostile +to its new governor. The burghers of Ghent refused to surrender to +him his children, Philip and Margaret, who were held as hostages to +secure themselves against any attempted infringement of their +liberties. The Flemings even entered into negotiations with Louis +XI; and the archduke found himself compelled to sign a treaty with +France (December 23, 1482), one of the conditions being the +betrothal of his infant daughter to the dauphin. Maximilian, +however, found that for a time he must leave Flanders to put down +the rising of the Hook faction in Holland, who, led by Frans van +Brederode, and in alliance with the anti-Burgundian party in +Utrecht, had made themselves masters of Leyden. Beaten in a bloody +fight by the regent, Brederode nevertheless managed to seize Sluis +and Rotterdam; and from these ports he and his daring +companion-in-arms, Jan van Naaldwijk, carried on a guerrilla +warfare for some years. Brederode was killed in a fight at +Brouwershaven (1490), but Sluis still held out and was not taken +till two years later.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Maximilian had to undertake a campaign against +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_13" id= +"page_13">[pg.13]</a></span> Flemings, who were again in arms at +the instigation of the turbulent burghers of Ghent and Bruges. +Entering the province at the head of a large force he compelled the +rebel towns to submit and obtained possession of the person of his +son Philip (July, 1485). Elected in the following year King of the +Romans, Maximilian left the Netherlands to be crowned at Aachen +(April, 1486). A war with France called him back, in the course of +which he suffered a severe defeat at Bethune. At the beginning of +1488 Ghent and Bruges once more rebelled; and the Roman king, +enticed to enter Bruges, was there seized and compelled to see his +friends executed in the market-place beneath his prison window. For +seven months he was held a prisoner; nor was he released until he +had sworn to surrender his powers, as regent, to a council of +Flemings and to withdraw all his foreign troops from the +Netherlands. He was forced to give hostages as a pledge of his good +faith, among them his general, Philip of Cleef, who presently +joined his captors.</p> + +<p>Maximilian, on arriving at the camp of the Emperor Frederick +III, who had gathered together an army to release his imprisoned +son, was persuaded to break an oath given under duress. He advanced +therefore at the head of his German mercenaries into Flanders, but +was able to achieve little success against the Flemings, who found +in Philip of Cleef an able commander. Despairing of success, he now +determined to retire into Germany, leaving Duke Albert of +Saxe-Meissen, a capable and tried soldier of fortune, as +general-in-chief of his forces and Stadholder of the Netherlands. +With the coming of Duke Albert order was at length to be restored, +though not without a severe struggle.</p> + +<p>Slowly but surely Duke Albert took town after town and reduced +province after province into submission. The Hook party in Holland +and Zeeland, and their anti-Burgundian allies in Utrecht, and +Robert de la Marck in Liège, in turn felt the force of his +arm. An insurrection of the peasants in West Friesland and +Kennemerland—the "Bread and Cheese Folk," as they were +called—was easily put down. Philip of Cleef with his Flemings +was unable to make head against him; and, with the fall of Ghent +and Sluis in the summer of 1492, the duke was able to announce to +Maximilian that the Netherlands, except Gelderland, were pacified. +The treaty of Senlis in 1493 ended the war with France. In the +following year, after his accession to the imperial throne, +Maximilian retired to his<span class="newpage"><a name="page_14" +id="page_14">[pg.14]</a></span> ancestral dominions in Germany, and +his son, Philip the Fair, took in his hands the reins of +government. The young sovereign, who was a Netherlander by birth +and had spent all his life in the country, was more popular than +his father; and his succession to the larger part of the Burgundian +inheritance was not disputed. He received the homage of Zeeland at +Roemerswaal, of Holland at Geertruidenburg, and seized the occasion +to announce the abrogation of the Great Privilege, and at the same +time restored the Grand Council at Mechlin.</p> + +<p>In Utrecht the authority of Bishop David of Burgundy was now +firmly re-established; and on his death, Philip of Baden, an +obsequious adherent of the house of Austria, was elected. These +results of the pacification carried out so successfully by Duke +Albert had, however, left Maximilian and Philip deeply in debt to +the Saxon; and there was no money wherewith to meet the claim, +which amounted to 300,000 guilders. After many negotiations +extending over several years, compensation was found for Albert in +Friesland. That unhappy province and the adjoining territory of +Groningen had for a long time been torn by internal dissensions +between the two parties, the <i>Schieringers</i> and the +<i>Vetkoopers</i>, who were the counterparts of the Hooks and Cods +of Holland. The Schieringers called in the aid of the Saxon duke, +who brought the land into subjection. Maximilian now recognised +Albert as hereditary Podesta or governor of Friesland on condition +that the House of Austria reserved the right of redeeming the +territory for 100,000 guilders; and Philip acquiesced in the +bargain by which Frisian freedom was sold in exchange for the +cancelling of a debt. The struggle with Charles of Egmont in +Gelderland was not so easily terminated. Not till 1505 was Philip +able to overcome this crafty and skilful adversary. Charles was +compelled to do homage and to accompany Philip to Brussels +(October, 1505). It was, however, but a brief submission. Charles +made his escape once more into Gelderland and renewed the war of +independence.</p> + +<p>Before these events had taken place, the marriage of Philip with +Juana, the daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile, +had brought about a complete change in his fortunes. Maximilian, +always full of ambitious projects for the aggrandisement of his +House, had planned with Ferdinand of Aragon a double marriage +between their families, prompted by a common hatred and fear +of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_15" id= +"page_15">[pg.15]</a></span> the growing power of France. The +Archduke Philip was to wed the Infanta Juana, the second daughter +of Ferdinand and Isabel; the Infante Juan, the heir to the thrones +of Aragon and Castile, Philip's sister, Margaret. Margaret had in +1483, aged then three years, been betrothed to the Dauphin Charles, +aged twelve, and she was brought up at the French Court, and after +the death of Louis XI (August 30, 1483) had borne the title of +Queen and had lived at Amboise with other children of the French +royal house, under the care of the Regent, Anne de Beaujeu. The +marriage, however, of Charles VIII and Margaret was never to be +consummated. In August, 1488, the male line of the Dukes of +Brittany became extinct; and the hand of the heiress, Anne of +Brittany, a girl of twelve, attracted many suitors. It was clearly +a matter of supreme importance to the King of France that this +important territory should not pass by marriage into the hands of +an enemy. The Bretons, on the other hand, clung to their +independence and dreaded absorption in the unifying French state. +After many intrigues her council advised the young duchess to +accept Maximilian as her husband, and she was married to him by +proxy in March, 1490. Charles VIII immediately entered Brittany at +the head of a strong force and, despite a fierce and prolonged +resistance, conquered the country, and gained possession of Anne's +person (August, 1491). The temptation was too strong to be +resisted. Margaret, after residing in France as his affianced wife +for eight years, was repudiated and finally, two years later, sent +back to the Netherlands, while Anne was compelled to break off her +marriage with Margaret's father, and became Charles' queen. This +double slight was never forgiven either by Maximilian or by +Margaret, and was the direct cause of the negotiations for the +double Spanish marriage, which, though delayed by the suspicious +caution of the two chief negotiators, Ferdinand and Maximilian, was +at length arranged. In August, 1496, an imposing fleet conveyed the +Infanta Juana to Antwerp and she was married to Philip at Lille. In +the following April Margaret and Don Juan were wedded in the +cathedral of Burgos. The union was followed by a series of +catastrophes in the Spanish royal family. While on his way with his +wife to attend the marriage of his older sister Isabel with the +King of Portugal, Juan caught a malignant fever and expired at +Salamanca in October, 1497.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_16" +id="page_16">[pg.16]</a></span></p> + +<p>The newly-married Queen of Portugal now became the heiress to +the crowns of Aragon and Castile, but she died a year later and +shortly afterwards her infant son. The succession therefore passed +to the younger sister, Juana; and Philip the Fair, the heir of the +House of Austria and already through his mother the ruler of the +rich Burgundian domain, became through his wife the prospective +sovereign of the Spanish kingdoms of Ferdinand and Isabel. Fortune +seemed to have reserved all her smiles for the young prince, when +on February 24, 1500, a son was born to him at Ghent, who received +the name Charles. But dark days were soon to follow. Philip was +pleasure-loving and dissolute, and he showed little affection for +his wife, who had already begun to exhibit symptoms of that +weakness of mind which was before long to develop into insanity. +However in 1501, they journeyed together to Spain, in order to +secure Juana's rights to the Castilian succession and also to that +of Aragon should King Ferdinand die without an heir-male.</p> + +<p>In November, 1504, Isabel the Catholic had died; and Philip and +his consort at once assumed the titles of King and Queen of +Castile, in spite of the opposition of Ferdinand, who claimed the +right of regency during his life-time. Both parties were anxious to +obtain the support of Henry VII. Already since the accession of +Philip the commercial relations between England and the Netherlands +had been placed on what proved to be a permanently friendly basis +by the treaty known as the <i>Magnus Intercursus</i> of 1496. +Flanders and Brabant were dependent upon the supply of English wool +for their staple industries, Holland and Zeeland for that freedom +of fishery on which a large part of their population was employed +and subsisted. In reprisals for the support formerly given by the +Burgundian government to the house of York, Henry had forbidden the +exportation of wool and of cloth to the Netherlands, had removed +the staple from Bruges to Calais, and had withdrawn the fishing +rights enjoyed by the Hollanders since the reign of Edward I. But +this state of commercial war was ruinous to both countries; and, on +condition that Philip henceforth undertook not to allow any enemies +of the English government to reside in his dominions, a good +understanding was reached, and the <i>Magnus Intercursus</i>, which +re-established something like freedom of trade between the +countries, was duly signed in February, 1496. The treaty was +solemnly renewed in 1501, but shortly afterwards fresh<span class="newpage"><a name="page_17" id="page_17">[pg.17]</a></span> +difficulties arose concerning Yorkist refugees, and a stoppage of +trade was once more threatened. At this juncture a storm drove +Philip and Juana, who had set sail in January, 1506, for Spain, to +take refuge in an English harbour. For three months they were +hospitably entertained by Henry, but he did not fail to take +advantage of the situation to negotiate three treaties with his +unwilling guest: (1) a treaty of alliance, (2) a treaty of marriage +with Philip's sister, the Archduchess Margaret, already at the age +of 25 a widow for the second time, (3) a revision of the treaty of +commerce of 1496, named from its unfavourable conditions, <i>Malus +Intercursus</i>. The marriage treaty came to nothing through the +absolute refusal of Margaret to accept the hand of the English +king.</p> + +<p>Philip and Juana left England for Spain, April 23, to assume the +government of the three kingdoms, Castile, Leon and Granada, which +Juana had inherited from her mother. Owing to his wife's mental +incapacity Philip in her name exercised all the powers of +sovereignty, but his reign was very short, for he was suddenly +taken ill and died at Burgos, September 25, 1506. His hapless wife, +after the birth of a posthumous child, sank into a state of +hopeless insanity and passed the rest of her long life in +confinement. Charles, the heir to so vast an inheritance, was but +six years old. The representatives of the provinces, assembled at +Mechlin (October 18), offered the regency of the Burgundian +dominions to the Emperor Maximilian; he in his turn nominated his +daughter, Margaret, to be regent in his place and guardian of his +grandson during Charles' minority, and she with the assent of the +States-General took the oath on her installation as <i>Mambour</i> +or Governor-General of the Netherlands, March, 1507. Margaret was +but 27 years of age, and for twenty-four years she continued to +administer the affairs of the Netherlands with singular discretion, +firmness and Statesmanlike ability. The superintendence and +training of the young archduke could have been placed in no better +hands. Charles, who with his three sisters lived with his aunt at +Mechlin, was thus both by birth and education a Netherlander.</p> + +<p>One of the first acts of Margaret was a refusal to ratify the +<i>Malus Intercursus</i>and the revival of the <i>Magnus +Intercursus</i> of 1496. This important commercial treaty from that +time forward continued in force for more than a century. The great +difficulty that Margaret encountered in her government was the lack +of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_18" id= +"page_18">[pg.18]</a></span> adequate financial resources. The +extensive privileges accorded to the various provinces and their +mutual jealousies and diverse interests made the task of levying +taxes arduous and often fruitless. Margaret found that the granting +of supplies, even for so necessary a purpose as the raising of +troops to resist the raids of Charles of Gelderland, aided by the +French king, into Utrecht and Holland, was refused. She fortunately +possessed in a high degree those qualities of persuasive address +and sound judgment, which gave to her a foremost place among the +diplomatists and rulers of her time. Such was the confidence that +her brilliant abilities inspired that she was deputed both by the +Emperor Maximilian and by Ferdinand of Aragon to be their +plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress that assembled at Cambray in +November, 1508. Chiefly through her exertions the negotiations had +a speedy and successful issue, and the famous treaty known as the +League of Cambray was signed on December 10. By this treaty many of +the disputes concerning the rights and prerogatives of the French +crown in the Burgundian Netherlands were amicably settled; and it +was arranged that Charles of Egmont should be provisionally +recognised as Duke of Gelderland on condition that he should give +up the towns in Holland that he had captured and withdraw his +troops within his own borders.</p> + +<p>The extant correspondence between Maximilian and Margaret, which +is of the most confidential character, on matters of high policy, +is a proof of the high opinion the emperor entertained of his +daughter's intelligence and capacity. In nothing was his confidence +more justified than in the assiduous care and interest that the +regent took in the education of the Archduke Charles and his three +sisters, who had been placed in her charge. In 1515 Charles, on +entering his sixteenth year, was declared by Maximilian to be of +age; Margaret accordingly handed over to him the reins of +government and withdrew for the time into private life. Her +retirement was not, however, to be of long continuance. On January +23, 1516, King Ferdinand of Aragon died, and Charles, who now +became King of Castile and of Aragon, was obliged to leave the +Netherlands to take possession of his Spanish dominions. Before +sailing he reinstated his aunt as governess, and appointed a +council to assist her. This post she continued to hold till the day +of her death, for Charles was never again able to take up his +permanent residence in the Netherlands. During the first years<span class="newpage"><a name="page_19" id="page_19">[pg.19]</a></span> +after his accession to the thrones of Ferdinand and Isabel he was +much occupied with Spanish affairs; and the death of Maximilian, +January 12, 1519, opened out to him a still wider field of ambition +and activity. On June 28 Charles was elected emperor, a result +which he owed in no small degree to the diplomatic skill and +activity of Margaret. Just a year later the emperor visited the +Netherlands, where Charles of Gelderland was again giving trouble, +and his presence was required both for the purpose of dealing with +the affairs of the provinces and also for securing a grant of +supply, for he was sorely in need of funds. Margaret had at his +request summoned the States-General to meet at Brussels, where +Charles personally addressed them, and explained at some length the +reasons which led him to ask his loyal and devoted Netherland +subjects for their aid on his election to the imperial dignity. The +States-General on this, as on other occasions, showed no +niggardliness in responding to the request of a sovereign who, +though almost always absent, appealed to their patriotism as a born +Netherlander, who had been brought up in their midst and spoke +their tongue. Charles was crowned at Aachen, October 23, 1520, and +some three months later presided at the famous diet of Worms, where +he met Martin Luther face to face. Before starting on his momentous +journey he again appointed Margaret regent, and gave to her +Council, which he nominated, large powers; the Council of Mechlin, +the Court of Holland and other provincial tribunals being subjected +to its superior authority and jurisdiction. By this action the +privileges of the provinces were infringed, but Charles was +resolute in carrying out the centralising policy of his ancestors, +the Dukes of Burgundy, and he had the power to enforce his will in +spite of the protests that were raised. And so under the wise and +conciliatory but firm administration of Margaret during a decade of +almost continuous religious and international strife—a decade +marked by such great events as the rapid growth of the Reformation +in Germany, the defeat and capture of Francis I at Pavia, the sack +of Rome by the troops of Bourbon and the victorious advance of the +Turks in Hungary and along the eastern frontier of the +empire—the Netherland provinces remained at peace, save for +the restless intrigues of Charles of Egmont in Gelderland, and +prospered. Their wealth furnished indeed no small portion of the +funds which enabled Charles to face<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_20" id="page_20">[pg.20]</a></span> successfully so many +adversaries and to humble the power of France. The last important +act of Margaret, like her first, was connected with the town of +Cambray. In this town, as the representative and plenipotentiary of +her nephew the emperor, she met, July, 1529, Louise of Savoy, who +had been granted similar powers by her son Francis I, to negotiate +a treaty of peace. The two princesses proved worthy of the trust +that had been placed in them, and a general treaty of peace, often +spoken of as "the Ladies' Peace," was speedily drawn up and +ratified. The conditions were highly advantageous to the interests +of Spain and the Netherlands. On November 30 of the following year +Margaret died, as the result of a slight accident to her foot which +the medical science of the day did not know how to treat properly, +in the 50th year of her age and the 24th of her regency.</p> + +<p>Charles, who had a few months previously reached the zenith of +his power by being crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy and with +the imperial crown at the hands of Pope Clement VII at Bologna +(February 22 and 24, 1530), appointed as governess in Margaret's +place his sister Mary, the widowed queen of Louis, King of Hungary, +who had been slain by the Turks at the battle of Mohacs, August 29, +1526.</p> + +<p>Mary, who had passed her early life in the Netherlands under the +care of her aunt Margaret, proved herself in every way her worthy +successor. She possessed, like Margaret, a strong character, +statesmanlike qualities and singular capacity in the administration +of affairs. She filled the difficult post of regent for the whole +period of twenty-four years between the death of Margaret and the +abdication of Charles V in 1555. It was fortunate indeed for that +great sovereign that these two eminent women of his house should, +each in turn for one half of his long reign, have so admirably +conducted the government of this important portion of his +dominions, as to leave him free for the carrying out of his +far-reaching political projects and constant military campaigns in +other lands. Two years after Mary entered upon her regency Charles +appointed three advisory and administrative bodies—the +Council of State, the Council of Finance and the Privy +Council—to assist her in the government. The Council of State +dealt with questions of external and internal policy and with the +appointment of officials; the Council of Finance with the care of +the revenue and private<span class="newpage"><a name="page_21" id= +"page_21">[pg.21]</a></span> domains of the sovereign; to the Privy +Council were entrusted the publication of edicts and "placards," +and the care of justice and police.</p> + +<p>When Charles succeeded Philip the Fair only a portion of the +Netherlands was subject to his sway. With steady persistence he set +himself to the task of bringing all the seventeen provinces under +one sovereign. In 1515 George of Saxe-Meissen sold to him his +rights over Friesland. Henry of Bavaria, who in opposition to his +wishes had been elected Bishop of Utrecht, was compelled (1528) to +cede to him the temporalities of the see, retaining the spiritual +office only. Charles thus added the Upper and Lower +<i>Sticht</i>—Utrecht and Overyssel—to his dominions. +He made himself (1536) master of Groningen and Drente after a long +and obstinate struggle with Charles of Gelderland, and seven years +later he forced Charles' successor, William of Jülich and +Cleves, to renounce in his favour his claims to Gelderland and +Zutphen. During the reign of Charles V the States-General were +summoned many times, chiefly for the purpose of voting subsidies, +but it was only on special and solemn occasions, that the +representatives of all the seventeen provinces were present, as for +instance when Philip received their homage in 1549 and when Charles +V announced his abdication in 1555. The names of the seventeen +provinces summoned on these occasions were Brabant, Limburg, +Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flanders, Holland, Zeeland, Artois, +Hainault, Namur, Lille with Douay and Orchies, Tournay and +district, Mechlin, Friesland, Utrecht, Overyssel with Drente and +Groningen. The bishopric of Liège, though nominally +independent, was under the strict control of the government at +Brussels. The relations of Charles' Burgundian domains to the +empire were a matter of no small moment, and he was able to +regulate them in a manner satisfactory to himself. Several times +during his reign tentative attempts were made to define those +relations, which were of a very loose kind. The fact that the head +of the house of Habsburg was himself emperor had not made him any +less determined than the Burgundian sovereigns, his ancestors, to +assert for his Netherland territories a virtual independence of +imperial control or obligation. The various states of which the +Netherlands were composed were as much opposed as the central +government at Brussels to any recognition of the claims of the +empire; and both<span class="newpage"><a name="page_22" id= +"page_22">[pg.22]</a></span> Margaret of Austria and Mary of +Hungary ventured to refuse to send representatives to the imperial +diets, even when requested to do so by the emperor. At last in +1548, when all the Netherland provinces had been brought under the +direct dominion or control of one sovereign prince, a convention +was drawn up at the diet of Augsburg, chiefly by the exertions of +the Regent Mary and her tried councillors Viglius and Granvelle, by +which the unity of the Netherland territories was recognised and +they were freed from imperial jurisdiction. Nominally, they formed +a circle of the empire,—the Burgundian circle—and +representatives of the circle were supposed to appear at the diets +and to bear a certain share of imperial taxation in return for the +right to the protection of the empire against attacks by France. As +a matter of fact, no representatives were ever sent and no subsidy +was paid, nor was the protection of the empire ever sought or +given.</p> + +<p>This convention, which in reality severed the shadowy links +which had hitherto bound the Netherlands to the empire, received +the sanction of the States-General in October, 1548; and it was +followed by the issuing, with the consent of the Estates of the +various provinces, of a "Pragmatic Sanction" by which the inherited +right of succession to the sovereignty in each and every province +was settled upon the male and female line of Charles' descendants, +notwithstanding the existence of ancient provincial privileges to +the contrary. In 1549 the emperor's only son Philip was +acknowledged by all the Estates as their future sovereign, and made +a journey through the land to receive homage.</p> + +<p>The doctrines of the Reformation had early obtained a footing in +various parts of the Netherlands. At first it was the teaching of +Luther and of Zwingli which gained adherents. Somewhat later the +Anabaptist movement made great headway in Holland and Friesland, +especially in Amsterdam. The chief leaders of the Anabaptists were +natives of Holland, including the famous or infamous John of +Leyden, who with some thousands of these fanatical sectaries +perished at Münster in 1535. Between 1537 and 1543 a more +moderate form of Anabaptist teaching made rapid progress through +the preaching of a certain Menno Simonszoon. The followers of this +man were called Mennonites. Meanwhile Lutheranism and Zwinglianism +were in many parts of the country being supplanted by the sterner +doctrines of Calvin. All these movements<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_23" id="page_23">[pg.23]</a></span> were viewed by the +emperor with growing anxiety and detestation. Whatever compromises +with the Reformation he might be compelled to make in Germany, he +was determined to extirpate heresy from his hereditary dominions. +He issued a strong placard soon after the diet of Worms in 1521 +condemning Luther and his opinions and forbidding the printing or +sale of any of the reformer's writings; and between that date and +1555 a dozen other edicts and placards were issued of increasing +stringency. The most severe was the so-called "blood-placard" of +1550. This enacted the sentence of death against all convicted of +heresy—the men to be executed with the sword and the women +buried alive; in cases of obstinacy both men and women were to be +burnt. Terribly harsh as were these edicts, it is doubtful whether +the number of those who Suffered the extreme penalty has not been +greatly exaggerated by partisan writers. Of the thousands who +perished, by far the greater part were Anabaptists; and these met +their fate rather as enemies of the state and of society, than as +heretics. They were political as well as religious anarchists.</p> + +<p>In the time of Charles the trade and industries of the +Netherlands were in a highly prosperous state. The Burgundian +provinces under the wise administrations of Margaret and Mary, and +protected by the strong arm of the emperor from foreign attack, +were at this period by far the richest state in Europe and the +financial mainstay of the Habsburg power. Bruges, however, had now +ceased to be the central market and exchange of Europe, owing to +the silting up of the river Zwijn. It was no longer a port, and its +place had been taken by Antwerp. At the close of the reign of +Charles, Antwerp, with its magnificent harbour on the Scheldt, had +become the "counting-house" of the nations, the greatest port and +the wealthiest and most luxurious city in the world. Agents of the +principal bankers and merchants of every country had their offices +within its walls. It has been estimated that, inclusive of the many +foreigners who made the town their temporary abode, the population +of Antwerp in 1560 was about 150,000. Five hundred vessels sailed +in and out of her harbour daily, and five times that number were to +be seen thronging her wharves at the same time.</p> + +<p>To the north of the Scheldt the condition of things was not less +satisfactory than in the south, particularly in Holland. The +commercial prosperity of Holland was in most respects +different<span class="newpage"><a name="page_24" id= +"page_24">[pg.24]</a></span> in kind from that of Flanders and +Brabant, and during the period with which we are dealing had been +making rapid advances, but on independent lines. A manufactory of +the coarser kinds of cloth, established at Leyden, had indeed for a +time met with a considerable measure of success, but had fallen +into decline in the time of Mary of Hungary. The nature of his +country led the Hollander to be either a sailor or a dairy-farmer, +not an artisan or operative. Akin though he was in race to the +Fleming and the Brabanter, his instincts led him by the force of +circumstances to turn his energies in other directions. Subsequent +history has but emphasised the fact—which from the fourteenth +century onwards is clearly evident—that the people who +inhabited the low-lying sea-girt lands of dyke, canal and polder in +Holland and Zeeland were distinct in character and temper from the +citizens of Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Brussels or Mechlin, who were +essentially landsmen and artisans. Ever since the discovery of the +art of curing herrings (ascribed to William Beukelsz), the herring +fishery had acquired a great importance to the Hollanders and +Zeelanders, and formed the chief livelihood of a large part of the +entire population of those provinces; and many thousands, who did +not themselves sail in the fishing fleets, found employment in the +ship and boat-building wharves and in the making of sails, cordage, +nets and other tackle. It was in this hazardous occupation that the +hardy race of skilled and seasoned seamen, who were destined to +play so decisive a part in the coming wars of independence, had +their early training. The herring harvest, through the careful and +scientific methods that were employed in curing the fish and +packing them in barrels, became a durable and much sought for +article of commerce. A small portion of the catch served as a +supply of food for home consumption, the great bulk in its +thousands of barrels was a marketable commodity, and the +distribution of the cured herring to distant ports became a +lucrative business. It had two important consequences, the +formation of a Dutch Mercantile Marine, and the growth of +Amsterdam, which from small beginnings had in the middle of the +sixteenth century become a town with 40,000 inhabitants and a port +second only in importance in the Netherlands to Antwerp. From its +harbour at the confluence of the estuary of the Y with the Zuyder +Zee ships owned and manned by Hollanders sailed along the coasts of +France and Spain to bring home the salt<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_25" id="page_25">[pg.25]</a></span> for curing purposes +and with it wines and other southern products, while year by year a +still larger and increasing number entered the Baltic. In those +eastern waters they competed with the German Hanseatic cities, with +whom they had many acrimonious disputes, and with such success that +the Hollanders gradually monopolised the traffic in grain, hemp and +other "Eastland" commodities and became practically the +freight-carriers of the Baltic. And be it remembered that they were +able to achieve this because many of the North-Netherland towns +were themselves members of the Hanse League, and possessed +therefore the same rights and privileges commercially as their +rivals, Hamburg, Lübeck or Danzig. The great industrial cities +of Flanders and Brabant, on the other hand, not being members of +the League nor having any mercantile marine of their own, were +content to transact business with the foreign agents of the Hanse +towns, who had their counting-houses at Antwerp. It will thus be +seen that in the middle of the sixteenth century the trade of the +northern provinces, though as yet not to be compared in volume to +that of the Flemings and Walloons, had before it an opening field +for enterprise and energy rich in possibilities and promise for the +future.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of affairs political, religious and +economical when in the year 1555 the Emperor Charles V, prematurely +aged by the heavy burden of forty years of world-wide sovereignty, +worn out by constant campaigns and weary of the cares of state, +announced his intention of abdicating and retiring into a +monastery. On October 25, 1555, the act of abdication was solemnly +and with impressive ceremonial carried out in the presence of the +representatives of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands +specially summoned to meet their sovereign for the last time in the +Great Hall of the Palace at Brussels. Charles took an affecting +farewell of his Netherland subjects and concluded by asking them to +exhibit the same regard and loyalty to his son Philip as they had +always displayed to himself. Much feeling was shown, for Charles, +despite the many and varied calls and duties which had prevented +him from residing for any length of time in the Netherlands, had +always been at pains to manifest a special interest in the country +of his birth. The Netherlands were to him throughout life his +homeland and its people looked upon him as a fellow-countryman, and +not even the constant demands that Charles had made for<span class="newpage"><a name="page_26" id="page_26">[pg.26]</a></span> +financial aid nor the stern edicts against heresy had estranged +them from him. The abdication was the more regretted because at the +same time Mary of Hungary laid down her office as regent, the +arduous duties of which she had so long and so ably discharged. On +the following day, October 26, the Knights of the Golden Fleece, +the members of the Councils and the deputies of the provinces took +the oath of allegiance to Philip, the emperor's only son and heir; +and Philip on his side solemnly undertook to maintain unimpaired +the ancient rights and privileges of the several provinces.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <span class="newpage"><a name="page_27" id= +"page_27">[pg.27]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE PRELUDE TO THE REVOLT</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Philip at the time of his accession to the sovereignty of the +Netherlands was already King of Naples and Sicily, and Duke of +Milan, and, by his marriage in 1554 to Mary Tudor, King-consort of +England, in which country he was residing when summoned by his +father to assist at the abdication ceremony at Brussels. A few +months later (January 16, 1556) by a further act of abdication on +the part of Charles V he became King of Castile and Aragon. It was +a tremendous inheritance, and there is no reason to doubt that +Philip entered upon his task with a deep sense that he had a +mission to fulfil and with a self-sacrificing determination to +spare himself no personal labour in the discharge of his duties. +But though he bore to his father a certain physical likeness, +Philip in character and disposition was almost his antithesis. +Silent, reserved, inaccessible, Philip had none of the restless +energy or the geniality of Charles, and was as slow and undecided +in action as he was bigoted in his opinions and unscrupulous in his +determination to compass his ends. He found himself on his +accession to power faced with many difficulties, for the treasury +was not merely empty, it was burdened with debt. Through lack of +means he was compelled to patch up a temporary peace (February 5, +1556) with the French king at Vaucelles, and to take steps to +reorganise his finances.</p> + +<p>One of Philip's first acts was the appointment of Emmanuel +Philibert, Duke of Savoy, to the post vacated by his aunt Mary; but +it was a position, as long as the king remained in the Netherlands, +of small responsibility. Early in 1556 he summoned the +States-General to Brussels and asked for a grant of 1,300,000 +florins. The taxes proposed were disapproved by the principal +provinces and eventually refused. Philip was very much annoyed, but +was compelled to modify his proposals and accept what was offered +by the delegates. There was indeed from the very outset no love +lost between the new ruler and his Netherland subjects. Philip had +spent nearly all his life in Spain, where he had received<span class="newpage"><a name="page_28" id="page_28">[pg.28]</a></span> +his education and early training, and he had grown up to manhood, +in the narrowest sense of the word, a Spaniard. He was as +unfamiliar with the laws, customs and privileges of the several +provinces of his Netherland dominions as he was with the language +of their peoples. He spoke and wrote only Castilian correctly, and +during his four years' residence at Brussels he remained coldly and +haughtily aloof, a foreigner and alien in a land where he never +felt at home. Philip at the beginning of his reign honestly +endeavoured to follow in his father's steps and to carry out his +policy; but acts, which the great emperor with his conciliatory +address and Flemish sympathies could venture upon with impunity, +became suspect and questionable when attempted by the son. Philip +made the great mistake of taking into his private confidence only +foreign advisers, chief among whom was Anthony Perrenot de +Granvelle, Bishop of Arras, a Burgundian by birth, the son of +Nicholas Perrenot, who for thirty years had been the trusted +counsellor of Charles V.</p> + +<p>The opening of Philip's reign was marked by signal military +successes. War broke out afresh with France, after a brief truce, +in 1557. The French arms however sustained two crushing reverses at +St Quentin, August 129, 1557, and at Gravelines, July 13, 1558. +Lamoral, Count of Egmont, who commanded the cavalry, was the chief +agent in winning these victories. By the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis +peace was concluded, in which the French made many concessions, but +were allowed to retain, at the cost of Philip's ally, the town of +Calais which had been captured from the English by a surprise +attack in 1558. By the death of Queen Mary, which was said to have +been hastened by the news of the loss of Calais, Philip's relations +with England were entirely changed, and one of the reasons for a +continuance of his residence in the Netherlands was removed. Peace +with France therefore was no sooner assured than Philip determined +to return to Spain, where his presence was required. He chose his +half-sister Margaret, Duchess of Parma, to be regent in place of +the Duke of Savoy. In July he summoned the Chapter of the Order of +the Golden Fleece—destined to be the last that was ever +held—to Ghent in order to announce his intended departure. A +little later the States-General were called together, also at +Ghent, for a solemn leave-taking. On August 26, Philip embarked at +Flushing, and quitted the Netherlands, never again to return.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_29" id= +"page_29">[pg.29]</a></span></p> + +<p>Philip's choice of Margaret as governess-general was a happy +one. She was a natural daughter of Charles V. Her mother was a +Fleming, and she had been brought up under the care of her aunts, +Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary. She resembled those able +rulers in being a woman of strong character and statesmanlike +qualities, and no doubt she would have been as successful in her +administration had she had the same opportunities and the same +freedom of action as her predecessors. Philip, however, though +henceforth he passed the whole of his life in Spain, had no +intention of loosening in any way his grasp of the reins of power +or of delegating any share of his sovereign authority. On his +return to Madrid he showed plainly that he meant to treat the +Netherland provinces as if they were dependencies of the Spanish +crown, and he required from Margaret and her advisers that all the +details of policy, legislation and administration should be +submitted to him for supervision and sanction. This necessitated +the writing of voluminous despatches and entailed with a man of his +habits of indecision interminable delays. Margaret moreover was +instructed that in all matters she must be guided by the advice of +her three councils. By far the most important of the three was the +Council Of State, which at this time consisted of five +members—Anthony Granvelle, Bishop of Arras; Baron de +Barlaymont; Viglius van Zwychem van Aytta; Lamoral, Count of +Egmont; and William, Prince of Orange. Barlaymont was likewise +president of the Council of Finance and Viglius president of the +Privy Council. By far the most important member of the Council of +State, as he was much the ablest, was the Bishop of Arras; and he, +with Barlaymont and Viglius, formed an inner confidential council +from whom alone the regent asked advice. The members of this inner +council, nicknamed the <i>Consulta</i>, were all devoted to the +interests of Philip. Egmont and Orange, because of their great +influence and popularity with the people, were allowed to be +nominally Councillors of State, but they were rarely consulted and +were practically shut out from confidential access to the regent. +It is no wonder that both were discontented with their position and +soon showed openly their dissatisfaction.</p> + +<p>Egmont, a man of showy rather than of solid qualities, held in +1559 the important posts of Stadholder of Flanders and Artois. The +Prince of Orange was the eldest of the five sons of William,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_30" id="page_30">[pg.30]</a></span> +Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, head of the younger or German branch of +the famous house of Nassau. Members of the elder or Netherland +branch had for several generations rendered distinguished services +to their Burgundian and Habsburg sovereigns. This elder branch +became extinct in the person of Réné, the son of +Henry of Nassau, one of Charles V's most trusted friends and +advisers, by Claude, sister of Philibert, Prince of +Orange-Châlons. Philibert being childless bequeathed his +small principality to Réné; and Réné in +his turn, being killed at the siege of St Dizier in 1544, left by +will all his possessions to his cousin William, who thus became +Prince of Orange. His parents were Lutherans, but Charles insisted +that William, at that time eleven years of age, should be brought +up as a Catholic at the Court of Mary of Hungary. Here he became a +great favourite of the emperor, who in 1550 conferred on him the +hand of a great heiress, Anne of Egmont, only child of the Count of +Buren. Anne died in 1558, leaving two children, a son, Philip +William, and a daughter. At the ceremony of the abdication in 1555, +Charles entered the hall leaning on the shoulder of William, on +whom, despite his youth, he had already bestowed an important +command. Philip likewise specially recognised William's ability and +gave evidence of his confidence in him by appointing him one of the +plenipotentiaries to conclude with France the treaty of +Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. He had also made him a Knight of the +Golden Fleece, a Councillor of State and Stadholder of Holland, +Zeeland, Utrecht and Burgundy (Franche-Comté). Nevertheless +there arose between Philip and Orange a growing feeling of distrust +and dislike, with the result that William speedily found himself at +the head of a patriotic opposition to any attempts of the Spanish +king to govern the Netherlands by Spanish methods. The presence of +a large body of Spanish troops in the country aroused the suspicion +that Philip intended to use them, if necessary, to support him in +overriding by force the liberties and privileges of the provinces. +It was largely owing to the influence of Orange that the +States-General in 1559 refused to vote the grant of supplies for +which Philip had asked, unless he promised that all foreign troops +should be withdrawn from the Netherlands. The king was much +incensed at such a humiliating rebuff and is reported, when on the +point of embarking at Flushing, to have charged William with being +the man who had instigated the States thus to thwart him.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_31" id= +"page_31">[pg.31]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thus, when Margaret of Parma entered upon her duties as regent, +she found that there was a feeling of deep dissatisfaction and +general irritation in the provinces; and this was accentuated as +soon as it was found that, though Philip had departed, his policy +remained. The spirit of the absent king from his distant cabinet in +Madrid brooded, as it were, over the land. It was soon seen that +Margaret, whatever her statesmanlike qualities or natural +inclination might be, had no real authority, nor was she permitted +to take any steps or to initiate any policy without the advice and +approval of the three confidential councillors placed at her side +by Philip—Granvelle, Viglius and Barlaymont. Of these +Granvelle, both by reason of his conspicuous abilities and of his +being admitted more freely than anyone else into the inner counsels +of a sovereign, as secretive in his methods as he was suspicious +and distrustful of his agents, held the foremost position and drew +upon himself the odium of a policy with which, though it was +dictated from Spain, his name was identified.</p> + +<p>Orange and Egmont, with whom were joined a number of other +leading nobles (among these Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, +his brother the lord of Montigny, the Counts of Meghem and +Hoogstraeten and the Marquis of Berghen), little by little adopted +an attitude of increasing hostility to this policy, which they +regarded as anti-national and tending to the establishment of a +foreign despotism in the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>The continued presence of the Spanish troops, the severe +measures that were being taken for the suppression of heresy, and a +proposal for the erection of a number of new bishoprics, aroused +popular discontent and suspicion. Orange and Egmont, finding that +they were never consulted except on matters of routine, wrote to +Philip (July, 1561) stating that they found that their attendance +at the meetings of the Council of State was useless and asked to be +allowed to resign their posts. Meanwhile, feeling that the presence +of the Spanish troops was a source of weakness rather than of +strength, Margaret and Granvelle were urging upon the king the +necessity of their withdrawal. Neither the nobles nor the regent +succeeded in obtaining any satisfactory response. Orange and Egmont +accordingly absented themselves from the Council, and Margaret +ventured on her own authority to send away the Spanish +regiments.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_32" id= +"page_32">[pg.32]</a></span></p> + +<p>The question of the bishoprics was more serious. It was not a +new question. The episcopal organisation in the Netherlands was +admittedly inadequate. It had long been the intention of Charles V +to create a number of new sees, but in his crowded life he had +never found the opportunity of carrying out the proposed scheme, +and it was one of the legacies that at his abdication he handed on +to his son. One of the first steps taken by Philip was to obtain a +Bull from Pope Paul IV for the creation of the new bishoprics, and +this Bull was renewed and confirmed by Pius IV, January, 1560. Up +to this time the entire area of the seventeen provinces had been +divided into three unwieldy dioceses—Utrecht, Arras and +Tournay. The See of Utrecht comprised nearly the whole of the +modern kingdom of the Netherlands. Nor was there any archiepiscopal +see. The metropolitical jurisdiction was exercised by the three +foreign Archbishops of Cologne, Rheims and Treves. Philip now +divided the land into fourteen dioceses (Charles had proposed six) +with three Metropolitans at Mechlin, Utrecht and 'sHertogenbosch<a +name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a>. +Granvelle, who had obtained the Cardinal's hat, February, 1561, was +appointed Archbishop of Mechlin, and by virtue of this office +Primate of the Netherlands, December, 1561. This new organisation +was not carried out without arousing widespread opposition.</p> + +<p>The existing bishops resented the diminution of their +jurisdiction and dignity, and still louder were the protests of the +abbots, whose endowments were appropriated to furnish the incomes +of the new sees. Still more formidable was the hostility of the +people generally, a hostility founded on fear, for the introduction +of so many new bishops nominated by the king was looked upon as +being the first step to prepare the way for the bringing in of the +dreaded Spanish Inquisition. Already the edicts against heretics, +which Charles V had enacted and severely enforced, were being +carried out throughout the length and breadth of the land with +increasing and merciless barbarity. Both papal and episcopal +inquisitors were active in the work of persecution, and so many +were the sentences that in many places the civil authorities, and +even some of the stadholders, declined to carry out the executions. +Public opinion looked upon Granvelle as the author of the new +bishoprics scheme and the instigator of the increased activity of +the persecutors. He was accused of being eager to take any measures +to repress the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_33" id= +"page_33">[pg.33]</a></span> ancient liberties of the Netherland +provinces and to establish a centralised system of absolute rule, +in order to ingratiate himself with the king and so to secure his +own advancement. That the cardinal was ambitious of power there can +be no question. But to men of Granvelle's great abilities, as +administrator and statesman, ambition is not necessarily a fault; +and access to the secret records and correspondence of the time has +revealed that the part played by him was far from being so sinister +as was believed. The Bishop of Arras was not consulted about the +bishoprics proposal until after the Papal Bull had been secured, +and at first he was unfavourable to it and was not anxious to +become archbishop and primate. It was his advice which led Margaret +to send away the hated Spanish regiments from Netherland soil; and, +far from being naturally a relentless persecutor, there is proof +that neither he nor the president of the Privy Council, the jurist +Viglius, believed in the policy of harsh and brutal methods for +stamping out heretical opinions. They had in this as in other +matters to obey their master, and allow the odium to fall upon +themselves.</p> + +<p>To Orange and Egmont, the two leaders of the opposition to +Granvelle, a third name, that of Philip de Montmorency, Count of +Hoorn and Admiral of Flanders, has now to be added. These three +worked together for the overthrow of the Cardinal, but their +opposition at this time was based rather on political than on +religious grounds. They all professed the Catholic faith, but the +marriage of Orange in August, 1561, with a Lutheran, Anne daughter +of Maurice of Saxony and granddaughter of Philip of Hesse, was +ominous of coming change in William's religious opinions. In 1562 +the discontent of the nobles led to the formation of a league +against the cardinal, of which, in addition to the three leaders, +the Counts of Brederode, Mansfeld and Hoogstraeten were the +principal members. This league, of which Orange was the brain and +moving spirit, had as its chief aim the removal of Granvelle from +office, and then redress of grievances. It found widespread +support. The cardinal was assailed by a torrent of lampoons and +pasquinades of the bitterest description. But, though Margaret +began to see that the unpopularity of the minister was undermining +her position, and was rendering for her the task of government more +and more difficult, Philip was obdurate and closed his ears. The +long distance between Madrid and Brussels and the procrastinating +habits of the Spanish<span class="newpage"><a name="page_34" id= +"page_34">[pg.34]</a></span> king added immensely to the regent's +perplexities. She could not act on her own initiative, and her +appeals to Philip were either disregarded or after long delay met +by evasive replies.</p> + +<p>The discontented nobles in vain tried to obtain redress for +their grievances. In the autumn of 1562 Montigny was sent on a +special mission to Madrid, but returned without effecting anything. +Orange, Egmont and Hoorn thereupon drew up a joint letter +containing a bold demand for the dismissal of Granvelle, as the +chief cause of all the troubles in the land. The king replied by +asking that one of them should go in person to Spain to discuss the +grievances with him, and suggesting that Egmont should be sent. +Egmont however was averse to the proposal, and another and stronger +letter signed by the three leaders was despatched to Madrid. +Finding that both Margaret and Granvelle himself were in agreement +with Orange, Egmont and Hoorn in their view of the situation, +Margaret advising, with the cardinal's acquiescence, the necessity +of the minister's removal from his post, Philip determined at last +that Granvelle should leave the Netherlands. But in accordance with +the counsel of Alva, who was opposed on principle to any +concession, he characteristically employed circuitous and +clandestine means to conceal from the world any appearance of +yielding to the request of his subjects. In January, 1564 he sent a +letter to the Duchess of Parma expressing his displeasure at the +lords' letter, and saying that they must substantiate their +complaints. The same messenger (Armenteros, the duchess' secretary) +carried another letter for Granvelle headed "secret," in which the +cardinal was told that "owing to the strong feeling that had been +aroused against him, he was to ask permission from the regent to go +away for a short time to visit his mother." About a week after +these letters had reached their destination another courier brought +a reply to the three nobles, which, though written on the same day +as the others, bore a date three weeks later, in which they were +bidden to take their places again in the Council of State, and a +promise was given that the charges against Granvelle after +substantiation should be maturely considered. This letter was +delivered on March 1, after Granvelle had already, in obedience to +the king's orders, asked for leave of absence to visit his mother +in Franche-Comté. The cardinal actually left Brussels on +March 13, to the great joy of every class of the people, never to +return.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_35" id= +"page_35">[pg.35]</a></span></p> + +<p>With the departure of Granvelle, the nobles once more took their +seats on the Council of State. The <i>Consulta</i> disappeared, and +the regent herself appeared to be relieved and to welcome the +disappearance of the man whose authority had overshadowed her own. +But the change, though it placed large powers of administration and +of patronage in the hands of Netherlanders instead of foreigners, +did not by any means introduce purer methods of government. Many of +the nobles were heavily in debt; most of them were self-seeking; +offices and emoluments were eagerly sought for, and were even put +up for sale. Armenteros, Margaret's private secretary (to whom the +nickname of <i>Argenteros</i> was given), was the leading spirit in +this disgraceful traffic, and enriched himself by the acceptance of +bribes for the nomination to preferments. It was an unedifying +state of things; and public opinion was not long in expressing its +discontent with such an exhibition of widespread venality and +greed. All this was duly reported to Philip by Granvelle, who +continued, in his retirement, to keep himself well informed of all +that was going on.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile by the efforts of Orange, Egmont and Hoorn, chiefly of +the former, proposals of reform were being urged for the +strengthening of the powers of the Council of State, for the +reorganisation of finance, and for the more moderate execution of +the placards against heresy. While discussion concerning these +matters was in progress, came an order from Philip (August, 1564) +for the enforcing of the decrees of the recently concluded Council +of Trent. This at once aroused protest and opposition. It was +denounced as an infringement of the fundamental privileges of the +provinces. Philip's instructions however were peremptory. In these +circumstances it was resolved by the Council of State to despatch +Egmont on a special mission to Madrid to explain to the king in +person the condition of affairs in the Netherlands. Egmont having +expressed his willingness to go, instructions were drawn up for him +by Viglius. When these were read at a meeting of the council +convened for the purpose, Orange in a long and eloquent speech +boldly expressed his dissent from much that Viglius had written, +and wished that Philip should be plainly told that it was +impossible to enforce the decrees and that the severity of +religious persecution must be moderated. The council determined to +revise the instructions on the lines suggested by Orange, whose +words had such<span class="newpage"><a name="page_36" id= +"page_36">[pg.36]</a></span> an effect upon the aged Viglius, that +he had that very night a stroke of apoplexy, which proved +fatal.</p> + +<p>Egmont set out for Spain, January 15, 1565, and on his arrival +was received by Philip with extreme courtesy and graciousness. He +was entertained splendidly; presents were made to him, which, being +considerably in debt, he gladly accepted; but as regards his +mission he was put off with evasions and blandishments, and he +returned home with a reply from the king containing some vague +promises of reform in financial and other matters, but an absolute +refusal to modify the decrees against heresy. Rather would he +sacrifice a hundred thousand lives, if he had them, than concede +liberty of worship in any form. For some months however no attempt +was made to carry out active persecutions; and the regent meanwhile +did her utmost to place before the king urgent reasons for the +modification of his policy, owing to the angry spirit of unrest and +suspicion which was arising in the provinces. She begged Philip to +visit the Netherlands and acquaint himself personally with the +difficulties of a situation which, unless her advice were taken, +would rapidly grow worse and pass beyond her control. Philip +however was deaf alike to remonstrance or entreaty. On November 5, +1565, a royal despatch reached Brussels in which the strictest +orders were renewed for the promulgation throughout the provinces +of the decrees of the Council of Trent and for the execution of the +placards against heretics, while the proposals that had been made +for an extension of the powers of the Council of State and for the +summoning of the States-General were refused. As soon as these +fateful decisions were known, and the Inquisition began to set +about its fell work in real earnest, the popular indignation knew +no bounds. A large number of the magistrates refused to take any +part in the cruel persecution that arose, following the example of +Orange, Egmont, Berghen and others of the stadholders and leading +nobles. A strong spirit of opposition to arbitrary and foreign rule +arose and found expression in the action taken by a large number of +the members of the so-called "lesser nobility." Many of these had +come to Brussels, and at a meeting at the house of the Count of +Culemburg the formation of a league to resist arbitrary rule was +proposed. The leaders were Lewis of Nassau, brother of the Prince +of Orange, Nicolas de Harnes, Philip de Marnix, lord of Sainte +Aldegonde, and Henry, Viscount of Brederode. Other<span class="newpage"><a name="page_37" id="page_37">[pg.37]</a></span> +meetings were held, and a document embodying the principles and +demands of the Confederates was drawn up, known as <i>the +Compromise</i>, which was widely distributed among the nobles and +quickly obtained large and constantly increasing support. The +signatories of the Compromise, while professing themselves to be +faithful and loyal subjects of the king, denounced the Inquisition +in its every form "as being unjust and contrary to all laws human +and divine"; and they pledged themselves to stand by one another in +resisting its introduction into the Netherlands and in preventing +the carrying-out of the placards against heresy, while at the same +time undertaking to maintain the royal authority and public peace +in the land.</p> + +<p>At first the great nobles stood aloof, doubtful what course to +pursue. At the instigation of Orange conferences were held, at +which, by his advice, a petition or <i>Request</i>, setting forth +the grievances and asking for redress, should be made in writing +for presentation to the regent. The original draft of this document +was the work of Lewis of Nassau. These conferences, however, +revealed that there was a considerable divergence of views among +the leading nobles. Egmont and Meghem were indeed so alarmed at the +character of the movement, which seemed to them to savour of +treason, that they separated themselves henceforth from Orange and +Hoorn and openly took the side of the government. The duchess after +some demur agreed to receive the petition. A body of confederates +under the leadership of Brederode and Lewis of Nassau marched to +the palace, where they were received by Margaret in person. The +petitioners asked the regent to send an envoy to Madrid to lay +before the king the state of feeling among his loyal subjects in +the Netherlands, praying him to withdraw the Inquisition and +moderate the placards against heresy, and meanwhile by her own +authority to suspend them until the king's answer had been +received. The regent replied that she had no power to suspend the +Inquisition or the placards, but would undertake, while awaiting +the royal reply, to mitigate their operation.</p> + +<p>On the last day of their stay at Brussels, April 8, the +confederates under the presidency of Brederode, to the number of +about three hundred, dined together at the Hotel Culemburg. In the +course of the meal Brederode drew the attention of the company now +somewhat excited with wine to a contemptuous phrase attributed by +common report to Barlaymont. Margaret was somewhat perturbed<span class="newpage"><a name="page_38" id="page_38">[pg.38]</a></span> +at the formidable numbers of the deputation, as it entered the +palace court, and it was said that Barlaymont remarked that "these +beggars" (<i>ces gueux</i>) need cause her no fear. Brederode +declared that he had no objection to the name and was quite willing +to be "a beggar" in the cause of his country and his king. It was +destined to be a name famous in history. Immediately loud cries +arose from the assembled guests, until the great hall echoed with +the shouts of <i>Vivent les Gueux</i>. From this date onwards the +confederates were known as "les gueux," and they adopted a coarse +grey dress with the symbols of beggarhood—the wallet and the +bowl—worn as the <i>insignia</i> of their league. It was the +beginning of a popular movement, which made rapid headway among all +classes. A medal was likewise struck, which bore on one side the +head of the king, on the other two clasped hands with the +inscription—<i>Fidèles au roy jusques à la +besace</i>.</p> + +<p>Thus was the opposition to the tyrannical measures of the +government organising itself in the spring of 1566. It is a great +mistake to suppose that the majority of those who signed "the +Compromise" or presented "the Request" were disloyal to their +sovereign or converts to the reformed faith. Among those who +denounced the methods of the Inquisition and of the Blood Placards +were a large number, who without ceasing to be Catholics, had been +disillusioned by the abuses which had crept into the Roman Church, +desired their removal only to a less degree than the Protestants +themselves, and had no sympathy with the terrible and remorseless +persecution on Spanish lines, which sought to crush out all liberty +of thought and all efforts of religious reform by the stake and the +sword of the executioner. Nevertheless this league of the nobles +gave encouragement to the sectaries and was the signal for a great +increase in the number and activity of the Calvinist and Zwinglian +preachers, who flocked into the land from the neighbouring +countries. Such was the boldness of these preachers that, instead +of being contented with secret meetings, they began to hold their +conventicles in the fields or in the outskirts of the towns. Crowds +of people thronged to hear them, and the authority of the +magistrates was defied and flouted. The regent was in despair. +Shortly after the presentation of the Request it was determined by +the advice of the council to send special envoys to lay before the +king once more the serious state of things. The Marquis of +Berghen<span class="newpage"><a name="page_39" id= +"page_39">[pg.39]</a></span> and Baron Montigny consented with some +demur to undertake the mission, but for various reasons they did +not reach Madrid till some two months later. They were received +with apparent courtesy, and after several conferences the king, on +July 31, despatched a letter to Margaret in which he undertook to +do away with the Papal Inquisition and offered to allow such +moderation of the Placards as did not imply any recognition of +heretical opinions or any injury to the Catholic faith. He refused +to consent to the meeting of the States, but he sent letters +couched in most friendly terms to Orange and Egmont appealing to +their loyalty and asking them to support the regent by their advice +and influence. These demonstrations of a conciliatory temper were +however mere temporising. He was playing false. A document is in +existence, dated August 9, in which Philip states that these +concessions had been extorted from him against his will and that he +did not regard himself as bound by them, and he informed the Pope +that the abolition of the Papal Inquisition was a mere form of +words.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile events were moving fast in the Netherlands. The +open-air preachings were attended by thousands; and at Antwerp, +which was one of the chief centres of Calvinism, disorders broke +out, and armed conflicts were feared. Orange himself, as burgrave +of Antwerp, at the request of the duchess visited the town and with +the aid of Brederode and Meghem succeeded in effecting a compromise +between the Catholic and Protestant parties. The latter were +allowed to hold their preachings undisturbed, so long as they met +outside and not within the city walls. The regent in her alarm was +even driven to make overtures to the confederates to assist her in +the maintenance of order. There was much parleying, in which Orange +and Egmont took part; and in July an assembly of the signatories of +the Compromise was called together at St Trond in the district of +Liège. Some two thousand were present, presided over by +Lewis of Nassau. It was resolved to send twelve delegates to +Margaret to lay before her the necessity of finding a remedy for +the evils which were afflicting and disturbing the land. They +offered to consult with Orange and Egmont as to the best means by +which they could work together for the country's good, but hinting +that, if no redress was given, they might be forced to look for +foreign aid. Indeed this was no empty threat, for Lewis had already +been in communication with the Protestant leaders both in France +and in<span class="newpage"><a name="page_40" id= +"page_40">[pg.40]</a></span> the Rhinelands, as to the terms on +which they would furnish armed assistance; and Orange was probably +not altogether in ignorance of the fact. The regent was angry at +the tone of the delegates, whom she received on July 26, but in her +present impotence thought it best to dissemble. She promised to +give consideration to the petition, and summoned a meeting of the +Knights of the Golden Fleece to meet at Brussels on August 18, when +she would decide upon her answer. But, when that date arrived, +other and more pressing reasons than the advice of counsellors +compelled her to yield to the confederates a large part of their +demands. On August 23 she agreed, in return for help in the +restoration of order, to concede liberty of preaching, so long as +those who assembled did not bear arms and did not interfere with +the Catholic places of worship and religious services. Further an +indemnity was promised to all who had signed the Compromise.</p> + +<p>The reasons which influenced her were, first the receipt, on +August 12, of the conciliatory letter from the king, to which +reference has already been made, in which he consented to a certain +measure of toleration; and secondly a sudden outburst of +iconoclastic fury on the part of the Calvinistic sectaries, which +had spread with great rapidity through many parts of the land. On +August 14, at St Omer, Ypres, Courtray, Valenciennes and Tournay, +fanatical mobs entered the churches destroying and wrecking, +desecrating the altars, images, vestments and works of art, and +carrying away the sacred vessels and all that was valuable. On +August 16 and 17 the cathedral of Antwerp was entered by infuriated +and sacrilegious bands armed with axes and hammers, who made havoc +and ruin of the interior of the beautiful church. In Holland and +Zeeland similar excesses were committed. Such conduct aroused a +feeling of the deepest indignation and reprobation in the minds of +all right-thinking men, and alienated utterly those more moderate +Catholics who up till now had been in favour of moderation. Of the +great nobles, who had hitherto upheld the cause of the national +liberties and privileges against the encroachments of a foreign +despotism, many now fell away. Among these were Aremberg, Meghem +and Mansfeld. Egmont hesitated. As might have been expected, the +news of the outrages, when it reached Philip's ears, filled him +with rage and grief; and he is reported to have exclaimed, "It +shall cost them dear. I swear it by the soul of my father." From +this time forward he was<span class="newpage"><a name="page_41" id= +"page_41">[pg.41]</a></span> determined to visit with exemplary +punishment not only the rioters and the Protestant sectaries, but +more especially the great nobles on whose shoulders he laid the +whole blame for the troubles that had arisen.</p> + +<p>He was in no hurry to act, and announced that it was his +intention to go to the Netherlands in person and enquire into the +alleged grievances. So he told his councillors and wrote to +Margaret. No one seems to have suspected his deep-laid scheme for +allaying the suspicions of his intended victims until the right +moment came for laying his hands upon them and crushing all +opposition by overwhelming force. Orange alone, who had his paid +spies at Madrid, had a presage of what was coming and took measures +of precaution betimes. An intercepted letter from the Spanish +ambassador at Paris to the Regent Margaret, specifically mentioned +Orange, Egmont and Hoorn as deserving of exemplary punishment; and +on October 3 the prince arranged a meeting at Dendermonde to +consider what should be their course of action. In addition to +Egmont and Hoorn, Hoogstraeten and Lewis of Nassau were present. +William and Lewis urged that steps should be taken for preparing +armed resistance should the necessity arise. But neither Egmont nor +Hoorn would consent; they would not be guilty of any act of +disloyalty to their sovereign. The result of the meeting was a +great disappointment to Orange, and this date marked a +turning-point in his life. In concert with his brothers, John and +Lewis, he began to enter into negotiations with several of the +German Protestant princes for the formation of a league for the +protection of the adherents of the reformed faith in the +Netherlands. Now for the first time he severed his nominal +allegiance to the Roman Church, and in a letter to Philip of Hesse +avowed himself a Lutheran.</p> + +<p>During these same autumn months Philip furnished his sister with +considerable sums of money for the levying of a strong mercenary +force, German and Walloon. Possessed now of a body of troops that +she could trust, Margaret in the spring of 1567 took energetic +steps to suppress all insurrectionary movements and disorders, and +did not scruple to disregard the concessions which had been wrung +from her on August 23. The confederate nobles, satisfied with her +promises, had somewhat prematurely dissolved their league; but one +of the most fiery and zealous among them,<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_42" id="page_42">[pg.42]</a></span> John de Marnix, lord +of Thoulouse, collected at Antwerp a body of some 2000 Calvinists +and attempted to make himself master of that city. At Austruweel he +was encountered (March 13) by a Walloon force despatched by +Margaret with orders to "exterminate the heretics." Thoulouse and +almost the whole of his following perished in the fight. In the +south at the same time the conventicles were mercilessly suppressed +and the preachers driven into exile.</p> + +<p>Margaret now felt herself strong enough to demand that the +stadholders and leading nobles should, on pain of dismissal from +their posts, take an oath "to serve the king and to act for and +against whomsoever His Majesty might order." Egmont took the oath; +Hoorn, Hoogstraeten and Brederode declined to do so and resigned +their offices. Orange offered his resignation, but Margaret was +unwilling to accept it and urged him to discuss the matter first +with Egmont and Meghem. The three nobles met accordingly at +Willebroek, April 2. William used his utmost powers of persuasion +in an attempt to convince Egmont that he was courting destruction. +But in vain. He himself was not to be moved from his decision, and +the two friends, who had worked together so long in the patriot +cause, parted, never to meet again. Orange saw that he was no +longer safe in the Netherlands and, on April 22, he set out from +Breda for the residence of his brother John at Dillenburg. Here in +exile he could watch in security the progress of events, and be +near at hand should circumstances again require his intervention in +the affairs of the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>Orange did not take this extreme step without adequate cause. At +the very time that he left the Netherlands Philip was taking leave +of the Duke of Alva, whom he was despatching at the head of a +veteran force to carry out without pity or remorse the stern duty +of expelling heresy from the provinces and punishing all those, and +especially the leaders, who had ventured to oppose the arbitrary +exercise of the royal authority. He had for some time been +preparing this expedition. He still kept up the pretence that he +was coming in person to enquire into the alleged grievances, but he +never had the slightest intention of quitting Madrid. Alva sailed +from Cartagena (April 27) for Genoa, and proceeded at once to draw +together from the various Spanish garrisons in Italy a picked body +of some 12,000 men. With these he set out in June for his long +march across the Alps and through Burgundy, Lorraine and Luxemburg. +His<span class="newpage"><a name="page_43" id= +"page_43">[pg.43]</a></span> progress, jealously watched by the +French and Swiss, met with no opposition save for the difficulties +of the route. He entered the Netherlands on August 8, with his army +intact. A number of notables, amongst whom was Egmont, came to meet +him on his way to Brussels. He received them, more particularly +Egmont, with every appearance of graciousness. Alva as yet bore +only the title of Captain-General, but the king had bestowed on him +full powers civil and military; and the Duchess of Parma, though +still nominally regent, found herself reduced to a nonentity. +Alva's first step was to place strong Spanish garrisons in the +principal cities, his next to get the leaders who had been marked +for destruction into his power. To effect this he succeeded by fair +and flattering words in securing the presence of both Egmont and +Hoorn at Brussels. Under the pretence of taking part in a +consultation they were (September 9) invited to the duke's +residence and on their arrival suddenly found themselves arrested. +At the same time their secretaries and papers were seized, and +Antony van Stralen, the burgomaster of Antwerp, was placed under +arrest. These high-handed actions were the prelude to a reign of +terror; and Margaret, already humiliated by finding herself +superseded, requested her brother to accept her resignation. On +October 6 the office of Governor-General was conferred upon Alva; +and shortly afterwards the duchess left the Netherlands and +returned to Parma.</p> + +<p>Alva had now the reins of power in his hand, and with a +relentless zeal and cold-blooded ferocity, which have made his name +a by-word, he set about the accomplishment of the fell task with +which his master had entrusted him. He had to enforce with drastic +rigour all the penalties decreed by the placards against heretics +and preachers, and to deal summarily with all who had taken any +part in opposition to the government. But to attempt to do this by +means of the ordinary courts and magistrates would consume time and +lead to many acquittals. Alva therefore had no sooner thrown off +the mask by the sudden and skilfully planned arrest of Egmont and +Hoorn, than he proceeded to erect an extraordinary tribunal, which +had no legal standing except such as the arbitrary will of the duke +conferred upon it. This so-called Council of Troubles, which +speedily acquired in popular usage the name of the Council of +Blood, virtually consisted of Alva himself, who was president and +to whose final decision all cases were referred, and two Spanish +lawyers, his<span class="newpage"><a name="page_44" id= +"page_44">[pg.44]</a></span> chosen tools and agents, Juan de +Vargas and Louis del Rio. The two royalist nobles, Noircarmes and +Barlaymont, and five Netherland jurists also had seats; but, as +only the Spaniards voted, the others before long ceased to attend +the meetings. The proceedings indeed were, from the legal point of +view, a mere travesty of justice. A whole army of commissioners was +let loose upon the land, and informers were encouraged and +rewarded. Multitudes of accused were hauled before the tribunal and +were condemned by batches almost without the form of a trial. For +long hours day by day Vargas and del Rio revelled in their work of +butchery; and in all parts of the Netherlands the executioners were +busy. It was of no use for the accused to appeal to the charters +and privileges of their provinces. All alike were summoned to +Brussels; <i>non curamus privilegios vestros</i> declared Vargas in +his ungrammatical Latin. Hand in hand with the wholesale sentences +of death went the confiscation of property. Vast sums went into the +treasury. The whole land for awhile was terror-stricken. All +organised opposition was crushed, and no one dared to raise his +voice in protest.</p> + +<p>The Prince of Orange was summoned to appear in person before the +council within six weeks, under pain of perpetual banishment and +confiscation of his estates. He refused to come, and energetically +denied that the council had any jurisdiction over him. The same +sentence was passed upon all the other leaders who had placed +themselves out of reach of Alva's arm—Sainte Aldegonde, +Hoogstraeten, Culemburg, Montigny, Lewis of Nassau and others. +Unable to lay hands upon the prince himself, the governor-general +took dastardly advantage of William's indiscretion in leaving his +eldest son at Louvain to pursue his studies at the university. At +the beginning of 1568 Philip William, Count of Buren in right of +his mother, was seized and sent to Madrid to be brought up at the +court of Philip to hate the cause to which his father henceforth +devoted his life. Already indeed, before the abduction of his son, +Orange from his safe retreat at Dillenburg had been exerting +himself to raise troops for the invasion of the Netherlands. He +still professed loyalty to the king and declared that in the king's +name he wished to restore to the provinces those liberties and +privileges which Philip himself had sworn that he would maintain. +The difficulty was to find the large sum of money required for such +an enterprise, and it was only by extraordinary efforts that a +sufficient amount was<span class="newpage"><a name="page_45" id= +"page_45">[pg.45]</a></span> obtained. Part of the money was +collected in Antwerp and various towns of Holland and Zeeland, the +rest subscribed by individuals. John of Nassau pledged his estates, +Orange sold his plate and jewels, and finally a war-chest of +200,000 florins was gathered together. It was proposed to attack +the Netherlands from three directions. From the north Lewis of +Nassau was to lead an army from the Ems into Friesland; +Hoogstraeten on the east to effect an entrance by way of +Maestricht; while another force of Huguenots and refugees in the +south was to march into Artois. It was an almost desperate scheme +in the face of veteran troops in a central position under such a +tried commander as Alva. The last-named French force and that under +Hoogstraeten were easily defeated and scattered by Spanish +detachments sent to meet them. Lewis of Nassau was at first more +successful. Entering Groningen at the head of eight or nine +thousand undisciplined troops he was attacked, May 23, in a strong +position behind a morass by a Spanish force under the Count of +Aremberg, Stadholder of Friesland, at Heiligerlee. He gained a +complete victory. Aremberg himself was slain, as was also the +younger brother of Lewis, Adolphus of Nassau. The triumph of the +invaders was of short duration. Alva himself took in hand the task +of dealing with the rebels. At the head of 15,000 troops he drove +before him the levies of Nassau to Jemmingen on the estuary of the +Ems, and here with the loss of only seven men he completely +annihilated them. Lewis himself and a few others alone escaped by +throwing themselves into the water and swimming for their +lives.</p> + +<p>The action at Heiligerlee, by compelling the governor-general to +take the field, had hastened the fate of Egmont and Hoorn. After +their arrest the two noblemen were kept in solitary confinement in +the citadel of Ghent for several months, while the long list of +charges against them was being examined by the Council of +Troubles—in other words by Vargas and del Rio. These charges +they angrily denied; and great efforts were made on their behalf by +the wife of Egmont and the dowager Countess of Hoorn. Appeals were +made to the governor-general and to Philip himself, either for +pardon on the ground of services rendered to the State, or at least +for a trial, as Knights of the Golden Fleece, before the Court of +the Order. The Emperor Maximilian himself pleaded with Philip for +clemency, but without avail. Their doom had been settled in +advance, and the king was inflexible. Alva accordingly +determined<span class="newpage"><a name="page_46" id= +"page_46">[pg.46]</a></span> that they should be executed before he +left Brussels for his campaign in the north. On June 2, the +council, after refusing to hear any further evidence in the +prisoners' favour, pronounced them guilty of high treason; and Alva +at once signed the sentences of death. Egmont and Hoorn the next +day were brought by a strong detachment of troops from Ghent to +Brussels and were confined in a building opposite the town hall, +known as the Broodhuis. On June 5, their heads were struck off upon +a scaffold erected in the great square before their place of +confinement. Both of them met their death with the utmost calmness +and courage. The effect of this momentous stroke of vengeance upon +these two patriot leaders, both of them good Catholics, who had +always professed loyalty to their sovereign, and one of whom, +Egmont, had performed distinguished services for his country and +king, was profound. A wave of mingled rage and sorrow swept over +the land. It was not only an act of cruel injustice, but even as an +act of policy a blunder of the first magnitude, which was sure to +bring, as it did bring, retribution in its train.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_47" id= +"page_47">[pg.47]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The complete failure of the expeditions of Hoogstraeten and of +Lewis of Nassau was a great discouragement to the Prince of Orange. +Nevertheless after receiving the news of Jemmingen he wrote to his +brother, "With God's help I am determined to go on." By great +exertions he succeeded in gathering together a heterogeneous force +of German and Walloon mercenaries numbering about 18,000 men, and +with these in the beginning of October he crossed the frontier. But +to maintain such a force in the field required far larger financial +resources than William had at his disposal. Alva was aware of this, +and, as the prince made his way into Brabant, he followed his steps +with a small body of veteran troops, cutting off supplies and +stragglers, but declining battle. The mercenaries, debarred from +plunder and in arrears of pay, could not be kept together more than +a few weeks. In November Orange withdrew into France and disbanded +the remnants of his army. In disguise he managed to escape with +some difficulty through France to Dillenburg. His brothers, Lewis +and Henry, joined the Huguenot army under Coligny and took part in +the battles of Moncontour and Jarnac.</p> + +<p>Alva was now apparently supreme in the Netherlands; and crowds +of refugees fled the country to escape the wholesale persecutions +of the Council of Blood. Alva however, like his predecessor and +indeed like all Spanish governors engaged in carrying out the +policy of Philip II, was always hampered by lack of funds. The +Spanish treasury was empty. The governor-general's troops no less +than those of Orange clamoured for their regular pay, and it was +necessary to find means to satisfy them. The taxes voted for nine +years in 1559 had come to an end. New taxes could only be imposed +with the assent of the States-General. Alva, however, after his +victory at Jemmingen and the dispersion of the army of Orange, felt +himself strong enough to summon the States-General and demand their +assent to the scheme of taxation which he proposed. The +governor-general asked for (1) a tax of five per cent., the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_48" id="page_48">[pg.48]</a></span> +"twentieth penny," on all transfers of real estate, (2) a tax of +ten per cent., the "tenth penny," on all sales of commodities. +These taxes, which were an attempt to introduce into the +Netherlands the system known in Castile as <i>alcabala</i>, were to +be granted in perpetuity, thus, as the duke hoped, obviating the +necessity of having again to summon the States-General. In addition +to these annual taxes he proposed a payment once for all of one per +cent., "the hundredth penny," on all property, real or personal. +Such a demand was contrary to all precedent in the Netherlands and +an infringement of time-honoured charters and privileges; and even +the terror, which Alva's iron-handed tyranny had inspired, did not +prevent his meeting with strong opposition. The proposals had to be +referred to the provincial estates, and everywhere difficulties +were raised. All classes were united in resistance. Petitions came +pouring in protesting against impositions which threatened to ruin +the trade and industries of the country. Alva found it impossible +to proceed.</p> + +<p>The "hundredth penny" was voted, but instead of the other taxes, +which were to provide a steady annual income, he had to content +himself with a fixed payment of 2,000,000 guilders for two years +only. The imposition of these taxes on the model of the +<i>alcabala</i> had been part of a scheme for sweeping away all the +provincial jurisdictions and rights and forming the whole of the +Netherlands into a unified state, as subservient to despotic rule +as was Castile itself. A greater centralisation of government had +been the constant policy of the Burgundian and Habsburg rulers +since the time of Philip the Good, a policy to be commended if +carried out in a statesmanlike and moderate spirit without any +sudden or violent infringement of traditional liberties. The aim of +Philip of Spain as it was interpreted by his chosen instrument, the +Duke of Alva, was far more drastic. With Alva and his master all +restrictions upon the absolute authority of the sovereign were +obstacles to be swept remorselessly out of the way; civil and +religious liberty in their eyes deserved no better fate than to be +suppressed by force. Alva's experience was that of many would-be +tyrants before and since his day, that the successful application +of force is limited by the power of the purse. His exchequer was +empty. Philip was himself in financial difficulties and could spare +him no money from Spain. The refusal of the provincial estates of +the Netherlands to sanction his scheme of taxation deprived him of +the means for<span class="newpage"><a name="page_49" id= +"page_49">[pg.49]</a></span> imposing his will upon them. His reign +of terror had produced throughout the land a superficial appearance +of peace. There were at the beginning of 1570 no open disturbances +or insurrectionary movements to be crushed, but the people were +seething with discontent, and the feeling of hatred aroused by the +presence of the Spanish Inquisition and the foreign soldiery and by +the proceedings of the Council of Blood was, day by day, becoming +deeper and more embittered.</p> + +<p>This condition of affairs was duly reported to the king at +Madrid; and there was no lack of councillors at his side who were +unfriendly to Alva and eager to make the most of the complaints +against him. Among these enemies was Ruy Gomez, the king's private +secretary, who recommended a policy of leniency, as did Granvelle, +who was now at Naples. Philip never had any scruples about throwing +over his agents, and he announced his intention of proclaiming an +amnesty on the occasion when Anne of Austria, his intended bride +and fourth wife, set sail from Antwerp for Spain. The proclamation +was actually made at Antwerp by the governor-general in person, +July 16, 1570. It was a limited declaration of clemency, for six +classes of offenders were excepted, and it only extended to those +who within two months made their peace with the Catholic Church and +abjured the Reformed doctrines.</p> + +<p>During the years 1570-71 there were however few outward signs of +the gradual undermining of Alva's authority. There was sullen +resentment and discontent throughout the land, but no attempt at +overt resistance. The iron hand of the governor-general did not +relax its firm grasp of the reins of power, and the fear of his +implacable vengeance filled men's hearts. He ruled by force, not by +love; and those who refused to submit had either to fly the country +or to perish by the hands of the executioner. Nevertheless during +these sad years the Prince of Orange and Lewis of Nassau, in spite +of the apparent hopelessness of the situation, were unremitting in +their efforts to raise fresh forces. William at Dillenburg exerted +himself to the uttermost to obtain assistance from the Protestant +princes of the Rhineland. With the Calvinists he was, however, as +yet strongly suspect. He himself was held to be a lukewarm convert +from Catholicism to the doctrines of Augsburg; and his wife was the +daughter and heiress of Maurice of Saxony, the champion of +Lutheranism. William's repudiation of Anne of Saxony for her <span class="newpage"><a name="page_50" id="page_50">[pg.50]</a></span> +repeated infidelities (March, 1571) severed this Lutheran alliance. +The unfortunate Anne, after six years' imprisonment, died insane in +1577. At the same time the closest relations of confidence and +friendship sprang up between Orange and the well-known Calvinist +writer and leader, Philip de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde. This +connection with Sainte Aldegonde ensured for William the support of +the Calvinists; and secret agents of the prince were soon busily at +work in the different parts of the provinces promising armed +assistance and collecting levies for the raising of an invading +force. Foremost among these active helpers were Jacob van +Wesenbeke, Diedrich Sonoy and Paul Buys; and the chief scene of +their operations were the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, already +distinguished for their zeal in the cause of freedom. The amount of +cash that was raised was, however, for some time very small. There +was goodwill in plenty, but the utter failure of the prince's +earlier efforts had made people despair.</p> + +<p>These earlier efforts had indeed, on land, been disastrous, but +they had not been confined entirely to land operations. Orange, in +his capacity as a sovereign prince, had given <i>letters of +marque</i> to a number of vessels under the command of the lord of +Dolhain. These vessels were simply corsairs and they were manned by +fierce fanatical sectaries, desperadoes inflamed at once by bitter +hatred of the papists and by the hope of plunder. These "Beggars of +the Sea" (<i>Gueux de mer</i>), as they were called, rapidly +increased in number and soon made themselves a terror in the narrow +seas by their deeds of reckless daring and cruelty. William tried +in vain to restrain excesses which brought him little profit and no +small discredit. It was to no purpose that he associated the lord +of Lumbres in the chief command with Dolhain. Their subordinates, +William de Blois, lord of Treslong, and William de la Marck, lord +of Lumey, were bold, unscrupulous adventurers who found it to their +interest to allow their unruly crews to burn and pillage, as they +lusted, not only their enemies' ships in the open sea, but churches +and monasteries along the coast and up the estuaries that they +infested. The difficulty was to find harbours in which they could +take refuge and dispose of their booty. For some time they were +permitted to use the English ports freely, and the Huguenot +stronghold at La Rochelle was also open to them as a market. Queen +Elizabeth, as was her wont, had no scruple in conniving at acts of +piracy to the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_51" id= +"page_51">[pg.51]</a></span> injury of the Spaniard; but at last, +at the beginning of 1572, in consequence of strong representations +from Madrid, she judged it politic to issue an order forbidding the +Sea-Beggars to enter any English harbours. The pirates, thus +deprived of the shelter which had made their depredations possible, +would have been speedily in very bad case, but for an unexpected +and surprising stroke of good fortune. It chanced that a large +number of vessels under Lumbres and Treslong were driven by stress +of weather into the estuary of the Maas; and finding that the +Spanish garrison of Brill had left the town upon a punitive +expedition, the rovers landed and effected an entry by burning one +of the gates. The place was seized and pillaged, and the marauders +were on the point of returning with their spoil to their ships, +when at the suggestion of Treslong it was determined to place a +garrison in the town and hold it as a harbour of refuge in the name +of the Prince of Orange, as Stadholder of Holland. On April 1, +1572, the prince's flag was hoisted over Brill, and the foundation +stone was laid of the future Dutch republic.</p> + +<p>William himself at first did not realise the importance of this +capture, and did not take any steps to express his active approval; +but it was otherwise with his brother Lewis, who was at the time +using his utmost endeavours to secure if not the actual help, at +least the connivance, of Charles IX to his conducting an expedition +from France into the Netherlands. Lewis saw at once the great +advantage to the cause of the possession of a port like Brill, and +he urged the Beggars to try and gain possession of Flushing also, +before Alva's orders for the strengthening of the garrison and the +defences had been carried out. Flushing by its position commanded +the approach by water to Antwerp. When the ships of Lumbres and +Treslong appeared before the town, the inhabitants rose in revolt, +over-powered the garrison, and opened the gates. This striking +success, following upon the taking of Brill, aroused great +enthusiasm. The rebels had now a firm foothold both in Holland and +Zeeland, and their numbers grew rapidly from day to day. Soon the +whole of the island of Walcheren, on which Flushing stands, was in +their hands with the exception of the capital Middelburg; and in +Holland several important towns hoisted the flag of revolt and +acknowledged the Prince of Orange as their lawful Stadholder. From +Holland the rebellion spread into Friesland. Finally on June 19 an +assembly of the Estates of Holland was, at the instance of +Dordrecht, convened<span class="newpage"><a name="page_52" id= +"page_52">[pg.52]</a></span> to meet in that town. There was but +one representative of the nobility present at this meeting, whose +legality was more than doubtful, but it included deputies of no +less than twelve out of the fourteen towns which were members of +the Estates. The prince sent Ste Aldegonde as his plenipotentiary. +The step taken was practically an act of insurrection against the +king. William had resigned his stadholdership in 1568 and had +afterwards been declared an outlaw. Bossu had been by royal +authority appointed to the vacant office. The Estates now formally +recognised the prince as Stadholder of the king in Holland, +Zeeland, West Friesland and Utrecht; and he was further invested +with the supreme command of the forces both by land and sea and was +charged with the duty of protecting the country against foreign +oppression or invasion by foreign troops. Ste Aldegonde in the name +of the prince announced his acceptance of the posts that had been +conferred on him and declared that he desired, as a condition of +such acceptance, that the principle of religious freedom and +liberty of worship should be conceded to Catholics and Protestants +alike. To this the Estates assented. Orange took an oath to +maintain the towns in the rights and privileges of which they had +been deprived by Alva and not to enter into any negotiations or +conclude any treaty with Spain without their consent. The Court of +Holland for the administration of justice was reconstituted and a +Chamber of Finance erected. The question of finance was indeed +crucial, for the new stadholder asked for a subsidy of 100,000 +crowns a month for the support of the army he had raised for the +invasion of Brabant; and the Estates agreed to take measures for +appropriating certain taxes for the purpose, an undertaking which +had, however, in this time of present distress small likelihood of +effectual result.</p> + +<p>The course of events indeed in the months which followed this +historic gathering at Dordrecht was not encouraging to those who +had thus dared somewhat prematurely to brave the wrath of Philip +and the vengeance of Alva. Lewis of Nassau had for some time been +engaged in raising a Huguenot force for the invasion of the +southern Netherlands. The news of the capture of Brill and Flushing +stirred him to sudden action. He had collected only a small body of +men, but, with characteristic impetuosity he now led these across +the frontier, and, before Alva was aware of his presence in +Hainault, had captured by surprise Valenciennes and Mons (May 24). +It was a<span class="newpage"><a name="page_53" id= +"page_53">[pg.53]</a></span> rash move, for no sooner did the news +reach the governor-general than he sent his son, Don Frederick of +Toledo, at the head of a powerful force to expel the invader. Don +Frederick quickly made himself master of Valenciennes and then +proceeded (June 3) to lay siege to Mons, where Lewis, in hopes that +relief would reach him, prepared for an obstinate defence. These +hopes were not without foundation, for he knew that, beyond the +Rhine, Orange with a considerable army was on the point of entering +the Netherlands from the east, and that the Huguenot leader, +Genlis, was leading another force from France to his succour. +William at the head of 20,000 German and 3000 Walloon mercenaries +actually entered Gelderland (July 7), captured Roeremonde and then +marched into Brabant. Here (July 19) the news reached him of the +complete defeat and annihilation of the raw levies of Genlis by +Toledo's veteran troops. Hampered by lack of funds William now, as +throughout his life, showed himself to be lacking in the higher +qualities of military leadership. With an ill-paid mercenary force +time was a factor of primary importance, nevertheless the prince +made no effort to move from his encampment near Roeremonde for some +five weeks. Meanwhile his troops got out of hand and committed many +excesses, and when, on August 27, he set out once more to march +westwards, he found to his disappointment that there was no popular +rising in his favour. Louvain and Brussels shut their gates, and +though Mechlin, Termonde and a few other places surrendered, the +prince saw only too plainly that his advance into Flanders would +not bring about the relief of Mons. All his plans had gone awry. +Alva could not be induced to withdraw any portion of the army that +was closely blockading Mons, but contented himself in following +Orange with a force under his own command while avoiding a general +action. And then like a thunderclap, September 5, the news of the +massacre of St Bartholomew was brought to the prince, and he knew +that the promise of Coligny to conduct 12,000 arquebusiers to the +succour of Lewis could not be redeemed. In this emergency William +saw that he must himself endeavour to raise the siege. He +accordingly marched from Flanders and, September 11, encamped at +the village of Harmignies, a short distance from Mons. In the night +six hundred Spaniards, each of whom to prevent mistakes wore a +white shirt over his armour, surprised the camp. The prince himself +was awakened by a little dog that slept in his tent and only +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_54" id="page_54">[pg.54]</a></span> +narrowly escaped with his life, several hundred of his troops being +slain by the <i>Camisaders</i>. He was now thoroughly discouraged +and on the following day retreated first to Mechlin, then to +Roeremonde, where on September 30 the ill-fated expedition was +disbanded. The retirement from Harmignies decided the fate of Mons. +Favourable conditions were granted and Lewis of Nassau, who was ill +with fever, met with chivalrous treatment and was allowed to return +to Dillenburg.</p> + +<p>William now found himself faced with something like financial +ruin. Mercenary armies are very costly, and by bitter experience he +had learnt the futility of opposing a half-hearted and badly +disciplined force to the veteran troops of Alva. He resolved +therefore to go in person to Holland to organise and direct the +strong movement of revolt, which had found expression in the +meeting of the Estates at Dordrecht. His agents had long been busy +going about from town to town collecting funds in the name of the +prince and encouraging the people in their resistance to the +Inquisition and to foreign tyranny. William's declaration that +henceforth he intended to live and die in their midst and to devote +himself with all his powers to the defence of the rights and +liberties of the land met with willing and vigorous support +throughout the greater part of Holland, West Friesland and Zeeland; +and contributions for the supply of the necessary ways and means +began to flow in. It was, however, a desperate struggle to which he +had pledged himself, and to which he was to consecrate without +flinching the rest of his life. If, however, the prince's resolve +was firm, no less so was that of Alva.</p> + +<p>Alva had his enemies at the Spanish court, always ready to +excite distrust against the duke in the mind of the suspicious +king. In July, 1572, the Duke of Medina-Coeli had been sent from +Spain to enquire into the state of affairs in the Netherlands; +probably it was intended that he should take over the +administration and supersede the governor-general. On his arrival, +however, Medina-Coeli quickly saw that the difficulties of the +situation required a stronger hand than his, and he did not attempt +to interfere with Alva's continued exercise of supreme authority. +The governor-general, on his side, knew well what was the meaning +of this mission of Medina-Coeli, and no sooner was the army of +Orange dispersed than he determined, while the reins of power were +still<span class="newpage"><a name="page_55" id= +"page_55">[pg.55]</a></span> in his hands, to visit the rebellious +towns of the north with condign vengeance.</p> + +<p>At the head of a powerful force, Frederick of Toledo marched +northwards. Mechlin, which had received Orange, was given over for +three days to pillage and outrage. Then Zutphen was taken and +sacked. Naarden, which had, though without regular defences, dared +to resist the Spaniards, was utterly destroyed and the entire +population massacred. Amsterdam, one of the few towns of Holland +which had remained loyal to the king, served as a basis for further +operations. Although it was already December and the season was +unfavourable, Toledo now determined to lay siege to the important +town of Haarlem. Haarlem was difficult of approach. It was +protected on two sides by broad sheets of shallow water, the +Haarlem lake and the estuary of the Y, divided from one another by +a narrow neck of land. On another side was a thick wood. It was +garrisoned by 4000 men, stern Calvinists, under the resolute +leadership of Ripperda and Lancelot Brederode. An attempt to storm +the place (December 21) was beaten off with heavy loss to the +assailants; so Toledo, despite the inclemency of the weather, had +to invest the city. Another desperate assault, January 31, +disastrously failed, and the siege was turned into a blockade. The +position, however, of the besiegers was in some respects worse than +that of the besieged; and Toledo would have abandoned his task in +despair had not his father ordered him at all costs to proceed. +William meanwhile made several efforts to relieve the town. Bodies +of skaters in the winter, and when the ice disappeared, numbers of +boats crossed over the Haarlem lake from Leyden and managed to +carry supplies of food into the town, and resistance might have +been indefinitely prolonged had not Bossu put a stop to all +intercourse between Haarlem and the outside world by convoying a +flotilla of armed vessels from the Y into the lake. Surrender was +now only a question of time. On July 11,1573, after a relieving +force of 4000 men, sent by Orange, had been utterly defeated, and +the inhabitants were perishing by famine, Toledo gained possession +of Haarlem. The survivors of the heroic garrison were all +butchered, and Ripperda and Brederode, their gallant leaders, +executed. A number of the leading citizens were likewise put to +death, but the town was spared from pillage on condition of paying +a heavy fine. The siege had lasted seven months, and the army of +Toledo, which<span class="newpage"><a name="page_56" id= +"page_56">[pg.56]</a></span> had suffered terribly during the +winter, is said to have lost twelve thousand men.</p> + +<p>Alva in his letters to the king laid great stress on the +clemency with which he had treated Haarlem. It had been spared the +wholesale destruction of Zutphen and Naarden, and the duke hoped +that by this exhibition of comparative leniency he might induce the +other rebel towns to open their gates without opposition. He was +deceived. On July 18 Alkmaar was summoned to surrender, but +refused. Alva's indignation knew no bounds, and he vowed that every +man, woman and child in the contumacious town should be put to the +sword. The threat, however, could not at once be executed. Toledo's +army, debarred from the sack of Haarlem, became mutinous through +lack of pay. Until they received the arrears due to them, they +refused to stir. Not till August 21 was Don Frederick able to +invest Alkmaar with a force of 16,000 men. The garrison consisted +of some 1300 burghers with 800 troops thrown into the town by +Sonoy, Orange's lieutenant in North Holland. Two desperate assaults +were repulsed with heavy loss, and then the Spaniards proceeded to +blockade the town. Sonoy now, by the orders of the prince, gained +the consent of the cultivators of the surrounding district to the +cutting of the dykes. The camps and trenches of the besiegers were +flooded out; and (October 8) the siege was raised and the army of +Don Frederick retired, leaving Alkmaar untaken. Within a week +another disaster befell the Spanish arms. Between Hoorn and +Enkhuizen the fleet of Bossu on the Zuyder Zee was attacked by the +Sea-Beggars and was completely defeated. Bossu himself was taken +prisoner and was held as a hostage for the safety of Ste Aldegonde, +who fell into the hands of the Spaniards about month later.</p> + +<p>This naval victory, following upon the retreat from Alkmaar, +strengthened greatly the efforts of Orange and gave fresh life to +the patriot cause. It likewise marked the end of the six years of +Alva's blood-stained rule in the Netherlands. Weary and +disappointed, always hampered by lack of funds, angry at the loss +of the king's confidence and chafing at the evidence of it in the +presence of Medina-Coeli at his side, the governor-general begged +that he might be relieved of his functions. His request was +granted, October 29. The chosen successor was the Grand Commander, +Don Luis de Requesens, governor of Milan. It was only with +much<span class="newpage"><a name="page_57" id= +"page_57">[pg.57]</a></span> reluctance that Requesens, finding the +king's command insistent and peremptory, accepted the charge.</p> + +<p>The Grand Commander was indeed far from being a suitable man for +dealing with the difficult situation in the Netherlands, for he was +a Spanish grandee pure and simple and did not even speak French. +Even the loyalists received him coolly. He knew nothing of the +country, and whatever his ability or disposition it was felt that +he would not be allowed a free hand in his policy or adequate means +for carrying it out. That his temper was conciliatory was quickly +shown. An amnesty was proclaimed for political offenders except +three hundred persons (among these Orange and his principal +adherents), and pardon to all heretics who abjured their errors. He +went even further than this by entering into a secret exchange of +views with William himself through Ste Aldegonde as an +intermediary, in the hope of finding some common meeting-ground for +an understanding. But the prince was immovable. Unless freedom of +worship, the upholding of all ancient charters and liberties and +the removal of Spaniards and all foreigners from any share in the +government or administration of the land were granted, resistance +would be continued to the last. These were conditions Requesens had +no power even to consider.</p> + +<p>Orange during this time was on his side using all his diplomatic +ability to gain help for the oppressed Netherlanders from France +and England. But Charles IX had his own difficulties and was in too +feeble health (he died May, 1574) to take any decided step, and +Queen Elizabeth, though she connived at assistance being given to +the rebel cause on strictly commercial terms, was not willing +either to show open hostility to Philip or to support subjects in +revolt against their sovereign. William's position appeared +well-nigh desperate, for at the opening of the year 1574 his +authority was only recognised in a few of the towns of Holland and +in some of the Zeeland islands, and the Spaniards had sent a large +force to invest Leyden. He had, however, made up his mind to cast +in his lot with the brave Hollanders and Zeelanders in their +gallant struggle against overwhelming odds. To identify himself +more completely with his followers, the prince, October, 1573, +openly announced his adhesion to Calvinism. There are no grounds +for doubting his sincerity in taking this step; it was not an act +of pure opportunism. His early Catholicism had probably been little +more<span class="newpage"><a name="page_58" id= +"page_58">[pg.58]</a></span> than an outward profession, and as +soon as he began to think seriously about religious questions, his +natural bent had led him first to the Lutheran faith of his family, +and then to the sterner doctrines, which had gained so firm a +foothold in the towns of Holland and Zeeland. Nevertheless William, +though henceforth a consistent Calvinist, was remarkable among his +contemporaries for the principles of religious toleration he both +inculcated and practised. He was constitutionally averse to +religious persecution in any form, and by the zealots of his party +he was denounced as lukewarm; but throughout his life he upheld the +right of the individual, who was peaceful and law-abiding, to +liberty of opinion and freedom of worship.</p> + +<p>The year 1574 opened favourably. By a remarkable feat of arms +the veteran Spanish commander Mondragon had, October, 1572, +reconquered several of the Zeeland islands. His men on one occasion +at ebb-tide marched across the channel which lies between South +Beveland and the mainland, the water reaching up to their necks. +The patriot forces had since then recovered much of the lost +ground, but Middelburg was strongly held, and so long as the +Spaniards had command of the sea, was the key to the possession of +Zeeland. On January 29, 1574, the Sea-Beggars under Boisot attacked +the Spanish fleet near Roemerswaal and after a bloody encounter +gained a complete victory. The siege of Middelburg was now pressed +and Mondragon surrendered, February 18. The prince at once set to +work to create a patriot government in the province. Four towns had +representatives, Middelburg, Zierikzee, Veere and Flushing. William +himself acquired by purchase the marquisate of Flushing and thus +was able to exercise a preponderating influence in the Provincial +Estates, all of whose members were required to be Calvinists and +supporters of the rebel cause.</p> + +<p>The investment of Leyden by the Spaniards threatened however, +now that Haarlem had fallen, to isolate South Holland and Zeeland; +and William did not feel himself strong enough to make any serious +attempt to raise the siege. Lewis of Nassau therefore, with the +help of French money, set himself to work with his usual +enthusiastic energy to collect a force in the Rhineland with which +to invade the Netherlands from the east and effect a diversion. At +the head of 7000 foot and 3000 horse—half-disciplined troops, +partly Huguenot<span class="newpage"><a name="page_59" id= +"page_59">[pg.59]</a></span> volunteers, partly German +mercenaries—he tried to cross the Meuse above Maestricht with +the intention of effecting a junction with the Prince of Orange. He +was accompanied by John and Henry of Nassau, his brothers, and +Christopher, son of the Elector Palatine. He found his course +blocked by a Spanish force under the command of Sancho d'Avila and +Mondragon. The encounter took place on the heath of Mook (April 14) +and ended in the crushing defeat of the invaders. Lewis and his +young brother, Henry, and Duke Christopher perished, and their army +was completely scattered. The death of his brothers was a great +grief to William. Lewis had for years been his chief support, and +the loss of this dauntless champion was indeed a heavy blow to the +cause for which he had sacrificed his life. He was only thirty-six +years of age, while Henry, the youngest of the Nassaus, to whom the +Prince was deeply attached, was but a youth of twenty-four.</p> + +<p>The invasion of Lewis had nevertheless the result of raising the +siege of Leyden; but only for a time. After the victory at Mook the +Spanish troops were free to continue the task of reconquering rebel +Holland for the king. On May 26 a strong force under Valdez +advanced to Leyden and completely isolated the town by surrounding +it with a girdle of forts. The attack came suddenly, and +unfortunately the place had not been adequately provisioned. So +strong was the position of the Spaniards that the stadholder did +not feel that any relieving force that he could send would have any +chance of breaking through the investing lines and revictualling +the garrison. In these circumstances he summoned, June 1, a meeting +of the Estates of Holland at Rotterdam and proposed, as a desperate +resource, that the dykes should be cut and the land submerged, and +that the light vessels of the Sea-Beggars under Boisot should sail +over the waters, attack the Spanish forts and force an entrance +into the town. After considerable opposition the proposal was +agreed to and the waters were allowed to flow out upon the +low-lying fields, villages and farms, which lie between the sea, +the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas. Unfortunately the season was not +favourable, and though the water reached nearly to the higher land +round Leyden on which the Spanish redoubts were erected, and by +alarming Valdez caused him to press the blockade more closely, it +was not deep enough even for the light-draught vessels, which +Boisot had gathered together, to make their way to the town. So the +month of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_60" id= +"page_60">[pg.60]</a></span> August passed and September began. +Meanwhile the prince, who was the soul of the enterprise, was +confined to his sick-bed by a violent attack of fever, and the +pangs of famine began to be cruelly felt within the beleaguered +town. A portion of the citizens were half-hearted in the struggle, +and began to agitate for surrender and even sent out emissaries to +try to make terms with the Spanish commander. But there were within +Leyden leaders of iron resolution, the heroic Burgomaster Pieter +Adriaanzoon van der Werf; the commandant of the garrison, Jan van +der Does; Dirk van Bronkhorst, Jan van Hout and many others who +remained staunch and true in face of the appalling agony of a +starving population; men who knew the fate in store for them if +they fell into the enemy's hands and were determined to resist as +long as they had strength to fight. At last in mid-September faint +hopes began to dawn. William recovered, and a fierce equinoctial +gale driving the flood-tide up the rivers gradually deepened the +waters up to the very dyke on which the entrenchments of the +besiegers stood. Urged on by Orange, Boisot now made a great +effort. Anxiously from the towers was the approach of the relieving +fleet watched. The town was at the very last extremity. The people +were dying of hunger on every side. Some fierce combats took place +as soon as the Sea-Beggars, experts at this amphibious warfare, +arrived at the outlying Spanish forts, but not for long. Alarmed at +the rising of the waters and fearing that the fleet of Boisot might +cut off their escape, the Spaniards retreated in the night; and on +the morning of October 3 the vessels of the relieving force, laden +with provisions, entered the town. The long-drawn-out agony was +over and Leyden saved from the fate of Haarlem, just at the moment +when further resistance had become impossible. Had Leyden fallen +the probability is that the whole of South Holland would have been +conquered, and the revolt might have collapsed. In such a narrow +escape well might the people of the town see an intervention of +Providence on their behalf. The prince himself hastened to Leyden +on the following day, reorganised the government of the town and in +commemoration of this great deliverance founded the University, +which was to become in the 17th century one of the most famous +seats of learning in Europe.</p> + +<p>The successful relief of Leyden was followed by a mutiny of the +army of Valdez. They were owed long arrears of pay, had endured +great hardships, and now that they saw themselves deprived of +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_61" id= +"page_61">[pg.61]</a></span> hope of the pillage of the town, they +put their commander and his officers under arrest and marched under +a leader elected by themselves into Utrecht. Other mutinies +occurred in various parts of the southern provinces, for Requesens +had no funds, and it was useless to appeal to Philip, for the +Spanish treasury was empty. This state of things led to a practical +cessation of active hostilities for many months; and Requesens +seized the opportunity to open negotiations with Orange. These +were, however, doomed to be fruitless, for the king would not hear +of any real concessions being made to the Protestants. The position +of William was equally beset with difficulties, politically and +financially. In the month following the relief of Leyden he even +threatened to withdraw from the country unless his authority were +more fully recognised and adequate supplies were furnished for the +conduct of the war. The Estates accordingly, November 12, asked him +to assume the title of Regent or Governor, with "absolute might, +authority and sovereign control" of the affairs of the country. +They also voted him an allowance of 49,000 guilders a month; but, +while thus conferring on the man who still claimed to be the +"Stadholder of the king" practically supreme power, the +burgher-corporations of the towns were very jealous of surrendering +in the smallest degree that control over taxation which was one of +their most valued rights. The exercise of authority, however, by +the prince from this time forward was very great, for he had +complete control in military and naval matters, and in the general +conduct of affairs he held all the administrative threads in his +own hands. He had become indispensable, and in everything but name +a sovereign in Holland and Zeeland.</p> + +<p>The first part of 1575 was marked by a lull in warlike +operations, and conferences were held at Breda between envoys of +Orange and Requesens, only to find that there was no common ground +of agreement. The marriage of the prince (June 24) with Charlotte +de Bourbon, daughter of the Duke of Montpensier, was a daring step +which aroused much prejudice against him. The bride, who was of the +blood-royal of France, had been Abbess of Jouarre, but had abjured +her vows, run away and become a Calvinist. This was bad enough, but +the legality of the union was rendered the more questionable by the +fact that Anne of Saxony was still alive. On all sides came +protests—from Charlotte's father, from John of Nassau, and +from Anne's relations in Saxony and Hesse. But William's +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_62" id="page_62">[pg.62]</a></span> +character was such that opposition only made him more determined to +carry out his purpose. The wedding was celebrated at Brill with +Calvinist rites. The union, whether legitimate or not, was +undoubtedly one of great happiness.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the governor-general, unable to obtain any financial +help from Spain, had managed to persuade the provinces, always in +dread of the excesses of the mutinous soldiery, to raise a loan of +1,200,000 guilders to meet their demands for arrears of pay. +Requesens was thus enabled to put in the late summer a considerable +army into the field and among other successes to gain possession of +the Zeeland islands, Duiveland and Schouwen. On September 27 a +force under the command of the veteran Mondragon waded across the +shallow channels dividing the islands, which fell into their hands. +Zierikzee, the chief town of Schouwen, made a stout resistance, but +had at length to surrender (July, 1576). This conquest separated +South Holland from the rest of Zeeland; and, as Haarlem and +Amsterdam were in the hands of the Spaniards, the only territory +over which the authority of Orange extended was the low-lying +corner of land between the Rhine and the Maas, of which Delft was +the centre.</p> + +<p>The situation again appeared well-nigh desperate, and the +stadholder began to look anxiously round in the hope of obtaining +foreign assistance. It was to the interest of both France and +England to assist a movement which distracted the attention and +weakened the power of Spain. But Henry III of France was too much +occupied with civil and religious disturbances in his own country, +and Elizabeth of England, while receiving with courtesy the envoys +both of Orange and Requesens, gave evasive replies to both. She was +jealous of France, and pleased to see the growing embarrassment of +her enemy Philip, but the Tudor queen had no love either for rebels +or for Calvinists. While refusing therefore openly to take the side +of the Hollanders and Zeelanders, she agreed to give them secret +help; and no obstacle was placed in the way of the English +volunteers, who had already since 1572 been enlisting in the Dutch +service. It was at this time that those English and Scottish +Brigades were first formed which remained for nearly two centuries +in that service, and were always to be found in the very forefront +of the fighting throughout the great war of Liberation.</p> + +<p>On March 4, 1576, Requesens died; and in the considerable +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_63" id="page_63">[pg.63]</a></span> +interval that elapsed before the arrival of his successor, the +outlook for the patriot cause became distinctly brighter. The +Estates of Holland and Zeeland met at Delft (April 25, 1576); and +the assembly was noteworthy for the passing of an Act of +Federation. This Act, which was the work of Orange, bound the two +provinces together for common action in defence of their rights and +liberties and was the first step towards that larger union, which +three years later laid the foundations of the Dutch Republic. By +this Act sovereign powers were conferred upon William; he was in +the name of the king to exercise all the prerogatives of a ruler. +It required all his influence to secure the insertion of articles +(1) extending a certain measure of toleration to all forms of +religious worship that were not contrary to the Gospel, (2) giving +authority to the prince in case of need to offer the Protectorate +of the federated provinces to a foreign prince. Orange knew only +too well that Holland and Zeeland were not strong enough alone to +resist the power of Spain. His hopes of securing the support of the +other provinces, in which Catholics were in the majority, depended, +he clearly saw, on the numerous adherents to the ancient faith in +Holland and Zeeland being protected against the persecuting zeal of +the dominant Calvinism of those provinces. In any case—and +this continued to be his settled conviction to the end of his +life—the actual independence of the whole or any portion of +the Netherlands did not seem to him to lie within the bounds of +practical politics. The object for which he strove was the +obtaining of substantial guarantees for the maintenance of the +ancient charters, which exempted the provinces from the presence of +foreign officials, foreign tribunals, foreign soldiery and +arbitrary methods of taxation. As Philip had deliberately infringed +all those privileges which he had sworn to maintain, it was the +duty of all patriotic Netherlanders to resist his authority, and, +if resistance failed to bring redress, to offer the sovereignty +with the necessary restrictions to some other prince willing to +accept it on those conditions and powerful enough to protect the +provinces from Spanish attack. In order to grasp the principles +which guided William's policy during the next few years it is +essential to bear in mind (1) that he sought to bring about a union +of all the Netherland provinces on a basis of toleration, (2) that +he did not aim at the erection of the Netherlands into an +independent State.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_64" id= +"page_64">[pg.64]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the death of Requesens the Council of State had assumed +temporary charge of the administration. There had for some time +been growing dissatisfaction even amongst the loyalist Catholics of +the southern provinces at the presence and over-bearing attitude of +so many Spanish officials and Spanish troops in the land and at the +severity of the religious persecution. Representations were made to +the king by the Council of State of the general discontent +throughout the country, of the deplorable results of the policy of +force and repression, and urging the withdrawal of the troops, the +mitigation of the edicts, and the appointment of a member of the +royal house to the governorship. To these representations and +requests no answer was sent for months in accordance with Philip's +habitual dilatoriness in dealing with difficult affairs of State. +He did, however, actually nominate in April his bastard brother, +Don John of Austria, the famous victor of Lepanto, as Requesens' +successor. But Don John, who was then in Italy, had other +ambitions, and looked with suspicion upon Philip's motives in +assigning him the thankless task of dealing with the troubles in +the Low Countries. Instead of hurrying northwards, he first betook +himself to Madrid where he met with a cold reception. Delay, +however, so far from troubling Philip, was thoroughly in accordance +with the whole bent of his character and policy. For six months Don +John remained in Spain, and it was a half-year during which the +situation in the Netherlands had been to a very large extent +transformed.</p> + +<p>The position of Orange and his followers in Holland and Zeeland +in the spring of 1576 had again darkened. In June the surrender of +Zierikzee to Mondragon was a heavy blow to the patriot cause, for +it gave the Spaniards a firm footing in the very heart of the +Zeeland archipelago and drove a wedge between South Holland and the +island of Walcheren. This conquest was, however, destined to have +important results of a very different character from what might +have been expected. The town had surrendered on favourable terms +and pillage was forbidden. Baulked of their expected booty, the +Spanish troops, to whom large arrears of pay were due, mutinied. +Under their own "eletto" they marched to Aalst, where they were +joined by other mutineers, and soon a large force was collected +together, who lived by plunder and were a terror to the country. +The Council declared them to be outlaws, but the revolted +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_65" id="page_65">[pg.65]</a></span> +soldiery defied its authority and scoffed at its threats. This was +a moment which, as Orange was quick to perceive, was extremely +favourable for a vigorous renewal of his efforts to draw together +all the provinces to take common action in their resistance to +Spanish tyranny. His agents and envoys in all parts of the +Netherlands, but especially in Flanders and Brabant, urged his +views upon the more influential members of the provincial estates +and upon leading noblemen, like the Duke of Aerschot and other +hitherto loyal supporters of the government, who were now suspected +of wavering. His efforts met with a success which a few months +earlier would have been deemed impossible. The conduct of the +Spanish troops, and the lack of any central authority to protect +the inhabitants against their insolence and depredations, had +effected a great change in public opinion. In Brussels Baron de +Héze (a god-child of the prince) had been appointed to the +command of the troops in the pay of the Estates of Brabant. De +Héze exerted himself to arouse popular opinion in the +capital in favour of Orange and against the Spaniards. To such an +extent was he successful that he ventured, Sept. 21, to arrest the +whole of the Council of State with the exception of the Spanish +member Roda, who fled to Antwerp. William now entered into direct +negotiations with Aerschot and other prominent nobles of Flanders +and Brabant. He took a further step by sending, at the request of +the citizens of Ghent, a strong armed force to protect the town +against the Spanish garrison in the citadel. In the absence of any +lawful government, the States-General were summoned to meet at +Brussels on September 22. Deputies from Brabant, Flanders and +Hainault alone attended, but in the name of the States-General they +nominated Aerschot, Viglius and Sasbout as Councillors of State, +and appointed Aerschot to the command of the forces, with the Count +of Lalaing as his lieutenant. They then, Sept. 27, approached the +prince with proposals for forming a union of all the provinces. As +a preliminary it was agreed that the conditions, which had been put +forward by William as indispensable—namely, exclusion of all +foreigners from administrative posts, dismissal of foreign troops, +and religious toleration—should be accepted. The proposals +were gladly received by William, and Ghent was chosen as the place +where nine delegates from Holland and Zeeland should confer with +nine delegates nominated by the States-General as representing +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_66" id= +"page_66">[pg.66]</a></span> other provinces. They met on October +19. Difficulties arose on two points—the recognition to be +accorded to Don John of Austria, and the principle of +non-interference with religious beliefs. Orange himself had always +been an advocate of toleration, but the representatives of Holland +and Zeeland showed an obstinate disinclination to allow liberty of +Catholic worship within their borders; and this attitude of theirs +might, in spite of the prince's efforts, have led to a breaking-off +of the negotiations, had not an event occurred which speedily led +to a sinking of differences on the only possible basis, that of +mutual concession and compromise.</p> + +<p>The citadel of Antwerp was, during this month of October, +garrisoned by a body of mutinous Spanish troops under the command +of Sancho d'Avila, the victor of Mook. Champagney, the governor, +had with him a body of German mercenaries under a certain Count +Oberstein; and at his request, such was the threatening attitude of +the Spaniards, the States-General sent Havré with a +reinforcement of Walloon troops. On Sunday, November 4, the +garrison, which had been joined by other bands of mutineers, turned +the guns of the citadel upon the town and sallying forth attacked +the forces of Champagney. The Germans offered but a feeble +resistance. Oberstein perished; Champagney and Havré took +refuge on vessels in the river; and the Spaniards were masters of +Antwerp. The scene of massacre, lust and wholesale pillage, which +followed, left a memory behind it unique in its horror even among +the excesses of this blood-stained time. The "Spanish Fury," as it +was called, spelt the ruin of what, but a short time before, had +been the wealthiest and most flourishing commercial city in the +world.</p> + +<p>The news of this disaster reached the States-General, as they +were in the act of considering the draft proposals which had been +submitted to them by the Ghent conference. At the same time tidings +came that Don John, who had travelled through France in disguise, +had arrived at Luxemburg. They quickly therefore came to a decision +to ratify the pact, known as the <i>Pacification of Ghent,</i> and +on November 8 it was signed. The <i>Pacification</i> was really a +treaty between the Prince of Orange and the Estates of Holland and +Zeeland on the one hand, and the States-General representing the +other provinces. It was agreed that the Spanish troops should be +compelled to leave the Netherlands and that the States-General +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_67" id="page_67">[pg.67]</a></span> +of the whole seventeen provinces, as they were convened at the +abdication of Charles V, should be called together to decide upon +the question of religious toleration and other matters of national +importance. Meanwhile the placards against heresy were suspended, +and all the illegal measures and sentences of Alva declared null +and void. His confiscated property was restored to Orange, and his +position, as stadholder in Holland and Zeeland, acknowledged. Don +John was informed that he would not be recognised as +governor-general unless he would consent to dismiss the Spanish +troops, accept the Pacification of Ghent, and swear to maintain the +rights and privileges of the Provinces. Negotiations ensued, but +for a long time to little purpose; and Don John, who was rather an +impetuous knight-errant than a statesman and diplomatist, remained +during the winter months at Namur, angry at his reception and +chafing at the conditions imposed upon him, which he dared not +accept without permission from the king. In December the +States-General containing deputies from all the provinces met at +Brussels, and in January the Pacification of Ghent was confirmed, +and a new compact, to which the name of the Union of Brussels was +given, was drawn up by a number of influential Catholics. This +document, to which signatures were invited, was intended to give to +the Pacification of Ghent the sanction of popular support and to be +at the same time a guarantee for the maintenance of the royal +authority and the Catholic religion. The Union of Brussels was +generally approved throughout the southern provinces, and the +signatories from every class were numbered by thousands. Don John, +who was at Huy, saw that it was necessary to temporise. He was +willing, he declared, to dismiss the foreign troops and send them +out of the country and to maintain the ancient charters and +liberties of the provinces, provided that nothing was done to +subvert the king's authority or the Catholic faith. Finally, on +February 12, a treaty called "The Perpetual Edict," a most +inappropriate name, was signed, and the States-General acknowledged +Don John as governor-general. The agreement was principally the +work of Aerschot and the loyalist Catholic party, who followed his +leadership, and was far from being entirely acceptable to Orange. +He had no trust in the good faith of either Philip or his +representative, and, though he recommended Holland and Zeeland to +acquiesce in the treaty and acknowledge Don John as +governor-general, it was with the secret resolve to +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_68" id="page_68">[pg.68]</a></span> +keep a close watch upon his every action, and not to brook any attempt to +interfere with religious liberty in the two provinces, in which he +exercised almost sovereign power and with whose struggles for +freedom he had identified himself.</p> + +<p>The undertaking of Don John with regard to the Spanish troops +was punctually kept. Before the end of April they had all left the +country; and on May 1 the new governor-general made his state entry +into Brussels. It was to outward appearances very brilliant. But +the hero of Lepanto found himself at once distrusted by the +Catholic nobles and checkmated by the influence and diplomacy of +the ever watchful William of Orange. Chafing at his impotence, and +ill-supported by the king, who sent no reply to his appeals for +financial help, Don John suddenly left the capital and, placing +himself at the head of a body of Walloon troops, seized Namur. +Feeling himself in this stronghold more secure, he tried to bring +pressure on the States-General to place in his hands wider powers +and to stand by him in his efforts to force Orange to submit to the +authority of the king. His efforts were in vain. William had warned +the States-General and the nobles of the anti-Spanish party in +Brabant and Flanders that Don John was not to be trusted, and he +now pointed to the present attitude of the governor-general, as a +proof that his suspicions were well-founded. Indeed the eyes of all +true patriots began to turn to the prince, who had been quietly +strengthening his position, not only in Holland and Zeeland, where +he was supreme, but also in Utrecht and Gelderland; and popular +movements in Brussels and elsewhere took place in his favour. So +strongly marked was the Orange feeling in the capital that the +States-General acceded to the general wish that the prince should +be invited to come in person to Brussels. Confidence was expressed +by Catholics no less than by Protestants that only under his +leadership could the country be delivered from Spanish tyranny. A +deputation was sent, bearing the invitation; but for a while +William hesitated in giving an affirmative reply. On September 23, +however, he made his entry into Brussels amidst general +demonstrations of joy and was welcomed as "the Restorer and +Defender of the Father-land's liberty." Thus, ten years after he +had been declared an outlaw and banished, did the Prince of Orange +return in triumph to the town which had witnessed the execution of +Egmont and Hoorn. It was the proudest day of his life and the +supreme point of his career.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_69" id= +"page_69">[pg.69]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>WILLIAM THE SILENT</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The position of William at Brussels after his triumphant entry, +September 23, 1577, was by no means an easy one. His main support +was derived from a self-elected Council of Eighteen, containing +representatives of the gilds and of the citizens. This Council +controlled an armed municipal force and was really master in the +city. In these circumstances the States-General did not venture +upon any opposition to the popular wishes, in other words to +William, whose influence with the masses was unbounded. The +States-General, therefore, under pressure from the Eighteen, +informed Don John, October 8, that they no longer recognised him as +governor-general; and the Estates of Brabant appointed the prince +to the office of <i>Ruward</i> or governor of the province. +Meanwhile a fresh factor of disturbance had been introduced into +the troubled scene. Certain of the Catholic nobles opposed to +Spanish rule, but suspicious of Orange, had invited the twenty year +old Archduke Matthias, brother of the emperor, to accept the +sovereignty of the Netherlands. Matthias, who was of an adventurous +spirit, after some parleying agreed. He accordingly left Vienna +secretly, and at the end of October arrived in the Netherlands. Not +content with this counter-stroke, Aerschot went to Ghent to stir up +opposition to the appointment of William as Ruward of Brabant. The +populace however in Ghent was Orangist, and, rising in revolt, +seized Aerschot and a number of other Catholic leaders and threw +them into prison. They were speedily released, but the breach +between the Catholic nobles and the Calvinist stadholder of Holland +was widened. William himself saw in the coming of Matthias a +favourable opportunity for securing the erection of the Netherlands +into a constitutional State under the nominal rule of a Habsburg +prince. By his influence, therefore, the States-General entered +into negotiations with the Archduke; and Matthias finally was +recognised (December 8) as governor on condition that he accepted +the Union of Brussels, He was also induced to place the real power +in the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_70" id= +"page_70">[pg.70]</a></span> hands of Orange with the title of +Lieutenant-General. Matthias made his state entry into Brussels, +January 18, 1578. His position appeared to be strengthened by a +treaty concluded with the English queen (January 7) by which +Elizabeth promised to send over a body of troops and to grant a +subsidy to the States, for the repayment of which the towns of +Middelburg, Bruges and Gravelines were to be pledges.</p> + +<p>The news however of the step taken by Matthias had had more +effect upon Philip II than the despairing appeals of his +half-brother. A powerful army of tried Spanish and Italian troops +under the command of Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, son of the +former regent Margaret, was sent to Flanders. Farnese was Don +John's nephew, and they had been brought up together at Madrid, +being almost of the same age. Already Philip had determined to +replace Don John, whose brilliance as a leader in the field did not +compensate for his lack of statesmanlike qualities. In Farnese, +whether by good fortune or deliberate choice, he had at length +found a consummate general who was to prove himself a match even +for William the Silent in all the arts of political combination and +intrigue. At Gembloux, January 31, Don John and Parma fell upon the +levies of the States and gained a complete and almost bloodless +victory. Had Philip supplied his governor-general with the money he +asked for, Don John might now have conquered the whole of the +southern Netherlands, but without funds he could achieve +little.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile all was confusion. The States-General withdrew from +Brussels to Antwerp; and William, finding that Matthias was +useless, began negotiations with France, England and Germany in the +hope of finding in this emergency some other foreign prince ready +to brave the wrath of Philip by accepting the suzerainty of the +Netherlands. The Duke of Anjou, brother of the French king, was the +favoured candidate of the Catholic party; and William, whose one +aim was to secure the aid of a powerful protector in the struggle +against Spain, was ready to accept him. Anjou at the head of an +army of 15,000 men crossed the frontier at Mons, July 12; and, on +the following August 13, a treaty was agreed upon between him and +the States-General, by which the French duke, with the title of +<i>Defender of the Liberties of the Netherlands</i>, undertook to +help the States to expel the Spaniards from the Low Countries. But, +to<span class="newpage"><a name="page_71" id= +"page_71">[pg.71]</a></span> add to the complications of the +situation, a German force under the command of John Casimir, +brother of the Elector Palatine, and in the pay of Queen Elizabeth, +invaded the hapless provinces from the east. The advent of John +Casimir was greeted with enthusiasm by the Calvinist party; and it +required all the skill and sagacity of the Prince of Orange to keep +the peace and prevent the rival interests from breaking out into +open strife in the face of the common enemy. But Don John was +helpless, his repeated appeals for financial help remained +unanswered, and, sick at heart and weary of life, he contracted a +fever and died in his camp at Namur, October 1, 1578. His successor +in the governor-generalship was Alexander of Parma, who had now +before him a splendid field for the exercise of his great +abilities.</p> + +<p>The remainder of the year 1578 saw a violent recrudescence of +religious bitterness. In vain did Orange, who throughout his later +life was a genuine and earnest advocate of religious toleration, +strive to the utmost of his powers and with untiring patience to +allay the suspicions and fears of the zealots. John Casimir at +Ghent, in the fervour of his fanatical Calvinism, committed acts of +violence and oppression, which had the very worst effect in the +Walloon provinces. In this part of the Netherlands Catholicism was +dominant; and there had always been in the provinces of Hainault, +Artois, and in the southern districts generally, a feeling of +distrust towards Orange. The upholding of the principle of +religious toleration by a man who had twice changed his faith was +itself suspect; and Farnese left no means untried for increasing +this growing anti-Orange feeling among the Catholic nobles. A party +was formed, which bore the name of "The Malcontents," whose leaders +were Montigny, Lalaing and La Motte. With these the +governor-general entered into negotiations, with the result that an +alliance was made between Hainault, Artois, Lille, Douay and +Orchies (January 6, 1579), called the Union of Arras, for the +maintenance of the Catholic faith, by which these Walloon provinces +and towns expressed their readiness to submit to the king on +condition that he were willing to agree to uphold their rights and +privileges in accordance with the provisions of the Pacification of +Ghent. The Union of Arras did not as yet mean a complete +reconciliation with the Spanish sovereign, but it did mean the +beginning of a breach between the Calvinist north and the Catholic +south, which the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_72" id= +"page_72">[pg.72]</a></span> statecraft of Parma gradually widened +into an impossible chasm. Before this took place, Anjou, Matthias +and John Casimir had alike withdrawn from the scene of anarchic +confusion, in which for a brief time each had been trying to +compass his own ambitious ends in selfish indifference to the +welfare of the people they were proposing to deliver from the +Spanish yoke. The opening of the year 1579 saw Orange and Parma +face to face preparing to measure their strength in a grim struggle +for the mastery.</p> + +<p>In the very same month as witnessed the signing of the Union of +Arras, a rival union had been formed in the northern Netherlands, +which was destined to be much more permanent. The real author +however of the Union of Utrecht was not Orange, but his brother, +John of Nassau. In March, 1578, John had been elected Stadholder of +Gelderland. He, like William, had devoted himself heart and soul to +the cause of Netherland freedom, but his Calvinism was far more +pronounced than his brother's. From the moment of his acceptance of +the stadholdership he set to work to effect a close union between +Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht with Gelderland and the adjoining +districts which lay around the Zuyder Zee. It was a difficult task, +since the eastern provinces were afraid (and not unjustly) that its +much greater wealth would give Holland predominance in the proposed +confederation. Nevertheless it was accomplished, and an Act of +Union was drawn up and signed at Utrecht, January 29, 1579, by the +representatives of Holland, Zeeland, the town and district +(<i>sticht</i>) of Utrecht, Gelderland and Zutphen, by which they +agreed to defend their rights and liberties and to resist all +foreign intervention in their affairs by common action as if they +were one province, and to establish and maintain freedom of +conscience and of worship within their boundaries. William does not +seem at first to have been altogether pleased with his brother's +handiwork. He still hoped that a confederation on a much wider +scale might have been formed, comprising the greater part of those +who had appended their signatures to the Pacification of Ghent. It +was not until some months had passed and he saw that his dreams of +a larger union were not to be realised, that he signed, on May 3, +the Act of Union drawn up at Utrecht. By this time he was well +aware that Parma had succeeded in winning over the malcontent +nobles to accept his terms. On May 19 the Walloon provinces, whose +representatives had signed the Union of Arras, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_73" id="page_73">[pg.73]</a></span> +agreed to acknowledge, with certain nominal reservations, the sovereignty +of Philip and to allow only Catholic worship. In fact the +reconciliation was complete.</p> + +<p>Thus, despite the efforts of Orange, the idea of the federation +of all the seventeen provinces on national lines became a thing of +the past, henceforth unattainable. The Netherlands were divided +into two camps. Gradually in the course of 1580 Overyssel, Drente +and the greater part of Friesland gave in their adherence to the +Union of Utrecht, and Groningen and the Ommelanden allied +themselves with their neighbours. In the rest of the Low Countries +all fell away and submitted themselves to the king's authority, +except Antwerp and Breda in Brabant, and Ghent, Bruges and Ypres in +Flanders. William felt that Parma was constantly gaining ground. +Defection after defection took place, the most serious being that +of George Lalaing, Count of Renneberg, the Stadholder of Groningen. +Negotiations were indeed secretly opened with William himself, and +the most advantageous and flattering terms offered to him, if he +would desert the patriot cause. But with him opposition to Spain +and to Spanish methods of government was a matter of principle and +strong conviction. He was proof alike against bribery and cajolery, +even when he perceived, as the year 1580 succeeded 1579, that he +had no staunch friends on whom he could absolutely rely, save in +the devoted provinces of Holland and Zeeland.</p> + +<p>For things had been going from bad to worse. The excesses and +cruelties committed by the Calvinists, wherever they found +themselves in a position to persecute a Catholic minority, and +especially the outrages perpetrated at Ghent under the leadership +of two Calvinist fanatics, De Ryhove and De Hembyze, although they +were done in direct opposition to the wishes and efforts of Orange, +always and at all times the champion of toleration, did much to +discredit him in Flanders and Brabant and to excite bitter +indignation among the Catholics, who still formed the great +majority of the population of the Netherlands. William felt himself +to be month by month losing power. The action he was at last +compelled to take, in rescuing Ghent from the hands of the +ultra-democratic Calvinist party and in expelling De Ryhove and De +Hembyze, caused him to be denounced as "a papist at heart." Indeed +the bigots of both creeds in that age of intolerance and +persecution were utterly unable to understand his attitude, and +could only attribute<span class="newpage"><a name="page_74" id= +"page_74">[pg.74]</a></span> it to a lack of any sincere religious +belief at all. Farnese, meanwhile, whose genius for Machiavellian +statesmanship was as remarkable as those gifts for leadership in +war which entitled him to rank as the first general of his time, +was a man who never failed to take full advantage of the mistakes +and weaknesses of his opponents. At the head of a veteran force he +laid siege in the spring of 1579 to the important frontier town of +Maestricht. He encountered a desperate resistance, worthy of the +defence of Haarlem or of Leyden, and for four months the garrison +held out grimly in the hope of relief. But, despite all the efforts +of Orange to despatch an adequate force to raise the siege, at last +(June 29) the town was carried by assault and delivered up for +three days to the fury of a savage soldiery. By the possession of +this key to the Meuse, Parma was now able to cut off communications +between Brabant and Protestant Germany. Had he indeed been +adequately supported by Philip it is probable that at this time all +the provinces up to the borders of Holland might have been brought +into subjection by the Spanish forces.</p> + +<p>The position of William was beset with perils on every side. One +by one his adherents were deserting him; even in the provinces of +Holland and Zeeland he was losing ground. He saw clearly that +without foreign help the national cause for which he had sacrificed +everything was doomed. In this emergency he reopened negotiations +with Anjou, not because he had any trust in the French prince's +capacity or sincerity, but for the simple reason that there was no +one else to whom he could turn. As heir to the throne of France and +at this time the favoured suitor of Queen Elizabeth, his acceptance +of the sovereignty of the Netherlands would secure, so Orange +calculated, the support both of France and England. It was his hope +also that the limiting conditions attached to the offer of +sovereignty would enable him to exercise a strong personal control +over a man of weak character like Anjou. The Duke's vanity and +ambition were flattered by the proposal; and on September 19, 1580, +a provisional treaty was signed at Plessis-les-Tours by which Anjou +accepted the offer that was made to him, and showed himself quite +ready to agree to any limitations imposed upon his authority, since +he had not any intention, when once he held the reins of power, of +observing them.</p> + +<p>The first effect of William's negotiations with Anjou was to +alienate the Calvinists without gaining over the Catholics. +Anjou<span class="newpage"><a name="page_75" id= +"page_75">[pg.75]</a></span> was suspect to both. The action of the +Spanish government, however, at this critical juncture did much to +restore the credit of the prince with all to whom the Spanish +tyranny and the memory of Alva were abhorrent. Cardinal Granvelle, +after fifteen years of semi-exile in Italy, had lately been +summoned to Madrid to become chief adviser to the king. Granvelle +spared no pains to impress upon Philip the necessity of getting rid +of Orange as the chief obstacle to the pacification of the +Netherlands, and advised that a price should be placed upon his +life. "The very fear of it will paralyse or kill him" was the +opinion of the cardinal, who ought to have had a better +understanding of the temper and character of his old adversary. +Accordingly at Maestricht, March 15, 1581, "a ban and edict in form +of proscription" was published against the prince, who was +denounced as "a traitor and miscreant, an enemy of ourselves and of +our country"; and all and everywhere empowered "to seize the person +and goods of this William of Nassau, as enemy of the human race." A +solemn promise was also made "to anyone who has the heart to free +us of this pest, and who will deliver him dead or alive, or take +his life, the sum of 25,000 crowns in gold or in estates for +himself and his heirs; and we will pardon him any crimes of which +he has been guilty, and give him a patent of nobility, if he be not +noble." It is a document which, however abhorrent or loathsome it +may appear to us, was characteristic of the age in which it was +promulgated and in accordance with the ideas of that cruel time. +The ban was a declaration of war to the knife, and as such it was +received and answered.</p> + +<p>In reply to the ban the prince at the close of the year +(December 13) published a very lengthy defence of his life and +actions, the famous <i>Apology</i>. To William himself is +undoubtedly due the material which the document embodies and the +argument it contains, but it was almost certainly not written by +him, but by his chaplain, Pierre L'Oyseleur, Seigneur de Villiers, +to whom it owes its rather ponderous prolixity and redundant +verbiage. Historically it is of very considerable value, though the +facts are not always to be relied upon as strictly accurate. The +<i>Apology</i> was translated into several languages and +distributed to the leading personages in every neighbouring +country, and made a deep impression on men's minds.</p> + +<p>The combined effect of the <i>Ban</i> and <i>the Apology</i> was +to strengthen William's position in all the provinces where the +patriot party still<span class="newpage"><a name="page_76" id= +"page_76">[pg.76]</a></span> held the upper hand; and he was not +slow to take advantage of the strong anti-Spanish feeling which was +aroused. Its intensity was shown by the solemn Act of Abjuration, +July 26, 1581, by which the provinces of Brabant, Flanders, +Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Gelderland renounced their allegiance +to Philip II on the ground of his tyranny and misrule. But after +signing this Act it never seems to have occurred to the prince or +to the representatives of the provinces, that these now derelict +territories could remain without a personal sovereign. Orange used +all his influence and persuasiveness to induce them to accept +Anjou. Anjou, as we have seen, had already agreed to the conditions +under which he should, when invited, become "prince and lord" of +the Netherlands. In the autumn of 1581 the position was an +ambiguous one. The States-General claimed that, after the +abjuration of Philip, the sovereignty of the provinces had reverted +to them, as the common representative of a group of provinces that +were now sovereign in their own right, and that the conferring of +that sovereignty on another overlord was their prerogative. The +position of Orange was peculiar, for <i>de facto</i> under one +title or another he exercised the chief authority in each one of +the rebel provinces, but in the name of the States-General, instead +of the king. His influence indeed was so great as to over-shadow +that of the States-General, but great as it was, it had to be +exerted to the utmost before that body could be induced to accept a +man of Anjou's despicable and untrustworthy character as their new +ruler. William however had committed himself to the candidature of +the duke, through lack of any fitter choice; and at last both the +States-General and the several provincial Estates (Holland and +Zeeland excepted) agreed to confer the sovereignty upon the French +prince subject to the conditions of the treaty of +Plessis-les-Tours.</p> + +<p>William himself exercised the powers with which Holland and +Zeeland had invested him in the name of the king, whose stadholder +he was, even when waging war against him. After the Abjuration this +pretence could no longer be maintained. The Estates of Holland and +Zeeland had indeed petitioned Orange to become their count, but he +refused the title, fearing to give umbrage to Anjou. Finding, +however, the two provinces resolute in their opposition to the +Valois prince, he consented, July 24, 1581, to exercise +provisionally, as if he were count, the powers of +<span class= "newpage"><a name="page_77" id="page_77">[pg.77]</a></span> "high +supremacy," which had already been conferred upon him. Meanwhile +Anjou was dallying in England, but on receiving through Ste +Aldegonde an intimation that the States could brook no further +delay, he set sail and landed at Flushing. Lord Leicester and a +brilliant English escort accompanied him; and Elizabeth asked the +States to receive her suitor as "her own self." At Antwerp, where +he took up his residence, Anjou was (February 19) solemnly invested +with the duchy of Brabant, and received the homage of his new +subjects. He was far from popular, and William remained at his side +to give him support and counsel. On March 18 (Anjou's birthday) an +untoward event occurred, which threatened to have most disastrous +consequences. As Orange was leaving the dinner-table, a young +Biscayan, Juan Jaureguy by name, attempted his assassination, by +firing a pistol at him. The ball entered the head by the right ear +and passed through the palate. Jaureguy was instantly killed and it +was afterwards found that he had, for the sake of the reward, been +instigated to the deed by his master, a merchant named Caspar +Anastro. Anjou, who was at first suspected of being accessory to +the crime, was thus exculpated. It was a terrible wound and +William's life was for some time in great danger; but by the +assiduous care of his physicians and nurses he very slowly +recovered, and was strong enough, on May 2, to attend a solemn +service of thanksgiving. The shock of the event and the long weeks +of anxiety were however too heavy a strain upon his wife, Charlotte +de Bourbon, who had recently given birth to their sixth daughter. +Her death, on May 5, was deeply grieved by the prince, for +Charlotte had been a most devoted helpmeet and adviser to him +throughout the anxious years of their married life. During the +whole of the summer and autumn William remained at Antwerp, +patiently trying to smooth away the difficulties caused by the +dislike and suspicion felt by the Netherlanders for the man whom +they were asked to recognise as their sovereign. It was an arduous +task, but William, at the cost of his own popularity, succeeded in +getting the duke acknowledged in July as Lord of Friesland and Duke +of Gelderland, and in August Anjou was solemnly installed at +Bruges, as Count of Flanders. Meanwhile he was planning, with the +help of the large French force which Anjou had undertaken to bring +into the Netherlands, to take the offensive against Parma. The +truth is that he and Anjou were really playing +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_78" id="page_78">[pg.78]</a></span> at +cross-purposes. Orange wished Anjou to be the +<i>roi-fainéant</i> of a United Netherland state of which he +himself should be the real ruler, but Anjou had no intention of +being treated as a second Matthias. He secretly determined to make +himself master of Antwerp by a sudden attack and, this achieved, to +proceed to seize by force of arms some of the other principal +cities and to make himself sovereign in reality as well as in name. +He resented his dependence upon Orange and was resolved to rid +himself of it. With shameless treachery in the early morning of +January 17, 1583, he paid a visit to the prince in Antwerp, and, +with the object of gaining possession of his person, tried to +persuade him to attend a review of the French regiments who were +encamped outside the town. The suspicions of William had however +been aroused, and he pleaded some excuse for declining the +invitation. At midday some thousands of Anjou's troops rushed into +the city at the dinner-hour with loud cries of "Ville +gagnée! Tue! Tue!" But the citizens flew to arms; barricades +were erected; and finally the French were driven out with heavy +loss, leaving some 1500 prisoners in the hands of the town-guard. +Many French nobles perished, and the "French Fury," as it was +called, was an ignominious and ghastly failure. Indignation was +wide and deep throughout the provinces; and William's efforts to +calm the excitement and patch up some fresh agreement with the +false Valois, though for the moment partially successful, only +added to his own growing unpopularity.</p> + +<p>The prince in fact was so wedded to the idea that the only hope +for the provinces lay in securing French aid that he seemed unable +to convince himself that Anjou after this act of base treachery was +impossible. His continued support of the duke only served to +alienate the people of Brabant and Flanders. The Protestants hated +the thought of having as their sovereign a prince who was a +Catholic and whose mother and brothers were looked upon by them as +the authors of the massacre of St Bartholomew. The Catholics, +cajoled by Parma's fair words, and alarmed by the steady progress +of his arms, were already inclining to return to their old +allegiance. The marriage of Orange, April 7, 1583, to Louise, +daughter of the famous Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny, and widow +of the Sieur de Téligny, added to the feelings of distrust +and hostility he had already aroused, for the bride was a +Frenchwoman and both her father and husband had perished on the +fatal St Bartholomew's day.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_79" +id="page_79">[pg.79]</a></span></p> + +<p>Finding himself exposed to insult, and his life ever in danger, +William, at the end of July, left Antwerp and took up his residence +again at Delft in the midst of his faithful Hollanders. They, too, +disliked his French proclivities, but his alliance with Louise de +Téligny seemed to be an additional pledge to these strong +Calvinists of his religious sincerity.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Anjou had already returned to France; and Parma had +now a freer field for his advance northwards and, though sorely +hampered by lack of funds, was rapidly taking town after town. In +the spring of 1584 he took Ypres and Bruges, and a strong party in +Ghent was in traitorous correspondence with him. Many nobles had +fallen away from the patriot cause, among them William's +brother-in-law, Count van den Berg, who had succeeded John of +Nassau as Stadholder of Gelderland. The hold of Orange upon Brabant +and the Scheldt was, however, still ensured by the possession of +Antwerp, of which strongly fortified town the trusty Ste Aldegonde +was governor.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the prince, who was still striving hard to persuade +the provinces that were hostile to Spanish rule that their only +hope lay in obtaining aid from France through Anjou, was living at +the old convent of St Agatha, afterwards known as the Prinsenhof at +Delft. His manner of life was of the most modest and homely kind, +just like that of an ordinary Dutch burgher. He was in fact deeply +in debt, terribly worried with the outward aspect of things, and +his position became one of growing difficulty, for on June 10, +1584, the miserable Anjou died, and the policy on which he had for +so long expended his best efforts was wrecked. Even his own +recognition as Count of Holland and Zeeland had led to endless +negotiations between the Estates and the various town councils +which claimed to have a voice in the matter; and in July, 1584, he +had, though provisionally exercising sovereign authority, not yet +received formal homage. And all this time, in addition to the other +cares that weighed heavily upon him, there was the continual dread +of assassination. Ever since the failure of the attempt of +Jaureguy, there had been a constant succession of plots against the +life of the rebel leader and heretic at the instigation of the +Spanish government, and with the knowledge of Parma. Religious +fanaticism, loyalty to the legitimate sovereign, together with the +more sordid motive of pecuniary reward, made many eager to +undertake the murderous<span class="newpage"><a name="page_80" id= +"page_80">[pg.80]</a></span> commission. It was made the easier +from the fact that the prince always refused to surround himself +with guards or to take any special precautions, and was always easy +of access. Many schemes and proposed attempts came to nothing +either through the vigilance of William's spies or through the lack +of courage of the would-be assassins. A youth named Balthazar +Gérard had however become obsessed with the conviction that +he had a special mission to accomplish the deed in which Jaureguy +had failed, and he devoted himself to the task of ridding the world +of one whom he looked upon as the arch-enemy of God and the king. +Under the false name of Francis Guyon he made his way to Delft, +pretended to be a zealous Calvinist flying from persecution, and +went about begging for alms. The prince, even in his poverty always +charitable, hearing of his needy condition sent to the man a +present of twelve crowns. With this gift Gérard bought a +pair of pistols and on July 10, 1584, having managed on some +pretext to gain admittance to the Prinsenhof, he concealed himself +in a dark corner by the stairs just opposite the door of the room +where William and his family were dining. As the prince, +accompanied by his wife, three of his daughters and one of his +sisters, came out and was approaching the staircase, the assassin +darted forward and fired two bullets into his breast. The wound was +mortal; William fell to the ground and speedily expired. Tradition +says that, as he fell, he exclaimed in French: "My God, have pity +on my soul! My God, have pity on this poor people!" But an +examination of contemporary records of the murder throws +considerable doubt on the statement that such words were uttered. +The nature of the wound was such that the probability is that +intelligible speech was impossible.</p> + +<p>Balthazar Gérard gloried in his deed, and bore the +excruciating tortures which were inflicted upon him with almost +superhuman patience and courage. He looked upon himself as a martyr +in a holy cause, and as such he was regarded by Catholic public +opinion. His deed was praised both by Granvelle and Parma, and +Philip bestowed a patent of nobility on his family, and exempted +them from taxation.</p> + +<p>In Holland there was deep and general grief at the tragic ending +of the great leader, who had for so many years been the fearless +and indefatigable champion of their resistance to civil and +religious tyranny. He was accorded a public funeral and buried with +great<span class="newpage"><a name="page_81" id= +"page_81">[pg.81]</a></span> pomp in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft, +where a stately memorial, recording his many high qualities and +services, was erected to his memory.</p> + +<p>William of Orange was but fifty-one years of age when his life +was thus prematurely ended, and though he had been much aged by the +cares and anxieties of a crushing responsibility, his physicians +declared that at the time of his death he was perfectly healthy and +that he might have been spared to carry on his work for many years, +had he escaped the bullets of the assassin. But it was not to be. +It is possible that he should be reckoned in the number of those +whose manner of death sets the seal to a life-work of continuous +self-sacrifice. The title of "Father of his Country," which was +affectionately given to him by Hollanders of every class, was never +more deservedly bestowed, for it was in the Holland that his +exertions had freed and that he had made the impregnable fortress +of the resistance to Spain that he ever felt more at home than +anywhere else. It was in the midst of his own people that he laid +down the life that had been consecrated to their cause. As a +general he had never been successful. As a statesman he had failed +to accomplish that union of the Netherlands, north and south, which +at one triumphant moment had seemed to be well-nigh realised by the +Pacification of Ghent. But he had by the spirit that he had aroused +in Holland and its sister province of Zeeland created a barrier +against Spanish domination in the northern Netherlands which was +not to be broken down.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_82" id= +"page_82">[pg.82]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE BEGINNINGS OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>At the moment of the assassination of William the Silent it +might well have seemed to an impartial observer that the +restoration of the authority of the Spanish king over the whole of +the Netherlands was only a question of time. The military skill and +the statecraft of Alexander Farnese were making slow but sure +progress in the reconquest of Flanders and Brabant. Despite the +miserable inadequacy of the financial support he received from +Spain, the governor-general, at the head of a numerically small but +thoroughly efficient and well-disciplined army, was capturing town +after town. In 1583 Dunkirk, Nieuport, Lindhoven, Steenbergen, +Zutphen and Sas-van-Gent fell; in the spring of 1584 Ypres and +Bruges were already in Spanish hands, and on the very day of +William's death the fort of Liefkenshoek on the Scheldt, one of the +outlying defences of Antwerp, was taken by assault. In August +Dendermonde, in September Ghent, surrendered. All West Flanders, +except the sea-ports of Ostend and Sluis, had in the early autumn +of 1584 been reduced to the obedience of the king. The campaign of +the following year was to be even more successful. Brussels, the +seat of government, was compelled by starvation to capitulate, +March 10; Mechlin was taken, July 19; and finally Antwerp, after a +memorable siege, in which Parma displayed masterly skill and +resource, passed once more into the possession of the Spaniards. +The fall of this great town was a very heavy blow to the patriot +cause, and it was likewise the ruin of Antwerp itself. A very large +part of its most enterprising inhabitants left their homes rather +than abjure their religious faith and took refuge in Holland and +Zeeland, or fled across the Rhine into Germany. Access to the sea +down the Scheldt was closed by the fleets of the Sea Beggars, and +the commerce and industry of the first commercial port of western +Europe passed to Amsterdam and Middelburg. Meanwhile there had been +no signs of weakness or of yielding on the part of the sturdy +burghers of Holland and Zeeland. On the<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_83" id="page_83">[pg.83]</a></span> fatal July 10, 1584, +the Estates of Holland were in session at Delft. They at once took +energetic action under the able leadership of Paul Buys, Advocate +of Holland, and John van Oldenbarneveldt, Pensionary of Rotterdam. +They passed a resolution "to uphold the good cause with God's help +without sparing gold or blood." Despatches were at once sent to the +Estates of the other provinces, to the town councils and to the +military and naval commanders, affirming their own determined +attitude and exhorting all those who had accepted the leadership of +the murdered Prince of Orange "to bear themselves manfully and +piously without abatement of zeal on account of the aforesaid +misfortune." Their calm courage at such a moment of crisis +reassured men's minds. There was no panic. Steps were at once taken +for carrying on the government in Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht. +Stimulated by the example of Holland, the States-General likewise +took prompt action. On August 18 a Council of State was appointed +to exercise provisionally the executive powers of sovereignty, +consisting of eighteen members, four from Holland, three each from +Zeeland and Friesland, two from Utrecht and six from Brabant and +Flanders. Of this body Maurice of Nassau, William's seventeen +year-old son, was nominated first Councillor, and a pension of +30,000 guilders per annum was granted him. At the same time Louise +de Coligny was invited to take up her residence in Holland and +suitable provision was made for her. William Lewis, son of Count +John of Nassau, was elected Stadholder of Friesland. Count +Nieuwenaar was Stadholder of Gelderland and shortly afterwards also +of Utrecht and Overyssel. Owing to the youth of Maurice the +question as to whether he should become Count of Holland and +Zeeland or be elected Stadholder was left in abeyance until it +should be settled to which of two foreign rulers the sovereignty of +the provinces, now that Anjou was dead, should be offered.</p> + +<p>In the revolted provinces the responsible leaders were at this +time practically unanimous in their opinion that any attempt on +their part to carry on the struggle against the power of Spain +without foreign assistance was hopeless; and it was held that such +assistance could only be obtained by following in the footsteps of +William and offering to confer the overlordship of the provinces on +another sovereign in the place of Philip II. There were but two +possible candidates, Henry III of France and Elizabeth of +England.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_84" id= +"page_84">[pg.84]</a></span></p> + +<p>There were objections to both, but the rapid successes of Parma +made it necessary to take action. The partisans of a French +alliance were in the majority, despite the efforts of a strong +opposition headed by Paul Buys; and an embassy (January, 1585) was +despatched to Paris to offer conditionally to the French king the +Protectorship of Holland and Zeeland and sovereignty over the other +provinces. The negotiations went on for a couple of months, but +Henry III finally declined the offer. Another embassy was sent, +July, 1585, to England, but Elizabeth refused absolutely to accept +the sovereignty. She however was not averse to the proposal that +she should despatch a body of troops to the armed assistance of the +provinces, provided that adequate guarantees were given for the +outlay. She was afraid of Philip II and, though she had no love for +men who were rebels to their lawful sovereign, was quite willing to +use them for her own ends. Her motives therefore were mixed and +purely self-interested; nevertheless it is doubtful if the +negotiations would have led to any definite result, had not the +news of the fall of Antwerp made both parties feel that this was no +time for haggling or procrastination. Elizabeth therefore promised +to send at once 6000 troops under the command of a "gentleman of +quality," who should bear the title of governor-general. He was to +co-operate with the Council of State (on which two Englishmen were +to sit) in restoring order and in maintaining and defending the +ancient rights and privileges of the provinces. The +governor-general and all other officials were to take an oath of +fealty both to the States-General and to the queen. The towns of +Flushing and Brill with the fort of Rammekens were to be handed +over in pledge to Elizabeth for the repayment of expenses and +received English garrisons. They were known as "the cautionary +towns."</p> + +<p>At the end of October the States were informed that the choice +of the queen had fallen upon her favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of +Leicester, and that he would shortly set out for the Netherlands. +Holland and Zeeland, ever jealous of foreign interference with +their rights and privileges, resolved now to forestall the arrival +of the English governor-general by appointing Maurice of Nassau, +with the title of "Excellency," to the offices of Stadholder and +Admiral and Captain-General of both provinces; and the Count of +Hohenlo was nominated (Maurice being still little more than a boy) +to the actual command of the State's forces. Leicester set sail +from Harwich<span class="newpage"><a name="page_85" id= +"page_85">[pg.85]</a></span> accompanied by a fleet of fifty +vessels and landed at Flushing on December 19. He met everywhere +with an enthusiastic reception. The States-General were eager to +confer large powers upon him. Practically he was invested with the +same authority as the former regent, Mary of Hungary, with the +reservation that the States-General and the Provincial Estates +should meet at their own instance, that the present stadholders +should continue in office, and that appointments to vacant offices +should be made from two or three persons nominated by the +Provincial Estates. A new Council of State was created which, as +previously agreed, included two Englishmen. On February 4, 1586, +Leicester's government was solemnly inaugurated in the presence of +Maurice of Nassau and the States-General, and he accepted the title +of "Excellency." Elizabeth on hearing this was very angry and even +threatened to recall Leicester, and she sent Lord Heneage to +express both to the States-General and the governor-general her +grave displeasure at what had taken place. She bade Leicester +restrict himself to the functions that she had assigned to him, and +it was not until July that she was sufficiently appeased to allow +him to be addressed as "Excellency."</p> + +<p>All this was galling to Leicester's pride and ambition, and did +not tend to improve his relations with the States. An English +governor would in any case have had a difficult task, and Leicester +had neither tact nor capacity as a statesman, and no pretensions as +a military leader. He possessed no knowledge of the institutions of +the country or the character of the people, and was ignorant of the +Dutch language. The measures he took and the arbitrary way in which +he tried to enforce them, soon brought him face to face with the +stubborn resistance of the Estates of Holland under the leadership +of Oldenbarneveldt. In April, 1586, he issued a very stringent +placard forbidding all traffic with the enemy's lands and more +especially the supplying of the enemy with grain. He meant it well, +for he had been informed that the cutting-off of this commerce, +which he regarded as illicit, would deprive the Spaniards of the +necessaries of life, and Parma's position would become desperate. +This carrying trade had, however, for long been a source of much +profit to the merchants and shipowners of Holland and Zeeland; +indeed it supplied no small part of the resources by which those +two provinces had equipped the fleets and troops by which they had +defended themselves against the efforts of the Spanish<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_86" id="page_86">[pg.86]</a></span> king. +Two years before this the States-General had tried to place an +embargo on the traffic in grain, but the powerful town-council of +Amsterdam had refused obedience and the Estates of Holland +supported them in their action. The deputies of the inland +provinces, which had suffered most from the Spanish armies, were +jealous of the prosperity of the maritime States, and regarded this +trade with the Spaniard as being carried on to their injury. But +Holland and Zeeland supplied the funds without which resistance +would long since have been impossible, and they claimed moreover, +as sovereign provinces, the right to regulate their trade affairs. +The edict remained a dead-letter, for there was no power to enforce +it.</p> + +<p>The governor made a still greater mistake when, in his annoyance +at the opposition of the Hollanders, he courted the democratic +anti-Holland party in Utrecht, which had as its leader the +ultra-Calvinist stadholder, Nieuwenaar, and caused one of his +confidants, a Brabanter, Gerard Prounick, surnamed Deventer, to be +elected burgomaster of Utrecht, although as a foreigner he was +disqualified from holding that office. An even more arbitrary act +was his creation of a Chamber of Finance armed with inquisitorial +powers, thus invading the rights of the Provincial Estates and +depriving the Council of State of one of its most important +functions. To make matters worse, he appointed Nieuwenaar to +preside over the new Chamber, with a Brabanter, Jacques Reingoud, +as treasurer-general, and a Fleming, Daniel de Burchgrave, as +auditor. The Estates of Holland, under the guidance of +Oldenbarneveldt, prepared themselves to resist stubbornly this +attempt to thrust upon them a new tyranny.</p> + +<p>As a military leader Leicester was quite unfitted to oppose +successfully such a general as Parma. Both commanders were in truth +much hampered by the preparations that were being made by Philip +for the invasion of England. The king could spare Parma but little +money for the pay of his troops, and his orders were that the +Spanish forces in the Netherlands should be held in reserve and +readiness for embarkation, as soon as the Great Armada should hold +command of the Channel. England was the first objective. When its +conquest was accomplished that of the rebel provinces would +speedily follow. On the other hand Elizabeth, always niggardly, was +little disposed in face of the threatened danger to dissipate her +resources by any needless expenditure. Leicester<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_87" id="page_87">[pg.87]</a></span> +therefore found himself at the head of far too small a force to +deal any effective blows at the enemy. He succeeded in capturing +Doesburg, but failed to take Zutphen. It was in a gallant effort to +prevent a Spanish convoy from entering that town that Sir Philip +Sidney met his death at the combat of Warnsfeld (Sept. 22, 1586). +An important fort facing Zutphen was however stormed, and here +Leicester left Sir Robert Yorke with a strong garrison, and at the +same time sent Sir William Stanley with 1200 men to be governor of +Deventer. These appointments gave rise to much criticism that +proved later to be fully justified, for both these officers were +Catholics and had formerly been in the Spanish service. Leicester +had also taken other steps that were ill-judged. West Friesland had +for many years been united to Holland and was known as the +North-Quarter. The governor-general, however, appointed Sonoy +Stadholder of West Friesland, and was thus infringing the rights +and jurisdiction of Maurice of Nassau. Maurice also held the post +of Admiral-General of Holland and Zeeland, but Leicester took it +upon himself to create three distinct Admiralty Colleges, those of +Holland, Zeeland, and the North-Quarter, thus further dividing +authority in a land where greater unity was the chief thing to be +aimed at. Leicester was equally unwise in the part he took in +regard to religious matters. Oldenbarneveldt, Paul Buys and the +great majority of burgher-regents in Holland belonged to the +moderate or, as it was called, the "libertine" party, to which +William the Silent had adhered and whose principles of toleration +he had strongly upheld. Leicester, largely influenced by spite +against Oldenbarneveldt and the Hollanders for their opposition to +his edict about trade with the enemy and to his appointment of +Sonoy, threw himself into the arms of the extreme Calvinists, who +were at heart as fanatical persecutors as the Spanish inquisitors +themselves. These "precisian" zealots held, by the +governor-general's permission and under his protection, a synod at +Dort, June, 1586, and endeavoured to organise the Reformed Church +in accordance with their strict principles of exclusiveness.</p> + +<p>By this series of maladroit acts Leicester had made himself so +unpopular and distrusted in Holland that the Estates of that +predominant province lost no opportunity of inflicting rebuffs upon +him. Stung by the opposition he met and weary of a thankless task, +the governor determined at the end of November to pay a visit<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_88" id="page_88">[pg.88]</a></span> +to England. The Council of State was left in charge of the +administration during his absence.</p> + +<p>His departure had the very important effect of bringing the +question of State-rights acutely to the front. The dislike and +distrust felt by the Hollanders towards the English +governor-general was greatly increased by the treachery of Yorke +and Stanley, who delivered the fort at Zutphen and the town of +Deventer, with the defence of which they had been charged, into the +hands of the Spaniards. The town of Gelder and the fort at Wouw +were likewise betrayed, and there can be small doubt that, had +Parma at this time been able to take advantage of the dissensions +in the ranks of his adversaries, he would have met with little +effectual resistance to his arms. His whole attention was, however, +centred in preparations for the proposed invasion of England. +Leicester had no sooner left the country than the Estates of +Holland, under the strong leadership of Oldenbarneveldt, took +measures to assert their right to regulate their own affairs, +independently of the Council of State. A levy of troops was made +(in the pay of the province of Holland), who were required to take +an oath to the Provincial Estates and the stadholder. To Maurice +the title of "Prince" was given; and Sonoy in the North-Quarter and +all the commanders of fortified places were compelled to place +themselves under his orders. The States-General, in which the +influence of Holland and its chief representative, Oldenbarneveldt, +was overpoweringly great, upheld the Provincial Estates in the +measures they were taking. As a result of their action the trade +restrictions were practically repealed, the Council of State was +reconstituted, and a strong indictment of Leicester's conduct and +administration was drawn up in the name of the States-General and +forwarded to the absent governor in England.</p> + +<p>Elizabeth was indignant at the language of this document, but at +this particular time the dangers which were threatening her throne +and people were too serious for her to take any steps to alienate +the States. It was her obvious policy to support them in their +resistance, and to keep, if possible, Parma's forces occupied in +the Netherlands. Accordingly Leicester returned to his post, July +1587, but in an altogether wrong spirit. He knew that he had a +strong body of partisans in Utrecht, Friesland and elsewhere, for +he had posed as the friend of the people's rights against the +nobles and those burgher-aristocracies in the cities in whose hands +all real<span class="newpage"><a name="page_89" id= +"page_89">[pg.89]</a></span> power rested, and by his attitude in +religious matters he had won for himself the support of the +Calvinist preachers. His agents, Deventer in Utrecht, Aysma in +Friesland and Sonoy in the North-Quarter, were able men, who could +count on the help of the democracy, whom they flattered. So +Leicester came back with the determination to override the +opposition of the Estates of Holland and compel their submission to +his will. But he found that he only succeeded in making that +opposition more resolute. His attempts to overthrow the supremacy +of the "regents" in Amsterdam, Leyden, Enkhuizen and other towns +were complete failures. Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice were supreme in +Holland and Zeeland; and the power of the purse gave to Holland a +controlling voice in the States-General. The position of Leicester +was shaken also by his inability to relieve Sluis, which important +seaport fell after a long siege into Parma's hands, August 5. Its +capture was attributed by rumour, which in this case had no +foundation, to the treachery of the English governor and garrison. +Moreover it was discovered that for some months secret peace +negotiations had been passing between the English government and +Parma; and this aroused violent suspicions that the Netherlands +were merely being used as pawns in English policy, and alienated +from the governor-general the sympathy of the preachers, who had +been his strongest supporters. Humiliated and broken in spirit, +Leicester, after many bickerings and recriminations, finally left +the Netherlands (December 10), though his formal resignation of his +post did not reach the States-General until the following April. +Lord Willoughby was placed in command of the English troops.</p> + +<p>The year 1588 was the beginning of a decade full of fate for the +Dutch Republic. The departure of Leicester left the seven provinces +of the Union of Utrecht weak, divided, torn by factions, without +allies, the country to the east of the Yssel and to the south of +the Scheldt and the Waal already in the hands of the enemy. +Moreover the armed forces of that enemy were far stronger than +their own and under the command of a consummate general. But this +was the year of the Spanish Armada, and Parma's offensive +operations were, by the strictest orders from Madrid, otherwise +directed. And Elizabeth on her side, though highly offended at the +treatment which her favourite, Leicester, had received from the +Hollanders, was too astute to quarrel at such a<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_90" id="page_90">[pg.90]</a></span> moment +with a people whose ships kept a strict blockade in the Scheldt and +before the Flemish harbours. Thus a respite was obtained for the +States at this critical time, which was turned to good account and +was of vital import for their constitutional development. The +Leicestrian period, despite its record of incompetence and failure, +had however the distinction of being the period which for good or +for evil gave birth to the republic of the United Netherlands, as +we know it in history. The curious, amorphous, hydra-headed system +of government, which was to subsist for some two centuries, was in +its origin the direct result of the confused welter of conflicting +forces, which was the legacy of Leicester's rule. As a preliminary +to a right understanding of the political system, which was now, +more by accidental force of circumstances than by design, +developing into a permanent constitution, it will be necessary to +trace the events of the years which immediately followed the +departure of Leicester, and which under the influence and by the +co-operation of three striking personalities were to mould the +future of the Dutch republic.</p> + +<p>Those three personalities were John van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice +of Nassau and his cousin William Lewis of Nassau, the Stadholder of +Friesland. Born in 1547, Oldenbarneveldt, after studying +Jurisprudence at Louvain, Bourges and Heidelberg, became a devoted +adherent of William the Silent and took part in the defence of +Haarlem and of Leyden. His abilities, however, fitted him to take a +prominent part as a politician and administrator rather than as a +soldier; and his career may be said to have begun by his +appointment to the post of Pensionary of Rotterdam in 1576. In this +capacity his industry and his talent speedily won for him a +commanding position in the Estates of Holland, and he became one of +the Prince of Orange's confidential friends and advisers. In 1586 +he was appointed Advocate of Holland in succession to Paul Buys. +This office included the duties of legal adviser, secretary and +likewise in a sense that of "Speaker" to the Provincial Estates. In +addition to all this he was the mouthpiece in the States-General of +the deputation representing the Provincial Estates, and exercised +in that assembly all the authority attaching to the man who spoke +in the name of Holland. At this time of transition, by his +predominance alike in his own province of Holland and in the +States-General, he was able to secure for the general policy of the +Union,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_91" id= +"page_91">[pg.91]</a></span> especially in the conduct of foreign +affairs, a continuity of aim and purpose that enabled the +loosely-cemented and mutually jealous confederacy of petty +sovereign states to tide-over successfully the critical years which +followed the departure of Leicester, and to acquire a sense of +national unity.</p> + +<p>The brain and the diplomatic skill of the great statesman would, +however, have been of little avail without the aid of the military +abilities of Maurice of Nassau. Maurice was twenty years of age +when Leicester left Holland. He was a man very different from his +father in opinions and in the character of his talents. Maurice had +nothing of his father's tolerance in religious matters or his +subtle skill in diplomacy. He was a born soldier, but no +politician, and had no wish to interfere in affairs of State. He +had the highest respect for Oldenbarneveldt and complete confidence +in his capacity as a statesman, and he was at all times ready to +use the executive powers, which he exercised by virtue of the +numerous posts he was speedily called upon to fill, for the +carrying out of Oldenbarneveldt's policy; while the Advocate on his +side found in the strong arm of the successful general the +instrument that he needed for the maintenance of his supremacy in +the conduct of the civil government. Already in 1587 Maurice was +Stadholder of Holland and Zeeland. In 1588 he became +Captain-General and Admiral-General of the Union with the control +and supervision of all the armed forces of the Provinces by sea and +by land. The death of Nieuwenaar in the following year created a +vacancy in the stadholderates of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel. +Maurice was in each province elected as Nieuwenaar's successor. The +Advocate therefore and the Prince, through the close accord which +was for many years to subsist between them, gathered thus into +their hands (except in Friesland) practically the entire +administrative, executive and military powers of the United +Provinces and by their harmonious co-operation with William Lewis, +the wise and capable Stadholder of Friesland, were able to give +something of real unity to a group of states, each claiming to be a +sovereign entity, and to give them the outward semblance of a +federal republic. There was no "eminent head," but the sovereignty +in reality, if not in name, was vested during the period with which +we have now to deal in this triumvirate.</p> + +<p>Circumstances provided a favourable field for the display of +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_92" id= +"page_92">[pg.92]</a></span> youthful Maurice's military abilities. +In 1589 the assassination of Henry III placed Henry of Navarre on +the throne of France. The accession of the brilliant Huguenot +leader led to civil war; and the Catholic opposition was encouraged +and supported by Philip II, who regarded Henry IV as a menace and +danger to the Spanish power. Parma, therefore, whose active +prosecution of the war against the rebel provinces had been so long +hindered by having to hold his army in readiness for the projected +invasion of England, found himself, after the failure and +destruction of the Armada, in no better position for a campaign in +the northern Netherlands. Disappointment and false charges against +him brought on a serious illness, and on his recovery he received +orders to conduct an expedition into France. William Lewis of +Nassau had for sometime been urging upon the States-General that +the time for remaining upon the strict defensive was past, and +that, when the enemy's efforts were weakened and distracted, the +best defence was a vigorous offensive. At first he spoke to deaf +ears, but he found now a powerful supporter in Maurice, and the two +stadholders prevailed. They had now by careful and assiduous +training created a strong and well-disciplined army for the service +of the States. This army was made up by contingents of various +nationalities, English, Scottish, French and German as well as +Netherlanders. But the material was on the whole excellent, and the +entire force was welded together by confidence in their +leaders.</p> + +<p>In 1590 the capture of Breda by a ruse (seventy men hidden +beneath a covering of peat making their entrance into the town and +opening the gates to their comrades outside) was a good omen for +the campaign that was planned for 1591. For the first time Maurice +had an opportunity for showing his genius for war and especially +for siege warfare. By rapid movements he took first Zutphen, then +Deventer and Delfzijl, and relieved the fort of Knodsenburg (near +Nijmwegen). Thus successful on the eastern frontier, the stadholder +hurried to Zeeland and captured Hulst, the key to the land of Waas. +He then turned his steps again to the east and appearing suddenly +before Nijmwegen made himself master of this important city. Such a +succession of brilliant triumphs established Maurice's fame, and to +a lesser degree that of William Lewis, whose co-operation and +advice were of the greatest service to the younger man. This was +markedly the case in the following year (1592) when the two<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_93" id="page_93">[pg.93]</a></span> +stadholders set to work to expel the Spaniards from the two +strongly fortified towns of Steenwijk and Coevorden, whose +possession enabled a strong force under the veteran Verdugo to +retain their hold upon Friesland. The States army was not at its +full strength, for the English contingent under Sir Francis Vere +had been sent to France; and Verdugo was confident that any attempt +to capture these well-garrisoned fortresses was doomed to failure. +He had to learn how great was the scientific skill and resource of +Maurice in the art of beleaguering. Steenwijk after an obstinate +defence capitulated on June 5. Coevorden was then invested and in +its turn had to surrender, on September 12. During this time Parma +had been campaigning with no great success in northern France. In +the autumn he returned to the Netherlands suffering from the +effects of a wound and broken in spirit. Never did any man fill a +difficult and trying post with more success and zeal than Alexander +Farnese during the sixteen years of his governor-generalship. +Nevertheless Philip was afraid of his nephew's talents and +ambition, and he despatched the Count of Fuentes with a letter of +recall. It was never delivered. Parma set out to meet him, but fell +ill and died at Spa, December 2, 1592. He appointed the Count of +Mansfeld to take his place, until the Archduke Ernest of Austria, +who had been appointed to succeed him, arrived in the +Netherlands.</p> + +<p>The campaign of 1593 was marked by the taking of +Geertruidenberg, a fortress which barred the free access of the +Hollanders and Zeelanders to the inland waters. The science which +Maurice displayed in the siege of this town greatly increased his +renown. In the following year the stadholders turned their +attention to the north-east corner of the land, which was still in +the possession of the Spaniards. After a siege of two months +Groningen surrendered; and the city with the surrounding district +was by the terms of the capitulation—known as "The Treaty of +Reduction"—admitted as a province into the Union under the +name of <i>Stad en Landen.</i> William Lewis was appointed +stadholder, and Drente was placed under his jurisdiction. The +northern Netherlands were now cleared of the enemy, and Maurice at +the conclusion of the campaign made a triumphal entry into the +Hague amidst general rejoicing. William Lewis lost no time in +taking steps to establish Calvinism as the only recognised form of +faith in his new government. His strong principles did not allow +him to be tolerant, and to Catholicism he<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_94" id="page_94">[pg.94]</a></span> was a convinced foe. +Everywhere throughout the United Provinces the reformed religion +was now dominant, and its adherents alone could legally take part +in public worship.</p> + +<p>In January, 1595, Henry IV declared war against Spain and was +anxious for an alliance with the States against the common enemy. +The Archduke Ernest, on whose coming into the Netherlands great +hopes had been placed, found himself now in a difficult position +with hostile armies threatening from both sides and no hope of +efficient financial or other support from Spain. He was instructed +therefore to enter into negotiations at the Hague with a view to +the conclusion of a peace, based upon the terms of the Pacification +of Ghent. But there was never any prospect of an agreement being +reached; and the sudden death of the archduke (February 20,1595) +brought the negotiations to an end. Archduke Ernest was succeeded +by the Count of Fuentes as governor <i>ad interim.</i> Fuentes +proved himself to be a strong and capable commander; and the summer +was marked by a series of successes against the hostile forces both +of the French and the Netherlanders. There was no decisive +encounter, but the Spanish forces foiled the efforts of their +adversaries to effect an invasion or capture any towns.</p> + +<p>The Cardinal Archduke Albert arrived at Brussels to replace +Fuentes in January, 1596. Albert was the favourite nephew of King +Philip, and had been brought up at Madrid. Although an +ecclesiastic, he proved himself to be a statesman and soldier of +more than ordinary capacity. It was intended that he should, as +soon as the Pope's consent could be obtained, divest himself of his +orders and marry his cousin the Infanta Isabel. The bankrupt +condition of Spain prevented Philip from furnishing the archduke +with adequate financial help on entering upon his governorship, but +Albert was provided with some money, and he found in the +Netherlands the well-disciplined and war-tried force of which +Fuentes had made such good use in the previous campaign. He was +anxious to emulate that general's success, and as the veteran +leaders, Mondragon and Verdugo, had both died, he gave the command +to the Seigneur de Rosne, a French refugee. This man was a +commander of skill and enterprise, and special circumstances +enabled him by two brilliant offensive strokes to capture first +Calais and afterwards Hulst. Hulst was only taken after a severe +struggle, in which De Rosne himself fell.<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_95" id="page_95">[pg.95]</a></span></p> + +<p>The special circumstances which favoured these operations were +brought about by the conclusion of a treaty of alliance between +France, England and the States. This treaty was the result of +prolonged negotiations; it was of short duration and its conditions +were far from favourable to the United Provinces, but it was of +great importance from the fact that for the first time the +new-fledged republic was recognised by the neighbouring sovereigns +of France and England as an independent state and was admitted into +alliance on terms of equality. It was, however, only with +difficulty and through the insistence of Henry IV that Elizabeth +was induced to acknowledge the independent status of the rebel +provinces. In return the republic was required to keep up a force +of 8000 men for service in the Netherlands, and to despatch 4000 +men to act with the French army in northern France—this +auxiliary force to include the five English regiments in the +States' service. Thus Maurice was deprived of a considerable part +of his army and obliged to act on the defensive. Elizabeth also +insisted upon the carrying out of Leicester's placard forbidding +trade with the enemy. This clause of the treaty was very +unpalatable to Amsterdam and the Hollanders generally, and only a +sullen acquiescence was given to it. From the first it was +systematically evaded. The English government on their part +undertook to support the French king with a force equal in strength +to that furnished by the Provinces, <i>i.e.</i> 4000 men, but at +the same time a secret treaty was drawn up by which Henry agreed to +a reduction of the English troops by one-half. This piece of +underhand work was in due time discovered by the States, who saw +that their allies were not to be trusted and that they must be on +the watch lest their interests should be sacrificed to the selfish +policy of France. The issue showed that Henry IV was in fact ready +to make terms with Spain, as soon as it was to his advantage to do +so. Meanwhile in 1597 the French king, by advancing in force into +Picardy, drew upon this frontier the chief attention of the +Spaniards; and Maurice seized the opportunity that was offered to +him to conduct an offensive campaign with signal success.</p> + +<p>He began the year brilliantly by surprising in January, while +still in its winter quarters, a Spanish force of 4500 near +Turnhout. More than half the force was destroyed. On the side of +the Netherlands eight men only fell. With the spring began a series +of sieges; and, one after the other, Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenloo, +Breedevoort,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_96" id= +"page_96">[pg.96]</a></span> Enschede, Ootmarsum, Oldenzaal and +Lingen were captured. Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente were +entirely freed from the presence of the enemy. With the opening of +1598 Henry IV and Philip II entered upon negotiations for a peace. +The French king felt the necessity of a respite from war in order +to reorganise the resources of his country, exhausted by a long +continuance of civil strife; and Philip was ill and already feeling +his end approaching. The States strove hard to prevent what they +regarded as desertion, and two embassies were despatched to France +and to England to urge the maintenance of the alliance. +Oldenbarneveldt himself headed the French mission, but he failed to +turn Henry from his purpose. A treaty of peace between France and +Spain was signed at Vervins, May 2, 1598. Oldenbarneveldt went from +Paris to England and was more successful. Elizabeth bargained +however for the repayment of her loan by annual installments, and +for armed assistance both by land and sea should an attack be made +by the Spaniards on England. The queen, however, made two +concessions. Henceforth only one English representative was to have +a seat in the Council of State; and all the English troops in the +Netherlands, including the garrisons of the cautionary towns, were +to take an oath of allegiance to the States.</p> + +<p>This year saw the accomplishment of a project on which the +Spanish king had for some time set his heart—the marriage of +the Cardinal Archduke Albert to his cousin the Infanta Isabel Clara +Eugenia, and the erection of the Netherlands into an independent +sovereignty under their joint rule. Philip hoped in this way to +provide suitably for a well-beloved daughter and at the same time, +by the grant of apparent independence to the Netherland provinces, +to secure their allegiance to the new sovereigns. The use of the +word "apparent" is justified, for provision was made in the deed of +cession that the Netherlands should revert to the Spanish crown in +case the union should prove childless; and there was a secret +agreement that the chief fortresses should still be garrisoned by +Spanish troops and that the archdukes, as they were officially +styled, should recognise the suzerainty of the King of Spain.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Philip did not actually live to +carry his plan into execution. His</span><br /> +death took place on September 13, 1598. But all the necessary +arrangements for the marriage and the transfer of sovereignty had +already been made. Albert, having first divested himself of +his<span class="newpage"><a name="page_97" id= +"page_97">[pg.97]</a></span> ecclesiastical dignities, was married +by proxy to Isabel at Ferrara in November. It was not until the end +of the following year that the new rulers made their <i>joyeuse +entrée</i> into Brussels, but their marriage marks the +beginning of a fresh stage in the history of the Netherlands. +Albert and Isabel were wise and capable, and they succeeded in +gaining the affection and willing allegiance of the southern +provinces. The States-General of the revolted provinces of the +north had, however, already enjoyed for some years a real +independence won by suffering and struggle and they showed no +disposition to meet the overtures of the archdukes. They were +resolved to have no further connection with Spain or with Spanish +rulers, and from this time forward the cleavage in character, +sentiment, and above all in religion, between north and south was +to become, as time went on, more and more accentuated. The Dutch +republic and the Spanish Netherlands were henceforth destined to +pursue their separate course along widely divergent paths.</p> + +<p>The ten years which had elapsed between the departure of +Leicester and the advent of Albert and Isabel had witnessed a truly +marvellous transformation in the condition of the rebel provinces, +and especially of Holland and Zeeland. Gradually they had been +freed from the presence of the Spaniard, while at the same time the +Spanish yoke had been firmly riveted upon Flanders and Brabant. +These provinces were now devastated and ruined. The quays of +Antwerp were deserted, the industries of Ghent and Bruges +destroyed. The most enterprising and skilful of their merchants and +artisans had fled over the frontier into Holland or across the sea +into England. Holland and Zeeland were thronged with refugees, +Flemings and Brabanters, French Huguenots and numerous Spanish and +Portuguese Jews, driven out by the pitiless persecution of Philip +II. The Hollanders and Zeelanders had long been a seafaring people, +who had derived the chief part of their wealth from their fisheries +and their carrying trade; and this influx of new and vigorous +blood, merchants, traders, and textile workers, bringing with them +their knowledge, skill and energy, aroused such a phenomenal +outburst of maritime and commercial activity and adventure as the +world had never seen before. The fleets of the Hollanders and +Zeelanders had during the whole of the war of independence been the +main defence of those provinces against Spanish invasion; but, +great as had been the services they had<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_98" id="page_98">[pg.98]</a></span> rendered, it was the +carrying-trade which had furnished the rebel states with the sinews +of war, and of this a large part had been derived from that very +trading with the enemy which Leicester had striven in vain to +prevent. The Spaniards and Portuguese were dependent upon the Dutch +traders for the supply of many necessaries of life; and thus +Spanish gold was made to pay for the support of the war which was +waged against the Spanish king. The dues in connection with this +trade, known as licences and convoys, alone furnished large sums to +replenish the war-chest; and it is said that from 25,000 to 30,000 +seamen found employment by it.</p> + +<p>Amsterdam during this decade had been rapidly growing in +importance and it was soon to be the first seaport in the world. It +had become the <i>emporium</i> of the Baltic trade. In 1601 it is +stated that between 800 and 900 ships left its quays in three days, +carrying commodities to the Baltic ports. They came back laden with +corn and other "east-sea" goods, which they then distributed in +French, Portuguese and Spanish havens, and even as far as Italy and +the Levant. Ship-building went on apace at Enkhuizen, Hoorn and +other towns on the Zuyder Zee; and Zaandam was soon to become a +centre of the timber trade. In Zeeland, Middelburg, through the +enterprise of an Antwerp refugee of French extraction, by name +Balthazar de Moucheron, was second only to Amsterdam as a sea-port, +while Dordrecht and Rotterdam were also busy with shipping.</p> + +<p>The energies of the Dutch at this springtide of their national +life were far from being confined to European, waters. Dutch +sailors already knew the way to the East-Indies round the Cape of +Good Hope through employment on Portuguese vessels; and the +trade-routes by which the Spaniards brought the treasures of the +New World across the Atlantic were likewise familiar to them and +for a similar reason. The East-Indies had for the merchants of +Holland and Zeeland, ever keenly on the look-out for fresh markets, +a peculiar attraction. At first the Cape route was thought to be +too dangerous, and several attempts were made to discover a +north-west passage along the coast of Siberia. Balthazar de +Moucheron was the pioneer in these northern latitudes. He +established a regular traffic with the Russians by way of the White +Sea, and had a factory (built in 1584) at Archangel. Through his +instances, aided by those of the famous geographer Petrus Plancius +(likewise a refugee from Antwerp), an expedition was fitted out and +despatched in 1594 to<span class="newpage"><a name="page_99" id= +"page_99">[pg.99]</a></span> try to sail round northern Asia, but +it was driven back after passing through the Waigat by ice and +storms. A like fate befell a second expedition in the following +year. Discouraged, but still not despairing, a third fleet set out +in 1596 under the command of Jacob van Heemskerk with William +Barendtsz as pilot. Forced to winter in Spitsbergen, after terrible +sufferings, Heemskerk returned home in the autumn of 1597 with the +remnant of his crews. Barendtsz was one of those who perished. This +was the last effort in this direction, for already a body of +Amsterdam merchants had formed a company for trafficking to India +by the Cape; and four ships had sailed, April 2, 1596, under the +command of Cornelis Houtman, a native of Gouda. A certain Jan +Huyghen van Linschoten, who had been in the Portuguese service, had +published in 1595 a book containing a description from personal +knowledge of the route to the East and the character of the +Portuguese commerce. It was the information contained in this work +that led the Amsterdam merchants to venture their money upon +Houtman's expedition, which Linschoten himself accompanied as +guide. They reached Madagascar, Java and the Moluccas, and, after +much suffering and many losses by sickness, what was left of the +little fleet reached home in July, 1597. The rich cargo they +brought back, though not enough to defray expenses, proved an +incentive to further efforts. Three companies were formed at +Amsterdam, two at Rotterdam, one at Delft and two in Zeeland, for +trading in the East-Indies, all vying with one another in their +eagerness to make large profits from these regions of fabled +wealth, hitherto monopolised by the Portuguese. One expedition sent +out by two Amsterdam companies under the command of Jacob van Neck +and Wybrand van Waerwyck was very successful and came back in +fifteen months richly laden with East-Indian products. The year +1598 was one of great commercial activity. Two-and-twenty large +vessels voyaged to the East-Indies; others made their way to the +coasts of Guinea, Guiana and Brazil; and one daring captain, +Olivier van Noort, sailing through the Straits of Magellan, crossed +the Pacific. It was in this year that Philip II prohibited by +decree all trading in Spain with the Dutch, and all the Dutch ships +in the harbours of the Peninsula were confiscated. But the Spanish +trade was no longer of consequence to the Hollanders and +Zeelanders. They had sought and found compensation elsewhere.<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_100" id= +"page_100">[pg.100]</a></span></p> + +<p>The small companies formed to carry out these ventures in the +far-Eastern seas continued to grow in number, and by the very +keenness of their competition threatened each other's enterprises +with ruin. In these circumstances the States-General and the +Estates of Holland determined, under the leadership of +Oldenbarneveldt, to take a step which was to be fraught with very +important consequences. The rival companies were urged to form +themselves into a single corporation to which exclusive rights +would be given for trading in the East-Indies. Such a proposal was +in direct contradiction to that principle of free trade which had +hitherto been dear to the Netherlanders, and there was much +opposition, and many obstacles had to be overcome owing to the +jealousies of the various provinces, towns and bodies of merchants +who were interested. But at length the patience and statesmanship +of Oldenbarneveldt overcame all difficulties, and on March 20,1601, +a charter was issued creating the United East-India Company and +giving it a monopoly of the East-India trade (for 21 years) with +all lands east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of +Magellan. The executive control was vested in a College known as +the Seventeen. Extensive sovereign privileges were conferred upon +the company and exercised by the Seventeen in the name of the +States-General. They might make treaties with native rulers and +potentates, erect forts for the protection of their factories, +appoint governors and officials with administrative and judicial +functions, and enlist troops, but these officials and troops were +required to take an oath of allegiance to the States-General. The +States-General themselves became "participants" by investing the +25,000 pounds, which the company had paid them for the grant of the +charter. The capital speedily reached the amount of six and a half +million guilders.</p> + +<p>The warlike operations of the year 1599 were uneventful and in +the main defensive, except on the eastern frontier where the +Spanish forces under the command of the Admiral of Aragon, Mendoza, +captured Wesel and Rheinberg. The new rulers of the Netherlands, +Albert and Isabel, did not make their entry into Brussels until the +end of 1599; and almost before they had had time to organise the +new government and gain firm possession of the reins of power in +the Belgic provinces, they found themselves confronted with a +serious danger. The seaport of Dunkirk had for many years been a +nest of pirates, who preyed upon Dutch commerce<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">[pg.101]</a></span> in +the narrow seas. The States-General, urged on by Oldenbarneveldt, +resolved in the spring of 1606 to despatch an expedition to besiege +and capture Dunkirk. Both Maurice and William Lewis were opposed to +the project, which they regarded as rash and risky. The +States-General, however, hearing reports of the archduke's soldiery +being mutinous for lack of pay, persisted in their purpose, and +Maurice, against his better judgment, acquiesced. A body of picked +troops, 12,000 foot and 3000 horse, was assembled on the island of +Walcheren. A succession of contrary winds delaying the sailing of +the force, it was determined to march straight through West +Flanders to Nieuport and then along the shore to Dunkirk. A +deputation of the States-General, of which Oldenbarneveldt was the +leading member, went to Ostend to supervise, much to Maurice's +annoyance, the military operations. The stadholder, however, +reached Nieuport without serious opposition and proceeded to invest +it. Meanwhile the Archduke Albert had been acting with great +energy. By persuasive words and large promises he succeeded in +winning back the mutineers, and at the head of a veteran force of +10,000 infantry and 1500 cavalry he followed Maurice and, advancing +along the dunes, came on July 1 upon a body of 2000 men under the +command of Ernest Casimir of Nassau, sent by the stadholder to +defend the bridge of Leffingen. At the sight of the redoubtable +Spanish infantry a panic seized these troops and they were routed +with heavy loss. The fight, however, gave Maurice time to unite his +forces and draw them up in battle order in front of Nieuport. +Battle was joined the following afternoon, and slowly, foot by +foot, after a desperate conflict the archduke's Spanish and Italian +veterans drove back along the dunes the troops of the States. Every +hillock and sandy hollow was fiercely contested, the brunt of the +conflict falling on the English and Frisians under the command of +Sir Francis Vere. Vere himself was severely wounded, and the battle +appeared to be lost. At this critical moment the Spaniards began to +show signs of exhaustion through their tremendous exertions in two +successive fights under a hot sun in the yielding sand-hills; and +the prince, at the critical moment, throwing himself into the midst +of his retreating troops, succeeded in rallying them. At the same +time he ordered some squadrons of cavalry which he had kept in +reserve to charge on the flank of the advancing foe. The effect was +instantaneous. The Spaniards were<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_102" id="page_102">[pg.102]</a></span> thrown into confusion, +broke and fled. The victory was complete. The archduke only just +escaped capture, and of his army 5000 perished and a large number +were taken prisoners, among these the Admiral of Aragon. Almost by +a miracle was the States' army thus rescued from a desperate +position. Maurice's hard-won triumph greatly enhanced his fame, for +the battle of Nieuport destroyed the legend of the invincibility of +the Spanish infantry in the open field. The victorious general, +however, was not disposed to run any further risks. He accordingly +retreated to Ostend and there embarked his troops for the ports +from which they had started. The expedition had been very costly +and had been practically fruitless. Oldenbarneveldt and those who +had acted with him were deeply disappointed at the failure of their +plans for the capture of Dunkirk and were far from satisfied with +Maurice's obstinate refusal to carry out any further offensive +operations. From this time there arose a feeling of soreness +between the advocate and the stadholder, which further differences +of opinion were to accentuate in the coming years.</p> + +<p>The vigour and powers of leadership displayed by their new +sovereigns in meeting the invasion of Flanders by the States' army, +though a defeat in the field had been suffered at Nieuport, had +inspired their subjects in the southern Netherlands with confidence +and loyalty. Albert had proved himself a brave commander, and his +efforts had at least been successful in compelling the enemy to +withdraw within his own borders.</p> + +<p>Ostend had long been a thorn in the side of the government at +Brussels and energetic steps were soon taken to besiege it. But the +possession of Ostend was important also to Elizabeth, and she +promised active assistance. The larger part of the garrison was, +indeed, formed of English troops, and Sir Francis Vere was governor +of the town. The siege which ensued was one of the memorable sieges +of history, it lasted for more than three years (July 15,1601, to +September 20,1604) and was productive of great feats of valour, +skill and endurance on the part alike of besiegers and besieged. +The States' army under Maurice, though it did not march to the +relief of Ostend, endeavoured to divert the attention of Albert +from his objective by attacks directed elsewhere. In 1601 the +fortresses of Rheinberg and Meurs on the Rhine were captured, and +an attack made upon Hertogenbosch. In 1602 the important town of +Grave on the Meuse was taken and a raid made into Brabant and +Luxemburg.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_103" id= +"page_103">[pg.103]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile the defenders of Ostend had been making a desperate +resistance, and little progress was made by the besiegers, with the +result that a great drain was made upon the finances of the +archdukes and there were threatenings of mutiny among the troops. +But the situation was saved by the intervention of a wealthy +Genoese banker, Ambrosio de Spinola, who offered his services and +his money to the archdukes and promised that if he, though +inexperienced in warfare, were given the command, he would take +Ostend. He fulfilled his promise. Without regard to loss of life he +pressed on the siege, and though as fast as one line of defences +was taken another arose behind it to bar his progress, little by +little he advanced and bit by bit the area held by the garrison +grew less. At last in the spring of 1604, under the pressure of the +States-General, Maurice led an army of 11,000 men into Flanders in +April, 1604, and laid siege to Sluis on May 19. Both Maurice and +William Lewis were still unwilling to run the risk of an attack on +Spinola's army in its lines, and so the two sieges went on side by +side, as it were independently. Sluis fell at the end of August, +and Ostend was then at its last gasp. Urged now by the deputies of +the States to make a direct effort to relieve the heroic garrison, +Maurice and his cousin, after wasting some precious time in +protesting against the step, began to march southward. It was too +late. What was left of Ostend surrendered on September 20, and +Spinola became the master of a heap of ruins. It is said that this +three years' siege cost the Spaniards 80,000 lives, to say nothing +of the outlay of vast expenditure. Whether Maurice and William +Lewis were right or wrong in their reluctance to assail Spinola's +entrenched camp, it is certain that they were better judges of the +military situation than the civilian deputies of the States. In any +case the capture of Sluis was an offset to the loss of Ostend; and +its importance was marked by the appointment of Frederick Henry, +the young brother of the stadholder, as governor of the seaport and +the surrounding district, which received the name of +States-Flanders. The tremendous exertions put forward for the +defence of Ostend had been a very serious drain upon the resources +of the United Provinces, especially upon those of Holland. Taxation +was already So high that Oldenbarneveldt and many other leading +members of the States-General and Provincial Estates began to feel +despondent and to doubt whether it were possible to continue the +war. No<span class="newpage"><a name="page_104" id= +"page_104">[pg.104]</a></span> longer could the States rely upon +the assistance of England. James I had concluded peace with Spain; +and, though he made professions of friendship and goodwill to the +Dutch, wary statesmen, like the Advocate, did not trust him, and +were afraid lest he should be tempted to deliver up the cautionary +towns into the hands of the enemy. Reverting to the policy of +William the Silent, Oldenbarneveldt even went so far as to make +tentative approaches to Henry IV of France touching the conditions +on which he would accept the sovereignty of the Provinces. Indeed +it is said that such was the despair felt by this great statesman, +who knew better than any man the economic difficulties of the +situation, that he even contemplated the possibility of submission +to the archdukes. Had he suggested submission, there would have +been no question, however, that he could not have retained office, +for Maurice, William Lewis and the military leaders on the one +hand, and on the other the merchants and the adventurous seamen, +whom they employed in the profitable Indian traffic, would not have +listened for a moment to any thought of giving up a struggle which +had been so resolutely and successfully maintained for so many +years. For financially the archdukes were in even worse plight than +the Netherlanders, even though for a short time, with the help of +Spinola, appearances seemed to favour the Belgic attacks on the +Dutch frontier districts. In 1605 the Genoese general, at the head +of a mixed but well-disciplined force in his own pay, made a rapid +advance towards Friesland, and, after capturing Oldenzaal and +Lingen and ravaging the eastern provinces, concluded the campaign +with a brilliant success against a body of the States cavalry +commanded by Frederick Henry, who nearly lost his life. Maurice +with inferior forces kept strictly on the defensive, skilfully +covering the heart of the land from attack, but steadily refusing a +pitched battle. In the following year Spinola with two armies +attempted to force the lines of the Waal and the Yssel, but, though +thwarted in this aim by the wariness of the stadholder and by a +very wet season, he succeeded in taking the important fortresses of +Groll and Rheinberg. Maurice made no serious effort to relieve +them, and his inactivity caused much discontent and adverse +comment. His military reputation suffered, while that of his +opponent was enhanced. But subsequent events showed that Maurice, +though perhaps erring on the side of caution, had acted rightly. +The armies which had<span class="newpage"><a name="page_105" id= +"page_105">[pg.105]</a></span> threatened the safety of the +Provinces had been raised at the charges of a private individual, +but the financial resources, even of a Spinola, were not capable of +a prolonged effort; there was no money in the State treasury; and +the soldiery, as soon as their pay was in arrears, began once more +to be mutinous. The bolt had been shot without effect, and the year +1607 found both sides, through sheer lack of funds, unable to enter +upon a fresh campaign on land with any hope of definite success. +But though the military campaigns had been so inconclusive, it had +been far different with the fortunes of maritime warfare in these +opening years of the seventeenth century. The sea-power of the +Dutch republic was already a formidable factor which had to be +reckoned with and which was destined to be decisive.</p> + +<p>The East-India Company was no sooner founded than active steps +were taken to make full use of the privileges granted by the +Charter. A fleet of 17 vessels was despatched in 1602 under Wybrand +van Waerwyck. Waerwyck visited Ceylon and most of the islands of +the Malay Archipelago, established a factory at Bantam with a staff +of officials for developing trade relations with the natives, and +even made his way to Siam and China. He sent back from time to time +some of his vessels richly laden, and finally returned himself with +the residue of his fleet after an absence of five years in June, +1607. Another expedition of thirteen ships sailed in 1604 under +Steven van der Hagen, whose operations were as widespread and as +successful as those of Waerwyck. Van der Hagen took possession of +Molucca and built factories at Amboina, Tidor and other places in +the spice-bearing islands. On his way back in 1606 with his cargo +of cloves, spices and other products of the far Orient, he +encountered at Mauritius another westward-bound fleet of eleven +ships under Cornelis Matelief. Matelief's first objective was the +town of Malacca, held by the Portuguese and commanding the straits +to which it gave its name. Alphonso de Castro, the Viceroy of +India, hastened however with a naval force far more powerful than +the Dutch squadron to the relief of this important fortress; and +after a hardly-fought but indecisive action Matelief raised the +siege on August 17. Returning, however, about a month later, the +Dutch admiral found that De Castro had sailed away, leaving only a +detachment of ten vessels before Malacca. Matelief at once attacked +this force, whose strength was about equal to his<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">[pg.106]</a></span> own, +and with such success that he sank or burnt every single ship of +the enemy with scarcely any loss, September 21, 1606.</p> + +<p>These successful incursions into a region that the Spaniards and +Portuguese had jealously regarded as peculiarly their own aroused +both anger and alarm. All available forces in the East (the +Portuguese from the Mozambique and Goa, the Spaniards from the +Philippines) were equipped and sent to sea with the object of +expelling the hated and despised Netherlanders from East-Indian +waters. Paulus van Caerden, Matelief's successor in command, was +defeated and himself taken prisoner. Nor were the Spaniards content +with attacking the Dutch fleets in the far East. As the +weather-worn and heavily-laden Company's vessels returned along the +west coast of Africa, they had to pass within striking distance of +the Spanish and Portuguese harbours and were in constant danger of +being suddenly assailed by a superior force and captured. In 1607 +rumours reached Holland of the gathering of a large Spanish fleet +at Gibraltar, whose destination was the East-Indies. The directors +of the Company were much alarmed, an alarm which was shared by the +States-General, many of whose deputies were cargo-shareholders. +Accordingly, in April, 1607, a fleet of twenty-six vessels set sail +for the purpose of seeking out and attacking the Spaniards whether +in harbour or on the open sea. The command was given to one of the +most daring and experienced of Dutch seamen, Jacob van Heemskerk. +He found twenty-one ships still at anchor in Gibraltar Bay, ten of +them large galleons, far superior in size and armament to his own +largest vessels. Heemskerk at once cleared for action. Both +Heemskerk and the Spanish commander, d'Avila, were killed early in +the fight, the result of which however was not long doubtful. The +Spanish fleet was practically destroyed. On the Dutch side no +vessel was lost and the casualties were small. Such a disaster was +most humiliating to Castilian pride, and its effect in hastening +forward the peace negotiations, which were already in progress, was +considerable.</p> + +<p>The initial steps had been taken by the archdukes. Through the +secret agency of Albert's Franciscan Confessor, Father John Neyen, +both Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice were approached in May, 1606, but +without any result. Early in 1607 however the efforts were renewed, +and negotiations were actively set on foot for the purpose of +concluding a peace or a truce for a term of twelve,<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">[pg.107]</a></span> +fifteen or twenty years. There were, however, almost insuperable +difficulties in the way. In the first place the stadholders, the +military and naval leaders, the Calvinist clergy, and the great +majority of the traders honestly believed that a peace would be +detrimental to all the best interests of the States, and were +thoroughly distrustful of the motives which had prompted the +archdukes and the Spanish government to make these advances. +Oldenbarneveldt on the other hand thought that peace was necessary +for the land to recuperate after the exhausting struggle, which had +already lasted for forty years; and he found strong support among +the burgher-regents and that large part of the people who were +over-burdened and impoverished by the weight of taxation, and sick +and weary of perpetual warfare. There were, however, certain +preliminary conditions, which all were agreed must be assented to, +and without which it would be useless to continue the negotiations. +The independence of the United Provinces must be recognised, +freedom of trade in the Indies conceded, and the public exercise of +Catholic worship prohibited. After some parleying the archdukes +agreed to treat with the United Provinces "in the quality and as +considering them free provinces and states," and an armistice was +concluded in April, 1607, for eight months, in order that the +matters in dispute might be referred to the King of Spain and his +views upon them ascertained. Not till October did the king's reply +arrive at Brussels. He consented to negotiate with the States "as +free and independent" parties, but he required that liberty of +Catholic worship should be permitted during the truce, and no +mention was made of the Indian trade. This was by no means +satisfactory; nevertheless the influence of Oldenbarneveldt +prevailed and the negotiations were not broken off. On February 1, +1608, the archdukes' envoys, the two leading members being Ambrosio +de Spinola and the president of the Privy Council, Ricardot, +arrived in Holland. They were met at Ryswyck by Maurice and William +Lewis in person, and with much ceremony and splendour a solemn +entry was made into the Hague, the procession with the brilliant +retinues forming a memorable spectacle, as it made its way through +the crowds which lined the roads. The negotiations were conducted +in the Binnenhof. The Special Commissioners to represent the +States-General were William Lewis of Nassau, Walraven, lord of +Brederode, and a deputy from each of the provinces under the +leadership of <span class="newpage"><a name="page_108" id= +"page_108">[pg.108]</a></span> Oldenbarneveldt. Envoys from France, +England, Denmark, the Palatinate and Brandenburg were present, took +part in the discussions, and acted as friendly mediators.</p> + +<p>The question of treating the United Provinces "as free States" +was soon settled. The archdukes, who were aiming at the conclusion +of a truce in which to recuperate and not of a definitive peace, +showed an unexpected complaisance in granting a concession which +they regarded as only temporary. Then came the really serious +questions as to freedom of trade in the Indies and the liberty of +Catholic worship. Of these the first was of most immediate +interest, and showed irreconcilable differences between the two +parties. The Spaniards would never consent to any trespassing in +the closed area, which they regarded as their own peculiar +preserve. The Dutch traders and sailors were fired with the spirit +of adventure and of profit, and their successful expeditions had +aroused an enthusiasm for further effort in the distant seas, which +had hardened into a fixed resolve not to agree to any peace or +truce shutting them out from the Indian trade. For months the +subject was discussed and re-discussed without result. Some of the +foreign delegates left. The armistice was prolonged, in order that +Father Neyen might go to Madrid for further instructions. It was +found, however, that the King of Spain would yield nothing. The +negotiations came to a standstill, and both sides began to make +preparations for a renewal of the war. President Jeannin on behalf +of the French king, by his skilful mediation, in which he was +supported by his English colleague, saved the situation. He +proposed as a compromise a twelve years' truce, pointing out that +whatever terms were arranged would only be binding for that short +period. He managed to bring about a personal interview between +Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice, who had respectively headed the peace +and war parties in the provinces; and henceforth both consented to +work together for this proposal of a limited truce, during which +the trade to the Indies should be open and the religious question +be untouched. The assent of the States-General and of the several +Provincial Estates was obtained. The two most interested, Holland +and Zeeland, were won over, Holland by the arguments and +persuasions of the Advocate, Zeeland, which was the last to agree, +by the influence of Maurice. Jeannin was aware that the finances of +Spain were at their last gasp, and that both the archdukes and +Philip III were most anxious for a respite<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_109" id="page_109">[pg.109]</a></span> from the +ever-consuming expense of the war. At last the long and wearisome +negotiations came to an end, and the treaty concluding a truce for +twelve years was signed at the Hague on April 9,1609. The +territorial <i>status quo</i> was recognised. The United Provinces +were treated "as free States over which the archdukes made no +pretensions." Nothing was said about the religious difficulty nor +about trade in the Indies, but in a secret treaty the King of Spain +undertook not to interfere with Dutch trade, wherever carried on. +Thus access to the Indies was conceded, though to save appearances +the word was not mentioned. This result was due solely to the +diplomatic tact and resource of Jeannin, who was able to announce +to Henry IV that he had accomplished his task "to the satisfaction +of everyone, and even of Prince Maurice."</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_110" id= +"page_110">[pg.110]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>One of the reasons which influenced the archdukes and the King +of Spain to make large concessions in order to secure the assent of +the States-General to the conclusion of a twelve years' truce was +their firm belief that the unstable political condition of the +United Provinces must lead to civil discord, as soon as the +relaxing of the pressure of war loosened the bonds which had, since +Leicester's departure, held together a number of separate +authorities and discordant interests. They were right in their +supposition. In order, therefore, to understand the course of +events in the republic, which had been correctly recognised by the +treaty not as a single state, but as a group of "free and +independent States," it is necessary to give a brief account of one +of the most strangely complicated systems of government that the +world has ever seen—especially strange because no one could +ever say positively where or with whom the sovereignty really +resided.</p> + +<p>Let us take into separate consideration the powers and functions +of (1) the Council of State, (2) the States-General, (3) the +Provincial Estates, (4) the Stadholders, (5) the Advocate (later +the <i>Raad-Pensionarius</i> or Council-Pensionary) of Holland, (6) +the Admiralty Colleges.</p> + +<p>The Council of State was not a legislative, but an executive, +body. In the time of Leicester the Council was the executive arm of +the governor-general and had large powers. After his departure the +presence of the English ambassador, who by treaty had a seat in the +Council, caused the States-General gradually to absorb its powers, +and to make its functions subordinate to their own, until at last +its authority was confined to the administration of the affairs of +war and of finance. The right of the English representative to sit +in the Council and take an active part in its deliberations +continued till 1626. The Stadholders were also <i>ex officio</i> +members. The Provinces, since 1588, were represented by twelve +councillors. Holland had three; Gelderland, Zeeland and Friesland +two each;<span class="newpage"><a name="page_111" id= +"page_111">[pg.111]</a></span> Utrecht, Overyssel and Groningen +(<i>Stad en Landeri</i>) one each. The treasurer-general and the +clerk (<i>Griffier</i>) of the States-General took part in the +deliberations and had great influence. The chief duty of the +Council, during the period with which we are dealing, was the +raising of the "quotas" from the various provinces for the military +defence of the State. The General Petition or War Budget was +prepared by the Council and presented to the States-General at the +end of each year, providing for the military expenses in the +following twelve months. The "quotas" due towards these expenses +from the several provinces were set forth in smaller petitions sent +to the Provincial Estates, whose consent was necessary. The +so-called <i>repartitie</i> fixing the amount of these quotas was +likewise drawn up by the Council of State, and was the subject at +times of considerable haggling and discontent. In 1612 it was +settled that the proportions to be borne by the provinces should be +Holland 57.1 per cent.; Friesland 11.4; Zeeland 11 (afterwards +reduced to 9); Utrecht and Groningen 5.5; Overyssel 3.5. It will +thus be seen that the quota of Holland was considerably more than +half of the whole; and, as the naval expenditure was to an even +larger extent borne by Holland, the preponderating influence of +this province in the Union can be easily understood. The forces of +the republic that were distributed in the several provinces +received their pay from the provinces, but those maintained by the +Council, as troops of the State, were paid by monies received from +the Generality lands, <i>i.e.</i> lands such as the conquered +portions of Brabant and Flanders, governed by the States-General, +but without representation in that body. The Council of State, +though its political powers were curtailed and absorbed by the +States-General, continued to exercise, as a court of justice, +appellate jurisdiction in military and financial questions.</p> + +<p>The States-General consisted of representatives of the Estates +of the seven sovereign provinces of Gelderland, Holland, Zeeland, +Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen (<i>Stad en +Landeri</i>) in the order of precedence given above. Gelderland, +having been a duchy, ranked before those that had formerly been +counties or lordships. The provinces sent deputations varying in +number; Holland and Gelderland generally six, the others less. Each +province had but a single vote. The president changed week by week, +being chosen in turn from each province according to their order +of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_112" id= +"page_112">[pg.112]</a></span> precedence. Holland had nominally no +more weight than the others; its practical influence, however, was +great in proportion to the burden of taxation that it bore and was +increased by the fact that the sessions, which after 1593 were +permanent, were held at the Hague in the same building with the +Estates of Holland, and that the Council-Pensionary of Holland was +the spokesman of the province in the States-General. The +States-General had control of the foreign affairs of the Union. To +them belonged the supreme control of military and naval matters. +The Captain-General and Admiral-General of the Union were appointed +by them; and a deputation of the States-General accompanied the +army into the field and the commanders were bound to consult it. +They exercised a strong supervision of finance, and sovereign +authority over the entire administration of the "Generality" lands. +Ambassadors were appointed by them, also the Treasurer-General of +the Union, and numerous other important officials. Yet with all +these attributes and powers the States-General possessed only a +derived, not an inherent, authority. To foreigners the sovereignty +of the republic of the United Netherlands appeared to be vested in +their "High-Mightinesses." In reality the States-General was, as +already stated, a gathering of deputations from the seven sovereign +provinces. Each deputation voted as a unit; and in all important +affairs of peace and war, treaties and finance, there must be no +dissentient. A single province, however small, could, by obstinate +opposition, block the way to the acceptance of any given proposal. +Moreover the members, despite their lofty designation as +High-Mightinesses, did not vote according to their convictions or +persuasions, but according to the charge they had received from +their principals. The deputation of a province had no right to +sanction any disputable measure or proposal without referring it +back to the Estates of that province for approval or disapproval. +Hence arose endless opportunities and occasions for friction and +dissension and manifold delays in the transaction of the business +of the republic, oftentimes in a manner inimical to its vital +interests.</p> + +<p>The Provincial Estates in their turn were by no means +homogeneous or truly representative bodies. In Holland the nobles +had one vote; and eighteen towns, Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, +Leyden, Amsterdam, Gouda, Rotterdam, Gorkum, Schiedam, Schoonhoven, +Brill, Alkmaar, Hoorn, Enkhuizen, Edam, Monnikendam, Medemblik<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_113" id= +"page_113">[pg.113]</a></span> and Purmerend, had one each. The +nobles, though they had only one vote, were influential, as they +represented the rural districts and the small towns which had no +franchise, and they voted first. Here again, as in the +States-General, though each of the privileged towns counted equal +in the voting, as a matter of fact their weight and influence was +very different. The opposition of wealthy and populous Amsterdam +was again and again sufficient to override the decision of the +majority, for there was no power to enforce its submission, except +the employment of armed force. For at this point it may be as well +to explain that each one of these municipalities +(<i>vroedschappen</i>) claimed to be a sovereign entity, and yet, +far from being bodies representing the citizens as a whole, they +were close corporations of the narrowest description. The ordinary +inhabitants of these towns had no voice whatever in the management +of their own affairs. The governing body or <i>vroedschap</i> +consisted of a limited number of persons, sometimes not more than +forty, belonging to certain families, which filled up vacancies by +co-option and chose the burgomasters and sheriffs +(<i>schepenen</i>). Thus it will be seen that popular +representation had no place in Holland. The regent-burghers were a +small patrician oligarchy, in whose hands the entire government and +administration of the towns rested, and from their number were +chosen the deputies, who represented the eighteen privileged cities +in the Provincial Estates.</p> + +<p>The other provinces do not need such detailed notice. In Zeeland +the Estates consisted of seven members, the "first noble" (who +presided) and six towns. There was but one noble, the Marquis of +Flushing and Veere. William the Silent in 1581 obtained this +marquisate by purchase; and his heirs, through its possession, +continued to exercise great influence in the Provincial Estates. As +Philip William, Prince of Orange, was in Madrid, Maurice sat in the +assembly as "first noble" in his place. In Utrecht the three +Estates were represented, <i>i.e.</i> the nobles, the towns (four +in number) and the clergy. The representatives of the clergy were, +however, chosen no longer from the Chapter but from the possessors +of what had been Church lands and property. They were elected by +the knights and the small towns out of a list drawn up by the +corporation of Utrecht. They necessarily belonged to the Reformed +(Calvinist) faith. Gelderland was divided into three (so-called) +quarters, Nijmwegen, Zutphen and Arnhem. Each of these +quarters<span class="newpage"><a name="page_114" id= +"page_114">[pg.114]</a></span> had its separate assembly; and there +was also a general diet. The nobles, who were numerous and had +large estates, were here very influential. Friesland was divided +into four quarters, three of which (Oostergoo, Westergoo and +Zevenwolden) were country districts, the fourth a gathering of the +deputies of eleven towns. The Diet of Friesland was not formed of +Estates, the nobles and the town representatives sitting together +in the same assembly, which was elected by a popular vote, all who +had a small property-qualification possessing the franchise, Roman +Catholics excepted. The system of administration and divided +authority was in Friesland a very complicated one, inherited from +mediaeval times, but here again the nobles, being large +land-owners, had much influence. The stadholder presided at the +diet and had a casting vote. The Estates of Groningen were divided +into two parts—town and districts—each with one vote. +The districts were those of Hunsingoo, Fivelingoo and the +West-Quarter. Here also the stadholder had a casting vote. In +Overyssel the Estates, like those of Groningen, consisted of two +members, the nobles from the three quarters, Sallant, Twente and +Vollenhove, and the deputies of the three towns, Deventer, Kampen +and Zwolle.</p> + +<p>The ordinary executive and administrative work of Provincial +government was carried out in Holland by a body known as the +Commissioned-Councillors—<i>Gecommitteerde-Raden;</i> in the +other provinces by +Deputed-Estates—<i>Gedeputeerde-Staten.</i> The +Commissioned-Councillors were to the Estates of Holland what the +Council of State was to the States-General. They enjoyed +considerable independence, for they were not appointed by the +Estates but directly by the nobles and cities according to a fixed +system of rotation, and they sat continuously, whereas the Estates +only met for short sessions. Their duty was to see that all +provincial edicts and ordinances decreed by the Estates were +published and enforced, to control the finances and to undertake +the provision and oversight of all military requirements; and to +them it belonged to summon the meetings of the Estates. The +Deputed-Estates in the other provinces had similar but generally +less extensive and authoritative functions.</p> + +<p>Such a medley of diverse and often conflicting authorities +within a state of so small an area has no counterpart in history. +It seemed impossible that government could be carried on, or that +there could<span class="newpage"><a name="page_115" id= +"page_115">[pg.115]</a></span> be any concerted action or national +policy in a republic which was rather a many-headed confederation +than a federal state. That the United Netherlands, in spite of all +these disadvantages, rapidly rose in the 17th century to be a +maritime and commercial power of the first rank was largely due to +the fact that the foreign policy of the republic and the general +control of its administration was directed by a succession of very +able men, the stadholders of the house of Orange-Nassau and the +council-pensionaries of Holland. For a right understanding of the +period of Dutch history with which we are about to deal, it is +necessary to define clearly what was the position of the stadholder +and of the council-pensionary in this cumbrous and creaking +machinery of government that has just been described, and the +character of those offices, which conferred upon their holders such +wide-reaching influence and authority.</p> + +<p>The Stadholder or governor was really, both in title and office, +an anomaly in a republic. Under the Burgundian and Habsburg rulers +the Stadholder exercised the local authority in civil and also in +military matters as representing the sovereign duke, count or lord +in the province to which he was appointed, and was by that fact +clothed with certain sovereign attributes during his tenure of +office. William the Silent was Stadholder of Holland and Zeeland at +the outbreak of the revolt, and, though deprived of his offices, he +continued until the time of the Union of Utrecht to exercise +authority in those and other provinces professedly in the name of +the king. After his death one would have expected that the office +would have fallen into abeyance, but the coming of Leicester into +the Netherlands led to a revival of the stadholderate. Holland and +Zeeland, in their desire to exercise a check upon the +governor-general's arbitrary exercise of his powers, appointed +Maurice of Nassau to take his father's place; and at the same time +William Lewis of Nassau became Stadholder of Friesland, and +stadholders were also appointed in Utrecht, Gelderland and +Overyssel. In 1609 Maurice was Stadholder in the five provinces of +Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland, Utrecht and Overyssel; his cousin +William Lewis in Friesland and Groningen with Drente. The powers of +the stadholder were not the same in the different provinces, but +generally speaking he was the executive officer of the Estates; and +in Holland, where his authority was the greatest, he had the +supervision of the administration of justice, the appointment of a +large number of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_116" id= +"page_116">[pg.116]</a></span> municipal magistrates, and the +prerogative of pardon, and he was charged with the military and +naval defence of the province. The stadholder received his +commission both from the Provincial Estates and from the +States-General and took an oath of allegiance to the latter. In so +far, then, as he exercised quasi-sovereign functions, he did it in +the name of the States, whose servant he nominally was. But when +the stadholder, as was the case with Maurice and the other Princes +of Orange, was himself a sovereign-prince and the heir of a great +name, he was able to exercise an authority far exceeding those of a +mere official. The descendants of William the Silent—Maurice, +Frederick Henry, William II and William III—were, moreover, +all of them men of exceptional ability; and the stadholderate +became in their hands a position of almost semi-monarchical dignity +and influence, the stadholder being regarded both by foreign +potentates and by the people of the Netherlands generally as "the +eminent head of the State." Maurice, as stated above, was +stadholder in five provinces; Frederick Henry, William II and +William III in six; the seventh province, Friesland, remaining +loyal, right through the 17th century, to their cousins of the +house of Nassau-Siegen, the ancestors of the present Dutch royal +family. That the authority of the States-General and +States-Provincial should from time to time come into conflict with +that of the stadholder was to be expected, for the relations +between them were anomalous in the extreme. The Stadholder of +Holland for instance appointed, directly or indirectly, the larger +part of the municipal magistrates; they in their turn the +representatives who formed the Estates of the Province. But, as the +stadholder was the servant of the Estates, he, in a sense, may be +said to have had the power of appointing his own masters. The +stadholders of the house of Orange had also, in addition to the +prestige attaching to their name, the possession of large property +and considerable wealth, which with the emoluments they received +from the States-General, as Captain-General and Admiral-General of +the Union, and from the various provinces, where they held the post +of stadholder, enabled them in the days of Frederick Henry and his +successors to maintain the state and dignity of a court.</p> + +<p>The office of Land's Advocate or Council-Pensionary was +different altogether in character from the stadholderate, but at +times scarcely less influential, when filled by a man of +commanding<span class="newpage"><a name="page_117" id= +"page_117">[pg.117]</a></span> talents. The Advocate in the time of +Oldenbarneveldt combined the duties of being legal adviser to the +Estates of Holland, and of presiding over and conducting the +business of the Estates at their meetings, and also those of the +Commissioned-Councillors. He was the leader and spokesman of the +Holland deputies in the States-General. He kept the minutes, +introduced the business and counted the votes at the provincial +assemblies. It was his duty to draw up and register the +resolutions. What was perhaps equally important, he carried on the +correspondence with the ambassadors of the republic at foreign +courts, and received their despatches, and conducted negotiations +with the foreign ambassadors at the Hague. It is easy to see how a +man like Oldenbarneveldt, of great industry and capacity for +affairs, although nominally the paid servant of the Estates, +gradually acquired an almost complete control over every department +of administration and became, as it were, a Minister of State of +all affairs. In Oldenbarneveldt's time the post was held for life; +and, as Maurice did not for many years trouble himself about +matters of internal government and foreign diplomacy, the Advocate +by the length of his tenure of office had at the opening of the +17th century become the virtual director and arbiter of the policy +of the State. After his death the title of advocate and the +life-tenure ceased. His successors were known as +Council-Pensionaries, and they held office for five years only, but +with the possibility of re-election. The career of John de Witt +showed, however, that in the case of a supremely able man these +restrictions did not prevent a <i>Raad-Pensionarius</i><a name= +"FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> from +exercising for eighteen years an authority and influence greater +even than that of Oldenbarneveldt.</p> + +<p>An account of the multiplied subdivision of administrative +control in the United Provinces would not be complete without some +mention of the Admiralty Colleges in Holland. Holland with Zeeland +furnished the fleets on which the existence and well-being of the +republic depended. Both William the Silent and his son Maurice +were, as stadholders, admirals of Holland and of Zeeland, and both +likewise were by the States-General appointed Admirals-General of +the Union. They thus wielded a double authority over maritime +affairs in the two provinces. In 1574 William had at his side a +Council of Admiralty erected by the Provincial Estates, but +Leicester in 1585 was annoyed by the immediate control of +naval<span class="newpage"><a name="page_118" id= +"page_118">[pg.118]</a></span> matters being withdrawn from the +governor-general and the Council of State. He succeeded therefore +in obtaining a division of the Council of Admiralty into three +Chambers, shortly afterwards increased to five—Rotterdam, +Hoorn with Enkhuizen, Veere, Amsterdam and Harlingen with Dokkum. +In 1597 it was determined that each Admiralty should consist of +seven members nominated by the States-General. The Admiral-General +presided over each College and over joint meetings of the five +Colleges. The Admiralties nominated the lieutenants of the ships +and proposed a list of captains to be finally chosen by the +States-General. The Lieutenant-Admiral and Vice-Admirals of Holland +and the Vice-Admiral of Zeeland were chosen by the Provincial +Estates. The States-General appointed the Commander-in-Chief. Such +a system seemed to be devised to prevent any prompt action or swift +decision being taken at times of emergency or sudden danger.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_119" id= +"page_119">[pg.119]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE TWELVE YEARS' TRUCE</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The first years of the truce were for the United Provinces, now +recognised as "free and independent States," a period of remarkable +energy and enterprise. The young republic started on its new career +with the buoyant hopefulness that comes from the proud +consciousness of suffering and dangers bravely met and overcome, +and, under the wise and experienced guidance of Oldenbarneveldt, +acquired speedily a position and a weight in the Councils of Europe +out of all proportion to its geographical area or the numbers of +its population. The far-seeing statecraft and practised diplomatic +skill of the Advocate never rendered greater services to his +country than during these last years of his long tenure of power. A +difficult question as to the succession to the Jülich-Cleves +duchies arose at the very time of the signing of the truce, which +called for delicate and wary treatment.</p> + +<p>In March, 1609, the Duke of Jülich and Cleves died without +leaving a male heir, and the succession to these important border +territories on the Lower Rhine became speedily a burning question. +The two principal claimants through the female line were the +Elector of Brandenburg and William, Count-Palatine of Neuburg. The +Emperor Rudolph II, however, under the pretext of appointing +imperial commissioners to adjudicate upon the rival claims, aroused +the suspicions of Brandenburg and Neuburg; and these two came to an +agreement to enter into joint possession of the duchies, and were +styled "the possessors." The Protestant Union at Heidelberg +recognised "the possessors," for it was all-important for the +balance of power in Germany that these lands should not pass into +the hands of a Catholic ruler of the House of Austria. For the same +reason Brandenburg and Neuburg were recognised by the +States-General, who did not wish to see a partisan of Spain +established on their borders. The emperor on his part not only +refused to acknowledge "the possessors," but he also sent his +cousin Archduke Leopold, Bishop of Passau, to intervene by armed +force.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_120" id= +"page_120">[pg.120]</a></span> +Leopold seized the fortress of Jülich and proceeded to +establish himself.</p> + +<p>It was an awkward situation, for neither the United Provinces +nor the archdukes nor the King of Spain had the smallest desire to +make the Jülich succession the cause of a renewal of +hostilities, immediately after the conclusion of the truce. The +eagerness of the French king to precipitate hostilities with the +Habsburg powers however forced their hands. Henry IV had for some +time been making preparations for war, and he was at the moment +irritated by the protection given by the archdukes to the runaway +Princess of Condé, who had fled to Brussels. He had succeeded in +persuading the States to send an auxiliary force into Germany to +assist the French army of invasion in the spring of 1610, when just +as the king was on the point of leaving Paris to go to the front he +was assassinated on May 14. This event put an end to the +expedition, for the regent, Marie de' Medici, was friendly to +Austria. The States nevertheless did not feel disposed to leave +Leopold in possession of Jülich. Maurice led an army into the duchy +and laid siege to the town. It capitulated on September 1. As might +have been anticipated, however, the joint rule of the "possessors" +did not turn out a success. They quarrelled, and Neuburg asked for +Catholic help. Maurice and Spinola in 1614 found themselves again +face to face at the head of rival forces, but actual hostilities +were avoided; and by the treaty of Nanten (November 12, 1614) it +was arranged that the disputed territory should be divided, +Brandenburg ruling at Cleves, Neuburg at Jülich. Thus, in the +settlement of this thorny question, the influence of +Oldenbarneveldt worked for a temporary solution satisfactory to the +interests of the United Provinces; nor was his successful +intervention in the Jülich-Cleves affair an isolated instance +of his diplomatic activity. On the contrary it was almost +ubiquitous.</p> + +<p>The growth of the Dutch trade in the Baltic had for some years +been advancing by leaps and bounds, and now far exceeded that of +their old rivals, the Hanseatic league. Christian IV, the ambitious +and warlike King of Denmark, had been seriously interfering with +this trade by imposing such heavy dues for the passage of the Sound +as on the one hand to furnish him with a large revenue, and on the +other hand to support his claim to sovereign rights over all +traffic with the inland sea. The Hanse towns protested strongly and +sought<span class="newpage"><a name="page_121" id= +"page_121">[pg.121]</a></span> the support of the States-General in +actively opposing the Danish king. It was granted. A force of 7000 +men under Frederick Henry was sent into Germany to the relief of +Brunswick, which was besieged by Christian IV. The siege was +raised; and an alliance was concluded between the republic and the +Hanse towns for common action in the protection of their commercial +interests. Nor was this all. Oldenbarneveldt entered into +diplomatic relations with Charles IX of Sweden and with Russia. +Cornelis Haga was sent to Stockholm; and from this time forward a +close intimacy was established between Sweden and the States. The +seaport of Gotheborg, just outside the entrance to the Sound, was +founded by a body of Dutch colonists under a certain Abraham +Cabelliau, an Amsterdam merchant, and continued to be for years +practically a Dutch town.</p> + +<p>Scarcely less important was the enterprise shown in the +establishment of friendly relations with distant Russia. Balthazar +de Moucheron established a Dutch factory at Archangel so early as +1584; and a growing trade sprang up with Russia by way of the White +Sea, at first in rivalry with the English Muscovy Company. But a +Dutch merchant, by name Isaac Massa, having succeeded in gaining +the ear and confidence of the Tsar, Russian commerce gradually +became a Dutch monopoly. In 1614 a Muscovite embassy conducted by +Massa came to the Hague, and access to the interior of Russia was +opened to the traders of Holland and to them only.</p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean no less foresight and dexterity was shown +in forwarding the interests of the States. The Advocate's +son-in-law, Van der Myle, went in 1609 as ambassador to Venice; and +the following year the first Venetian envoy, Tommaso Contarini, +arrived in Holland. In 1612 Cornelis Haga, who had been in Sweden, +was sent to Constantinople to treat with the Turks about commercial +privileges in the Levant and for the suppression of piracy, and he +remained in the East in charge of the republic's interests for many +years.</p> + +<p>More difficult was the maintenance of friendly relations with +England. In 1604 James I had made peace with Spain; and the growing +rivalry upon the seas between the Dutch and English tended to +alienate his sympathies from the rising maritime power of the +republic. He outwardly maintained friendly relations; his +ambassador had a seat on the Council of State; he retained his +garrisons in the cautionary towns; and after the signing of the +truce<span class="newpage"><a name="page_122" id= +"page_122">[pg.122]</a></span> he bestowed the Garter upon Prince +Maurice. But at this very time, May, 1609, James took a step which +was most hurtful to that industry which had laid the foundation of +the commercial prosperity of Holland—this was the issuing of +an edict imposing a tax on all foreigners fishing in English +waters. Though general in its form, this edict was really directed +against the right heretofore enjoyed by the Netherlanders to fish +on the English coast, a right conferred by a series of treaties and +never challenged since its confirmation by the <i>Magnus +Intercursus</i> of 1496. Dutch public opinion was strongly aroused +and a special embassy was sent to London, April, 1610, to protest +against the edict and endeavour to procure its withdrawal or its +modification. This was by no means an easy matter. The fisheries, +on which a large part of the population of Holland and Zeeland +depended for their livelihood, were of vital importance to the +States. On the other hand their virtual monopoly by the Dutch +caused keen resentment in England. In the latter part of the reign +of Elizabeth that adventurous sea-faring spirit, which was destined +eventually to plant the flag of England on the shores of every +ocean, had come to the birth, and everywhere it found, during this +early part of the 17th century, Dutch rivals already in possession +and Dutch ships on every trading route. The Dutch mercantile marine +in fact far exceeded the English in numbers and efficiency. The +publication of Hugo Grotius' famous pamphlet, <i>Mare Liberum</i>, +in March, 1609, was probably the final cause which decided James to +issue his Fisheries' proclamation. The purpose of Grotius was to +claim for every nation, as against the Portuguese, freedom of trade +in the Indian Ocean, but the arguments he used appeared to King +James and his advisers to challenge the <i>dominium maris</i>, +which English kings had always claimed in the "narrow seas." The +embassy of 1610, therefore, had to deal not merely with the +fisheries, but with the whole subject of the maritime relations of +the two countries; and a crowd of published pamphlets proves the +intense interest that was aroused. But the emergence of the dispute +as to the Jülich-Cleves succession, and the change in the +policy of the French government owing to the assassination of Henry +IV, led both sides to desire an accommodation; and James consented, +not indeed to withdraw the edict, but to postpone its execution for +two years. It remained a dead letter until 1616, although all the +time the wranglings over the legal aspects of the<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">[pg.123]</a></span> +questions in dispute continued. The Republic, however, as an +independent State, was very much hampered by the awkward fact of +the cautionary towns remaining in English hands. The occupation of +Flushing and Brill, commanding the entrances to important +waterways, seemed to imply that the Dutch republic was to a certain +extent a vassal state under the protection of England. +Oldenbarneveldt resolved therefore to take advantage of King James' +notorious financial embarrassments by offering to redeem the towns +by a ready-money payment. The nominal indebtedness of the United +Provinces for loans advanced by Elizabeth was £600,000; the +Advocate offered in settlement £100,000 in cash and +£150,000 more in half-yearly payments. James accepted the +offer, and the towns were handed over, the garrisons being allowed +to pass into the Dutch service, June 1616. Sir Dudley Carleton, +however, who about this time succeeded Sir Ralph Winwood as English +envoy at the Hague, continued to have a seat in the Council of +State.</p> + +<p>Oldenbarneveldt thus, at a time when his dominant position in +the State was already being undermined and his career drawing to an +end, performed a great service to his country, the more so as King +James, in his eagerness to negotiate a marriage between the Prince +of Wales and a Spanish infanta, was beginning to allow his policy +to be more and more controlled by the Count of Gondomar, the +Spanish ambassador at Whitehall. James' leaning towards Spain +naturally led him to regard with stronger disfavour the increasing +predominance of the Dutch flag upon the seas, and it was not long +before he was sorry that he had surrendered the cautionary towns. +For the fishery rights and the principle of the <i>dominium +maris</i>in the narrow seas were no longer the only questions in +dispute between England and the States. English seamen and traders +had other grievances to allege against the Hollanders in other +parts of the world. The exclusive right to fish for whales in the +waters of Spitsbergen and Greenland was claimed by the English on +the ground of Hugh Willoughby's alleged discovery of Spitsbergen in +1553. The Dutch would not admit any such claim, and asserted that +Heemskerk was the first to visit the archipelago, and that he +planted in 1596 the Dutch flag on the shores of the island, to +which he gave the name of Spitsbergen. In 1613 James conferred the +monopoly upon the English Muscovy Company, who sent out a fishing +fleet<span class="newpage"><a name="page_124" id= +"page_124">[pg.124]</a></span> with orders to drive off any +interlopers; and certain Dutch vessels were attacked and plundered. +The reply of the States-General was the granting of a charter, +January 27, 1614, to a company, known as the Northern or Greenland +Company, with the monopoly of fishing between Davis' Straits and +Nova Zembla; and a fishing fleet was sent out accompanied by +warships. The result was a temporary agreement between the English +and Dutch companies for using separate parts of Spitsbergen as +their bases, all others being excluded. Meanwhile the dispute was +kept open; and despite conferences and negotiations neither side +showed any disposition to yield. Matters reached an acute stage in +1618. English and Dutch fishing fleets of exceptional strength +sailed into the northern waters in the early summer of that year, +and a fierce fight took place, which, as two Dutch war vessels were +present, resulted in the scattering of the English vessels and +considerable loss of life and property.</p> + +<p>The rivalry and opposition between the Dutch and English traders +in the East-Indies was on a larger scale, but here there was no +question of the Dutch superiority in force, and it was used +remorselessly. The Dutch East India Company had thriven apace. In +1606 a dividend of 50 per cent, had been paid; in 1609 one of 325 +per cent. The chief factory was at Bantam, but there were many +others on the mainland of India, and at Amboina, Banda, Ternate and +Matsjan in the Moluccas; and from these centres trade was carried +on with Ceylon, with Borneo and even with distant China and Japan. +But the position of the company was precarious, until the secret +article of the treaty of 1609 conceded liberty of trade during the +truce. The chief need was to create a centre of administration, +from which a general control could be exercised over all the +officials at the various trading factories throughout the +East-Indian archipelago. It was resolved, therefore, by the Council +of Seventeen to appoint a director-general, who should reside at +Bantam, armed with powers which made him, far removed as he was +from interference by the home authorities, almost a sovereign in +the extensive region which he administered. Jan Pieterszoon Koen, +appointed in 1614, was the first of a series of capable men by +whose vigorous and sometimes unscrupulous action the Dutch company +became rapidly the dominant power in the eastern seas, where their +trade and influence overshadowed those of their European +competitors. The most enterprising of those competitors were +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_125" id= +"page_125">[pg.125]</a></span> English. Disputes quickly arose +between the rival companies as to trading rights in the Moluccas, +the Banda group and Amboina; and some islands, where the English +had made treaties with the natives, were occupied by the Dutch, and +the English expelled.</p> + +<p>Another grievance was the refusal of the States-General in 1616 +to admit English dyed cloths into the United Provinces. This had +caused especial irritation to King James. The manufacture of +woollen cloth and the exportation of wool had for long been the +chief of English industries; and the monopoly of the trade was, +when James ascended the throne, in the hands of the oldest of +English chartered companies, the Fellowship of Merchant +Adventurers. The Adventurers held since 1598 their Court and Staple +at Middelburg in Zeeland. The English had not learnt the art of +finishing and dyeing the cloth that they wove; it was imported in +its unfinished state, and was then dyed and prepared for commerce +by the Dutch. Some thousands of skilled hands found employment in +Holland in this work. James, always impecunious, determined in +1608, on the proposal of a certain Alderman Cockayne, to grant +Cockayne a patent for the creation of a home-dyeing industry, +reserving to the crown a monopoly for the sale of the goods. The +Adventurers complained of this as a breach of their charter; and, +after much bickering, the king in 1615 settled the dispute by +withdrawing the charter. Cockayne now hoped that the company he had +formed would be a profitable concern, but he and the king were +doomed to disappointment. The Estates of Holland refused to admit +the English dyed cloths, and their example was followed by the +other provinces and by the States-General. Cockayne became +bankrupt, and in 1617 the king had to renew the charter of the +Adventurers. James was naturally very sore at this rebuff, and he +resolved upon reprisals by enforcing the proclamation of 1609 and +exacting a toll from all foreign vessels fishing in British waters. +Great was the indignation in Holland, and the fishing fleet in 1617 +set sail with an armed convoy. A Scottish official named Browne, +who came to collect the toll, was seized and carried as a prisoner +to Holland. James at once laid hands on two Dutch skippers in the +Thames, as hostages, and demanded satisfaction for the outrage upon +his officer. Neither side would at first give way, and it was not +until after some months that an accommodation was patched up. The +general question of the fishery privileges remained<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_126" id="page_126">[pg.126]</a></span> +however just as far from settlement as ever, for the States stood +firm upon their treaty rights. At length it was resolved by the +States to send a special mission to England to discuss with the +king the four burning questions embittering the relations between +the two countries. The envoys arrived in London, December, 1618. +For seven months the parleyings went on without any definite result +being reached, and in August, 1619, the embassy returned. Very +important events had meanwhile been occurring both in the United +Provinces and in Germany, which made it necessary to both parties +that the decision on these trade questions, important as they were, +should be postponed for awhile, as they were overshadowed by the +serious political crises in Holland and in Bohemia, which were then +occupying all men's attention.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_127" id= +"page_127">[pg.127]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>MAURICE AND OLDENBARNEVELDT</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The conclusion of the truce did not bring, with material +progress and trade expansion, internal peace to the United +Provinces. The relations between the Prince-stadholder and the +all-powerful Advocate had long been strained. In the long-drawn-out +negotiations Maurice had never disguised his dislike to the project +of a truce, and, though he finally acquiesced, it was a sullen +acquiescence. At first there was no overt breach between the two +men, but Maurice, though he did not refuse to meet Oldenbarneveldt, +was cold and unfriendly. He did not attempt to interfere with the +old statesman's control of the machinery of administration or with +his diplomatic activities, for he was naturally indolent and took +little interest in politics. Had he been ambitious, he might many +years before have obtained by general consent sovereign power, but +he did not seek it. His passion was the study of military science. +From his early youth he had spent his life in camps, and now he +found himself without occupation. The enemies of Oldenbarneveldt +seized the opportunity to arouse Maurice's suspicions of the +Advocate's motives in bringing about the truce, and even to hint +that he had been bribed with Spanish gold. Chief among these +enemies was Francis van Aerssens, for a number of years ambassador +of the States at Paris. Aerssens owed much to the Advocate, but he +attributed his removal from his post at the French court to the +decision of Oldenbarneveldt to replace him by his son-in-law, Van +der Myle. He never forgave his recall, and alike by subtle +insinuation and unscrupulous accusation, strove to blacken the +character and reputation of his former benefactor.</p> + +<p>By a curious fatality it was the outbreak of fierce sectarian +strife and dissension between the extreme and the moderate +Calvinists which was eventually to change the latent hostility of +Maurice to Oldenbarneveldt into open antagonism. Neither of the two +men had strong religious convictions, but circumstances brought it +about that they were to range themselves irrevocably on +opposite<span class="newpage"><a name="page_128" id= +"page_128">[pg.128]</a></span> sides in a quarrel between fanatical +theologians on the subject of predestination and grace.</p> + +<p>From early times Calvinism in the northern Netherlands had been +divided into two schools. The strict Calvinists or "Reformed," +known by their opponents as "Precisians," and the liberal +Calvinists, "the Evangelicals," otherwise "the Libertines." To this +Libertine party belonged William the Silent, Oldenbarneveldt and +the majority of the burgher-regents of Holland. These men regarded +the religious question from the statesman's point of view. Having +risen in rebellion against the tyranny of the Spanish Inquisition, +they were anxious to preserve their countrymen (only a minority of +whom were Protestants) from being placed under the heel of a +religious intolerance as narrow and bigoted as that from which they +had escaped. The "Reformed" congregations on the other hand, led by +the preachers, were anxious to summon a National Synod for the +purpose of creating a State Church to whose tenets, rigidly defined +by the Heidelberg catechism and the Netherland confession, all +would be required to conform on pain of being deprived of their +rights as citizens. The Libertines were opposed to such a scheme, +as an interference with the rights of each province to regulate its +own religious affairs, and as an attempt to assert the supremacy of +Church over State.</p> + +<p>The struggle between the two parties, which had continued +intermittently for a number of years, suddenly became acute through +the appointment by Maurice of Jacob Harmensz, better known as +Arminius, to the Chair of Theology at Leyden, vacated by the death +of Junius in 1602. The leader of the strict Calvinist school, the +learned Franciscus Gomarus, had at the time of the appointment of +Arminius already been a professor at Leyden for eight years. Each +teacher gathered round him a following of devoted disciples, and a +violent collision was inevitable. Prolonged and heated controversy +on the high doctrines of Predestination and Freewill led to many +appeals being made to the States-General and to the Estates of +Holland to convene a Synod to settle the disputed questions, but +neither of these bodies in the midst of the negotiations for the +truce was willing to complicate matters by taking a step that could +not fail to accentuate existing discords. Six months after the +truce was signed Arminius died. The quarrel, however, was only to +grow more embittered. Johannes Uyttenbogaert took<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_129" id="page_129">[pg.129]</a></span> the +leadership of the Arminians, and finally, after consultation with +Oldenbarneveldt, he called together a convention of Arminian +preachers and laymen at Gouda (June, 1610). They drew up for +presentation to the Estates a petition, known as the +<i>Remonstratie,</i> consisting of five articles, in which they +defined the points wherein they differed from the orthodox +Calvinist doctrines on the subjects of predestination, election and +grace. The Gomarists on their part drew up a +<i>Contra-Remonstratie</i> containing seven articles, and they +declined to submit to any decision on matters of doctrine, save +from a purely Church Synod. These two weighty declarations gained +for the two parties henceforth the names of Remonstrants and +Contra-Remonstrants. For the next three years a fierce controversy +raged in every province, pulpit replying to pulpit, and pamphlet to +pamphlet. The Contra-Remonstrants roundly accused their adversaries +of holding Pelagian and Socinian opinions and of being Papists in +disguise. This last accusation drew to their side the great +majority of the Protestant population, but the Remonstrants had +many adherents among the burgher-regents, and they could count upon +a majority in the Estates of Holland, Utrecht and Overyssel, and +they had the powerful support of Oldenbarneveldt.</p> + +<p>The Advocate was no theologian, and on the doctrinal points in +dispute he probably held no very clear views. He inclined, however, +to the Arminians because of their greater tolerance, and above all +for their readiness to acknowledge the authority of the State as +supreme, in religious as well as in civil matters. He was anxious +to bring about an accommodation which should give satisfaction to +both parties, but he was dealing with fanatics, and the fires of +religious bigotry when once kindled are difficult to quench. And +now was seen a curious object lesson in the many-headed character +of the government of the United Netherlands. A majority of the +provinces in the States-General favoured the Contra-Remonstrants. +The Estates of Holland, however, under the influence of +Oldenbarneveldt by a small majority refused the Contra-Remonstrant +demand and resolved to take drastic action against the Gomarists. +But a number of the representative towns in Holland, and among them +Amsterdam, declined to enforce the resolution. At Rotterdam, on the +other hand, and in the other town-councils, where the Arminians had +the majority, the Gomarist preachers were expelled from their +pulpits; and the Advocate was determined by coercion, if +necessary,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_130" id= +"page_130">[pg.130]</a></span> to enforce the authority of the +Estates throughout the province. But coercion without the use of +the military force was impossible in face of the growing uprising +of popular passion; and the military forces could not be employed +without the consent of the stadholder. Thus in 1617, with the +question of civil war in Holland trembling in the balance, the +ultimate decision lay with the stadholder; and Maurice after long +hesitation determined to throw the sword of the soldier into the +scale against the influence of the statesman.</p> + +<p>Maurice had not as yet openly broken with his father's old +friend, whose immense services to the republic during the greater +part of four decades he fully recognised. As to the questions now +in dispute the stadholder was to an even less degree than the +Advocate a zealous theologian. It is reported that he declared that +he did not know whether predestination was blue or green. His +court-chaplain, Uyttenbogaert, was a leading Arminian; and both his +step-mother, Louise (see p. 78), to whose opinions he attached much +weight, and his younger brother, Frederick Henry, were by +inclination "libertines." On the other hand William Lewis, the +Frisian Stadholder, was a zealous Calvinist, and he used all his +influence with his cousin to urge him to make a firm stand against +Oldenbarneveldt, and those who were trying to overthrow the +Reformed faith. Sir Dudley Carleton, the new English ambassador, +ranged himself also as a strong opponent of the Advocate. While +Maurice, however, was hesitating as to the action he should take, +Oldenbarneveldt determined upon a step which amounted to a +declaration of war. In December, 1616, he carried in the Estates of +Holland a proposal that they should, in the exercise of their +sovereign rights, enlist a provincial force of 4000 militia +(<i>waardgelders</i>) in their pay. Thus Holland, though a strong +minority in the Estates was in opposition, declared its intention +of upholding the principle of provincial sovereignty against the +authority of the States-General. The States-General at the instance +of the two stadholders, May, 1617, declared for the summoning of a +National Synod by a vote of four provinces against three. The +Estates of Holland, again with a sharp division of opinion but by a +majority, declined to obey the summons. An impasse was thus reached +and Maurice at last openly declared for the Contra-Remonstrant +side.</p> + +<p>On July 23 the Prince, accompanied by his suite, ostentatiously +attended divine service at the Cloister Church at the Hague, +where<span class="newpage"><a name="page_131" id= +"page_131">[pg.131]</a></span> the Contra-Remonstrants had a +fortnight before, in face of the prohibition of the Estates, +established themselves. This step was countered by decisive action +on the part of Oldenbarneveldt. A proposal was made in the Estates +of Holland, August 4, known as the "Sharp Resolution"—and it +well merited its name, for it was of the most drastic character. It +was a most unqualified declaration of provincial sovereignty, and +yet it was only passed in the teeth of a strong minority by the +exertion of the Advocate's personal influence. By this resolution +Holland declined to assent to the summoning of any Synod, National +or Provincial, and asserted the supremacy of the Estates in matters +of religion. The municipal authorities were ordered to raise levies +of <i>Waardgelders</i> to keep the peace; and all officials, civil +or military, were required to take an oath of obedience to the +Estates on pain of dismissal. A strong protest was made by the +representatives of the dissenting cities headed by Reinier Pauw, +burgomaster of Amsterdam.</p> + +<p>On the plea of ill-health Oldenbarneveldt now left the Hague, +and took up his residence at Utrecht. His object was to keep this +province firm in its alliance with Holland. He did not return till +November 6, but all the time he was in active correspondence with +his party in Holland, at whose head were the three pensionaries of +Rotterdam, Leyden and Haarlem—De Groot, Hoogerbeets and De +Haan. Under their leadership levies of <i>Waardgelders</i> were +made in a number of towns; but other towns, including Amsterdam, +refused, and the total levy did not amount to more than 1800 men. +Meanwhile the majority of the States-General, urged on by Maurice +and William Lewis, were determined, despite the resistance of +Holland and Utrecht, to carry through the proposal for the +summoning of a National Synod. Overyssel had been overawed and +persuaded to assent, so that there were five votes against two in +its favour. All through the winter the wrangling went on, and +estrangement between the contending parties grew more bitter and +acute. A perfect flood of pamphlets, broadsheets and pasquinades +issued from the press; and in particular the most violent and +envenomed attacks were made upon the character and administration +of the Advocate, in which he was accused of having received bribes +both from Spanish and French sources and to have betrayed the +interests of his country. The chief instigator of these attacks was +Oldenbarneveldt's personal enemy, Francis van Aerssens, whose pen +was never idle. The<span class="newpage"><a name="page_132" id= +"page_132">[pg.132]</a></span> defenders of the Remonstrant cause +and of the principles of provincial sovereignty were not lacking in +the vigour and virulence of their replies; and the Advocate himself +felt that the accusations which were made against him demanded a +formal and serious rejoinder. He accordingly prepared a long and +careful defence of his whole career, in which he proved +conclusively that the charges made against him had no foundation. +This <i>Remonstratie</i> he addressed to the Estates of Holland, +and he also sent a copy to the Prince. If this document did not at +the time avail to silence the voices of prejudiced adversaries +whose minds were made up, it has at least had the effect of +convincing posterity that, however unwise may have been the course +now deliberately pursued by the Advocate, he never for the sake of +personal gain betrayed the interests of his country. Had he now +seen that the attempt of a majority in the Estates of Holland to +resist the will of the majority in the States-General could only +lead to civil war, and had he resigned his post, advising the +Estates to disband the <i>Waardgelders</i> and yield to superior +force, a catastrophe might have been averted. There is no reason to +believe that in such circumstances Maurice would have countenanced +any extreme harshness in dealing with the Advocate. But +Oldenbarneveldt, long accustomed to the exercise of power, was +determined not to yield one jot of the claim of the sovereign +province of Holland to supremacy within its own borders in matters +of religion. The die was cast and the issue had to be decided by +force of arms.</p> + +<p>On June 28, 1618, a solemn protest was made by the Advocate in +the States-General against the summoning of a National Synod in +opposition to the expressed opinion of the Estates of Holland; and +a threat was made that Holland might withhold her contribution to +the general fund. The majority of the States-General (July 9) +declared the raising of local levies illegal, and (July 23) it was +resolved that a commission be sent to Utrecht with Maurice at its +head to demand the disbanding of the <i>Waardgelders</i> in that +town.</p> + +<p>The Estates of Holland<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> impelled by Oldenbarneveldt now +took a very strong step, a step which could not be retrieved. They +resolved also to despatch commissioners to Utrecht to urge the +town-council to stand firm. De Groot, Hoogerbeets and two +others<span class="newpage"><a name="page_133" id= +"page_133">[pg.133]</a></span> were nominated, and they at once set +out for Utrecht. Maurice, with the deputation from the +States-General and a large suite, left the Hague only a little +later than De Groot and his companions, and reached Utrecht on the +evening of the 25th. This strange situation lasted for several +days, and much parleying and several angry discussions took place. +Matters were further complicated by the news that the dissentient +towns of Holland were also sending a deputation. This news had a +considerable effect upon Colonel Ogle, the commander of the +<i>Waardgelders</i> in Utrecht, and his officers. They were already +wavering; they now saw that resistance to the orders of the +States-General would be useless. The Prince, who had been +collecting a body of troops, now determined on action. His force +entered the city on the evening of the 31st, and on the following +morning he commanded the local levies to lay down their arms. They +at once obeyed, and Maurice took possession of the city. The +Holland commissioners and the members of the town-council fled. +Maurice appointed a new town-council entirely Contra-Remonstrant; +and changes were made in both branches of the Estates, so as to +secure a Contra-Remonstrant majority and with it the vote of the +province in the States-General for the National Synod. Holland now +stood alone, and its opposition had to be dealt with in a fashion +even sterner than that of Utrecht.</p> + +<p>The Remonstrant cities of Holland were still for resistance, and +attempts were made to influence the stadholder not to resort to +extreme measures. Maurice had, however, made up his mind. On August +18 the States-General passed a resolution demanding the dismissal +of the <i>Waardgelders</i> in Holland within twenty-four hours. The +placard was published on the 20th and was immediately obeyed. The +Estates of Holland had been summoned to meet on the 21st, and were +at once called upon to deal with the question of the National +Synod. A few days later (August 28) a secret resolution was adopted +by the majority in the States-General, without the knowledge of the +Holland deputies, to arrest Oldenbarneveldt, De Groot, Hoogerbeets +and Ledenburg, the secretary of the Estates of Utrecht, on the +ground that their action in the troubles at Utrecht had been +dangerous to the State. On the following day the Advocate, on his +way to attend the meeting of the Estates, was arrested and placed +in confinement. De Groot, Hoogerbeets and Ledenburg met with +similar treatment. After protesting the Estates adjourned<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_134" id= +"page_134">[pg.134]</a></span> on the 30th until September 12, the +deputies alleging that it was necessary to consult their principals +in this emergency, but in reality because the suddenness of the +blow had stricken them with terror. It was a prudent step, for +Maurice was resolved to purge the Estates and the town-councils of +Holland, as he had already purged those of Utrecht. Attended by a +strong body-guard he went from town to town, changing the +magistracies, so as to place everywhere the Contra-Remonstrants in +power. As a consequence of this action the deputies sent by the +towns were likewise changed; and, when the Estates next met, the +supporters of Oldenbarneveldt and his policy had disappeared. A +peaceful revolution had been accomplished. All opposition to the +summoning of the Synod was crushed; and (November 9) the Estates +passed a vote of thanks to the stadholder for "the care and +fidelity" with which he had discharged a difficult and necessary +duty.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Oldenbarneveldt and the other prisoners had been +confined in separate rooms in the Binnenhof and were treated with +excessive harshness and severity. They were permitted to have no +communication with the outside world, no books, paper or writing +materials; and the conditions of their imprisonment were such as to +be injurious to health. A commission was appointed by the +States-General to examine the accused, and it began its labours in +November. The method of procedure was unjust and unfair in the +extreme, even had it been a case of dealing with vile criminals. +The treatment of Oldenbarneveldt in particular was almost +indecently harsh. The aged statesman had to appear sixty times +before the commission and was examined and cross-examined on every +incident of the forty years of his administration and on every +detail of his private life. He was allowed not only to have no +legal adviser, but also was forbidden access to any books of +reference or to any papers or to make any notes. It was thus hoped +that, having to trust entirely to his memory, the old man might be +led into self-contradictions or to making damaging admissions +against himself. De Groot and Hoogerbeets had to undergo a similar, +though less protracted, inquisition. Such was its effect upon +Ledenburg that he committed suicide.</p> + +<p>It was not until February 20, 1619, that the States-General +appointed an extraordinary court for the trial of the accused. It +consisted of twenty-four members, of whom twelve were +Hollanders.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_135" id= +"page_135">[pg.135]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is needless to say that such a court had no legal status; and +the fact that nearly all its members were the Advocate's personal +or political enemies is a proof that the proceedings were judicial +only in name. It was appointed not to try, but to condemn the +prisoners. Oldenbarneveldt protested in the strongest terms against +the court's competence. He had been the servant of the Estates of +the sovereign province of Holland, and to them alone was he +responsible. He denied to the States-General any sovereign rights; +they were simply an assembly representing a number of sovereign +allies. These were bold statements, and they were accompanied by an +absolute denial of the charges brought against him. It was quite +useless. All the prisoners were condemned, first De Groot, then +Hoogerbeets, then Oldenbarneveldt. The trials were concluded on May +1, but it was resolved to defer the sentences until after the close +of the National Synod, which had been meeting at Dordrecht. This +took place on May 9.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile strong and influential efforts were made for leniency. +The French ambassador, Aubrey du Maurier, during the trial did his +utmost to secure fair treatment for the Advocate; and a special +envoy, Châtillon, was sent from Paris to express the French +king's firm belief in the aged statesman's integrity and patriotism +based on an intimate knowledge of all the diplomatic proceedings +during and after the negotiations for the Truce. But these +representations had no effect and were indeed resented. Equally +unfruitful were the efforts made by Louise de Coligny to soften the +severity of her step-son's attitude. Even William Lewis wrote to +Maurice not to proceed too harshly in the matter. All was in vain. +The Prince's heart was steeled. He kept asking whether the Advocate +or his family had sued for pardon. But Oldenbarneveldt was far too +proud to take any step which implied an admission of guilt; and all +the members of his family were as firmly resolved as he was not to +supplicate for grace. Few, however, believed that capital +punishment would be carried out. On Sunday, May 12, however, +sentence of death was solemnly pronounced; and on the following +morning the head of the great statesman and patriot was stricken +off on a scaffold erected in the Binnenhof immediately in front of +the windows of Maurice's residence. The Advocate's last words were +a protestation of his absolute innocence of the charge of being a +traitor to his country; and posterity has endorsed the +declaration.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_136" id= +"page_136">[pg.136]</a></span></p> + +<p>That Oldenbarneveldt had in the last two years of his life acted +indiscreetly and arrogantly there can be no question. His long +tenure of power had made him impatient of contradiction; and, +having once committed himself to a certain course of action, he +determined to carry it through in the teeth of opposition, +regardless of consequences and with a narrow obstinacy of temper +that aroused bitter resentment. His whole correspondence and +private papers were however seized and carefully scrutinised by his +personal enemies; and, had they found any evidence to substantiate +the charges brought against him, it would have been published to +the world. It is clear that not a shred of such evidence was +discovered, and that the Advocate was perfectly innocent of the +treasonable conduct for which a packed court condemned him to +suffer death. Such was the reward that Oldenbarneveldt received for +life-long services of priceless value to his country. He more than +any other man was the real founder of the Dutch Republic; and it +will remain an ineffaceable stain on Maurice's memory that he was +consenting unto this cruel and unjust sentence.</p> + +<p>Sentences of imprisonment for life were passed upon De Groot and +Hoogerbeets. They were confined in the castle of Loevestein. The +conditions of captivity were so far relaxed that the famous jurist +was allowed to receive books for the continuance of his studies. +Through the ingenuity and daring of his wife De Groot contrived to +escape in 1621 by concealing himself in a trunk supposed to be +filled with heavy tomes. The trunk was conveyed by water to +Rotterdam, from whence the prisoner managed to make his way safely +to France.</p> + +<p>Concurrently with the political trials the National Synod had +been pursuing its labours at Dordrecht. On November 13 rather more +than one hundred delegates assembled under the presidency of +Johannes Bogerman of Leeuwarden. Fifty-eight of the delegates were +preachers, professors and elders elected by the provincial synods, +fifteen were commissioners appointed by the States-General, +twenty-eight were members of foreign Reformed churches. English and +Scottish representatives took an active part in the proceedings. +The Synod decided to summon the Remonstrants to send a deputation +to make their defence. On December 6 accordingly, a body of twelve +leading Remonstrants with Simon Episcopius at their head took their +seats at a table facing the assembly. Episcopius made a<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">[pg.137]</a></span> long +harangue in Latin occupying nine sessions. His eloquence was, +however, wasted on a court that had already prejudged the cause for +which he pleaded. After much wrangling and many recriminations +Bogerman ordered the Remonstrants to withdraw. They did so only to +meet in an "anti-synod" at Rotterdam at which the authority of the +Dordrecht assembly to pronounce decisions on matters of faith was +denied. Meanwhile the Contra-Remonstrant divines at Dordrecht +during many weary sessions proceeded to draw up a series of canons +defining the true Reformed doctrine and condemning utterly, as +false and heretical, the five points set forth in the Remonstrance. +On May 1 the Netherland confession and the Heidelberg catechism +were unanimously adopted, as being in conformity with Holy +Scripture, and as fixing the standard of orthodox teaching. The +Synod was dissolved eight days later. The final session was the +154th; and this great assembly of delegates from many lands, the +nearest approach to a general council of the Protestant churches +that has ever been held, came to a close amidst much festivity and +no small congratulation. No time was lost in taking action by the +dominant party against their opponents. Two hundred Remonstrant +preachers were driven into exile; and the congregations were +treated with the same spirit of intolerance as had hitherto been +the lot of the Catholics, and were forbidden the exercise of public +worship.</p> + +<p>After the Advocate's death, except for the persecution directed +against the Remonstrant party, the course of public affairs went on +smoothly. Maurice, who by the death of his brother, Philip William, +had in February, 1618, become Prince of Orange, was virtually +sovereign in the United Provinces. His name appeared in treaties +with eastern potentates and in diplomatic despatches, just as if he +were a reigning monarch; and the people of the Netherlands were +even at times spoken of as his subjects. But Maurice never cared to +trouble himself about the details of politics, and he now left the +management of affairs in the hands of a few men that he could +trust, notably in those of Francis van Aerssens (henceforth +generally known as lord of Sommelsdijk) and Reinier Pauw, the +influential burgomaster of Amsterdam. Aerssens had shown himself +spiteful and vindictive in his conduct towards his earlier patron, +Oldenbarneveldt, but being a clever diplomatist and gifted with +considerable powers of statesmanship, he became henceforth for +many<span class="newpage"><a name="page_138" id= +"page_138">[pg.138]</a></span> years the trusted adviser and +confidant not only of Maurice, but of his successor Frederick +Henry.</p> + +<p>The year 1620 was marked by the sudden death in June of William +Lewis, the Stadholder of Friesland. His loss was much deplored by +Maurice, who had for years been accustomed to rely upon the tried +experience and sound judgment of his cousin both in peace and war. +A few months earlier (March) Louise de Coligny had died at +Fontainebleau. She too had been from his youth the wise adviser of +her step-son, but she was deeply grieved at the fate of +Oldenbarneveldt, and after his execution left the Netherlands to +take up her residence in her native country. By the death of +William Lewis the two stadholderates of Groningen with Drente and +of Friesland became vacant. Maurice succeeded to that of Groningen, +but the Frieslanders remained faithful to the house of +Nassau-Siegen and elected Ernest Casimir, the younger brother of +William Lewis, as their stadholder.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <span class="newpage"><a name="page_139" id= +"page_139">[pg.139]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>FROM THE END OF THE TWELVE YEARS' TRUCE TO THE PEACE OF MUENSTER +(1621-48). THE STADHOLDERATE OF FREDERICK HENRY OF ORANGE</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Civil disturbances and religious persecutions were not the only +causes of anxiety to the political leaders in the United Provinces +during the crisis of 1618-19; foreign affairs were also assuming a +menacing aspect. The year 1618 saw the opening in Germany of the +Thirty Years' War. The acceptance of the Crown of Bohemia by +Frederick, Elector Palatine, meant that the long-delayed struggle +for supremacy between Catholics and Protestants was to be fought +out; and it was a struggle which neither Spain nor the Netherlands +could watch with indifference. Maurice was fully alive to the +necessity of strengthening the defences of the eastern frontier; +and subsidies were granted by the States-General to Frederick and +also to some of the smaller German princes. This support would have +been larger, but the unexpected refusal of James I to give aid to +his son-in-law made the Dutch doubtful in their attitude. The +States, though friendly, were unwilling to commit themselves. In +the spring of 1620, however, by James' permission, the English +regiments in the Dutch service under the command of Sir Horace Vere +were sent to oppose Spinola's invasion of the Rhineland. +Accompanied by a Dutch force under Frederick Henry, they reached +the Palatinate, but it was too late. The fate of the King of +Bohemia was soon to be decided elsewhere than in his hereditary +dominions. Completely defeated at the battle of Prague, Frederick +with his wife and family fled to Holland to seek the protection of +their cousin, the Prince of Orange. They met with the most generous +treatment at his hands, and they were for many years to make the +Hague the home of their exile.</p> + +<p>As the date at which the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end drew +near, some efforts were made to avert war. There were advocates of +peace in the United Provinces, especially in Gelderland and +Overyssel, the two provinces most exposed to invasion.<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">[pg.140]</a></span></p> + +<p>The archdukes had no desire to re-open hostilities; and +Pecquinius, the Chancellor of Brabant, was sent to the Hague to +confer with Maurice, and was authorised to name certain conditions +for the conclusion of a peace. These conditions proved, however, to +be wholly unacceptable, and the early summer of 1621 saw Maurice +and Spinola once more in the field at the head of rival armies. The +operations were, however, dilatory and inconclusive. The stadholder +now, and throughout his last campaigns, was no longer physically +the same man as in the days when his skilful generalship had saved +the Dutch republic from overthrow; he had lost the brilliant energy +of youth. The deaths in the course of this same year, 1621, of both +the Archduke Albert and Philip III of Spain, were also hindrances +to the vigorous prosecution of the war. In 1622 there was much +marching and counter-marching, and Maurice was successful in +compelling Spinola to raise the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, the last +success he was destined to achieve. In the course of this year the +prince's life was in serious danger. A plot was laid to assassinate +him on his way to Ryswyck, the leading conspirator being William +van Stoutenberg, the younger son of Oldenbarneveldt. Stoutenberg +had, in 1619, been deprived of his posts and his property +confiscated, and he wished to avenge his father's death and his own +injuries. The plot was discovered, but Stoutenberg managed to +escape and took service under the Archduchess Isabel. Unfortunately +he had implicated his elder brother, Regnier, lord of Groeneveldt, +in the scheme. Groeneveldt was seized and brought to the +scaffold.</p> + +<p>From this time nothing but misfortune dogged the steps of +Maurice, whose health began to give way under the fatigues of +campaigning. In 1623 a carefully planned expedition against +Antwerp, which he confidently expected to succeed, was frustrated +by a long continuance of stormy weather. Spinola in the following +year laid siege to Breda. This strongly fortified town, an +ancestral domain of the Princes of Orange, had a garrison of 7000 +men. The Spanish commander rapidly advancing completely invested +it. Maurice, who had been conducting operations on the eastern +frontier, now hastened to Breda, and did his utmost by cutting off +Spinola's own supplies to compel him to raise the blockade. All his +efforts however failed, and after holding out for many months Breda +surrendered. In the spring of 1625 the prince became so<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">[pg.141]</a></span> +seriously ill that he asked the States-General to appoint his +brother commander-in-chief in his stead. Feeling his end drawing +near, Maurice's chief wish was to see Frederick Henry married +before his death. Frederick Henry, like Maurice himself, had never +shown any inclination for wedlock and there was no heir to the +family. He had, however, been attracted by the Countess Amalia von +Solms, a lady of the suite of Elizabeth of Bohemia. Under pressure +from the dying man the preliminaries were speedily arranged, and +the wedding was quietly celebrated on April 4. Though thus hastily +concluded, the marriage proved to be in every way a thoroughly +happy one. Amalia was throughout his life to be the wise adviser of +her husband and to exercise no small influence in the conduct of +public affairs. Maurice died on April 23, in the fifty-eighth year +of his age. His forty years of continuous and strenuous service to +the State had made him prematurely old; and there can be but little +doubt that the terrible anxieties of the crisis of 1618-19 told +upon him. Above all a feeling of remorse for his share in the +tragedy of Oldenbarneveldt's death preyed upon his mind.</p> + +<p>The new Prince of Orange succeeded to a difficult position, but +he was endowed with all the qualities of a real leader of men. +Forty-one years old and brought up from boyhood in camps under the +eye of his brother, Frederick Henry was now to show that he was one +of the most accomplished masters of the military art, and +especially siege-craft, in an age of famous generals, for Bernard +of Saxe-Weimar, Torstenson, Turenne, Charles Gustavus and the Great +Elector were all trained in his school. He was, however, much more +than an experienced and resourceful commander in the field. He +inherited much of his father's wary and tactful statesmanship and +skill in diplomacy. He was, moreover, deservedly popular. He was a +Hollander born and bred, and his handsome face, chivalrous bearing, +and conciliatory genial temper, won for him an influence, which for +some years was to give him almost undisputed predominance in the +State. To quote the words of a contemporary, Van der Capellen, "the +prince in truth disposed of everything as he liked; everything gave +way to his word."</p> + +<p>The offices and dignities held by Maurice were at once conferred +on Frederick Henry. He was elected Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, +Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel, and was appointed +Captain-General and Admiral-General of the Union and head of the +Council<span class="newpage"><a name="page_142" id= +"page_142">[pg.142]</a></span> of State. During practically the +whole of his life the prince spent a considerable part of the year +in camp, but he was able all the time to keep in touch with home +affairs, and to exercise a constant supervision and control of the +foreign policy of the State by the help of his wife, and through +the services of Francis van Aerssens. The Court of the Princess of +Orange, graced as it was by the presence of the exiled King and +Queen of Bohemia, was brilliant and sumptuous, and gave to the +reality of power possessed by the stadholder more than a semblance +of sovereign pomp. During her husband's absence she spared no pains +to keep him well-acquainted with all the currents and +under-currents of action and opinion at the Hague, and was not only +able to give sound advice, but was quite ready, when necessity +called, to meet intrigue with intrigue and render abortive any +movements or schemes adverse to the prince's policy or authority. +The obligations of Frederick Henry to Aerssens were even greater. +The stadholder was at first suspicious of the man, whom he disliked +for the leading part he had taken against Oldenbarneveldt. But he +did not allow personal prejudice to prevent him from employing a +diplomatist of Aerssens' experience and capacity, and, with +acquaintance, he learned to regard him, not merely as a clever and +wise councillor, but as a confidential friend.</p> + +<p>The right conduct of foreign affairs was of peculiar importance +at the moment, when Frederick Henry became stadholder, for a change +of <i>régime</i> took place almost simultaneously both in +France and England. In Paris Cardinal Richelieu had just laid firm +hands upon the reins of power, and the timorous and feeble James I +died in the autumn of 1625. Richelieu and Charles I were both +hostile to Spain, and the republic had reason to hope for something +more than friendly neutrality in the coming years of struggle with +the united forces of the two Habsburg monarchies.</p> + +<p>One of the chief difficulties which confronted the new +stadholder was the religious question. The prince himself, as was +well known, was inclined to Remonstrant opinions. He was, however, +anxious not to stir up the smouldering embers of sectarian strife, +and he made no effort to withdraw the placards against the +Remonstrants, but confined himself to moderate in practice their +severity. He recalled from exile Van der Myle, Oldenbarneveldt's +son-in-law; made Nicholas van Reigersberg, De Groot's +brother-in-law, a member of the council; and released Hoogerbeets +from his captivity<span class="newpage"><a name="page_143" id= +"page_143">[pg.143]</a></span> at Loevestein. When, however, De +Groot himself, presuming on the stadholder's goodwill, ventured to +return to Holland without permission, the prince refused to receive +him and he was ordered to leave the country once more.</p> + +<p>The year 1626 was marked by no events of military importance; +both sides were in lack of funds and no offensive operations were +undertaken. Much rejoicing, however, attended the birth of a son +and heir to the Prince of Orange, May 27. The child received the +name of William. Early in the following year Sir Dudley Carleton, +as envoy-extraordinary of King Charles I, invested Frederick Henry +at the Hague with the Order of the Garter. This high distinction +was not, however, a mark of really friendlier relations between the +two countries. The long-standing disputes as to fishing rights in +the narrow seas and at Spitsbergen, and as to trading spheres in +the East Indian Archipelago, remained unsettled; and in the +unfortunate and ill-considered war, which broke out at this time +between England and France, the sympathies of the States were with +the latter. Already those close relations between the French and +the Dutch, which for the next decade were to be one of the +dominating factors in determining the final issue of the Thirty +Years' War, were by the diplomatic efforts of Richelieu and of +Aerssens being firmly established. France advanced to the States a +large subsidy by the aid of which the stadholder was enabled to +take the field at the head of a really fine army and to give to the +world a brilliant display of his military abilities. Throughout his +stadholderate the persistent aim which Frederick Henry held before +himself was never aggression with a view to conquest, but the +creation of a scientific frontier, covered by strong fortresses, +within which the flat lands behind the defensive lines of the great +rivers could feel reasonably secure against sudden attack. It was +with this object that in 1629 he determined to lay siege to the +town of Hertogenbosch. A force of 24,000 infantry and 4000 cavalry +were gathered together for the enterprise. It was composed of many +nationalities, like all the armies commanded by Maurice and +Frederick Henry, but was admirably disciplined and devoted to its +commander. Four English, three Scottish and four French regiments, +all choice troops, raised by permission of their sovereigns for the +service of the States, formed the backbone of the force. On April +30 the town was invested.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_144" +id="page_144">[pg.144]</a></span></p> + +<p>Hertogenbosch, or Bois-le-duc, was strongly fortified, and so +surrounded by marshy ground, intersected by a number of small +streams, that the only way of approach for a besieging force was a +single causeway defended by the forts of St Isabella and St +Anthony. The garrison consisted of 8000 men, and the governor, +Grobendonc, was an experienced and resolute soldier.</p> + +<p>The stadholder began by surrounding the town with a double line +of circumvallation. The marshes were crossed by dykes, and two +streams were dammed so as to fill a broad deep moat round the lines +and flood the country outside. Other lines, three miles long, +connected the investing lines with the village of Crèvecceur +on the Meuse, Frederick Henry's base of supplies, which were +brought by water from Holland. These works completed, approaches +were at once opened against the forts of St Anthony and St +Isabella, the task being entrusted to the English and French +troops. The court of Brussels now began to take serious measures +for relieving the town. At first regarding <i>Bolduc la pucelle</i> +as impregnable, they had been pleased to hear that the prince had +committed himself to an enterprise certain to be a dismal failure. +Then came the news of the circumvallation, and with it alarm. The +Count de Berg was therefore ordered (June 17) at the head of an +army of 30,000 foot and 7000 horse to advance into North Brabant +and raise the siege. But the stadholder was prepared and +ceaselessly on his guard; and the Spanish general, after several +vain attempts, found the Dutch lines unassailable. With the view of +compelling Frederick Henry to follow him, Berg now marched into the +heart of the United Provinces, devastating as he went with fire and +sword, took Amersfoort and threatened Amsterdam. But the prince +confined himself to despatching a small detached force of +observation; and meanwhile a happy stroke, by which a certain +Colonel Dieden surprised and captured the important frontier +fortress of Wesel, forced the Spaniards to retreat, for Wesel was +Berg's depot of supplies and munitions.</p> + +<p>While all this was going on the Prince of Orange had been +pushing forward the siege operations. On July 17 the forts of St +Isabella and St Anthony were stormed. The attack against the main +defences, in which the English regiments specially distinguished +themselves, was now pressed with redoubled vigour. The resistance +at every step was desperate, but at last the moat was<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">[pg.145]</a></span> +crossed and a lodgment effected within the walls. On September 14 +Hertogenbosch surrendered; and the virgin fortress henceforth +became the bulwark of the United Provinces against Spanish attack +on this side. The consummate engineering skill, with which the +investment had been carried out, attracted the attention of all +Europe to this famous siege. It was a signal triumph and added +greatly to the stadholder's popularity and influence in the +republic.</p> + +<p>It was needed. The Estates of Holland were at this time once +more refractory. The interests of this great commercial and +maritime province differed from those of the other provinces of the +Union; and it bore a financial burden greater than that of all the +others put together. The Estates, then under the leadership of +Adrian Pauw, the influential pensionary of Amsterdam, declined to +raise the quota of taxation assigned to the province for military +needs and proceeded to disband a number of troops that were in +their pay. Inconsistently with this action they declined to +consider certain proposals for peace put forward by the Infanta +Isabel, for they would yield nothing on the questions of liberty of +worship or of freedom to trade in the Indies. Their neglect to +furnish the requisite supplies for the war, however, prevented the +prince from undertaking any serious military operations in 1630. +Fortunately the other side were in no better case financially, +while the death of Spinola and the withdrawal of the Count de Berg +from the Spanish service deprived them of their only two competent +generals. This attitude of Holland, though it thwarted the +stadholder's plans and was maintained in opposition to his wishes, +by no means however implied any distrust of him or lack of +confidence in his leadership. This was conclusively proved by the +passing, at the instigation of Holland, of the <i>Acte de +Survivance</i> (April 19,1631). This Act declared all the various +offices held by the prince hereditary in the person of his +five-year-old son. He thus became, in all but name, a +constitutional sovereign.</p> + +<p>An expedition planned for the capture of Dunkirk at this time, +spring 1631, proved too hazardous and was abandoned, but later in +the year the Dutch sailors gave a signal proof of their superiority +at sea. Encouraged by the failure of the attempted attack on +Dunkirk the government at Brussels determined on a counter-stroke. +A flotilla of 35 frigates, accompanied by a large number of smaller +vessels to carry supplies and munitions and having on board a body +of 6000 soldiers, set sail from Antwerp under the command of<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_146" id= +"page_146">[pg.146]</a></span>Count John of Nassau (a cousin of the stadholder) and in the +presence of Isabel herself to effect the conquest of some of the +Zeeland islands. As soon as the news reached Frederick Henry, +detachments of troops were at once despatched to various points; +and about a dozen vessels were rapidly equipped and ordered to +follow the enemy and if possible bring him to action. A landing at +Terscholen was foiled by Colonel Morgan, who, at the head of 2000 +English troops, waded across a shallow estuary in time to prevent a +descent. At last (September 12) the Dutch ships managed to come up +with their adversaries in the Slaak near the island of Tholen. They +at once attacked and though so inferior in numbers gained a +complete victory. Count John of Nassau just contrived to escape, +but his fleet was destroyed and 5000 prisoners were taken.</p> + +<p>The year 1632 witnessed a renewal of military activity and was +memorable for the famous siege and capture of Maestricht. This +fortress held the same commanding position on the eastern frontier +as Hertogenbosch on the southern; and, though its natural position +was not so strong as the capital of North Brabant, Maestricht, +lying as it did on both sides of the broad Meuse, and being +strongly fortified and garrisoned, was very difficult to invest. +The stadholder, at the head of a force of 17,000 infantry and 4000 +horse, first made himself master of Venloo and Roeremonde and then +advanced upon Maestricht. Unfortunately before Roeremonde, Ernest +Casimir, the brave stadholder of Friesland and Groningen, was +killed. He was succeeded in his offices by his son, Henry Casimir. +Arriving (June 10) before Maestricht, Frederick Henry proceeded to +erect strongly entrenched lines of circumvallation round the town +connecting them above and below the town by bridges. Supplies +reached him plentifully by the river. To the English and French +regiments were once more assigned the place of honour in the +attack. All went well until July 2, when Don Gonzales de Cordova +led a superior Spanish force from Germany, consisting of 18,000 +foot and 6000 horse, to raise the siege, and encamped close to the +Dutch lines on the south side of the river. Finding however no +vulnerable spot, he awaited the arrival at the beginning of August +of an Imperialist army of 12,000 foot and 4000 horse, under the +renowned Pappenheim. This impetuous leader determined upon an +assault, and the Dutch entrenchments were attacked suddenly with +great vigour at a moment when the prince was laid up with<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_147" id= +"page_147">[pg.147]</a></span> the gout. He rose, however, from his +bed, personally visited all the points of danger, and after +desperate fighting the assailants were at last driven off with +heavy loss. The Spaniards and Imperialists, finding that the +stadholder's lines could not be forced, instituted a blockade, so +that the besiegers were themselves besieged. But Frederick Henry +had laid up such ample stores of munitions and provisions that he +paid no heed to the cutting of his communications, and pushed on +his approaches with the utmost rapidity. All difficulties were +overcome by the engineering skill of the scientific commander; and +finally two tunnels sixty feet deep were driven under the broad dry +moat before the town walls. The English regiments during these +operations bore the brunt of the fighting and lost heavily, +Colonels Harwood and the Earl of Oxford being killed and Colonel +Morgan dangerously wounded. After exploding a mine, a forlorn hope +of fifty English troops rushed out from one of the tunnels and made +good their footing upon the ramparts. Others followed, and the +garrison, fearing that further resistance might entail the sacking +of the town, surrendered (August 23) with honours of war.</p> + +<p>One result of the fall of Maestricht was a renewal on the part +of the Archduchess Isabel of negotiations for peace or a long +truce. On the authority of Frederick Henry's memoirs the terms +first offered to him in camp were favourable and might have been +accepted. When, however, the discussion was shifted to the Hague, +the attitude of the Belgic representatives had stiffened. The cause +was not far to seek, for on November 6, 1632 the ever-victorious +Gustavus Adolphus had fallen in the hour of triumph in the fatal +battle of Lützen. The death of the Swedish hero was a great +blow to the Protestant cause and gave fresh heart to the despondent +Catholic alliance. The negotiations dragged however their slow +length along, the chief point of controversy being the old dispute +about freedom to trade in the Indies. On this point agreement was +impossible. Spain would yield nothing of her pretensions; and the +Hollanders would hear of no concessions that threatened the +prosperity of the East and West India Companies in which so many +merchants and investors were deeply interested. Any admission of a +Spanish monopoly or right of exclusion would have spelt ruin to +thousands. The diplomatic discussions, however, went on for many +months in a desultory and somewhat futile manner; and +meanwhile<span class="newpage"><a name="page_148" id= +"page_148">[pg.148]</a></span> though hostilities did not actually +cease, the campaign of 1633 was conducted in a half-hearted +fashion. The death of Isabel on November 29, 1633, shattered +finally any hopes that the peace party in the Provinces (for there +was a strong peace party) might have had of arriving at any +satisfactory agreement. By the decease of the arch-duchess, who had +been a wise and beneficent ruler and had commanded the respect and +regard not only of her own subjects but of many northerners also, +the Belgic provinces reverted to the crown of Spain and passed +under the direct rule of Philip IV. The Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, +fresh from his crushing victory over the Swedes at Nördlingen, +came as governor to Brussels in 1634, at the head of considerable +Spanish forces, and an active renewal of the war in 1635 was +clearly imminent.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances Frederick Henry determined to enter into +negotiations with France for the conclusion of an offensive and +defensive alliance against Spain, the common enemy. He had many +difficulties to encounter. The Estates of Holland, though opposed +to the terms actually offered by the Brussels government, were also +averse to taking any step which shut the door upon hopes of peace. +Richelieu on his side, though ready, as before, to grant subsidies +and to permit the enrolment of French regiments for the Dutch +service, shrank from committing France to an open espousal of the +Protestant side against the Catholic powers. The stadholder, +however, was not deterred by the obstacles in his way; and the +diplomatic skill and adroitness of Aerssens, aided by his own tact +and firmness of will, overcame the scruples of Richelieu. The +opposition of the Estates of Holland, without whose consent no +treaty could be ratified, was likewise surmounted. Adrian Pauw, +their leader, was despatched on a special embassy to Paris, and in +his absence his influence was undermined, and Jacob Cats was +appointed Council-Pensionary in his stead. In the spring of 1635 a +firm alliance was concluded between France and the United +Provinces, by which it was agreed that neither power should make +peace without the consent of the other, each meanwhile maintaining +a field force of 25,000 foot and 5000 horse and dividing conquests +in the Southern Netherlands between them. This treaty was made with +the concurrence and strong approval of the Swedish Chancellor, +Oxenstierna, and was probably decisive in its effect upon the final +issue of the Thirty Years' War.<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_149" id="page_149">[pg.149]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the early spring of 1635, therefore, a French force entered +the Netherlands and, after defeating Prince Thomas of Savoy at +Namur, joined the Dutch army at Maestricht. Louis XIII had given +instructions to the French commanders, Châtillon and de +Brézé, to place themselves under the orders of the +Prince of Orange; and Frederick Henry at the head of 32,000 foot +and 9000 horse now entered the enemy's territory and advanced to +the neighbourhood of Louvain. Here however, owing to the outbreak +of disease among his troops, to lack of supplies and to differences +of opinion with his French colleagues, the prince determined to +retreat. His action was attended by serious results. His adversary, +the Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, was a wary and skilful general. He +now seized his opportunity, rapidly made himself master of Diest, +Gennep, Goch and Limburg, and took by surprise the important fort +of Schenck at the junction of the Waal and the Rhine. Vexed at the +loss of a stronghold which guarded two of the main waterways of the +land, the stadholder at once laid siege to Schenck. But the Spanish +garrison held out obstinately all through the winter and did not +surrender until April 26,1636. The Dutch army had suffered much +from exposure and sickness during this long investment and was +compelled to abstain for some months from active operations. +Ferdinand thereupon, as soon as he saw that there was no immediate +danger of an attack from the north, resolved to avenge himself upon +the French for the part they had taken in the preceding year's +campaign. Reinforced by a body of Imperialist troops under +Piccolomini he entered France and laid the country waste almost to +the gates of Paris. This bold stroke completely frustrated any +plans that the allies may have formed for combined action in the +late summer.</p> + +<p>The following year the States determined, somewhat against the +wishes of Frederick Henry, to send an expedition into Flanders for +the capture of Dunkirk. This was done at the instance of the French +ambassador, Charnacé, acting on the instructions of +Richelieu, who promised the assistance of 5000 French troops and +undertook, should the town be taken, to leave it in the possession +of the Dutch. The stadholder accordingly assembled (May 7) an army +of 14,000 foot and a considerable body of horse at Rammekens, where +a fleet lay ready for their transport to Flanders. Contrary winds, +however, continued steadily to blow for many weeks without +affording any opportunity for putting to sea. At last, wearied out +with the long<span class="newpage"><a name="page_150" id= +"page_150">[pg.150]</a></span> inaction and its attendant sickness +the prince (July 20) suddenly broke up his camp and marched upon +Breda. Spinola, after capturing Breda in 1625, had greatly +strengthened its defences; and now, with a garrison of 4000 men +under a resolute commander, it was held to be secure against any +attack. The siege was a repetition of those of Hertogenbosch and +Maestricht. In vain did the Cardinal Infante with a powerful force +try to break through the lines of circumvallation, which the prince +had constructed with his usual skill. Called away by a French +invasion on the south, he had to leave Breda to its fate. The town +surrendered on October 10.</p> + +<p>During the years 1637 and 1638 the ever-recurring dissensions +between the province of Holland and the Generality became acute +once more. The Provincial Estates insisted on their sovereign +rights and refused to acknowledge the authority of the +States-General to impose taxes upon them. This opposition of +Holland was a great hindrance to the prince in the conduct of the +war, and caused him constant anxiety and worry. It was impossible +to plan or to carry out a campaign without adequate provision being +made for the payment and maintenance of the military and naval +forces, and this depended upon Holland's contribution. Amsterdam +was the chief offender. On one occasion a deputation sent to +Amsterdam from the States-General was simply flouted. The +burgomaster refused to summon the council together, and the members +of the deputation had to return without an audience. All the +prince's efforts to induce the contumacious city to consider his +proposals in a reasonable and patriotic spirit were of no avail; +they were rejected insultingly. In his indignation Frederick Henry +is reported to have exclaimed, "I have no greater enemy, but if +only I could take Antwerp, it would bring them to their +senses."</p> + +<p>The immense and growing prosperity of Amsterdam at this time was +indeed mainly due to the fall of Antwerp from its high estate. To +reconquer Antwerp had indeed long been a favourite project of +Frederick Henry. In 1638 he made careful and ample preparations for +its realisation. But it was not to be. Misfortune this year was to +dog his steps. The advance was made in two bodies. The larger under +the prince was to march straight to Antwerp. The second, of 6000 +men, commanded by Count William of Nassau, was instructed to seize +some outlying defences on the Scheldt before joining the main force +before the town. Count William began well,<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_151" id="page_151">[pg.151]</a></span> but, hearing a +false rumour that a fleet was sailing up the Scheldt to intercept +his communications, he hastily retreated. While his ranks were in +disorder he was surprised by a Spanish attack, and practically his +entire force was cut to pieces. On hearing of this disaster the +stadholder had no alternative but to abandon the siege.</p> + +<p>Constant campaigning and exposure to the hardships of camp life +year after year began at this time seriously to affect the health +of the stadholder. He was much troubled by attacks of gout, which +frequently prevented him from taking his place in the field. In +1639 there were no military events of importance; nevertheless this +year was a memorable one in the annals of the Dutch republic.</p> + +<p>It was the year of the battle of the Downs. A great effort was +made by Spain to re-establish her naval supremacy in the narrow +seas, and the finest fleet that had left the harbours of the +peninsula since 1588 arrived in the Channel in September, 1639. It +consisted of seventy-seven vessels carrying 24,000 men, sailors and +soldiers, and was under the command of an experienced and capable +seaman, Admiral Oquendo. His orders were to drive the Dutch fleet +from the Channel and to land 10,000 men at Dunkirk as a +reinforcement for the Cardinal Infante. Admiral Tromp had been +cruising up and down the Channel for some weeks on the look-out for +the Spaniards, and on September 16 he sighted the armada. He had +only thirteen vessels with him, the larger part of his fleet having +been detached to keep watch and ward over Dunkirk. With a boldness, +however, that might have been accounted temerity, Tromp at once +attacked the enemy and with such fury that the Spanish fleet sought +refuge under the lee of the Downs and anchored at the side of an +English squadron under Vice-Admiral Pennington. Rejoined by +seventeen ships from before Dunkirk, the Dutch admiral now +contented himself with a vigilant blockade, until further +reinforcements could reach him. Such was the respect with which he +had inspired the Spaniards, that no attempt was made to break the +blockade; and in the meantime Tromp had sent urgent messages to +Holland asking the Prince of Orange and the admiralties to strain +every nerve to give him as many additional ships as possible. The +request met with a ready and enthusiastic response. In all the +dockyards work went on with relays of men night and day. In less +than a month Tromp found himself at the head of 105 sail with +twelve fire-ships. They were smaller ships than those of his +adversary,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_152" id= +"page_152">[pg.152]</a></span> but they were more than enough to +ensure victory. On October 21, after detaching Vice-Admiral Witte +de with 30 ships to watch Pennington's squadron, Tromp bore down +straight upon the Spanish fleet though they were lying in English +waters. Rarely has there been a naval triumph more complete. Under +cover of a fog Oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped to +Dunkirk; all the rest were sunk, burnt, or captured. It is said +that 15,000 Spaniards perished. On the side of the Dutch only 100 +men were killed and wounded. The Spanish power at sea had suffered +a blow from which it never recovered.</p> + +<p>Charles I was very angry on learning that English ships had been +obliged to watch the fleet of a friendly power destroyed in English +waters before their eyes. The king had inherited from his father a +long series of grievances against the Dutch; and, had he not been +involved in serious domestic difficulties, there would probably +have been a declaration of war. But Charles' finances did not +permit him to take a bold course, and he was also secretly +irritated with the Spaniards for having sought the hospitality of +English waters (as written evidence shows) without his knowledge +and permission. Aerssens was sent to London to smooth over the +matter. He had no easy task, but by skill and patience he +contrived, in spite of many adverse influences at the court, so to +allay the bitter feelings that had been aroused by "the scandal of +the Downs" that Charles and his queen were willing, in the early +months of 1640, to discuss seriously the project of a marriage +between the stadholder's only son and one of the English +princesses. In January a special envoy, Jan van der Kerkoven, lord +of Heenvlict, joined Aerssens with a formal proposal for the hand +of the princess royal; and after somewhat difficult negotiations +the marriage was at length satisfactorily arranged. The ceremony +took place in London, May 12, 1641. As William was but fifteen +years of age and Mary, the princess royal, only nine, the +bridegroom returned to Holland alone, leaving the child-bride for a +time at Whitehall with her parents. The wedding took place at an +ominous time. Ten days after it was celebrated Strafford was +executed; and the dark shadow of the Great Rebellion was already +hanging over the ill-fated Charles. In the tragic story of the +House of Stewart that fills the next two decades there is perhaps +no more pathetic figure than that of Mary, the mother of William +III. At the time this alliance gave added lustre<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">[pg.153]</a></span> to +the position of the Prince of Orange, both at home and abroad, by +uniting his family in close bonds of relationship with the royal +houses both of England and France.</p> + +<p>In 1640, as the Spaniards remained on the defensive, the +stadholder entered Flanders and by a forced march attempted to +seize Bruges. His effort, however, was foiled, as was a later +attempt to capture Hulst, when Frederick Henry and the States +sustained a great loss in the death of the gallant Henry Casimir of +Nassau, who was killed in a chance skirmish at the age of 29 years. +This regrettable event caused a vacancy in the stadholderates of +Friesland and Groningen with Drente. A number of zealous adherents +of the House of Orange were now anxious that Frederick Henry should +fill the vacant posts to the exclusion of his cousin, William +Frederick, younger brother of Henry Casimir. They urged upon the +prince, who was himself unwilling to supplant his relative, that it +was for the good of the State that there should be a unification of +authority in his person; and at last he expressed himself ready to +accept the offices, if elected. The result of the somewhat mean +intrigues that followed, in which Frederick Henry himself took no +part, gave a curious illustration of the extreme jealousy of the +provinces towards anything that they regarded as outside intrusion +into their affairs. The States-General ventured to recommend the +Estates of Friesland to appoint the Prince of Orange; the +recommendation was resented, and William Frederick became +stadholder. The Frieslanders on their part sent a deputation to +Groningen in favour of William Frederick, and Groningen-Drente +elected the Prince of Orange. This dispute caused an estrangement +for a time between the two branches of the House of Nassau, which +was afterwards healed by the marriage of the Friesland stadholder +with Albertine Agnes, a daughter of Frederick Henry. From this +union the present royal family of Holland trace their descent.</p> + +<p>The military operations of the years 1641, 1642 and 1643 were +dilatory and featureless. Both sides were sick of the war and were +content to remain on the defensive. This was no doubt largely due +to the fact that in rapid succession death removed from the stage +many of those who had long played leading parts in the political +history of the times. Aerssens died shortly after his return from +his successful mission to England in the autumn of 1641; and almost +at the same time the Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, who during +his<span class="newpage"><a name="page_154" id= +"page_154">[pg.154]</a></span> tenure of the governor-generalship +had shown great capacity and prudence both as a statesman and as a +commander, expired. In 1642, after eighteen years of almost +autocratic rule, Richelieu passed away, his death (December 4, +1642) coming almost half-way between those of his enemy, the +intriguing Marie de' Medici (July 3,1642), and that of her son, +Louis XIII (May 18, 1643). Anne of Austria, the sister of the King +of Spain, became regent in France; but this did not imply any +change of policy with regard to the United Provinces, for Cardinal +Mazarin, who, through his influence over the regent succeeded to +the power of Richelieu, was a pupil in the school of that great +statesman and followed in his steps. Moreover, during this same +period the outbreak of civil war in England had for the time being +caused that country to be wholly absorbed in its own domestic +concerns, and it ceased to have any weight in the councils of +western Europe. Thus it came to pass that there was a kind of lull +in the external affairs of the United Provinces; and her statesmen +were compelled to take fresh stock of their position in the changed +situation that had been created.</p> + +<p>Not that this meant that these years were a time of less +pressure and anxiety to the Prince of Orange. His new relations +with the English royal family were a source of difficulty to him. +Henrietta Maria (March, 1642) came to Holland, bringing with her +the princess royal, and for a whole year took up her residence at +the Hague. She was received with kindliness and courtesy not only +by the stadholder and his family, but by the people of Holland +generally. Her presence, together with that of the Queen of +Bohemia, at the Princess of Orange's court gave to it quite a regal +dignity and splendour, which was particularly gratifying to Amalia +von Solms. But the English queen had other objects in view than +those of courtesy. She hoped not merely to enlist the sympathies of +Frederick Henry for the royal cause in the English civil war, but +to obtain through his help supplies of arms and munitions from +Holland for King Charles. But in this she did not succeed. The +Parliament had sent an envoy, William Strickland, to counteract the +influence of Henrietta Maria, and to represent to the +States-General that it was fighting in defence of the same +principles which had led to the revolt against Spain. The prince +was far too prudent to allow his personal inclinations to override +his political judgment as a practical statesman. He knew that +public opinion in the United<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_155" id="page_155">[pg.155]</a></span></p> + +<p>Provinces would never sanction in any form active support of +King Charles against his parliament, and he did not attempt it. +Intervention was confined to the despatch of an embassy to England +with instructions to mediate between the two parties. When the +unfortunate queen found that all her efforts on behalf of King +Charles were in vain, she determined to leave the safe refuge where +she had been so hospitably entertained and to return to her +husband's side. She sailed from Scheveningen on March 9, 1643, and +reached the royal camp at York in safety.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of this year, 1643, two special envoys were sent +by Cardinal Mazarin to the Hague; and one of the results of their +visit was a renewal of the treaty of 1635 by which France and the +United Provinces had entered upon an offensive and defensive +alliance and had agreed to conclude no peace but by mutual consent. +Nevertheless Frederick Henry, whom long experience had made wary +and far-sighted, had been growing for some little time suspicious +of the advantage to the republic of furthering French +aggrandisement in the southern Netherlands. He saw that France was +a waxing, Spain a waning power, and he had no desire to see France +in possession of territory bordering on the United Provinces. This +feeling on his part was possibly the cause of the somewhat dilatory +character of his military operations in 1641 and 1642. The revolt +of Portugal from Spain in December, 1640, had at first been +welcomed by the Dutch, but not for long. The great and successful +operations of the East and West India Companies had been chiefly +carried on at the expense of the Portuguese, not of the Spaniards. +The great obstacle to peace with Spain had been the concession of +the right to trade in the Indies. It was Portugal, rather than +Spain, which now stood in the way of the Dutch merchants obtaining +that right, for the Spanish government, in its eagerness to stamp +out a rebellion which had spread from the Peninsula to all the +Portuguese colonies, was quite ready to sacrifice these to secure +Dutch neutrality in Europe. The dazzling victory of the French +under the young Duke of Enghien over a veteran Spanish army at +Rocroi (May, 1643) also had its effect upon the mind of the prince. +With prophetic foresight, he rightly dreaded a France too +decisively victorious. In the negotiations for a general peace +between all the contending powers in the Thirty Years' War, which +dragged on their slow length from 1643 to 1648, the stadholder +became more and more<span class="newpage"><a name="page_156" id= +"page_156">[pg.156]</a></span> convinced that it was in the +interest of the Dutch to maintain Spain as a counterpoise to the +growing power of France, and to secure the favourable terms, which, +in her extremity, Spain would be ready to offer.</p> + +<p>At first, however, there was no breach in the close relations +with France; and Frederick Henry, though hampered by ill-health, +showed in his last campaigns all his old skill in siege-craft. By +the successive captures of Hertogenbosch, Maestricht and Breda he +had secured the frontiers of the republic in the south and +south-east. He now turned to the north-west corner of Flanders. In +1644 he took the strongly fortified post of Sas-van-Gent, situated +on the Ley, the canalised river connecting Ghent with the Scheldt. +In 1645 he laid siege to and captured the town of Hulst, and thus +gained complete possession of the strip of territory south of the +Scheldt, known as the Land of Waes, which had been protected by +these two strongholds, and which has since been called Dutch +Flanders.</p> + +<p>Very shortly after the capitulation of Hulst, the ambassadors +plenipotentiary of the United Provinces set out (November, 1645) to +take their places at the Congress of Münster on equal terms +with the representatives of the Emperor and of the Kings of France +and Spain. The position acquired by the Dutch republic among the +powers of Europe was thus officially recognised <i>de facto</i> +even before its independence had been <i>de jure</i> ratified by +treaty. The parleyings at Münster made slow headway, as so +many thorny questions had to be settled. Meanwhile, with the full +approval of the prince, negotiations were being secretly carried on +between Madrid and the Hague with the view of arriving at a +separate understanding, in spite of the explicit terms of the +treaty of 1635. As soon as the French became aware of what was +going on, they naturally protested and did their utmost to raise +every difficulty to prevent a treaty being concluded behind their +backs. The old questions which had proved such serious obstacles in +the negotiations of 1607-9 were still sufficiently formidable. But +the situation was very different in 1646-7. The Spanish monarchy +was actually <i>in extremis.</i> Portugal and Catalonia were in +revolt; a French army had crossed the Pyrenees; the treasury was +exhausted. Peace with the Dutch Republic was a necessity; and, as +has been already said, the vexed question about the Indies had +resolved itself rather into a Portuguese than a Spanish question. +By a recognition of the Dutch conquests<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_157" id="page_157">[pg.157]</a></span> in Brazil and in +the Indian Ocean they were acquiring an ally without losing +anything that they had not lost already by the Portuguese +declaration of independence. But, as the basis of an agreement was +on the point of being reached, an event happened which caused a +delay in the proceedings.</p> + +<p>The Prince of Orange, who had been long a martyr to the gout, +became in the autumn of 1646 hopelessly ill. He lingered on in +continual suffering for some months and died on March 14, 1647. +Shortly before his death he had the satisfaction of witnessing the +marriage of his daughter Louise Henrietta to Frederick William of +Brandenburg, afterwards known as the Great Elector. He was not, +however, destined to see peace actually concluded, though he +ardently desired to do so. Frederick Henry could, however, at any +rate feel that his life-work had been thoroughly and successfully +accomplished. The services he rendered to his country during his +stadholderate of twenty-two years can scarcely be over-estimated. +It is a period of extraordinary prosperity and distinction, which +well deserves the title given to it by Dutch historians—"the +golden age of Frederick Henry." The body of the stadholder was +laid, amidst universal lamentation and with almost regal pomp, +besides those of his father and brother in the Nieuwe Kerk at +Delft.</p> + +<p>The removal of a personality of such authority and influence at +this critical time was a dire misfortune, for there were many +cross-currents of policy in the different provinces and of +divergence of interests between the seafaring and merchant classes +and other sections of the population. Finally the skill and +perseverance of the two leading Dutch plenipotentiaries, Pauw and +Van Knuyt, and of the Spanish envoys, Peñaranda and Brun, +brought the negotiations to a successful issue. The assent of all +the provinces was necessary, and for a time Utrecht and Zeeland +were obstinately refractory, but at length their opposition was +overcome; and on January 30,1648, the treaty of Münster was +duly signed. Great rejoicings throughout the land celebrated the +end of the War of Independence, which had lasted for eighty years. +Thus, in spite of the solemn engagement made with France, a +separate peace was concluded with Spain and in the interests of the +United Provinces. Their course of action was beyond doubt +politically wise and defensible, but, as might be expected, it left +behind it a feeling of soreness, for the French naturally regarded +it as a breach of faith. The treaty of Münster<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">[pg.158]</a></span> +consisted of 79 articles, the most important of which were: the +King of Spain recognised the United Provinces as free and +independent lands; the States-General kept all their conquests in +Brabant, Limburg and Flanders, the so-called Generality lands; also +their conquests in Brazil and the East Indies made at the expense +of Portugal; freedom of trading both in the East and West Indies +was conceded; the Scheldt was declared closed, thus shutting out +Antwerp from access to the sea; to the House of Orange all its +confiscated property was restored; and lastly a treaty of trade and +navigation with Spain was negotiated. On all points the Dutch +obtained all and more than all they could have hoped for.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_159" id= +"page_159">[pg.159]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE EAST AND WEST INDIA COMPANIES. COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC +EXPANSION</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>An account of the foundation, constitution and early efforts of +the Dutch East India Company has been already given. The date of +its charter (March 20, 1602) was later than that of its English +rival (Dec. 31, 1600), but in reality the Dutch were the first in +the field, as there were several small companies in existence and +competing with one another in the decade previous to the granting +of the charter, which without extinguishing these companies +incorporated them by the name of chambers under a common +management, the Council of Seventeen. The four chambers +however—Amsterdam, Zeeland, the Maas (Rotterdam and Delft) +and the North Quarter (Enkhuizen and Hoorn)—though separately +administered and with different spheres, became gradually more and +more unified by the growing power of control exercised by the +Seventeen. This was partly due to the dominating position of the +single Chamber of Amsterdam, which held half the shares and +appointed eight members of the council. The erection of such a +company, with its monopoly of trade and its great privileges +including the right of maintaining fleets and armed forces, of +concluding treaties and of erecting forts, was nothing less than +the creation of an <i>imperium in imperio</i>; and it may be said +to have furnished the model on which all the great chartered +companies of later times have been formed. The English East India +Company was, by the side of its Dutch contemporary, almost +insignificant; with its invested capital of £30,000 it was in +no position to struggle successfully against a competitor which +started with subscribed funds amounting to £540,000.</p> + +<p>The conquest of Portugal by Spain had spelt ruin to that unhappy +country and to its widespread colonial empire and extensive +commerce. Before 1581 Lisbon had been a great centre of the Dutch +carrying-trade; and many Netherlanders had taken service in +Portuguese vessels and were familiar with the routes both to +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_160" id= +"page_160">[pg.160]</a></span> East Indies and to Brazil. It was +the closing of the port of Lisbon to Dutch vessels that led the +enterprising merchants of Amsterdam and Middelburg to look further +afield. In the early years of the seventeenth century a large +number of expeditions left the Dutch harbours for the Indian Ocean +and made great profits; and very large dividends were paid to the +shareholders of the company. How far these represented the actual +gain it is difficult to discover, for the accounts were kept in +different sets of ledgers; and it is strongly suspected that the +size of the dividends may, at times when enhanced credit was +necessary for the raising of loans, have been to some extent +fictitious. For the enterprise, which began as a trading concern, +speedily developed into the creation of an empire overseas, and +this meant an immense expenditure.</p> + +<p>The Malay Archipelago was the chief scene of early activity, and +more especially the Moluccas. Treaties were made with the native +chiefs; and factories defended by forts were established at Tidor, +Ternate, Amboina, Banda and other places. The victories of Cornelis +Matelief established that supremacy of the Dutch arms in these +eastern waters which they were to maintain for many years. With the +conclusion of the truce the necessity of placing the general +control of so many scattered forts and trading posts in the hands +of one supreme official led, in 1609, to the appointment of a +governor-general by the Seventeen with the assent of the +States-General. The governor-general held office for five years, +and he was assisted by a council, the first member of which, under +the title of director-general, was in reality minister of commerce. +Under him were at first seven (afterwards eight) local governors. +These functionaries, though exercising considerable powers in their +respective districts, were in all matters of high policy entirely +subordinate to the governor-general. The first holders of the +office were all men who had risen to that position by proving +themselves to possess energy and enterprise, and being compelled by +the distance from home to act promptly on their own initiative, +were practically endowed with autocratic authority. In consequence +of this the Dutch empire in the East became in their hands rapidly +extended and consolidated, to the exclusion of all competitors. +This meant not only that the Portuguese and Spaniards were ousted +from their formerly dominant position in the Orient, but that a +collision with the English was inevitable.<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_161" id="page_161">[pg.161]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first governor-general, Pieter Both, had made Java the +centre of administration and had established factories and posts at +Bantam, Jacatra and Djapara, not without arousing considerable +hostility among the local rulers, jealous of the presence of the +intruders. This hostility was fostered and encouraged by the +English, whose vessels had also visited Java and had erected a +trading-post close to that of the Dutch at Jacatra. Already the +spice islands had been the scene of hostile encounters between the +representatives of the two nations, and had led to many +altercations. This was the state of things when Jan Pieterzoon Koen +became governor-general in 1615. This determined man, whose +experience in the East Indies was of long date, and who had already +served as director-general, came into his new office with an +intense prejudice against the English, and with a firm resolve to +put an end to what he described as their treachery and intrigues. +"Were they masters," he wrote home, "the Dutch would quickly be out +of the Indies, but praise be to the Lord, who has provided +otherwise. They are an unendurable nation." With this object he +strongly fortified the factory near Jacatra, thereby arousing the +hostility of the <i>Pangeran</i>, as the native ruler was styled. +The English in their neighbouring post also began to erect defences +and to encourage the <i>Pangeran</i> in his hostile attitude. Koen +thereupon fell upon the English and destroyed and burnt their +factory, and finding that there was a strong English fleet under +Sir Thomas Dale in the neighbourhood, he sailed to the Moluccas in +search of reinforcements, leaving Pieter van der Broeck in command +at the factory. The <i>Pangeran</i> now feigned friendship, and +having enticed Broeck to a conference, made him prisoner and +attacked the Dutch stronghold. The garrison however held out until +the governor-general returned with a strong force. With this he +stormed and destroyed the town of Jacatra and on its site erected a +new town, as the seat of the company's government, to which the +name Batavia was given. From this time the Dutch had no rivalry to +fear in Java. The conquest of the whole island was only a question +of time, and the "pearl of the Malay Archipelago" has from 1620 to +the present been the richest and most valuable of all the Dutch +colonial possessions. Koen was planning to follow up his success by +driving the English likewise from the Moluccas, when he heard that +the home government had concluded a treaty which tied his +hands.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_162" id= +"page_162">[pg.162]</a></span></p> + +<p>The position in the Moluccas had for some years been one of +continual bickering and strife; the chief scene being in the little +group known as the Banda islands. The lucrative spice-trade tempted +both companies to establish themselves by building forts; and the +names of Amboina and Pulo Rum were for many years to embitter the +relations of the two peoples. Meanwhile the whole subject of those +relations had been in 1619 discussed at London by a special embassy +sent nominally to thank King James for the part he had taken in +bringing the Synod of Dort to a successful termination of its +labours, but in reality to settle several threatening trade +disputes. Almost the only result of the prolonged conferences was +an agreement (June 2, 1619) by which the East India Companies were +for twenty years to be virtually amalgamated. The English were to +have half the pepper crop in Java and one-third of the spices in +the Moluccas, Amboina and the Banda islands. Forts and posts were +to remain in their present hands, but there was to be a joint +council for defence, four members from each company, the president +to be appointed alternately month by month. Such a scheme was a +paper scheme, devised by those who had no personal acquaintance +with the actual situation. There was no similarity between a great +military and naval organisation like the Dutch Company and a body +of traders like the English, whose capital was small, and who were +entirely dependent on the political vagaries of an impecunious +sovereign, whose dearest wish at the time was to cultivate close +relations with the very power in defiance of whose prohibition the +East India Company's trade was carried on. The agreement received +indeed a fresh sanction at another conference held in London +(1622-23), but it never was a working arrangement. The bitter +ill-feeling that had arisen between the Dutch and English traders +was not to be allayed by the diplomatic subterfuge of crying peace +when there was no peace. Events were speedily to prove that this +was so.</p> + +<p>The trade in spices had proved the most lucrative of all, and +measures had been taken to prevent any undue lowering of the price +by a glut in the market. The quantity of spices grown was carefully +regulated, suitable spots being selected, and the trees elsewhere +destroyed. Thus cloves were specially cultivated at Amboina; +nutmegs in the Banda islands. Into this strictly guarded monopoly, +from which the English had been expelled by the energy of Koen, +they were now by the new treaty to be admitted to a share.<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_163" id= +"page_163">[pg.163]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was only with difficulty that the Dutch were induced to +acquiesce sullenly in the presence of the intruders. A fatal +collision took place almost immediately after the convention +between the Companies, about the trade in the spice islands, had +been renewed in London, 1622-3.</p> + +<p>In 1623 Koen was succeeded, as governor-general, by Pieter +Carpentier, whose name is still perpetuated by the Gulf of +Carpentaria on the north of Australia. At this time of transition +the Governor of Amboina, Van Speult, professed to have discovered a +conspiracy of the English settlers, headed by Gabriel Towerson, to +make themselves masters of the Dutch fort. Eighteen Englishmen were +seized, and though there was no evidence against them, except what +was extorted by torture and afterwards solemnly denied, twelve, +including Towerson, were executed. Carpentier admitted that the +proceedings were irregular, and they were in any case unnecessary, +for a despatch recalling Towerson was on its way to Amboina. It was +a barbarous and cruel act; and when the news of the "massacre of +Amboina," as it was called, reached England, there was loud +indignation and demands for redress. But the quarrel with Spain +over the marriage of the Prince of Wales had driven James I at the +very end of his life, and Charles I on his accession, to seek the +support of the United Provinces. By the treaty of Southampton, +September 17, 1625, an offensive and defensive alliance was +concluded with the States-General; and Charles contented himself +with a demand that the States should within eighteen months bring +to justice those who were responsible "for the bloody butchery on +our subjects." However, Carleton again pressed for the punishment +of the perpetrators of "the foule and bloody act" of Amboina. The +Dutch replied with evasive promises, which they never attempted to +carry out; and Charles' disastrous war with France and his breach +with his parliament effectually prevented him from taking steps to +exact reparation. But Amboina was not forgotten; the sore rankled +and was one of the causes that moved Cromwell to war in 1654.</p> + +<p>The activity of the Dutch in eastern waters was, however, by no +means confined to Java, their seat of government, or to the +Moluccas and Banda islands with their precious spices. Many trading +posts were erected on the large islands of Sumatra and Borneo. +Trading relations were opened with Siam from 1613 onwards. In 1623 +a<span class="newpage"><a name="page_164" id= +"page_164">[pg.164]</a></span> force under Willem Bontekoe was sent +by Koen to Formosa. The island was conquered and a governor +appointed with his residence at Fort Zelandia. Already under the +first governor-general, Pieter Both, permission was obtained from +the Shogun for the Dutch, under close restrictions, to trade with +Japan, a permission which was still continued, after the expulsion +of the Portuguese and the bloody persecution of the Christian +converts (1637-42), though under somewhat humiliating conditions. +But, with the Dutch, trade was trade, and under the able conduct of +Francis Caron it became of thriving proportions. During the next +century no other Europeans had any access to the Japanese market +except the agents of the Dutch East India Company.</p> + +<p>Among the governors-general of this early period the name of +Antony van Diemen (1636-45) deserves special recognition. If Koen +laid the firm foundations of Dutch rule in the East, Van Diemen +built wisely and ably on the work of Koen. Carpentier's rule had +been noteworthy for several voyages of discovery along the coasts +of New Guinea and of the adjoining shore of Australia, but the +spirit of exploration reached its height in the days of Van Diemen. +The north and north-west of Australia being to some extent already +known, Abel Tasman was despatched by Van Diemen to find out, if +possible, how far southward the land extended. Sailing in October, +1642, from Mauritius, he skirted portions of the coast of what is +now Victoria and New South Wales and discovered the island which he +named after his patron Van Diemen's land, but which is now very +appropriately known as Tasmania. Pressing on he reached New +Zealand, which still bears the name that he gave to it, and sailed +through the strait between the northern and southern islands, now +Cook's strait. In the course of this great voyage he next +discovered the Friendly or Tonga islands and the Fiji archipelago. +He reached Batavia in June, 1643, and in the following year he +visited again the north of Australia and voyaged right round the +Gulf of Carpentaria. Even in a modern map of Australia Dutch names +will be found scattered round certain portions of the coast of the +island-continent, recording still, historically, the names of the +early Dutch explorers, their patrons, ships and homes. Along the +shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria may be seen Van Diemen river, +gulf and cape; Abel Tasman, Van Alphen, Nassau and Staten rivers; +capes Arnhem, Caron and Maria (after Francis Caron and<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">[pg.165]</a></span> +Maria van Diemen) and Groote Eylandt. In Tasmania, with many other +names, may be found Frederick Henry bay and cape, Tasman's +peninsula and Tasman's head and Maria island; while the wife of the +governor-general is again commemorated, the northernmost point of +New Zealand bearing the name of Maria van Diemen cape.</p> + +<p>To Van Diemen belongs the credit of giving to the Dutch their +first footing (1638) in the rich island of Ceylon, by concluding a +treaty with the native prince of Kandy. The Portuguese still +possessed forts at Colombo, Galle, Negumbo and other places, but +Galle and Negumbo were now taken by the Dutch, and gradually the +whole island passed into their hands and became for a century and a +half their richest possession in the East, next to Java. On the +Coromandel coast posts were also early established, and trade +relations opened up with the Persians and Arabs. At the time when +the Treaty of Münster gave to the United Provinces the legal +title to that independence for which they had so long fought, and +conceded to them the freedom to trade in the Indies, that trade was +already theirs, safe-guarded by the fleets, the forts and the armed +forces of the chartered company. The governor-general at Batavia +had become a powerful potentate in the Eastern seas; and a +succession of bold and able men, by a policy at once prudent and +aggressive, had in the course of a few decades organised a colonial +empire. It was a remarkable achievement for so small a country as +the United Provinces, and it was destined to have a prolonged life. +The voyage round by the cape was long and hazardous, so Van Diemen +in 1638 caused the island of Mauritius to be occupied as a +refitting station; and in 1652 one of his successors (Reinierz) +sent a body of colonists under Jan van Riebeck to form a +settlement, which should be a harbour of refuge beneath the Table +mountain at the Cape itself. This was the beginning of the Cape +colony.</p> + +<p>Quite as interesting, and even more exciting, was the history of +Dutch enterprise in other seas during this eventful period. The +granting of the East India Company's charter led a certain Willem +Usselincx to come forward as an earnest and persistent advocate for +the formation of a West India Company on the same lines. But +Oldenbarneveldt, anxious to negotiate a peace or truce with Spain +and to maintain good relations with that power, refused to lend any +countenance to his proposals, either before or after the truce was +concluded. He could not, however, restrain the spirit of +enterprise<span class="newpage"><a name="page_166" id= +"page_166">[pg.166]</a></span> that with increasing prosperity was +abroad in Holland. The formation of the Northern or Greenland +Company in 1613, specially created in order to contest the claims +of the English Muscovy Company to exclusive rights in the whale +fishery off Spitsbergen, led to those violent disputes between the +fishermen of the two countries, of which an account has been given. +The granting of a charter to the Company of New Netherland (1614) +was a fresh departure. The voyage of Henry Hudson in the Dutch +service when, in 1610, he explored the coast of North America and +sailed up the river called by his name, led certain Amsterdam and +Hoorn merchants to plan a settlement near this river; and they +secured a charter giving them exclusive rights from Chesapeake bay +to Newfoundland. The result was the founding of the colony of New +Netherland, with New Amsterdam on Manhattan island as its capital. +This settlement was at first small and insignificant, but, being +placed midway between the English colonies on that same coast, it +added one more to the many questions of dispute between the two +sea-powers.</p> + +<p>Willem Usselincx had all this time continued his agitation for +the erection of a West India Company; and at last, with the renewal +of the war with Spain in 1621, his efforts were rewarded. The +charter granted by the States-General (June 3, 1621) gave to the +company for twenty-four years the monopoly of navigation and trade +to the coast-lands of America and the West Indies from the +south-end of Newfoundland to the Straits of Magellan and to the +coasts and lands of Africa from the tropic of Cancer to the Cape of +Good Hope. The governing body consisted of nineteen +representatives, the Nineteen. The States-General contributed to +the capital 1,000,000 fl., on half of which only they were to +receive dividends. They also undertook in time of war to furnish +sixteen ships and four yachts, the company being bound to supply a +like number. The West India Company from the first was intended to +be an instrument of war. Its aims were buccaneering rather than +commerce. There was no secret about its object; it was openly +proclaimed. Its historian De Laet (himself a director) wrote, +"There is no surer means of bringing our Enemy at last to reason, +than to infest him with attacks everywhere in America and to stop +the fountain-head of his best finances." After some tentative +efforts, it was resolved to send out an expedition in great force; +but the question arose, where best to<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_167" id="page_167">[pg.167]</a></span> strike? By the advice +of Usselincx and others acquainted with the condition of the +defences of the towns upon the American coast, Bahia, the capital +of the Portuguese colony of Brazil, was selected, as specially +vulnerable. Thus in the West, as in the East, Portugal was to +suffer for her unwilling subjection to the crown of Castile.</p> + +<p>The consent of the States-General and of the stadholder being +obtained, some months were spent in making preparations on an +adequate scale. The fleet, which consisted of twenty-three ships of +war with four yachts, armed with 500 pieces of ordnance, and +carrying in addition to the crews a force of 1700 troops, sailed in +two contingents, December, 1623, and January, 1624. Jacob Willekens +was the admiral-in-chief, with Piet Hein as his vice-admiral. +Colonel Jan van Dorth, lord of Horst, was to conduct the land +operations and to be the governor of the town, when its conquest +was achieved. On May 9 the fleet sailed into the Bay of All Saints +(<i>Bahia de todos os Santos</i>) and proceeded to disembark the +troops on a sandy beach a little to the east of the city of San +Salvador, commonly known as Bahia. It was strongly situated on +heights rising sheer from the water; and, as news of the Dutch +preparations had reached Lisbon and Madrid, its fortifications had +been repaired and its garrison strengthened. In front of the lower +town below the cliffs was a rocky island, and on this and on the +shore were forts well provided with batteries, and under their lee +were fifteen ships of war. On May 10 Piet Hein was sent with five +vessels to contain the enemy's fleet and cover the landing of the +military forces. But Hein, far from being content with a passive +role, attacked the Portuguese, burnt or captured all their ships +and then, embarking his men in launches, stormed the defences of +the island and spiked the guns. Meanwhile the troops had, without +opposition, occupied a Benedictine convent on the heights opposite +the town. But the daring of Piet Hein had caused a panic to seize +the garrison. Despite the efforts of the governor, Diogo de +Mendoça Furdado, there was a general exodus in the night, +both of the soldiery and the inhabitants. When morning came the +Dutch marched into the undefended town, the governor and his son, +who had refused to desert their posts, being taken prisoners. They, +with much booty, were at once sent to Holland as a proof of the +completeness of the victory. Events, however, were to prove that it +is easier for an expeditionary<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_168" id="page_168">[pg.168]</a></span> force to capture a +town at such a distance from the home-base of supplies, than to +retain it.</p> + +<p>Governor Van Dorth had scarcely entered upon his duties when he +fell into an ambush of native levies near San Salvador and was +killed. His successor, Willem Schouten, was incompetent and +dissolute; and, when the fleet set sail on its homeward voyage at +the end of July, the garrison soon found itself practically +besieged by bodies of Portuguese troops with Indian auxiliaries, +who occupied the neighbouring woods and stopped supplies. Meanwhile +the news of the capture of San Salvador reached Madrid and Lisbon; +and Spaniards and Portuguese vied with one another in their +eagerness to equip a great expedition to expel the invaders. It was +truly a mighty armada which set sail, under the supreme command of +Don Fadrique de Toledo, from the Iberian ports at the beginning of +1625, for it consisted of fifty ships with five caravels and four +pinnaces, carrying 12,566 men and 1185 guns. On Easter Eve (March +29) the fleet entered All Saints' Bay in the form of a vast +crescent measuring six leagues from tip to tip. The Dutch garrison +of 2300 men, being strongly fortified, resisted for a month but, +shut in by sea and by land and badly led, they capitulated on April +28, on condition that they were sent back to Holland.</p> + +<p>That the brilliant success of 1624 was thus so soon turned into +disaster was in no way due to the supineness of the home +authorities. The Nineteen were in no way surprised to hear of great +preparations being made by the King of Spain to retake the town, +and they on their part were determined to maintain their conquest +by meeting force with force. Straining all their resources, three +squadrons were equipped; the first two, numbering thirty-two ships +and nine yachts, were destined for Brazil; the third, a small +flying squadron of seven vessels, was despatched early to watch the +Spanish ports. The general-in-chief of the Brazilian expedition was +Boudewyn Hendrikszoon. Driven back by a succession of storms, it +was not until April 17, 1625, that the fleet was able to leave the +Channel and put out to sea. The voyage was a rapid one and on May +23, Hendrikszoon sailed into the bay in battle order, only to see +the Spanish flag waving over San Salvador and the mighty fleet of +Admiral Toledo drawn up under the protection of its batteries. +Hendrikszoon sailed slowly past the Spaniards, who did not stir, +and perceiving that it would be madness to attack a superior +force<span class="newpage"><a name="page_169" id= +"page_169">[pg.169]</a></span> in such a position he reluctantly +gave orders to withdraw. On the homeward journey by the West Indies +a number of rich prizes were made, but sickness made great ravages +among the crews, and counted Hendrikszoon himself among its +victims.</p> + +<p>The events of the following year seem to show that with audacity +he might have at least inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. For in +1626 the directors, ignorant of his failure, sent out a +reinforcement of nine ships and five yachts under the command of +the redoubtable Piet Hein. Hein sailed on May 21 for the West +Indies, where he learnt that Hendrikszoon was dead and that the +remnant of his expedition had returned after a fruitless voyage of +misadventure. Hein however was not the man to turn back. He +determined to try what he could effect at Bahia by a surprise +attack. He reached the entrance to the bay on March 1, 1627, but +was unluckily becalmed; and the Portuguese were warned of his +presence. On arriving before San Salvador he found thirty ships +drawn up close to the land; sixteen of these were large and armed, +and four were galleons with a considerable number of troops on +board. The Dutch admiral with great daring determined to attack +them by sailing between them and the shore, making it difficult for +the guns on shore to fire on him without injury to their own ships. +It was a hazardous stroke, for the passage was narrow, but entirely +successful. One of the four galleons, carrying the admiral's flag, +was sunk, the other three struck. Taking to their launches, the +Dutchmen now fiercely assailed the other vessels, and in a very +short time were masters of twenty-two prizes. It was a difficult +task to carry them off at the ebb-tide, and it was not achieved +without loss. Hein's own ship, the <i>Amsterdam,</i> grounded and +had to be burnt, and another ship by some mischance blew up. The +total loss, except through the explosion, was exceedingly small. +The captured vessels contained 2700 chests of sugar, besides a +quantity of cotton, hides and tobacco. The booty was stored in the +four largest ships and sent to Holland; the rest were burnt.</p> + +<p>Hein now made a raid down the coast as far as Rio de Janeiro and +then returned. The "Sea Terror of Delft" for some weeks after this +remained in unchallenged mastery of the bay, picking up prizes when +the opportunity offered. Then he sailed by the West Indies +homewards and reached Dutch waters on October 31, 1627, having +during this expedition captured no less than fifty-five enemy<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_170" id= +"page_170">[pg.170]</a></span> vessels. The value of the booty was +sufficient to repay the company for their great outlay, and it was +wisely used in the equipment of fresh fleets for the following +year.</p> + +<p>This next year, 1628, was indeed an <i>annus mirabilis</i> in +the records of the Dutch West India Company. On January 24 two +fleets put to sea, one under Dirk Simonsz Uitgeest for the coast of +Brazil; another under Pieter Adriansz Ita for the West Indies. Both +were successful and came back laden with spoil. It was reserved, +however, for the expedition under Piet Hein to make all other +successes seem small. This fleet, consisting of thirty-one ships of +war, left Holland at the end of May for the West Indies with +instructions to lie in wait for the Spanish Treasure Fleet. Many +attempts had been made in previous years to intercept the galleons, +which year by year carried the riches of Mexico and Peru to Spain, +but they had always failed. After some weeks of weary cruising, +Piet Hein, when off the coast of Cuba, was rewarded (September 8) +by the sight of the Spanish fleet approaching, and at once bore +down upon them. After a sharp conflict, the Spaniards took refuge +in the bay of Matanzas and, running the galleons into shoal-water, +tried to convey the rich cargoes on shore. It was in vain. The +Dutch sailors, taking to their boats, boarded the galleons and +compelled them to surrender. The spoil was of enormous value, +comprising 177,537 lbs. of silver, 135 lbs. of gold, 37,375 hides, +2270 chests of indigo, besides cochineal, logwood, sugar, spices +and precious stones. It brought 11,509,524 fl. into the coffers of +the company, and a dividend of 50 per cent, was paid to the +shareholders. It was a wrong policy thus to deal with the results +of a stroke of good fortune not likely to be repeated. This year +was, however, to be a lucky year unto the end. A fourth expedition +under Adrian Jansz Pater which left on August 15 for the Caribbean +sea, sailed up the Orinoco and destroyed the town of San +Thomé de Guiana, the chief Spanish settlement in those +parts. All this, it may be said, partook of the character of +buccaneering, nevertheless these were shrewd blows struck at the +very source from whence the Spanish power obtained means for +carrying on the war. The West India Company was fulfilling +triumphantly one of the chief purposes for which it was created, +and was threatening Philip IV with financial ruin.</p> + +<p>The successes of 1628 had the effect of encouraging the +directors to try to retrieve the failure at Bahia by conquest +elsewhere.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_171" id= +"page_171">[pg.171]</a></span></p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Olinda, on the coast of Pernambuco, was selected as the new +objective. An expeditionary force of exceptional strength was got +ready; and, as Piet Hein, at the very height of his fame, +unfortunately lost his life in the spring of 1629 in an encounter +with the Dunkirk pirates, Hendrik Cornelisz Lonck, who had served +as vice-admiral under Hein at Matanzas bay, was made +admiral-in-chief, with Jonckheer Diederik van Waerdenburgh in +command of the military forces. A considerable delay was caused by +the critical position of the United Provinces when invaded by the +Spanish-Imperialist armies at the time of the siege of +Hertogenbosch, but the capture of that fortress enabled the last +contingents to sail towards the end of the year; and Lonck was able +to collect his whole force at St Vincent, one of the Canary +islands, on Christmas Day to start on their voyage across the +Atlantic. That force consisted of fifty-two ships and yachts and +thirteen sloops, carrying 3780 sailors and 3500 soldiers, and +mounting 1170 guns. Adverse weather prevented the arrival of the +fleet in the offing of Olinda until February 13. Along the coast of +Pernambuco runs a continuous reef of rock with narrow openings at +irregular intervals, forming a barrier against attack from the sea. +Olinda, the capital of the provinces, was built on a hill a short +distance inland, having as its port a village known as Povo or the +Reciff, lying on a spit of sand between the mouths of the rivers +Biberibi and Capibaribi. There was a passage through the rocky reef +northwards about two leagues above Olinda and three others +southwards (only one of which, the <i>Barra</i>, was navigable for +large ships) giving access to a sheet of water of some 18 ft. in +depth between the reef and the spit of sand, and forming a +commodious harbour, the Pozo.</p> + +<p>The problem before the Dutch commander was a difficult one, for +news of the expedition had reached Madrid; and Matthias de +Albuquerque, brother of "the proprietor" of Pernambuco, Duarte de +Albuquerque, a man of great energy and powers of leadership, had +arrived in October to put Olinda and the Reciff into a state of +defence. Two forts strongly garrisoned and armed, San Francisco and +San Jorge, defended the entrances through the reef and the neck of +the spit of sand; sixteen ships chained together and filled with +combustibles barred access to the harbour; and the village of the +Reciff was surrounded by entrenchments. Within the fortifications +of Olinda, Albuquerque held himself in readiness to oppose<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_172" id= +"page_172">[pg.172]</a></span> any body of the enemy that should +effect a landing above the town. Lonck, after consultation with +Waerdenburgh, determined to make with the main body of the fleet +under his own command an attempt to force the entrances to the +Pozo, while Waerdenburgh, with the bulk of the military contingent +on sixteen ships, sailed northwards to find some spot suitable for +disembarkation.</p> + +<p>The naval attack was made on February 15, but was unavailing. +All the efforts of the Dutch to make their way through any of the +entrances to the Pozo, though renewed again and again with the +utmost bravery, were beaten off. In the evening Lonck withdrew his +ships. He had learnt by an experience, to which history scarcely +offers an exception, that a naval attack unsupported by military +co-operation against land defences cannot succeed. But Waerdenburgh +had used the opportunity, while the enemy's attention was directed +to the repelling of the assault on the Reciff, to land his army +without opposition. At dawn the Dutch general advanced and, after +forcing the crossing of the river Doce in the teeth of the +resistance of a body of irregular troops led by Albuquerque in +person, marched straight on Olinda. There was no serious +resistance. The fortifications were carried by storm and the town +fell into the hands of Waerdenburgh. The garrison and almost all +the inhabitants fled into the neighbouring forest.</p> + +<p>Aware of the fact that the occupation of Olinda was useless +without a harbour as a base of supplies, it was resolved at once +with the aid of the fleet to lay siege to the forts of San +Francisco and San Jorge. Despite obstinate resistance, first San +Jorge, then San Francisco surrendered; and on March 3 the fleet +sailed through the Barra, and the Reciff with the island of Antonio +Vaz behind it was occupied by the Dutch. No sooner was the conquest +made than steps were taken for its administration. A welcome +reinforcement arrived from Holland on March 11, having on board +three representatives sent by the Nineteen, who were to form with +Waerdenburgh, appointed governor, an administrative council, or +Court of Policy. The Reciff, rather than Olinda, was selected as +the seat of government, and forts were erected for its defence. The +position, however, was perilous in the extreme. Albuquerque, who +was well acquainted with the country and skilled in guerrilla +warfare, formed an entrenched camp to which he gave the name of the +<i>Arreyal de Bom Jesus</i>, a position defended by marshes and +thick woods. From this centre,<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_173" id="page_173">[pg.173]</a></span> by the aid of large +numbers of friendly Indians, he was able to cut off all supplies of +fresh water, meat or vegetables from reaching the Dutch garrison. +They had to depend for the necessaries of life upon stores sent to +them in relief fleets from Holland. It was a strange and grim +struggle of endurance, in which both Dutch and Portuguese suffered +terribly, the one on the barren sea-shore, the other in the +pathless woods under the glare of a tropical sun, both alike +looking eagerly for succour from the Motherland. The Dutch succours +were the first to arrive. The first detachment under Marten +Thijssen reached the Reciff on December 18, 1630; the main fleet +under Adrian Jansz Pater on April 14, 1631. The whole fleet +consisted of sixteen ships and yachts manned by 1270 sailors and +860 soldiers. Their arrival was the signal for offensive +operations. An expedition under Thijssen's command sailed on April +22 for the large island of Itamaraca about fifteen miles to the +north of the Reciff. It was successful. Itamaraca was occupied and +garrisoned, and thus a second and advantageous post established on +the Brazilian coast.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Spanish government had not been idle. After many +delays a powerful fleet set sail from Lisbon on May 5 for +Pernambuco, consisting of fifteen Spanish and five Portuguese ships +and carrying a large military force, partly destined for Bahia, but +principally as a reinforcement for Matthias de Albuquerque. The +expedition was commanded by Admiral Antonio de Oquendo, and was +accompanied by Duarte de Albuquerque, the proprietor of Pernambuco. +After landing troops and munitions at Bahia, the Spaniards wasted +several weeks before starting again to accomplish the main object +of blockading the Dutch in the Reciff and compelling their +surrender by famine. But Pater had learnt by his scouts of the +presence of Oquendo at Bahia, and though his force was far inferior +he determined to meet the hostile armada at sea. The Spanish fleet +was sighted at early dawn on September 12, and Pater at once gave +orders to attack. His fleet consisted of sixteen ships and yachts, +that of the enemy of twenty galleons and sixteen caravels. The +Dutch admiral had formed his fleet in two lines, himself in the +<i>Prins Willem</i> and Vice-Admiral Thijssen in the <i>Vereenigte +Provintien</i> being the leaders. On this occasion the sight of the +great numbers and size of the Spanish galleons caused a great part +of the Dutch captains to lose heart and hang back. Pater and +Thijssen, followed<span class="newpage"><a name="page_174" id= +"page_174">[pg.174]</a></span> by only two ships, bore down however +on the Spaniards. <i>The Prins Willem</i> with the <i>Walcheren</i> +in attendance laid herself alongside the <i>St Jago</i>, flying the +flag of Admiral Oquendo; the <i>Vereenigte Provintien</i> with the +<i>Provintie van Utrecht</i> in its wake drew up to the <i>St +Antonio de Padua</i>, the ship of Vice-Admiral Francisco de +Vallecilla. For six hours the duel between the <i>Prins Willem</i> +and the <i>St Jago</i> went on with fierce desperation, the captain +of the <i>Walcheren</i> gallantly holding at bay the galleons who +attempted to come to the rescue of Oquendo. At 4 p. m. the <i>St +Jago</i> was a floating wreck with only a remnant of her crew +surviving, when suddenly a fire broke out in the <i>Prins +Willem</i>, which nothing could check. With difficulty the <i>St +Jago</i> drew off and, finding that his vessel was lost, Pater, +refusing to surrender, wrapped the flag round his body and threw +himself into the sea. Meanwhile success had attended Thijssen. The +lagging Dutch ships coming up gradually threatened the convoy of +Spanish transports and drew off many of the galleons for their +protection. The <i>Provintie van Utrecht</i> indeed, like the +<i>Prins Willem</i>, caught fire and was burnt to the water's edge; +but the vice-admiral himself sank the <i>St Antonio de Padua</i> +and another galleon that came to Vallecilla's help, and captured a +third. It was a bloody and apparently indecisive fight, but the +Dutch enjoyed the fruits of victory. Oquendo made no attempt to +capture the Reciff and Olinda, but, after landing the troops he +convoyed at a favourable spot, sailed northwards, followed by +Thijssen.</p> + +<p>But though relieved the position was still very serious. +Albuquerque, now considerably reinforced from his impregnable post +at the <i>Arreyal de Bom Jesus</i>, cut off all intercourse inland. +The Dutch even abandoned Olinda and concentrated themselves at the +Reciff, where they remained as a besieged force entirely dependent +upon supplies sent from Holland. Several expeditions were +despatched with the hope of seizing other positions on the coast, +but all of them proved failures; and, when Waerdenburgh returned +home in 1633, having reached the end of his three years' service as +governor, all that could be said was that the Dutch had retained +their foothold on the coast of Pernambuco, but at vast cost to the +company in men, vessels and treasure, and without any apparent +prospect for the future. But pertinacity was to be rewarded. For +the period of success that followed special histories must be +consulted. In the year following the return of Waerdenburgh the +efforts of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_175" id= +"page_175">[pg.175]</a></span> the Dutch authorities to extend +their possessions along the coast at the various river mouths were +steadily successful; and with the advent of Joan Maurice of Nassau +to the governorship, in 1637, the dream of a Dutch empire in Brazil +seemed to be on the point of realisation. This cousin of the Prince +of Orange was endowed with brilliant qualities, and during the +seven years of his governorship he extended the Dutch dominion from +the Rio Grande in the south to the island of Maranhão on the +north and to a considerable distance inland, indeed over the larger +part of seven out of the fourteen captaincies into which Portuguese +Brazil was divided. On his arrival, by a wise policy of +statesmanlike conciliation, he contrived to secure the goodwill of +the Portuguese planters, who, though not loving the Dutch heretics, +hated them less than their Spanish oppressors, and also of the +Jews, who were numerous in the conquered territory. Under his rule +the Reciff as the seat of the Dutch government was beautified and +enlarged; many fine buildings and gardens adorned it, and the +harbour made commodious for commerce with rows of warehouses and +ample docks. To the new capital he gave the name of +Mauritsstad.</p> + +<p>During the earlier part of his governor-generalship Joan Maurice +was called upon to face a really great danger. The year 1639 was to +witness what was to be the last great effort (before the Portuguese +revolt) of the still undivided Spanish monarchy for supremacy at +sea. Already it has been told how a great fleet sent under Antonio +de Oquendo to drive the Dutch from the narrow seas was crushed by +Admiral Tromp at the battle of the Downs. In the same year the most +formidable armada ever sent from the Peninsula across the ocean set +sail for Brazil. It consisted of no less than eighty-six vessels +manned by 12,000 sailors and soldiers under the command of the +Count de Torre. Unpropitious weather conditions, as so often in the +case of Spanish naval undertakings, ruined the enterprise. Making +for Bahia they were detained for two months in the Bay of All +Saints by strong northerly winds. Meanwhile Joan Maurice, whose +naval force at first was deplorably weak, had managed by energetic +efforts to gather together a respectable fleet of forty vessels +under Admiral Loos, which resembled the English fleet of 1588 under +Effingham and Drake, in that it made up for lack of numbers and of +size by superior seamanship and skill in manoeuvring. At length, +the wind having shifted, the Count de<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_176" id="page_176">[pg.176]</a></span> Torre put to sea; and +on January 12, 1640, the Dutch squadrons sighted the Spaniards, who +were being driven along by a southerly gale which had sprung up. +Clinging to their rear and keeping the weather-gauge, the Dutch +kept up a running fight, inflicting continual losses on their +enemies, and, giving them no opportunity to make for land and seek +the shelter of a port, drove them northwards in disorder never to +return. By this signal deliverance the hold of the Netherlanders +upon their Brazilian conquests appeared to be assured; and, as has +been already stated, Joan Maurice took full advantage of the +opportunity that was offered to him to consolidate and extend them. +A sudden change of political circumstances was, however, to bring +to a rapid downfall a dominion which had never rested on a sound +basis.</p> + +<p>The revolt of Portugal in 1641 was at first hailed in the United +Provinces as the entry of a new ally into the field against their +ancient enemy the Spaniard. But it was soon perceived that there +could be no friendship with independent Portugal, unless both the +East and West India Companies withdrew from the territories they +had occupied overseas entirely at the expense of the Portuguese. +King João IV and his advisers at Lisbon, face to face as +they were with the menacing Spanish power, showed willingness to +make great concessions, but they could not control the spirit which +animated the settlers in the colonies themselves. Everywhere the +Spanish yoke was repudiated, and the Dutch garrisons in Brazil +suddenly found themselves confronted in 1645 with a loyalist +rising, with which they were not in a position to deal +successfully. The West India Company had not proved a commercial +success. The fitting out of great fleets and the maintenance of +numerous garrisons of mercenaries at an immense distance from the +home country had exhausted their resources and involved the company +in debt. The building of Mauritsstad and the carrying out of Joan +Maurice's ambitious schemes for the administration and organisation +of a great Brazilian dominion were grandiose, but very costly. The +governor, moreover, who could brook neither incompetence nor +interference on the part of his subordinates, had aroused the +enmity of some of them, notably of a certain Colonel Architofsky, +who through spite plotted and intrigued against him with the +authorities at home. The result was that, the directors having +declined to sanction certain proposals made to them by Joan +Maurice, he sent<span class="newpage"><a name="page_177" id= +"page_177">[pg.177]</a></span> in his resignation, which was +accepted (1644). It must be remembered that their position was a +difficult one. The charter of the company had been granted for a +term of twenty-four years, and it was doubtful whether the +States-General, already beginning to discuss secretly the question +of a separate peace with Spain, would consent to renew it. The +relations with Portugal were very delicate; and a formidable +rebellion of the entire body of Portuguese settlers, aided by the +natives, was on the point of breaking out. Indeed the successors of +Joan Maurice, deprived of any adequate succour from home, were +unable to maintain themselves against the skill and courage of the +insurgent Portuguese leaders. The Dutch were defeated in the field, +and one by one their fortresses were taken. The Reciff itself held +out for some time, but it was surrendered at last in 1654; and with +its fall the Dutch were finally expelled from the territory for the +acquisition of which they had sacrificed so much blood and +treasure.</p> + +<p>The West India Company at the peace of Münster possessed, +besides the remnant of its Brazilian dominion, the colony of New +Netherland in North America, and two struggling settlements on the +rivers Essequibo and Berbice in Guiana. New Netherland comprised +the country between the English colonies of New England and +Virginia; and the Dutch settlers had at this time established farms +near the coast and friendly relations with the natives of the +interior, with whom they trafficked for furs. The appointment of +Peter Stuyvesant as governor, in 1646, was a time of real +development in New Netherland. This colony was an appanage of the +Chamber of Amsterdam, after which New Amsterdam, the seat of +government on the island of Manhattan, was named. The official +trading posts on the Essequibo and the Berbice, though never +abandoned, had for some years a mere lingering existence, but are +deserving of mention in that they were destined to survive the +vicissitudes of fortune and to become in the 18th century a +valuable possession. Their importance also is to be measured not by +the meagre official reports and profit and loss accounts that have +survived in the West India Company's records, but by the much +fuller information to be derived from Spanish and Portuguese +sources, as to the remarkable daring and energy of Dutch trading +agents in all that portion of the South American continent lying +between the rivers Amazon and Orinoco. Expelled<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">[pg.178]</a></span> from +the Amazon itself in 1627 by the Portuguese from Para, the Dutch +traders established themselves at different times at the mouths of +almost all the rivers along what was known as the Wild Coast of +Guiana, and penetrating inland through a good understanding with +the natives, especially with the ubiquitous Carib tribes, carried +on a barter traffic beyond the mountains into the northern +watershed of the Amazon, even as far as the Rio Negro itself. This +trade with the interior finds no place in the company's official +minutes, for it was strictly speaking an infringement of the +charter, and therefore illegitimate. But it was characteristically +Dutch, and it was winked at, for the chief offenders were +themselves among the principal shareholders of the company.</p> + +<p>No account of Dutch commerce during the period of Frederick +Henry would be complete, however, which did not refer to the +relations between Holland and Sweden, and the part played by an +Amsterdam merchant in enabling the Swedish armies to secure the +ultimate triumph of the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War. +Louis de Geer sprang from an ancient noble family of Liège. +His father fled to Dordrecht in 1595 to escape from the Inquisition +and became prosperous in business. Liège was then, as now, a +great centre of the iron industry; and after his father's death +Louis de Geer in 1615 removed to Amsterdam, where he became a +merchant in all kinds of iron and copper goods, more especially of +ordnance and fire-arms. In close alliance with him, though not in +partnership, was his brother-in-law, Elias Trip, the head of a firm +reputed to have the most extensive business in iron-ware and +weapons in the Netherlands. The commanding abilities of de Geer +soon gave to the two firms, which continued to work harmoniously +together as a family concern, a complete supremacy in the class of +wares in which they dealt. At this time the chief supply of iron +and copper ore came from Sweden; and in 1616 de Geer was sent on a +mission by the States-General to that country to negotiate for a +supply of these raw materials for the forging of ordnance. This +mission had important results, for it was the first step towards +bringing about those close relations between Sweden and the United +Provinces which were to subsist throughout the whole of the Thirty +Years' War. In the following year, 1617, Gustavus Adolphus, then +about to conduct an expedition into Livonia, sent an envoy to +Holland for the purpose of securing the good offices of the +States-General<span class="newpage"><a name="page_179" id= +"page_179">[pg.179]</a></span> for the raising of a loan upon the +security of the Swedish copper mines. The principal contributor was +Louis de Geer. He had, during his visit to Sweden, learnt how great +was the wealth of that country in iron ore, and at the same time +that the mines were lying idle and undeveloped through lack of +capital and skilled workmen. He used his opportunity therefore to +obtain from Gustavus the lease of the rich mining domain of +Finspong. The lease was signed on October 12, 1619, and de Geer at +once began operations on the largest scale. He introduced from +Liège a body of expert Walloon iron-workers, built forges +and factories, and was in a few years able to supply the Swedish +government with all the ordnance and munitions of war that they +required, and to export through the port of Norrköping large +supplies of goods to his warehouses at Amsterdam. His relations +with Gustavus Adolphus soon became intimate. The king relied upon +de Geer for the supply of all the necessaries for his armies in the +field, and even commissioned him to raise troops for the Swedish +service. In 1626 the Dutch merchant was appointed by the king +acting-manager of the copper mines, which were royal property; and, +in order to regularise his position and give him greater facilities +for the conduct of his enterprises, the rights of Swedish +citizenship were conferred by royal patent upon him. It was a +curious position, for though de Geer paid many visits to Sweden, +once for three consecutive years, 1626-29, he continued to make +Amsterdam his home and principal residence. He thus had a dual +nationality. Year after year saw an increasing number of mines and +properties passing into the great financier's hands, and in return +for these concessions he made large advances to the king for his +triumphant expedition into Germany; advancing him in 1628 50,000 +rixdalers, and somewhat later a further sum of 32,000 rixdalers. So +confidential were the relations between them that Gustavus sent for +de Geer to his camp at Kitzingen for a personal consultation on +business matters in the spring of 1632. It was their last +interview, for before that year closed the Swedish hero was to +perish at Lützen.</p> + +<p>The death of Gustavus made no difference to the position of +Louis de Geer in Sweden, for he found Axel Oxenstierna a warm +friend and powerful supporter. Among other fresh enterprises was +the formation of a Swedo-Dutch Company for trading on the West +Coast of Africa. In this company Oxenstierna himself invested<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_180" id= +"page_180">[pg.180]</a></span> money. In reward for his many +services the Swedish Council of Regency conferred upon de Geer and +his heirs a patent of nobility (August 4,1641); and as part +repayment of the large loans advanced by him to the Swedish +treasury he obtained as his own the districts containing his mines +and factories in different parts of Sweden, making him one of the +largest landed proprietors in the country. He on his part in return +for this was able to show in a remarkable way that he was not +ungrateful for the favours that he had received.</p> + +<p>With Christian IV of Denmark for many years the Swedes and the +Dutch had had constant disputes and much friction. This able and +ambitious king, throughout a long and vigorous reign, which began +in 1593, had watched with ever-increasing jealousy the passing of +the Baltic trade into Dutch hands, and with something more than +jealousy the rapid advance to power of the sister Scandinavian +kingdom under Gustavus Adolphus. Of the 1074 merchant ships that +passed through the Sound between June 19 and November 16, 1645, all +but 49 came from Dutch ports, by far the largest number from +Amsterdam; and from these Christian IV drew a large revenue by the +exaction of harsh and arbitrary toll-dues. Again and again the +States-General had complained and protested; and diplomatic +pressure had been brought to bear upon the high-handed king, but +without avail. Between Sweden and Denmark there had been, since +Gustavus Adolphus came to the throne in 1613, no overt act of +hostility; but smouldering beneath the surface of an armed truce +were embers of latent rivalries and ambitions ready at any moment +to burst into flame. Christian IV was a Protestant, but his +jealousy of Sweden led him in 1639 openly to take sides with the +Catholic powers, Austria and Spain. Fearing that he might attempt +to close the passage of the Sound, the States-General and the +Swedish Regency in 1640 concluded a treaty "for securing the +freedom and protection of shipping and commerce in the Baltic and +North Seas"; and one of the secret articles gave permission to +Sweden to buy or hire ships in the Netherlands and in case of +necessity to enlist crews for the same. Outward peace was +precariously maintained between the Scandinavian powers, when the +seizure of a number of Swedish ships in the Sound in 1643 made +Oxenstierna resolve upon a bold stroke. Without any declaration of +war the Swedish general, Torstensson, was ordered to lead his +victorious army from North Germany into Denmark<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_181" id="page_181">[pg.181]</a></span> and +to force King Christian to cease intriguing with the enemy. +Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland were speedily in Torstensson's +hands, but the Danish fleet was superior to the Swedish, and he +could make no further progress. Both sides turned to the United +Provinces. Christian promised that the grievances in regard to the +Sound dues should be removed if the States-General would remain +neutral. Oxenstierna addressed himself to Louis de Geer. The +merchant on behalf of the Swedish government was instructed to +approach the stadholder and the States-General, and to seek for +naval assistance under the terms of the treaty of 1640; and, if he +failed in obtaining their assent, then he—de +Geer—should himself (in conformance with the secret article +of that treaty) raise on his own account and equip a fleet of +thirty ships for the Swedish service.</p> + +<p>De Geer soon discovered that Frederick Henry, being intent on +peace negotiations, was averse to the proposal. The stadholder, and +the States-General acting under his influence, did not wish to +create fresh entanglements by embroiling the United Provinces in a +war with Denmark. De Geer therefore at once began on his own +responsibility to equip ships in the various seaports of Holland +and Zeeland which had been the chief sufferers by the vexatious +Sound dues, and he succeeded in enlisting the connivance of the +Estates of Holland to his undertaking. Before the end of April, +1644, a fleet of thirty-two vessels was collected under the command +of Marten Thijssen. Its first efforts were unsuccessful. The Danish +fleet effectually prevented the junction of Thijssen with the +Swedes, and for a time he found himself blockaded in a narrow +passage called the Listerdiep. Taking advantage of a storm which +dispersed the Danes, the Dutch admiral at last was able to put to +sea again, and early in July somewhat ignominiously returned to +Amsterdam to refit. For the moment King Christian was everywhere +triumphant. On July 11 he gained a signal victory over the Swedish +fleet at Colberg Heath, and he had the satisfaction of seeing +Torstensson compelled by the Imperialists to retreat from Jutland. +But the energy and pertinacity of the Amsterdam merchant saved the +situation. Though the retreat of Thijssen meant for him a heavy +financial loss, de Geer never for a moment faltered in his purpose. +Within three weeks Thijssen again put to sea with twenty-two ships, +and by skilful manoeuvring he succeeded in making his way<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_182" id= +"page_182">[pg.182]</a></span> through the Skagerak and the Sound, +and finally brought his fleet to anchor in the Swedish harbour of +Calmar. From this harbour the united Swedo-Dutch squadrons sailed +out and on October 23, between Femern and Laaland, met the Danish +fleet, and after a desperate conflict completely defeated and +destroyed it. Thus were the wealth and resources of a private +citizen of Amsterdam able to intervene decisively at a critical +moment in the struggle for supremacy in the Baltic between the two +Scandinavian powers. But it is not in the victory won by Marten +Thijssen that de Geer rendered his greatest service to Sweden. As +the Swedish historian Fryxell truly says, "all that was won by the +statesmanship of Oxenstierna, by the sword of Baner, Torstensson +and Wrangel, in a desolated Germany streaming with blood, has been +already lost again; but the benefits which Louis de Geer brought to +Sweden, by the path of peaceful industry and virtue, these still +exist, and bear wholesome fruit to a late posterity."</p> + +<p>This expedition under Marten Thijssen, who after his victory was +created a Swedish noble and definitely entered the Swedish naval +service, though connived at by Frederick Henry and the +States-General, did not express any desire on their part to +aggrandise Sweden unduly at the expense of Denmark. If some great +merchants such as Louis de Geer and Elias Trip were exploiting the +resources of Sweden, others, notably a certain Gabriel Marcelis, +had invested their capital in developing the Danish grazing lands; +and politically and commercially the question of the Sound dues, +pre-eminently a Danish question, overshadowed all others in +importance. The Dutch had no desire to give Sweden a share in the +control of the Sound; they preferred in the interests of their vast +Baltic trade to have to deal with Christian IV alone. The Swedish +threat was useful in bringing diplomatic pressure to bear on the +Danish king, but ultimately they felt confident that, if he refused +to make concessions in the matter of the dues, they could compel +him to do so. As one of their diplomatists proudly declared, "the +wooden keys of the Sound were not in the hands of King Christian, +but in the wharves of Amsterdam." In June, 1645, his words were put +to a practical test. Admiral Witte de With at the head of a fleet +of fifty war-ships was ordered to convoy 300 merchantmen through +the Sound, peacefully if possible, if not, by force. Quietly the +entire fleet of 350 vessels sailed through the narrow waters. The +Danish<span class="newpage"><a name="page_183" id= +"page_183">[pg.183]</a></span> fleet and Danish forts made no +attempt at resistance. All the summer De With cruised to and fro +and the Dutch traders suffered no molestation. Christian's +obstinacy at last gave way before this display of superior might, +and on August 23, by the treaty of Christianopel he agreed to lower +the tolls for forty years and to make many other concessions that +were required from him. At the same time by Dutch mediation peace +was concluded between Denmark and Sweden, distinctly to the +advantage of the former, by the treaty of Brömsebro.</p> + +<p>To pass to other regions. In the Levant, during the long +residence of Cornelis Haga at Constantinople, trade had been +greatly extended. Considerable privileges were conceded to the +Dutch by the so-called "capitulation" concluded by his agency with +the Porte in 1612; and Dutch consuls were placed in the chief ports +of Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Greece and Italy. The +trading however with the Mediterranean and the Levant was left to +private enterprise, the States-General which had given charters to +the different Companies—East India, West India and +Northern—not being willing to create any further +monopolies.</p> + +<p>The lack of coal and of metals has always seriously hindered +industrial development in the United Provinces. Nevertheless the +advent into Holland of so many refugees who were skilled artisans, +from the southern Netherlands, led to the establishment of various +textile industries at Leyden, Haarlem and other towns. One of the +chief of these was the dressing and dyeing of English cloth for +exportation.</p> + +<p>Amsterdam, it should be mentioned, had already at this time +become the home of the diamond industry. The art of cutting and +polishing diamonds was a secret process brought to the city on the +Y by Portuguese Jews, who were expelled by Philip II; and in +Amsterdam their descendants still retain a peculiar skill and +craftmanship that is unrivalled. Jewish settlers were indeed to be +found in many of the Dutch towns; and it was through them that +Holland became famous in 17th century Europe for the perfection of +her goldsmiths' and silversmiths' art and for jewelry of every +kind. Another industry, which had its centre at Delft, was that of +the celebrated pottery and tiles known as "delfware." It will be +evident from what has been said above that vast wealth flowed into +Holland at this period of her history, but, as so often happens, +this<span class="newpage"><a name="page_184" id= +"page_184">[pg.184]</a></span> sudden growth of riches had a +tendency to accumulate in the hands of a minority of the people, +with the inevitable consequence, on the one hand, of the widening +of the gulf which divided poverty from opulence; on the other, with +the creation among rich and poor alike of a consuming eagerness and +passion for gain, if not by legitimate means, then by wild +speculation or corrupt venality. Bubble companies came into +existence, only to bring disaster on those who rashly invested +their money in them. The fever of speculation rose to its height in +the mania for the growing of bulbs and more especially of tulips, +which more and more absorbed the attention of the public in Holland +in the years 1633-6. Perfectly inordinate sums were offered in +advance for growing crops or for particular bulbs; most of the +transactions being purely paper speculations, a gambling in +futures. Millions of guilders were risked, and hundreds of +thousands lost or won. In 1637 the crash came, and many thousands +of people, in Amsterdam, Haarlem, Leyden, Alkmaar and other towns +in Holland, were brought to ruin. The Estates of Holland and the +various municipal corporations, numbers of whose members were among +the sufferers, were compelled to take official action to extend the +time for the liquidation of debts, and thus to some extent limit +the number of bankruptcies. The tulip mania reduced, however, so +many to beggary that it came as a stern warning. It was +unfortunately only too typical of the spirit of the time.</p> + +<p>Even worse in some ways was the venality and corruption which +began to pervade the public life of the country. The getting of +wealth, no matter how, was an epidemic, which infected not merely +the business community, but the official classes of the republic. +There was malversation in the admiralties and in the military +administration. The government was in the hands of narrow +oligarchies, who took good care to oppose jealously any extension +of the privileges which placed so much valuable patronage at their +disposal. Even envoys to foreign courts were reputed not to be +inaccessible to the receipt of presents, which were in reality +bribes; and in the law-courts the wealthy suitor or offender could +generally count on a charitable construction being placed upon all +points in his favour. The severe placards, for instance, against +the public celebration of any form of worship but that of the +Reformed religion, according to the decrees of the Synod of Dort, +were<span class="newpage"><a name="page_185" id= +"page_185">[pg.185]</a></span> notoriously not enforced. Those who +were able and willing to pay for a dispensation found a ready and +judicious toleration.</p> + +<p>This toleration was not entirely due to the venality of the +officials, but rather to the spirit of materialistic indifference +that was abroad among the orthodox Calvinists, who were alone +eligible for public office. Large numbers of those who professed +the established faith were in reality either nominal conformists +too much immersed in affairs to trouble about religious questions, +or actually free-thinkers in disguise. It must never be forgotten +that in the United Provinces taken as a whole, the Calvinists, +whether orthodox or arminian, formed a minority of the population. +Even in Holland itself more than half the inhabitants were +Catholics, including many of the old families and almost all the +peasantry. Likewise in Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel the +Catholics were in the majority. The Generality lands, North Brabant +and Dutch Flanders, were entirely of the Roman faith. In Holland, +Zeeland and especially in Friesland and Groningen the Mennonite +Baptists and other sects had numerous adherents. Liberty of thought +and to a large extent of worship was in fact at this time the +characteristic of the Netherlands, and existed in spite of the +unrepealed placards which enforced under pain of heavy penalties a +strict adherence to the principles of Dort.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <span class="newpage"><a name="page_186" id= +"page_186">[pg.186]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>LETTERS, SCIENCE AND ART</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The epithet "glorious"—<i>roemrijke</i>—has been +frequently applied by Dutch historians to the period of Frederick +Henry—and deservedly. The preceding chapter has told that it +was a time of wonderful maritime and colonial expansion, of +commercial supremacy and material prosperity. But the spirit of the +Holland, which reached its culminating point of national greatness +in the middle of the 17th century, was far from being wholly +occupied with voyages of adventure and conquest on far distant +seas, or engrossed in sordid commercialism at home. The rapid +acquisition of wealth by successful trade is dangerous to the moral +health and stability alike of individuals and of societies; and the +vices which follow in its train had, as we have already pointed +out, infected to a certain extent the official and commercial +classes in the Dutch republic at this epoch. There is, however, +another side of the picture. The people of the United Provinces in +their long struggle for existence, as a free and independent state, +had had all the dormant energies and qualities of which their race +was capable called into intense and many-sided activity, with the +result that the quickening impulse, which had been sent thrilling +through the veins, and which had made the pulses to throb with the +stress of effort and the eagerness of hope, penetrated into every +department of thought and life. When the treaty of Münster was +signed, Holland had taken her place in the very front rank in the +civilised world, as the home of letters, science and art, and was +undoubtedly the most learned state in Europe.</p> + +<p>In an age when Latin was the universal language of learning, it +was this last fact which loomed largest in the eyes of +contemporaries. The wars and persecutions which followed the +Reformation made Holland the place of refuge of many of the most +adventurous spirits, the choicest intellects and the most +independent thinkers of the time. Flemings and Walloons, who fled +from Alva and the Inquisition, Spanish and Portuguese Jews driven +out by<span class="newpage"><a name="page_187" id= +"page_187">[pg.187]</a></span> the fanaticism of Philip II, French +Huguenots and German Calvinists, found within the borders of the +United Provinces a country of adoption, where freedom of the press +and freedom of opinion existed to a degree unknown elsewhere until +quite modern times. The social condition of the country, the +disappearance of a feudal nobility, and the growth of a large and +well-to-do burgher aristocracy in whose hands the government of the +republic really lay, had led to a widespread diffusion of +education and culture. All travellers in 17th century Holland were +struck by the evidences which met their eyes, in all places that +they visited, of a general prosperity combined with great +simplicity of life and quiet domesticity. Homely comfort was to be +seen everywhere, but not even in the mansions of the merchant +princes of Amsterdam was there any ostentatious display of wealth +and luxury. Probably of no other people could it have been said +that "amongst the Dutch it was unfashionable not to be a man of +business<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>." And yet, in spite of this, +there was none of that narrowness of outlook, which is generally +associated with burgher-society immersed in trade. These men, be it +remembered, were necessarily acquainted with many languages, for +they had commercial relations with all parts of the world. The +number too of those who had actually voyaged and travelled in far +distant oceans, in every variety of climate, amidst every diversity +of race, was very large; and their presence in their home circles +and in social gatherings and all they had to tell of their +experiences opened men's minds, stirred their imaginations, and +aroused an interest and a curiosity, which made even the +stay-at-home Hollanders alert, receptive and eager for +knowledge.</p> + +<p>The act of William the Silent in founding the University of +Leyden, as a memorial of the great deliverance of 1574, was +prophetic of the future that was about to dawn upon the land, +which, at the moment of its lowest fortunes, the successful defence +of Leyden had done so much to save from utter disaster. For the +reasons which have been already stated, scholars of renown driven +by intolerance from their own countries found in the newly-founded +Academy in Holland a home where they could pursue their literary +work undisturbed, and gave to it a fame and celebrity which +speedily attracted thousands of students not only from the +Netherlands, but also from foreign lands. This was especially +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_188" id= +"page_188">[pg.188]</a></span> case during the terrible time when +Germany was devastated by the Thirty Years' War. Among the scholars +and philologists, who held chairs at Leyden during the first +century of its existence, are included a long list of names of +European renown. Justus Lipsius and Josephus Justus Scaliger may be +justly reckoned among the founders of the science of critical +scholarship. These were of foreign extraction, as was Salmasius, +one of their successors, famous for his controversy with John +Milton. But only less illustrious in the domain of philology and +classical learning were the Netherlanders Gerardus Johannes Vossius +(1577-1649) and his five sons, one of whom Isaac (1618-89) may be +even said to have surpassed his father; Daniel Heinsius (1580-1665) +and his son Nicolas (1620-1681), men of immense erudition and +critical insight; and the brilliant Latinist Caspar Barlaeus +(1584-1648). Of theologians and their bitter disputes posterity +retains a less grateful remembrance. Gomarus and Arminius by their +controversies were the authors of party strife and civil +dissensions which led to the death of Oldenbarneveldt on the +scaffold; and with them may be mentioned Episcopius, Voetius, +Coecaeus, Bogerman and Uyttenbogaert. Not all these men had a +direct connection with Leyden, for the success which attended the +creation of the academy in that town quickly led to the erection of +similar institutions elsewhere. Universities were founded at +Franeker, 1584; Groningen, 1614; Amsterdam, 1632; Utrecht, 1636; +and Harderwijk, 1646. These had not the same attraction as Leyden +for foreigners, but they quickly became, one and all, centres for +the diffusion of that high level of general culture which was the +distinguishing mark of the 17th century Netherlands.</p> + +<p>All the writers, whose names have just been mentioned, used +Latin almost exclusively as their instrument of expression. But one +name, the most renowned of them all, has been omitted, because +through political circumstances he was compelled to spend the +greater part of his life in banishment from his native land. Hugo +Grotius (Huig van Groot), after his escape from the castle of +Loevestein in 1621, though he remained through life a true patriot, +never could be induced to accept a pardon, which implied an +admission of guilt in himself or in Oldenbarneveldt. So the man, +who was known to have been the actual writer of the Advocate's +<i>Justification</i>, continued to live in straitened circumstances +at Paris, until Oxenstierna<span class="newpage"><a name="page_189" +id="page_189">[pg.189]</a></span> appointed him Swedish ambassador +at the French court. This post he held for eleven years. Of his +extraordinary ability, and of the variety and range of his +knowledge, it is not possible to speak without seeming +exaggeration. Grotius was in his own time styled "the wonder of the +world"; he certainly stands intellectually as one of the very +foremost men the Dutch race has produced. Scholar, jurist, +theologian, philosopher, historian, poet, diplomatist, +letter-writer, he excelled in almost every branch of knowledge and +made himself a master of whatever subject he took in hand. For the +student of International Law the treatise of Grotius, <i>De Jure +belli et pacis</i>, still remains the text-book on which the later +superstructure has been reared. His <i>Mare liberum</i>, written +expressly to controvert the Portuguese claim of an exclusive right +to trade and navigate in the Indian Ocean, excited much attention +in Europe, and was taken by James I to be an attack on the +oft-asserted <i>dominium maris</i> of the English crown in the +narrow seas. It led the king to issue a proclamation forbidding +foreigners to fish in British waters (May, 1609). Selden's <i>Mare +clausum</i> was a reply, written by the king's command, to the +<i>Mare liberum</i>. Of his strictly historical works the +<i>Annales et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis</i>, for its impartiality +and general accuracy no less than for its finished and lucid style, +stands out as the best of all contemporary accounts from the Dutch +side of the Revolt of the Netherlands. As a theologian Grotius +occupied a high rank. His <i>De Veritate Religionis Christianae</i> +and his <i>Annotationes in Vetus et in Novum Testamentum</i> are +now out of date; but the <i>De Veritate</i> was in its day a most +valuable piece of Christian apologetic and was quickly translated +into many languages. The <i>Annotationes</i> have, ever since they +were penned, been helpful to commentators on the Scriptures for +their brilliancy and suggestiveness on many points of criticism and +interpretation. His voluminous correspondence, diplomatic, +literary, confidential, is rich in information bearing on the +history and the life of his time. Several thousands of these +letters have been collected and published.</p> + +<p>But if the smouldering embers of bitter sectarian and party +strife compelled the most brilliant of Holland's own sons to spend +the last twenty-three years of his life in a foreign capital and to +enter the service of a foreign state, Holland was at the same time, +as we have seen, gaining distinction by the presence within her +hospitable boundaries of men of foreign extraction famous for their +learning.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_190" id= +"page_190">[pg.190]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was thus that both the Cartesian and Spinozan systems of +philosophy had their birth-place on Dutch soil. Réné +Descartes sought refuge from France at Amsterdam in 1629, and he +resided at different places in the United Provinces, among them at +the university towns of Utrecht, Franeker and Leyden, for twenty +years. During this time he published most of his best known works, +including the famous <i>Discours de la méthode</i>. His +influence was great. He made many disciples, who openly or secretly +became "Cartesians." Among his pupils was Baruch Spinoza +(1632-1677) the apostle of pantheism. A Portuguese Jew by descent, +Spinoza was born in Amsterdam and was a resident in his native city +throughout life.</p> + +<p>The fame of Holland in 17th century Europe as the chosen home of +learning had thus been established by scholars and thinkers whose +literary language was ordinarily Latin. It is now time to speak of +the brilliant band of poets, dramatists and stylists, who +cultivated the resources of their native tongue with such success +as to make this great era truly the Golden Age of Dutch Literature +properly so-called. The growth of a genuine national literature in +the Netherlands, which had produced during the latter part of the +13th century a Maerlandt and a Melis Stoke, was for some +considerable time checked and retarded by the influence of the +Burgundian <i>régime</i>, where French, as the court +language, was generally adopted by the upper classes. The +Netherland or Low-German tongue thus became gradually debased and +corrupted by the introduction of bastard words and foreign modes of +expression. Nevertheless this period of linguistic degradation +witnessed the uprise of a most remarkable institution for +popularising "the Art of Poesy." I refer to the literary gilds, +bearing the name of "Chambers of Rhetoric," which, though of French +origin, became rapidly acclimatised in the Netherlands. In +well-nigh every town one or more of these "gilds" were established, +delighting the people with their quaint pageantry and elaborate +ritual, and forming centres of light and culture throughout the +land. Rhyming, versifying, acting, became through their means the +recreation of many thousands of shop-keepers, artisans and even +peasants. And with all their faults of style and taste, their +endless effusion of bad poetry, their feeble plays and rude farces, +the mummery and buffoonery which were mingled even with their +gravest efforts, the "Rhetoricians" <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_191" id="page_191">[pg.191]</a></span> effectually achieved +the great and important work of attracting an entire people in an +age of ignorance and of darkness towards a love of letters, and +thereby broke the ground for the great revival of the 17th century. +Amsterdam at one time possessed several of these Chambers of +Rhetoric, but towards the end of the 16th century they had all +disappeared, with one brilliant exception, that of the "Blossoming +Eglantine," otherwise known as the "Old Chamber." Founded in 1518 +under the special patronage of Charles V, the "Eglantine" weathered +safely the perils and troubles of the Revolt, and passed in 1581 +under the joint direction of a certain notable triumvirate, +Coornheert, Spiegel and Visscher. These men banded themselves +together "to raise, restore and enrich" their mother-tongue. But +they were not merely literary purists and reformers; the +"Eglantine" became in their hands and through their efforts the +focus of new literary life and energy, and Amsterdam replaced +fallen Antwerp as the home of Netherland culture.</p> + +<p>The senior member of the triumvirate, Dirk Volkertz Coornheert, +led a stormy and adventurous life. He was a devoted adherent of +William the Silent and for a series of years, through good and +ill-fortune, devoted himself with pen and person to the cause of +his patron. As a poet he did not attain any very high flight, but +he was a great pamphleteer, and, taking an active part in religious +controversy, by his publications he drew upon himself a storm of +opposition and in the end of persecution. He was, like his patron, +a man of moderate and tolerant views, which in an age of religious +bigotry brought upon him the hatred of all parties and the +accusation of being a free-thinker. His stormy life ended in 1590. +Hendrik Laurensz Spiegel (1549-1612) was a member of an old +Amsterdam family. In every way a contrast to Coornheert, Spiegel +was a Catholic. A prosperous citizen, simple, unostentatious and +charitable, he spent the whole of his life in his native town, and +being disqualified by his religion from holding public office he +gave all his leisure to the cultivation of his mind and to literary +pursuits. The work on which his fame chiefly rests was a didactic +poem entitled the <i>Hert-Spiegel</i>. In his pleasant country +house upon the banks of the Amstel, beneath a wide and spreading +tree, which he was wont to call the "Temple of the Muses" he loved +to gather a circle of literary friends, irrespective of differences +of opinion or of faith,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_192" id= +"page_192">[pg.192]</a></span> and with them to spend the afternoon +in bright congenial converse on books and men and things. Roemer +Visscher, the youngest member of the triumvirate, was like Spiegel +an Amsterdammer, a Catholic and a well-to-do merchant. His poetical +efforts did not attain a high standard, though his epigrams, which +were both witty and quaint, won for him from his contemporaries the +name of the "Second Martial." Roemer Visscher's fame does not, +however, rest chiefly upon his writings. A man of great affability, +learned, shrewd and humorous, he was exceedingly hospitable, and he +was fortunate in having a wife of like tastes and daughters more +gifted than himself. During the twenty years which preceded his +death in 1620 his home was the chosen rendezvous of the best +intelligence of the day. To the young he was ever ready to give +encouragement and help; and struggling talent always found in him a +kindly critic and a sympathising friend. He lived to see and to +make the acquaintance of Brederôo, Vondel, Cats and Huyghens, +the men whose names were to make the period of Frederick Henry the +most illustrious in the annals of Dutch literature.</p> + +<p>Gerbrand Adriansz Brederôo, strictly speaking, did not +belong to that period. He died prematurely in 1618, a victim while +still young to a wayward life of dissipation and disappointment. +His comedies, written in the rude dialect of the fish-market and +the street, are full of native humour and originality and give +genuine glimpses of low life in old Amsterdam. His songs show that +Brederôo had a real poetic gift. They reveal, beneath the +rough and at times coarse and licentious exterior, a nature of fine +susceptibilities and almost womanly tenderness. Joost van den +Vondel was born in the same year as Brederôo, 1587, but his +career was very different. Vondel survived till 1679, and during +the whole of his long life his pen was never idle. His dramas and +poems (in the edition of Van Lennep) fill twelve volumes. Such a +vast production, as is inevitable, contains material of very +unequal merit; but it is not too much to say that the highest +flights of Vondel's lyric poetry, alike in power of expression and +imagery, in the variety of metre and the harmonious cadence of the +verse, deserve a far wider appreciation than they have ever +received, through the misfortune of having been written in a +language little known and read. Vondel was the son of an Antwerp +citizen compelled as a Protestant to fly from his native town after +its capture by Parma. He took refuge at Cologne, where the +poet<span class="newpage"><a name="page_193" id= +"page_193">[pg.193]</a></span> was born, and afterwards settled at +Amsterdam. In that town Vondel spent all his life, first as a +shopkeeper, then as a clerk in the City Savings' Bank. He was +always a poor man; he never sought for the patronage of the great, +but rather repelled it. His scathing attacks on those who had +compassed the death of Oldenbarneveldt, and his adhesion to the +Remonstrant cause brought him in early life into disfavour with the +party in power, while later his conversion to Catholicism—in +1641—and his eager and zealous advocacy of its doctrines, +were a perpetual bar to that public recognition of his talents +which was his due. Vondel never at any time sacrificed his +convictions to his interest, and he wrote poetry not from the +desire of wealth or fame, but because he was a born poet and his +mind found in verse the natural expression of its thought and +emotions.</p> + +<p>But, though Vondel was a poor man, he was not unlearned. On the +contrary he was a diligent student of Greek and Latin literature, +and translated many of the poetical masterpieces in those languages +into Dutch verse. Indeed so close was his study that it marred much +of his own work. Vondel wrote a great number of dramas, but his +close imitation of the Greek model with its chorus, and his strict +adherence to the unities, render them artificial in form and +lacking in movement and life. This is emphasised by the fact that +many of them are based on Scriptural themes, and by the monotony of +the Alexandrine metre in which all the dialogues are written. It is +in the choruses that the poetical genius of Vondel is specially +displayed. Lyrical gems in every variety of metre are to be found +in the Vondelian dramas, alike in his youthful efforts and in those +of extreme old age. Of the dramas, the finest and the most famous +is the <i>Lucifer</i>, 1654, which treats of the expulsion of +Lucifer and his rebel host of angels from Heaven. We are here in +the presence of a magnificent effort to deal grandiosely with a +stupendous theme. The conception of the personality of Lucifer is +of heroic proportions; and a comparison of dates renders it at +least probable that this Dutch drama passed into John Milton's +hands, and that distinct traces of the impression it made upon him +are to be found in certain passages of the <i>Paradise Lost</i>. +Vondel also produced hundreds of occasional pieces, besides several +lengthy religious and didactic poems. He even essayed an epic poem +on Constantine the Great, but it was never completed. Of the +occasional poems the finest are perhaps the triumph songs over +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_194" id= +"page_194">[pg.194]</a></span> victories of Frederick Henry, and of +the great admirals Tromp and De Ruyter.</p> + +<p>Jacob Cats (1577-1660) lived, like Vondel, to a great age, but +in very different circumstances. He was a native of Dordrecht and +became pensionary of that town, and, though not distinguished as a +statesman or politician, he was so much respected for his prudence +and moderation that for twenty-two years he filled the important +office of Council-Pensionary of Holland and was twice sent as an +Envoy Extraordinary to England. He was a prolific writer and was +undoubtedly the most popular and widely-read of the poets of his +time. His works were to be found in every Dutch homestead, and he +was familiarly known as "Father Cats." His gifts were, however, of +a very different order from those of Vondel. His long poems dealt +chiefly with the events of domestic, every-day existence; and the +language, simple, unpretentious and at times commonplace, was +nevertheless not devoid of a certain restful charm. There are no +high flights of imagination or of passion, but there are many +passages as rich in quaint fancy as in wise maxims. With +Constantine Huyghens (1596-1687) the writing of verse was but one +of the many ways in which one of the most cultured, versatile, and +busy men of his time found pleasant recreation in his leisure +hours. The trusted secretary, friend and counsellor of three +successive Princes of Orange, Huyghens in these capacities was +enabled for many years to render great service to Frederick Henry, +William II and William III, more especially perhaps to the +last-named during the difficult and troubled period of his +minority. Nevertheless all these cares and labours of the +diplomatist, administrator, courtier and man of the world did not +prevent him from following his natural bent for intellectual +pursuits. He was a man of brilliant parts and of refined and +artistic tastes. Acquainted with many languages and literatures, an +accomplished musician and musical composer, a generous patron of +letters and of art, his poetical efforts are eminently +characteristic of the personality of the man. His volumes of short +poems—<i>Hofwijck, Cluijswerck, Voorhout</i> and +<i>Zeestraet</i>—contain exquisite and witty pictures of life +at the Hague—"the village of villages"—and are at once +fastidious in form and pithy in expression.</p> + +<p>It remains to speak of the man who may truly be described as the +central figure among his literary contemporaries. Pieter<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_195" id= +"page_195">[pg.195]</a></span> Cornelisz Hooft (1583-1647) was +indisputably the first man of letters of his time. He sprang from +one of the first families of the burgher-aristocracy of Amsterdam, +in which city his father, Cornelis Pietersz Hooft, filled the +office of burgomaster no less than thirteen times. He began even as +a boy to write poetry, and his strong bent to literature was +deepened by a prolonged tour of more than three years in France, +Germany and Italy, almost two years of which were spent at Florence +and Venice. After his return he studied jurisprudence at Leyden, +but when he was only twenty-six years old he received an +appointment which was to mould and fix the whole of his future +career. In 1609 Prince Maurice, in recognition of his father's +great services, nominated Hooft to the coveted post of Drost, or +Governor, of Muiden and bailiff of Gooiland. This post involved +magisterial and administrative duties of a by-no-means onerous +kind; and the official residence of the Drost, the "High House of +Muiden," an embattled feudal castle with pleasant gardens, lying at +the point where at no great distance from Amsterdam the river Vecht +sleepily empties itself into the Zuyder Zee, became henceforth for +thirty years a veritable home of letters.</p> + +<p>Hooft's literary life may be divided into two portions. In the +decade after his settlement at Muiden, he was known as a dramatist +and a writer of pretty love songs. His dramas—<i>Geerard van +Velzen, Warenar</i> and <i>Baeto</i>—caught the popular taste +and were frequently acted, but are not of high merit. His songs and +sonnets are distinguished for their musical rhythm and airy +lightness of touch, but they were mostly penned, as he himself +tells us, for his own pleasure and that of his friends, not for +general publication. There are, nevertheless, charming pieces in +the collected edition of Hooft's poems, and he was certainly an +adept in the technicalities of metrical craft. But Hooft himself +was ambitious of being remembered by posterity as a national +historian. He aimed at giving such a narrative of the struggle +against Spain as would entitle him to the name of "the Tacitus of +the Netherlands." He wished to produce no mere chronicle like those +of Bor or Van Meteren, but a literary history in the Dutch tongue, +whose style should be modelled on that of the great Roman writer, +whose works Hooft is said to have read through fifty-two times. He +first, to try his hand, wrote a life of Henry IV of France, which +attained great success. Louis XIII was so pleased with it that he +sent the author a gold chain and made him a Knight<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">[pg.196]</a></span> of +St Michael. Thus encouraged, on August 19, 1628, Hooft began his +<i>Netherland Histories</i>, and from this date until his death in +1647 he worked ceaselessly at the <i>magnum opus</i>, which, +beginning with the abdication of Charles V, he intended to carry on +until the conclusion of the Twelve Years' Truce. He did not live to +bring the narrative further than the end of the Leicester +régime. In a small tower in the orchard at Muiden he kept +his papers; and here, undisturbed, he spent all his leisure hours +for nineteen years engaged on the great task, on which he +concentrated all his energies. He himself tells us of the enormous +pains that he took to get full and accurate information, collecting +records, consulting archives and submitting every portion as it was +written to the criticism of living authorities, more especially to +Constantine Huyghens and through him to the Prince of Orange +himself. Above all Hooft strove, to use his own words, "never to +conceal the truth, even were it to the injury of the fatherland"; +and the carrying-out of this principle has given to the great +prose-epic that he wrote a permanent value apart altogether from +its merits as a remarkable literary achievement. And yet perhaps +the most valuable legacy that Hooft has left to posterity is his +collection of letters. Of these a recent writer<a name= +"FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> has +declared "that, though it could not be asserted that they [Hooft's +letters] threw into the shade the whole of the rest of Netherland +literature, still the assertion would not be far beyond the mark." +They deal with every variety of subject, grave and gay; and they +give us an insight into the literary, social and domestic life of +the Holland of his time, which is of more value than any +history.</p> + +<p>In these letters we find life-like portraits of the scholars, +poets, dramatists, musicians, singers, courtiers and travellers, +who formed that brilliant society which received from their +contemporaries the name of the "Muiden Circle"—<i>Muidener +Kring</i>. The genial and hospitable Drost loved to see around him +those "five or six couple of friends," whom he delighted to invite +to Muiden. Hooft was twice married; and both his wives, Christina +van Erp and Heleonore Hellemans, were charming and accomplished +women, endowed with those social qualities which gave an added +attractiveness to the Muiden gatherings. Brandt, Hooft's +biographer, describes Christina as "of surpassing capacity and +intelligence, as beautiful, pleasing,<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_197" id="page_197">[pg.197]</a></span> affable, discreet, +gentle and gracious, as such a man could desire to have"; while, of +Heleonore, Hooft himself writes: "Within this house one ever finds +sunshine, even when it rains without."</p> + +<p>This reference to the two hostesses of Muiden calls attention to +one of the noteworthy features of social life in the Holland of +this period—namely, the high level of education among women +belonging to the upper burgher-class. Anna and Maria Tesselschade +Visscher, and Anna Maria Schuurman may be taken as examples. Anna, +the elder of the two daughters of Roemer Visscher (1584-1651), was +brought up amidst cultured surroundings. For some years after her +mother's death she took her place as mistress of the house which +until 1620 had been the hospitable rendezvous of the literary +society of Amsterdam. She was herself a woman of wide erudition, +and her fame as a poet was such as to win for her, according to the +fashion of the day, the title of "the Dutch Sappho." Tesselschade, +ten years younger than her sister and educated under her fostering +care, was however destined to eclipse her, alike by her personal +charms and her varied accomplishments. If one could believe all +that is said in her praise by Hooft, Huyghens, Barlaeus, +Brederôo, Vondel and Cats, she must indeed have been a very +marvel of perfect womanhood. As a singer she was regarded as being +without a rival; and her skill in painting, carving, etching on +glass and tapestry work was much praised by her numerous admirers. +Her poetical works, including her translation into Dutch verse of +Tasso's <i>Gerusalemme Liberata</i>, have almost all unfortunately +perished, but a single ode that survives—"the Ode to a +Nightingale"—is an effort not unworthy of Shelley and shows +her possession of a true lyrical gift. At Muiden the presence of +the "beautiful" Tesselschade was almost indispensable. "What feast +would be complete," wrote Hooft to her, "at which you were not +present? Favour us then with your company if it be possible"; and +again: "that you will come is my most earnest desire. If you will +but be our guest, then, I hope, you will cure all our ills." He +speaks of her to Barlaeus as "the priestess"; and it is clear that +at her shrine all the frequenters of Muiden were ready to burn the +incense of adulation. Both Anna and Tesselschade, like their +father, were devout Catholics.</p> + +<p>Anna Maria van Schuurman (1607-84) was a woman of a different +type. She does not seem to have loved or to have shone<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">[pg.198]</a></span> in +society, but she was a very phenomenon of learning. She is credited +with proficiency in painting, carving and other arts; but it is not +on these, so to speak, accessory accomplishments that her fame +rests, but on the extraordinary range and variety of her solid +erudition. She was at once linguist, scholar, theologian, +philosopher, scientist and astronomer. She was a remarkable +linguist and had a thorough literary and scholarly knowledge of +French, English, German, Italian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, +Chaldee, Arabic and Ethiopic. Her reputation became widespread; +and, in the latter part of her long life, many strangers went to +Utrecht, where she resided, to try to get a glimpse of so great a +celebrity, which was not easy owing to her aversion to such +visits.</p> + +<p>Turning to the domain of mathematical and physical science and +of scientific research and discovery, we find that here also the +17th century Netherlanders attained the highest distinction. As +mathematicians Simon Stevin, the friend and instructor of Maurice +of Orange, and Francis van Schooten, the Leyden Professor, who +numbered among his pupils Christian Huyghens and John de Witt, did +much excellent work in the earlier years of the century. The +published writings of De Witt on "the properties of curves" and on +"the theory of probabilities" show that the greatest of Dutch +statesmen might have become famous as a mathematician had the cares +of administration permitted him to pursue the abstract studies that +he loved. Of the scientific achievements of Christian Huyghens +(1629-95), the brilliant son of a brilliant father, it is difficult +to speak in adequate terms. There is scarcely any name in the +annals of science that stands higher than his. His abilities, as a +pure mathematician, place him in the front rank among +mathematicians of all time; and yet the services that he rendered +to mathematical science were surpassed by his extraordinary +capacity for the combination of theory with practice. His powers of +invention, of broad generalisation, of originality of thought were +almost unbounded. Among the mathematical problems with which he +dealt successfully were the theory of numbers, the squaring of the +circle and the calculation of chances. To him we owe the conception +of the law of the conservation of energy, of the motion of the +centre of gravity, and of the undulatory theory of light. He +expounded the laws of the motion of the pendulum, increased the +power of the telescope, invented the micrometer, discovered +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_199" id= +"page_199">[pg.199]</a></span> rings and satellites of Saturn, +constructed the first pendulum clock, and a machine, called the +gunpowder machine, in principle the precursor of the steam engine. +For sheer brain power and inventive genius Christian Huyghens was a +giant. He spent the later years of his life in Paris, where he was +one of the founders and original members of the <i>Académie +des Sciences</i>. Two other names of scientists, who gained a +European reputation for original research and permanent additions +to knowledge, must be mentioned; those of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek +(1632-1723), and of Jan Swammerdam (1637-80). Leeuwenhoek was a +life-long observer of minute life. The microscope (the invention of +which was due to a Dutchman, Cornelius Drebbel) was the favourite +instrument of his patient investigations, and he was able greatly +to improve its mechanism and powers. Among the results of his +labours was the discovery of the infusoria, and the collection of a +valuable mass of information concerning the circulation of the +blood and the structure of the eye and brain. Swammerdam was a +naturalist who devoted himself to the study of the habits and the +metamorphoses of insects, and he may be regarded as the founder of +this most important branch of scientific enquiry. His work forms +the basis on which all subsequent knowledge on this subject has +been built up.</p> + +<p>To say that the school of Dutch painting attained its zenith in +the period of Frederick Henry and the decades which preceded and +followed it, is scarcely necessary. It was the age of Rembrandt. +The works of that great master and of his contemporaries, most of +whom were influenced and many dominated by his genius, are well +known to every lover of art, and are to be seen in every collection +of pictures in Europe. One has, however, to visit the Rijks Museum +at Amsterdam and the Mauritshuis at the Hague to appreciate what an +extraordinary outburst of artistic skill and talent had at this +time its birth within the narrow limits of the northern +Netherlands. To the student of Dutch history these two galleries +are a revelation, for there we see 17th century Holland portrayed +before us in every phase of its busy and prosperous public, social +and domestic life. Particularly is this the case with the portraits +of individuals and of civic and gild groups by Rembrandt, Frans +Hals, Van der Helst and their followers, which form an inimitable +series that has rarely been equalled. To realise to what an extent +in the midst of war the fine arts flourished in Holland, a mere +list of the best-known painters<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_200" id="page_200">[pg.200]</a></span> of the period will +suffice, it tells its own tale. They are given in the order of +their dates: Frans Hals (1584-1666), Gerard Honthorst (1592-1662), +Jan van Goyen (1596-1656), Jan Wyvants (1600-<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: The original text reads '07'"> 87</ins>), Albert Cuyp +(1606-72), Jan Lievens (1607-63), Rembrandt van Rhyn (1608-69), +Gerard Terburg (1608-81), Adrian Brouwer (1608-41), Ferdinand Bol +(1609-81), Salomon Koning (1609-74), Andreas Both (1609-60), Jan +Both (1610-62), Adrian van Ostade (1610-85), Bartolomaus van der +Helst (1613-70), Gerard Douw (1613-80), Gabriel Metzu (1615-58), +Govaert Flinck (1615-60), Isaac van Ostade (1617-71), Aart van der +Neer (1619-83), Pieter de Koningh (1619-89), Philip Wouvermans +(1620-68), Pieter van der Hoogh (?), Nicolas Berchem (1624-83), +Paul Potter (1625-54), Jacob Ruysdael (1625-81), Meindert Hobbema +(?), Jan Steen (1626-79), Samuel van Hoogstraeten (1627-78), Ludolf +Backhuizen (1631-1709), Jan van der Meer of Delft (1632-?), +Nicholas Maes (1632-93), William van der Velde (1633-1707), Frans +van Mieris (1635-81), Caspar Netscher (1639-84), Adrian van der +Velde (1639-72).</p> + +<p>It is strange that little is known of the lives of the great +majority of these men; they are scarcely more than names, but their +memory survives in their works. No better proof could be brought of +the general abundance of money and at the same time of the +widespread culture of the land than the fact that art found among +all classes so many patrons. The aristocratic burgher-magistrates +and the rich merchants loved to adorn their houses with portraits +and a choice selection of pictures; it was a favourite investment +of capital, and there was a certain amount of rivalry among the +principal families in a town like Amsterdam in being possessed of a +fine collection. The "Six" collection still remains as an example +upon the walls of the 17th century house of Burgomaster Six, where +it was originally placed. The governing bodies of gilds and boards, +members of corporations, the officers of the town <i>schutterij</i> +or of archer companies delighted to have their portraits hung +around their council chambers or halls of assembly. In the +well-to-do farmer-homesteads and even in the dwellings of the +poorer classes pictures were to be found, as one may see in a large +number of the "interiors" which were the favourite subject of the +<i>genre</i> painters of the day. But with all this demand the +artists themselves do not seem to have in any case been highly +paid. The prices were low. Even Rembrandt himself, whose gains +were<span class="newpage"><a name="page_201" id= +"page_201">[pg.201]</a></span> probably much larger than those of +any of his contemporaries, and whose first wife, Saskia Uilenburg, +was a woman of means, became bankrupt in 1656, and this at a time +when he was still in his prime, and his powers at their height. +Some of his most famous pictures were produced at a later date.</p> + +<p>During the Thirty Years' War Holland became the centre of the +publishing and book-selling trade; and Leyden and Amsterdam were +famed as the foremost seats of printing in Europe. The devastation +of Germany and the freedom of the press in the United Provinces +combined to bring about this result. The books produced by the +Elseviers at Leyden and by Van Waesberg and Cloppenburch at +Amsterdam are justly regarded as fine specimens of the printer's +art, while the maps of Willem Jansz Blaeu and his Dutch +contemporaries were quite unrivalled, and marked a great step +forward in cartography.</p> + +<p>This chapter must not conclude without a reference to the part +taken by the Netherlanders in the development of modern music and +the modern stage. The love of music was widespread; and the +musicians of the Netherlands were famed alike as composers and +executants. It was from its earlier home in the Low Countries that +the art of modern music spread into Italy and Germany and indeed +into all Europe. Similarly in the late Middle Ages the people of +the Netherlands were noted for their delight in scenic +representations and for the picturesque splendour with which they +were carried out. The literary gilds, named Chambers of Rhetoric, +never took such deep root elsewhere; and in the performance of +Mystery Plays and Moralities and of lighter comic pieces +(<i>chuttementen</i> and <i>cluyten</i>) many thousands of +tradespeople and artisans took part. In the 17th century all the +Chambers of Rhetoric had disappeared with the single exception of +the famous "Old Chamber" at Amsterdam, known as <i>The Blossoming +Eglantine</i>, to which the leading spirits of the Golden Age of +Dutch Literature belonged and which presided over the birth of the +Dutch Stage. From the first the stage was popular and +well-supported; and the new theatre of Amsterdam, the Schouburg +(completed in 1637), became speedily renowned for the completeness +of its arrangements and the ability of its actors. Such indeed was +their reputation that travelling companies of Dutch players visited +the chief cities of Germany, Austria and Denmark, finding +everywhere a ready welcome and reaping a rich reward, whilst at +Stockholm for a time a permanent Dutch theatre was established.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_202" id= +"page_202">[pg.202]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> + + +<p>THE STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM II.</p> + +<p>THE GREAT ASSEMBLY</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Upon the death of Frederick Henry of Orange (March, 1647), his +only son succeeded to his titles and estates and also by virtue of +the Act of Survivance to the offices of Stadholder in six provinces +and to the Captain-Generalship and Admiral-Generalship of the +Union. William was but twenty-one years of age and, having been +excluded during Frederick Henry's lifetime from taking any active +part in affairs of state, he had turned his energies into the +pursuit of pleasure, and had been leading a gay and dissolute life. +His accession to power was, however, speedily to prove that he was +possessed of great abilities, a masterful will and a keen and eager +ambition. He had strongly disapproved of the trend of the peace +negotiations at Münster, and would have preferred with the +help of the French to have attempted to drive the Spaniards out of +the southern Netherlands. The preliminaries were, however, already +settled in the spring of 1647; and the determination of the +province of Holland and especially of the town of Amsterdam to +conclude an advantageous peace with Spain and to throw over France +rendered the opposition of the young Stadholder unavailing. But +William, though he had perforce to acquiesce in the treaty of +Münster, was nevertheless resolved at the earliest opportunity +to undo it. Thus from the outset he found himself in a pronounced +antagonism with the province of Holland, which could only issue in +a struggle for supremacy similar to that with which his uncle +Maurice was confronted in the years that followed the truce of +1609, and, to a less degree, his father after 1640.</p> + +<p>Commerce was the predominant interest of the +burgher-aristocracies who held undisputed sway in the towns of +Holland; and they, under the powerful leadership of Amsterdam, were +anxious that the peace they had secured should not be disturbed. +They looked forward to lightening considerably the heavy load of +taxation which burdened them, by reducing the number of troops<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_203" id= +"page_203">[pg.203]</a></span> and of ships of war maintained by +the States. To this policy the young prince was resolutely opposed, +and he had on his side the prestige of his name and a vast body of +popular support even in Holland itself, among that great majority +of the inhabitants, both of town and country, who were excluded +from all share in government and administration and were generally +Orangist in sympathy. He had also with him the officers of the army +and navy and the preachers. His chief advisers were his cousin +William Frederick, Stadholder of Friesland, and Cornelis van +Aerssens (son of Francis) lord of Sommelsdijk. By the agency of +Sommelsdijk he put himself in secret communication with Count +d'Estrades, formerly French ambassador at the Hague, now Governor +of Dunkirk, and through him with Mazarin, with the view of +concluding an alliance with France for the conquest of the Spanish +Netherlands, and for sending a joint expedition to England to +overthrow the Parliamentary forces and establish the Stewarts on +the throne. Mazarin was at this time, however, far too much +occupied by his struggle with the Fronde to listen to the overtures +of a young man who had as yet given no proof of being in a position +to give effect to his ambitious proposals. Nevertheless the prince +was in stern earnest. In April, 1648, his brother-in-law, James, +Duke of York, had taken refuge at the Hague, and was followed in +July by the Prince of Wales. William received them with open arms +and, urged on by his wife, the Princess Royal, and by her aunt the +exiled Queen of Bohemia, who with her family was still residing at +the Hague, he became even more eager to assist in effecting a +Stewart restoration than in renewing the war with Spain. The +difficulties in his way were great. In 1648 public opinion in the +States on the whole favoured the Parliamentary cause. But, when the +Parliament sent over Dr Doreslaer and Walter Strickland as envoys +to complain of royal ships being allowed to use Dutch harbours, the +States-General, through the influence of the prince, refused them +an audience. The Estates of Holland on this gave a signal mark of +their independence and antagonism by receiving Doreslaer and +forbidding the royal squadron to remain in any of the waters of the +Province.</p> + +<p>The news of the trial of King Charles for high-treason brought +about a complete revulsion of feeling. The Prince of Wales himself +in person begged the States-General to intervene on his +father's<span class="newpage"><a name="page_204" id= +"page_204">[pg.204]</a></span> behalf; and the proposal met with +universal approval. It was at once agreed that Adrian Pauw, the now +aged leader of the anti-Orange party in Holland, should go to +London to intercede for the king's life. He was courteously +received on January 26 o.s., and was granted an audience by the +House of Commons, but the decision had already been taken and his +efforts were unavailing. The execution of the king caused a wave of +horror to sweep over the Netherlands, and an address of condolence +was offered by the States-General to the Prince of Wales; but, to +meet the wishes of the delegates of Holland, he was addressed not +as King of Great Britain, but simply as King Charles II, and it was +agreed that Joachimi, the resident ambassador in London, should not +be recalled at present. The new English Government on their part +sent over once more Dr Doreslaer with friendly proposals for +drawing the two republics into closer union. Doreslaer, who had +taken part in the trial of Charles I, was specially obnoxious to +the royalist exiles, who had sought refuge in Holland. He landed on +May 9. Three days later he was assassinated as he was dining at his +hotel. The murderers, five or six in number, managed to make their +escape and were never apprehended.</p> + +<p>Although highly incensed by this outrage, the English Government +did not feel itself strong enough to take decided action. The +Estates of Holland expressed through Joachimi their abhorrence at +what had occurred; and the Parliament instructed Strickland to +approach the States-General again with friendly advances. The +States-General refused to grant him an audience, while receiving +the envoy despatched by Charles II from Scotland to announce his +accession. The English Council of State had no alternative but to +regard this as a deliberate insult. Strickland was recalled and +left Holland, July 22. On September 26 Joachimi was ordered to +leave London. The breach between the two countries seemed to be +complete, but the Estates of Holland, who for the sake of their +commerce dreaded the thought of a naval war, did all in their power +to work for an accommodation. They received Strickland in a public +audience before his departure, and they ventured to send a special +envoy to Whitehall, Gerard Schaep, January 22, to treat with the +Parliament. By this action the Provincial Estates flouted the +authority of the States-General and entered into negotiations on +their own account, as if they were an independent State. The<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_205" id= +"page_205">[pg.205]</a></span> Hollanders were anxious to avoid war +almost at any price, but circumstances proved too strong for +them.</p> + +<p>In order to carry out this pacifist policy the Estates of +Holland now resolved to effect a large reduction of expenditure by +disbanding a portion of the troops and ships. When the peace of +Münster was signed the States possessed an army of 60,000 men, +and all parties were agreed that this large force might safely be +reduced. In July 1648, a drastic reduction was carried out, +twenty-five thousand men being disbanded. The Estates of Holland, +however, demanded a further retrenchment of military charges, but +met with the strong opposition of the Prince and his cousin William +Frederick, who declared that an army of at least 30,000 was +absolutely necessary for garrisoning the frontier fortresses and +safeguarding the country against hostile attack. Their views had +the support of all the other provinces, but Holland was obdurate. +In Holland commerce reigned supreme; and the burgher-regents and +merchants were suspicious of the prince's warlike designs and were +determined to thwart them. Finding that the States-General refused +to disband at their dictation some fifty-five companies of the +excellent foreign troops who formed the kernel of the States' army, +the Provincial Estates proceeded to take matters into their own +hands, and discharged a body of 600 foreign troops which were paid +by the Province. In doing this they were acting illegally. The old +question of the sovereign rights of the Provinces, which had been +settled in 1619 by the sword of Maurice, was once more raised. The +States-General claimed to exercise the sole authority in military +matters. There were not seven armies in the Union, but one army +under the supreme command of the captain-general appointed by the +States-General. The captain-general was now but a young and +inexperienced man, but he had none of the hesitation and indecision +shown by his uncle Maurice in the troubles of 1618-19, and did not +shrink from the conflict with the dominant province to which he was +challenged.</p> + +<p>For some time, indeed, wrangling went on. There was a strong +minority in the Estates of Holland opposed to extreme measures; and +the council-pensionary, Jacob Cats, was a moderate man friendly to +the House of Orange. An accommodation was reached on the subject of +the disbanding of the 600 foreign troops, but the conflict was +renewed, and in the middle of 1650 it assumed grave<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">[pg.206]</a></span> +proportions. The heart and soul of the opposition to the prince was +Amsterdam. William had for some time been urged by his Friesland +cousin to take action, since the attitude of Amsterdam threatened +the dissolution of the Union. The prince was at this time engaged +in negotiating with France, but nothing had as yet been settled, +and his projects were not ripe for execution. Nevertheless it was +absolutely necessary for their realisation that the military forces +should not be excessively reduced. Under his influence the +States-General decided that, though the number of troops in the +several regiments should be decreased, the <i>cadres</i> of all +regiments with their full quota of officers should be retained. To +this the Estates of Holland dissented, and finding that they could +not prevail, they determined on a daring step. Orders were sent +(June 1, 1650) to the colonels of the regiments on the Provincial +war-sheet to disband their regiments on pain of stoppage of pay. +The colonels refused to take any orders save from the Council of +State and the captain-general. The prince accordingly, with William +Frederick and the Council of State, appeared in the States-General +and appealed to them to uphold the colonels in their refusal. There +could be no question that the Estates of Holland were hopelessly in +the wrong, for their representatives in the States-General had in +1623,1626,1630 and 1642 voted for the enforcement on recalcitrant +provinces of the full quota at which they were assessed for the +payment of the army of the Union. The States-General, June 5, +therefore determined to send a "notable deputation" to the towns of +Holland. The prince was asked to head the deputation, the members +of which were to be chosen by him; and he was invested with +practically dictatorial powers to take measures for the keeping of +the peace and the maintenance of the Union. In doing this the +Generality were themselves acting <i>ultra vires</i>. The +States-General was an assembly consisting of the representatives of +the Provincial Estates. It could deal or treat therefore only with +the Estates of the several provinces, not with the individual towns +within a province. In resisting the interference of the Estates of +Holland with matters that concerned the Union as a whole, they were +themselves infringing, by the commission given to the "notable +deputation," the jurisdiction of the Provincial Estates over their +own members.</p> + +<p>The prince set out on June 8, and visited all the "privileged" +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_207" id= +"page_207">[pg.207]</a></span> towns. The result was more than +disappointing. The Council of the premier municipality, Dordrecht, +set the example by declaring that they were answerable only to the +Estates of the Province. Schiedam, Alkmaar, Edam and Monnikendam +gave the same reply. Delft and Haarlem were willing to receive the +prince as stadholder, but not the deputation. Amsterdam, under the +influence of the brothers Andries and Cornelis Bicker, went even +further and after some parleying declined to admit either the +deputation or the prince. On June 25 William returned to the Hague +bitterly chagrined by his reception and determined to crush +resistance by force.</p> + +<p>The stroke he planned was to seize the representatives of six +towns which had been specially obstinate in their opposition, and +at the same time to occupy Amsterdam with an armed force. His +preparations were quickly made. On July 30 an invitation was sent +to Jacob de Witt, ex-burgomaster of Dordrecht, and five other +prominent members of the Estates of Holland, to visit the prince. +On their arrival they were arrested by the stadholder's guard, and +carried off as prisoners to the Castle of Loevestein. William had +meanwhile left the execution of the <i>coup-de-main</i> against +Amsterdam to his cousin William Frederick. The arrangements for +gathering together secretly a large force from various garrisons +were skilfully made, and it was intended at early dawn to seize +unexpectedly one of the gates, and then to march in and get +possession of the town without opposition. The plan, however, +accidentally miscarried. Some of the troops in the night having +lost their way, attracted the notice of a postal messenger on his +way to Amsterdam, who reported their presence to the burgomaster, +Cornelis Bicker. Bicker at once took action. The gates were closed, +the council summoned, and vigorous measures of defence taken. +William Frederick therefore contented himself with surrounding the +city, so as to prevent ingress or egress from the gates. On the +next morning, July 31, William, having learnt that the surprise +attack had failed, set out for Amsterdam, determined to compel its +surrender. The council, fearing the serious injury a siege would +cause to its commerce, opened negotiations (August 1). The prince, +however, insisting on unconditional submission, no other course was +open. Amsterdam undertook to offer no further opposition to the +proposals of the States-General, and was compelled to agree to the +humiliating<span class="newpage"><a name="page_208" id= +"page_208">[pg.208]</a></span> demand of the stadholder that the +brothers Bicker should not only resign their posts in the municipal +government, but should be declared ineligible for any official +position in the future.</p> + +<p>The Prince of Orange had now secured the object at which he had +aimed. His authority henceforth rested on a firm basis. His +opponents had been overthrown and humiliated. The Estates of six +provinces thanked him for the success of his efforts, and he on his +part met the general wish for economy by agreeing to a reduction of +the foreign troops in the pay of the States on the distinct +understanding that only the States-General had the right to disband +any portion of the forces, not the provincial paymasters. In the +flush of triumph William at the end of August left the Hague for +his country seat at Dieren, nominally for hunting and for rest, in +reality to carry on secret negotiations with France for the +furtherance of his warlike designs. The complete defeat of Charles +II at the battle of Worcester, September 3, must have been a severe +blow to his hopes for the restoration of the Stuarts, but it did +not deter him from pursuing his end. With d'Estrades, now Governor +of Dunkirk, the prince secretly corresponded, and through him +matters were fully discussed with the French Government. In a +letter written from the Hague on October 2, William expressed a +strong wish that d'Estrades should come in person to visit him; and +it was the intention of d'Estrades to accept this invitation as +soon as he had received from Paris the copy of a draft-treaty, +which was being prepared. This draft-treaty, which was probably +drawn up by Mazarin, reached d'Estrades in the course of October, +but circumstantial evidence proves that it was never seen by +William. Its provisions were as follows. Both Powers were to +declare war on Spain and attack Flanders and Antwerp. The Dutch +were to besiege Antwerp, which city, if taken, was to become the +personal appanage of the Prince, of Orange. When the Spanish power +in the southern Netherlands had been overthrown, then France and +the United Provinces were to send a joint expedition to England to +place Charles II on the throne. Whether the prince would have +approved these proposals we know not; in all probability he would +have declined to commit himself to a plan of such a far-reaching +and daring character, for he was aware of the limitations of his +power, and knew that even his great influence would have been +insufficient to obtain the consent of the States-General to an +immediate<span class="newpage"><a name="page_209" id= +"page_209">[pg.209]</a></span> renewal of war. Speculation however +is useless, for an inexorable fate raised other issues.</p> + +<p>On October 8 the stadholder returned to Dieren, on the 27th he +fell ill with an attack of small-pox. He was at once taken back to +the Hague and for some days he progressed favourably, but the +illness suddenly took a turn for the worse and he expired on +November 6. The news of the prince's death fell like a shock upon +the country. Men could scarcely believe their ears. William was +only 24 years old; and, though his wife gave birth to a son a week +later, he left no heir capable of succeeding to the high offices +that he had held. The event was the more tragic, following, as it +did, so swiftly upon the <i>coup d'état</i> of the previous +summer, and because of the youth and high promise of the deceased +prince. William II was undoubtedly endowed with high and brilliant +qualities of leadership, and he had proved his capacity for action +with unusual decision and energy. Had his life not been cut short, +the course of European politics might have been profoundly +changed.</p> + +<p>As was to be expected, the burgher-regents of Holland, when once +the first shock was over, lost no time in taking advantage of the +disappearance of the man who had so recently shown that he +possessed the power of the sword and meant to be their master. The +States-General at once met and requested the Provincial Estates to +take steps to deal with the situation. The Estates of Holland +proposed that an extraordinary assembly should be summoned. This +was agreed to by the States-General; and "the Great Assembly" met +on January 11, 1651. In the meantime the Holland regents had been +acting. The Estates of that province were resolved to abolish the +stadholderates and to press the States-General to suspend the +offices of Captain-and Admiral-General of the Union. Utrecht, +Gelderland, Overyssel and Zeeland were induced to follow their +example. Groningen, however, elected William Frederick of Friesland +to be stadholder in the place of his cousin.</p> + +<p>The "States party" in Holland had for their leaders the aged +Adrian Pauw, who had for so many years been the moving spirit of +the opposition in powerful Amsterdam to Frederick Henry's +authority, and Jacob de Witt, the imprisoned ex-burgomaster of +Dordrecht. The "Orange party" was for the moment practically +impotent. Stunned by the death of their youthful chief, they +were<span class="newpage"><a name="page_210" id= +"page_210">[pg.210]</a></span> hopelessly weakened and disorganised +by the dissensions and rivalries which surrounded the cradle of the +infant Prince of Orange. The princess royal quarrelled with her +mother-in-law, Amalia von Solms, over the guardianship of the +child. Mary asserted her right to be sole guardian; the +dowager-princess wished to have her son-in-law, the Elector of +Brandenburg, associated with her as co-guardian. After much +bickering the question was at last referred to the Council of +State, who appointed the princess royal, the dowager-princess and +the elector jointly to the office. This decision however was far +from effecting a reconciliation between the mother and the +grandmother. Mary did not spare the Princess Amalia the humiliation +of knowing that she regarded her as inferior in rank and social +standing to the eldest daughter of a King of England. There was +rivalry also between the male relatives William Frederick, +Stadholder of Friesland, and Joan Maurice, the "Brazilian," both of +them being ambitious of filling the post of captain-general, either +in succession to the dead prince, or as lieutenant in the name of +his son. In these circumstances a large number of the more moderate +Orangists were ready to assist the "States party" in preventing any +breach of the peace and securing that the government of the +republic should be carried on, if not in the manner they would have +wished, at least on stable and sound lines, so far as possible in +accordance with precedent.</p> + +<p>The Great Assembly met on January 11,1651, in the Count's Hall +in the Binnenhof at the Hague. The sittings lasted until September, +for there were many important matters to be settled on which the +representatives of the seven provinces were far from being in +entire agreement. The chief controversies centred around the +interpretation of the Utrecht Act of Union, the Dordrecht +principles, and military affairs. The last-named proved the most +thorny. The general result was decentralisation, and the +strengthening of the Provincial Estates at the expense of the +States-General. It was agreed that the established religion should +be that formulated at Dordrecht, that the sects should be kept in +order, and the placards against Roman Catholicism enforced. In +accordance with the proposal of Holland there was to be no +captain-or admiral-general. Brederode, with the rank of +field-marshal, was placed at the head of the army. The Provincial +Estates were entrusted with considerable powers over the troops in +their pay. The effect of this, and of the decision of<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">[pg.211]</a></span> five +provinces to dispense with a stadholder and to transfer his power +and prerogatives to the Estates, was virtually the establishment in +permanent authority of a number of close municipal corporations. It +meant the supersession alike of monarchy and popular government, +both of which were to a certain extent represented by the authority +vested in, and the influence exerted by, the stadholder princes of +Orange, in favour of a narrow oligarchic rule. Moreover, in this +confederation of seven semi-sovereign provinces, Holland, which +contributed to the strength, the finances and the commerce of the +Union more than all the other provinces added together, obtained +now, in the absence of an "eminent head," that position of +predominance, during the stadholderless period which now follows, +for which its statesmen had so long striven. When the amiable Jacob +Cats, the Council-Pensionary of Holland, closed the Great Assembly +in a flowery speech describing the great work that it had +accomplished, a new chapter in the history of the republic may be +said to have begun.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_212" id= +"page_212">[pg.212]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE RISE OF JOHN DE WITT.</p> + +<p>THE FIRST ENGLISH WAR</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Before the sittings of the Great Assembly had come to an end, a +young statesman, destined to play the leading part in the +government of the Dutch republic during two decades, had already +made his mark. After the death of William II Jacob de Witt was not +only reinstated in his former position at Dordrecht but on December +21, 1650, John, his younger son, at the age of 25 years was +appointed pensionary of that town. In this capacity he was <i>ex +officio</i> spokesman of the deputation sent to represent Dordrecht +in the Great Assembly. His knowledge, his readiness and +persuasiveness of speech, his industry and his gifts at once of +swift insight and orderly thoroughness, quickly secured for him a +foremost place both in the deliberations of the Assembly and in the +conduct of the negotiations with the English Parliament, which at +this time required very delicate handling.</p> + +<p>The many disputes, which had arisen between England and the +United Provinces during the period between the accession of James I +and the battle of the Downs in 1639, had never been settled. The +minds of Englishmen were occupied with other and more pressing +matters while the Civil War lasted. But the old sores remained +open. Moreover the refusal of the States-General to receive the +Parliamentary envoys, the murder of Doreslaer, and the protection +afforded to royalist refugees, had been additional causes of +resentment; but the English Council had not felt strong enough to +take action. The death of the Prince of Orange, following so +quickly upon the complete overthrow of Charles II at Worcester, +appeared at first to open out a prospect of friendlier relations +between the two neighbouring republics. In January, 1651, the Great +Assembly formally recognised the Commonwealth and determined to +send back to his old post in London the veteran ambassador, +Joachimi, who had been recalled. The English government on their +part anticipated his return by despatching, in March, Oliver St +John and Walter Strickland on a special<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_213" id="page_213">[pg.213]</a></span> embassy to the +Hague. They reached that city on March 27, 1651, and presented +their credentials to the Great Assembly two days later. Their +reception in the streets was anything but favourable. The feeling +among the populace was predominantly Orangist and Stewart; and St +John and Strickland, greeted with loud cries of "regicides" and +many abusive epithets, remembering the fate of Doreslaer, were in +fear of their lives.</p> + +<p>On April 4 a conference was opened between the envoys and six +commissioners appointed by the States to consider the proposals of +the English Government for "a more strict and intimate alliance and +union" between the two states. The Dutch quickly perceived that +what the English really wanted was nothing less than such a binding +alliance or rather coalition as would practically merge the lesser +state in the greater. But the very idea of such a loss of the +independence that they had only just won was to the Netherlanders +unthinkable. The negotiations came to a deadlock. Meanwhile St John +and Strickland continued to have insults hurled at them by +Orangists and royalist refugees, foremost amongst them Prince +Edward, son of the Queen of Bohemia. The Parliament threatened to +recall the envoys, but consented that they should remain, on the +undertaking of the Estates of Holland to protect them from further +attacks, and to punish the offenders. New proposals were +accordingly made for an offensive and defensive alliance (without +any suggestion of a union), coupled with the condition that both +States should bind themselves not to allow the presence within +their boundaries of avowed enemies of the other—in other +words the expulsion of the members and adherents of the house of +Stewart, including the princess royal and the Queen of Bohemia with +their children. In the face of the strong popular affection for the +infant Prince of Orange and his mother, even the Estates of Holland +dared not consider such terms, and the States-General would have +angrily rejected them. After some further parleying therefore about +fisheries and trade restrictions, it was felt that no agreement +could be reached; and St John and Strickland returned to England on +July 31, 1651.</p> + +<p>Their failure created a very bad impression upon the Parliament. +All the old complaints against the Dutch were revived; and, as they +had refused the offer of friendship that had been made to them, it +was resolved that strong measures should be taken to obtain redress +for past grievances and for the protection of English trade +interests.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_214" id= +"page_214">[pg.214]</a></span></p> + +<p>At the instance of St John, the famous Navigation Act was passed +by the Parliament, October 9, 1651. This Act struck a mortal blow +at the Dutch carrying trade by forbidding the importation of +foreign goods into English ports except in English bottoms, or in +those of the countries which had produced the goods. Scarcely less +injurious was the prohibition to aliens to fish in British waters, +and the withdrawal of the rights based on the <i>Magnus +Intercursus</i>, for the maintenance of which Dutch statesmen had +so long and strenuously fought. There was consternation in Holland, +and the States-General determined to send a special embassy to +London. At the same time the Estates of Holland replaced Jacob Cats +by appointing the aged Adrian Pauw, a man in whose ripe judgment +they had confidence, to the office of council-pensionary. The +chosen envoys were Jacob Cats and Gerard Schaep from Holland, +Paulus van der Perre from Zeeland, all three representative of the +two maritime and trading provinces. They arrived in England on +December 27, 1651. Their instructions were to secure the withdrawal +of the Navigation Act and to try to negotiate a new treaty of +commerce on the basis of the <i>Magnus Intercursus</i>. They were +also to protest strongly against the action of English privateers, +who, having been given letters of marque to prey upon French +commerce, had been stopping and searching Dutch merchantmen on the +ground that they might be carrying French goods. The English +government, however, met the Dutch complaints by raking up the long +list of grievances that had stirred up a bitter feeling of popular +hatred against the United Provinces in England, and by demanding +reparation. They further demanded that Dutch commanders should +acknowledge England's sovereignty by striking flag and sail and by +firing a salute, whenever any of their squadrons met English ships +"in the narrow seas."</p> + +<p>It was these last two questions, the right of search and the +striking of the flag, that were to be the real causes of the +outbreak of a war that was desired by neither of the two +governments. But popular feeling and the course of events was too +strong for them. The news of the seizure of their vessels, not +merely by privateers, but by an English squadron under Ayscue in +the West Indies, had caused intense indignation and alarm in +Holland, and especially in Amsterdam. Pressure was brought to bear +on the States-General and the Admiralties, who in pursuance of +economy had reduced the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_215" id= +"page_215">[pg.215]</a></span> fleet to seventy-five ships. It was +resolved therefore, on February 22, to fit out an additional 150 +vessels. The Council of State, on hearing of this, began also to +make ready for eventualities. Negotiations were still proceeding +between the two countries, when Martin Tromp, the victor of the +battle of the Downs, now lieutenant-admiral of Holland, was sent to +sea with fifty ships and instructions to protect Dutch merchantmen +from interference, and to see that the States suffered no affront. +Nothing was actually said about the striking of the flag.</p> + +<p>The situation was such that an armed collision was almost +certain to happen with such an admiral as Tromp in command. It came +suddenly through a misunderstanding. The Dutch admiral while +cruising past Dover met, on May 29, fifteen English ships under +Blake. The latter fired a warning shot across the bows of Tromp's +ship to signify that the flag should be struck. Tromp declared that +he had given orders to strike the flag, but that Blake again fired +before there was time to carry them out. Be this as it may, the two +fleets were soon engaged in a regular fight, and, the English being +reinforced, Tromp withdrew at nightfall to the French coast, having +lost two ships. Great was the anger aroused in England, where the +Dutch were universally regarded as the aggressors. In the +Netherlands, where the peace party was strong, many were disposed +to blame Tromp despite his protests. Adrian Pauw himself left +hastily for London, John de Witt being appointed to act as his +deputy during his absence. Pauw's strenuous efforts however to +maintain peace were all in vain, despite the strong leanings of +Cromwell towards a peaceful solution. But popular feeling on both +sides was now aroused. The States-General, fearing that the +Orangists would stir up a revolt, if humiliating terms were +submitted to, stiffened their attitude. The result was that the +envoys left London on June 30, 1652; and war was declared.</p> + +<p>The Dutch statesmen who sought to avoid hostilities were right. +All the advantages were on the side of their enemies. The Dutch +merchant-fleets covered the seas, and the welfare of the land +depended on commerce. The English had little to lose commercially. +Their war-fleet too, though inferior in the number of ships, was +superior in almost all other respects. The Stuarts had devoted +great attention to the fleet and would have done more but for lack +of means. Charles' much abused ship-money was employed by him for +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_216" id= +"page_216">[pg.216]</a></span> creation of the first English +professional navy. It had been largely increased by the Parliament +after 1648; and its "generals," Blake, Penn and Ayscue, had already +acquired much valuable experience in their encounters with the +royalist squadron under Prince Rupert, and in long cruises to the +West Indies for the purpose of forcing the English colonies to +acknowledge parliamentary rule. The crews therefore were well +trained, and the ships were larger, stronger and better armed than +those of the Dutch. The position of England, lying as it did +athwart the routes by which the Dutch merchant-fleets must sail, +was a great advantage. Even more important was the advantage of +having a central control, whereas in the Netherlands there were +five distinct Boards of Admiralty, to some extent jealous of each +other, and now lacking the supreme direction of an +admiral-general.</p> + +<p>The war began by a series of English successes and of Dutch +misfortunes. Early in July, 1652, Blake at the head of sixty ships +set sail for the north to intercept the Dutch Baltic commerce, and +to destroy their fishing fleet off the north of Scotland. He left +Ayscue with a small squadron to guard the mouth of the Thames. +Tromp meanwhile had put to sea at the head of nearly a hundred +ships. Ayscue succeeded in intercepting a fleet of Dutch +merchantmen near Calais, all of them being captured or burnt, while +Blake with the main force off the north coast of Scotland destroyed +the Dutch fishing fleet and their convoy. After these first blows +against the enemy's commerce good fortune continued to attend the +English. Tromp was prevented from following Blake by strong +northerly winds. He then turned upon Ayscue, whose small force he +must have overwhelmed, but for a sudden change to a southerly gale. +The Dutch admiral now sailed northwards and (July 25) found the +English fleet off the Shetlands. A violent storm arose, from the +force of which Blake was protected, while the Dutch vessels were +scattered far and wide. On the following day, out of ninety-nine +ships Tromp could only collect thirty-five, and had no alternative +but to return home to refit.</p> + +<p>Before Tromp's return another Dutch fleet under Michael de +Ruyter had put to sea to escort a number of outward-bound +merchantmen through the Channel, and to meet and convoy back the +home-coming ships. He had twenty-three warships and three fireships +under his command. Ayscue had previously sailed up<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">[pg.217]</a></span> +Channel with forty men-of-war and five fireships for a similar +purpose. The two fleets met on August 16, and despite his +inferiority of force De Ruyter forced Ayscue to withdraw into +Plymouth, and was able to bring his convoy home to safety.</p> + +<p>The ill-success of Tromp, though he was in no way to blame for +it, caused considerable alarm and discontent in Holland. His +enemies of the States party in that province took advantage of it +to suspend the gallant old seaman from his command. He was an +Orangist; and, as the Orange partisans were everywhere clamorously +active, the admiral was suspect. In his place Cornelisz Witte de +With was appointed, a capable sailor, but disliked in the fleet as +much as Tromp was beloved. De With effected a junction with De +Ruyter and with joint forces they attacked Blake on October 8, near +the shoal known as the Kentish Knock. The English fleet was +considerably more powerful than the Dutch, and the desertion of De +With by some twenty ships decided the issue. The Dutch had to +return home with some loss. The English were elated with their +victory and thought that they would be safe from further attack +until the spring. Blake accordingly was ordered to send a squadron +of twenty sail to the Mediterranean, where the Dutch admiral Jan +van Galen held the command of the sea. But they were deceived in +thinking that the struggle in the Channel was over for the winter. +The deserters at the Kentish Knock were punished, but the +unpopularity of De With left the authorities with no alternative +but to offer the command-in-chief once more to Martin Tromp. Full +of resentment though he was at the bad treatment he had received, +Tromp was too good a patriot to refuse. At the end of November the +old admiral at the head of 100 warships put to sea for the purpose +of convoying some 450 merchantmen through the Straits. Stormy +weather compelled him to send the convoy with an escort into +shelter, but he himself with sixty ships set out to seek the +English fleet, which lay in the Downs. After some manoeuvring the +two fleets met on December 10, off Dungeness. A stubborn fight took +place, but this time it was some of the English ships that were +defaulters. The result was the complete victory of the Dutch; and +Blake's fleet, severely damaged, retreated under cover of the night +into Dover roads. Tromp was now for a time master of the Channel +and commerce to and from the ports of Holland and Zeeland went on +unimpeded, while many English prizes were captured.<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">[pg.218]</a></span></p> + +<p>This state of things was however not to last long. Towards the +end of February, 1653, Blake put to sea with nearly eighty ships, +and on the 25th off Portland met Tromp at the head of a force +nearly equal to his own in number. But the Dutch admiral was +convoying more than 150 merchantmen and he had moreover been at sea +without replenishment of stores ever since the fight at Dungeness, +while the English had come straight from port. The fight, which on +the part of the Dutch consisted of strong rear-guard actions, had +lasted for two whole days, when Tromp found that his powder had run +out and that on the third day more than half his fleet were unable +to continue the struggle. But, inspiring his subordinates De +Ruyter, Evertsen and Floriszoon with his own indomitable courage, +Tromp succeeded by expert seamanship in holding off the enemy and +conducting his convoy with small loss into safety. Four Dutch +men-of-war were taken and five sunk; the English only lost two +ships.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile both nations had been getting sick of the war. The +Dutch were suffering terribly from the serious interference with +their commerce and carrying trade and from the destruction of the +important fisheries industry, while the English on their side were +shut out from the Baltic, where the King of Denmark, as the ally of +the United Provinces, had closed the Sound, and from the +Mediterranean, where Admiral van Galen, who lost his life in the +fight, destroyed a British squadron off Leghorn (March 23). In both +countries there was a peace party. Cromwell had always wished for a +closer union with the United Provinces and was averse to war. In +the Dutch republic the States party, especially in Holland the +chief sufferer by the war, was anxious for a cessation of +hostilities; and it found its leader in the youthful John de Witt, +who on the death of Adrian Pauw on February 21, 1653, had been +appointed council-pensionary. Cromwell took pains to let the +Estates of Holland know his favourable feelings towards them by +sending over, in February, a private emissary, Colonel Dolman, a +soldier who had served in the Netherland wars. On his part John de +Witt succeeded in persuading the Estates of Holland to send +secretly, without the knowledge of the States-General, letters to +the English Council of State and the Parliament expressing their +desire to open negotiations. Thus early did the new +council-pensionary initiate a form of diplomacy in which he was to +prove himself an adept. This first effort was not a success. The +Parliament published the letter<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_219" id="page_219">[pg.219]</a></span> with the title "Humble +Supplication of the States of Holland." The indignation of the +Orange partisans was great, and they threatened internal +disturbances throughout the country. Such however was the skill of +De Witt that, on Parliament showing a willingness to resume the +negotiations that had been broken off in the previous summer, he +induced the States-General by a bare majority (four provinces to +three) to send a conciliatory letter, the date of which (April 30, +1653) coincided with Cromwell's forcible dissolution of the Rump +Parliament and the assumption by him, with the support of the army, +of dictatorial powers. The English Council of State, however, was +well informed of the serious economical pressure of the war upon +Holland; and their insistence now on the full satisfaction of all +the English demands made a continuation of hostilities +inevitable.</p> + +<p>Tromp, after successfully bringing in two large convoys of +merchantmen, encountered (June 12), near the Gabbard, the English +fleet under Monk and Deane. Each fleet numbered about 100 sail, but +the Dutch ships were inferior in size, solidity and weight of +metal. For two days the fight was obstinately and fiercely +contested, but on Blake coming up with a reinforcement of thirteen +fresh ships, Tromp was obliged to retreat, having lost twenty +ships. He complained bitterly, as did his vice-admirals De Ruyter +and De With, to the Board of Admiralty of the inferiority of the +vessels of his fleet, as compared with those of the adversary.</p> + +<p>The English now instituted a blockade of the Dutch coast, which +had the effect of reducing to desperate straits a land whose +welfare and prosperity depended wholly on commerce. Amsterdam was +ruined. In these circumstances direct negotiation was perforce +attempted. Four envoys were sent representing the three maritime +provinces. At first it seemed impossible that any common ground of +agreement could be found. Cromwell was obsessed with the idea of a +politico-religious union between the two republics, which would +have meant the extinction of Dutch independence. The Council of +State met the Dutch envoys with the proposal <i>una gens, una +respublica,</i> which nothing but sheer conquest and dire necessity +would ever induce the Dutch people to accept. Accordingly the war +went on, though the envoys did not leave London, hoping still that +some better terms might be offered. But in order to gain breathing +space for the efforts of the negotiators, one thing was +essential—<span class="newpage"><a name="page_220" id= +"page_220">[pg.220]</a></span> the breaking of the blockade. The +Admiralties made a supreme effort to refit and reinforce their +fleet, but it lay in two portions; eighty-five sail under Tromp in +the Maas, thirty-one under De With in the Texel. Monk with about +100 ships lay between them to prevent their junction. On August 4 +Tromp sailed out and, after a rearguard action off Katwijk, +out-manoeuvred the English commander and joined De With. He now +turned and with superior numbers attacked Monk off Scheveningen. +The old hero fell mortally wounded at the very beginning of what +proved to be an unequal fight. After a desperate struggle the Dutch +retired with very heavy loss. Monk's fleet also was so crippled +that he returned home to refit. The action in which Tromp fell thus +achieved the main object for which it was fought, for it freed the +Dutch coast from blockade. It was, moreover, the last important +battle in the war. The States, though much perplexed to find a +successor to Martin Tromp, were so far from being discouraged that +great energy was shown in reorganising the fleet. Jacob van +Wassenaer, lord of Obdam, was appointed lieutenant-admiral of +Holland, with De Ruyter and Evertsen under him as vice-admirals. De +With retained his old command of a detached squadron, with which he +safely convoyed a large fleet of East Indiamen round the north of +Scotland into harbour. After this there were only desultory +operations on both sides and no naval engagement.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile negotiations had been slowly dragging on. The +accession of Cromwell to supreme power in December, 1653, with the +title of Lord Protector seemed to make the prospects of the +negotiations brighter, for the new ruler of England had always +professed himself an opponent of the war, which had shattered his +fantastic dream of a union between the two republics. Many +conferences took place, but the Protector's attitude and intentions +were ambiguous and difficult to divine. The fear of an Orange +restoration appears to have had a strange hold on his imagination +and to have warped at this time the broad outlook of the statesman. +At last Cromwell formulated his proposals in twenty-seven articles. +The demands were those of the victor, and were severe. All the old +disputes were to be settled in favour of England. An annual sum was +to be paid for the right of fishing; compensation to be made for +"the massacre of Amboina" and the officials responsible for it +punished; the number of warships in English waters was to be<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_221" id= +"page_221">[pg.221]</a></span> limited; the flag had to be struck +when English ships were met and the right of search to be +permitted. These demands, unpalatable as they were, might at least +have furnished a basis of settlement, but there was one demand +besides these which was impossible. Article 12 stipulated that the +Prince of Orange should not at any time hold any of the offices or +dignities which had been held by his ancestors, or be appointed to +any military command. De Witt, in whose hands were all the threads +of the negotiations, was perfectly aware that it would be useless +to present such proposals to the States-General. Not only would +they indignantly reject them, but he had not the slightest hope of +getting any single province, even Holland, to allow a foreign power +to interfere with their internal affairs and to bid them to treat +with harsh ingratitude the infant-heir of a family to which the +Dutch people owed so deep a debt. There was nothing for it but to +prepare for a vigorous resumption of the war. Strong efforts were +therefore made at De Witt's instigation to increase the fleet and +secure the active co-operation of Denmark and France, both friendly +to the States. But Cromwell really wanted peace and showed himself +ready to yield on certain minor points, but he continued to insist +on the exclusion of the Prince of Orange. Not till the Dutch envoys +had demanded their passports did the Protector give way so far as +to say he would be content to have the exclusion guaranteed by a +secret article.</p> + +<p>What followed forms one of the strangest chapters in the history +of diplomacy. De Witt had all this time been keeping up, in +complete secrecy, a private correspondence with the leading envoy, +his confidant Van Beverningh. Through Van Beverningh he was able to +reach the private ear of Cromwell, and to enter into clandestine +negotiations with him. The council-pensionary knew well the +hopelessness of any attempt to get the assent of the States-General +to the proposed exclusion, even in a secret article. Van Beverningh +was instructed to inform Cromwell of the state of public feeling on +this point, with the result that the Protector gave the envoy to +understand that he would be satisfied if the Estates of Holland +alone would affirm a declaration that the Prince should never be +appointed stadholder or captain-general. Whether this concession +was offered by Cromwell <i>proprio motu</i> or whether it was in +the first instance suggested to him by De Witt through Van +Beverningh is unknown. In any case the council-pensionary, being +convinced of the necessity<span class="newpage"><a name="page_222" +id="page_222">[pg.222]</a></span> of peace, resolved to secure it +by playing a very deep and dangerous game. Not only must the whole +affair be kept absolutely from the cognisance of the +States-General, but also De Witt was fully aware that the assent of +the Estates of Holland to the proposed exclusion article could only +be obtained with the greatest difficulty. He was to prove himself a +very past master in the art of diplomatic chicanery and +intrigue.</p> + +<p>The council-pensionary first set to work to have the treaty, +from which the exclusion article had been cut out, ratified rapidly +by the States-General, before bringing the secret article to the +knowledge of the Estates of Holland. The Estates adjourned for a +recess on April 21, 1654. On the following day he presented the +treaty to the States-General, and such was his persuasive skill +that he accomplished the unprecedented feat of getting this +dilatory body to accept the conditions of peace almost without +discussion. On April 23 the treaty ratified and signed was sent +back to London. Only one article aroused opposition (Art. 32), the +so-called "temperament clause"; but Cromwell had insisted upon it. +By this article the States-General and the Provincial Estates +separately undertook that every stadholder, captain-general or +commander of military or naval forces should be required to take an +oath to observe the treaty. Meanwhile De Witt had received a letter +from Van Beverningh and his colleague Nieuwpoort addressed to the +Estates of Holland (not at the moment in session) stating that +Cromwell refused on his part to ratify the treaty until he received +the Act of Exclusion<a name="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_8_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a> from the Estates, who were until +now wholly ignorant that any such proposal would be made to +them.</p> + +<p>The cleverness and skill now shown by the council-pensionary +were truly extraordinary. A summons was sent out to the Estates to +meet on April 28 without any reason being assigned. The members on +assembly were sworn to secrecy, and then the official letter from +London was read to them. The news that Cromwell refused to sign the +treaty until he received the assent of the Province of Holland to +the Act of Exclusion came upon the Estates like a thunder-bolt. The +sudden demand caused something like consternation, and the members +asked to be allowed to consider the matter with their principals +before taking so momentous a decision. Three days were granted but, +as it was essential to prevent publicity,<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_223" id="page_223">[pg.223]</a></span> it was settled +that only the burgomasters should be consulted, again under oath of +secrecy. At the meeting on May 1 another despatch from Van +Beverningh was read in which the envoy stated that the demand of +Cromwell—that the Act should be placed in his hands within +two days after the ratification of the treaty—was peremptory +and threatening. Unless he received the Act he would consider the +treaty as not binding upon him. Using all his powers of advocacy, +De Witt succeeded after an angry debate in securing a majority for +the Act. Five towns however obstinately refused their assent, and +claimed that it could not be passed without it. But De Witt had +made up his mind to risk illegality, and overruled their protest. +The Act was declared to have been passed and was on May 5 sent to +Van Beverningh and Nieuwpoort with instructions not to deliver it +until circumstances compelled them to do so. The proclamation of +peace followed amidst general rejoicing both in England and the +Netherlands; but for some five weeks the existence of the Act was +unknown to the States-General, and during that period, as a fact, +it remained in Van Beverningh's possession still undelivered.</p> + +<p>Early in June a bribe induced one of De Witt's clerks to betray +the secret to Count William Frederick. The news soon spread, and +loud was the outcry of the Orange partisans and of the two +princesses, who at once addressed a remonstrance to the +States-General. All the other provinces strongly protested against +the action of the Estates of Holland and of the council-pensionary. +De Witt attempted to defend himself and the Estates, by vague +statements, avoiding the main issue, but insisting that nothing +illegal had been done. His efforts were in vain. On June 6 the +States-General passed a resolution that the envoys in England +should be ordered to send back at once all the secret instructions +they had received from Holland, and the Act of Exclusion. Meanwhile +the Estates of Holland themselves, frightened at the clamour which +had been aroused, began to show signs of defection. They went so +far as to pass a vote of thanks to the envoys for not having +delivered the Act to Cromwell. De Witt's position appeared +hopeless. He extricated himself and outwitted his opponents by the +sheer audacity and cleverness of the steps that he took. His +efforts to prevent the resolution of the States-General from taking +immediate effect proving unavailing, he put forward the suggestion +that on<span class="newpage"><a name="page_224" id= +"page_224">[pg.224]</a></span> account of its importance the +despatch should be sent to the envoys in cipher. This was agreed +to, and on June 7 the document was duly forwarded to London by the +council-pensionary; but he enclosed a letter from himself to Van +Beverningh and Nieuwpoort informing them that the Estates of +Holland assented to the request made by the States-General, and +that they were to send back the secret correspondence and also the +Act, <i>if it were still undelivered.</i> The result answered to +his expectations. While the clerk was laboriously deciphering the +despatch, the envoys read between the lines of De Witt's letter, +and without a moment's delay went to Whitehall and placed the Act +in Cromwell's hands. The States-General had thus no alternative +between acceptance of the <i>fait accompli</i> and the risk of a +renewal of the war. No further action was taken, and the Protector +professed himself satisfied with a guarantee of such doubtful +validity.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to withhold admiration from De Witt's +marvellous diplomatic dexterity, and from the skill and courage +with which he achieved his end in the face of obstacles and +difficulties that seemed insurmountable; but for the course of +double-dealing and chicanery by which he triumphed, the only +defence that can be offered is that the council-pensionary really +believed that peace was an absolute necessity for his country, and +that peace could only be maintained at the cost of the Act of +Exclusion. Whether or no Cromwell would have renewed the war, had +the Act been withdrawn, it is impossible to say. There is, however, +every reason to believe that De Witt was prompted to take the risks +he did by purely patriotic motives, and not through spite against +the house of Orange. Be this as it may, the part that he now played +was bitterly resented, not merely by the Orange partisans, but by +popular opinion generally in the United Provinces, and it was never +forgiven.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_225" id= +"page_225">[pg.225]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN DE WITT 1654-1665</p> + +<p>FROM THE PEACE OF WESTMINSTER TO THE OUT-BREAK OF THE SECOND +ENGLISH WAR</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The position of John de Witt in July, 1654, was a difficult one. +The conduct of the council-pensionary in the matter of the Act of +Exclusion was openly attacked in the States-General. Had the +leaders of the Orange party been united, the attack might have had +serious consequences; but notoriously the princess royal, the +princess dowager and William Frederick were on bad terms, and De +Witt, with his usual adroitness, knew well how to play off one +against another. To meet the accusations of his assailants in the +States-General he drew up however an elaborate defence of the +action taken by the Estates of Holland and by himself. The document +bore the title "Deduction of the Estates of Holland." It was +laborious rather than convincing, and it did not convince +opponents. Nevertheless, though resentment continued to smoulder, +the fact that peace had been assured soon reconciled the majority +to allow the doubtful means by which it had been obtained to be +overlooked. The tact, the persuasiveness, the great administrative +powers of the council-pensionary effected the rest; and his +influence from this time forward continued to grow, until he +attained to such a control over every department of government, as +not even Oldenbarneveldt had possessed in the height of his +power.</p> + +<p>John de Witt was possibly not the equal of the famous Advocate +in sheer capacity for great affairs, but he had practical abilities +of the highest order as a financier and organiser, and he combined +with these more solid qualifications a swiftness of courageous +decision in moments of emergency which his almost infinite +resourcefulness in extricating himself from difficult and perilous +situations, enabled him to carry to a successful issue. His +marriage in February, 1655, to Wendela Bicker, who belonged to one +of the most important among the ruling burgher-families of +Amsterdam, brought to him<span class="newpage"><a name="page_226" +id="page_226">[pg.226]</a></span> enduring domestic happiness. It +was likewise of no slight political value. Andries and Cornelis +Bicker, who had headed the opposition to William II and had been +declared by him in 1650 incapable of holding henceforth any +municipal office, were her uncles; while her maternal uncle, +Cornelis de Graeff, was a man of weight and influence both in his +native town and in the Provincial Estates. By this close +relationship with such leading members of the regent-aristocracy of +Amsterdam the council-pensionary became almost as secure of the +support of the commercial capital in the north of Holland, as he +was already of Dordrecht in the south. Two of his cousins, +Slingelandt and Vivien, were in turn his successors, as +pensionaries of Dordrecht, while for his predecessor in that post, +Nicolas Ruysch, he obtained the extremely influential office of +<i>griffier</i> or secretary to the States-General. Nor did he +scruple to exercise his powers of patronage for other members of +his family. His father, Jacob de Witt, was made a member of the +Chamber of Finance; his elder brother, Cornelis, Ruwaard of Putten. +By these and other appointments of men who were his friends and +supporters, to important positions diplomatic, military and naval, +De Witt contrived to strengthen more and more his personal +authority and influence. And yet in thus favouring his relatives +and friends, let us not accuse De Witt of base motives or of +venality. He firmly believed in his own ability to serve the State, +and, without doubt, he was convinced that it was for the best +interest of his country for him to create for himself, as far as +was possible amidst the restrictions by which he was hemmed in on +every side, a free field of diplomatic and administrative action. +No one, not even his bitterest enemies, ever charged John de Witt +with personal corruption. Throughout his whole career he lived +quietly and unostentatiously, as a simple citizen, on a very +moderate income, and he died a poor man.</p> + +<p>One of the first cares of the council-pensionary after the peace +with England was to deal with the internal troubles which were +disturbing certain parts of the land, notably Groningen, Zeeland +and Overyssel. In the last-named province a serious party struggle +arose out of the appointment of a strong Orangist, named Haersolte, +to the post of Drost or governor of Twente. The Estates were split +up, the Orange partisans meeting at Zwolle, the anti-Orange at +Deventer. Both enlisted troops, but those of Zwolle were the +stronger and laid siege to Deventer. The victorious Orangists +then<span class="newpage"><a name="page_227" id= +"page_227">[pg.227]</a></span> nominated William III as stadholder +with William Frederick as his lieutenant. At last, after three +years' strife, the parties called in De Witt and William Frederick +as mediators. But De Witt was far too clever for the Friesland +stadholder. It happened that the post of field-marshal had just +fallen vacant by the death of Brederode. Both William Frederick and +his cousin Joan Maurice aspired to the office. The +council-pensionary induced his co-mediator, with the hope of +becoming Brederode's successor, to yield on all points. Haersolte +was deprived of office; the prince's appointment as stadholder was +suspended until his majority; and therefore William Frederick could +not act as his lieutenant. Thus peace was restored to Overyssel, +but William Frederick was not appointed field-marshal. In the other +provinces the tact and skill of De Witt were equally successful in +allaying discord. He would not have been so successful had the +Orange party not been hopelessly divided and had it possessed +capable leaders.</p> + +<p>As an administrator and organiser the council-pensionary at once +applied himself to two most important tasks, financial reform and +naval reconstruction. The burden of debt upon the province of +Holland, which had borne so large a part of the charges of the war, +was crushing. The rate of interest had been reduced in 1640 from 6 +J to 5 per cent. But the cost of the English war, which was wholly +a naval war, had caused the debt of Holland to mount to 153,000,000 +guilders, the interest on which was 7,000,000 guilders per annum. +De Witt first took in hand a thorough overhauling of the public +accounts, by means of which he was enabled to check unnecessary +outlay and to effect a number of economies. Finding however that, +despite his efforts to reduce expenditure, he could not avoid an +annual deficit, the council-pensionary took the bold step of +proposing a further reduction of interest from 5 to 4 per cent. He +had some difficulty in persuading the investors in government funds +to consent, but he overcame opposition by undertaking to form a +sinking fund by which the entire debt should be paid off in 41 +years. Having thus placed the finances of the province on a sound +basis, De Witt next brought a similar proposal before the +States-General with the result that the interest on the Generality +debt was likewise reduced to 4 per cent.</p> + +<p>The English war had conclusively proved to the Dutch their +inferiority in the size and armament of their war-vessels, and of +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_228" id= +"page_228">[pg.228]</a></span> need of a complete reorganisation of +the fleet. De Witt lost no time in taking the necessary steps. The +custom which had hitherto prevailed of converting merchantmen into +ships of war at the outbreak of hostilities was abandoned. Steps +were taken to build steadily year by year a number of large, +strongly-constructed, powerfully armed men-of-war, mounting 60,70 +and 80 guns. These vessels were specially adapted for passing in +and out of the shallow waters and were built for strength rather +than for speed. Again, the part taken in the war by the light, +swift-sailing English frigates led to a large flotilla of these +vessels being built, so useful for scouting purposes and for +preying upon the enemy's commerce. The supply and training of +seamen was also dealt with, and the whole system of pay and of +prize-money revised and reorganised. It was a great and vitally +necessary task, and subsequent events were to show how admirably it +had been carried out.</p> + +<p>No one knew better than John de Witt that peace was the chief +interest of the United Provinces, but his lot was cast in troubled +times, and he was one of those prescient statesmen who perceive +that meekness in diplomacy and willingness to submit to injury do +not promote the cause of peace or further the true interests of any +country.</p> + +<p>The conquests of France in the southern Netherlands caused great +anxiety to the Dutch; and the high-handed action of French pirates +in searching and seizing Dutch merchantmen in the Mediterranean +aroused much indignation. The States, acting on De Witt's advice, +replied by sending a squadron under De Ruyter to put a stop to +these proceedings. The Dutch admiral took vigorous action and +captured some French freebooters. The French government thereupon +forbade Dutch vessels to enter French harbours. The Dutch replied +by a similar embargo and threatened to blockade the French coast. +This threat had the desired effect, and an accommodation was +reached. The peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, by which the French +retained a large part of their conquests in Flanders, Hainault and +Namur, while the English acquired possession of Dunkirk, was +disquieting. For the relations with England, despite the goodwill +of the Protector, were far from satisfactory. The trade interests +of the two republics clashed at so many points that a resumption of +hostilities was with difficulty prevented. More especially was this +the case after the outbreak of war with Portugal in November, +1657.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_229" id= +"page_229">[pg.229]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Dutch accused the Portuguese government of active connivance +with the successful revolt of the Brazilian colonists against Dutch +rule. What was once Dutch Brazil was now claimed by the Lisbon +government as a Portuguese possession, and De Witt demanded an +indemnity. As this was not conceded, a squadron under Obdam, +November, 1657, blockaded the Portuguese coast, while another under +De Ruyter made many seizures of merchant vessels. Cromwell was +disposed to intervene, but his death on September 3,1658, removed +any fears of English action. Meanwhile the Dutch captured Ceylon +and Macassar and practically cut off Portuguese intercourse with +the East Indies. At last in August, 1661, a treaty was signed by +which the Dutch abandoned all territorial claims in Brazil, but +were granted freedom of trade and an indemnity of 8,000,000 fl. to +be paid in sixteen years, and, what was more valuable, they +retained possession of their conquests in the East.</p> + +<p>The protracted dispute with Portugal was however of quite +subordinate importance to the interest of the Dutch in the +complications of the so-called Northern War. On the abdication of +Christina in 1654, Charles X Gustavus had succeeded to the Swedish +throne. The new king was fired with the ambition of following in +the footsteps of Gustavus Adolphus, and of rendering Sweden supreme +in the Baltic by the subjection of Poland and Denmark. Charles was +a man of great force of character and warlike energy, and he lost +no time in attempting to put his schemes of conquest into +execution. Having secured the alliance of the Great Elector, +anxious also to aggrandise himself in Polish Prussia, the Swedish +king declared war against Poland, and in the early summer of 1656 +laid siege to Danzig. But the importance of the Baltic trade to +Holland was very great and Danzig was the corn emporium of the +Baltic. Under pressure therefore of the Amsterdam merchants the +States-General despatched (July) a fleet of forty-two ships under +Obdam van Wassenaer through the Sound, which raised the siege of +Danzig and with Polish consent left a garrison in the town. Thus +checked, the Swedish king at Elbing (September, 1656) renewed +amicable relations with the republic, and Danzig was declared a +neutral port. At the same time a defensive alliance was concluded +between the States and Denmark. It was obvious from, this that the +Dutch were hostile to Swedish pretensions and determined to resist +them. De Witt was anxious to preserve peace,<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">[pg.230]</a></span> but +he had against him all the influence of Amsterdam, and that of the +able diplomatist, Van Beuningen, who after being special envoy of +the States at Stockholm had now been sent to Copenhagen. Van +Beuningen held that, whatever the risks of intervention on the part +of the States, the control of the Sound must not fall into the +hands of Sweden. The emergency came sooner than was expected.</p> + +<p>Brandenburg having changed sides, the Swedes were expelled from +Poland; and Frederick III of Denmark, despite the advice of De +Witt, seized the opportunity to declare war on Sweden. Although it +was the depth of winter Charles Gustavus lost no time in attacking +Denmark. He quickly drove the Danes from Schonen and Funen and +invaded Seeland. Frederick was compelled at Roeskilde (February, +1658) to accept the terms of the conqueror. Denmark became +virtually a Swedish dependency, and undertook to close the Sound to +all foreign ships. Involved as the republic was in disputes at this +time with both France and England, and engaged in war with +Portugal, De Witt would have been content to maintain a watchful +attitude in regard to Scandinavian matters and to strive by +diplomacy to secure from Sweden a recognition of Dutch rights. But +his hand was forced by Van Beuningen, who went so far as to urge +the Danish king to rely on his defensive alliance with the republic +and to break the treaty of Roeskilde. Charles Gustavus promptly +invaded Denmark, drove the Danish fleet from the sea, placed strong +garrisons at Elsinore and Kronborg, and laid siege to Copenhagen. +Van Beuningen had proudly asserted that "the oaken keys of the +Sound lay in the docks of Amsterdam," and his boast was no empty +one. At the beginning of October a force of thirty-five vessels +under Obdam carrying 4000 troops sailed for the Sound with orders +to destroy the Swedish fleet, and to raise the siege of Copenhagen. +On November 8 Obdam encountered the Swedes in the entrance to the +Baltic. The Swedish admiral Wrangel had forty-five ships under his +command, and the battle was obstinate and bloody. Obdam carried out +his instructions. Only a remnant of the Swedish fleet found refuge +in the harbour of Landskrona, but the Dutch also suffered severely. +The two vice-admirals, Witte de With and Floriszoon, were killed, +and Obdam himself narrowly escaped capture, but Copenhagen was +freed from naval blockade.</p> + +<p>Charles Gustavus however held military possession of a large +part of Denmark, and in the spring began to press the attack on +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_231" id= +"page_231">[pg.231]</a></span> capital from the land side. As both +England and France showed a disposition to interfere in the +conflict, the States-General now acted with unexpected vigour, +recognising that this question to them was vital. An imposing force +of seventy-five warships, carrying 12,000 troops and mounting 3000 +guns, was despatched in May, 1659, under De Ruyter to the Baltic. +Negotiations for peace between the Scandinavian powers under the +mediation of France, England and the United Provinces, were now set +on foot and dragged on through the summer. But neither Charles +Gustavus nor Frederick could be brought to agree to the terms +proposed, and the former in the autumn again threatened Copenhagen. +In these circumstances De Ruyter was ordered to expel the Swedes +from Funen. On November 24 the town of Nyborg was taken by storm +and the whole Swedish force compelled to surrender. De Ruyter was +now supreme in the Baltic and closely blockaded the Swedish ports. +The spirit of Charles Gustavus was broken by these disasters; he +died on February 20, 1660. Peace was now concluded at Oliva on +conditions favourable to Sweden, but securing for the Dutch the +free passage of the Sound. The policy of De Witt was at once firm +and conciliatory. Without arousing the active opposition of England +and France, he by strong-handed action at the decisive moment +succeeded in maintaining that balance of power in the Baltic which +was essential in the interest of Dutch trade. The republic under +his skilful leadership undoubtedly gained during the northern wars +fresh weight and consideration in the Councils of Europe.</p> + +<p>The peace of the Pyrenees, followed by the peace of Oliva and +the settlement with Portugal, seemed to open out to the United +Provinces a period of rest and recuperation, but probably no one +knew better than the council-pensionary that outward appearances +were deceptive. In the spring of 1660 a bloodless revolution had +been accomplished in England, and Charles II was restored to the +throne. The hostility of De Witt and of the States party to the +house of Stuart had been marked. It happened that Charles was at +Breda when he received the invitation recalling him to England. The +position was a difficult one, but the council-pensionary at once +saw, with his usual perspicacity, that there was but one course to +pursue. Acting under his advice, every possible step was taken by +the States-General and the Estates of Holland to propitiate +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_232" id= +"page_232">[pg.232]</a></span> prince, who from being a forlorn +exile had suddenly become a powerful king. Immense sums were spent +upon giving him a magnificent reception at the Hague; and, when he +set sail from Scheveningen, deputations from the States-General and +the Estates of Holland attended in state his embarkation and lavish +promises of friendship were exchanged. It was significant, however, +that Charles handed to the council-pensionary a declaration +commending to the care of their High Mightinesses "the Princess my +sister and the Prince of Orange my nephew, persons who are +extremely dear to me." He had previously expressed the same wish to +De Witt privately; and compliance with it, <i>i.e.</i> the +annulling of the Act of Exclusion, was inevitable. But all the +actors in this comedy were playing a part. Charles was not deceived +by all this subservience, and, continuing to entertain a bitter +grudge against De Witt and his party, only waited his time to repay +their enmity in kind. De Witt on his side, though in his anxiety to +conciliate the new royalist government he consented to deliver up +three regicides who were refugees in Holland (an act justly +blamed), refused to restore the Prince of Orange to any of the +ancient dignities and offices of his forefathers. Acting however on +his advice, the Estates of Holland passed a unanimous resolution +declaring William a ward of the Estates and voting a sum of money +for his maintenance and education.</p> + +<p>Very shortly after this momentous change in the government of +England, Cardinal Mazarin died (March, 1661); and the youthful +Louis XIV took the reins of power into his own hands. Outwardly all +seemed well in the relations between France and the republic, and +in point of fact an offensive and defensive alliance for +twenty-five years was concluded between them on April 27,1662. +Later in the same year Count D'Estrades, formerly ambassador in the +time of Frederick Henry, resumed his old post. The relations +between him and De Witt were personally of the friendliest +character, but the conciliatory attitude of D'Estrades did not +deceive the far-sighted council-pensionary, who was seriously +disquieted as to the political aims of France in the southern +Netherlands.</p> + +<p>By the treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, the French had already +acquired a large slice of territory in Flanders and Artois. They +had since obtained Dunkirk by purchase from Charles II. Moreover +Louis XIV had married the eldest daughter of Philip IV, whose<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_233" id= +"page_233">[pg.233]</a></span> only son was a weakly boy. It is +true that Maria Theresa, on her marriage, had renounced all claims +to the Spanish succession. But a large dowry had been settled upon +her, and by the treaty the renunciation was contingent upon its +payment. The dowry had not been paid nor was there any prospect of +the Spanish treasury being able to find the money. Besides it was +no secret that Louis claimed the succession to Brabant for his wife +and certain other portions of the Netherlands under what was called +the Law of Devolution. By this law the female child of a first wife +was the heir in preference to the male child of a later marriage. +The Dutch dreaded the approach of the French military power to +their frontiers, and yet the decrepitude of Spain seemed to render +it inevitable. There appeared to De Witt to be only two solutions +of the difficulty. Either what was styled "the cantonment" of the +southern Netherlands, <i>i.e.</i> their being formed into a +self-governing republic under Dutch protection guaranteed by a +French alliance, or the division of the Belgic provinces between +the two powers. The latter proposal, however, had two great +disadvantages: in the first place it gave to France and the +Republic the undesirable common frontier; in the second place +Amsterdam was resolved that Antwerp should not be erected into a +dangerous rival. The last objection proved insuperable; and, +although De Witt had many confidential discussions with D'Estrades, +in which the French envoy was careful not to commit himself to any +disclosure of the real intentions of his government, no settlement +of any kind had been arrived at, when the threatening state of +relations with England threw all other questions into the +background.</p> + +<p>The accession of Charles II placed upon the throne of England a +man who had no goodwill to Holland and still less to the +council-pensionary, and who, like all the Stewart kings, had a keen +interest in naval and maritime matters. The Navigation Act, far +from being repealed, was vigorously enforced, as were the English +claims to the sovereignty of the narrow seas. The grievances of the +English East India Company against its Dutch rival with regard to +the seizure of certain ships and especially as to the possession of +a small island named Poeloe-Rum in the Moluccas led to a growing +feeling of bitterness and hostility. A special embassy, headed by +De Witt's cousin, Beverweert, was sent to London in the autumn of +1660 to try to bring about a friendly understanding, but was<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_234" id= +"page_234">[pg.234]</a></span> fruitless. At the same time George +Downing, a skilful intriguer and adventurer, who after serving +Cromwell had succeeded in gaining the confidence of the royal +government, had been sent as ambassador to the Hague, where he +worked underhand to exacerbate the disputes and to prevent a +settlement of the differences between the two peoples. The position +and treatment of the Prince of Orange had likewise been a source of +difficulty and even of danger to the supremacy of the States party. +There arose a general movement among the provinces, headed by +Gelderland and Zeeland, to nominate William captain-and +admiral-general of the Union and stadholder. The lack of leadership +in the Orangist party, and the hostility between the two +princesses, rendered, however, any concentrated action impossible. +De Witt, with his usual adroitness, gained the ear of the princess +royal, who accepted the proposal that the Estates of Holland should +undertake the education of the prince, and even consented that De +Witt himself and his wife's uncle, De Graef, should superintend the +prince's studies. This arranged, Mary, for the first time since her +marriage, paid a visit to her native land, being desirous to +consult her brother on various subjects. Unfortunately she died of +small-pox in January, 1661, having nominated Charles as her son's +guardian. This nomination did not tend to smooth matters between +the two countries.</p> + +<p>There was a powerful war party in England, supported by the Duke +of York. It was at his instigation that a strong-handed act took +place which aroused intense indignation in Holland. A company +called "The Royal African Company" had been formed in which the +duke had a large interest. A fleet fitted out by this company under +the command of Admiral Holmes seized, in February, 1664, a portion +of the coast of Guinea on which the Dutch had settlements. Strong +protests meeting with nothing but evasive replies, in all secrecy a +squadron was got ready to sail under De Ruyter, nominally to the +Mediterranean. Dilatory negotiations were in the meantime being +conducted by Beverweert in London, and by Downing at the Hague in +regard to this and other grievances, but without any approach to a +settlement. Downing in fact was surreptitiously doing his best not +to reconcile, but to aggravate differences. Matters were brought to +a head by the news that an English fleet had crossed the Atlantic +and had taken possession of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_235" +id="page_235">[pg.235]</a></span> the Dutch colony of New +Netherland (September), and that Holmes had made himself master of +Cabo Corso on the West African coast, and was threatening further +conquests. This was too much. De Ruyter received orders to proceed +to Guinea, where he speedily drove out the English intruders and +reoccupied the lost settlements. During the winter both powers +prepared for a struggle for maritime supremacy which had become +inevitable; and at last war was declared by England (March 4, +1665).</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_236" id= +"page_236">[pg.236]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE LAST YEARS OF DE WITT'S ADMINISTRATION, 1665-1672. THE +SECOND ENGLISH WAR. THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. THE FRENCH INVASION</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>THE declaration of war in March, 1665, found the Dutch navy, +thanks to the prescience and personal care of the +council-pensionary, far better prepared for a struggle with the +superior resources of its English rival than was the case in 1654. +John de Witt, aided by his brother Cornelis, had supplied the lack +of an admiral-general by urging the various Admiralty Boards to +push on the building of vessels in size, construction and armaments +able to contend on equal terms with the English men-of-war. He had, +moreover, with his usual industry taken great pains to study the +details of admiralty-administration and naval science; and now, in +company with the Commissioners of the States-General, he visited +all the ports and dockyards and saw that every available ship was +got ready for immediate service, provided with seasoned crews, and +with ample stores and equipment. The English on their side were +equally ready for the encounter. After the death of Cromwell the +fleet had been neglected, but during the five years that had passed +since the Restoration steps had been taken to bring it to an even +greater strength and efficiency than before. Whatever may have been +the faults of the Stewart kings, neglect of the navy could not be +laid to their charge. One of the first steps of Charles II was to +appoint his brother James, Duke of York, to the post of +Lord-High-Admiral; and James was unremitting in his attention to +his duties, and a most capable naval administrator and leader, +while Charles himself never ceased during his reign to take a keen +interest in naval matters. In his case, as previously in the case +of his father, it was lack of the necessary financial means that +alone prevented him from creating an English fleet that would be +capable of asserting that "sovereignty in the narrow seas," which +was the traditional claim of the English monarchy.<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">[pg.237]</a></span></p> + +<p>The English were ready before the Dutch, who were hampered in +their preparations by having five distinct Boards of Admiralty. The +Duke of York put to sea with a fleet of 100 ships at the end of +April and, cruising off the coast of Holland, cut off the main +Dutch fleet in the Texel from the Zeeland contingent. It was +unfortunate for Holland that Michael Adriansz de Ruyter, one of the +greatest of seamen, was at this time still in the Mediterranean +Obdam, to whom the chief command was given, waited until a storm +drove the enemy to their harbours. He then united all the Dutch +squadrons and crossing to Southwold Bay found the English fleet +ready for battle. After some manoeuvring the action was joined on +June 13, and after a bloody fight ended most disastrously for the +Dutch. The flag-ships in the course of the struggle became closely +engaged, with the result that Obdam's vessel suddenly blew up, +while that of the English admiral was seriously damaged and he +himself wounded. The Dutch line had already been broken, and the +fate of their commander decided the issue. The Dutch in great +confusion sought the shelter of their shoals, but their habit of +firing at the masts and rigging had so crippled their opponents +that a vigorous pursuit was impossible. Nevertheless the English +had gained at the first encounter a decided victory. Sixteen Dutch +ships were sunk or destroyed, nine captured, and at least 2000 men +were killed, including three admirals, and as many more taken +prisoners. The English had but one vessel sunk, and their +casualties did not amount to more than a third of the Dutch losses. +The consternation and anger in Holland was great. Jan Evertsen, the +second-in-command, and a number of the captains were tried by +court-martial; and the reorganisation of the fleet was entrusted to +Cornells Tromp, who, encouraged and aided by the +council-pensionary, set himself with great energy to the task.</p> + +<p>The English meanwhile were masters of the sea, though +administrative shortcomings, defects of victualling and shortage of +men prevented them from taking full advantage of their success. +Early in August, however, a fleet under the Earl of Sandwich +attempted to capture a number of Dutch East Indiamen, who had +sailed round the north of Scotland. The East Indiamen took refuge +in the neutral port of Bergen. Here Sandwich ventured to attack +them but was driven off by the forts. While he was thus engaged in +the north the Channel was left free; and De Ruyter with his<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_238" id= +"page_238">[pg.238]</a></span> squadron seized the opportunity to +return to home-waters without opposition. His arrival was of the +greatest value to the Dutch, and he was with universal approval +appointed to succeed Obdam as lieutenant-admiral of Holland, and +was given the supreme command on the sea. Tromp, angry at being +superseded, was with difficulty induced to serve under the new +chief, but he had to yield to the force of public opinion. De +Ruyter at once gave proof of his skill by bringing back safely the +East Indiamen from Bergen, though a severe storm caused some +losses, both to the fleet and the convoy. The damage was however by +the energy of De Witt and the admiral quickly repaired; and De +Ruyter again sailed out at the beginning of October to seek the +English fleet. He cruised in the Channel and off the mouth of the +Thames, but no enemy vessels were to be seen; and at the end of the +month fresh storms brought the naval campaign of 1665 to a close, +on the whole to the advantage of the English.</p> + +<p>Nor were the misfortunes of the Dutch confined to maritime +warfare. Between England and Holland indeed the war was entirely a +sea affair, neither of them possessing an army strong enough to +land on the enemy's coast with any hope of success; but the United +Provinces were particularly vulnerable on their eastern frontier, +and Charles II concluded an alliance with the Bishop of +Münster, who had a grievance against the States on account of +a disputed border-territory, the lordship of Borkelo. Subsidised by +England, the bishop accordingly at the head of 18,000 men +(September, 1665) overran a considerable part of Drente and +Overyssel and laid it waste. There was at first no organised force +to oppose him. It had been the policy of Holland to cut down the +army, and the other provinces were not unwilling to follow her +example. No field-marshal had been appointed to succeed Brederode; +there was no army of the Union under a captain-general, but seven +small provincial armies without a military head. Some thousands of +fresh troops were now raised and munitions of war collected, but to +whom should the chief command be given? William Frederick was dead +(October 31, 1664) and had been succeeded by his youthful son, +Henry Casimir, in the Stadholderate of Friesland. Joan Maurice of +Nassau had withdrawn from the Netherlands and was Governor of +Cleves in the service of Brandenburg. He was however persuaded to +place himself at the head of the army, though complaining +bitterly<span class="newpage"><a name="page_239" id= +"page_239">[pg.239]</a></span> of the inadequacy of the forces +placed at his disposal. De Witt, however, had not been idle. He +secured the assistance of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and an army of +12,000 Brunswickers under the command of George Frederick von +Waldeck attacked Münster; while a force of 6000 French +likewise, under the terms of the treaty of 1662, advanced to the +help of the Dutch. Threatened also by Brandenburg, the bishop was +compelled to withdraw his troops for home defence and in April, +1666, was glad to conclude peace with the States.</p> + +<p>French naval co-operation against England was also promised; and +war was actually declared by Louis XIV in the early spring of 1666. +The real cause of this strong action was due to other motives than +enmity to England. The death of Philip IV of Spain in September, +1665, had brought nearer the prospect of there being no heir-male +to the vast Spanish monarchy. The French Queen, Maria Theresa, was +the eldest child of Philip; and, though on her marriage she had +renounced her claim to the Spanish throne, it was well known that +Louis intended to insist upon her rights, particularly in regard to +the Spanish Netherlands. He was afraid that the States, always +suspicious of his ambitious projects, might be tempted to come to +terms with England on the basis of a defensive alliance against +French aggression in Flanders and Brabant, for both powers were +averse to seeing Antwerp in French hands. To avert this danger +Louis determined to take part in the war on the side of the Dutch. +The move however was diplomatic rather than serious, for the French +admiral, de Beaufort, never sailed into the North Sea or effected a +junction with the Dutch fleet. Nevertheless, as will be seen, his +presence in the Atlantic exercised an important effect upon the +naval campaign of 1666.</p> + +<p>The English fleet was not ready until the beginning of June. The +ravages of the plague and financial difficulties had caused delay; +and the fleet only numbered about eighty sail, including a squadron +which had been recalled from the Mediterranean. The +"Generals-at-Sea," as they were called, were Monk and Rupert. They +began by committing the great blunder of dividing their force. +Rupert was detached with twenty ships to keep watch over de +Beaufort, a diversion which had serious consequences for the +English. The Dutch fleet, consisting of seventy-two men-of-war with +twelve frigates, was the most powerful that the Admiralties had +ever sent to sea, not in numbers but in the quality of the ships. +De Witt<span class="newpage"><a name="page_240" id= +"page_240">[pg.240]</a></span> himself had supervised the +preparations and had seen that the equipment was complete in every +respect. De Ruyter was in supreme command and led the van, Cornelis +Evertsen the centre, Cornelis Tromp the rear. On June 11 the +English fleet under Monk was sighted between the North Foreland and +Dunkirk, and the famous Four Days' Battle was begun. The English +had only fifty-four ships, but having the weather gauge Monk +attacked Tromp's squadron with his whole force; nor was it till +later in the day that De Ruyter and Evertsen were able to come to +the relief of their colleague. Night put an end to an indecisive +contest, in which both sides lost heavily. The next day Monk +renewed the attack, at first with some success; but, De Ruyter +having received a reinforcement of sixteen ships, the weight of +numbers told and Monk was forced to retreat. On the third morning +De Ruyter pursued his advantage, but the English admiral conducted +his retirement in a most masterly manner, his rear squadron +covering the main body and fighting stubbornly. Several ships, +however, including the flag-ship of Vice-Admiral Ayscue, had to be +abandoned and were either destroyed or captured by the Dutch. At +the end of the day Monk had only twenty-eight ships left fit for +service. Very opportunely he was now rejoined by Rupert's squadron +and other reinforcements; and on the fourth morning the two fleets +confronted one another in almost equal numbers, each having some +sixty vessels. Once more therefore the desperate struggle was +resumed and with initial advantage to the English. Rupert forced +his way through the Dutch fleet, which was for awhile divided. But +the English habit of firing at the hulls, though it did most +damage, was not so effective as the Dutch system of aiming at the +masts and rigging in crippling the freedom of tacking and +manoeuvring; and Monk and Rupert were unable to prevent De Ruyter +from re-uniting his whole force, and bearing down with it upon the +enemy. The English were forced to retreat again, leaving several of +their "lamed" vessels behind. They lost in all ten ships besides +fireships, something like 3000 killed and wounded and 2500 +prisoners. Vice-Admiral Berkeley was killed, Vice-Admiral Ayscue +taken prisoner. Nor were the Dutch much better off. Four or five of +their ships were sunk, a number severely damaged, and their +casualty list was probably as large as that of their foes. +Nevertheless the victory was undoubtedly theirs; and the fleet on +its return was greeted with<span class="newpage"><a name="page_241" +id="page_241">[pg.241]</a></span> public rejoicings in Holland and +Zeeland. The triumph was of short duration.</p> + +<p>By vigorous efforts on both sides the damaged fleets were +rapidly repaired. De Ruyter was the first to put to sea (July 9) +with some ninety ships; three weeks later Monk and Rupert left the +Thames with an equal force. The encounter took place on August 4. +It ended in a decisive English victory after some fierce and +obstinate fighting. The Dutch van, after losing its two admirals, +Evertsen and De Vries, gave way. Monk and Rupert then attacked with +a superior force the centre under De Ruyter himself, who to save +his fleet from destruction was compelled to take refuge behind the +Dutch shoals. Meanwhile the squadron under Tromp, driving before it +the rear squadron of the English, had become separated and unable +to come to De Ruyter's assistance. For this abandonment he was +bitterly reproached by De Ruyter and accused of desertion. The +quarrel necessitated Tromp's being deprived of his command, as the +States-General could not afford to lose the services of the +admiral-in-chief.</p> + +<p>For a time the English were now masters of the narrow seas, and, +cruising along the Dutch coast, destroyed a great number of Dutch +merchantmen, made some rich prizes and even landed on the island of +Terschelling, which was pillaged. Lack of supplies at length +compelled them to withdraw for the purpose of revictualling. On +this De Ruyter, accompanied by Cornelis de Witt as special +commissioner, sailed out in the hopes of effecting a junction with +De Beaufort. Rupert also put to sea again, but storms prevented a +meeting between the fleets and sickness also seriously interfered +with their efficiency. De Ruyter himself fell ill; and, though John +de Witt was himself with the fleet, no further operations were +attempted. Both sides had become weary and exhausted and anxious +for peace.</p> + +<p>To De Witt the war had been from the outset distasteful; and he +had been much disturbed by the constant intrigues of the Orangist +party to undermine his position. He was aware that in this hour of +the country's need the eyes of a considerable part of the people, +even in Holland, were more and more directed to the young prince. +There was a magic in his name, which invested the untried boy with +the reflected glory of his ancestor's great deeds. The +council-pensionary, a past-master in the arts of expediency,<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_242" id= +"page_242">[pg.242]</a></span> was driven to avert the danger which +threatened the supremacy of the States party, by proposing to the +Princess Amalia that the province of Holland should not only charge +themselves with William's education, but should adopt him as "a +Child of State." It was a short-sighted device for, as the princess +shrewdly saw, this exceptional position assigned to her grandson +must ensure, when he grew to man's estate, the reversion of his +ancestral dignities. She willingly assented; and in April, 1666, +the Estates of Holland appointed a Commission, of which John de +Witt was himself the head, which was entrusted with the religious +and political instruction of the prince. A few months later De Witt +was to discover that Orangist intrigues were being still +clandestinely carried on. An officer of French extraction, the lord +of Buat, though an Orange partisan, had been employed by the +pensionary to make tentative proposals of peace to the English +court through Lord Arlington. In August a packet of intercepted +letters showed that Buat had played him false and was seeking to +compass his overthrow. Buat was brought to trial, condemned to +death, and executed on October 11.</p> + +<p>This strong action by the council-pensionary did not prevent, +however, the preliminaries of a peaceful settlement being discussed +both at the Hague and in London during the winter months, with the +result that a conference of delegates representing Great Britain, +the United Provinces and France, met at Breda in May, 1667, to +discuss the terms of peace. But the negotiations did not progress. +The English envoys raised afresh all the old questions, while the +Dutch were not ready to concede anything unless the Navigation Act +was largely modified. In these circumstances De Witt determined by +bold action to try to expedite the negotiations in a sense +favourable to Holland. He knew that the English were unprepared. +Charles II, in opposition to the advice of Rupert, Monk and the +Duke of York, had refused to spend money in preparation for a +campaign at sea, which he felt confident would never take place. +The ravages of the plague and of the Great Fire of London had made +the year 1666 one of the darkest in English history and had caused +the heavy financial drain and losses of the war to be more severely +felt. There was widespread discontent in the country; and the king +in sore financial distress was immovable in his resolve that no +steps should be taken for refitting the fleet. The ships<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_243" id= +"page_243">[pg.243]</a></span> remained laid up in port, although +the Dutch despatched in April a squadron to the Firth of Forth and +dominated the Channel.</p> + +<p>In deep secrecy De Witt now made preparations for the despatch +of a great fleet with orders to sail up the estuary of the Thames +and attack the English ships in harbour. De Ruyter, accompanied by +Cornelis de Witt, left the Texel on June 14, at the head of a fleet +numbering more than eighty vessels. A squadron under Admiral Van +Ghent sailed up the Thames on June 19, followed by the main body. +Sheerness was captured, and on the 22nd De Ruyter determined to +force his way up the Medway. The river had been blocked by drawing +up a line of ships behind a heavy chain. The Dutch fire-ships broke +through the chain and burnt the vessels, and then proceeding +upwards burnt, scuttled or captured some sixteen vessels, among the +latter the flag-ship, <i>Royal Charles</i>. The sound of the Dutch +guns was heard in London and for a time panic reigned. But the +narrowness of the river and the prompt measures that were taken to +call out the militia and man the forts prevented any further +success. The Dutch fleet withdrew to the Nore and, beyond blocking +the mouth of the river, were able to effect no further damage. The +blow to English prestige was however irreparable, and the people +felt deeply humiliated that short-sightedness and lack of +preparation on the part of the government should have exposed them +to an insult galling to the national pride. One of its +consequences, as had been anticipated by De Witt, was a more +conciliatory attitude on the part of the English envoys at Breda. +Peace was concluded on July 26, on terms more favourable than the +Dutch could have expected. The Navigation Act was modified, various +commercial advantages were conceded and Poeloe-Rum was retained. On +the other hand, the custom of the striking of the flag remained +unchanged. It was agreed that the English colony of Surinam, which +had been captured in March, 1667, by a Zeeland squadron should be +kept in exchange for New York, an exchange advantageous to both +parties.</p> + +<p>By the treaty of Breda the Dutch republic attained the summit of +its greatness, and the supremacy of De Witt appeared to be not only +secure but unassailable. Yet events were preparing which were +destined to undermine the prosperity of Holland and the position of +the statesman to whom in so large a measure that prosperity was +due. France under the absolute rule of Louis XIV had become by<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_244" id= +"page_244">[pg.244]</a></span> far the most powerful State in +Europe, and the king was bent upon ambitious and aggressive +projects. It has already been explained that after the death of +Philip IV of Spain he claimed for his queen, Maria Theresa, the +succession, by the so-called "law of devolution," to a large part +of the southern Netherlands. He now determined that the hour had +come for enforcing his claim. In May, 1667, before the treaty of +Breda had been signed, a French army of 50,000 men crossed the +Belgic frontier. Castel-Rodrigo, the Spanish governor, had no force +at his disposal for resisting so formidable an invasion; fortress +after fortress fell into French hands; and Flanders, Brabant and +Hainault were speedily overrun. This rapid advance towards their +borders caused no small consternation in Holland, and De Witt's +efforts to reach an understanding with King Louis proved +unavailing. The States were not in a position to attempt an armed +intervention, and the once formidable Spanish power was now feeble +and decrepit. The only hope lay in the formation of a coalition. De +Witt therefore turned to England and Sweden for help.</p> + +<p>The anti-French party in Sweden was then predominant; and Dohna, +the Swedish ambassador at the Hague, was ordered to go to London, +there to further the efforts of the newly appointed Dutch envoy, +John Meerman, for the formation of a coalition to check French +aggrandisement. They had difficulties to overcome. The English were +sore at the results of the peace of Breda. Charles disliked the +Dutch and was personally indebted to Louis XIV for many favours. +But the feeling in England was strongly averse to French aggression +towards Antwerp. The fall of Clarendon from power at this time and +the accession of Arlington, who was son-in-law to Beverweert, +turned the scale in favour of the proposals of De Witt; and Charles +found himself obliged to yield. Sir William Temple, whose residence +as English minister at Brussels had convinced him of the gravity of +the French menace, was ordered to go to the Hague to confer +personally with the council-pensionary and then to proceed to +London. His mission was most promptly and skilfully carried out. +His persuasiveness overcame all obstacles. After a brief stay in +London he returned to the Hague, January 17, 1668. Even the +proverbial slowness of the complicated machinery of the Dutch +government did not hinder him from carrying out his mission with +almost miraculous rapidity. Having first secured the full support +of De Witt to his proposals, he next, with the aid<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">[pg.245]</a></span> of +the council-pensionary, pressed the urgency of the case upon the +States-General with such convincing arguments that the treaty +between England and the United Provinces was signed on January 23. +Three days afterwards Dohna was able to announce the adhesion of +the Swedish government; and on January 26, the Triple Alliance was +an accomplished fact. It was essentially a defensive alliance, and +its main object was to offer mediation between France and Spain in +order to moderate the French claims and to back up their mediation, +if necessity should arise, by joint action. As a preliminary +precaution, a strong force was promptly placed under the command of +Joan Maurice of Nassau, and a fleet of forty-eight ships was fitted +out.</p> + +<p>These steps had their effect. Louis, suddenly confronted by this +formidable coalition, preferred to accept mediation, though it +involved his waiving a portion of his pretensions. Knowing well +that the alliance was a very unstable one, for the consent of +Charles was given under duress and the aims of Sweden were +mercenary, he foresaw that by biding his time, he could have ample +revenge later upon the republic of traders who had ventured to +thwart him. At a meeting at St Germain-en-Laye between the French +Foreign Minister, Lionne, and the Dutch and English ambassadors, +Van Beuningen and Trevor, preliminaries were settled on April 15. +These were confirmed by a conference of representatives of all the +interested States at Aix-la-Chapelle (May 2), in which Temple took +an active part. Louis gave up Franche-Comté, which he had +conquered, but retained Mons, Courtrai, Tournai, Lille, Charleroi +and other frontier towns. This treaty, following on that of Breda, +was the crowning triumph of De Witt's administration, for it had +given to the Dutch Republic a decisive voice in the Councils of the +Great Powers of Europe.</p> + +<p>But, though he had proved himself so successful in the fields of +diplomacy and statesmanship, the position of the council-pensionary +had, during the course of the English war, become distinctly +weaker. De Witt's authoritative ways, his practical monopoly of +power, and his bestowal of so many posts upon his relatives and +friends, aroused considerable jealousy and irritation. Cabals began +to be formed against him and old supporters to fall away. He lost +the help of Van Beverningh, who resigned the office of +Treasurer-General, and he managed to estrange Van Beuningen, who +had<span class="newpage"><a name="page_246" id= +"page_246">[pg.246]</a></span> much influence in Amsterdam. The +Bickers and De Graeffs were no longer supreme in that city, where a +new party under the leadership of Gillis Valckenier had acceded to +power. This party, with which Van Beuningen now associated himself, +was at present rather anti-De Witt than pro-Orange. Valckenier and +Beuningen became in succession burgomasters; and De Witt's friend, +Pieter de Groot, had to resign the office of pensionary. In the +Estates of Holland, therefore, De Witt had to face opposition, one +of the leaders being the able Pensionary of Haarlem, Caspar Fagel. +And all this time he had ever before his eyes the fact that the +Prince of Orange could not much longer remain "the Child of State"; +and that, when he passed out of the tutelage of the Estates of +Holland, his future position would have to be settled. De Witt had +himself devoted much personal care to William's instruction; and +the prince had submitted patiently and apparently with contentment +to the restrictions with which he was surrounded. Physically +weakly, his health was at all times delicate, but his intelligence +was remarkable and his will-power extraordinary. Cold and +impenetrable in manner and expression, unbending in his haughty +aloofness, he knew how with perfect courtesy to keep his own +counsel and to refrain from giving utterance to an unguarded word. +But behind this chilling and sphinx-like exterior was a mind of +singular precocity, already filled with deep-laid schemes and plans +for the future, confident that his opportunity would come, and +preparing when the hour struck to seize it. One can well imagine +how anxiously in their many personal interviews the +council-pensionary must have tried to read what was passing in his +pupil's inmost thoughts, only to be baffled.</p> + +<p>So early as August, 1667, steps had been taken by the Estates of +Holland to forestall the danger that threatened. On the proposal of +Van Beuningen and Valckenier, who had not yet detached themselves +from the States party, an edict was passed to which, somewhat +infelicitously, the name of the "Eternal Edict" was given. It +abolished in Holland the office of stadholder for ever and affirmed +the right of the town-corporations (<i>vroedschappen</i>) to elect +their own magistrates. It was further resolved to invite the other +provinces to declare that no stadholder could hold either the +captain-or admiral-generalship of the Union. This resolution was +styled the "Concept of Harmony." Deputations were sent to urge the +acceptation of the Concept; and De Witt himself used<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">[pg.247]</a></span> his +utmost power of persuasion to bring about a general agreement. He +was successful in Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel. But Zeeland, +Friesland and Groningen, where the Orangists were strong, refused +to give their assent; and the approval of the States-General was +only carried by a bare majority. De Witt himself doubtless knew +that the erection of this paper barrier against the inherited +influence of one bearing the honoured title of Prince of Orange was +of little real value. It is reported that Vivien, the Pensionary of +Dordrecht, De Witt's cousin, stuck his pen-knife into a copy of the +Eternal Edict as it lay on the table before him, and in reply to a +remonstrance said: "I was only trying what steel can do against +parchment."</p> + +<p>The second period of five years during which De Witt had held +the post of council-pensionary was now drawing to an end. For a +decade he had wielded a power which had given to him almost supreme +authority in the republic, especially in the control of foreign +affairs. But all the time he had lived the life of a simple +burgher, plainly dressed, occupying the same modest dwelling-house, +keeping only a single manservant. He was devotedly attached to his +wife and children, and loved to spend the hours he could spare from +public affairs in the domestic circle. The death of Wendela on July +1, 1668, was a great blow to him and damped the satisfaction which +must have filled him at the manner in which he was reelected at the +end of that month to enter upon his third period of office. In +recognition of his great services his salary of 6000 guilders was +doubled, and a gratuity of 45,000 guilders was voted to him, to +which the nobles added a further sum of 15,000 guilders. De Witt +again obtained an Act of Indemnity from the Estates of Holland and +likewise the promise of a judicial post on his retirement.</p> + +<p>The Prince of Orange had received the announcement of the +passing of the Eternal Edict without showing the slightest emotion, +or making any protest. He now, two months after the re-election of +the council-pensionary, took the first step towards self-assertion. +Under cover of a visit to his ancestral town of Breda, William made +his way to Middelburg, where the Estates of Zeeland were assembled. +Being now eighteen years of age he claimed his inherited right to +take his seat as "first noble," and after being duly installed he +appointed his relative, Seigneur van Odijk, to act as his +deputy.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_248" id= +"page_248">[pg.248]</a></span> This done, he quietly returned to +the Hague, having given a clear indication of the course he meant +to pursue.</p> + +<p>The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had left a deep feeling of +humiliation and rancour in the heart of Louis XIV; and he was +resolved to leave no stone unturned to wreak his vengeance on +Holland and its council-pensionary. The Triple Alliance was plainly +an ill-assorted combination. Charles II cared nothing about the +fate of the Spanish Netherlands, and there was a strong party in +England which hated the Dutch and wished to wipe out the memory of +Chatham and to upset the treaty of Breda. Grievances about the +settlement of questions concerning the East Indies and Surinam were +raked up. Both Van Beuningen in London and Pieter de Groot in Paris +sent warnings that the States should be prepared for war and at an +early date, but the council-pensionary pinned his faith on Temple +and the Alliance, and kept his eyes shut to the imminent danger. +Meanwhile Louis had been bribing freely both in England and Sweden, +and he had no difficulty in detaching the latter power from the +Alliance. To England he sent over the beautiful Henrietta, Duchess +of Orleans, Charles' favourite sister, on a secret mission to the +king, and she was speedily successful. The offer of an annual +payment of 3,000,000 francs and the possession of Walcheren, which +commanded the entrance to the Scheldt, effected their purpose. A +secret treaty was signed at Dover on December 31, 1670, between +Louis and Charles, by which the latter agreed, on being called upon +to do so, to declare war upon Holland in conjunction with the +French.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile De Witt was so absorbed in domestic politics and in +the maintenance of the burgher-aristocratic party in power, that he +seemed to have lost his usual statesmanlike acumen. He never ceased +to work for the general acceptance of the Concept of Harmony. At +last the three recalcitrant provinces (Friesland, Groningen and +Zeeland), when William had reached his twenty-first year, agreed to +accept it on condition that the prince were at once admitted to the +Council of State. Even now De Witt tried to prevent the prince from +having more than an advisory vote, but he was overruled through the +opposition of Amsterdam to his views. All this time Louis was +preparing his great plan for the crushing of the republic. He +succeeded in gaining the promised assistance of England, +Münster and Cologne, and in detaching from the Dutch<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_249" id= +"page_249">[pg.249]</a></span> the Emperor and the Swedes. The +finances under Colbert were in a flourishing state, and a splendid +army had been equipped by the great war minister, Louvois. It was +in vain that Pieter de Groot sent warnings of coming peril. The +council-pensionary was deaf, and the States-General still deafer. +Temple had left (August, 1670) for a visit to London, and he never +returned. For some months there was no resident English ambassador +at the Hague. Finally, at the end of the year, Downing arrived, the +very man who had done his utmost to bring about the war of 1665. De +Witt still placed his hopes in the anti-French views of the English +Parliament; but in August, 1671, it was dissolved by the king and +was not summoned to meet again for a year and a half. Charles had +therefore a free-hand, and the secret treaty of Dover was the +result. The reports of De Groot became more and more alarming; and +De Witt found it necessary to urge the States to make preparations +both by sea and land to resist attack. But he met with a luke-warm +response. The fleet indeed was considerably strengthened, but the +army was in a miserable state. At no time during the English wars +had a powerful army been required, and the lesson taught by the +invasion of the Bishop of Münster had had little effect. The +heavy charges of the naval war compelled the States and especially +Holland, on whom the chief burden fell, to economise by cutting +down the military expenses. Politically also the ruling +burgher-regents in Holland had from past experience a wholesome +fear lest the power of the sword wielded by another Maurice or +William II should again overthrow the civil power. The consequence +was that when Charles II declared war on March 28, 1672, and Louis +on the following April 6, and a great French army of 120,000 men +under Condé, Turenne and Luxemburg marched through +Liège to invade the States, while another army of 30,000 men +from Münster and Cologne attacked farther north, all was +confusion and panic, for it was felt that there was no possibility +of effective resistance. The Bishop of Münster was eager to +take vengeance for his defeat in 1666, and the Elector-Archbishop +of Cologne was a Bavarian prince friendly to France. His help was +the more valuable, as he was likewise Bishop of Liège, and +thus able to offer to the French armies a free passage through his +territory.</p> + +<p>Not until the storm was actually bursting on them by sea and +land at once were the various authorities in the threatened +land<span class="newpage"><a name="page_250" id= +"page_250">[pg.250]</a></span> induced to move in earnest. +Confronted by the sudden crisis, De Witt however made the most +strenuous efforts to meet it. A fleet of 150 ships was got ready +and an army of some 50,000 men, mercenaries of many nationalities, +hastily gathered together. It was a force without cohesion, +discipline or competent officers. In the peril of the country all +eyes were turned towards the Prince of Orange. William was now +twenty-one years of age, but by the provisions of the Concept of +Harmony his name was not to be proposed as captain-general until he +had reached the age of twenty-two. But in the wave of feeling which +swept over the country the paper barrier was dashed aside. In the +Estates of Holland, which De Witt had so long controlled, and +despite his strong opposition, the proposal to confer the post on +William for one year was carried. All that the council-pensionary +could effect was to surround the exercise of the office with so +many restrictions as to deprive the prince of any real authority. +These restrictions did not, however, meet the approval of the other +provinces, and William himself refused to accept them. De Witt had +to give way. William was appointed captain-general for one year +(February 25, 1672). It appeared to be an absolutely hopeless task +that this utterly inexperienced young man had to face. But the mere +fact that once more a Prince of Orange was in command gave new +hope. It was a name to conjure with; and the holder of it, young as +he was and with no previous military training, faced his task with +the calm confidence which comes from conscious power and an +inherited aptitude for the leadership of men.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_251" id= +"page_251">[pg.251]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>WAR WITH FRANCE AND ENGLAND. WILLIAM III, STADHOLDER. MURDER OF +THE BROTHERS DE WITT, 1672</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The advance of the French armies and those of Münster and +Cologne to attack the eastern frontier of the United Provinces met +with little serious resistance. Fortress after fortress fell; the +line of the Yssel was abandoned. Soon the whole of Gelderland, +Overyssel, Drente and Utrecht were in the possession of the enemy. +Even the castle of Muiden, but ten miles from Amsterdam, was only +saved from capture at the last moment by Joan Maurice throwing +himself with a small force within the walls. The Prince of Orange +had no alternative but to fall back behind the famous waterline of +Holland. He had at his disposal, after leaving garrisons in the +fortresses, barely 4000 men as a field-force. With some difficulty +the people were persuaded to allow the dykes to be cut, as in the +height of the struggle against Spain, and the country to be +submerged. Once more behind this expanse of flood, stretching like +a gigantic moat from Muiden on the Zuyder Zee to Gorkum on the +Maas, Holland alone remained as the last refuge of national +resistance to an overwhelming foe. True the islands of Zeeland and +Friesland were yet untouched by invasion, but had Holland succumbed +to the French armies their resistance would have availed little. At +the end of June the aspect of affairs looked very black, and +despite the courageous attitude of the young captain-general, and +the ceaseless energy with which the council-pensionary worked for +the equipment of an adequate fleet, and the provision of ways and +means and stores, there seemed to be no ray of hope. Men's hearts +failed them for fear, and a panic of despair filled the land.</p> + +<p>Had the combined fleets of England and France been able at this +moment to obtain a victory at sea and to land an army on the coast, +it is indeed difficult to see how utter and complete disaster could +have been avoided. Fortunately, however, this was averted. It +had<span class="newpage"><a name="page_252" id= +"page_252">[pg.252]</a></span> been De Witt's hope that De Ruyter +might have been able to have struck a blow at the English ships in +the Thames and the Medway before they had time to put to sea and +effect a junction with the French. But the Zeeland contingent was +late and it was the middle of May before the famous admiral, +accompanied as in 1667 by Cornelis de Witt as the representative of +the States-General, sailed at the head of seventy-five ships in +search of the Anglo-French fleet. After delays through contrary +winds the encounter took place in Southwold Bay on June 7. The Duke +of York was the English admiral-in-chief, D'Estrées the +French commander, and they had a united force of ninety ships. The +Dutch, who had the wind-gauge, found the hostile squadrons +separated from one another. De Ruyter at once took advantage of +this. He ordered Vice-Admiral Banckers with the Zeeland squadron to +contain the French, while he himself with the rest of his force +bore down upon the Duke of York. The battle was contested with the +utmost courage and obstinacy on both sides and the losses were +heavy. The advantage, however, remained with the Dutch. The English +flag-ship, the <i>Royal James</i>, was burnt; and the duke was +afterwards three times compelled to shift his flag. Both fleets +returned to the home ports to refit; and during the rest of the +summer and early autumn no further attack was made on De Ruyter, +who with some sixty vessels kept watch and ward along the coasts of +Holland and Zeeland. The Dutch admiral had gained his object and no +landing was ever attempted.</p> + +<p>But the battle of Southwold Bay, though it relieved the +immediate naval danger, could do nothing to stay the advancing tide +of invasion on land. The situation appeared absolutely desperate; +trade was at a standstill; and the rapid fall in the State +securities and in the East India Company's stock gave alarming +evidence of the state of public opinion. In these circumstances De +Witt persuaded the States-General and the Estates of Holland to +consent to the sending of two special embassies to Louis, who was +now at Doesburg, and to London, to sue for peace. They left the +Hague on June 13, only to meet with a humiliating rebuff. Charles +II refused to discuss the question apart from France. Pieter de +Groot and his colleagues were received at Doesburg with scant +courtesy and sent back to the Hague to seek for fuller powers. When +they arrived they found the council-pensionary lying on a sick-bed. +The country's disasters had been attributed to the De Witts, and +the strong feeling against<span class="newpage"><a name="page_253" +id="page_253">[pg.253]</a></span> them led to a double attempt at +assassination. John de Witt, while walking home at the close of a +busy day's work was (June 21) attacked by four assailants and badly +wounded. The leader, Jacob van der Graeff, was seized and executed; +the others were allowed to escape, it was said by the prince's +connivance. A few days later an attack upon Cornells de Witt at +Dordrecht likewise failed to attain its object. That such dastardly +acts could happen without an outburst of public indignation was +ominous of worse things to come. It was a sign that the whole +country had turned its back upon the States party and the whole +system of government of which for nineteen years John de Witt had +been the directing spirit, and had become Orangist. Revolutionary +events followed one another with almost bewildering rapidity. On +July 2 the Estates of Zeeland appointed William to the office of +Stadholder. The Estates of Holland repealed the Eternal Edict on +July 3; and on the next day it was resolved on the proposal of +Amsterdam to revive the stadholdership with all its former powers +and prerogatives in favour of the Prince of Orange. The other +provinces followed the lead of Holland and Zeeland; and on July 8 +the States-General appointed the young stadholder captain-and +admiral-general of the Union. William thus found himself invested +with all the offices and even more than the authority that had been +possessed by his ancestors. Young and inexperienced as he was, he +commanded unbounded confidence, and it was not misplaced.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, despite the strong opposition of Amsterdam and some +other towns, the fuller powers asked for by De Groot were granted, +and he returned to the camp of Louis to endeavour to obtain more +favourable terms of peace. He was unsuccessful. The demands of the +French king included concessions of territory to Cologne, to +Münster and to England, and for himself the greater part of +the Generality-lands with the great fortresses of Hertogenbosch and +Maestricht, a war indemnity of 16,000,000 francs, and complete +freedom for Catholic worship. On July 1 De Groot returned to the +Hague to make his report. The humiliating terms were rejected +unanimously, but it was still hoped that now that the Prince of +Orange was at the head of affairs negotiations might be resumed +through the mediation of England. William even went so far as to +send a special envoy to Charles II, offering large concessions to +England, if the king would withdraw from the<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">[pg.254]</a></span> +French alliance. But it was in vain. On the contrary at this very +time (July 16) the treaty between Louis and Charles was renewed; +and the demands made on behalf of England were scarcely less +exorbitant than those put forward by Louis himself—the +cession of Sluis, Walcheren, Cadsand, Voorne and Goerce, an +indemnity of 25,000,000 francs, the payment of an annual subsidy +for the herring fishery, and the striking of the flag. If all the +conditions made by the two kings were agreed to, the sovereignty of +the remnants of the once powerful United Provinces, impoverished +and despoiled, was offered to the prince. He rejected it with +scorn. When the Estates of Holland on the return of De Groot asked +his advice about the French terms, the stadholder replied, "all +that stands in the proposal is unacceptable; rather let us be +hacked in pieces, than accept such conditions"; and when an English +envoy, after expressing King Charles' personal goodwill to his +nephew, tried to persuade him to accept the inevitable, he met with +an indignant refusal. "But don't you see that the Republic is +lost," he is reported to have pleaded. "I know of one sure means of +not seeing her downfall," was William's proud reply, "to die in +defence of the last ditch."</p> + +<p>The firm attitude of the prince gave courage to all; and, +whatever might be the case with the more exposed provinces on the +eastern and south-eastern frontiers, the Hollanders and Zeelanders +were resolved to sacrifice everything rather than yield without a +desperate struggle. But the fact that they were reduced to these +dire straits roused the popular resentment against the De Witts and +the system of government which had for more than two decades been +in possession of power. Their wrath was especially directed against +the council-pensionary. Pamphlets were distributed broadcast in +which he was charged amongst other misdoings with appropriating +public funds for his private use. While yet suffering from the +effects of his wounds De Witt appeared (July 23) before the Estates +and vigorously defended himself. A unanimous vote declared him free +from blame.</p> + +<p>Cornelis de Witt was, no less than his brother, an object of +popular hatred. In the town of Dordrecht where the De Witt +influence had been so long supreme his portrait in the Town-hall +was torn to pieces by the mob and the head hung on a gallows. On +July 24 he was arrested and imprisoned at the Hague on the +charge<span class="newpage"><a name="page_255" id= +"page_255">[pg.255]</a></span> brought against him by a barber +named Tichelaer, of being implicated in a plot to assassinate the +prince. Tichelaer was well known to be a bad and untrustworthy +character. On the unsupported testimony of this man, the Ruwaard, +though indignantly denying the accusation, was incarcerated in the +Gevangenpoort, to be tried by a commission appointed by the +Estates. Great efforts were made by his friends and by his brother +to obtain his release; but, as the prince would not interfere, the +proceedings had to take their course. John de Witt meanwhile, +wishing to forestall a dismissal which he felt to be inevitable, +appeared before the Estates on August 4, and in an impressive +speech voluntarily tendered his resignation of the post of +council-pensionary, asking only for the redemption of the promise +made to him that at the close of his tenure of office he should +receive a judicial appointment. The resignation was accepted, the +request granted, but owing to opposition no vote of thanks was +given. Caspar Fagel was appointed council-pensionary in his +place.</p> + +<p>The enemies of John de Witt were not content with his fall from +power. A committee of six judges were empanelled to try his brother +Cornelis for his alleged crime. On August 17, to their eternal +disgrace, they by a majority vote ordered the prisoner, who was +suffering from gout, to be put to the torture. The illustrious +victim of their malice endured the rack without flinching, +insisting on his absolute innocence of any plot against the +prince's life. Nevertheless, early on August 19, sentence was +pronounced upon him of banishment and loss of all his offices. +Later on the same day Cornelis sent a message to his brother that +he should like to see him. John, in spite of strong warnings, came +to the Gevangenpoort and was admitted to the room where the +Ruwaard, as a result of the cruel treatment he had received, was +lying in bed; and the two brothers had a long conversation. +Meanwhile a great crowd had gathered round the prison clamouring +for vengeance upon the De Witts. Three companies of soldiers were +however drawn up under the command of Count Tilly with orders from +the Commissioned-Councillors to maintain order. At the same time +the <i>schutterij</i>—the civic guard—was called out. +These latter, however, were not to be trusted and were rather +inclined to fraternise with the mob. So long as Tilly's troops were +at hand, the rioters were held in restraint and no acts of violence +were attempted. It was at this critical<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_256" id="page_256">[pg.25]</a></span> moment that verbal +orders came to Tilly to march his troops to the gates to disperse +some bands of marauding peasants who were said to be approaching. +Tilly refused to move without a written order. It came, signed by +Van Asperen, the president of the Commissioned-Councillors, a +strong Orange partisan. On receiving it Tilly is said to have +exclaimed, "I will obey, but the De Witts are dead men." The +soldiers were no sooner gone than the crowd, under the leadership +of Verhoef, a goldsmith, and Van Bankhem, a banker, forced the door +of the prison (the <i>schutterij</i> either standing aloof, or +actually assisting in the attack), and rushing upstairs found John +de Witt sitting calmly at the foot of his brother's bed reading +aloud to him a passage of Scripture. Hands were laid upon both with +brutal violence; they were dragged into the street; and there with +blows of clubs and repeated stabs done to death. It was 4 p.m. when +Tilly departed, at 4.30 all was over, but the infuriated rabble +were not content with mere murder. The bodies were shamefully +mis-handled and were finally hung up by the feet to a lamppost, +round which to a late hour in the evening a crowd shouted, sang and +danced. It is impossible to conceive a fate more horrible or less +deserved. The poor dishonoured remains were taken down when night +fell by faithful hands and were at dawn in the presence of a few +relatives and friends interred in the Nieuwe Kerk.</p> + +<p>That William III had any complicity in this <i>execrable +faict</i>, as it was well styled by the new council-pensionary +Fagel, there is not the slightest evidence. He was absent from the +Hague at the time and wholly preoccupied with the sore necessities +of the military position; and it is said that he was much affected +at hearing the dreadful news. But his naturally cold and +self-contained nature had been hardened in the school of adversity +during the long years of humiliation which had been imposed upon +him by John de Witt and his party. He had endured in proud patience +awaiting the hour when he could throw off the yoke, and now that it +had come he could not forgive. Under the plea that the number of +those implicated in the deed was so large that it was impossible to +punish them and thus stir up party passions at a time when the +whole energies of the nation were needed for the war, he took no +steps to bring the offenders to justice. Unfortunately for his +reputation he was not content with a neutral attitude, but openly +protected and rewarded<span class="newpage"><a name="page_257" id= +"page_257">[pg.257]</a></span> the three chief offenders Tichelaer, +Verhoef and Van Bankhem, all of them men of disreputable +character.</p> + +<p>Thus two of the greatest statesmen and patriots that Holland has +produced, John van Oldenbarneveldt and John de Witt, both perished +miserably, victims of the basest national ingratitude; and it will +ever remain a stain upon the national annals and upon the memory of +two illustrious Princes of Orange, Maurice and William III, that +these tragedies were not averted.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_258" id= +"page_258">[pg.258]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM III, 1672-1688</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>In the early summer of 1672, when William resolved to +concentrate all his available forces for the defence of Holland +covered by its water-line, the military situation was apparently +hopeless. Had Turenne and Luxemburg made a united effort to force +this line at the opening of the campaign the probability is that +they would have succeeded. Instead of doing so they expended their +energies in the capture of a number of fortified places in +Gelderland, Overyssel and North Brabant; and in the meantime the +stadholder was week by week strengthening the weak points in his +defences, encouraging his men, personally supervising every detail +and setting an example of unshaken courage and of ceaseless +industry. He had at his side, as his field-marshal, George +Frederick, Count of Waldeck, an officer of experience and skill who +had entered the Republic's service, and Van Beverningh as +Commissioner of the States-General. With their help and counsel he +had before autumn an efficient army of 57,000 men on guard behind +entrenchments at all assailable points, while armed vessels +patrolled the waterways. Outside the line Nijmwegen, Grave, +Coevorden, Steenwijk and other smaller places had fallen; but the +Münster-Cologne forces, after a siege lasting from July 9 to +August 28, had to retire from Groningen. The French armies were all +this time being constantly weakened by having to place garrisons in +the conquered provinces; and neither Turenne nor Luxemburg felt +strong enough to attack the strongly-protected Dutch frontiers +behind the water-line.</p> + +<p>The prince, however, was not content with inaction. Assuming the +offensive, he ventured on a series of attacks on Naarden and on +Woerden, raised the siege of Maestricht, and finally made an +attempt to cut the French communications by a march upon Charleroi. +All these raids were more or less failures, since in each case +William had to retreat without effecting anything of importance. +Nevertheless the enterprise shown by the young general had the +double effect of heartening his own troops and of undermining +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_259" id= +"page_259">[pg.259]</a></span> overweening confidence of the enemy. +A hard frost in December enabled Luxemburg to penetrate into +Holland, but a rapid thaw compelled a hasty withdrawal. The only +road open to him was blocked by a fortified post at Nieuwerbrug, +but Colonel Vin et Pain, who was in command of the Dutch force, +retired to Gouda and left the French a free passage, to the +stadholder's great indignation. The colonel was tried on the charge +of deserting his post, and shot.</p> + +<p>The year 1673 was marked by a decisive change for the better in +the position of the States. Alarm at the rapid growth of the French +power brought at last both Spanish and Austrian assistance to the +hard-pressed Netherlands; and the courage and skill of De Ruyter +held successfully at bay the united fleets of England and France, +and effectually prevented the landing of an army on the Dutch +coast. Never did De Ruyter exhibit higher qualities of leadership +than in the naval campaign of 1673. His fleet was greatly inferior +in numbers to the combined Anglo-French fleet under Prince Rupert +and D'Estrées. A stubborn action took place near the mouth +of the Scheldt on June 7, in which the English had little +assistance from the French squadron and finally retired to the +estuary of the Thames. Another fierce fight at Kijkduin on August +21 was still more to the advantage of the Dutch. Meanwhile on land +the French had scored a real success by the capture of the great +fortress of Maestricht with its garrison of 6000 men, after a siege +which lasted from June 6 to July 1. All attempts, however, to pass +the water-line and enter Holland met with failure; and, as the +summer drew to its close, the advance of Imperial and Spanish +forces began to render the position of the French precarious. +William seized his opportunity in September to capture Naarden +before Luxemburg could advance to its relief. He then took a bolder +step. In October, at the head of an army of 25,000 men, of whom +15,000 were Spanish, he marched to Cologne and, after effecting a +junction with the Imperial army, laid siege to Bonn, which +surrendered on November 15. This brilliant stroke had great +results. The French, fearing that their communications might be +cut, withdrew from the Dutch frontier; and at the same time the +Münster-Cologne forces hastily evacuated the eastern +provinces. The stadholder before the end of the year entirely freed +the country from its invaders. Once more a Prince of Orange had +saved the Dutch Republic in its extremity.<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_260" id="page_260">[pg.260]</a></span></p> + +<p>The effect of this was to place almost supreme power in his +hands. Had the prince at this moment set his heart upon obtaining +the title of sovereign, he would have had but little difficulty in +gratifying his ambition. Leading statesmen like the +Council-Pensionary Fagel, the experienced Van Beverningh, and +Valckenier, the most influential man in Amsterdam, would have +supported him. But William was thoroughly practical. The freeing of +the Provinces from the presence of the enemy was but the beginning +of the task which he had already set before himself as his +life-work, <i>i.e.</i> the overthrow of the menacing predominance +of the French power under Louis XIV. His first care was the +restoration of the well-nigh ruined land. The country outside the +water-line had been cruelly devastated by the invaders, and then +impoverished by having for a year and a half to maintain the armies +of occupation. Large tracts on the borders of Holland, Utrecht and +Friesland, submerged by the sea-waters through the cutting of the +dams, had been rendered valueless for some years to come, while +those parts of Holland and Zeeland on which the enemy had not set +foot had been crushed beneath heavy taxes and the loss of +commerce.</p> + +<p>The position of the three provinces, Utrecht, Gelderland and +Overyssel, which had been overrun by the French at the opening of +hostilities and held by them ever since, had to be re-settled. They +had, during this period, paid no taxes, and had no representation +in the States-General. Holland was in favour of reducing them to +the status of Generality-lands until they had paid their arrears. +The prince was opposed to any harshness of treatment, and his will +prevailed. The three provinces were re-admitted into the Union, but +with shorn privileges; and William was elected stadholder by each +of them with largely increased powers. The nomination, or the +choice out of a certain number of nominees, of the members of the +Town-Corporations, of the Courts of Justice and of the delegates to +the States-General, was granted to him. The Dutch Republic was full +of anomalies. In Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel we have the +curious spectacle in the days of William III of the stadholder, who +was nominally a servant of the Sovereign Estates, himself +appointing his masters. As a matter of fact, the voice of these +provinces was his voice; and, as he likewise controlled the Estates +in Zeeland, he could always count upon a majority vote in the +States-General in support of his foreign policy. Nor was this +all.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_261" id= +"page_261">[pg.261]</a></span></p> + +<p>Holland itself, in gratitude for its deliverance, had become +enthusiastically Orangist. It declared the stadholdership +hereditary in the male-line, and its example was followed by +Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel, while the +States-General in their turn made the captain-and +admiral-generalship of the Union hereditary offices. Nor was +gratitude confined to the conferring of powers and dignities which +gave the prince in all but name monarchical authority. At the +proposal of Amsterdam, the city which so often had been and was yet +to be the stubborn opponent of the Princes of Orange, William II's +debt of 2,000,000 fl. was taken over by the province of Holland; +Zeeland presented him with 30,000 fl.; and the East India Company +with a grant of 1/33 of its dividends.</p> + +<p>From the very first William had kept steadily in view a scheme +of forming a great coalition to curb the ambitious designs of Louis +XIV; and for effecting this object an alliance between England and +the United Provinces was essential. The first step was to conclude +peace. This was not a difficult task. The English Parliament, and +still more the English people, had throughout been averse from +fighting on the side of the French against the Dutch. Charles II, +with the help of French money, had been carrying on the war in +opposition to the wishes of his subjects, who saw their fleets but +feebly supported by their French allies, their trade seriously +injured, and but little chance of gaining any advantageous return +for the heavy cost. Charles himself had a strong affection for his +nephew, and began to turn a favourable ear to his proposals for +negotiations, more especially as his heroic efforts to stem the +tide of French invasion had met with so much success. In these +circumstances everything was favourable to an understanding; and +peace was concluded at Westminster on February 19,1674. The terms +differed little from those of Breda, except that the Republic +undertook to pay a war indemnity of 2,000,000 fl. within three +years. The striking of the flag was conceded. Surinam remained in +Dutch hands. New York, which had been retaken by a squadron under +Cornelis Evertsen, August, 1673, was given back to the English +crown. Negotiations were likewise opened with Münster and +Cologne; and peace was concluded with Münster (April 22) and +with Cologne (May 11) on the basis of the evacuation of all +conquered territory. France was isolated and opposed now by a +strong<span class="newpage"><a name="page_262" id= +"page_262">[pg.262]</a></span> coalition, the Republic having +secured the help of Austria, Spain, Brandenburg and Denmark. The +campaign of the summer of 1674 thus opened under favouring +circumstances, but nothing of importance occurred until August 11, +when William at the head of an allied force of some 70,000 men +encountered Condé at Seneff in Hainault. The battle was +fought out with great obstinacy and there were heavy losses on both +sides. The French, however, though inferior in numbers had the +advantage in being a more compact force than that of the allies; +and William, poorly supported by the Imperialist contingents, had +to retire from the field. He was never a great strategist, but he +now conducted a retreat which extracted admiration from his +opponents. His talents for command always showed themselves most +conspicuously in adverse circumstances. His coolness and courage in +moments of peril and difficulty never deserted him, and, though a +strict disciplinarian, he always retained the confidence and +affection of his soldiers. On October 27 Grave was captured, +leaving only one of the Dutch fortresses, Maestricht, in the hands +of the French.</p> + +<p>The war on land dragged on without any decisive results during +1675. The stadholder was badly supported by his allies and reduced +to the defensive; but, though tentative efforts were made by the +English government to set on foot negotiations for peace, and a +growing party in Holland were beginning to clamour for the +cessation of a war which was crippling their trade and draining the +resources of the country, the prince was resolutely opposed to the +English offer of mediation, which he regarded as insincere and +premature. He was well aware that there was in England a very +strong and widespread opposition to the succession of James Duke of +York, who made no secret of his devoted attachment to the Roman +Catholic faith. So strong was the feeling that he had been +compelled to resign his post of Lord-High-Admiral. The dislike and +distrust he aroused had been accentuated by his second marriage to +Mary of Modena, a zealous Catholic. William was the son of the +eldest daughter of Charles I, and to him the eyes of a large party +in England were turning. The prince was keenly alive to the +political advantages of his position. He kept himself well informed +of the intrigues of the court and of the state of public opinion by +secret agents, and entered into clandestine correspondence with +prominent statesmen. Charles II himself, though he had not the<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_263" id= +"page_263">[pg.263]</a></span> smallest sympathy with his nephew's +political views, was as kindly disposed to him as his selfish and +unprincipled nature would allow, and he even went so far as to +encourage in 1674 an alliance between him and his cousin Mary, the +elder daughter of the Duke of York. But William had at that time no +inclination for marriage. He was preoccupied with other things, and +the age of Mary—she was only twelve—rendered it easy +for him to postpone his final decision.</p> + +<p>Events were to force his hand. In 1676 the French king, fearing +the power of the coalition that was growing in strength, +endeavoured to detach the republic by offering to make a separate +peace on generous terms. Despite the opposition of the stadholder, +Dutch and French representatives met at Nijmwegen; but William by +his obdurate attitude rendered any settlement of the points in +dispute impossible. In 1677, however, the capture of Valenciennes +by the French and their decisive defeat of the allied army under +William's command at Mont-Cassel (April 11) made it more difficult +for him to resist the growing impatience of the burgher-class in +Holland and especially of the merchants of Amsterdam at his +opposition to peace. He was accused of wishing to continue the war +from motives of personal ambition and the desire of military glory. +In February of this year, however, Charles II after a period of +personal rule was through lack of resources compelled to summon +parliament. It no sooner met than it showed its strong sympathy +with the Netherlands; and the king speedily saw that he could no +longer pursue a policy opposed to the wishes of his people. When, +therefore, William sent over his most trusted friend and +counsellor, Bentinck, to London on a secret mission in the summer, +he met with a most favourable reception; and the prince himself +received an invitation to visit his uncle with the special object +of renewing the proposal for his marriage with the Princess Mary. +William accordingly arrived in London on October 19; and, the +assent of the king and the Duke of York being obtained, the wedding +was celebrated with almost indecent haste. It was a purely +political union; and when, early in December, the Prince and +Princess of Orange set sail for Holland, the young girl wept +bitterly at having to leave her home for a strange land at the side +of a cold, unsympathetic husband. The weeks he spent in England had +been utilised by the prince to good purpose. He persuaded Charles +to promise his support by<span class="newpage"><a name="page_264" +id="page_264">[pg.264]</a></span> land and sea to the Netherlands +in case the terms of peace offered by the allies were rejected by +the French. A treaty between the States and Great Britain giving +effect to this promise was actually signed on January 29, 1678. The +results, however, did not answer William's expectations. The +English Parliament and the States alike had no trust in King +Charles, nor was the English match at first popular in Holland. A +strong opposition arose against the prince's war policy. The +commercial classes had been hard hit by the French invasion, and +they were now suffering heavy losses at sea through the Dunkirk +privateers led by the daring Jean Bart. The peace party included +such tried and trusted statesmen as Van Beverningh, Van Beuningen +and the Council-Pensionary Fagel, all of them loyal counsellors of +the stadholder. So resolute was the attitude of Amsterdam that the +leaders of both municipal parties, Valckenier and Hooft, were +agreed in demanding that the French offers of a separate peace +should be accepted. On the same side was found Henry Casimir, +Stadholder of Friesland, who was jealous of his cousin's autocratic +exercise of authority.</p> + +<p>The <i>pourparlers</i> at Nijmwegen were still going on, but +made no progress in face of William's refusal to treat except in +concert with his allies. Louis XIV, however, fully informed of the +state of public opinion and of the internal dissensions both in the +United Provinces and in England, was not slow to take advantage of +the situation. A powerful French army invaded Flanders and made +themselves masters of Ypres and Ghent and proceeded to besiege +Mons. William, despite the arrival of an English auxiliary force +under Monmouth, could do little to check the enemy's superior +forces. Meanwhile French diplomacy was busy at Amsterdam and +elsewhere in the States, working against the war parties; and by +the offer of favourable terms the States-General were induced to +ask for a truce of six weeks. It was granted, and the Dutch and +Spanish representatives at Nijmwegen (those of the emperor, of +Brandenburg and of Denmark refusing to accede) speedily agreed to +conclude peace on the following terms: the French to restore +Maestricht and to evacuate all occupied Dutch territory, and to +make a commercial treaty. Spain to surrender an important slice of +southern Flanders, but to be left in possession of a belt of +fortresses to cover their Netherland possessions against further +French attack. But, though these conditions were accepted, the +French raised various pretexts to delay the signature of the <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_265" id= +"page_265">[pg.265]</a></span> treaty, hoping that meanwhile Mons, +which was closely beleaguered by Luxemburg, might fall into their +hands, and thus become an asset which they could exchange for some +other possession. The States and the Spanish Government were both +anxious to avoid this; and the Prince of Orange, who steadily +opposed the treaty, returned towards the end of July to his camp to +watch the siege of Mons and prevent its falling into the hands of +the enemy. At the same time (July 26) King Charles, who had been +working through Sir William Temple for the conclusion of peace, now +declared that, unless the treaty was signed before August 11, he +would assist the allies to enforce it. The French diplomatists at +Nijmwegen had hitherto declared that their troops would not +evacuate Maestricht and the other places which they had agreed to +restore to the States, until Brandenburg and Denmark had evacuated +the territory they had conquered from Sweden. On August 10, just +before time for resuming hostilities had been reached, they +tactfully conceded this point and promised immediate evacuation, if +the treaty were at once concluded. Van Beverningh and his +colleagues accordingly, acting on their instructions, affixed their +signatures just before midnight.</p> + +<p>They fell into the trap laid for them, for the treaty between +France and Spain was not yet signed, and it was the intention of +the French to make further pretexts for delay in the hope that Mons +meanwhile would fall. The report of the conclusion of peace reached +the stadholder in his camp on August 13, but unofficially. On the +morning of August 14 D'Estrades came personally to bring the news +to Luxemburg; and the French marshal was on the point of forwarding +the message to the Dutch camp, when he heard that Orange was +advancing with his army to attack him, and he felt that honour +compelled him to accept the challenge. A sanguinary fight took +place at St Denis, a short distance from Mons. William exposed his +life freely, and though the result was nominally a drawn battle, he +achieved his purpose. Luxemburg raised the siege of Mons, and the +negotiations with Spain were pressed forward. The treaty was signed +on September 17, 1678. The peace of Nijmwegen thus brought +hostilities to an end, leaving the United Provinces in possession +of all their territory. It lasted ten years, but it was only an +armed truce. Louis XIV desired a breathing space in which to +prepare for fresh aggressions; and his tireless opponent, the +Prince of Orange, henceforth made it the one object of his life to +form a <span class="newpage"><a name="page_266" id= +"page_266">[pg.266]</a></span> Grand Alliance to curb French +ambition and uphold in Europe what was henceforth known as "the +Balance of Power."</p> + +<p>In setting about this task William was confronted with almost +insuperable difficulties. The Dutch people generally had suffered +terribly in the late invasions and were heartily sick of war. The +interest of the Hollanders and especially of the Amsterdammers was +absorbed in the peaceful pursuits of commerce. The far-reaching +plans and international combinations, upon which William +concentrated his whole mind and energies, had no attraction for +them, even had they understood their purpose and motive. The +consequence was that the prince encountered strong opposition, and +this not merely in Holland and Amsterdam, but from his cousin Henry +Casimir and the two provinces of which he was stadholder. In +Amsterdam the old "States" party revived under the leadership of +Valckenier and Hooft; and in his latter days Van Beuningen was +ready to resist to the utmost any considerable outlay on the army +or navy or any entangling alliances. They held that it was the +business of the Republic to attend to its own affairs and to leave +Louis to pursue his aggressive policy at the expense of other +countries, so long as he left them alone. The ideal which William +III had set before him was the exact reverse of this; and, +unfortunately for his own country, throughout his life he often +subordinated its particular interests to the wider European +interests which occupied his attention.</p> + +<p>The work of building up afresh a coalition to withstand the +ever-growing menace of the formidable French power could scarcely +have been more unpromising than it now appeared. Spain was utterly +exhausted and feeble. Brandenburg and Denmark had been alienated by +the States concluding a separate peace at Nijmwegen and leaving +them in the lurch. The attention of the emperor was fully occupied +in defending Hungary and Vienna itself against the Turks. England +under Charles II was untrustworthy and vacillating, almost a +negligible quantity. A visit made by William to London convinced +him that nothing was at present to be hoped for from that quarter. +At the same time the very able French ambassador at the Hague, +D'Avaux, did his utmost to foment the divisions and factions in the +Provinces. He always insisted that he was accredited to the +States-General and not to the Prince of Orange, and carried on +correspondence and intrigues with the party in Amsterdam <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_267" id= +"page_267">[pg.267]</a></span> opposed to the stadholder's +anti-French policy. The cumbrous and complicated system of +government enabled him thus to do much to thwart the prince and to +throw obstacles in his way. The curious thing is, that William was +so intent on his larger projects that he was content to use the +powers he had without making any serious attempt, as he might have +done, to make the machine of government more workable by reforms in +the direction of centralisation. Immersed in foreign affairs, he +left the internal administration in the hands of subordinates +chosen rather for their subservience than for their ability and +probity; and against several of them, notably against his relative +Odijk, serious charges were made. Odijk, representing the prince as +first noble in Zeeland, had a large patronage; and he shamelessly +enriched himself by his venal traffic in the disposal of offices +without a word of rebuke from William, in whose name he acted. On +the contrary, he continued to enjoy his favour. Corruption was +scarcely less rife in Holland, though no one practised it quite on +the same scale as Odijk in Zeeland. William indeed cared little +about the domestic politics of the Republic, except in so far as +they affected his diplomatic activities; and in this domain he knew +how to employ able and devoted men. He had Waldeck at his side not +merely as a military adviser, but as a skilful diplomatist well +versed in the intricate politics of the smaller German states; +Everhard van Weede, lord of Dijkveld, and Godard van Rheede, lord +of Amerongen, proved worthy successors of Van Beverningh and Van +Beuningen. Through the Council-Pensionary Fagel he was able to +retain the support of the majority in the Estates of Holland, +despite the strong opposition he encountered at Amsterdam and some +other towns, where the interests of commerce reigned supreme. The +death of Gillis Valckenier, the ablest of the leaders of the +opposition in Amsterdam, in 1680 left the control of affairs in +that city in the hands of Nicolaes Witsen and Johan Hudde, but +these were men of less vigour and determination than +Valckenier.</p> + +<p>Louis XIV meanwhile had been actively pushing forward his +schemes of aggrandisement. Strasburg was seized in August, 1681; +Luxemburg was occupied; claims were made under the treaty of +Nijmwegen to certain portions of Flanders and Brabant, and troops +were despatched to take possession of them. There was general +alarm; and, with the help of Waldeck, William was able to secure +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_268" id= +"page_268">[pg.268]</a></span> the support of a number of the small +German states in the Rhenish circle, most of them always ready to +hire out their armed forces for a subsidy. Sweden also offered +assistance. But both England and Brandenburg were in secret +collusion with France, and the emperor would not move owing to the +Turkish menace.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances Spain was compelled (1684) by the entry +of the armies of Louis into the southern Netherlands to declare war +upon France, and called upon the States for their military aid of +8000 men in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Nijmwegen. +Orange at once referred the matter to the Council of State, and +himself proposed that 16,000 should be sent. As this, however, +could only mean a renewal of the war with France, the proposal met +with strong opposition in many quarters, and especially in +Amsterdam. Prosperity was just beginning to revive, and a +remembrance of past experiences filled the hearts of many with +dread at the thought of the French armies once more invading their +land. The Amsterdam regents even went so far as to enter into +secret negotiations with D'Avaux; and they were supported by Henry +Casimir, who was always ready to thwart his cousin's policy. +William was checkmated and at first, in his anger, inclined to +follow his father's example and crush the opposition of Amsterdam +by force. He possessed however, which William II had not, the +support of a majority in the Estates of Holland. He used this with +effect. The raising of the troops was sanctioned by the Estates +(January 31, 1684), an intercepted cipher-letter from D'Avaux being +skilfully used to discredit the Amsterdam leaders, who were accused +of traitorous correspondence with a foreign power. Nevertheless the +prince, although he was able to override any active opposition at +home, did not venture, so long as England and Brandenburg were on +friendly relations with France, to put pressure upon the +States-General. The French troops, to the prince's chagrin, overran +Flanders; and he had no alternative but to concur in the truce for +twenty years concluded at Ratisbon, August 15, 1684, which left the +French king in possession of all his conquests.</p> + +<p>No more conclusive proof of the inflexible resolve of William +III can be found than the patience he now exhibited. His faith in +himself was never shaken, and his patience in awaiting the +favourable moment was inexhaustible. To him far more appropriately +than to his great-grandfather might the name of William the Silent +have <span class="newpage"><a name="page_269" id= +"page_269">[pg.269]</a></span> been given. He had no confidants, +except Waldeck and William Bentinck; and few could even guess at +the hidden workings of that scheming mind or at the burning fires +of energy and will-power beneath the proud and frigid reserve of a +man so frail in body and always ailing. Very rarely could a born +leader of men have been more unamiable or less anxious to win +popular applause, but his whole demeanour inspired confidence and, +ignoring the many difficulties and oppositions which thwarted him, +he steadfastly bided his time and opportunity. It now came quickly, +for the year 1685 was marked by two events—the accession of +James II to the throne of England, and the Revocation of the Edict +of Nantes—which were to have far-reaching consequences.</p> + +<p>The new King of England was not merely a strong but a bigoted +Roman Catholic. Had he been a wise and patriotic prince, he would +have tried by a studiously moderate policy to win the loyal +allegiance of his subjects, but he was stubborn, wrong-headed and +fanatical, and from the first he aimed at the impossible. His +attempts to establish absolute rule, to bring back the English +nation to the fold of the Catholic Church and, as a means to that +end, to make himself independent of Parliament by accepting +subsidies from the French king, were bound to end in catastrophe. +This was more especially the case as Louis XIV had, at the very +time of King James' accession, after having for a number of years +persecuted the Huguenots in defiance of the Edict of Nantes, taken +the step of revoking that great instrument of religious toleration +on November 17, 1685. The exile of numerous families, who had +already been driven out by the <i>dragonnades</i>, was now followed +by the expulsion of the entire Huguenot body, of all at least who +refused to conform to the Catholic faith. How many hundreds of +thousands left their homes to find refuge in foreign lands it is +impossible to say, but amongst them were great numbers of +industrious and skilled artisans and handicraftsmen, who sought +asylum in the Dutch Republic and there found a ready and +sympathetic welcome. The arrival of these unhappy immigrants had +the effect of arousing a strong feeling of indignation in Holland, +and indeed throughout the provinces, against the government of +Louis XIV. They began to see that the policy of the French king was +not merely one of territorial aggression, but was a crusade against +Protestantism. The governing classes in Holland, Zeeland, Friesland +and Groningen were stirred up by the <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_270" id="page_270">[pg.270]</a></span> preachers to enforce +more strictly the laws against the Catholics in those provinces, +for genuine alarm was felt at the French menace to the religion for +which their fathers had fought and suffered. The cause of +Protestantism was one with which the Princes of Orange had +identified themselves; but none of his ancestors was so keen an +upholder of that cause as was William III. The presence in their +midst of the Huguenot refugees had the effect of influencing public +opinion powerfully in the States in favour of their stadholder's +warlike policy. Nor was the Dutch Republic the only State which was +deeply moved by the ruthless treatment of his Protestant subjects +by the French king. The Elector of Brandenburg, as head of the +principal Protestant State in Germany, had also offered an asylum +to the French exiles and now reverted once more to his natural +alliance with the United Provinces. He sent his trusted councillor, +Paul Fuchs, in May, 1685, to offer to his nephew, the Prince of +Orange, his friendly co-operation in the formation of a powerful +coalition against France. Fuchs was a skilled diplomatist, and by +his mediation an understanding was arrived at between the +stadholder and his opponents in Amsterdam. At the same time strong +family influence was brought to bear upon Henry Casimir of +Friesland, and a reconciliation between the two stadholders was +effected. William thus found himself, before the year 1685 came to +an end, able to pursue his policy without serious let or hindrance. +He was quite ready to seize his opportunity, and by tactful +diplomacy he succeeded by August, 1686, in forming an alliance +between the United Provinces, Brandenburg, Sweden, Austria, Spain +and a number of the smaller Rhenish states, to uphold the treaties +of Westphalia and Nijmwegen against the encroachments of French +military aggression. But the design of William was still +incomplete. The naval power and financial resources of England were +needed to enable the coalition to grapple successfully with the +mighty centralised power of Louis XIV.</p> + +<p>In England the attempt of James II to bring about a Catholic +reaction by the arbitrary use of the royal prerogative was rapidly +alienating the loyalty of all classes, including many men of high +position, and even some of his own ministers. William watched +keenly all that was going on and kept himself in close +correspondence with several of the principal malcontents. He was +well aware that all eyes were turning to him (and he accepted the +position) as the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_271" id= +"page_271">[pg.271]</a></span> natural defender, should the need +arise, of England's civil and religious liberties. The need arose +and the call came in the summer of 1688, and it found William +prepared. The climax of the conflict between King James and his +people was reached with the acquittal of the Seven Bishops in May, +1688, amidst public rejoicings, speedily followed on June 10 by the +birth of a Prince of Wales. The report was spread that the child +was supposititious and it was accepted as true by large numbers of +persons, including the Princess Anne, and also, on the strength of +her testimony, by the Prince and Princess of Orange.</p> + +<p>The secret relations of William with the leaders of opposition +had for some time been carried on through his trusted confidants, +Dijkveld, the State's envoy at the English Court, and William of +Nassau, lord of Zuilestein. A bold step was now taken. Several +Englishmen of note signed an invitation to the prince to land in +England with an armed force in defence of the religion and +liberties of the country; and it was brought to him by Admiral +Russell, one of the signatories. After some hesitation William, +with the consent and approval of the princess, decided to accept +it. No man ever had a more loyal and devoted wife than William III +of Orange, and he did not deserve it. For some years after his +marriage he treated Mary with coldness and neglect. He confessed on +one occasion to Bishop Burnet that his churlishness was partly due +to jealousy; he could not bear the thought that Mary might succeed +to the English throne and he would in that country be inferior in +rank to his wife. The bishop informed the princess, who at once +warmly declared that she would never accept the crown unless her +husband received not merely the title of king, but the prerogatives +of a reigning sovereign. From that time forward a complete +reconciliation took place between them, and the affection and +respect of William for this loyal, warm-hearted and +self-sacrificing woman deepened as the years went on. Mary's +character, as it is revealed in her private diaries, which have +been preserved, deserves those epithets. Profoundly religious and a +convinced Protestant, Mary with prayers for guidance and not +without many tears felt that the resolve of her husband to hazard +all on armed intervention in England was fully justified; and at +this critical juncture she had no hesitation in allowing her sense +of duty to her husband and her country to override that of a +daughter to her father. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_272" +id="page_272">[pg.272]</a></span> Already in July vigorous +preparations in all secrecy began to be made for the expedition. +The naval yards were working at full pressure with the ostensible +object of sending out a fleet to suppress piracy in the +Mediterranean. The stadholder felt that he was able to rely upon +the willing co-operation of the States in his project. His +difficulty now, as always, was to secure the assent of Amsterdam. +But the opposition of that city proved less formidable than was +anticipated. The peril to Protestantism should England under James +II be leagued with France, was evident, and scarcely less the +security of the commerce on which Amsterdam depended for its +prosperity. The support of Amsterdam secured that of the Estates of +Holland; and finally, after thus surmounting successfully the +elements of opposition in the town and the province, where the +anti-Orange party was most strongly represented, the prince had +little difficulty in obtaining, on October 8, the unanimous +approval of the States-General, assembled in secret session, to the +proposed expedition. By that time an army of 14,000 men had been +gathered together and was encamped at Mook. Of these the six +English and Scottish regiments, who now, as throughout the War of +Independence, were maintained in the Dutch service, formed the +nucleus. The force also comprised the prince's Dutch guards and +other picked Dutch troops, and also some German levies. Marshal +Schomberg was in command. The pretext assigned was the necessity of +protecting the eastern frontier of the Republic against an attack +from Cologne, where Cardinal Fürstenberg, the nominee and ally +of Louis XIV, had been elected to the archiepiscopal throne.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile diplomacy was active. D'Avaux was far too +clear-sighted not to have discerned the real object of the naval +and military preparations, and he warned both Louis XIV and James +II. James, however, was obdurate and took no heed, while Louis +played his enemy's game by declaring war on the Emperor and the +Pope, and by invading the Palatinate instead of the Republic. For +William had been doing his utmost to win over to his side, by the +agency of Waldeck and Bentinck, the Protestant Princes of Germany, +with the result that Brandenburg, Hanover, Saxony, Brunswick and +Hesse had undertaken to give him active support against a French +attack; while the constant threat against her possessions in the +Belgic Netherlands compelled Spain to join the anti-French league +which the stadholder had so long been striving to bring <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_273" id= +"page_273">[pg.273]</a></span> into existence. To these were now +added the Emperor and the Pope, who, being actually at war with +France, were ready to look favourably upon an expedition which +would weaken the common enemy. The Grand Alliance of William's +dreams had thus (should his expedition to England prove successful) +come within the range of practical politics; and with his base +secured Orange now determined to delay no longer, but to stake +everything upon the issue of the English venture.</p> + +<p>The prince bade farewell to the States-General on October 26, +and four days later he set sail from Helvoetsluis, but was driven +back by a heavy storm, which severely damaged the fleet. A fresh +start was made on November 11. Admiral Herbert was in command of +the naval force, which convoyed safely through the Channel without +opposition the long lines of transports. Over the prince's vessel +floated his flag with the words <i>Pro Religione et Libertate</i> +inscribed above the motto of the House of Orange, <i>Je +maintiendray</i>. Without mishap a landing was effected at Torbay, +November 14 (5 o.s.), which was William's birthday, and a rapid +march was made to Exeter. He met with no armed resistance. James' +troops, his courtiers, his younger daughter the Princess Anne, all +deserted him; and finally, after sending away his wife and infant +son to France, the king himself left his palace at Whitehall by +night and fled down the river to Sheerness. Here he was recognised +and brought back to London. It was thought, however, best to +connive at his escape, and he landed on the coast of France at +Christmas. The expedition had achieved its object and William, +greeted as a deliverer, entered the capital at the head of his +army.</p> + +<p>On February 13,1689, a convention, specially summoned for the +purpose, declared that James by his flight had vacated the throne; +and the crown was offered to William and Mary jointly, the +executive power being placed in the hands of the prince.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <span class="newpage"><a name="page_274" id= +"page_274">[pg.274]</a></span> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE KING-STADHOLDER, 1688-1702</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The accession of William III to the throne of England was an +event fraught with important consequences to European politics and +to the United Provinces. The king was enabled at last to realise +the formation of that Grand Alliance for which he had so long been +working. The treaty of Vienna, signed on May 12, 1689, encircled +France with a ring of enemies, and saw the Emperor and Spain united +with the Protestant powers, England, the States and many of the +German princes in a bond of alliance for the maintenance of the +treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees. It was not without some +difficulty that William succeeded in inducing the States to enter +into an offensive and defensive alliance with England. A special +embassy consisting of Witsen, Odijk, Dijkveld and others was sent +to London early in 1689 to endeavour to bring about some mutually +advantageous arrangement of the various conflicting maritime and +commercial interests of the two countries. But they could effect +nothing. The English government refused either to repeal or modify +the Navigation Act or to reduce the toll for fishing privileges; +and it required all the personal influence of William to secure the +signing of a treaty (September 3), which many leading Hollanders +considered to be a subordinating of Dutch to English interests. And +they were right; from this time began that decline of Dutch +commercial supremacy which was to become more and more marked as +the 18th century progressed. The policy of William III, as +Frederick the Great remarked most justly, placed Holland in the +position of a sloop towed behind the English ship-of-the-line.</p> + +<p>The carrying trade of the world was still, however, in the reign +of William III practically in the hands of the Dutch, despite the +losses that had been sustained during the English wars and the +French invasion. The only competitor was England under the shelter +of the Navigation Act. The English had, under favourable +conditions, their staple at Dordrecht, the Scots their staple at +Veere; <span class="newpage"><a name="page_275" id= +"page_275">[pg.275]</a></span> and the volume of trade under the +new conditions of close alliance was very considerable. But the +imports largely exceeded the exports; and both exports and imports +had to be carried in English bottoms. The Baltic (or Eastern) trade +remained a Dutch monopoly, as did the trade with Russia through +Archangel. Almost all the ships that passed through the Sound were +Dutch; and they frequented all the Baltic ports, whether Russian, +Scandinavian or German, bringing the commodities of the South and +returning laden with hemp, tallow, wood, copper, iron, corn, wax, +hides and other raw products for distribution in other lands. The +English had a small number of vessels in the Mediterranean and the +Levant, and frequented the Spanish and Portuguese harbours, but as +yet they hardly interfered with the Dutch carrying-trade in those +waters. The whole trade of Spain with her vast American dominions +was by law restricted to the one port of Cadiz; but no sooner did +the galleons bringing the rich products of Mexico and Peru reach +Cadiz than the bulk of their merchandise was quickly transhipped +into Dutch vessels, which here, as elsewhere, were the medium +through which the exchange of commodities between one country and +another was effected. It was a profitable business, and the +merchants of Amsterdam and of the other Dutch commercial centres +grew rich and prospered.</p> + +<p>The position of the Dutch in the East Indies at the close of the +17th century is one of the marvels of history. The East India +Company, with its flourishing capital at Batavia, outdistanced all +competitors. It was supreme in the Indian archipelago and along all +the shores washed by the Indian Ocean. The governor-general was +invested with great powers and, owing to his distance from the home +authority, was able to make unfettered use of them during his term +of office. He made treaties and conducted wars and was looked upon +by the princes and petty rulers of the Orient as a mighty +potentate. The conquest of Macassar in 1669, the occupation of +Japara and Cheribon in 1680, of Bantam in 1682, of Pondicherry in +1693, together with the possession of Malacca and of the entire +coast of Ceylon, of the Moluccas, and of the Cape of Good Hope, +gave to the Dutch the control of all the chief avenues of trade +throughout those regions. By treaties of alliance and commerce with +the Great Mogul and other smaller sovereigns and chieftains +factories were established at Hooghly on the Ganges, at Coelim, +Surat, Bender Abbas, Palembang and many other places. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">[pg.276]</a></span> In +the Moluccas they had the entire spice trade in their hands. Thus a +very large part of the products of the Orient found its way to +Europe by way of Amsterdam, which had become increasingly the +commercial emporium and centre of exchange for the world.</p> + +<p>The West India Company, on the other hand, had been ruined by +the loss of its Brazilian dominion followed by the English wars. +Its charter came to an end in 1674, but it was replaced by a new +Company on a more moderate scale. Its colonies on the Guiana coast, +Surinam, Berbice and Essequibo were at the end of the 17th century +in an impoverished condition, but already beginning to develop the +sugar plantations which were shortly to become a lucrative +industry; and the island of Curaçoa had the unenviable +distinction of being for some years one of the chief centres of the +negro slave trade.</p> + +<p>In the United Provinces themselves one of the features of this +period was the growth of many new industries and manufactures, +largely due to the influx of Huguenot refugees, many of whom were +skilled artisans. Not only did the manufacturers of cloth and silk +employ a large number of hands, but also those of hats, gloves, +ribbons, trimmings, laces, clocks and other articles, which had +hitherto been chiefly produced in France. One of the consequences +of the rapid increase of wealth was a change in the simple habits, +manners and dress, which hitherto travellers had noted as one of +the most remarkable characteristics of the Hollanders. Greater +luxury began to be displayed, French fashions and ways of life to +be imitated, and the French language to be used as the medium of +intercourse among the well-to-do classes. Another sign of the times +was the spread of the spirit of speculation and of gambling in +stocks and shares, showing that men were no longer content to amass +wealth by the slow process of ordinary trade and commerce. This +state of prosperity, which was largely due to the security which +the close alliance with England brought to the Republic, explains +in no small measure the acquiescence of the Dutch in a state of +things which made the smaller country almost a dependency of the +larger. They were proud that their stadholder should reign as king +in Britain; and his prolonged absences did not diminish their +strong attachment to him or lessen his authority among them. So +much greater indeed was the power exercised by William in the +Republic than that which, as a strictly constitutional sovereign, +he possessed in the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_277" id= +"page_277">[pg.277]</a></span> kingdom, that it was wittily said +that the Prince of Orange was stadholder in England and king in +Holland.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed, however, that William in his capacity +as stadholder was free from worries and trials. He had many; and, +as usual, Amsterdam was the chief centre of unrest. After the +expedition set sail for Torbay, William was continuously absent for +no less than two and a half years. It is no wonder therefore that +during so long a period, when the attention of the king was +absorbed by other pressing matters, difficulties should have arisen +in his administration of the affairs of the Republic. It was very +unfortunate that his most able and trusted friend and adviser, the +Council-Pensionary Fagel, should have died, in December, 1688, just +when William's enterprise in England had reached its most critical +stage. Fagel was succeeded, after a brief interval, in his most +important and influential office by Antony Heinsius. Heinsius, who +had been for some years Pensionary of Delft, was a modest, quiet +man, already forty-five years of age, capable, experienced and +business-like. His tact and statesmanlike qualities were of the +greatest service to William and scarcely less to his country, at a +time when urgent duties in England made it so difficult for the +stadholder to give personal attention to the internal affairs of +the Republic. No other Prince of Orange had ever so favourable an +opportunity as William III for effecting such changes in the system +of government and administration in the Dutch Republic as would +simplify and co-ordinate its many rival and conflicting +authorities, and weld its seven sovereign provinces into a coherent +State with himself (under whatever title) as its "eminent head." At +the height of his power his will could have over-ridden local or +partisan opposition, for he had behind him the prestige of his name +and deeds and the overwhelming support of popular opinion. But +William had little or no interest in these constitutional +questions. Being childless, he had no dynastic ambitions. The +nearest male representative of his house was Henry Casimir, the +stadholder of Friesland, with whom his relations had been far from +friendly. In his mind, everything else was subordinate to the one +and overruling purpose of his life, the overthrow of the power of +Louis XIV and of French ascendancy in Europe.</p> + +<p>The great coalition which had been formed in 1689 by the treaty +of Vienna was, in the first years of the war which then broke <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_278" id= +"page_278">[pg.278]</a></span> out, attended with but mediocre +success. The French armies laid waste the Palatinate with great +barbarity, and then turned their attentions to the southern +Netherlands. The attempted invasion was, however, checked by an +allied force (August 25) in a sharp encounter near Charleroi. The +next year, 1690, was particularly unfortunate for the allies. +William was still absent, having been obliged to conduct an +expedition to Ireland. He had placed the aged Marshal Waldeck in +command of the Coalition forces. Waldeck had the redoubtable +Luxemburg opposed to him and on July 1 the two armies met at +Fleurus, when, after a hard-fought contest, the allies suffered a +bloody defeat. An even greater set-back was the victory gained by +Admiral Tourville over the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet off Beachy +Head (July 10). The Dutch squadron under Cornelis Evertsen bore the +brunt of the fight and suffered heavily. They received little help +from the English contingent; and the English Admiral Torrington was +accused of having wilfully sacrificed his allies. The effect was +serious, for the French enjoyed for a while the rare satisfaction +of holding the command of the Channel. The complete triumph of King +William at the battle of the Boyne (July 12) relieved somewhat the +consternation felt at this naval disaster, and set him free to +devote his whole attention to the Continental war. His return to +the Hague early in 1691 caused general rejoicing, and he was there +able to concert with his allies the placing of a large force in the +field for the ensuing campaign. The operations were, however, +barren of any satisfactory results. Luxemburg advanced before the +allies were ready, and burnt and plundered a large tract of +country. William, acting on the defensive, contented himself with +covering the capital and the rest of Flanders and Brabant from +attack; and no pitched battle took place.</p> + +<p>Great preparations were made by Louis XIV in the spring of 1692 +for the invasion of England. Troops were collected on the coast, +and the squadron under D'Estrées at Toulon was ordered to +join the main fleet of Tourville at Brest. Contrary winds delayed +the junction; and Tourville rashly sailed out and engaged off La +Hogue a greatly superior allied fleet on May 29. The conflict this +time chiefly fell upon the English, and after a fierce fight the +French were defeated and fled for refuge into the shoal waters. +Here they were followed by the lighter vessels and fire-ships of +the allies; and <span class="newpage"><a name="page_279" id= +"page_279">[pg.279]</a></span> the greater part of the French fleet +was either burnt or driven upon the rocks (June 1). The maritime +power of France was for the time being destroyed, and all fears of +invasion dissipated. On land ill-success continued to dog the +footsteps of the allies. The strong fortress of Namur was taken by +the French; and, after a hotly contested battle at Steinkirk, +William was compelled by his old adversary Luxemburg to retreat. +William, though he was rarely victorious on the field of battle, +had great qualities as a leader. His courage and coolness won the +confidence of his troops, and he was never greater than in the +conduct of a retreat. This was shown conspicuously in the following +year (1693), when, after a disastrous defeat at Neerwinden (July +29), again at the hands of Luxemburg, he succeeded at imminent +personal risk in withdrawing his army in good order in face of the +superior forces of the victorious enemy.</p> + +<p>In 1694 the allies confined themselves to defensive operations. +Both sides were growing weary of war; and there were strong parties +in favour of negotiating for peace both in the Netherlands and in +England. Some of the burgher-regents of Amsterdam, Dordrecht and +other towns even went so far as to make secret overtures to the +French government, and they had the support of the Frisian +Stadholder; but William was resolutely opposed to accepting such +conditions as France was willing to offer, and his strong will +prevailed.</p> + +<p>The position of the king in England was made more difficult by +the lamented death of Queen Mary on January 2,1695. William had +become deeply attached to his wife during these last years, and for +a time he was prostrated by grief. But a strong sense of public +duty roused him from his depression; and the campaign of 1695 was +signalised by the most brilliant military exploit of his life, the +recapture of Namur. That town, strong by its natural position, had +been fortified by Vauban with all the resources of engineering +skill, and was defended by a powerful garrison commanded by Marshal +Boufflers. But William had with him the famous Coehoorn, in +scientific siege-warfare the equal of Vauban himself. At the end of +a month the town of Namur was taken, but Boufflers withdrew to the +citadel. Villeroy, at the head of an army of 90,000 men, did his +utmost to compel the king to raise the siege by threatening +Brussels; but a strong allied force watched his movements and +successfully barred his approach to Namur. At last, on September 5, +Boufflers <span class="newpage"><a name="page_280" id= +"page_280">[pg.280]</a></span> capitulated after a gallant defence +on the condition that he and his troops should march out with all +the honours of war.</p> + +<p>The campaign of 1696 was marked by no event of importance; +indeed both sides were thoroughly tired out by the protracted and +inconclusive contest. Moreover the failing health of Charles II of +Spain threatened to open out at any moment the vital question of +the succession to the Spanish throne. Louis XIV, William III and +the emperor were all keenly alive to the importance of the issue, +and wished to have their hands free in order to prepare for a +settlement, either by diplomatic means or by a fresh appeal to +arms. But peace was the immediate need, and overtures were +privately made by the French king to each of the allied powers in +1696. At last it was agreed that plenipotentiaries from all the +belligerents should meet in congress at Ryswyck near the Hague with +the Swedish Count Lilienrot as mediator. The congress was opened on +May 9, 1697, but many weeks elapsed before the representatives of +the various powers settled down to business. Heinsius and Dijkveld +were the two chief Dutch negotiators. The emperor, when the other +powers had come to terms, refused to accede; and finally England, +Spain and the United Provinces determined to conclude a separate +peace. It was signed on September 20 and was based upon the +treaties of Nijmwegen and Münster. France, having ulterior +motives, had been conciliatory. Strasburg was retained, but most of +the French conquests were given up. William was recognised as King +of England, and the Principality of Orange was restored to him. +With the Dutch a commercial treaty was concluded for twenty-five +years on favourable terms.</p> + +<p>It was well understood, however, by all the parties that the +peace of Ryswyck was a truce during which the struggle concerning +the Spanish Succession would be transferred from the field of +battle to the field of diplomacy, in the hope that some solution +might be found. The question was clearly of supreme importance to +the States, for it involved the destiny of the Spanish Netherlands. +England, too, had great interests at stake, and was determined to +prevent the annexation of the Belgic provinces by France. With +Charles II the male line of the Spanish Habsburgs became extinct; +and there were three principal claimants in the female line of +succession. The claim of the Dauphin was much the strongest, for he +was the grandson of Anne of Austria, Philip III's eldest daughter, +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_281" id= +"page_281">[pg.281]</a></span> and the son of Maria Theresa of +Austria, Charles II's eldest sister. But both these queens of +France had on their marriage solemnly renounced their rights of +succession. Louis XIV, however, asserted that his wife's +renunciation was invalid, since the dowry, the payment of which was +guaranteed by the marriage contract, had never been received. The +younger sister of Maria Theresa had been married to the emperor; +and two sons and a daughter had been the fruit of the union. This +daughter in her turn had wedded the Elector of Bavaria, and had +issue one boy of ten years. The Elector himself, Maximilian +Emmanuel, had been for five years Governor of the Spanish +Netherlands, where his rule had been exceedingly popular. William +knew that one of the chief objects of the French king in concluding +peace was to break up the Grand Alliance and so prepare the way for +a masterful assertion of his rights as soon as the Spanish throne +was vacant; and with patient diplomatic skill he set to work at +once to arrange for such a partition of the Spanish monarchy among +the claimants as should prevent the Belgic provinces from falling +into the hands of a first-class power and preserve Spain itself +with its overseas possessions from the rule of a Bourbon prince. He +had no difficulty in persuading the States to increase their fleet +and army in case diplomacy should fail, for the Dutch were only too +well aware of the seriousness of the French menace to their +independence. In England, where jealousy of a standing army had +always been strong, he was less successful, and Parliament insisted +on the disbanding of many thousands of seasoned troops. The object +at which William aimed was a partition treaty; and a partition was +actually arranged (October 11, 1698). This arrangement, according +to the ideas of the time, paid no respect whatever to the wishes of +the peoples, who were treated as mere pawns by these unscrupulous +diplomatists. The Spanish people, as might be expected, were +vehemently opposed to any partition of the empire of Charles V and +Philip II; and, in consequence of the influences that were brought +to bear upon him, Charles II left by will the young electoral +prince, Joseph Ferdinand, heir to his whole inheritance. By the +secret terms of the partition treaty the crown of Spain together +with the Netherlands and the American colonies had been assigned to +the Bavarian claimant, but the Spanish dominions in Italy were +divided between the two other claimants, the second son of the +Dauphin, Philip, Duke of Anjou, <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_282" id="page_282">[pg.282]</a></span> receiving Naples and +Sicily; the second son of the emperor, the Archduke Charles, the +Milanese. Unfortunately, Joseph Ferdinand fell sick of the +small-pox and died (March, 1699). With William and Heinsius the +main point now was to prevent the French prince from occupying the +Spanish throne; and in all secrecy negotiations were again opened +at the Hague for a second partition treaty. They found Louis XIV +still willing to conclude a bargain. To the Duke of Anjou was now +assigned, in addition to Naples and Sicily, the duchy of Lorraine +(whose duke was to receive the Milanese in exchange); the rest of +the Spanish possessions were to fall to the Archduke Charles +(March, 1700). The terms of this arrangement between the French +king and the maritime powers did not long remain a secret; and when +they were known they displeased the emperor, who did not wish to +see French influence predominant in Italy and his own excluded, and +still more the Spanish people, who objected to any partition and to +the Austrian ruler. The palace of Charles II became a very hot-bed +of intrigues, and finally the dying king was persuaded to make a +fresh will and nominate Anjou as his universal heir. Accordingly on +Charles' death (November 1, 1700) Philip V was proclaimed king.</p> + +<p>For a brief time Louis was doubtful as to what course of action +would be most advantageous to French interests, but not for long. +On November 11 he publicly announced to his court at Versailles +that his grandson had accepted the Spanish crown. This step was +followed by the placing of French garrisons in some of the frontier +fortresses of the Belgic Netherlands by consent of the governor, +the Elector of Bavaria. The following months were spent in the vain +efforts of diplomacy to obtain such guarantees from the French king +as would give security to the States and satisfaction to England +and the emperor, and so avoid the outbreak of war. In the States +Heinsius, who was working heart and soul with the stadholder in +this crisis, had no difficulty in obtaining the full support of all +parties, even in Holland, to the necessity of making every effort +to be ready for hostilities. William had a more difficult task in +England, but he had the support of the Whig majority in Parliament +and of the commercial classes; and he laboured hard, despite +constant and increasing ill-health, to bring once more into +existence the Grand Alliance of 1689. In July negotiations were +opened between the maritime powers and the emperor at the Hague, +which after lengthy <span class="newpage"><a name="page_283" id= +"page_283">[pg.283]</a></span> discussions were brought to a +conclusion in September, in no small degree through the tact and +persuasiveness of Lord Marlborough, the English envoy, who had now +begun that career which was shortly to make his name so famous. The +chief provisions of the treaty of alliance, signed on September 7, +1701, were that Austria was to have the Italian possessions of +Spain; the Belgic provinces were to remain as a barrier and +protection for Holland against French aggression; and England and +the States were to retain any conquests they might make in the +Spanish West Indies. Nothing was said about the crown of Spain, a +silence which implied a kind of recognition of Philip V. To this +league were joined Prussia, Hanover, Lüneburg, Hesse-Cassel, +while France, to whom Spain was now allied, could count upon the +help of Bavaria. War was not yet declared, but at this very moment +Louis XIV took a step which was wantonly provocative. James II died +at St Germain on September 6; and his son was at once acknowledged +by Louis as King of England, by the title of James III. This action +aroused a storm of indignation among the English people, and +William found himself supported by public opinion in raising troops +and obtaining supplies for war. The preparations were on a vast +scale. The emperor undertook to place 90,000 men in the field; +England, 40,000; the German states, 54,000; and the Republic no +less than 100,000. William had succeeded at last in the object of +his life; a mighty confederation had been called into being to +maintain the balance of power in Europe, and overthrow the +threatened French domination. This confederation in arms, of which +he was the soul and the acknowledged head, was destined to +accomplish the object for which it was formed, but not under his +leadership. The king had spent the autumn in Holland in close +consultation with Heinsius, visiting the camps, the arsenals and +the dockyards, and giving instructions to the admirals and generals +to have everything in readiness for the campaign of the following +spring. Then in November he went to England to hurry on the +preparations, which were in a more backward condition than in the +States. But he had overtaxed his strength. Always frail and ailing, +William had for years by sheer force of will-power conquered his +bodily weakness and endured the fatigue of campaigns in which he +was content to share all hardships with his soldiers. In his double +capacity, too, of king and stadholder, the cares of government and +the conduct of foreign affairs had left him <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">[pg.284]</a></span> no +rest. Especially had this been the case in England during the years +which had followed Queen Mary's death, when he found himself +opposed and thwarted and humiliated by party intrigues and cabals, +to such an extent that he more than once thought of abdicating. He +was feeling very ill and tired when he returned, and he grew +weaker, for the winter in England always tried him. His medical +advisers warned him that his case was one for which medicine was of +no avail, and that he was not fit to bear the strain of the work he +was doing. But the indomitable spirit of the man would not give +way, and he still hoped with the spring to be able to put himself +at the head of his army. It was not to be; an accident was the +immediate cause by which the end came quickly. He was riding in +Bushey Park when his horse stumbled over a mole-hill and the king +was thrown, breaking his collar-bone (March 14,1702). The shock +proved fatal in his enfeebled state; and, after lingering for four +days, during which, in full possession of his mental faculties, he +continued to discuss affairs of state, he calmly took leave of his +special friends, Bentinck, Earl of Portland and Keppel, Earl of +Albemarle, and of the English statesmen who stood round his +death-bed, and, after thanking them for their services, passed +away. For four generations the House of Orange had produced great +leaders of men, but it may be said without disparagement to his +famous predecessors that the last heir-male of that House was the +greatest of them all. He saved the Dutch Republic from destruction; +and during the thirty years of what has well been called his reign +he gave to it a weighty place in the Councils of Europe and raised +it to a height of great material prosperity. But even such services +as these were dwarfed by the part that he played in laying the +foundation of constitutional monarchy in England, and of the +balance of power in Europe. It is difficult to say whether Holland, +England or Europe owed the deepest debt to the life-work of William +III.</p> + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_285" id= +"page_285">[pg.285]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION AND THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT, +1702-1715</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>William III left no successor to take his place. The younger +branch of the Nassau family, who had been, from the time of John of +Nassau, stadholders of Friesland and, except for one short +interval, of Groningen, and who by the marriage of William +Frederick with Albertina Agnes, younger daughter of Frederick +Henry, could claim descent in the female line from William the +Silent, had rendered for several generations distinguished services +to the Republic, but in 1702 had as its only representative a boy +of 14 years of age, by name John William Friso. As already +narrated, the relations between his father, Henry Casimir, and +William III had for a time been far from friendly; but a +reconciliation took place before Henry Casimir's untimely death, +and the king became god-father to John William Friso, and by his +will left him his heir. The boy had succeeded by hereditary right +to the posts of stadholder and captain-general of Friesland and +Groningen under the guardianship of his mother, but such claims as +he had to succeed William III as stadholder in the other provinces +were, on account of his youth, completely ignored. As in 1650, +Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel reverted once +more to a stadholderless form of government.</p> + +<p>Fortunately this implied no change of external policy. The men +who had for years been fellow-workers with King William and were in +complete sympathy with his aims continued to hold the most +important posts in the government of the Republic, and to control +its policy. That policy consisted in the maintenance of a close +alliance with England for the purpose of curbing the ambitious +designs of Louis XIV. Foremost among these statesmen were Antony +Heinsius, the council-pensionary of Holland, Simon van Slingelandt, +secretary of the Council of State since 1690, and Jan Hop, the +treasurer-general of the Union. In England the recognition by Louis +of the Prince of Wales as King James III had <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">[pg.286]</a></span> +thoroughly aroused the popular feeling against France; and Anne the +new queen determined to carry out her predecessor's plans. The two +maritime powers, closely bound together by common interests, and +the ties which had arisen between them during the thirteen years of +the reign of the king-stadholder, were to form the nucleus of a +coalition with Austria and a number of the German states, including +Prussia and Hanover (to which Savoy somewhat later adhered), +pledged to support the claims of the Archduke Charles to the +Spanish throne. For the Dutch it was an all-important question, for +with Philip V reigning at Madrid the hegemony of France in Europe +seemed to be assured. Already French troops were in possession of +the chief fortresses of the so-called Spanish Netherlands. Face to +face with such a menace it was not difficult for Heinsius to obtain +not only the assent of the States-General, but of the Estates of +Holland, practically without a dissenting voice, to declare war +upon France and Spain (May 8, 1702); and this was quickly followed +by similar declarations by England and Austria.</p> + +<p>The Grand Alliance had an outward appearance of great strength, +but in reality it had all the weaknesses of a coalition, its armies +being composed of contingents from a number of countries, whose +governments had divergent aims and strategic objects, and it was +opposed by a power under absolute rule with numerous and veteran +armies inspired by a long tradition of victory under brilliant +leaders. In 1702, however, the successors of Turenne and Luxemburg +were by no means of the same calibre as those great generals. On +the other hand, the allies were doubly fortunate in being led by a +man of exceptional gifts. John Churchill, Earl (and shortly +afterwards Duke) of Marlborough, was placed in supreme command of +the Anglo-Dutch armies. Through the influence of his wife with the +weak Queen Anne, the Whig party, of which Marlborough and his' +friend Godolphin the lord-treasurer were the heads, was maintained +in secure possession of power; and Marlborough thus entered upon +his command in the full confidence of having the unwavering support +of the home government behind him. Still this would have availed +little but for the consummate abilities of this extraordinary man. +As a general he displayed a military genius, both as a strategist +and a tactician, which has been rarely surpassed. For ten years he +pursued a career of victory not marred by a single defeat, and this +in spite of the fact that his army was always <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">[pg.287]</a></span> +composed of heterogeneous elements, that his subordinates of +different nationalities were jealous of his authority and of one +another, and above all, as will be seen, that his bold and +well-laid plans were again and again hindered and thwarted by the +timidity and obstinacy of the civilian deputies who were placed by +the States-General at his side. Had Marlborough been unhampered, +the war would probably have ended some years before it did; as it +was, the wonderful successes of the general were made possible by +his skill and tact as a diplomatist. He had, moreover, the good +fortune to have at his side in the Imperialist general, Prince +Eugene of Savoy, a commander second only to himself in brilliance +and leadership. In almost all wars the Austrian alliance has proved +a weak support on which to trust; but now, thanks to the +outstanding capacity of Eugene, the armies of Austria were able to +achieve many triumphs. The vigorous participation of the emperor in +this war, in support of the claims of his second son, was only made +possible by the victories of the Italian general over the Turks, +who had overrun Hungary and threatened Vienna. And now, in the +still more important sphere of operations in the West in which for +a series of years he had to co-operate with Marlborough, it is to +the infinite credit of both these great men that they worked +harmoniously and smoothly together, so that at no time was there +even a hint of any jealousy between them. In any estimate of the +great achievements of Marlborough it must never be forgotten that +he not only had Eugene at his right hand in the field, but Heinsius +in the council chamber. Heinsius had always worked loyally and +sympathetically with William III; and it was in the same spirit +that he worked with the English duke, who brought William's +life-task to its triumphant accomplishment. Between Marlborough and +Heinsius, as between Marlborough and Eugene, there was no +friction—surely a convincing tribute to the adroit and +tactful persuasiveness of a commanding personality.</p> + +<p>In July, 1702, Marlborough at the head of 65,000 men faced +Marshal Boufflers with a French army almost as strong numerically, +the one in front of Nijmwegen, the other in the neighbourhood of +Liège. Leaving a force of 25,000 Dutch and Brandenburgers to +besiege Kaiserswerth, Marlborough by skilful manoeuvring prevented +Boufflers from attempting a relief, and would on two occasions have +been able to inflict a severe defeat upon him had he not been each +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_288" id= +"page_288">[pg.288]</a></span> time thwarted by the cautious +timidity of the Dutch deputies. Kaiserswerth, however, fell, and in +turn Rheinberg, Venloo, Roeremonde and Liège; and the campaign +ended successfully, leaving the allies in command of the lower +Rhine and lower Meuse.</p> + +<p>That of 1703 was marred even more effectually than that of the +previous year by the interference of the deputies, and the +ill-concealed opposition to Marlborough of certain Dutch generals, +notably of Slangenburg. The duke was very angry, and bitter +recriminations ensued. In the end Slangenburg was removed from his +command; and the appointment of Ouwerkerk, as field-marshal of the +Dutch forces, relieved the tension, though the deputies were still +present at headquarters, much to Marlborough's annoyance. The +campaign resulted in the capture of Bonn, Huy and Limburg, but +there was no general action.</p> + +<p>The year 1704 saw the genius of Marlborough at length assert +itself. The French had placed great armies in the field, Villeroy +in the Netherlands, Tallard in Bavaria, where in conjunction with +the Bavarian forces he threatened to descend the Danube into the +heart of Austria. Vienna itself was in the greatest danger. The +troops under Lewis of Baden and under Eugene were, even when +united, far weaker than their adversaries. In these circumstances +Marlborough determined by a bold strategical stroke to execute a +flank march from the Netherlands right across the front of the +Franco-Bavarian army and effect a junction with the Imperialists. +He had to deceive the timid Dutch deputies by feigning to descend +the Meuse with the intention of working round Villeroy's flank; +then, leaving Ouwerkerk to contain that marshal, he set out on his +daring adventure early in May and carried it out with complete +success. His departure had actually relieved the Netherlands, for +Villeroy had felt it necessary with a large part of his forces to +follow Marlborough and reinforce the Franco-Bavarians under Marshal +Tallard and the Elector. The two armies met at Blenheim +(Hochstädt) on August 13. The battle resulted in the crushing +victory of the allies under Marlborough and Eugene. Eleven thousand +prisoners were taken, among them Tallard himself. The remnant of +the French army retired across the Rhine. Vienna was saved, and all +Bavaria was overrun by the Imperialists.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile at sea the Anglo-Dutch fleet was incontestably +superior to the enemy; and the operations were confined to the +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_289" id= +"page_289">[pg.289]</a></span> immediate neighbourhood of the +Peninsula. William III had before his death been preparing an +expedition for the capture of Cadiz. His plan was actually carried +out in 1702, when a powerful fleet under the supreme command of +Admiral Sir George Rooke sailed for Cadiz; but the attack failed +owing to the incompetence of the Duke of Ormonde, who commanded the +military forces. In this expedition a strong Dutch squadron under +Philip van Almonde participated. Almonde was a capable seaman +trained in the school of Tromp and De Ruyter; and he took a most +creditable part in the action off Vigo, October 23, in which a +large portion of the silver fleet was captured, and the +Franco-Spanish fleet, which formed its escort, destroyed. The +maritime operations of 1703 were uneventful, the French fleet being +successfully blockaded in Toulon harbour.</p> + +<p>The accession of Portugal in the course of this year to the +Grand Alliance was important in that it opened the estuary of the +Tagus as a naval base, and enabled the Archduke Charles to land +with a body of troops escorted by an Anglo-Dutch fleet under Rooke +and Callenberg. This fleet later in the year (August 4) was +fortunate in capturing Gibraltar without much loss, the defences +having been neglected and inadequately garrisoned. In this feat of +arms, which gave to the English the possession of the rock fortress +that commands the entrance into the Mediterranean, the Dutch under +Callenberg had a worthy share, as also in the great sea-fight off +Malaga on August 24, against the French fleet under the Count of +Toulouse. The French had slightly superior numbers, and the allies, +who had not replenished their stores after the siege of Gibraltar, +were short of ammunition. Though a drawn battle, so far as actual +losses were concerned, it was decisive in its results. The French +fleet withdrew to the shelter of Toulon harbour; and the allies' +supremacy in the midland sea was never again throughout the war +seriously challenged. The Dutch ships at the battle of Malaga were +twelve in number and fought gallantly, but it was the last action +of any importance in which the navy of Holland took part. There had +been dissensions between the English and Dutch commanders, and from +this time forward the admiralties made no effort to maintain their +fleet in the state of efficiency in which it had been left by +William III. The cost of the army fell heavily upon Holland, and +money was grudged for the maintenance of the navy, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">[pg.290]</a></span> +whose services, owing to the weakness of the enemy, were not +required.</p> + +<p>The military campaign of 1705 produced small results, the plans +of Marlborough for an active offensive being thwarted by the Dutch +deputies. The duke's complaints only resulted in one set of +deputies being replaced by another set of civilians equally +impracticable. There was also another reason for a slackening of +vigour. The Emperor Leopold I died on May 5. His successor Joseph I +had no children, so that the Archduke Charles became the +heir-apparent to all the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs. +Louis XIV therefore seized the opportunity to make secret overtures +of peace to some of the more influential Dutch statesmen through +the Marquis D'Allègne, at that time a prisoner in the hands +of the Dutch. The French were willing to make many concessions in +return for the recognition of Philip V as King of Spain. In the +autumn conversations took place between Heinsius, Buys the +pensionary of Amsterdam, and others, with D'Allègne and +Rouillé, an accredited agent of the French government. Matters went +so far that Buys went to London on a secret mission to discuss the +matter with the English minister. The English cabinet, however, +refused to recognise Philip V; and, as the Dutch demand for a +strong barrier of fortresses along the southern frontier of the +Netherlands was deemed inadmissible at Versailles, the negotiations +came to an end.</p> + +<p>In 1706 Marlborough's bold proposal to join Eugene in Italy, and +with their united forces to drive the French out of that country +and to march upon Toulon, failed to gain the assent of the Dutch +deputies. The duke, after much controversy and consequent delay, +had to content himself with a campaign in Belgium. It was +brilliantly carried out. On Whit Sunday, May 23, at Ramillies the +allies encountered the enemy under the command of Marshal Villeroi +and the Elector of Bavaria. The French were utterly defeated with +very heavy loss; and such was the vigour of the pursuit that the +shattered army was obliged to retire to Courtrai, leaving Brabant +and Flanders undefended. In rapid succession Louvain, Antwerp, +Ghent, Bruges and other towns surrendered to Marlborough, and a +little later Ostend, Dendermonde, Menin and Ath; and the Archduke +Charles was acknowledged as sovereign by the greater part of the +southern Netherlands. In Italy and Spain also things had gone well +with the allies. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_291" id= +"page_291">[pg.291]</a></span> This series of successes led Louis +XIV to make fresh overtures of peace to the States-General, whom +the French king hoped to seduce from the Grand Alliance by the bait +of commercial advantages both with Spain and France and a good +"barrier." He was even ready to yield the crown of Spain to the +Archduke Charles on condition that Philip of Anjou were +acknowledged as sovereign of the Spanish possessions in Italy. +Heinsius however was loyal to the English alliance; and, in face of +the determination of the English government not to consent to any +division of the Spanish inheritance, the negotiations again came to +nothing.</p> + +<p>The year 1707 saw a change of fortune. Austria was threatened by +the victorious advance of Charles XII of Sweden through Poland into +Saxony. A French army under Villars crossed the Rhine (May 27) and +advanced far into south-eastern Germany. The defence of their own +territories caused several of the German princes to retain their +troops at home instead of sending them as mercenaries to serve in +the Netherlands under Marlborough. The duke therefore found himself +unable to attack the superior French army under Vendôme, and +acted steadfastly on the defensive. An attempt by Eugene, supported +by the English fleet, to capture Toulon ended in dismal failure and +the retreat of the Imperialists with heavy loss into Italy. In +Spain the victory of Berwick at Almanza (April 27) made Philip V +the master of all Spain, except a part of Catalonia.</p> + +<p>But, though Marlborough had been reduced to immobility in 1707, +the following campaign was to witness another of his wonderful +victories. At the head of a mixed force of 80,000 men he was +awaiting the arrival of Eugene with an Imperialist army of 35,000, +when Vendôme unexpectedly took the offensive while he still +had superiority in numbers over his English opponent. Rapidly +overrunning western Flanders he made himself master of Bruges and +Ghent and laid siege to Oudenarde. By a series of brilliant +movements Marlborough out-marched and out-manoeuvred his adversary +and, interposing his army between him and the French frontier, +compelled him to risk a general engagement. It took place on July +11, 1708, and ended in the complete defeat of the French, who were +only saved by the darkness from utter destruction. Had the bold +project of Marlborough to march into France forthwith been carried +out, a deadly blow would have been delivered against the <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_292" id= +"page_292">[pg.292]</a></span> very vitals of the enemy's power and +Louis XIV probably compelled to sue for peace on the allies' terms. +But this time not only the Dutch deputies, but also Eugene, were +opposed to the daring venture, and it was decided that Eugene +should besiege Lille, while Marlborough with the field army covered +the operations. Lille was strongly fortified, and Marshal Boufflers +made a gallant defence. The siege began in mid-August; the town +surrendered on October 22, but the citadel did not fall until +December 9. Vendôme did his best to cut off Eugene's supplies +of munitions and stores, and at one time the besiegers were reduced +to straits. The French marshal did not, however, venture to force +an engagement with Marlborough's covering army, a portion of which +under General Webb, after gaining a striking victory over a French +force at Wynendael, (September 30), conducted at a critical moment +a large train of supplies from Ostend into Eugene's camp. As a +consequence of the capture of Lille, the French withdrew from +Flanders into their own territory, Ghent and Bruges being +re-occupied by the allies with a mere show of resistance.</p> + +<p>The reverses of 1708 induced the French king to be ready to +yield much for the sake of peace. He offered the Dutch a strong +barrier, a favourable treaty of commerce and the demolition of the +defences of Dunkirk; and there were many in Holland who would have +accepted his terms. But their English and Austrian allies insisted +on the restoration of Louis' German conquests, and that the king +should, by force if necessary, compel his grandson to leave Spain. +Such was the exhaustion of France that Louis would have consented +to almost any terms however harsh, but he refused absolutely to use +coercion against Philip V. The negotiations went on through the +spring nor did they break down until June, 1709, when the +exorbitant demands of the allies made further progress impossible. +Louis issued a manifesto calling upon his subjects to support him +in resisting terms which were dishonouring to France.</p> + +<p>He met with a splendid response from all classes, and a fine +army of 90,000 men was equipped and placed in the field under the +command of Marshal Villars. The long delay over the negotiations +prevented Marlborough and Eugene from taking the field until June. +They found Villars had meanwhile entrenched himself in Artois in a +very strong position. Marlborough's proposal to advance by the +sea-coast and outflank the enemy being opposed both by <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">[pg.293]</a></span> +Eugene and the Dutch deputies as too daring, siege was laid to +Tournay. Campaigns in those days were dilatory affairs. Tournay was +not captured until September 3; and the allies, having overcome +this obstacle without any active interference, moved forward to +besiege Mons. They found Villars posted at Malplaquet on a narrow +front, skilfully fortified and protected on both flanks by woods. A +terrible struggle ensued (September 11, 1709), the bloodiest in the +war. The Dutch troops gallantly led by the Prince of Orange +attacked the French right, but were repulsed with very heavy +losses. For some time the fight on the left and centre of the +French line was undecided, the attacking columns being driven back +many times, but at length the allies succeeded in turning the +extreme left and also after fearful slaughter in piercing the +centre; and the French were compelled to retreat. They had lost +12,000 men, but 23,000 of the allies had fallen; the Dutch +divisions had suffered the most severely, losing almost half their +strength. The immediate result of this hard-won victory was the +taking of Mons, October 9. The lateness of the season prevented any +further operations. Nothing decisive had been achieved, for on all +the other fields of action, on the Rhine, on the Piedmont frontier +and in Spain, the advantage had on the whole been with the French +and Spaniards. Negotiations proceeded during the winter (1709-10), +Dutch and French representatives meeting both at the Hague and at +Geertruidenberg. The States were anxious for peace and Louis was +willing to make the concessions required of him, but Philip V +refused to relinquish a crown which he held by the practically +unanimous approval of the Spanish people. The emperor on the other +hand was obstinate in claiming the undivided Spanish inheritance +for the Archduke Charles. The maritime powers, however, would not +support him in this claim; and the maritime powers meant England, +for Holland followed her lead, being perfectly satisfied with the +conditions of the First Barrier Treaty, which had been drawn up and +agreed upon between the States-General and the English government +on October 29, 1709. By this secret treaty the Dutch obtained the +right to hold and to garrison a number of towns along the French +frontier, the possession of which would render them the real +masters of Belgium. Indeed it was manifest that, although the Dutch +did not dispute the sovereign rights of the Archduke Charles, they +intended to make the southern Netherlands an <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">[pg.294]</a></span> +economic dependency of the Republic, which provided for its +defence.</p> + +<p>The negotiations at Geertruidenberg dragged on until July, 1710, +and were finally broken off owing to the insistence of the Dutch +envoys, Buys and Van Dussen, upon conditions which, even in her +exhausted state, France was too proud to concede. Meanwhile +Marlborough and Eugene, unable to tempt Villars to risk a battle, +contented themselves with a succession of sieges. Douay, +Béthune, St Venant and Aine fell, one after the other, the +French army keeping watch behind its strongly fortified lines. This +was a very meagre result, but Marlborough now felt his position to +be so insecure that he dared not take any risks. His wife, so long +omnipotent at court, had been supplanted in the queen's favour; +Godolphin and the Whig party had been swept from power; and a Tory +ministry bent upon peace had taken their place. Marlborough knew +that his period of dictatorship was at an end, and he would have +resigned his command but for the pressing instances of Eugene, +Heinsius and other leaders of the allies.</p> + +<p>The desire of the Tory ministry to bring the long drawn-out +hostilities to an end was accentuated by the death, on April 17, +1711, of the Emperor Joseph, an event which left his brother +Charles heir to all the possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs. The +Grand Alliance had been formed and the war waged to maintain the +balance of power in Europe. But such a result would not be achieved +by a revival of the empire of Charles V in the person of the man +who had now become the head of the House of Austria. Even had the +Whigs remained in office, they could hardly have continued to give +active support to the cause of the Habsburg claimant in Spain.</p> + +<p>One of the consequences of the death of Joseph I, then, was to +render the Tory minister, Henry St John, more anxious to enter into +negotiations for peace; another was the paralysing of active +operations in the field. Eugene had been summoned to Germany to +watch over the meeting of the Imperial Diet at Frankfort, and +Marlborough was left with an army considerably inferior in numbers +to that of his opponent Villars. Thus the only fruit of the +campaign was the capture of Bouchain. Meanwhile the French minister +Torcy entered into secret communications with St John, intimating +that France was ready to negotiate directly with England, but at +first <span class="newpage"><a name="page_295" id= +"page_295">[pg.295]</a></span> without the cognisance of the +States. The English ministry on their part, under the influence of +St John, showed themselves to be ready to throw over their allies, +to abandon the Habsburg cause in Spain, and to come to an agreement +with France on terms advantageous to England. For French diplomacy, +always alert and skilful, these proceedings were quite legitimate; +but it was scarcely honourable for the English government, while +the Grand Alliance was still in existence, to carry on these +negotiations in profound secrecy.</p> + +<p>In August matters had so far advanced that Mesnager was sent +over from Paris to London entrusted with definite proposals. In +October the preliminaries of peace were virtually settled between +the two powers. Meanwhile the Dutch had been informed through Lord +Strafford, the English envoy at the Hague, of what was going on; +and the news aroused no small indignation and alarm. But great +pressure was brought to bear upon them; and, knowing that without +England they could not continue the war, the States-General at +last, in fear for their barrier, consented, on November 21, to send +envoys to a peace congress to be held at Utrecht on the basis of +the Anglo-French preliminaries. It was in vain that the Emperor +Charles VI protested both at London and the Hague, or that Eugene +was despatched on a special mission to England in January, 1712. +The English ministry had made up their minds to conclude peace with +or without the emperor's assent; and the congress opened at the +beginning of the year 1712 without the presence of any Austrian +plenipotentiaries, though they appeared later. The Dutch provinces +sent two envoys each. The conferences at Utrecht were, however, +little more than futile debates; and the congress was held there +rather as a concession to save the <i>amour propre</i> of the +States than to settle the terms of peace. The real negotiations +were carried on secretly between England and France; and after a +visit by St John, now Viscount Bolingbroke, in person to Paris in +August, all points of difference between the two governments were +amicably arranged. Spain followed the lead of France; and the +States, knowing that they could not go on with the war without +England, were reluctantly obliged to accept the Anglo-French +proposals. Their concurrence might not have been so easily +obtained, but for the unfortunate course of the campaign of 1712. +Marlborough had now been replaced in the chief command by the Duke +of Ormonde. Eugene, counting upon English support, had taken +Quesnoy on July 4, and <span class="newpage"><a name="page_296" id= +"page_296">[pg.296]</a></span> was about to invest Landrecies, when +Ormonde informed him that an armistice had been concluded between +the French and English governments. On July 16 the English +contingent withdrew to Dunkirk, which had been surrendered by the +French as a pledge of good faith. Villars seized the opportunity to +make a surprise attack on the isolated Dutch at the bridge of +Denain (July 24) and, a panic taking place, completely annihilated +their whole force of 12,000 men with slight loss to himself. Eugene +had to retreat, abandoning his magazines; and Douay, Quesnoy and +Bouchain fell into the hands of the French marshal.</p> + +<p>These disasters convinced the Dutch of their helplessness when +deprived of English help; and instructions were given to their +envoys at Utrecht, on December 29, to give their assent to the +terms agreed upon and indeed dictated by the governments of England +and France. Making the best of the situation, the Dutch statesmen, +confronted with the growing self-assertion of the French +plenipotentiaries, concluded, on January 30, 1713, a new offensive +and defensive alliance with England. This treaty of alliance is +commonly called the Second Barrier Treaty, because it abrogated the +Barrier Treaty of 1709, and was much more favourable to France. It +was not until all these more or less secret negotiations were over +that the Congress, after being suspended for some months, resumed +its sittings at Utrecht. The Peace of Utrecht which ensued is +really a misnomer. No general treaty was agreed upon and signed, +but a series of separate treaties between the belligerent powers. +This was what France had been wishing for some time and, by the +connivance of England, she achieved it. The treaty between these +two countries was signed on April 11, 1713; and such was the +dominant position of England that her allies, with the single +exception of the emperor, had to follow her lead. Treaties with the +States-General, with Savoy, Brandenburg and Portugal, were all +signed on this same day.</p> + +<p>Louis XIV had good right to congratulate himself upon obtaining +far more favourable terms than he could have dared to hope in 1710 +or 1711. Philip V was recognised as King of Spain and the Indies, +but had solemnly to renounce his right of succession to the French +throne and his claim to the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands +and in Italy. The treaty between England and Spain was signed on +July 13, 1713; that between the States-General and Spain was +delayed until June 26, 1714, owing to the difficulties <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">[pg.297]</a></span> +raised by the emperor, who, though deserted by his allies, +continued the war single-handed, but with signal lack of success. +He was forced to yield and make peace at Rastatt in a treaty, which +was confirmed by the Imperial Diet at Baden in Switzerland on +September 7, 1714. By this treaty the French king retained +practically all his conquests, while Charles VI, though he did not +recognise the title of Philip V, contented himself with the +acquisition of the "Spanish" Netherlands, and of the Milanese and +Naples. Into the details of these several treaties it is +unnecessary here to enter, except in so far as they affected the +United Provinces. The power that benefited more than any other was +Great Britain, for the Peace of Utrecht laid the foundation of her +colonial empire and left her, from this time forward, the first +naval and maritime power in the world. Holland, though her commerce +was still great and her colonial possessions both rich and +extensive, had henceforth to see herself more and more overshadowed +and dominated by her former rival. Nevertheless the treaties +concluded by the States-General at this time were decidedly +advantageous to the Republic.</p> + +<p>That with France, signed on April 11, 1713, placed the Spanish +Netherlands in the possession of the States-General, to be held by +them in trust for Charles VI until such time as the emperor came to +an agreement with them about a "Barrier." France in this matter +acted in the name of Spain, and was the intermediary through whose +good offices Spanish or Upper Gelderland was surrendered to +Prussia. Most important of all to the Dutch was the treaty with the +emperor concluded at Antwerp, November 15, 1715. This is generally +styled the Third Barrier Treaty, the First being that of 1709, the +Second that of 1713 at Utrecht. The States-General finally obtained +what was for their interest a thoroughly satisfactory settlement. +They obtained the right to place garrisons amounting in all to +35,000 men in Furnes, Warneton, Ypres, Knocke, Tournay, Menin and +Namur; and three-fifths of the cost were to be borne by the +Austrian government, who pledged certain revenues of their +newly-acquired Belgic provinces to the Dutch for the purpose. The +strong position in which such a treaty placed the Republic against +aggression, either from the side of France or Austria, was made +stronger by being guaranteed by the British government.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_298" id= +"page_298">[pg.298]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + +<br /><p>THE STADHOLDERLESS REPUBLIC, 1715-1740</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The thirty-four years which followed the Peace of Utrecht are a +period of decadence and decay; a depressing period exhibiting the +spectacle of a State, which had played a heroic part in history, +sinking, through its lack of inspiring leadership and the crying +defects inherent in its system of government, to the position of a +third-rate power. The commanding abilities of the great stadholders +of the house of Orange-Nassau, and during the stadholderless period +which followed the untimely death of William II, those of the +Council-Pensionary, John de Witt, had given an appearance of +solidarity to what was really a loose confederation of sovereign +provinces. Throughout the 17th century maritime enterprise, naval +prowess and world-wide trade had, by the help of skilled diplomacy +and wise statesmanship, combined to give to the Dutch Republic a +weight in the council of nations altogether disproportionate to its +size and the number of its population. In the memorable period of +Frederick Henry the foundations were laid of an empire overseas; +Dutch seamen and traders had penetrated into every ocean and had +almost monopolised the carrying-trade of Europe; and at the same +time Holland had become the chosen home of scholarship, science, +literature and art. In the great days of John de Witt she contended +on equal terms with England for the dominion of the seas; and +Amsterdam was the financial clearing-house of the world. To William +III the Republic owed its escape from destruction in the critical +times of overwhelming French invasion in 1672, when by resolute and +heroic leadership he not only rescued the United Provinces from +French domination, but before his death had raised them to the rank +of a great power. Never did the prestige of the States stand higher +in Europe than at the opening of the 18th century. But, as has +already been pointed out, the elevation of the great stadholder to +the throne of England had been far from an unmixed blessing to his +native land. It brought the two maritime and commercial rivals into +a close alliance, which placed the smaller <span class="newpage"><a +name="page_299" id="page_299">[pg.299]</a></span> and less favoured +country at a disadvantage, and ended in the weaker member of the +alliance becoming more and more the dependent of the stronger. What +would have been the trend of events had William survived for +another ten or fifteen years or had he left an heir to succeed him +in his high dignities, one can only surmise. It may at least be +safely said, that the treaty which ended the war of the Spanish +succession would not have been the treaty of Utrecht.</p> + +<p>William III by his will made his cousin, John William Friso of +Nassau-Siegen, his heir. Friso (despite the opposition of the +Prussian king, who was the son of Frederick Henry's eldest +daughter) assumed the title of Prince of Orange; and, as he was a +real Netherlander, his branch of the house of Nassau having been +continuously stadholders of Friesland since the first days of the +existence of the Republic, he soon attracted to himself the +affection of the Orangist party. But at the time of William III's +death Friso was but fourteen years of age; and the old "States" or +"Republican" party, which had for so many years been afraid to +attempt any serious opposition to the imperious will of King +William, now saw their opportunity for a return once more to the +state of things established by the Great Assembly in 1651. Under +the leadership of Holland five provinces now declared for a +stadholderless government. The appointment of town-councillors +passed into the hands of the corporations or of the Provincial +Estates, not, however, without serious disturbances in Gelderland, +Utrecht, Overyssel and also in Zeeland, stirred up partly by the +old regent-families, who had been excluded from office under +William, partly by the gilds and working folk, who vainly hoped +that they would be able to exercise a larger share in the +government. In many places faction-fights ensued. In Amersfoort two +burghers were tried and beheaded; in Nijmwegen the burgomaster, +Ronkens, met the same fate. But after a short while the +aristocratic States party everywhere gained control in the +town-corporations and through them in the Provincial Estates. In +Zeeland the dignity of "first noble" was abolished.</p> + +<p>The effect of all this was that decentralisation reached its +extreme point. Not only were there seven republics, but each town +asserted sovereign rights, defying at times the authority of the +majority in the Provincial Estates. This was especially seen in the +predominant <span class="newpage"><a name="page_300" id= +"page_300">[pg.300]</a></span> province of Holland, where the city +of Amsterdam by its wealth and importance was able to dictate its +will to the Estates, and through the Estates to the States-General. +Money-making and trade profits were the matters which engrossed +everybody's interest. War interfered with trade; it was costly, and +was to be avoided at any price. During this time the policy of the +Republic was neutrality; and the States-General, with their army +and navy reduced more and more in numbers and efficiency, scarcely +counted in the calculations of the cabinets of Europe.</p> + +<p>But this very time that was marked by the decline and fall of +the Republic from the high position which it occupied during the +greater part of the 17th century, was the golden age of the +burgher-oligarchies. A haughty "patrician" class, consisting in +each place of a very limited number of families, closely +inter-related, had little by little possessed themselves, as a +matter of hereditary right, of all the offices and dignities in the +town, in the province and in the state. Within their own town they +reigned supreme, filling up vacancies in the <i>vroedschap</i> by +co-option, exercising all authority, occupying or distributing +among their relatives all posts of profit, and acquiring great +wealth. Their fellow-citizens were excluded from all share in +affairs, and were looked down upon as belonging to an inferior +caste. The old simple habits of their forefathers were abandoned. +French fashions and manners were the vogue amongst them, and +English clothes, furniture and food. In the +country—<i>platteland</i>—people had no voice whatever +in public affairs; they were not even represented, as the ordinary +townspeople were by their regents. Thus the United Netherlands had +not only ceased to be a unified state in any real sense of the +word, but had ceased likewise to be a free state. It consisted of a +large number of semi-independent oligarchies of the narrowest +description; and the great mass of its population was deprived of +every vestige of civic rights.</p> + +<p>That such a State should have survived at all is to be explained +by the fact that the real control over the foreign policy of the +Republic and over its general government continued to be exercised +by the band of experienced statesmen who had served under William +III and inherited his traditions. Heinsius, the wise and prudent +council-pensionary, continued in office until his death cm August +3, 1720, when he was succeeded by Isaac van Hoornbeck, pensionary +of Rotterdam. Hoornbeck was not a man of great parts, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">[pg.301]</a></span> but +he was sound and safe and he had at his side Simon van Slingelandt, +secretary of the Council of State since 1690, and others whose +experience in public office dated from the preceding century. In +their hands the external policy of the Republic, conducted with no +lack of skill, was of necessity non-interventionist. In internal +matters they could effect little. The finances after the war were +in an almost hopeless condition, and again and again the State was +threatened with bankruptcy. To make things worse an epidemic of +wild speculation spread far and wide during the period 1716-1720 in +the bubble companies, the Mississippi Company and the South Sea +Company, associated with the name of Edward Law, which proved so +ruinous to many in England and France, as well as in Holland. In +1716 such was the miserable condition of the country that the +Estates of Overyssel, under the leadership of Count van Rechteren, +proposed the summoning of a Great Assembly on the model of that of +1651 to consider the whole question of government and finance. The +proposal was ultimately accepted, and the Assembly met at the Hague +on November 28. After nine months of ineffectual debate and +wrangling it finally came to an end on September 14, 1717, without +effecting anything, leaving all who had the best interests of the +State at heart in despair.</p> + +<p>In the years immediately succeeding the Peace of Utrecht +difficulties arose with Charles XII of Sweden; whose privateers had +been seizing Dutch and English merchantmen in the Baltic. Under De +Witt or William III the fleet of the Republic would speedily have +brought the Swedish king to reason. But now other counsels +prevailed. Dutch squadrons sailed into the Baltic with instructions +to convoy the merchant vessels, but to avoid hostilities. With some +difficulty this purpose was achieved; and the death of Charles at +the siege of Frederikshald brought all danger of war to an end. And +yet in the very interests of trade it would have been good policy +for the States to act strongly in this matter of Swedish piracy in +the Baltic. Russia was the rising power in those regions. The Dutch +had really nothing to fear from Sweden, whose great days came to an +end with the crushing defeat of Charles XII at Pultova in 1709. +Trade relations had been opened between Holland and Muscovy so +early as the end of the 16th century; and, despite English rivalry, +the opening out of Russia and of Russian trade had been almost +entirely in Dutch hands during the 17th century. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">[pg.302]</a></span> The +relations between the two countries became much closer and more +important after the accession of the enterprising and reforming +Tsar, Peter the Great. It is well known how Peter in 1696 visited +Holland to learn the art of ship-building and himself toiled as a +workman at Zaandam. As a result of this visit he carried back with +him to Russia an admiration for all things Dutch. He not only +favoured Dutch commerce, but he employed numbers of Hollanders in +the building and training of his fleet and in the construction of +waterways and roads. In 1716-17 Peter again spent a considerable +time in Holland. Nevertheless Dutch policy was again timid and +cautious; and no actual alliance was made with Russia, from dread +of entanglements, although the opportunity seemed so +favourable.</p> + +<p>It was the same when in this year 1717 Cardinal Alberoni, at the +instigation of Elizabeth of Parma the ambitious second wife of +Philip V, attempted to regain Spain's lost possessions in Italy by +an aggressive policy which threatened to involve Europe in war. +Elizabeth's object was to obtain an independent sovereignty for her +sons in her native country. Austria, France and England united to +resist this attempt to reverse the settlement of Utrecht, and the +States were induced to join with them in a quadruple alliance. It +was not, however, their intention to take any active part in the +hostilities which speedily brought Spain to reason, and led to the +fall of Alberoni. But the Spanish queen had not given up her +designs, and she found another instrument for carrying them out in +Ripperda, a Groningen nobleman, who had originally gone to Spain as +ambassador of the States. This able and scheming statesman +persuaded Elizabeth that she might best attain her ends by an +alliance with Austria, which was actually concluded at Vienna on +April 1, 1725. This alliance alarmed France, England and Prussia, +but was especially obnoxious to the Republic, for the emperor had +in 1722 erected an East India Company at Ostend in spite of the +prohibition placed by Holland and Spain in the treaties of 1714-15 +upon Belgian overseas commerce. By the Treaty of Alliance in 1725 +the Spanish crown recognised the Ostend Company and thus gave it a +legal sanction. The States therefore, after some hesitation, became +parties to a defensive alliance against Austria and Spain that had +been signed by France, England and Prussia at Hanover in September, +1728. These groupings of the powers were of no long duration. The +emperor, fearing an invasion of the Belgian provinces, <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">[pg.303]</a></span> +first agreed to suspend the Ostend Company for seven years, and +then, in order to secure the assent of the maritime powers to the +Pragmatic Sanction, which guaranteed to his daughter, Maria +Theresa, the succession to the Austrian hereditary domains, he +broke with Spain and consented to suppress the Ostend Company +altogether. The negotiations which took place at this time are very +involved and complicated, but they ended in a revival of the old +alliance between Austria and the maritime powers against the two +Bourbon monarchies of France and Spain. This return to the old +policy of William III was largely the work of Slingelandt, who had +become council-pensionary on July 27, 1727.</p> + +<p>Simon van Slingelandt, with the able assistance of his +brother-in-law Francis Fagel, clerk of the States-General, was +during the nine years in which he directed the foreign policy of +the Republic regarded as one of the wisest and most trustworthy, as +he was the most experienced statesman of his time. His aim was, in +co-operation with England, to maintain by conciliatory and peaceful +methods the balance of power. Lord Chesterfield, at that time the +British envoy at the Hague, had the highest opinion of +Slingelandt's powers; and the council-pensionary's writings, more +especially his <i>Pensées impartiales</i>, published in +1729, show what a thorough grasp he had of the political situation. +Fortunately the most influential ministers in England and France, +Robert Walpole and Cardinal Fleury, were like-minded with him in +being sincere seekers after peace. The Treaty of Vienna (March +18,1731), which secured the recognition by the powers of the +Pragmatic Sanction, was largely his work; and he was also +successful in preventing the question of the Polish succession, +after the death of Augustus of Saxony in 1733, being the cause of +the outbreak of a European war. In domestic policy Slingelandt, +though profoundly dissatisfied with the condition of the Republic, +took no steps to interfere with the form of government. He saw the +defects of the stadholderless system plainly enough, but he had +not, like Fagel, strong Orangist sympathies; and on his appointment +as council-pensionary he pledged himself to support during his +tenure of office the existing state of things. This undertaking he +loyally kept, and his strong personality during his life-time alone +saved Holland, and through Holland the entire Republic, from +falling into utter ruin and disaster. At his death Antony van der +Heim became council-pensionary under the same <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">[pg.304]</a></span> +conditions as his predecessor. But Van der Heim, though a capable +and hard-working official, was not of the same calibre as +Slingelandt. The narrow and grasping burgher-regents had got a firm +grip of power, and they used it to suppress the rights of their +fellow-citizens and to keep in their own hands the control of +municipal and provincial affairs. Corruption reigned everywhere; +and the patrician oligarchy, by keeping for themselves and their +relations all offices of profit, grew rich at the same time that +the finances of the State fell into greater confusion. It was not a +condition of things that could endure, should any serious crisis +arise.</p> + +<p>John William Friso, on whom great hopes had been fixed, met with +an untimely death in 1711, leaving a posthumous child who became +William IV, Prince of Orange. Faithful Friesland immediately +elected William stadholder under the regency of his mother, Maria +Louisa of Hesse-Cassel. By her fostering care the boy received an +education to fit him for service to the State. Though of weakly +bodily frame and slightly deformed, William had marked +intelligence, and a very gentle and kindly disposition. Though +brave like all his family, he had little inclination for military +things. The Republican party had little to fear from a man of such +character and disposition. The burgher-regents, secure in the +possession of power, knew that the Frisian stadholder was not +likely to resort either to violence or intrigue to force on a +revolution. Nevertheless the prestige of the name in the prevailing +discontent counted for much. William was elected stadholder of +Groningen in 1718, of Drente and of Gelderland in 1722, though in +each case with certain restrictions. But the other provinces +remained obstinate in their refusal to admit him to any place in +their councils or to any military post. The Estates of Zeeland went +so far as to abolish the marquisate of Flushing and Veere, which +carried with it the dignity of first noble and presidency in the +meetings of the Estates, and offered to pay 100,000 fl. in +compensation to the heir of the Nassaus. William refused to receive +it, saying that either the marquisate did not belong to him, in +which case he could not accept money for it, or it did belong to +him and was not for sale. William's position was advanced by his +marriage in 1734 to Anne, eldest daughter of George II. Thus for +the third time a Princess Royal of England became Princess of +Orange. The reception of the newly married pair at Amsterdam and +the Hague was, however, cool though polite; <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">[pg.305]</a></span> and +despite the representatives of Gelderland, who urged that the +falling credit and bad state of the Republic required the +appointment of an "eminent head," Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland and +Overyssel remained obdurate in their refusal to change the form of +government. William had to content himself with the measure of +power he had obtained and to await events. He showed much patience, +for he had many slights and rebuffs to put up with. His partisans +would have urged him to more vigorous action, but this he steadily +refused to take.</p> + +<p>The Republic kept drifting meanwhile on the downward path. Its +foreign policy was in nerveless hands; jobbery was rampant; trade +and industry declined; the dividends of the East India Company fell +year by year through the incompetence and greed of officials +appointed by family influence; the West India Company was +practically bankrupt. Such was the state of the country in 1740, +when the outbreak of the Austrian Succession War found the Republic +without leadership, hopelessly undecided what course of action it +should take, and only seeking to evade its responsibilities. </p> +<br /><br /><br /> +<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_306" id= +"page_306">[pg.306]</a></span> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION WAR. WILLIAM IV, 1740-1751</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The death of the Emperor Charles VI in October, 1740, was the +signal for the outbreak of another European war. All Charles' +efforts on behalf of the Pragmatic Sanction proved to have been +labour spent in vain. Great Britain, the United Provinces, Spain, +Saxony, Poland, Russia, Sardinia, Prussia, most of the smaller +German States, and finally France, had agreed to support (1738) the +Pragmatic Sanction. The assent of Spain had been bought by the +cession of the two Sicilies; of France by that of Lorraine, whose +Duke Francis Stephen had married Maria Theresa and was compensated +by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for the loss of his ancestral domain. +The only important dissentient was Charles Albert, Elector of +Bavaria, who had married the younger daughter of Joseph I and who +claimed the succession not only through his wife, but as the +nearest male descendant of Ferdinand I. On the death of Charles VI, +then, it might have been supposed that Maria Theresa would have +succeeded to her inheritance without opposition. This was far from +being the case. The Elector of Bavaria put forward his claims and +he found unexpected support in Frederick II of Prussia. Frederick +had just succeeded his father Frederick William I, and being at +once ambitious and without scruples he determined to seize the +opportunity for the purpose of territorial aggression. While +lulling the suspicions of Vienna by friendly professions, he +suddenly, in December, 1740, invaded Silesia. Maria Theresa +appealed to the guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction. She met no +active response, but on the part of Spain, Sardinia and France +veiled hostility. Great Britain, at war with Spain since 1739, and +fearing the intervention of France, confined her efforts to +diplomacy; and the only anxiety of the United Provinces was to +avoid being drawn into war. An addition was made to the army of +11,000 men and afterwards in 1741, through dread of an attack on +the Austrian Netherlands, a further increase of 20,000 was voted. +The garrisons <span class="newpage"><a name="page_307" id= +"page_307">[pg.307]</a></span> and fortifications of the barrier +towns were strengthened and some addition was made to the navy. But +the policy of the States continued to be vacillating and +pusillanimous. The Republican party, who held the reins of power, +desiring peace at any price, were above all anxious to be on good +terms with France. The Orangist opposition were in favour of +joining with England in support of Maria Theresa; but the prince +would not take any steps to assert himself, and his partisans, +deprived of leadership, could exert little influence. Nor did they +obtain much encouragement from England, where Walpole was still +intent upon a pacific policy.</p> + +<p>The events of 1741, however, were such as to compel a change of +attitude. The Prussians were in possession of Silesia; and +spoliation, having begun so successfully, became infectious. The +aged Fleury was no longer able to restrain the war party in France. +In May at Nymphenburg a league was formed by France, Spain, +Sardinia, Saxony and Poland, in conjunction with Prussia and +Bavaria, to effect the overthrow of Maria Theresa and share her +inheritance between them. Resistance seemed hopeless. A +Franco-Bavarian army penetrated within a few miles of Vienna, and +then overran Bohemia. Charles Albert was crowned King of Bohemia at +Prague and then (January, 1742) was elected Emperor under the title +of Charles VII.</p> + +<p>Before this election took place, however, English mediation had +succeeded by the convention of Klein-Schnellendorf in securing a +suspension of hostilities (October 9) between Austria and Prussia. +This left Frederick in possession of Silesia, but enabled the Queen +of Hungary, supported by English and Dutch subsidies, not only to +clear Bohemia from its invaders, but to conquer Bavaria. At the +very time when Charles Albert was elected Emperor, his own capital +was occupied by his enemies. In February, 1742, the long ministry +of Walpole came to an end; and the party in favour of a more active +participation in the war succeeded to office. George II was now +thoroughly alarmed for the safety of his Hanoverian dominions; and +Lord Stair was sent to the Hague on a special mission to urge the +States to range themselves definitely on the side of Maria Theresa. +But fears of a French onslaught on the southern Netherlands still +caused timorous counsels to prevail. The French ambassador, De +Fénélon, on his part was lavish in vague promises not +unmingled with veiled threats, so that the feeble directors of +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_308" id= +"page_308">[pg.308]</a></span> Dutch policy, torn between their +duty to treaty obligations urged upon them by England, and their +dread of the military power of France, helplessly resolved to cling +to neutrality as long as possible. But events proved too strong for +them. Without asking their permission, an English force of 16,000 +men landed at Ostend and was sent to strengthen the garrison of the +barrier fortresses (May, 1742). The warlike operations of this year +were on the whole favourable to Maria Theresa, who through English +mediation, much against her will, secured peace with Prussia by the +cession of Silesia. The treaty between the two powers was signed at +Berlin on July 28. Hostilities with France continued; but, though +both the Maritime Powers helped Austria with subsidies, neither +Great Britain nor the States were at the close of the year +officially at war with the French king.</p> + +<p>Such a state of precarious make-believe could not last much +longer. The Austrians were anxious that the English force in the +Netherlands, which had been reinforced and was known as the +<i>Pragmatic Army</i>, should advance into Bavaria to co-operate +with the Imperial forces. Accordingly the army, commanded by George +II in person, advanced across the Main to Dettingen. Here the king, +shut in by French forces and cut off from his supplies, was rescued +from a very difficult position by the valour of his troops, who on +June 27, 1743 attacked and completely routed their opponents. The +States-General had already, on June 22, recognised their +responsibilities; and by a majority vote it was determined that a +force of 20,000 men under the command of Count Maurice of +Nassau-Ouwerkerk should join the <i>Pragmatic Army</i>.</p> + +<p>The fiction that the Maritime Powers were not at war with France +was kept up until the spring of 1744, when the French king in +alliance with Spain declared war on England. One of the projects of +the war party at Versailles was the despatch of a powerful +expedition to invade England and restore the Stewarts. As soon as +news of the preparations reached England, a demand was at once +made, in accordance with treaty, for naval aid from the States. +Twenty ships were asked for, but only eight were in a condition to +sail; and the admiral in command, Grave, was 73 years of age and +had been for fifteen years in retirement. What an object lesson of +the utter decay of the Dutch naval power! Fortunately a storm +dispersed the French fleet, and the services of the auxiliary +squadron were not required. <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_309" id="page_309">[pg.309]</a></span></p> + +<p>The news that Marshal Maurice de Saxe was about to invade the +Austrian Netherlands with a French army of 80,000 men came like a +shock upon the peace party in the States. The memory of 1672 filled +them with terror. The pretence of neutrality could no longer be +maintained. The choice lay between peace at any price or war with +all its risks; and it was doubtful which of the two alternatives +was the worse. Was there indeed any choice? It did not seem so, +when De Fénélon, who had represented France at the +Hague for nineteen years, came to take leave of the States-General +on his appointment to a command in the invading army (April 26). +But a last effort was made. An envoy-extraordinary, the Count of +Wassenaer-Twickel, was sent to Paris, but found that the king was +already with his army encamped between Lille and Tournay. Wassenaer +was amused with negotiations for awhile, but there was no pause in +the rapid advance of Marshal Saxe. The barrier fortresses, whose +defences had been neglected, fell rapidly one after another. All +west Flanders was overrun. The allied forces, gathered at +Oudenarde, were at first too weak to offer resistance, and were +divided in counsels. Gradually reinforcements came in, but still +the Pragmatic army remained inactive and was only saved from +inevitable defeat by the invasion of Alsace by the Imperialists. +Marshal Saxe was compelled to despatch a considerable part of the +invading army to meet this attack on the eastern frontier, and to +act on the defensive in Flanders. Menin, Courtrai, Ypres, Knocke +and other places remained, however, in French hands.</p> + +<p>All this time the Dutch had maintained the fiction that the +States were not at war with France; but in January, 1745, the +pressure of circumstances was too strong even for the weak-kneed +Van der Heim and his fellow-statesmen, and a quadruple alliance was +formed between England, Austria, Saxony and the United Provinces to +maintain the Pragmatic Sanction. This was followed in March by the +declaration of war between France and the States. Meanwhile the +position of Austria had improved. The Emperor Charles VII died on +January 20; and his youthful successor Maximilian Joseph, in return +for the restoration of his electorate, made peace with Maria +Theresa and withdrew all Bavarian claims to the Austrian +succession. Affairs in Flanders however did not prosper. The +command-in-chief of the allied army had been given to the Duke of +Cumberland, who was no match for such an opponent as Maurice de +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_310" id= +"page_310">[pg.310]</a></span> Saxe. The Prince of Waldeck was in +command of the Dutch contingent.</p> + +<p>The provinces of Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel and Gelderland +had repeatedly urged that this post should be bestowed upon the +Prince of Orange; and the States-General had in 1742 offered to +give William the rank of lieutenant-general in the army, but +Holland and Zeeland steadily refused. The campaign of 1745 was +disastrous. The battle of Fontenoy (May 11) resulted in a victory +for Marshal Saxe over the allied forces, a victory snatched out of +the fire through the pusillanimous withdrawal from the fight of the +Dutch troops on the left wing. The British infantry with +magnificent valour on the right centre had pierced through the +French lines, only to find themselves deserted and overwhelmed by +superior forces. This victory was vigorously followed up. The +Jacobite rising under Charles Edward, the young Pretender, had +necessitated the recalling not only of the greater part of the +English expeditionary force, but also, under the terms of the +treaties between Great Britain and the United Provinces, of a body +of 6000 Dutch. Before the year 1745 had ended, Tournay, Ghent, +Bruges, Oudenarde, Dendermonde, Ostend, Nieuport, Ath fell in +succession into the hands of Marshal Saxe, and after a brave +defence Brussels itself was forced to capitulate on February 19, +1746.</p> + +<p>Van der Heim and the Republican conclave in whose hands was the +direction of foreign affairs, dreading the approach of the French +armies to the Dutch frontier, sent the Count de Larrey on a private +mission to Paris in November, 1745, to endeavour to negotiate terms +of peace. He was unsuccessful; and in February, 1746 another +fruitless effort was made, Wassenaer and Jacob Gilles being the +envoys. The French minister, D'Argenson, was not unwilling to +discuss matters with them; and negotiations went on for some time +in a more or less desultory way, but without in any way checking +the alarming progress of hostilities. An army 120,000 strong under +Marshal Saxe found for some months no force strong enough to resist +it. Antwerp, Louvain, Mechlin, Mons, Charleroi, Huy and finally +Namur (September 21) surrendered to the French. At last (October +11) a powerful allied army under the command of Charles of Lorraine +made a stand at Roucoux. A hardly-fought battle, in which both +sides lost heavily, ended in the victory of the French. Liège was +taken, and the French were now masters of Belgium. <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">[pg.311]</a></span></p> + +<p>These successes made the Dutch statesmen at the Hague the more +anxious to conclude peace. D'Argenson had always been averse to an +actual invasion of Dutch territory; and it was arranged between him +and the Dutch envoys, Wassenaer and Gilles, at Paris, and between +the council-pensionary Van der Heim and the Abbé de la Ville +at the Hague, that a congress should meet at Breda in August, in +which England consented to take part. Before it met, however, Van +der Heim had died (August 15). He was succeeded by Jacob Gilles. +The congress was destined to make little progress, for several of +the provinces resented the way in which a small handful of men had +secretly been committing the Republic to the acceptance of +disadvantageous and humiliating terms of peace, without obtaining +the consent of the States-General to their proposals. The congress +did not actually assemble till October, and never got further than +the discussion of preliminaries, for the war party won possession +of power at Paris, and Louis XV dismissed D'Argenson. Moderate +counsels were thrown to the winds; and it was determined in the +coming campaign to carry the war into Dutch territory.</p> + +<p>Alarm at the threatening attitude of the French roused the +allies to collect an army of 90,000 men, of whom more than half +were Austrian; but, instead of Charles of Lorraine, the Duke of +Cumberland was placed in command. Marshal Saxe, at the head of the +main French force, held Cumberland in check, while he despatched +Count Löwenthal with 20,000 to enter Dutch Flanders. His advance +was a triumphal progress. Sluis, Cadsand and Axel surrendered +almost without opposition. Only the timely arrival of an English +squadron in the Scheldt saved Zeeland from invasion.</p> + +<p>The news of these events caused an immense sensation. For some +time popular resentment against the feebleness and jobbery of the +stadholderless government had been deep and strong. Indignation +knew no bounds; and the revolutionary movement to which it gave +rise was as sudden and complete in 1747 as in 1672. All eyes were +speedily turned to the Prince of Orange as the saviour of the +country. The movement began on April 25 at Veere and Middelburg in +the island of Walcheren. Three days later the Estates of the +Province proclaimed the prince stadholder and captain-and +admiral-general of Zeeland. The province of Holland, where the +stadholderless form of government was so deeply rooted and had its +most stubborn and determined supporters, followed the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">[pg.312]</a></span> +example of Zeeland on May 3, Utrecht on May 5, and Overyssel on May +10. The States-General appointed him captain-and admiral-general of +the Union. Thus without bloodshed or disturbance of any kind or any +personal effort on the part of the prince, he found himself by +general consent invested with all the posts of dignity and +authority which had been held by Frederick Henry and William III. +It was amidst scenes of general popular rejoicing that William +visited Amsterdam, the Hague and Middelburg, and prepared to set +about the difficult task to which he had been called.</p> + +<p>One of the first results of the change of government was the +closing of the Congress of Breda. There was no improvement, +however, in the military position. The allied army advancing under +Cumberland and Waldeck, to prevent Marshal Saxe from laying siege +to Maestricht, was attacked by him at Lauffeldt on July 2. The +fight was desperately contested, and the issue was on the whole in +favour of the allies, when at a critical moment the Dutch gave way; +and the French were able to claim, though at very heavy cost, a +doubtful victory. It enabled Saxe nevertheless to despatch a force +under Löwenthal to besiege the important fortress of +Bergen-op-Zoom. It was carried by assault on September 16, and with +it the whole of Dutch Brabant fell into the enemy's hands.</p> + +<p>Indignation against the rule of the burgher-regents, which had +been instrumental in bringing so many disasters upon the Republic, +was very general; and there was a loudly expressed desire that the +prince should be invested with greater powers, as the "eminent +head" of the State. With this object in view, on the proposal of +the nobles of Holland, the Estates of that province made the +dignity of stadholder and of captain-and admiral-general hereditary +in both the male and female lines. All the other provinces passed +resolutions to the same effect; and the States-General made the +offices of captain-and admiral-general of the Union also +hereditary. In the case of a minority, the Princess-Mother was to +be regent; in that of a female succession the heiress could only +marry with the consent of the States, it being provided that the +husband must be of the Reformed religion, and not a king or an +elector.</p> + +<p>Strong measures were taken to prevent the selling of offices and +to do away with the system of farming out the taxes. The +post-masterships in Holland, which produced a large revenue, were +offered to the prince; but, while undertaking the charge, he +desired <span class="newpage"><a name="page_313" id= +"page_313">[pg.313]</a></span> that the profits should be applied +to the use of the State. Indeed they were sorely needed, for though +William would not hear of peace and sent Count Bentinck to England +to urge a vigorous prosecution of the war in conjunction with +Austria and Russia in 1748, promising a States contingent of 70,000 +men, it was found that, when the time for translating promises into +action came, funds were wanting. Holland was burdened with a heavy +debt; and the contributions of most of the provinces to the +Generality were hopelessly in arrears. In Holland a "voluntary +loan" was raised, which afterwards extended to the other provinces +and also to the Indies, at the rate of 1 per cent. on properties +between 1000 fl. and 2000 fl.; of 2 per cent. on those above 2000 +fl. The loan (<i>mildegift</i>) produced a considerable sum, about +50,000,000 fl.; but this was not enough, and the prince had the +humiliation of writing and placing before the English government +the hopeless financial state of the Republic, and their need of a +very large loan, if they were to take any further part in the war. +This pitiful revelation of the condition of their ally decided +Great Britain to respond to the overtures for peace on the part of +France. The representatives of the powers met at Aix-la-Chapelle; +and, as the English and French were both thoroughly tired of the +war, they soon came to terms. The preliminaries of peace between +them were signed on April 30, 1748, on the principle of a +restoration of conquests. In this treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the +United Provinces were included, but no better proof could be +afforded of the low estate to which the Dutch Republic had now +fallen than the fact that its representatives at Aix-la-Chapelle, +Bentinck and Van Haren, were scarcely consulted and exercised +practically no influence upon the decisions. The French evacuated +the southern Netherlands in return for the restoration to them of +the colony of Cape Breton, which had fallen into the hands of the +English; and the barrier towns were again allowed to receive Dutch +garrisons. It was a useless concession, for their fortifications +had been destroyed, and the States could no longer spare the money +to make them capable of serious defence.</p> + +<p>The position of William IV all this time was exceptionally +responsible, and therefore the more trying. Never before had any +Prince of Orange been invested with so much power. The glamour +attaching to the name of Orange was perhaps the chief asset of the +new stadholder in facing the serious difficulties into which years +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_314" id= +"page_314">[pg.314]</a></span> of misgovernment had plunged the +country. He had undoubtedly the people at his back, but +unfortunately they expected an almost magical change would take +place in the situation with his elevation to the stadholderate. +Naturally they were disappointed. The revolution of 1747 was not +carried out in the spirit of "thorough," which marked those of +1618, 1650 and 1672. William IV was cast in a mould different from +that of Maurice or William II, still more from that of his +immediate predecessor William III. He was a man of wide knowledge, +kindly, conciliatory, and deeply religious, but only a mediocre +statesman. He was too undecided in his opinions, too irresolute in +action, to be a real leader in a crisis.</p> + +<p>The first business was to bring back peace to the country; and +this was achieved, not by any influence that the Netherlands +government was able to exercise upon the course of the negotiations +at Aix-la-Chapelle, but simply as a part of the understanding +arrived at by Great Britain and France. It was for the sake of +their own security that the English plenipotentiaries were willing +to give up their conquests in North America as compensation for the +evacuation of those portions of Belgium and of the Republic that +the French forces occupied, and the restoration of the barrier +fortresses.</p> + +<p>After peace was concluded, not only the Orange partisans but the +great mass of the people, who had so long been excluded from all +share of political power, desired a drastic reform of the +government. They had conferred sovereign authority upon William, +and would have willingly increased it, in the hope that he would in +his person be a centre of unity to the State, and would use his +power for the sweeping away of abuses. It was a vain hope. He never +attempted to do away, root and branch, with the corrupt municipal +oligarchies, but only to make them more tolerable by the infusion +of a certain amount of new blood.</p> + +<p>The birth of an heir on March 8,1748, caused great rejoicings, +for it promised permanence to the new order of things. Whatever the +prince had firmly taken in hand would have met with popular +approval, but William had little power of initiative or firmness of +principle. He allowed his course of action to be swayed now by one +set of advisers, now by their opponents. Even in the matter of the +farmers of the revenue, the best-hated men throughout the Republic +and especially in Holland, it required popular tumults and riots at +Haarlem, Leyden, the Hague and Amsterdam, in which the houses <span +class="newpage"><a name="page_315" id= +"page_315">[pg.315]</a></span> of the obnoxious officials were +attacked and sacked, to secure the abolition of a system by which +the proceeds of taxation were diverted from the service of the +State to fill the pockets of venal and corrupt officials. In +Amsterdam the spirit of revolt against the domination of the Town +Council by a few patrician families led to serious disorders and +armed conflicts in which blood was shed; and in September, 1748, +the prince, at the request of the Estates, visited the turbulent +city. As the Town Council proved obstinate in refusing to make +concessions, the stadholder was compelled to take strong action. +The Council was dismissed from office, but here, as elsewhere, the +prince was averse from making a drastic purge; out of the +thirty-six members, more than half, nineteen, were restored. The +new men, who thus took their seats in the Town Council, obtained +the <i>sobriquet</i> of "Forty-Eighters."</p> + +<p>The state of both the army and navy was deplorable at the end of +the war in which the States had played so inglorious a part. +William had neither the training nor the knowledge to undertake +their reorganisation. He therefore sought the help of Lewis Ernest, +Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1718-86), who, as an Austrian +field-marshal, had distinguished himself in the war. Brunswick was +with difficulty persuaded, in October, 1749, to accept the post of +Dutch field-marshal, a salary of 60,000 fl. being guaranteed to +him, the governorship of Hertogenbosch, and the right to retain his +rank in the Austrian army. The duke did not actually arrive in +Holland and take up his duties until December, 1750.</p> + +<p>The prince's efforts to bring about a reform of the Admiralties, +to make the Dutch navy an efficient force and to restore the +commerce and industries of the country were well meant, but were +marred by the feebleness of his health. All through the year 1750 +he had recurring attacks of illness and grew weaker. On October 22, +1751, he died. It is unfair to condemn William IV because he did +not rise to the height of his opportunities. When in 1747 power was +thrust upon him so suddenly, no man could have been more earnest in +his wish to serve his country. But he was not gifted with the great +abilities and high resolve of William III; and there can be no +doubt that the difficulties with which he had to contend were +manifold, complex and deep-rooted. A valetudinarian like William IV +was not fitted to be the physician of a body-politic suffering from +so many diseases as that of the United Provinces in 1747.</p> +<br /><br /><br /> +<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_316" id= +"page_316">[pg.316]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE REGENCY OF ANNE AND OF BRUNSWICK.</p> + +<p>1751-1766</p> + + + + +<p>On the death of William IV, his widow, Anne of England, was at +once recognised as regent and guardian of her son William V. +Bentinck and other leaders of the Orangist party took prompt +measures to secure that the hereditary rights of the young prince +did not suffer by his father's early death. During the minority +Brunswick was deputed to perform the duties of captain-general. The +new regent was a woman of by no means ordinary parts. In her +domestic life she possessed all the virtues of her mother, Queen +Caroline; and in public affairs she had been of much help to her +husband and was deeply interested in them. She was therefore in +many ways well-fitted to undertake the serious responsibilities +that devolved upon her, but her good qualities were marred by a +self-willed and autocratic temperament, which made her resent any +interference with her authority. William Bentinck, who was wont to +be insistent with his advice, presuming on the many services he had +rendered, the Duke of Brunswick, and the council-pensionary Steyn +were all alike distrusted and disliked by her. Her professed policy +was not to lean on any party, but to try and hold the balance +between them. Unfortunately William IV, after the revolution of +1747, had allowed his old Frisian counsellors (with Otto Zwier van +Haren at their head) to have his ear and to exercise an undue +influence upon his decisions. This Frisian court-cabal continued to +exercise the same influence with Princess Anne; and the Hollanders +not unnaturally resented it. For Holland, as usual, in the late war +had borne the brunt of the cost and had a debt of 70,000,000 fl. +and an annual deficit of 28,000,000 fl. The council-pensionary +Steyn was a most competent financier, and he with Jan Hop, the +treasurer-general of the Union, and with William Bentinck, head and +spokesman of the nobles in the Estates of Holland, were urgent in +impressing upon the Regent the crying need of retrenchment. Anne +accepted their advice as to the means<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_317" id="page_317">[pg.317]</a></span> by which economies +might be effected and a reduction of expenses be brought about. +Among these was the disbanding of some of the military forces, +including a part of the body-guard. To this the regent consented, +though characteristically without consulting Brunswick. The +captain-general felt aggrieved, but allowed the reduction to be +made without any formal opposition. No measure, however, of a bold +and comprehensive financial reform, like that of John de Witt a +century earlier, was attempted.</p> + +<p>The navy had at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle been in an even +worse condition than the army; and the stadholder, as +admiral-general, had been urging the Admiralties to bestir +themselves and to make the fleet more worthy of a maritime power. +But William's premature death brought progress to a standstill; and +it is noteworthy that such was the supineness of the States-General +in 1752 that, while Brunswick was given the powers of +captain-general, no admiral-general was appointed. The losses +sustained by the merchants and ship-owners through the audacity of +the Algerian pirates roused public opinion, however; and in +successive years squadrons were despatched to the Mediterranean to +bring the sea-robbers to reason. Admiral Boudaen in 1755 contented +himself with the protection of the merchantmen, but Wassenaer in +1756 and 1757 was more aggressive and compelled the Dey of Algiers +to make terms.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the rivalry between France and England on the one +hand, and between Austria and Prussia on the other, led to the +formation of new alliances, and placed the Dutch Republic in a +difficult position. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was but an armed +truce. The French lost no time in pushing forward ambitious schemes +of colonial enterprise in North America and in India. Their +progress was watched with jealous eyes by the English; and in 1755 +war broke out between the two powers. The Republic was bound to +Great Britain by ancient treaties; but the activities of the French +ambassador, D'Affry, had been successful in winning over a number +of influential Hollanders and also the court-cabal to be inclined +to France and to favour strict neutrality. The situation was +immensely complicated by the alliance concluded between Austria and +France on May 1, 1756.</p> + +<p>This complete reversal of the policy, which from the early years +of William III had grouped England, Austria and the States in<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_318" id= +"page_318">[pg.318]</a></span> alliance against French aggression, +caused immense perturbation amongst the Dutch statesmen. By a +stroke of the pen the Barrier Treaty had ceased to exist, for the +barrier fortresses were henceforth useless. The English ambassador, +Yorke, urged upon the Dutch government the treaty right of Great +Britain to claim the assistance of 6000 men and twenty ships; +Austria had the able advocacy of D'Affry in seeking to induce the +States to become parties to the Franco-Austrian alliance. The +regent, though an English princess, was scarcely less zealous than +were the council-pensionary Steyn, Brunswick and most of the +leading burgher-regents in desiring to preserve strict neutrality. +To England the answer was made that naval and military help were +not due except in case of invasion. The French had meanwhile been +offering the Dutch considerable commercial privileges in exchange +for their neutrality, with the result that Dutch merchantmen were +seized by the English cruisers and carried into English ports to be +searched for contraband.</p> + +<p>The princess had a very difficult part to play. Delegations of +merchants waited upon her urging her to exert her influence with +the English government not to use their naval supremacy for the +injury of Dutch trade. Anne did her best, but without avail. +England was determined to stop all commercial intercourse between +France and the West Indies. Dutch merchantmen who attempted to +supply the French with goods did so at their own risk. Four +deputations from Amsterdam and the maritime towns waited upon the +princess, urging an increase of the fleet as a protection against +England. Other deputations came from the inland provinces, asking +for an increase of the army against the danger of a French +invasion. The French were already in occupation of Ostend and +Nieuport, and had threatening masses of troops on the Belgian +frontier. The regent, knowing on which side the peril to the +security of the country was greatest, absolutely refused her +consent to an increase of the fleet without an increase of the +army. The Estates of Holland refused to vote money for the army; +and, having the power of the purse, matters were at a deadlock. The +Republic lay helpless and without defence should its enemies +determine to attack it. In the midst of all these difficulties and +anxieties, surrounded by intrigues and counter-intrigues, sincerely +patriotic and desirous to do her utmost for the country, but +thwarted and distrusted on every side, the health of the regent, +which had never been strong, gradually<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_319" id="page_319">[pg.319]</a></span> gave way. On +December 11, 1758, she went in person to the States-General, "with +tottering steps and death in her face," to endeavour to secure +unity of action in the presence of the national danger, but without +achieving her object. The maritime provinces were obdurate. Seeing +death approaching, with the opening of the new year she made +arrangements for the marriage of her daughter Caroline with Charles +Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg, and after committing her two +children to the care of the Duke of Brunswick (with whom she had +effected a reconciliation) and making him guardian of the young +Prince of Orange, Anne expired on January 12, 1759, at the early +age of forty-nine.</p> + +<p>The task Brunswick had to fulfil was an anxious one, but by the +exercise of great tact, during the seven years of William's +minority, he managed to gather into his hands a great deal of the +powers of a stadholder, and at the same time to ingratiate himself +with the anti-Orange States party, whose power especially in +Holland had been growing in strength and was in fact predominant. +By politic concessions to the regents, and by the interest he +displayed in the commercial and financial prosperity of the city of +Amsterdam, that chief centre of opposition gave its support to his +authority; and he was able to do this while keeping at the same +time on good terms with Bentinck, Steyn, Fagel and the Orange +party.</p> + +<p>The political position of the United Provinces during the early +part of the Brunswick guardianship was impotent and ignominious in +the extreme. Despite continued protests and complaints, Dutch +merchantmen were constantly being searched for contraband and +brought as prizes into English ports; and the lucrative trade that +had been carried on between the West Indies and France in Dutch +bottoms was completely stopped. Even the fitting out of twenty-one +ships of the line, as a convoy, effected nothing, for such a force +could not face the enormous superiority of the English fleet, which +at that time swept the seas. The French ambassador, D'Affry, made +most skilful use of his opportunities to create a pro-French party +in Holland and especially in Amsterdam, and he was not unsuccessful +in his intrigues. But the Dutch resolve to remain neutral at any +cost remained as strong as ever, for, whatever might be the case +with maritime Holland, the inland provinces shrank from running any +risks of foreign invasion. When at last the Peace of Paris came in +1763, the representatives of the United Provinces, though they +essayed to<span class="newpage"><a name="page_320" id= +"page_320">[pg.320]</a></span> play the part of mediators between +the warring powers, no longer occupied a position of any weight in +the councils of the European nations. The proud Republic, which had +treated on equal terms with France and with Great Britain in the +days of John de Witt and of William III, had become in the eyes of +the statesmen of 1763 a negligible quantity.</p> + +<p>One of the effects of the falling-off in the overseas trade of +Amsterdam was to transform this great commercial city into the +central exchange of Europe. The insecurity of sea-borne trade +caused many of the younger merchants to deal in money securities +and bills of exchange rather than in goods. Banking houses sprang +up apace, and large fortunes were made by speculative investments +in stocks and shares; and loans for foreign governments, large and +small, were readily negotiated. This state of things reached its +height during the Seven Years' War, but with the settlement which +followed the peace of 1763 disaster came. On July 25 the chief +financial house in Amsterdam, that of De Neufville, failed to meet +its liabilities and brought down in its crash a very large number +of other firms, not merely in Holland, but also in Hamburg and +other places; for a veritable panic was caused, and it was some +time before stability could be restored.</p> + +<p>The remaining three years of the Brunswick <i>régime</i> +were uneventful in the home country. Differences with the English +East India Company however led to the expulsion of the Dutch from +their trading settlements on the Hooghley and Coromandel; and in +Berbice there was a serious revolt of the negro slaves, which, +after hard fighting in the bush, was put down with much cruelty. +The young Prince of Orange on the attainment of his eighteenth +year, March 8,1766, succeeded to his hereditary rights. His +grandmother, Maria Louisa, to whose care he had owed much, had died +on April 9, in the previous year. During the interval the Princess +Caroline had taken her place as regent in Friesland.</p> + +<br /><br /><br /> +<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">[pg.321]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIV </h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>WILLIAM V. FIRST PERIOD, 1766-1780</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Of all the stadholders of his line William V was the least +distinguished. Neither in appearance, character nor manner was he +fitted for the position which he had to fill. He had been most +carefully educated, and was not wanting in ability, but he lacked +energy and thoroughness, and was vacillating and undecided at +moments when resolute action was called for. Like his contemporary +Louis XVI, had he been born in a private station, he would have +adorned it, but like that unhappy monarch he had none of the +qualities of a leader of men in critical and difficult times. It +was characteristic of him that he asked for confirmation from the +Provincial Estates of the dignities and offices which were his by +hereditary right. In every thing he relied upon the advice of the +Duke of Brunswick, whose methods of government he implicitly +followed. To such an extent was this the case that, soon after his +accession to power, a secret Act was drawn up (May 3, 1766), known +as the Act of Consultation, by which the duke bound himself to +remain at the side of the stadholder and to assist him by word and +deed in all affairs of State. During the earlier years therefore of +William V's stadholderate he consulted Brunswick in every matter, +and was thus encouraged to distrust his own judgment and to be +fitful and desultory in his attention to affairs of State.</p> + +<p>One of the first of Brunswick's cares was to provide for the +prince a suitable wife. William II, William III and William IV had +all married English princesses, but the feeling of hostility to +England was strong in Holland, and it was not thought advisable for +the young stadholder to seek for a wife in his mother's family. The +choice of the duke was the Prussian Princess Wilhelmina. The new +Princess of Orange was niece on the paternal side of Frederick the +Great and on the maternal side of the Duke of Brunswick himself. +The marriage took place at Berlin on October, 4 1767. The bride was +but sixteen years of age, but her attractive manners and vivacious +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_322" id= +"page_322">[pg.322]</a></span> cleverness caused her to win the +popular favour on her first entry into her adopted country.</p> + +<p>The first eight years of William's stadholdership passed by +quietly. There is little to record. Commerce prospered, but the +Hollanders were no longer content with commerce and aimed rather at +the rapid accumulation of wealth by successful financial +transactions. Stock-dealing had become a national pursuit. Foreign +powers came to Amsterdam for loans; and vast amounts of Dutch +capital were invested in British and French funds and in the +various German states. And yet all the time this rich and +prosperous country was surrounded by powerful military and naval +powers, and, having no strong natural frontiers, lay exposed +defenceless to aggressive attack whether by sea or land. It was in +vain that the stadholder, year by year, sent pressing memorials to +the States-General urging them to strengthen the navy and the army +and to put them on a war footing. The maritime provinces were eager +for an increase of the navy, but the inland provinces refused to +contribute their quota of the charges. Utrecht, Gelderland, +Overyssel and Groningen on the other hand, liable as they were to +suffer from military invasion, were ready to sanction a +considerable addition to the land forces, but were thwarted by the +opposition of Holland, Zeeland and Friesland. So nothing was done, +and the Republic, torn by divided interests and with its ruling +classes lapped in self-contented comfort and luxury, was a helpless +prey that seemed to invite spoliation.</p> + +<p>This was the state of things when the British North American +colonies rose in revolt against the mother-country. The sympathies +of France were from the first with the colonials; and a body of +volunteers raised by Lafayette with the connivance of the French +overnment crossed the Atlantic to give armed assistance to the +rebels. Scarcely less warm was the feeling in the Netherlands. The +motives which prompted it were partly sentimental, partly +practical. There was a certain similarity between the struggle for +independence on the part of the American colonists against a mighty +state like Great Britain, and their own struggle with the +world-power of Spain. There was also the hope that the rebellion +would have the practical result of opening out to the Dutch +merchants a lucrative trade with the Americans, one of whose chief +grievances against the mother-country had been the severity of the +restrictions forbidding<span class="newpage"><a name="page_323" id= +"page_323">[pg.323]</a></span> all trading with foreign lands. At +the same time the whole air was full of revolutionary ideas, which +were unsettling men's minds. This was no less the case in the +Netherlands than elsewhere; and the American revolt was regarded as +a realisation and vindication in practical politics of the teaching +of Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau, whose works were widely +read, and of the Englishmen Hume, Priestley and Richard Price. +Foremost among the propagandists of these ideas were Jan Dirk van +der Capellen tot de Pol, a nobleman of Overyssel, and the three +burgomasters of Amsterdam, Van Berckel, De Vrij Temminck and Hooft, +all anti-Orange partisans and pro-French in sentiment. Amidst all +these contending factions and opinions, the State remained +virtually without a head, William V drifting along incapable of +forming an independent decision, or of making a firm and resolute +use of the great powers with which he was entrusted.</p> + +<p>Torn by internal dissensions, the maintenance of neutrality by +the Republic became even more difficult than in the Seven Years' +War. The old questions of illicit trade with the enemy and the +carrying of contraband arose. The Dutch islands of St Eustatius and +Curaçoa became centres of smuggling enterprise; and Dutch +merchant vessels were constantly being searched by the British +cruisers and often carried off as prizes into English ports. Strong +protests were made and great irritation aroused. Amsterdam was the +chief sufferer. Naturally in this hot-bed of Republican opinion and +French sympathies, the prince was blamed and was accused of +preferring English interests to those of his own country. The +arrival of the Duke de la Vauguyon, as French ambassador, did much +to fan the flame. Vauguyon entered into close relations with the +Amsterdam regents and did all in his power to exacerbate the +growing feeling of hostility to England, and to persuade the +Republic to abandon the ancient alliance with that country in +favour of one with France.</p> + +<p>The British ambassador, Yorke, lacked his ingratiating manners; +and his language now became imperative and menacing in face of the +flourishing contraband trade that was carried on at St Eustatius. +In consequence of his strong protest the governor of the island, +Van Heyliger, was replaced by De Graeff, but it was soon discovered +that the new governor was no improvement upon his predecessor. He +caused additional offence to the British government<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">[pg.324]</a></span> by +saluting the American flag on November 16, 1776. The threats of +Yorke grew stronger, but with small result. The Americans continued +to draw supplies from the Dutch islands. The entry of France into +the war on February 6, 1778, followed by that of Spain, complicated +matters. England was now fighting with her back to the wall; and +her sea-power had to be exerted to its utmost to make head against +so many foes. She waged relentless war on merchant ships carrying +contraband or suspected contraband, whether enemy or neutral. At +last money was voted under pressure from Amsterdam, supported by +the prince, for the building of a fleet for protection against +privateers and for purposes of convoy. But a fleet cannot be built +in a day; and, when Admiral van Bylandt was sent out in 1777, his +squadron consisted of five ships only. Meanwhile negotiations with +England were proceeding and resulted in certain concessions, +consent being given to allow what was called "limited convoy." The +States-General, despite the opposition of Amsterdam, accepted on +November 13, 1778, the proffered compromise. But the French +ambassador Vauguyon supported the protest of Amsterdam by +threatening, unless the States-General insisted upon complete +freedom of trade, to withdraw the commercial privileges granted to +the Republic by France. Finding that the States-General upheld +their resolution of November 13, he carried his threat into +execution. This action brought the majority of the Estates of +Holland to side with Amsterdam and to call for a repeal of the +"limited convoy" resolution. The English on their part, well aware +of all this, continued to do their utmost to stop all supplies +reaching their enemies in Dutch bottoms, convoy or no convoy. The +British government, though confronted by so many foes, now took +strong measures. Admiral van Bylandt, convoying a fleet of +merchantmen through the Channel, was compelled by a British +squadron to strike his flag; and all the Dutch vessels were taken +into Portsmouth. This was followed by a demand under the treaty of +1678 for Dutch aid in ships and men, or the abrogation of the +treaty of alliance and of the commercial privileges it carried with +it. Yorke gave the States-General three weeks for their decision; +and on April 17, 1779, the long-standing alliance, which William +III had made the keystone of his policy, ceased to exist. War was +not declared, but the States-General voted for "unlimited convoy" +on April 24; and every effort was made by the Admiralties to build +and<span class="newpage"><a name="page_325" id= +"page_325">[pg.325]</a></span> equip a considerable fleet. The +reception given to the American privateer, Paul Jones, who, despite +English protests, was not only allowed to remain in Holland for +three months, but was feted as a hero (October-December, 1779), +accentuated the increasing alienation of the two countries.</p> + +<p>At this critical stage the difficult position of England was +increased by the formation under the leadership of Russia of a +League of Armed Neutrality. Its object was to maintain the +principle of the freedom of the seas for the vessels of neutral +countries, unless they were carrying contraband of war, +<i>i.e.</i>military or naval munitions. Further a blockade would +not be recognised if not effective. Sweden and Denmark joined the +league; and the Empress Catherine invited the United Provinces and +several other neutral powers to do likewise. Her object was to put +a curb upon what was described by Britain's enemies as the tyranny +of the Mistress of the Seas. The Republic for some time hesitated. +Conscious of their weakness at sea, the majority in the +States-General were unwilling to take any overt steps to provoke +hostilities, when an event occurred which forced their hands.</p> + +<p>In 1778 certain secret negotiations had taken place between the +Amsterdam regents and the American representatives at Paris, +Franklin and Lee. It chanced that Henry Lawrence, a former +President of the Congress, was on his way from New York to +Amsterdam in September, 1780, for the purpose of raising a loan. +Pursued by an English frigate, the ship on which he was sailing was +captured off Newfoundland; and among his papers were found copies +of the negotiations of 1778 and of the correspondence which then +took place. Great was the indignation of the British government, +and it was increased when the Estates of Holland, under the +influence of Amsterdam, succeeded in bringing the States-General +(by a majority of four provinces to three) to join the League of +Armed Neutrality. Better open war than a sham peace. Instructions +were therefore sent to the ambassador Yorke to demand the +punishment of the Amsterdam regents for their clandestine +transactions with the enemies of England. The reply was that the +matter should be brought before the Court of Holland; and Van +Welderen, the Dutch ambassador in London, in vain endeavoured to +give assurances that the States were anxious to maintain a strict +neutrality. Yorke demanded immediate satisfaction and once more +called <span class="newpage"><a name="page_326" id= +"page_326">[pg.326]</a></span> upon the Republic to furnish the aid +in men and ships in accordance with the treaty. Further +instructions were therefore sent to Van Welderen, but they were +delayed by tempestuous weather. In any case they would have been of +no avail. The British government was in no mood for temporising. On +December 20, 1780 war was declared against the United Provinces; +and three days later Yorke left the Hague. </p> + +<br /><br /><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">[pg.327]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXV</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM V, <i>continued</i>, 1780-1788 </p> +<br /> + + +<p>The outbreak of war meant the final ruin of the Dutch Republic. +Its internal condition at the close of 1780 made it hopelessly +unfitted to enter upon a struggle with the overwhelming sea-power +of England. Even had William V possessed the qualities of +leadership, he would have had to contend against the bitter +opposition and enmity of the anti-Orange party among the +burgher-regents, of which Van der Capellen was one of the most +moving spirits, and which had its chief centre in Amsterdam. But +the prince, weak and incompetent, was apparently intent only on +evading his responsibilities, and so laid himself open to the +charges of neglect and mal-administration that were brought against +him by his enemies.</p> + +<p>Against an English fleet of more than 300 vessels manned by a +force of something like 100,000 seamen, the Dutch had but twenty +ships of the line, most of them old and of little value. Large sums +of money were now voted for the equipment of a fleet; and the +Admiralties were urged to press forward the work with all possible +vigour. But progress was necessarily slow. Everything was +lacking—material, munitions, equipment, skilled +labour—and these could not be supplied in time to prevent +Dutch commerce being swept from the seas and the Dutch colonies +captured. The Republicans, or Patriots, as they began to name +themselves, were at first delighted that the Orange stadholder and +his party had been compelled to break with England and to seek the +alliance of France; but their joy was but short-lived. Bad tidings +followed rapidly one upon another. In the first month of the war +200 merchantmen were captured, of the value of 15,000,000 florins. +The fishing fleets dared not put out to sea. In 1780 more than 2000 +vessels passed through the Sound, in 1781 only eleven. On February +3 St Eustatius surrendered to Admiral Rodney, when one hundred and +thirty merchantmen together with immense stores fell into the hands +of the captors. Surinam and Curaçoa received warning and +were able <span class="newpage"><a name="page_328" id= +"page_328">[pg.328]</a></span> to put themselves into a state of +defence, but the colonies of Demerara, Berbice and Essequibo were +taken, also St Martin, Saba and the Dutch establishments on the +coast of Guinea. In the East Indies Negapatam and the factories in +Bengal passed into English possession; and the Cape, Java and +Ceylon would have shared the same fate, but for the timely +protection of a French squadron under the command of Suffren, one +of the ablest and bravest of French seamen.</p> + +<p>The losses were enormous, and loud was the outcry raised in +Amsterdam and elsewhere against the prince of being the cause of +his country's misfortunes. "Orange," so his enemies said, "is to +blame for everything. He possessed the power to do whatsoever he +would, and he neglected to use it in providing for the navy and the +land's defences." This was to a considerable extent unjust, for +William from 1767 onwards had repeatedly urged an increase of the +sea and land forces, but his proposals had been thwarted by bitter +opposition, especially in Amsterdam itself. The accusations were to +this extent correct that he was undoubtedly invested with large +executive power which he had not the strength of will to use. It +was at this period that Van der Capellen and others started a most +violent press campaign not only against the stadholder, but against +the hereditary stadholdership and all that the house of +Orange-Nassau stood for in the history of the Dutch Republic. +Brunswick was attacked with especial virulence. The "Act of +Consultation" had become known; and, had the prince been willing to +throw responsibility upon the duke for bad advice he might have +gained some fleeting popularity by separating himself from the +hated "foreigner." But William, weak though he was, would not +abandon the man who in his youth had been to him and to his house a +wise and staunch protector and friend; and he knew, moreover, that +the accusations against Brunswick were really aimed at himself. The +duke, however, after appealing to the States-General, and being by +them declared free from blame, found the spirit of hostility so +strong at Amsterdam and in several of the Provincial Estates that +he withdrew first (1782) to Hertogenbosch, of which place he was +governor, and finally left the country in 1784.</p> + +<p>The war meanwhile, which had been the cause, or rather the +pretext, for this outburst of popular feeling against Brunswick, +was pursuing its course. In the summer of 1781 Rear-Admiral +Zoutman, <span class="newpage"><a name="page_329" id= +"page_329">[pg.329]</a></span> at the head of a squadron of fifteen +war-ships, was ordered to convoy seventy-two merchantmen into the +Baltic. He met an English force of twelve vessels, which were +larger and better armed than the Dutch, under Vice-Admiral Hyde +Parker. A fierce encounter took place at the Doggerbank on August +5, which lasted all day without either side being able to claim the +victory. Parker was the first to retreat, but Zoutman had likewise +to return to the Texel to repair his disabled ships, and his convoy +never reached the Baltic. The Dutch however were greatly elated at +the result of the fight, and Zoutman and his captains were feted as +heroes.</p> + +<p>Doggerbank battle was but, at the most, an indecisive engagement +on a very small scale, and it brought no relaxation in the English +blockade. No Dutch admiral throughout all the rest of the war +ventured to face the English squadrons in the North Sea and in the +Channel; and the Dutch mercantile marine disappeared from the +ocean. England was strong enough to defy the Armed Neutrality, +which indeed proved, as its authoress Catherine II is reported to +have said, "an armed nullity." There was deep dissatisfaction +throughout the country, and mutual recriminations between the +various responsible authorities, but there was some justice in +making the stadholder the chief scapegoat, for, whatever may have +been the faults of others, a vigorous initiative in the earlier +years of his stadholdership might have effected much, and would +have certainly gained for him increased influence and respect.</p> + +<p>The war lasted for two years, if war that could be called in +which there was practically no fighting. There were changes of +government in England during that time, and the party of which Fox +was the leader had no desire to press hardly upon the Dutch. +Several efforts were made to induce them to negotiate in London a +separate peace on favourable terms, but the partisans of France in +Amsterdam and elsewhere rendered these tentative negotiations +fruitless. Being weak, the Republic suffered accordingly by having +to accept finally whatever terms its mightier neighbour thought fit +to dictate. On November 30, 1782, the preliminary treaty by which +Great Britain conceded to the United States of America their +independence was concluded. A truce between Great Britain and +France followed in January, 1783, in which the United Provinces, as +a satellite of France, were included. No further hostilities took +place, but the negotiations for a definitive peace dragged on, the +protests of the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_330" id= +"page_330">[pg.330]</a></span> Dutch plenipotentiaries at Paris +against the terms arranged between England and France being of no +avail. Finally the French government concluded a separate peace on +September 3; but it was not till May 20, 1784, that the Dutch could +be induced to surrender Negapatam and to grant to the English the +right of free entry into the Moluccas. Nor was this the only +humiliation the Republic had at this time to suffer, for during the +course of the English war serious troubles with the Emperor Joseph +II had arisen.</p> + +<p>Joseph had in 1780 paid a visit to his Belgian provinces, and he +had seen with his own eyes the ruinous condition of the barrier +fortresses. On the pretext that the fortresses were now useless, +since France and the Republic were allies, Joseph informed the +States-General of his intention to dismantle them all with the +exception of Antwerp and Luxemburg. This meant of course the +withdrawal of the Dutch garrisons. The States-General, being unable +to resist, deemed it the wiser course to submit. The troops +accordingly left the barrier towns in January, 1782. Such +submission, as was to be expected, inevitably led to further +demands.</p> + +<p>The Treaty of Münster (1648) had left the Dutch in +possession of territory on both banks of the Scheldt, and had given +them the right to close all access by river to Antwerp, which had +for a century and a quarter ceased to be a sea-port. In 1781, +during his visit to Belgium, Joseph had received a number of +petitions in favour of the liberation of the Scheldt. At the moment +he did not see his way to taking action, but in 1783 he took +advantage of the embarrassments of the Dutch government to raise +the question of a disputed boundary in Dutch Flanders; and in the +autumn of that year a body of Imperial troops took forcible +possession of some frontier forts near Sluis. Matters were brought +to a head in May, 1784, by the emperor sending to the +States-General a detailed summary of all his grievances, <i>Tableau +sommaire des prétentions</i>. In this he claimed, besides +cessions of territory at Maestricht and in Dutch Flanders, the +right of free navigation on the Scheldt, the demolition of the +Dutch forts closing the river, and freedom of trading from the +Belgian ports to the Indies. This document was in fact an +ultimatum, the rejection of which meant war. For once all parties +in the Republic were united in resistance to the emperor's demands; +and when in October, 1784, two ships attempted to navigate the +Scheldt, the one starting from Antwerp, the other from Ostend, they +were<span class="newpage"><a name="page_331" id= +"page_331">[pg.331]</a></span> both stopped; the first at Saftingen +on the frontier, the second at Flushing. War seemed imminent. An +Austrian army corps was sent to the Netherlands; and the Dutch +bestirred themselves with a vigour unknown in the States for many +years to equip a strong fleet and raise troops to repel invasion. +It is, however, almost certain that, had Joseph carried out his +threat of sending a force of 80,000 men to avenge the insult +offered to his ships, the hastily enlisted Dutch troops would not +have been able to offer effectual resistance. But the question the +emperor was raising was no mere local question. He was really +seeking to violate important clauses of two international treaties, +to which all the great powers were parties, the Treaty of +Münster and the Treaty of Utrecht. His own possession of the +Belgian Netherlands and the independence and sovereign rights of +the Dutch Republic rested on the same title. Joseph had counted +upon the help or at least the friendly neutrality of his +brother-in-law, Louis XVI, but France had just concluded an +exhausting war in which the United Provinces had been her allies. +The French, moreover, had no desire to see the Republic +over-powered by an act of aggression that might give rise to +European complications. Louis XVI offered mediation, and it was +accepted.</p> + +<p>It is doubtful indeed whether the emperor, whose restless brain +was always full of new schemes, really meant to carry his threats +into execution. In the autumn of 1784 a plan for exchanging the +distant Belgian Netherlands for the contiguous Electorate of +Bavaria was beginning to exercise his thoughts and diplomacy. He +showed himself therefore ready to make concessions; and by the +firmness of the attitude of France both the disputants were after +lengthy negotiations brought to terms, which were embodied in a +treaty signed at Fontainebleau on November 8,1785. The Dutch +retained the right to close the Scheldt, but had to dismantle some +of the forts; the frontier of Dutch Flanders was to be that of +1664; and Joseph gave up all claim to Maestricht in consideration +of a payment of 9,500,000 florins. A few days later an alliance +between France and the Republic, known as "the Defensive +Confederacy" of Fontainebleau, was concluded, the French government +advancing 4,500,000 florins towards the ransom of Maestricht. The +return of peace, however, far from allaying the spirit of faction +in the Republic, was to lead to civil strife.</p> + +<p>The situation with which William V now had to deal was in<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_332" id= +"page_332">[pg.332]</a></span> some ways more difficult and +dangerous than in the days of his greater predecessors. It was no +longer a mere struggle for supremacy between the Orange-Stadholder +party (<i>prins-gezinderi</i>) and the patrician-regents of the +town corporations (<i>staats-gezinderi</i>); a third party had come +into existence, the democratic or "patriot" party, which had +imbibed the revolutionary ideas of Rousseau and others about the +Rights of Man and the Social Contract. These new ideas, spread +about with fiery zeal by the two nobles, Van der Capellen tot de +Pol and his cousin Van der Capellen van den Marsch, had found a +fertile soil in the northern Netherlands, and among all classes, +including other nobles and many leading burgomasters. Their aim was +to abolish all privileges whether in Church or State, and to +establish the principle of the sovereignty of the people. These +were the days, be it remembered, which immediately succeeded the +American Revolution and preceded the summoning of the +States-General in France with its fateful consequences. The +atmosphere was full of revolution; and the men of the new ideas had +no more sympathy with the pretensions of an aristocratic caste of +burgher-regents to exclude their fellow-citizens from a voice in +the management of their own affairs, than they had with the +quasi-sovereign position of an hereditary stadholder. Among the +Orange party were few men of mark. The council-pensionary Bleiswijk +was without character, ready to change sides with the shifting +wind; and Count Bentinck van Rhoon had little ability. They were, +however, to discover in burgomaster Van de Spiegel of Goes a +statesman destined soon to play a great part in the history of the +country. During this period of acute party strife Patriot and +Orangeman were not merely divided from one another on questions of +domestic policy. The one party were strong adherents of the French +alliance and leant upon its support; the other sought to renew the +bonds which had so long united the Republic with England. Indeed +the able representatives of France and England at the Hague at this +time, the Count de Vérac and Sir James Harris (afterwards Lord +Malmesbury), were the real leaders and advisers, behind the scenes, +of the opposing factions.</p> + +<p>The strength of parties varied in the different provinces. +Holland, always more or less anti-stadholder, was the chief centre +of the patriots. With Holland were the majority of the Estates of +Friesland, Groningen and Overyssel. In Utrecht the nobles and the +regents<span class="newpage"><a name="page_333" id= +"page_333">[pg.333]</a></span> were for the stadholder, but the +townsmen were strong patriots. Zeeland supported the prince, who +had with him the army, the preachers and the great mass of small +<i>bourgeoisie</i> and the country folk. Nothing could exceed the +violence and unscrupulousness of the attacks that were directed +against the stadholder in the press; and no efforts were spared by +his opponents to curtail his rights and to insult him personally. +Corps of patriot volunteers were enrolled in different places with +self-elected officers. The wearing of the Orange colours and the +singing of the <i>Wilhelmus</i> was forbidden, and punished by fine +and imprisonment. In September, 1785, a riot at the Hague led to +the Estates of Holland taking from the stadholder the command of +the troops in that city. They likewise ordered the foot-guards +henceforth to salute the members of the Estates, and removed the +arms of the prince from the standards and the facings of the +troops. As a further slight, the privilege was given to the +deputies, while the Estates were in session, to pass through the +gate into the Binnenhof, which had hitherto been reserved for the +use of the stadholder alone. Filled with indignation and +resentment, William left the Hague with his family and withdrew to +his country residence at Het Loo. Such a step only increased the +confusion and disorder that was filling every part of the country, +for it showed that William had neither the spirit nor the energy to +make a firm stand against those who were resolved to overthrow his +authority.</p> + +<p>In Utrecht the strife between the parties led to scenes of +violence. The "patriots" found an eloquent leader in the person of +a young student named Ondaatje. The Estates of the province were as +conservative as the city of Utrecht itself was ultra-democratic; +and a long series of disturbances were caused by the +burgher-regents of the Town Council refusing to accede to the +popular demand for a drastic change in their constitution. Finally +they were besieged in the town hall by a numerous gathering of the +"free corps" headed by Ondaatje, and were compelled to accede to +the people's demands. A portion of the Estates thereupon assembled +at Amersfoort; and at their request a body of 400 troops were sent +there from Nijmwegen. Civil war seemed imminent, but it was averted +by the timely mediation of the Estates of Holland.</p> + +<p>Scarcely less dangerous was the state of affairs in Gelderland. +Here the Estates of the Gelderland had an Orange majority, but the +patriots had an influential leader in Van der Capellen van den<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_334" id= +"page_334">[pg.334]</a></span> Marsch. Petitions and requests were +sent to the Estates demanding popular reforms. The Estates not only +refused to receive them but issued a proclamation forbidding the +dissemination of revolutionary literature in the province. The +small towns of Elburg and Hattem not only refused to obey, but the +inhabitants proceeded by force to compel their Councils to yield to +their demands. The Estates thereupon called upon the stadholder to +send troops to restore order. This was done, and garrisons were +placed in Elburg and Hattem. This step caused a very great +commotion in Holland and especially at Amsterdam; and the patriot +leaders felt that the time had come to take measures by which to +unite all their forces in the different parts of the country for +common defence and common action. The result of all this was that +the movement became more and more revolutionary in its aims. To +such an extent was this the case that many of the old aristocratic +anti-stadholder regents began to perceive that the carrying out of +the patriots' programme of popular reform would mean the overthrow +of the system of government which they upheld, at the same time as +that of the stadholderate.</p> + +<p>The reply of the Estates of Holland to the strong measures taken +against Elburg and Hattem was the "provisional" removal of the +prince from the post of captain-general, and the recalling, on +their own authority, of all troops in the pay of the province +serving in the frontier fortresses (August, 1786). As the year went +on the agitation grew in volume; increasing numbers were enrolled +in the free corps. The complete ascendancy of the ultra-democratic +patriots was proved and assured by tumultuous gatherings at +Amsterdam (April 21, 1787), and a few days later at Rotterdam, +compelling the Town Councils to dismiss at Amsterdam nine regents +and at Rotterdam seven, suspected of Orange leanings. Holland was +now entirely under patriot control; and the democrats in other +districts were eagerly looking to the forces which Holland could +bring into the field to protect the patriot cause from tyrannous +acts of oppression by the stadholder's troops. In the summer of +1787 the forces on both sides were being mustered on the borders of +the province of Utrecht, and frequent collisions had already taken +place. Nothing but the prince's indecision had prevented the actual +outbreak of a general civil war. At the critical moment of suspense +an incident occurred, however, which was to effect a dramatic +change in the situation.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_335" +id="page_335">[pg.335]</a></span></p> + +<p>William's pusillanimous attitude (he was actually talking of +withdrawing from the country to Nassau) was by no means acceptable +to his high-spirited wife. The princess was all for vigorous +action, and she wrung from William a reluctant consent to her +returning from Nijmwegen, where for security she had been residing +with her family, to the Hague. In that political centre she would +be in close communication with Sir J. Harris and Van de Spiegel, +and would be able to organise a powerful opposition in Holland to +patriot ascendancy. It was a bold move, the success of which +largely depended on the secrecy with which it was carried out. On +June 28 Wilhelmina started from Nijmwegen, but the commandant of +the free corps at Gouda, hearing that horses were being ordered at +Schoonhoven and Haasrecht for a considerable party, immediately +sent to headquarters for instructions. He was told not to allow any +suspicious body of persons to pass. He accordingly stopped the +princess and detained her at a farm until the arrival at Woerden of +the members of the Committee of Defence. By these Her Highness was +treated (on learning her quality) with all respect, but she was +informed that she could not proceed without the permit of the +Estates of Holland. The indignant princess did not wait for the +permit to arrive, but returned to Nijmwegen.</p> + +<p>The British ambassador, Harris, at once brought the action of +the Estates of Holland before the States-General and demanded +satisfaction; and on July 10 a still more peremptory demand was +made by the Prussian ambassador, von Thulemeyer. Frederick William +II was incensed at the treatment his sister had received; and, when +the Estates of Holland refused to punish the offending officials, +on the ground that no insult had been intended, orders were +immediately given for an army of 20,000 men under Charles, Duke of +Brunswick, to cross the frontier and exact reparation. The +Prussians entered in three columns and met with little opposition. +Utrecht, where 7000 "patriot" volunteers were encamped, was +evacuated, the whole force taking flight and retreating in disorder +to Holland. Gorkum, Dordrecht, Kampen and other towns surrendered +without a blow; and on September 17 Brunswick's troops entered the +Hague amidst general rejoicings. The populace wore Orange favours, +and the streets rang with the cry of <i>Oranje boven</i>. Amsterdam +still held out and prepared for defence, hoping for French succour; +and thither the leaders of the patriot party had fled, together +with the <span class="newpage"><a name="page_336" id= +"page_336">[pg.336]</a></span> representatives of six cities. The +nobility, the representatives of eight cities, and the +council-pensionary remained at the Hague, met as the Estates of +Holland, repealed all the anti-Orange edicts, and invited the +prince to return. Amidst scenes of great enthusiasm the stadholder +made his entry into the Binnenhof on September 20. The hopes held +by the patriot refugees at Amsterdam of French aid were vain, for +the French government was in no position to help anyone. As soon as +the Prussian army appeared before the gates, the Town Council, as +in 1650, was unwilling to jeopardise the welfare of the city by +armed resistance, and negotiations were opened with Brunswick. On +October 3 Amsterdam capitulated, and the campaign was over.</p> + +<p>The princess was now in a position to demand reparation for the +insult she had received; and, though her terms were severe, the +Estates of Holland obsequiously agreed to carry them out (October +6). She demanded the punishment of all who had taken part in her +arrest, the disbanding of the free corps, and the purging of the +various Town Councils of obnoxious persons. All this was done. In +the middle of November the main body of the Prussians departed, but +a force of 4000 men remained to assist the Dutch troops in keeping +order. The English ambassador, Harris, and Van de Spiegel were the +chief advisers of the now dominant Orange government; and drastic +steps were taken to establish the hereditary stadholderate +henceforth on a firm basis. All persons filling any office were +required to swear to maintain the settlement of 1766, and to +declare that "the high and hereditary dignities" conferred upon the +Princes of Orange were "an essential part not only of the +constitution of each province but of the whole State." An amnesty +was proclaimed by the prince on November 21, but it contained so +many exceptions that it led to a large number of the patriots +seeking a place of refuge in foreign countries, as indeed many of +the leaders had already done, chiefly in France and the Belgian +Netherlands. It has been said that the exiles numbered as many as +40,000, but this is possibly an exaggeration. The victory of the +Orange party was complete; but a triumph achieved by the aid of a +foreign invader was dearly purchased. The Prussian troops, as they +retired laden with booty after committing many excesses, left +behind them a legacy of hatred.</p> + +<br /><br /><br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_337" id="page_337">[pg.337]</a></span> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<h2>CHAPTER XXVI</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE ORANGE RESTORATION. DOWNFALL OF THE REPUBLIC, 1788-1795</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>One of the first steps taken, after the restoration of the +stadholder's power had been firmly established, was the appointment +of Laurens Pieter van de Spiegel to the post of council-pensionary +of Holland in place of the trimmer Bleiswijk. It was quite contrary +to usage that a Zeelander should hold this the most important post +in the Estates of Holland, but the influence of the princess and of +Harris secured his unanimous election on December 3, 1787. Van de +Spiegel proved himself to be a statesman of high capacity, sound +judgment and great moderation, not unworthy to be ranked among the +more illustrious occupants of his great office. He saw plainly the +hopeless deadlock and confusion of the machinery of government and +its need of root-and-branch revision, but he was no more able to +achieve it than his predecessors. The feebleness of the stadholder, +the high-handedness of the princess, and the selfish clinging of +the patrician-regents to their privileged monopoly of civic power +were insuperable hindrances to any attempts to interfere with the +existing state of things. Such was the inherent weakness of the +Republic that it was an independent State in little more than name; +its form of government was guaranteed by foreign powers on whom it +had to rely for its defence against external foes.</p> + +<p>Prussia by armed force, England by diplomatic support, had +succeeded in restoring the hereditary stadholderate to a +predominant position in the State. It was the first care of the +triumvirate, Harris, Van de Spiegel and the princess, to secure +what had been achieved by bringing about a defensive alliance +between the Republic, Great Britain and Prussia. After what had +taken place this was not a difficult task; and two separate +treaties were signed between the States-General and the two +protecting powers on the same day, April 15, 1788, each of the +three states undertaking to furnish a definite quota of troops, +ships or money, if called upon to do so. Both Prussia and England +gave a strong guarantee for the<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_338" id="page_338">[pg.338]</a></span> upholding of the +hereditary stadholderate. This was followed by the conclusion of an +Anglo-Prussian alliance directed against France and Austria (August +13). The marriage of the hereditary prince with Frederika Louise +Wilhelmina of Prussia added yet another to the many royal alliances +of the House of Orange; but, though it raised the prestige of the +stadholder's position, it only served to make that position more +dependent on the support of the foreigner.</p> + +<p>The council-pensionary, Van de Spiegel, did all that statesman +could do in these difficult times to effect reforms and bring order +out of chaos. It was fortunate for the Republic that the stadholder +should have discerned the merits of this eminent servant of the +state and entrusted to him so largely the direction of affairs. +Internally the spirit of faction had, superficially at least, been +crushed by Prussian military intervention, but externally there was +serious cause for alarm. Van de Spiegel watched with growing +disquietude the threatening aspect of things in France, preluding +the great Revolution; and still more serious was the insurrection, +which the reforming zeal of Joseph II had caused to break out in +the Austrian Netherlands. Joseph's personal visit to his Belgian +dominions had filled him with a burning desire to sweep away the +various provincial privileges and customs and to replace them by +administrative uniformity. Not less was his eagerness to free +education from clerical influence. He stirred up thereby the fierce +opposition of clericals and democrats alike, ending in armed revolt +in Brabant and elsewhere. A desultory struggle went on during the +years 1787, '88 and '89, ending in January, 1790, in a meeting of +the States-General at Brussels and the formation of a federal +republic under the name of "the United States of Belgium." All this +was very perturbing to the Dutch government, who were most anxious +lest an Austrian attempt at reconquest might lead to a European +conflict close to their borders. The death of Joseph on February +24, 1790, caused the danger to disappear. His brother, Leopold II, +at once offered to re-establish ancient privileges, and succeeded +by tact and moderation in restoring Austrian rule under the old +conditions. That this result was brought about without any +intervention of foreign powers was in no small measure due to a +conference at the Hague, in which Van de Spiegel conducted +negotiations with the representatives of Prussia, England and +Austria for a settlement of the Belgian question without +disturbance of the peace.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_339" +id="page_339">[pg.339]</a></span></p> + +<p>The council-pensionary found the finances of the country in a +state of great confusion. One of his first cares was a +re-assessment of the provincial quotas, some of which were greatly +in arrears and inadequate in amount, thus throwing a +disproportionate burden upon Holland. It was a difficult task, but +successfully carried out. The affairs of the East and West India +Companies next demanded his serious attention. Both of them were +practically bankrupt.</p> + +<p>The East India Company had, during the 18th century, been +gradually on the decline. Its object was to extract wealth from +Java and its other eastern possessions; and, by holding the +monopoly of trade and compelling the natives to hand over to the +Company's officials a proportion of the produce of the land at a +price fixed by the Company far below its real value +(<i>contingent-en leverantie-stelsel</i>), the country was drained +of its resources and the inhabitants impoverished simply to +increase the shareholder's dividends. This was bad enough, but it +was made worse by the type of men whom the directors, all of whom +belonged to the patrician regent-families, sent out to fill the +posts of governor-general and the subordinate governorships. For +many decades these officials had been chosen, not for their proved +experience or for their knowledge of the East or of the Indian +trade, but because of family connection; and the nominees went +forth with the intention of enriching themselves as quickly as +possible. This led to all sorts of abuses, and the profits of the +Company from all these causes kept diminishing. But, in order to +keep up their credit, the Board of XVII continued to pay large +dividends out of capital, with the inevitable result that the +Company got into debt and had to apply for help to the State. The +English war completed its ruin. In June, 1783, the Estates of +Holland appointed a Commission to examine into the affairs of the +Company. Too many people in Holland had invested their money in it, +and the Indian trade was too important, for an actual collapse of +the Company to be permitted. Accordingly an advance of 8,000,000 +florins was made to the directors, with a guarantee for 38,000,000 +of debt. But things went from bad to worse. In 1790 the +indebtedness of the Company amounted to 85,000,000 florins. Van de +Spiegel and others were convinced that the only satisfactory +solution would be for the State to dissolve the Company and take +over the Indian possessions in full sovereignty at the cost of +liquidating the debt, A commission was appointed in 1791 to proceed +to the East and<span class="newpage"><a name="page_340" id= +"page_340">[pg.340]</a></span> make a report upon the condition of +the colonies. Before their mission was accomplished the French +armies were overrunning the Republic. It was not till 1798 that the +existence of the Company actually came to an end. To the West India +Company the effect of the English war was likewise disastrous. The +Guiana colonies, whose sugar plantations had been a source of great +profit, had been conquered first by the English, then by the +French; and, though they were restored after the war, the damage +inflicted had brought the Company into heavy difficulties. Its +charter expired in 1791, and it was not renewed. The colonies +became colonies of the State, the shareholders being compensated by +exchanging their depreciated shares for Government bonds.</p> + +<p>The Orange restoration, however, and the efforts of Van de +Spiegel to strengthen its bases by salutary reforms were doomed to +be short-lived. The council-pensionary, in spite of his desire to +relinquish office at the end of his quinquennial term, was +reelected by the Estates of Holland on December 6, 1792, and +yielded to the pressure put upon him to continue his task. A form +of government, which had been imposed against their will on the +patriot party by the aid of foreign bayonets, was certain to have +many enemies; and such prospect of permanence as it had lay in the +goodwill and confidence inspired by the statesmanlike and +conciliatory policy of Van de Spiegel. But it was soon to be swept +away in the cataclysm of the French Revolution now at the height of +its devastating course.</p> + +<p>In France extreme revolutionary ideas had made rapid headway, +ending in the dethronement and imprisonment of the king on August +10, 1792. The invasion of France by the Prussian and Austrian +armies only served to inflame the French people, intoxicated by +their new-found liberty, to a frenzy of patriotism. Hastily raised +armies succeeded in checking the invasion at Valmy on September 20, +1792; and in their turn invading Belgium under the leadership of +Dumouriez, they completely defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on +November 6. The whole of Belgium was overrun and by a decree of the +French Convention was annexed. The fiery enthusiasts, into whose +hands the government of the French Republic had fallen, were eager +to carry by force of arms the principles of liberty, fraternity and +equality to all Europe, declaring that "all governments are our +enemies, all peoples are our friends." The southern<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">[pg.341]</a></span> +Netherlands having been conquered, it was evident that the northern +Republic would speedily invite attack. The Dutch government, +anxious to avoid giving any cause for hostilities, had carefully +abstained from offering any encouragement to the emigrants or +support to the enemies of the French Republic. Van de Spiegel had +even expressed to De Maulde, the French ambassador, a desire to +establish friendly relations with the Republican government. But +the Jacobins looked upon the United Provinces as the dependent of +their enemies England and Prussia; and, when after the execution of +the king the English ambassador was recalled from Paris, the +National Convention immediately declared war against England and at +the same time against the stadholder of Holland "because of his +slavish bondage to the courts of St James and Berlin."</p> + +<p>Dumouriez at the head of the French army prepared to enter the +United Provinces at two points. The main body under his own command +was to cross the Moerdijk to Dordrecht and then advance on +Rotterdam, the Hague, Leyden and Haarlem. He was accompanied by the +so-called <i>Batavian legion</i>, enlisted from the patriot exiles +under Colonel Daendels, once the fiery anti-Orange advocate of +Hattem. General Miranda, who was besieging Maestricht, was to march +by Nijmwegen and Venloo to Utrecht. The two forces would then unite +and make themselves masters of Amsterdam. The ambitious scheme +miscarried. At first success attended Dumouriez. Breda fell after a +feeble resistance, also De Klundert and Geertruidenberg. Meanwhile +the advance of an Austrian army under Coburg relieved Maestricht +and inflicted a defeat upon the French at Aldenhoven on March 1, +1793. Dumouriez, compelled to retreat, was himself beaten at +Neerwinden on March 18, and withdrew to Antwerp. For the moment +danger was averted. Revolutionary movements at Amsterdam and +elsewhere failed to realise the hopes of the patriots, and the +Dutch government was able to breathe again.</p> + +<p>It indeed appeared that the French menace need no longer be +feared. Dumouriez changed sides and, failing to induce his troops +to follow him, took refuge in the enemy's camp. A powerful +coalition had now been formed by the energy of Pitt against +revolutionary France; and, in April, 1794, a strong English army +under the Duke of York had joined Coburg. They were supported by +22,000 Dutch troops commanded by the two sons of the Prince of +Orange.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_342" id= +"page_342">[pg.342]</a></span></p> + +<p>New French armies, however, organised by the genius of Carnot, +proved more than a match for the allied forces acting without any +unity of place under slow-moving and incompetent leaders. Coburg +and the Austrians were heavily defeated at Fleurus by Jourdan on +June 26. York and Prince William thereupon retreated across the +frontier, followed by the French under Pichegru, while another +French general, Moreau, took Sluis and overran Dutch Flanders. This +gave fresh encouragement to the patriot party, who in Amsterdam +formed a revolutionary committee, of which the leaders were Gogel, +Van Dam and Kraijenhoff. Nothing overt was done, but by means of a +large number of so-called reading-societies +(<i>leesgezelschappen</i>) secret preparations were made for a +general uprising so soon as circumstances permitted, and +communications were meanwhile kept up with the exiled patriots. But +Pichegru, though he captured Maestricht and other towns, was very +cautious in his movements and distrustful of the promises of the +Amsterdam Convention that a general revolt would follow upon his +entry into Holland.</p> + +<p>In this way the year 1794 drew to its end; and, as no further +help from England or Prussia could be obtained, the States-General +thought it might be possible to save the Republic from the fate of +Belgium by opening negotiations for peace with the enemy. +Accordingly two envoys, Brantsen and Repelaer, were sent on +December 16 to the French headquarters, whence they proceeded to +Paris. Fearing lest their plans for an uprising should be foiled, +the Amsterdam committee also despatched two representatives, Blauw +and Van Dam, to Paris to counteract the envoys of Van de Spiegel, +and to urge upon the French commanders an immediate offensive +against Holland. The withdrawal of the remains of the English army +under the Duke of York, and the setting in of a strong frost, lent +force to their representations. The army of Pichegru, accompanied +by Daendels and his Batavian legion, were able to cross the rivers; +and Holland lay open before them. It was in vain that the two young +Orange princes did their utmost to organise resistance. In January, +1795 one town after another surrendered; and on the 19th Daendels +without opposition entered Amsterdam.</p> + +<p>The revolution was completely triumphant, for on this very day +the stadholder, despite the protests of his sons and the efforts of +the council-pensionary, had left the country. The English +government<span class="newpage"><a name="page_343" id= +"page_343">[pg.343]</a></span> had offered to receive William V and +his family; and arrangements had been quietly made for the passage +across the North Sea. The princess with her daughter-in-law and +grandson were the first to leave; and on January 17, 1795, William +himself, on the ground that the French would never negotiate so +long as he was in the country, bade farewell to the States-General +and the foreign ambassadors. On the following day he embarked with +his sons and household on a number of fishing-pinks at Scheveningen +and put to sea. With his departure the stadholderate and the +Republic of the United Netherlands came to an end.</p> + +<br /><br /><br /> +<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">[pg.344]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXVII</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, 1795-1806</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>On January 19, 1795, Amsterdam fell into the hands of the +advancing French troops. Daendels had previously caused a +proclamation to be distributed which declared "that the +representatives of the French people wished the Dutch nation to +make themselves free; that they do not desire to oppress them as +conquerors, but to ally themselves with them as with a free +people." A complete change of the city government took place +without any disturbance or shedding of blood. At the summons of the +Revolutionary Committee the members of the Town Council left the +Council Hall and were replaced by twenty-one citizens "as +provisional representatives of the people of Amsterdam." Of this +body Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck, a former advocate of the Council, +was appointed president. The other towns, one after the other, +followed in the steps of the capital. The patrician corporations +were abolished and replaced by provisional municipal assemblies. +Everywhere the downfall of the old <i>régime</i> was greeted +with tumultuous joy by those large sections of the Dutch population +which had imbibed revolutionary principles; and the French troops +were welcomed by the "patriots" as brothers and deliverers. "Trees +of Liberty," painted in the national colours, were erected in the +principal squares; and the citizens, wearing "caps of liberty" +danced round them hand in hand with the foreign soldiers. +Feast-making, illuminations and passionate orations, telling that a +new era of "liberty, fraternity and equality" had dawned for the +Batavian people, were the order of the day. The Revolution was not +confined to the town-corporations. At the invitation of the +Amsterdam Committee and under the protection of the French +representatives, deputations from fourteen towns met at the Hague +on January 26. Taking possession of the Assembly Hall of the +Estates of Holland and choosing as their president Pieter Paulus, a +man generally respected, this Provisional Assembly proceeded to +issue a series of decrees subverting all the ancient institutions +of the land. The representation by Estates and<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">[pg.345]</a></span> the +offices of stadholder and of council-pensionary were abolished. The +old colleges such as the Commissioned Councillors, the Admiralties, +the Chamber of Accounts, were changed into Committees for General +Welfare, for War, for Marine, for Finance, etc. The other provinces +in turn followed Holland's example; and the changes in the +provincial administrations were then quickly extended to the +States-General. These retained their name, but were now to be +representative of the citizens of the whole land. The Council of +State was transformed into a Committee for General Affairs; and a +Colonial Council replaced the East and West India Companies and the +Society of Surinam. To the Committee for General Affairs was +entrusted the task of drawing up a plan for the summoning of a +National Convention on March 4.</p> + +<p>So far all had gone smoothly with the course of the +revolutionary movement, so much so that its leaders seem almost to +have forgotten that the land was in the occupation of a foreign +conqueror. The unqualified recognition of Batavian independence, +however, in the proclamation by Daendels had caused dissatisfaction +in Paris. The Committee of Public Safety had no intention of +throwing away the fruits of victory; and two members of the +Convention, Cochon and Ramel, were despatched to Holland to report +upon the condition of affairs. They arrived at the Hague on +February 7. Both reports recommended that a war-indemnity should be +levied on the Republic, but counselled moderation, for, though the +private wealth of the Dutch was potentially large, the State was +practically insolvent. These proposals were too mild to please the +Committee of Public Safety. The new States-General had sent (March +3) two envoys, Van Blauw and Meyer, to Paris with instructions to +propose a treaty of alliance and of commerce with France, to ask +for the withdrawal of the French troops and that the land should +not be flooded with <i>assignats</i>. The independence of the +Batavian Republic was taken for granted. Very different were the +conditions laid before them by Merlin de Douat, Rewbell and +Siéyès. A war contribution of 100,000,000 florins was +demanded, to be paid in ready money within three months, a loan of +like amount at 3 per cent, and the surrender of all territory south +of the Waal together with Dutch Flanders, Walcheren and South +Beveland. Moreover there was to be no recognition of Batavian +independence until a satisfactory treaty on the above lines was +drawn up.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_346" id= +"page_346">[pg.346]</a></span></p> + +<p>These hard conditions were on March 23 rejected by the +States-General. Wiser counsels however prevented this point-blank +refusal being sent to Paris, and it was hoped that a policy of +delay might secure better terms. The negotiations went on slowly +through March and April; and, as Blauw and Meyer had no powers as +accredited plenipotentiaries, the Committee determined to send +Rewbell and Siéyès to the Hague, armed with full +authority to push matters through.</p> + +<p>The envoys reached the Hague on May 8, and found the +States-General in a more yielding mood than might have been +expected from their previous attitude. Rewbell and +Siéyès knew how to play upon the fears of the +Provisional Government by representing to them that, if the terms +they offered were rejected, their choice lay between French +annexation or an Orange restoration. Four members were appointed by +the States-General with full powers to negotiate. The conferences +began on May 11; and in five days an agreement was reached. The +Batavian Republic, recognised as a free and independent State, +entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with the French +Republic. But the Dutch had to cede Maestricht, Venloo and Dutch +Flanders and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000 florins. Flushing +was to receive a French garrison, and its harbour was to be used in +common by the two powers; 25,000 French troops were to be quartered +in the Republic and were to be fed, clothed and paid. The Dutch +were compelled to permit the free circulation of the worthless +<i>assignats</i> in their country.</p> + +<p>One of the first results of this treaty was a breach with Great +Britain. The Dutch coast was blockaded; British fleets stopped all +sea-borne commerce; and the Dutch colonies in the East and West +Indies were one after the other captured. The action of the Prince +of Orange made this an easy task. William placed in the hands of +the British commanders letters addressed to the governors of the +Dutch colonies ordering them "to admit the troops sent out on +behalf of his Britannic Majesty and to offer no resistance to the +British warships, but to regard them as vessels of a friendly +Power." The Cape of Good Hope surrendered to Admiral Rodney; and in +quick succession followed Malacca, Ceylon and the Moluccas. A +squadron of nine ships under Rear-Admiral Lucas, sent out to +recover the Cape and the other East Indian possessions, was +compelled to surrender to the English in Saldanha Bay on August 17, +1796,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_347" id= +"page_347">[pg.347]</a></span> almost without resistance, owing to +the Orange sympathies of the crews. The West Indian Colonies fared +no better. Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice capitulated in the +spring of 1796; Surinam remained in Dutch hands until 1799; Java +until 1801. The occupation by the English of this island, the most +important of all the Dutch overseas possessions, made the tale of +their colonial losses complete. The offensive and defensive +alliance with France had thus brought upon the Republic, as a +trading and colonial power, a ruin which the efforts of the +provisional government under French pressure to re-organise and +strengthen their naval and military forces had been unable to +prevent. The erstwhile exiles, Daendels and Dumonceau, who had +attained the rank of generals in the French service, were on their +return entrusted with the task of raising an army of 36,000 men, +disciplined and equipped on the French system. The navy was dealt +with by a special Committee, of which Pieter Paulus was the +energetic president. Unfortunately for the Committee, a large +proportion of the officers and crews were strongly Orangist. Most +of the officers resigned, and it was necessary to purge the crews. +Their places had to be supplied by less experienced and trustworthy +material; but Vice-Admiral Jan de Winter did his utmost to create a +fleet in fit condition to join the French and Spanish fleets in +convoying an expeditionary force to make a descent upon the coast +of Ireland. In July, 1797, eighty ships were concentrated at the +Texel with troops on board, ready to join the Franco-Spanish +squadrons, which were to sail from Brest. But the junction was +never effected. Week after week the Dutch admiral was prevented +from leaving the Texel by contrary winds. The idea of an invasion +of Ireland was given up, but so great was the disappointment in +Holland and such the pressure exerted on De Winter by the +Commission of Foreign Affairs, that he was obliged against his will +to put to sea on October 7, and attack the English fleet under the +command of Admiral Duncan, who was blockading the Dutch coast. The +number of vessels on the two sides was not unequal, but neither +officers nor crews under De Winter could compare in seamanship and +experience with their opponents. The fleets met off Camperdown and +the Dutch fought with their traditional bravery, but the defeat was +complete. Out of sixteen ships of the line nine were taken, +including the flag-ship of De Winter himself.<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">[pg.348]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile there had arisen strong differences of opinion in the +Republic as to the form of government which was to replace the old +confederacy of seven sovereign provinces. No one probably wished to +continue a system which had long proved itself obsolete and +unworkable. But particularism was still strong, especially in the +smaller provinces. The country found itself divided into two +sharply opposed parties of Unitarians and federalists. The +Unitarians were the most active, and meetings were held all over +the country by the local Jacobin clubs. Finally it was determined +to hold a central meeting of delegates from all the clubs at the +Hague. The meeting took place on Jan. 26, 1796, and resolutions +were passed in favour of summoning a National Convention to draw up +a new constitution on Unitarian lines. Holland and Utrecht pressed +the matter forward in the States-General, and they had the support +of Gelderland and Overyssel, but Zeeland, Friesland and Groningen +refused their assent. Their action was very largely financial, as +provinces whose indebtedness was small dreaded lest unification +should increase their burden. But even in the recalcitrant +provinces there were a large number of moderate men; and through +the intervention of the French ambassador, Nöel, who gave +strong support to the Unitarians, the proposal of Holland for a +National Assembly to meet on March 1 was carried (February 18) by a +unanimous vote. The following Provisional Regulation was then +rapidly drawn up by a special committee. The land was divided into +districts each containing 15,000 inhabitants; these again into +fundamental assemblies (<i>grondvergaderingen</i>) of 500 persons; +each of these assemblies chose an "elector" (<i>kiezer</i>); and +then the group of thirty electors chose a deputy to represent the +district. The National Assembly was in this way to consist of one +hundred and twenty-six members; its deliberations were to be +public, the voting individualistic and the majority to prevail. A +Commission of twenty-one deputies was to be appointed, who were to +frame a draft-Constitution, which after approval by the Assembly +was to be submitted to the whole body of the people for acceptance +or rejection.</p> + +<p>The Assembly, having duly met on March 1, 1796, in the Binnenhof +at the Hague, elected Pieter Paulus as their president, but had the +misfortune to lose his experienced direction very speedily. He had +for some time been in bad health, and on March 17 he died. It +fell<span class="newpage"><a name="page_349" id= +"page_349">[pg.349]</a></span> to his lot to assist at the +ceremonial closing of the last meeting of the States-General, which +had governed the Republic of the United Netherlands for more than +two centuries.</p> + +<p>The National Assembly reflected the pronounced differences of +opinion in the land. Orangist opinion had no representatives, +although possibly more than half the population had Orange +sympathies. All the deputies had accepted in principle French +revolutionary ideas, but there were three distinct parties, the +unitarians, the moderates and the federalists. The moderates, who +were in a majority, occupied, as their name implied, an +intermediate position between the unitarians or revolutionary +party, who wished for a centralised republic after the French +model, and the federalists or conservatives, who aimed at retaining +so far as possible the rights of the several provinces and towns to +manage their own affairs. The leaders of the unitarians were +Vreede, Midderigh, Valckenier and Gogel; of the moderates +Schimmelpenninck, Hahn and Kantelaur; of the federalists, Vitringa, +Van Marle and De Mist. After the death of Pieter Paulus the most +influential man in an Assembly composed of politicians mostly +without any parliamentary experience was the eloquent and astute +Schimmelpenninck, whose opportunist moderation sprang from a +natural dislike of extreme courses.</p> + +<p>One of the first cares of the Assembly was the appointment of +the Commission of twenty-one members to draw up a draft +Constitution. The (so-styled) Regulation, representing the views of +the moderate majority, was presented to the Assembly on November +10. The Republic was henceforth to be a unified state governed by +the Sovereign People; but the old provinces, though now named +departments, were to retain large administrative rights and their +separate financial quotas. The draft met fierce opposition from the +unitarians, but after much discussion and many amendments it was at +length accepted by the majority. It had, however, before becoming +law, to be submitted to the people; and the network of Jacobin +clubs throughout the country, under the leadership of the central +club at Amsterdam, carried on a widespread and secret revolutionary +propaganda against the Regulation. They tried to enlist the open +co-operation of the French ambassador, Noël, but he, acting +under the instruction of the cautious Talleyrand, was not disposed +to commit himself.</p> + +<p>The unitarian campaign was so successful that the +Regulation,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_350" id= +"page_350">[pg.350]</a></span> on being submitted to the +Fundamental Assemblies, was rejected by 136,716 votes to 27,955. In +these circumstances, as had been previously arranged by the +Provisional Government, it was necessary to summon another National +Assembly to draw up another draft Constitution. It met on September +1, 1797. The moderates, though they lost some seats, were still in +a majority; and the new Commission of Twenty-One had, as before, +federalistic leanings. The Unitarians, therefore, without awaiting +their proposals, under the leadership of the stalwart +revolutionary, Vreede, determined to take strong action. The +<i>coup d'état</i> they planned was helped forward by two +events. The first was the revolution in Paris of September 4, 1797, +which led to the replacing of ambassador Noël by the +pronounced Jacobin, Charles Delacroix. The other event was the +disaster which befell the Dutch fleet at Camperdown, the blame for +which was laid upon the Provisional Government.</p> + +<p>Vreede and his confederates being assured by Delacroix of the +supportof the new French Directory, and of the co-operation of the +French General Joubert and of Daendels, the commander of the +Batavian army, chose for the execution of their plan the week in +which Midderigh, one of the confederates, took his turn as +president of the Assembly. Midderigh, by virtue of his office, +being in command of the Hague civic force, on January 22, 1798, +seized and imprisoned the members of the Committee for Foreign +Affairs and twenty-two members of the Assembly. The "Rump" then +met, protected by a strong body of troops, and declared itself a +Constituent Assembly representing the Batavian people. After the +French model, an Executive Council was nominated, consisting of +five members, Vreede, Fijnje, Fokker, Wildrik and Van Langen, and a +new Commission of Seven to frame a Constitution. The "Regulation" +was rejected; and the Assembly solemnly proclaimed its "unalterable +aversion" to the stadholderate, federalism, aristocracy and +governmental decentralisation.</p> + +<p>French influence was henceforth paramount; and the draft of the +new Constitution, in the framing of which Delacroix took a leading +part, was ready on March 6. Eleven days later it was approved by +the Assembly. The Fundamental Assemblies in their turn assented to +it by 165,520 votes to 11,597, considerable official pressure being +exerted to secure this result; and the Constitution came thus into +legal existence. Its principal provisions were directed to the +complete<span class="newpage"><a name="page_351" id= +"page_351">[pg.351]</a></span> obliteration of the old provincial +particularism. The land was divided into eight departments, whose +boundaries in no case coincided with those of the provinces. +Holland was split up among five departments; that of the Amstel, +with Amsterdam as its capital, being the only one that did not +contain portions of two or more provinces. Each department was +divided into seven circles; each of these returned one member; and +the body of seven formed the departmental government. The circles +in their turn were divided into communes, each department +containing sixty or seventy. All these local administrations were, +however, quite subordinate to the authority exercised by the +central Representative Body. For the purpose of electing this body +the land was divided into ninety-four districts; each district into +forty "Fundamental Assemblies," each of 500 persons. The forty +"electors" chosen by these units in their turn elected the deputy +for the department. The ninety-four deputies formed the +Representative Body, which was divided into two Chambers. The +Second Chamber of thirty members was annually chosen by lot from +the ninety-four, the other sixty-four forming the First Chamber. +The framing and proposing of all laws was the prerogative of the +First Chamber. The Second Chamber accepted or rejected these +proposed laws, but for a second rejection a two-thirds majority was +required. The Executive Power was vested in a Directorate of five +persons, one of whom was to retire every year. To supply his place +the Second Chamber chose one out of three persons selected by the +First Chamber. The Directorate had the assistance of eight agents +or ministers: Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, Finance, Justice, +Police, Education, and Economy. Finance was nationalised, all +charges and debts being borne in common. Church and State were +separated, payments to the Reformed ministers from the State +ceasing in three years.</p> + +<p>Such was the project, but it was not to be carried into effect +without another <i>coup d'état</i>. It was now the duty of +the Constituent Assembly to proceed to the election of a +Representative Body. Instead of this, on May 4, 1798, the Assembly +declared itself to be Representative, so that power remained in the +hands of the Executive Council, who were afraid of an election +returning a majority of "moderates." But this autocratic act +aroused considerable discontent amongst all except the extreme +Jacobin faction. The opponents of the Executive Council found a +leader in Daendels,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_352" id= +"page_352">[pg.352]</a></span> who, strong "unionist" though he +was, was dissatisfied with the arbitrary conduct of this +self-constituted government, and more especially in matters +connected with the army. Daendels betook himself to Paris, where he +was favourably received by the Foreign Secretary, Talleyrand, and +with his help was able to persuade the French Directory that it was +not in their interest to support the Jacobin Council in their +illegal retention of office. Daendels accordingly returned to +Holland, where he found the French commander, Joubert, friendly to +his project, and three of the "agents," including Pijman, the +Minister of War, ready to help him. Placed in command of the troops +at the Hague, Daendels (June 12, 1798) arrested the directors and +the presidents of the two Chambers. The Constituent Assembly was +dissolved and a new Representative Body was (July 31) elected. The +moderates, as was expected, were in a considerable majority; and +five members of that party, Van Hasselt, Hoeth, Van Haersolte, Van +Hoeft and Ermerius were appointed Directors.</p> + +<p>The country was now at length in the enjoyment of a settled +constitution based upon liberal principles and popular +representation. Daendels, though his influence was great, never +attempted to play the part of a military dictator; and, though +party passions were strong, no political persecutions followed. +Nevertheless troubled times awaited the Batavian Republic, and the +Constitution of 1798 was not to have a long life.</p> + +<p>The Emperor Paul of Russia had taken up arms with Great Britain +and Austria against revolutionary France, and the hopes of the +Orange party began to rise. The hereditary prince was very active +and, though he was unable to move his brother-in-law, the King of +Prussia, to take active steps in his favour, he succeeded in +securing the intervention of an Anglo-Russian force on his behalf. +In August, 1798, a strong English fleet under Admiral Duncan +appeared off Texel and in the name of the Prince of Orange demanded +the surrender of the Batavian fleet which lay there under +Rear-Admiral Story. Story refused. A storm prevented the English +from taking immediate action; but on the 26th a landing of troops +was effected near Callantroog and the Batavian forces abandoned the +Helder. Story had withdrawn his fleet to Vlieter, but Orangist +sympathies were strong among his officers and crews, and he was +compelled to surrender. The ships, hoisting the Orange flag, +became<span class="newpage"><a name="page_353" id= +"page_353">[pg.353]</a></span> henceforth a squadron attached to +the English fleet. Such was the humiliating end of the Batavian +navy. The efforts of the hereditary prince to stir up an +insurrection in Overyssel and Gelderland failed; and he thereupon +joined the Anglo-Russian army, which, about 50,000 strong, was +advancing under the command of the Duke of York to invade Holland. +But York was an incompetent commander; there was little harmony +between the British and Russian contingents; and the French and +Batavians under Generals Brune and Daendels inflicted defeats upon +them at Bergen (September 19), and at Castricum (October 6). York +thereupon entered upon negotiations with Brune and was allowed to +re-embark his troops for England, after restoration of the captured +guns and prisoners. The expedition was a miserable fiasco.</p> + +<p>At the very time when the evacuation of North Holland by +invading armies was taking place, the Directory in Paris had been +overthrown by Bonaparte (18 Brumaire, or Nov. 20), who now, with +the title of First Consul, ruled France with dictatorial powers. +The conduct of the Batavian government during these transactions +had not been above suspicion; and Bonaparte at once replaced Brune +by Augereau, and sent Sémonville as ambassador in place of +Deforgues. He was determined to compel the Batavian Republic to +comply strictly with the terms imposed by the treaty of 1795, and +demanded more troops and more money. In vain the Executive Council, +by the mouth of its ambassador, Schimmelpenninck, protested its +inability to satisfy those demands. Augereau was inexorable, and +there was no alternative but to obey. But the very feebleness of +the central government made Bonaparte resolve on a revision of the +constitution in an anti-democratic direction. Augereau acted as an +intermediary between him and the Executive Council. Three of the +directors favoured his views, the other two opposed them. The +Representative Body, however, rejected all proposals for a +revision. On this the three called in the aid of Augereau, who +suspended the Representative Body and closed the doors of its hall +of meeting. The question was now referred to the Fundamental +Assemblies. On October 1, 1801, the voting resulted in 52,279 noes +against 16,771 yeas. About 350,000 voters abstained, but these were +declared to be "yeas"; and the new constitution became on October +16 the law of the land.</p> + +<p>The Constitution of 1801 placed the executive power in the +hands<span class="newpage"><a name="page_354" id= +"page_354">[pg.354]</a></span> of a State-Government of twelve +persons. The three directors chose seven others, who in their turn +chose five more, amongst these the above-named three, to whom they +owed their existence. With this State-Government was associated a +Legislative Body of 35 members, who met twice in the year and whose +only function was to accept without amendment, or to reject, the +proposals of the Executive Body. The "agents" were abolished and +replaced by small councils, who administered the various +departments of State. Considerable administrative powers were given +to the local governments, and the boundaries of the eight +departments, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel (in which Drente +was included), Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, and Brabant, were +made to coincide largely with those of the old provinces. The aim +of the new Constitution was efficiency, the reconciliation of the +moderate elements both of the federalist and unitarian parties, and +the restraint alike of revolutionary and Orangist intrigues.</p> + +<p>It began its course in fortunate circumstances. The +long-wished-for peace was concluded at Amiens on March 27, 1802. It +was signed by Schimmelpenninck, as the representative of the +Batavian Republic, but he had not been allowed to have any +influence upon the decisions. Great Britain restored all the +captured colonies, except Ceylon; and the house of Orange was +indemnified by the grant of the secularised Bishopric of Fulda, the +abbeys of Korvey and Weingarten, together with the towns of +Dortmund, Isny and Buchhorn. The hereditary prince, as his father +refused to reside in this new domain, undertook the duties of +government. William V preferred to live on his Nassau Estates. He +died at Brunswick in 1806.</p> + +<p>The peace was joyfully welcomed in Holland, for it removed the +British blockade and gave a promise of the revival of trade. But +all the hopes of better times were blighted with the fresh outbreak +of war in 1803. All the colonial possessions were again lost; and a +new treaty of alliance, which the State-Government was compelled to +conclude with France, led to heavy demands. The Republic was +required to provide for the quartering and support of 18,000 French +troops and 16,000 Batavians under a French general. Further, a +fleet of ten ships of war was to be maintained, and 350 +flat-bottomed transports built for the conveyance of an invading +army to England. These demands were perforce complied with. +Nevertheless Napoleon was far from satisfied with the <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">[pg.355]</a></span> +State-Government, which he regarded as inefficient and secretly +hostile. In Holland itself it was hated, because of the heavy +charges it was obliged to impose. Bonaparte accordingly determined +to replace it and to concentrate the executive power in a single +person. The Legislative Body was to remain, but the head of the +State was to bear the title of council-pensionary, and was to be +elected for a period of five years. Schimmelpenninck was designated +for this post. Referred to a popular vote, the new Constitution was +approved by 14,230 against 136; about 340,000 abstained from +voting. On April 29, 1805, Schimmelpenninck entered into office as +council-pensionary. He was invested with monarchical authority. The +executive power, finance, the army and navy, the naming of +ambassadors, the proposing of legislation, were placed in his +hands. He was assisted by a Council of State, nominated by himself, +of five members, and by six Secretaries of State. The Legislative +Body was reduced to nineteen members, appointed by the Departmental +Governments. They met twice in the year and could accept or reject +the proposals of the council-pensionary, but not amend them.</p> + +<p>Schimmelpenninck was honest and able, and during the brief +period of his administration did admirable work. With the aid of +the accomplished financier Gogel, who had already done much good +service to his country in difficult circumstances, he, by spreading +the burdens of taxation equally over all parts of the land and by +removing restrictive customs and duties, succeeded in reducing +largely the deficits in the annual balance-sheet. He also was the +first to undertake seriously the improvement of primary education. +But it was not Napoleon's intention to allow the council-pensionary +to go on with the good work he had begun. The weakening of +Schimmelpenninck's eyesight, through cataract, gave the emperor the +excuse for putting an end to what he regarded as a provisional +system of government, and for converting Holland into a dependent +kingdom under the rule of his brother Louis. Admiral Verhuell, sent +to Paris at Napoleon's request on a special mission, was bluntly +informed that Holland must choose between the acceptance of Louis +as their king, or annexation. On Verhuell's return with the report +of the emperor's ultimatum, the council-pensionary (April 10, 1806) +summoned the Council of State, the Secretaries and the Legislative +Body to meet together as an Extraordinary Committee and deliberate +on what were best to be done. It was resolved to send <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">[pg.356]</a></span> a +deputation to Paris to try to obtain from Napoleon the +relinquishment, or at least a modification, of his demand. Their +efforts were in vain; Napoleon's attitude was peremptory. The Hague +Committee must within a week petition that Louis Bonaparte might be +their king, or he would take the matter into his own hands. The +Committee, despite the opposition of Schimmelpenninck, finding +resistance hopeless, determined to yield. The deputation at Paris +was instructed accordingly to co-operate with the emperor in the +framing of a new monarchical constitution. It was drawn up and +signed on May 23; and a few days later it was accepted by the Hague +Committee. Schimmelpenninck, however, refused to sign it and +resigned his office on June 4, explaining in a dignified letter his +reasons for doing so. Verhuell, at the head of a deputation (June +5), now went through the farce of begging the emperor in the name +of the Dutch people to allow his brother, Louis, to be their king. +Louis accepted the proffered sovereignty "since the people desires +and Your Majesty commands it." On June 15 the new king left Paris +and a week later arrived at the Hague, accompanied by his wife, +Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's step-daughter.</p> +<br /><br /><br /> + +<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">[pg.357]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> + +<p>THE KINGDOM OF HOLLAND AND THE FRENCH ANNEXATION, 1806-1814</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>Louis Bonaparte was but 28 years old, and of a kindly, gentle +character very unlike his self-willed, domineering brother. He was +weakly, and his ill-health made him at times restless and moody. He +had given great satisfaction by his declaration that "as soon as he +set foot on the soil of his kingdom he became a Hollander," and he +was well received. The constitution of the new kingdom differed +little from that it superseded. The Secretaries of State became +Ministers, and the number of members of the Legislative Body was +raised to thirty-nine. The king had power to conclude treaties with +foreign States without consulting the Legislative Body. The +partition of the country was somewhat changed, Holland being +divided into two departments, Amstelland and Maasland. Drente +became a separate department; and in 1807 East Friesland with Jever +was made into an eleventh department, as compensation for Flushing, +which was annexed to France.</p> + +<p>Louis came to the Hague with the best intentions of doing his +utmost to promote the welfare of his kingdom, but from the first he +was thwarted by the deplorable condition of the national finances. +Out of a total income of fifty million florins the interest on the +national debt absorbed thirty-five millions. The balance was not +nearly sufficient to defray the costs of administration, much less +to meet the heavy demands of Napoleon for contributions to war +expenditure. All the efforts of the finance minister Gogel to +reduce the charges and increase the income were of small avail. The +king was naturally lavish, and he spent considerable sums in the +maintenance of a brilliant court, and in adding to the number of +royal residences. Dissatisfied with the Hague, he moved first to +Utrecht, then to Amsterdam, where the Stadhuis was converted into a +palace; and he bought the Pavilion at Haarlem as a summer abode. +All this meant great expenditure. 'Louis was vain, and was only +prevented from creating marshals of his army and orders of<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_358" id= +"page_358">[pg.358]</a></span> chivalry by Napoleon's stern refusal +to permit it. He had to be reminded that by the Bonaparte +family-law he was but a vassal king, owning allegiance to the +emperor.</p> + +<p>Despite these weaknesses Louis did much for the land of his +adoption. The old Rhine at Leyden, which lost itself in the dunes, +was connected by a canal with Katwijk on the sea, where a harbour +was created. The dykes and waterways were repaired and improved, +and high-roads constructed from the Hague to Leyden, and from +Utrecht to Het Loo. Dutch literature found in Louis a generous +patron. He took pains to learn the language from the instruction of +Bilderdijk, the foremost writer of his day. The foundation in 1808 +of the "Royal Netherland Institute for Science, Letters and the +Fine Arts" was a signal mark of his desire to raise the standard of +culture in Holland on a national basis. The introduction of the +<i>Code Napoléon,</i> with some necessary modifications, +replaced a confused medley of local laws and customs, varying from +province to province, by a general unified legal system. As a +statesman and administrator Louis had no marked ability, but the +ministers to whom he entrusted the conduct of affairs, Verhuell, +minister of marine, Roëll, of foreign affairs, Kragenhoff, of +war, Van Maanen, of justice, and more especially the experienced +Gogel, in control of the embarrassed finances, were capable +men.</p> + +<p>The state of the finances indeed was the despair of the Dutch +government. The imperious demands of Napoleon for the maintenance +of an army of 40,000 men, to be employed by him on foreign +campaigns, and also of a considerable navy, made all attempts at +economy and re-organisation of the finances almost hopeless. By the +war with England the Dutch had lost their colonies and most of +their great sea-borne trade; and the situation was rendered more +difficult by the Decree of Berlin in 1806 and the establishment of +the "Continental System" by the emperor, as a reply to the British +blockade. All trade and even correspondence with England were +forbidden. He hoped thus to bring England to her knees; but, though +the decree did not achieve this object, it did succeed in bringing +utter ruin upon the Dutch commercial classes. In vain Louis +protested; he was not heard and only met with angry rebukes from +his brother for not taking more vigorous steps to stop smuggling, +which the character of the Dutch coast rendered a comparatively +easy and, at the same time, lucrative pursuit.<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">[pg.359]</a></span></p> + +<p>The overthrow of Austria and Prussia by Napoleon in 1805 and +1806, followed in 1807 by the Peace of Tilsit with Russia, made the +emperor once more turn his attention to the project of an invasion +of his hated enemy, England. A great French fleet was to be +concentrated on the Scheldt, with Antwerp and Flushing for its +bases. For this purpose large sums of money were expended in +converting Antwerp into a formidable naval arsenal. But the British +government were well aware of "the pistol that was being aimed at +England's breast"; and in 1809 a powerful expedition under the +command of Lord Chatham was despatched, consisting of more than 100 +warships and transports, with the object of destroying these +growing dockyards and arsenals, and with them the threat of +invasion. The attack was planned at a favourable moment, for the +defensive force was very small, the bulk of the Dutch army having +been sent to fight in the Austrian and Spanish campaigns, and the +French garrisons greatly reduced. Chatham landed on the island of +Walcheren, captured Middelburg and Veere and on August 15 compelled +Flushing to surrender after such a furious bombardment that +scarcely any houses remained standing. The islands of Schouwen, +Duiveland and Zuid-Beveland were overrun; and, had the British +general pushed on without delay, Antwerp might have fallen. But +this he failed to do; and meanwhile Louis had collected, for the +defence of the town, a force of 20,000 men, which, to his deep +chagrin, Napoleon did not allow him to command. No attack however +was made on Antwerp by the British, who had suffered severely from +the fevers of Walcheren; and on the news of Wagram and the Treaty +of Schönbrunn they slowly evacuated their conquests. Before +the end of the year the whole force had returned to England.</p> + +<p>This invasion, though successfully repelled, only accentuated +the dissensions between the two brothers. French troops remained in +occupation of Zeeland; and the French army of the north at Antwerp, +now placed under the command of Marshal Oudinot, lay ready to +enforce the demands of the emperor should the Dutch government +prove recalcitrant. Those demands included the absolute suppression +of smuggling, the strictest enforcement of the decrees against +trading with England, conscription, and a repudiation of a portion +of the State debt. Napoleon overwhelmed his brother with bitter +gibes and angry threats, declaring that he wished to make +Holland<span class="newpage"><a name="page_360" id= +"page_360">[pg.360]</a></span> an English colony, and that the +whole land, even his own palace, was full of smuggled goods. At +last, though unwillingly, Louis consented to go in person to Paris +and try to bring about an amicable settlement of the questions at +issue. He arrived on December 26, intending to return at the New +Year, meanwhile leaving the Council of Ministers in charge of the +affairs of the kingdom. He soon found not only that his mission was +in vain, but that he was regarded virtually as a prisoner. For +three months he remained in Paris under police <i>surveillance</i>; +and his interviews with his brother were of the most stormy +description. The Dutch Council, alarmed by the constant threat of +French invasion, at first thought of putting Amsterdam into a state +of defence, but finally abandoned the idea as hopeless. The king +did his utmost to appease Napoleon by the offer of concessions, but +his efforts were scornfully rejected, and at last he was compelled +(March 16, 1810) to sign a treaty embodying the terms dictated by +the emperor. "I must," he said, "at any price get out of this den +of murderers." By this treaty Brabant and Zeeland and the land +between the Maas and the Waal, with Nijmwegen, were ceded to +France. All commerce with England was forbidden. French +custom-house officers were placed at the mouths of the rivers and +at every port. Further, the Dutch were required to deliver up +fifteen men-of-war and one hundred gunboats.</p> + +<p>Louis was compelled to remain at Paris for the marriage of +Napoleon with Marie Louise, but was then allowed to depart. +Discouraged and humiliated, he found himself, with the title of +king, practically reduced to the position of administrative +governor of some French departments. Oudinot's troops were in +occupation of the Hague, Utrecht and Leyden; and, when the emperor +and his bride paid a state visit to Antwerp, Louis had to do him +homage. The relations between the two brothers had for some time +been strained, Napoleon having taken the part of his step-daughter +Hortense, who preferred the gaiety of Paris to the dull court of +her husband, reproached the injured man for not treating better the +best of wives. Matters were now to reach their climax. The coachman +of the French ambassador, Rochefoucault, having met with +maltreatment in the streets of Amsterdam, the emperor angrily +ordered Rochefoucault to quit the Dutch capital (May 29), leaving +only a chargé d'affaires, and at the same time +dismissed<span class="newpage"><a name="page_361" id= +"page_361">[pg.361]</a></span> Verhuell, the Dutch envoy, from +Paris. This was practically a declaration of war. The Council of +Ministers, on being consulted, determined that it was useless to +attempt the defence of Amsterdam; and, when the king learned +towards the end of June that Oudinot had orders to occupy the city, +he resolved to forestall this final humiliation by abdication. On +July 1, 1810, he signed the deed by which he laid down his crown in +favour of his elder son, Napoleon Louis, under the guardianship of +Queen Hortense. He then left the country, and retired into +Bohemia.</p> + +<p>To this disposition of the kingdom Napoleon, who had already +made up his mind, paid not the slightest heed. On July 9 an +Imperial Decree incorporated Holland in the French empire. +"Holland," said the emperor, "being formed by the deposits of three +French rivers, the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, was by nature +a part of France." Not till January 1, 1811, was the complete +incorporation to take place; meanwhile Le Brun, Duke of Piacenza, a +man of 72 years of age, was sent to Amsterdam to be +governor-general during the period of transition. It was a wise +appointment, as Le Brun was a man of kindly disposition, ready to +listen to grievances and with an earnest desire to carry out the +transformation of the government in a conciliatory spirit. With him +was associated, as Intendant of Home Affairs, Baron D'Alphonse, +like himself of moderate views, and a Council of Ministers. A +deputation of twenty-two persons from the Legislative Assembly was +summoned to Paris for consultation with the Imperial Government. To +Amsterdam was given the position of the third city in the empire, +Paris being the first and Rome the second. The country was divided +into nine departments—Bouches de l'Escaut, Bouches de la +Meuse, Bouches du Rhin, Zuiderzee, Issel supérieur, Bouches +de Issel, Frise, Ems Occidental and Ems Oriental. Over the +departments, as in France, were placed <i>préfets</i> and +under them <i>sous-préfets</i> and <i>maires</i>. All the +<i>préfets</i> now appointed were native Dutchmen with the +exception of two, De Celles at Amsterdam and De Standaart at the +Hague; both were Belgians and both rendered themselves unpopular by +their efforts to gain Napoleon's favour by a stringent enforcement +of his orders. The Dutch representation in the Legislative Assembly +at Paris was fixed at twenty-five members; in the Senate at six +members. When these took their seats, the Council of Affairs at +Amsterdam was dissolved and at<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_362" id="page_362">[pg.362]</a></span> the same time the +<i>Code Napoléon</i> unmodified became the law of the +land.</p> + +<p>Napoleon's demands upon Holland had always been met with the +reply that the land's finances were unequal to the strain. The debt +amounted to 40,000,000 fl.; and, despite heavy taxation, there was +a large annual deficit in the budget. The emperor at once took +action to remedy this state of things by a decree reducing the +interest on the debt to one-third. This was a heavy blow to those +persons whose limited incomes were mainly or entirely derived from +investments in the State Funds—including many widows, and +also hospitals, orphanages and other charitable institutions. At +the same time this step should not be regarded as a mere arbitrary +and dishonest repudiation of debt. The State was practically +bankrupt. For some years only a portion of the interest or nothing +at all had been paid; and the reduction in 1810 was intended to be +but a temporary measure. The capital amount was left untouched, and +the arrears of 1808 and 1809 were paid up at the new rate. That +financial opinion was favourably impressed by this drastic action +was shown by a considerable rise in the quotation of the Stock on +the Bourse.</p> + +<p>A far more unpopular measure was the introduction of military +and naval conscription in 1811. There never had been any but +voluntary service in Holland. Indeed during the whole period of the +Republic, though the fleet was wholly manned by Dutch seamen, the +army always included a large proportion of foreign mercenaries. By +the law of 1811 all youths of twenty were liable to serve for five +years either on land or sea; and the contingent required was filled +by the drawing of lots. Deep and strong resentment was felt +throughout the country, the more so that the law was made +retrospective to all who had reached the age of twenty in the three +preceding years. The battalions thus raised were treated as French +troops, and were sent to take part in distant campaigns—in +Spain and in Russia. Of the 15,000 men who marched with Napoleon +into Russia in 1812 only a few hundreds returned.</p> + +<p>The strict enforcement of the Continental System entailed great +hardships upon the population. To such an extent was the embargo +carried that all English manufactured goods found in Holland were +condemned to be burnt; and the value of what was actually consumed +amounted to millions of florins. A whole army of <span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">[pg.363]</a></span> +custom-house officers watched the coast, and every fishing smack +that put to sea had one on board. At the same time not till 1812 +was the customs barrier with France removed. In consequence of this +prices rose enormously, industries were ruined, houses were given +up and remained unoccupied, and thousands upon thousands were +reduced to abject poverty. Such was the state of the treasury that +in 1812 the reformed preachers received no stipends, and officials +of all kinds had to be content with reduced salaries.</p> + +<p>Nor were these the only causes of discontent. The police +regulations and the censorship of the press were of the severest +description, and the land swarmed with spies. No newspaper was +permitted to publish any article upon matters of State or any +political news except such as was sanctioned by the government, and +with a French translation of the Dutch original. This applied even +to advertisements. All books had to be submitted for the censor's +<i>imprimatur</i>. Every household was subject to the regular +visitation of the police, who made the most minute inquisition into +the character, the opinions, the occupations and means of +subsistence of every member of the household.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the French domination, however oppressive, had good +results in that for the first time in their history the Dutch +provinces acquired a real unity. All the old particularism +disappeared with the burgher-aristocracies, and the party feuds of +Orangists and patriots. A true sense of nationality was developed. +All classes of the population enjoyed the same political rights and +equality before the law. Napoleon himself was not unpopular. In the +autumn of 1811 he, accompanied by Marie Louise, made a +state-progress through this latest addition to his empire. Almost +every important place was visited, and in all parts of the country +he was received with outward demonstrations of enthusiasm and +almost servile obsequiency. It is perhaps not surprising, as the +great emperor was now at the very topmost height of his dazzling +fortunes.</p> + +<p>But for Holland Napoleon's triumphs had their dark side, for his +chief and most determined enemy, England, was mistress of the seas; +and the last and the richest of the Dutch colonies, Java, +surrendered to the English almost on the very day that the Imperial +progress began. Hearing of the activity of the British squadron in +the Eastern seas, King Louis had, shortly after his acceptance of +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_364" id= +"page_364">[pg.364]</a></span> crown, taken steps for the defence +of Java by appointing Daendels, a man of proved vigour and +initiative, governor-general. The difficulties of reaching Java in +face of British vigilance were however well-nigh insurmountable, +and it was not until a year after his nomination to the +governorship that Daendels reached Batavia, on January 1, 1808. His +measures for the defence of the island, including the construction +of important highways, were most energetic, but so oppressive and +high-handed as to arouse hostility and alienate the native chiefs. +Napoleon, informed of Daendels' harsh rule, sent out Janssens with +a body of troops to replace him. The new governor-general landed on +April 27, 1811, but he could make no effective resistance to a +powerful British expedition under General Auchmuty, which took +possession of Batavia on August 4, and after some severe fighting +compelled (September 17) the whole of the Dutch forces to +capitulate.</p> + +<p>The year of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812, was a year of +passive endurance. The safety of the remnant of the Grand Army was +secured (November 28) by the courage and staunchness of the Dutch +pontoon-engineers, who, standing in the ice-cold water of the +Beresina, completed the bridge over which, after a desperate +battle, the French troops effected their escape. The Moscow +catastrophe was followed in 1813 by a general uprising of the +oppressed peoples of Europe against the Napoleonic tyranny. In this +uprising the Dutch people, although hopes of freedom were beginning +to dawn upon them, did not for some time venture to take any part. +The Prince of Orange however had been in London since April, trying +to secure a promise of assistance from the British government in +case of a rising; and he was working in collaboration with a number +of patriotic men in Holland, who saw in an Orange restoration the +best hopes for their country's independence. The news of Leipzig +(October 14-16) roused them to action.</p> + +<p>Foremost among these leaders was Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp. +He had been one of the Orangist leaders at the time of the +restoration of 1787 and had filled the post of pensionary of +Rotterdam. After the French conquest he had withdrawn from public +life. With him were associated Count Van Limburg-Stirum and Baron +Van der Duyn van Maasdam, like himself residents at the Hague. Van +Hogendorp could also count on a number of active helpers outside +the Hague, prominent among whom were Falck, Captain<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">[pg.365]</a></span> of +the National Guard at Amsterdam, and Kemper, a professor at Leyden. +Plans were made for restoring the independence of the country under +the rule of the Prince of Orange; but, in order to escape the +vigilance of the French police, great care was taken to maintain +secrecy, and nothing was committed to writing. The rapid march of +allied troops, Russians and Prussians, towards the Dutch frontiers +after Leipzig necessitated rapid action.</p> + +<p>Van Hogendorp and his friends wished that Holland should free +herself by her own exertions, for they were aware that reconquest +by the allied forces might imperil their claims to independence. +Their opportunity came when General Melliton, by order of the +governor-general Le Brun, withdrew on November 14 from Amsterdam to +Utrecht. One of the Orangist confederates, a sea-captain, named Job +May, on the following day stirred up a popular rising in the city; +and some custom-houses were burnt. Le Brun himself on this +retreated to Utrecht and, on the 16th, after transferring the +government of the country to Melliton, returned to France. Falck at +the head of the National Guard had meanwhile re-established order +at Amsterdam, and placed the town in charge of a provisional +government. No sooner did this news reach the Hague than Van +Hogendorp and Van Limburg-Stirum determined upon instant action +(November 17). With a proclamation drawn up by Van Hogendorp, and +at the head of a body of the National Guard wearing Orange colours, +Van Limburg-Stirum marched through the streets to the Town Hall, +where he read the proclamation declaring the Prince of Orange +"eminent head of the State." No opposition being offered, after +discussion with their chief supporters, the triumvirate, Van +Hogendorp, Van Limburg-Stirum and Van der Duyn van Maasdam, took +upon themselves provisionally the government of the country, until +the arrival of the Prince. Emissaries were at once sent to +Amsterdam to announce what had taken place at the Hague. At first +the Amsterdammers showed some hesitation; and it was not until the +arrival of a body of Cossacks at their gates (November 24), that +the city openly threw in its lot with the Orangist movement, which +now rapidly spread throughout the country. Without delay the +provisional government despatched two envoys, Fagel and De +Perponcher, to London, to inform the Prince of Orange of what had +occurred and to invite him to Holland. <span class="newpage"><a +name="page_366" id="page_366">[pg.366]</a></span></p> + +<p>William had been in England since April and had met with a +favourable reception. In an interview with the British Foreign +Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, support had been promised him (April +27, 1813) on the following conditions: (1) the frontiers of Holland +should be extended "either by a sort of new Barrier, more effective +than the old one, or by the union of some portions of territory +adjacent to the ancient Republic; (2) Holland must wait until such +time as Great Britain should deem convenient in her own interests +for the restoration of the Dutch colonies, which she had conquered +during the war; (3) a system of government must be set up which +would reconcile the wishes of Holland with those of the Powers +called to exercise so powerful an influence upon her future." +William had gone to London knowing that he could rely on the active +assistance of his brother-in-law, Frederick William of Prussia, and +of the Emperor Alexander I, and that the goodwill of England was +assured by the projected marriage of his son (now serving under +Wellington in Spain) with the Princess Charlotte, +heiress-presumptive to the British throne. He now therefore without +hesitation accepted the invitation, and landed at Scheveningen, +November 30. He was received with unspeakable enthusiasm. At first +there was some doubt as to what title William should bear and as to +what should be the form of the new government. Van Hogendorp had +drawn up a draft of a constitution on the old lines with an +hereditary stadholder, a council-pensionary and a privileged +aristocracy, but with large and necessary amendments, and the +prince was himself inclined to a restoration of the stadholdership +with enlarged powers. To the arguments of Kemper is the credit due +of having persuaded him that a return to the old system, however +amended, had now become impossible. The prince visited Amsterdam, +December 2, and was there proclaimed by the title and quality of +William I, Sovereign-Prince of the Netherlands. He refused the +title of king, but the position he thus accepted with general +approval was that of a constitutional monarch, and the promise was +given that as soon as possible a Commission should be appointed to +draw up a Fundamental Law <i>(Grondwet)</i> for the Dutch +State.</p> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_367" id= +"page_367">[pg.367]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXIX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, 1814-1815</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>When the Prince of Orange assumed the title of William I, +Sovereign-Prince of the Netherlands, at Amsterdam, on December 2, +1813, the principal towns were still occupied by French garrisons; +but with the help of the allied forces, Russians and Prussians, +these were, in the opening months of 1814, one by one conquered. +The Helder garrison, under the command of Admiral Verhuell, did not +surrender till May. By the end of that month the whole land was +freed.</p> + +<p>The first step taken by the Sovereign-Prince (December 21) was +to appoint a Commission to draw up a Fundamental Law according to +his promise. The Commission consisted of fifteen members, with Van +Hogendorp as president. Their labours were concluded early in +March. The concept was on March 29 submitted to an Assembly of six +hundred notables, summoned for the purpose, the voting to be 'for' +or 'against' without discussion. The gathering took place in the +Nieuwe Kerk at Amsterdam, Of the 474 who were present, 448 voted in +favour of the new Constitution. On the following day the Prince of +Orange took the oath in the Nieuwe Kerk and was solemnly +inaugurated as Sovereign-Prince of the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>The principal provisions of the Fundamental Law of March, 1814, +were as follows:</p> + +<p>The Sovereign shares the Legislative Power with the +States-General, but alone exercises the Executive Power. All the +sovereign prerogatives formerly possessed by provinces, districts +or towns are now transferred to the Sovereign. He is assisted by a +Council of State of twelve members, appoints and dismisses +ministers, declares war and makes peace, has the control of finance +and governs the overseas-possessions. The States-General consist of +fifty-five members, elected by the nine provinces, Holland, +Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, +Brabant and Drente on the basis of population. The members are +elected for three years, but one-third vacate their seats every +year. They have the right of legislative initiative, and of veto. +The finances are<span class="newpage"><a name="page_368" id= +"page_368">[pg.368]</a></span> divided into ordinary and +extraordinary expenditure, over the former the States-General +exercise no control, but a general Chamber of Accounts +<i>(Algemeene Rekenkamer)</i> has the supervision over ways and +means. The Sovereign must be a member of the Reformed Church, but +equal protection is given by the State to all religious +beliefs.</p> + +<p>It was essentially an aristocratic constitution. At least one +quarter of the States-General must belong to the nobility. The +Provincial Estates had the control of local affairs only, but had +the privilege of electing the members of the States-General. They +were themselves far from being representative. For the country +districts the members were chosen from the nobility and the +land-owners; in the towns by colleges of electors <i>(kiezers)</i>, +consisting of those who paid the highest contributions in taxes. +Except for the strengthening of the central executive power and the +abolition of all provincial sovereign rights, the new Constitution +differed little from the old in its oligarchic character.</p> + +<p>It was, however, to be but a temporary arrangement. It has +already been pointed out that, months before his actual return to +Holland, the prince had received assurances from the British +government that a strong Netherland State should be created, +capable of being a barrier to French aggression. The time had now +arrived for the practical carrying-out of this assurance. +Accordingly Lord Castlereagh in January, 1814, when on his way, as +British plenipotentiary, to confer with the Allied Sovereigns at +Basel, visited the Sovereign-Prince at the Hague. The conversations +issued in a proposal to unite (with the assent of Austria) the +Belgic provinces as far as the Meuse to Holland together with the +territory between the Meuse and the Rhine as far as the line +Maestricht-Düren-Cologne. Castlereagh submitted this project +to the allies at Basel; and it was discussed and adopted in +principle at the Conference of Châtillon (February 3 to March +15), the Austrian Emperor having renounced all claim to his Belgian +dominions in favour of an equivalent in Venetia. This was done +without any attempt to ascertain the wishes of the Belgian people +on the proposed transference of their allegiance, and a protest was +made. An assembly of notables, which had been summoned to Brussels +by the military governor, the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, sent a +deputation to the allied headquarters at Chaumont to express their +continued loyalty to their Habsburg sovereign and to ask that, if +the Emperor Francis<span class="newpage"><a name="page_369" id= +"page_369">[pg.369]</a></span> relinquished his claim, they might +be erected into an independent State under the rule of an Austrian +archduke. A written reply (March 14) informed them that the +question of union with Holland was settled, but assurances were +given that in matters of religion, representation, commerce and the +public debt their interests would be carefully guarded. Meanwhile +General Baron Vincent, a Belgian in the Austrian service, was made +governor-general.</p> + +<p>The idea, however, of giving to Holland a slice of cis-Rhenan +territory had perforce to be abandoned in the face of Prussian +objections. The preliminary Treaty of Peace signed at Paris on May +30, 1814, was purposely vague, Art. VI merely declaring that +"Holland placed under the sovereignty of the House of Orange shall +receive an increase of territory—<i>un accroissement de +territoire";</i> but a secret article defined this increase as "the +countries comprised between the sea, the frontiers of France, as +defined by the present treaty; and the Meuse shall be united in +perpetuity to Holland. The frontiers on the right bank of the Meuse +shall be regulated in accordance with the military requirements of +Holland and her neighbours." In other words the whole of Belgium as +far as the Meuse was to be annexed to Holland; beyond the Meuse the +military requirements of Prussia were to be consulted.</p> + +<p>Previously to this, Castlereagh had written to the British +Minister at the Hague, Lord Clancarty, suggesting that the +Sovereign-Prince should summon a meeting of an equal number of +Dutch and Belgian notables to draw up a project of union to be +presented to the Allied Sovereigns at Paris for their approbation. +But William had already himself, with the assistance of his +minister Van Nagell, drawn up in eight articles the fundamental +conditions for the constitution of the new State; and, after +revision by Falck and Lord Clancarty, he in person took them to +Paris. They were laid by Clancarty before the plenipotentiaries, +and were adopted by the Allied Sovereigns assembled in London on +June 21, 1814. The principles which animated them were set forth in +a protocol which breathes throughout a spirit of fairness and +conciliation—but all was marred by the final +clause—<i>Elles mettent ces principes en exécution en +vertu de leur droit de conquete de la Belgique.</i> To unite +Belgium to Holland, as a conquered dependency, could not fail to +arouse bad feelings; and thus to proclaim it openly was a very +grave mistake. It was not thus that that "perfect amalgamation" of +the two countries, at<span class="newpage"><a name="page_370" id= +"page_370">[pg.370]</a></span> which, according to the protocol, +the Great Powers aimed, was likely to be effected.</p> + +<p>At the same time, as a standing proof of William's own excellent +intentions, the text of the Eight Articles is given in full:</p> + +<p>(1) <i>The union shall be intimate and complete, so that the two +countries shall form but one State, to be governed by the +Fundamental Law already established in Holland, which by mutual +consent shall be modified according to the circumstances.</i></p> + +<p>(2) <i>There shall be no change in those Articles of the +Fundamental Law which secure to all religious cults equal +protection and privileges, and guarantee the admissibility of all +citizens, whatever be their religious creed, to public offices and +dignities.</i></p> + +<p>(3) <i>The Belgian provinces shall be in a fitting manner +represented in the States-General, whose sittings in time of peace +shall be held by turns in a Dutch and a Belgian town.</i></p> + +<p>(4) <i>All the inhabitants of the Netherlands thus having equal +constitutional rights, they shall have equal claim to all +commercial and other rights, of which their circumstances allow, +without any hindrance or obstruction being imposed on any to the +profit of others.</i></p> + +<p>(5) <i>Immediately after the union the provinces and towns of +Belgium shall be admitted to the commerce and navigation of the +colonies of Holland upon the same footing as the Dutch provinces +and towns.</i></p> + +<p>(6) <i>The debts contracted on the one side by the Dutch, and on +the other side by the Belgian provinces, shall be charged to the +public chest of the Netherlands.</i></p> + +<p>(7) <i>The expenses required for the building and maintenance of +the frontier fortresses of the new State shall be borne by the +public chest as serving the security and independence of the whole +nation.</i></p> + +<p>(8) <i>The cost of the making and upkeep of the dykes shall be +at the charge of the districts more directly interested, except in +the case of an extraordinary disaster.</i></p> + +<p>It is not too much to say that, if the provisions of these +Articles had been carried out fully and generously, there might +have been at the present moment a strong and united Netherland +State.</p> + +<p>On July 21 the Articles, as approved by the Powers, were +returned to the Sovereign-Prince, who officially accepted them, and +on August 1 took over at Brussels the government of the Belgic +provinces, while awaiting the decisions of the Congress, which was +shortly to meet at Vienna, as to the boundaries and political +status of the territories over which he ruled. The work of the +Congress, however, which met in October, was much delayed by +differences<span class="newpage"><a name="page_371" id= +"page_371">[pg.371]</a></span> between the Powers. Prussia wished +to annex the entire kingdom of Saxony; and, when it was found that +such a claim, if persisted in, would be opposed by Great Britain, +Austria and France, compensation was sought in the Rhenish +provinces. Thus the idea of strengthening the new Netherland +buffer-state by an addition of territory in the direction of the +Rhine had to be abandoned. It must be remembered that the +Sovereign-Prince on his part was not likely to raise any objection +to having an enlarged and strengthened Prussia as his immediate +neighbour on the east. William was both brother-in-law and first +cousin of the King of Prussia, and had spent much of his exile at +Berlin; and he no doubt regarded the presence of this strong +military power on his frontier as the surest guarantee against +French aggression. His relations with Prussia were indeed of the +friendliest character, as is shown by the fact that secret +negotiations were at this very time taking place for the cession to +Prussia of his hereditary Nassau principalities of Dillenburg, +Siegen, Dietz and Hadamar in exchange for the Duchy of +Luxemburg.</p> + +<p>The proceedings of the inharmonious Congress of Vienna were, +however, rudely interrupted by the sudden return of Napoleon from +Elba. Weary of waiting for a formal recognition of his position, +William now (March 15, 1815) issued a proclamation in which he +assumed the title of King of the Netherlands and Duke of Luxemburg. +No protest was made; and the <i>fait accompli</i> was duly accepted +by the Powers (May 23). The first act of the king was to call upon +all his subjects, Dutch and Belgians alike, to unite in opposing +the common foe. This call to arms led to a considerable force under +the command of the hereditary prince being able to join the small +British army, which Wellington had hurriedly collected for the +defence of Brussels. The sudden invasion of Belgium by Napoleon +(June 14) took his adversaries by surprise, for the +Anglo-Netherland forces were distributed in different cantonments +and were separated from the Prussian army under Blücher, which +had entered Belgium from the east. Napoleon in person attacked and +defeated Blücher at Ligny on June 16; and on the same day a +French force under Ney was, after a desperate encounter, held in +check by the British and Dutch regiments, which had been pushed +forward to Quatre Bras. Blücher retreated to Wavre and +Wellington to Waterloo on the following day. The issue of the +battle of Waterloo, which took<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_372" id="page_372">[pg.372]</a></span> place on June 18, is +well known. The Belgian contingent did not play a distinguished +part at Waterloo, but it would be unfair to place to their +discredit any lack of steadiness that was shown. These Belgian +troops were all old soldiers of Napoleon, to whom they were +attached, and in whose invincibility they believed. The Prince of +Orange distinguished himself by great courage both at Quatre Bras +and Waterloo.</p> + +<p>William, after his assumption of the regal title, at once +proceeded to regularise his position by carrying out that necessary +modification of the Dutch Fundamental Law to which he was pledged +by the Eight Articles. He accordingly summoned a Commission of +twenty-four members, half Dutch and half Belgian, Catholics and +Protestants being equally represented, which on April 22 met under +the presidency of Van Hogendorp. Their activity was sharpened by +the threat of French invasion, and in three months (July 18) their +difficult task was accomplished. The new Fundamental Law made no +change in the autocratic powers conferred on the king. The +executive authority remained wholly in his hands. The +States-General were now to consist of two Chambers, but the First +Chamber was a nominated Chamber. It contained forty to sixty +members appointed by the king for life. The Second Chamber of 110 +members, equally divided between north and south, <i>i.e.</i> +fifty-five Dutch and fifty-five Belgian representatives, was +elected under a very restricted franchise by the seventeen +provinces into which the whole kingdom was divided. The ordinary +budget was voted for ten years, and it was only extraordinary +expenses which had to be considered annually. The other provisions +strictly followed the principles and the liberties guaranteed in +advance by the Eight Articles.</p> + +<p>The new Fundamental Law was presented to the Dutch +States-General on August 8, and was approved by a unanimous vote. +Very different was its reception in Belgium. The king had summoned +a meeting of 1603 notables to Brussels, of these 1323 were present. +The majority were hostile. It had been strongly urged by the +Belgian delegates on the Commission that the Belgic provinces, with +three and a half millions of inhabitants, ought to return to the +Second Chamber of the States-General a number of members +proportionately greater than the Dutch provinces, which had barely +two millions. The Dutch on their part argued that their country +had<span class="newpage"><a name="page_373" id= +"page_373">[pg.373]</a></span> been an independent State for two +centuries and possessed a large colonial empire, while Belgium had +always been under foreign rule, and had now been added to Holland +"as an increase of territory." It was finally arranged, however, +that the representation of the northern and southern portions of +the new kingdom should be equal, 55 each. Belgian public opinion +loudly protested, especially as the 55 Belgian deputies included +four representatives of Luxemburg, which had been created a +separate State under the personal rule of King William. Still more +bitter and determined was the opposition of the powerful clerical +party to the principle of religious equality. About 99 per cent, of +the Belgian population was Catholic; and the bishops were very +suspicious of what might be the effect of this principle in the +hands of an autocratic Calvinist king, supported by the predominant +Protestant majority in Holland. A further grievance was that the +heavy public debt incurred by Holland should be made a common +burden.</p> + +<p>Considerable pressure was brought to bear upon the notables, but +without avail. The Fundamental Law was rejected by 796 votes to +527. Confronted with this large hostile majority, the king took +upon himself to reverse the decision by an arbitrary and dishonest +manipulation of the return. He chose to assume that the 280 +notables who had not voted were in favour of the Law, and added +their votes to the minority. He then declared that 126 votes had +been wrongly given in opposition to the principle of religious +equality, which, by the Second of the Eight Articles approved by +the Powers was binding and fundamental to the Union, and he then +not only deducted them from the majority, but added them also to +the minority. He then announced that the Fundamental Law had been +accepted by a majority of 263 votes. Such an act of chicanery was +not calculated to make the relations between north and south work +smoothly. Having thus for reasons of state summarily dealt with the +decision of the Belgian notables, William (September 26), made his +state entry into Brussels and took his oath to the +Constitution.</p> + +<p>Already the Congress of Vienna had given the official sanction +of the Powers to the creation of the kingdom of the Netherlands by +a treaty signed at Paris on May 31, 1815. By this treaty the whole +of the former Austrian Netherlands (except the province of +Luxemburg) together with the territory which before 1795 had<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_374" id= +"page_374">[pg.374]</a></span> been ruled by the prince-bishops of +Liège, the Duchy of Bouillon and several small pieces of +territory were added to Holland; and the new State thus created was +placed under the sovereignty of the head of the House of +Orange-Nassau. As stated above, however, it had been necessary in +making these arrangements to conciliate Prussian claims for +aggrandisement in the cis-Rhenan provinces. This led to a number of +complicated transactions. William ceded to Prussia his ancient +hereditary Nassau principalities—Dillenburg, Dietz, Siegen +and Hadamar. The equivalent which William received was the +sovereignty of Luxemburg, which for this purpose was severed from +the Belgian Netherlands, of which it had been one of the provinces +since the time of the Burgundian dukes, and was erected into a +Grand-Duchy. Further than this, the Grand-Duchy was made one of the +states of the Germanic Confederation; and the town of Luxemburg was +declared to be a federal fortress, the garrison to consist of +Prussian and Dutch detachments under a Prussian commandant. There +was a double object in this transaction: (1) to preserve to the +Grand-Duke his rights and privileges as a German prince, (2) to +secure the defence of this important borderland against French +attack. Another complication arose from the fact that in the 14th +century the House of Nassau had been divided into two branches, +Walram and Otto, the younger branch being that of which the Prince +of Orange was the head. But by a family-pact<a name= +"FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a>, +agreed upon in 1735 and renewed in 1783, the territorial +possessions of either line in default of male-heirs had to pass to +the next male-agnate of the other branch. This pact therefore, by +virtue of the exchange that had taken place, applied to the new +Grand-Duchy. It is necessary here to explain what took place in +some detail, for this arbitrary wrenching of Luxemburg from its +historical position as an integral part of the Netherlands was to +have serious and disconcerting consequences in the near future.</p> + +<p>The new kingdom of the Netherlands naturally included Luxemburg, +so that William was a loser rather than a gainer by the cession of +his Nassau possessions; but his close relation by descent and +marriage with the Prussian Royal House made him anxious to meet the +wishes of a power on whose friendship he relied. All evidence also +points to the conclusion that in accepting<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_375" id="page_375">[pg.375]</a></span> the personal +sovereignty of the Grand-Duchy he had no intention of treating +Luxemburg otherwise than as part of his kingdom. The Fundamental +Law was made to apply to Luxemburg, in the same way as to Brabant +or Flanders; and of the 55 members allotted to the Belgic +provinces, four were representatives of the Grand-Duchy, which was +subject to the same legislation and taxes as the kingdom. At first +the king had thought of nominating his second son Frederick as his +successor in Luxemburg, but he changed his mind and gave him an +indemnity elsewhere; and he himself states the reason, "since we +have judged it advisable <i>(convenable)</i> in the general +interest of the kingdom to unite the Grand-Duchy to it and to place +it under the same constitutional laws."</p> + +<p>The boundaries of the new kingdom and of the Grand-Duchy were +fixed by the treaty of May 31, 1815, and confirmed by the General +Act of the Congress of Vienna. By this treaty Prussia received a +considerable part of the old province of Luxemburg as well as +slices of territory taken from the bishopric of Liège. A +separate boundary treaty a year later (June 26, 1816) between the +Netherlands and Prussia filled in the details of that of 1815; and +that Prussia herself acquiesced in the fusion of the kingdom and +the Grand-Duchy is shown by the fact that the boundary between +Prussia and Luxemburg is three times referred to in the later +treaty as the boundary between Prussia and the kingdom of the +Netherlands.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + <span class="newpage"><a name="page_376" id= +"page_376">[pg.376]</a></span> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> + +<p>THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS—UNION OF HOLLAND AND +BELGIUM, 1815-1830</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The autocratic powers that were conferred upon King William by +the Fundamental Law rendered his personality a factor of the utmost +importance in the difficult task which lay before him. William's +character was strong and self-confident, and he did not shrink from +responsibility. His intentions were of the best; he was capable, +industrious, a good financier, sparing himself no trouble in +mastering the details of State business. But he had the defects of +his qualities, being self-opinionated, stubborn and inclined, as in +the matter of the vote of the Belgian notables, to override +opposition with a high hand. He had at the beginning of his reign +the good fortune of being on the best of terms with Castlereagh, +the British Foreign Minister. To Castlereagh more than to any other +statesman the kingdom of the Netherlands owed its existence. The +Peace of Paris saw Great Britain in possession by conquest of all +the Dutch colonies. By the Convention of London (August 13, 1814), +which was Castlereagh's work, it was arranged that all the captured +colonies, including Java, the richest and most valuable of all, +should be restored, with the exception of the Cape of Good Hope and +the Guiana colonies—Demerara, Berbice and Essequibo. In the +latter the plantations had almost all passed into British hands +during the eighteen years since their conquest; and Cape Colony was +retained as essential for the security of the sea-route to India. +But these surrenders were not made without ample compensation. +Great Britain contributed £2,000,000 towards erecting +fortresses along the French frontier; £1,000,000 to satisfy a +claim of Sweden with regard to the island of Guadeloupe; and +£3,000,000 or one-half of a debt from Holland to Russia, +<i>i.e.</i> a sum of £6,000,000 in all.</p> + +<p>One of the most urgent problems with which the Sovereign-Prince +had to deal on his accession to power was the state of the +finances. Napoleon by a stroke of the pen had reduced the public +debt to one-third of its amount. William, however, was too honest a +man to avail himself of the opportunity for partial +repudiation<span class="newpage"><a name="page_377" id= +"page_377">[pg.377]</a></span> that was offered him. He recalled +into existence the two-thirds on which no interest had been paid +and called it "deferred debt" (<i>uitgestelde schuld</i>); the +other third received the name of "working debt" (<i>werkelijke +schuld</i>). The figures stood at 1200 million florins and 600 +million florins respectively. Every year four millions of the +"working debt" were to be paid off, and a similar amount from the +"deferred" added to it. Other measures taken in 1814 for effecting +economies were of little avail, as the campaign of Waterloo in the +following year added 40 million florins to the debt. Heavier +taxation had to be imposed, but even then the charges for the debt +made it almost impossible to avoid an annual deficit in the budget. +It was one of the chief grievances of the Belgians that they were +called upon to share the burden of a crushing debt which they had +not incurred. The voting of ways and means for ten years gave the +king the control over all ordinary finance; it was only +extraordinary expenditure that had to be submitted annually to the +representatives of the people.</p> + +<p>The dislike of the Catholic hierarchy in Belgium to Dutch rule +had been intensified by the manner in which the king had dealt with +the vote of the notables. Their leader was Maurice de Broglie, +Bishop of Ghent, a Frenchman by birth. His efforts by speech and by +pen to stir up active enmity in Belgium to the union aroused +William's anger, and he resolved to prosecute him. It was an act of +courage rather than of statesmanship, but the king could not brook +opposition. Broglie refused to appear before the court and fled to +France. In his absence he was condemned to banishment and the +payment of costs. The powerful clerical party regarded him as a +martyr and continued to criticise the policy of the Protestant king +with watchful and hostile suspicion. Nor were the Belgian liberal +party more friendly. They did not indeed support the clerical claim +to practical predominance in the State, but they were patriotic +Belgians who had no love for Holland and resented the thought that +they were being treated as a dependency of their northern +neighbours. They were at one with the clericals in claiming that +the Belgian representation in the Second Chamber of the +States-General should be proportional to their population. But this +grievance might have been tolerated had the king shown any +inclination to treat his Belgian subjects on a footing of equality +with the Dutch. He was, as will be seen, keenly interested in +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_378" id= +"page_378">[pg.378]</a></span> welfare and progress of the south, +but in spirit and in his conduct of affairs he proved himself to be +an out-and-out Hollander. The provision of the Fundamental Law that +the seat of government and the meetings of the States-General +should be alternately from year to year at the Hague and at +Brussels was never carried out. All the ministries were permanently +located at the Hague; and of the seven ministers who held office in +1816 only one, the Duke d'Ursel, was a Belgian, and he held the +post of Minister of Public Works and Waterways. Fourteen years +later (at the time of the revolt) six out of seven were still +northerners. The military establishments were all in Holland, and +nearly all the diplomatic and civil posts were given to Dutchmen. +Nor was this merely due to the fact that, when the union took +place, Holland already possessed an organised government and a +supply of experienced officials, while Belgium lacked both. On the +contrary, the policy of the king remained fixed and unwavering. In +1830 out of 39 diplomatists 30 were Dutch. All the chief military +posts were filled by Dutchmen. Nor was it different in the civil +service. In the home department there were 117 Dutch, 11 Belgians; +in the war department 102 Dutch, 3 Belgians; in finance 59 Dutch, 5 +Belgians. Such a state of things was bound to cause resentment. +Parties in the Belgic provinces were in the early days of the Union +divided very much as they have been in recent years. The Catholic +or Clerical party had its stronghold in the two Flanders and +Antwerp, <i>i.e.</i> in the Flemish-speaking districts. In Walloon +Belgium the Liberals had a considerable majority. The opposition to +the Fundamental Law came overwhelmingly from Flemish Belgium; the +support from Liège, Namur, Luxemburg and other Walloon +districts. But the sense of injustice brought both parties +together, so that in the representative Chamber the Belgian members +were soon found voting solidly together, as a permanent opposition, +while the Dutch voted <i>en bloc</i> for the government. As the +representation of north and south was equal, 55 members each, the +result would have been a deadlock, but there were always two or +three Belgians who held government offices; and these were +compelled, on pain of instant dismissal, to vote for a government +measure or at least to abstain. Thus the king could always rely on +a small but constant majority, and by its aid he did not hesitate +to force through financial and legislative proposals in the teeth +of Belgian opposition. <span class="newpage"><a name="page_379" id= +"page_379">[pg.379]</a></span> It is only fair, however, to the +arbitrary king to point out how earnestly he endeavoured to promote +the material and industrial welfare of the whole land, and to +encourage to the best of his power literary, scientific and +educational progress. In Holland the carrying-trade, which had so +long been the chief source of the country's wealth, had been +utterly ruined by Napoleon's Continental System. On the other hand, +Belgian industries, which had been flourishing through the strict +embargo placed upon the import of British goods, were now +threatened with British competition. The steps taken by the energy +and initiative of the king were, considering the state of the +national finances, remarkable in the variety of their aims and the +results that they achieved. The old Amsterdam Bank was transformed +into a Bank of the Netherlands. A number of canals were planned and +constructed. Chief among these was the North Holland Canal, +connecting Amsterdam with the Helder. The approaches to Rotterdam +were improved, so that this port became the meeting-point of +sea-traffic from England and river-traffic by the Rhine from +Germany. But both these ports were quickly overshadowed by the +rapid recovery of Antwerp, now that the Scheldt was free and open +to commerce. Other important canals, begun and wholly or in part +constructed, during this period were the Zuid-Willemsvaart, the +Zederik, the Appeldoorn and the Voorne canals. Water communication +was not so necessary in the south as in the north, but care was +there also bestowed upon the canals, especially upon the canal of +Terneuzen connecting Ghent with the western Scheldt, and many +highways were constructed. To restore the prosperity of the Dutch +carrying-trade, especially that with their East Indies, in 1824 a +Company—<i>de Nederlandsche Handekmaatschappij</i> —was +founded; and at the same time a commercial treaty was concluded +with Great Britain, by which both nations were to enjoy free trade +with each other's East Indian possessions. The +<i>Handekmaatschappij</i> had a capital of 37 million florins; to +this the king contributed four millions and guaranteed to the +shareholders for 20 years a dividend of 4 1/2 per cent. The Company +at first worked at a loss, and in 1831 William had to pay four +million florins out of his privy purse to meet his guarantee. This +was partly due to the set-back of a revolt in Java which lasted +some years.</p> + +<p>Agriculture received equal attention. Marshy districts were +impoldered or turned into pasture-land. More especially did +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_380" id= +"page_380">[pg.380]</a></span> <i>Maatschappij van +Weldadigheid</i>, a society founded in 1818 by General van den +Bosch with the king's strong support, undertake the task of +reclaiming land with the special aim of relieving poverty. No less +zealous was the king for the prosperity of Belgian industries; +Ghent with its cotton factories and sugar refineries, Tournai with +its porcelain industry, and Liège with its hardware, all +were the objects of royal interest. The great machine factory at +Seraing near Liège under the management of an Englishman, +Cockerill, owed its existence to the king. Nor was William's care +only directed to the material interests of his people. In 1815 the +University at Utrecht was restored; and in Belgium, besides +Louvain, two new foundations for higher education were in 1816 +created at Ghent and Liège. Royal Academies of the Arts were +placed at Amsterdam and Antwerp, which were to bear good fruit. His +attention was also given to the much-needed improvement of primary +education, which in the south was almost non-existent in large +parts of the country. Here the presence of a number of illiterate +dialects was a great obstacle and was the cause of the unfortunate +effort to make literary Dutch into a national language for his +whole realm.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the king's political mistakes (of which the +attempted compulsory use of Dutch was one) rendered all his +thoughtful watchfulness over his people's welfare unavailing. Great +as were the autocratic powers conferred upon the sovereign, he +overstepped them. Plans, in which he was interested, he carried out +without consulting the States-General. His ministers he regarded as +bound to execute his orders. If their views differed from his, they +were dismissed. This was the fate even of Van Hogendorp, to whom he +owed so much; Roëll and Falck also had to make way for less +competent but more obsequious ministers.</p> + +<p>The chief difficulty with which the king had to contend +throughout this period was the ceaseless and irreconcilable +opposition of the Catholic hierarchy and clergy to the principle of +absolute religious equality established by the Fundamental Law +(Articles CXC-CXCIII). Their leader, Maurice de Broglie, Bishop of +Ghent, actually published a <i>jugement doctrinal</i> in which he +declared that the taking of the oath to the Constitution was an act +of treason to the Catholic Church. In this defiance to the +government he had the support of the Pope, who only permitted the +Count de Méan to take the oath on his appointment to the +Archbishopric of Malines<span class="newpage"><a name="page_381" +id="page_381">[pg.381]</a></span> on the understanding that he held +Articles CXC-CXCIII to refer only to civil matters. From this time +to take the oath "dans le sens de M. Méan" became with the +ultra-clerical party a common practice.</p> + +<p>Other measures of the government aroused Catholic hostility. In +this year, 1819, a decree forbade the holding of more than two +religious processions in a year. In such a country as Belgium this +restriction was strongly resented. But the establishment in 1825 by +the king of a <i>Collegium Philosophicum</i> at Louvain, at which +all candidates for the priesthood were by royal decree required +(after 1826) to have a two-years' course before proceeding to an +episcopal seminary, met with strenuous resistance. The instruction +was in ancient languages, history, ethics and canon-law; and the +teachers were nominated by the king. The first effect of this +decree was that young men began to seek education in foreign +seminaries. Another royal decree at once forbade this, and all +youths were ordered to proceed either to the <i>Collegium</i> or to +one of the High Schools of the land; unless they did so, access to +the priesthood or to any public office was barred to them. This was +perhaps the most serious of all the king's mistakes. He +miscalculated both the strength and the sincerity of the opposition +he thus deliberately courted. His decrees were doomed to failure. +The bishops on their part refused to admit to their seminaries or +to ordination anyone who attended the <i>Collegium +Philosophicum</i>. The king, in the face of the irrevocable +decision of the Belgian hierarchy, found himself in an untenable +position. He could not compel the bishops to ordain candidates for +Holy Orders, and his decrees were therefore a dead letter; nor on +the other hand could he trample upon the convictions of the vast +majority of his Belgian subjects by making admission to the +priesthood impossible. He had to give way and to send a special +envoy—De Celles—to the Pope in 1827 to endeavour to +negotiate a Concordat. It was accomplished. By Article III of the +Concordat, there were to be eight bishops in the Netherlands +instead of five. They were to be chosen by the Pope, but the king +was to have the right of objection, and they were required to take +the oath of allegiance. The course at the <i>Collegium +Philosophicum</i> was made optional. William thus yielded on +practically all the points at issue, but prided himself on having +obtained the right of rejecting a papal nominee. The Pope, however, +in an allocution made no mention of this right, and declared that +the decree about the <i>Collegium</i> was<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_382" id="page_382">[pg.382]</a></span> annulled, and +that in matters of education the bishops would act in accordance +with instructions from Rome. The government immediately issued a +confidential notice to the governors of provinces, that the +carrying-out of the Concordat was indefinitely postponed. Thus the +effort at conciliation ended in the humiliation of the king, and +the triumph of the astute diplomacy of the Vatican.</p> + +<p>The financial situation, as we have seen, was from the outset +full of difficulty. The king was personally parsimonious, but his +many projects for the general welfare of the land involved large +outlay, and the consequence was an annual average deficit of seven +million florins. At first the revenue was raised by the increase of +customs and excise, including colonial imports. This caused much +dissatisfaction in Holland, especially when duties were placed on +coffee and sugar. The complaint was that thus an undue share of +taxation fell on the maritime north. In order to lighten these +duties on colonial wares, other taxes had to be imposed. In 1821 +accordingly it was proposed to meet the deficit by two most unwise +and obnoxious taxes, known as <i>mouture</i> and <i>abbatage</i>. +The first was on ground corn, the second on the carcases of beasts, +exacted at the mill or the slaughter-house—in other words on +bread and on butcher's meat. Both were intensely unpopular, and the +<i>mouture</i> in particular fell with especial severity on the +Belgian working classes and peasantry, who consumed much more bread +per head than the Dutch. Nevertheless by ministerial pressure the +bill was passed (July 21, 1821) by a narrow majority of +four—55 to 51. All the minority were Belgians, only two +Belgians voted with the majority. It is inconceivable how the +government could have been so impolitic as to impose these taxes in +face of such a display of national animosity. The <i>mouture</i> +only produced a revenue of 5,500,000 fl.; the <i>abbatage</i> +2,500,000 fl.</p> + +<p>This amount, though its exaction pressed heavily on the very +poor, afforded little relief; and to meet recurring deficits the +only resource was borrowing. To extricate the national finances +from ever-increasing difficulties the <i>Amortisatie-Syndikaat</i> +was created in December, 1822. Considerable sources of income from +various public domains and from tolls passed into the hands of the +seven members of the Syndicate, all of whom were bound to secrecy, +both as to its public and private transactions. Its effect was to +diminish still further the control of the Representative +Chamber<span class="newpage"><a name="page_383" id= +"page_383">[pg.383]</a></span> over the national finances. The +Syndicate did indeed assist the State, for between 1823 and 1829 it +advanced no less than 58,885,443 fl. to meet the deficits in the +budget, but the means by which it achieved this result were not +revealed.</p> + +<p>Yet another device to help the government in its undertakings +was the <i>million de l'industrie</i>, which was voted every year, +as an extraordinary charge, but of which no account was ever given. +That this sum was beneficially used for the assistance of +manufacturing and industrial enterprise, as at Seraing and +elsewhere, and that it contributed to the growing prosperity of the +southern provinces, is certain. But the needless mystery which +surrounded its expenditure led to the suspicion that it was used as +a fund for secret service and political jobbery.</p> + +<p>The autocratic temper of the king showed itself not merely in +keeping the control of finance largely in his own hands, but also +in carrying out a series of measures arousing popular discontent by +simple <i>arrêtés</i> or decrees of the Council of +State without consultation with the representative Chamber. Such +were the decree of November 6,1814, abolishing trial by jury and +making certain other changes in judicial proceedings; that of April +15, 1815, imposing great restrictions on the liberty of the press; +that of September 15, 1819, making Dutch the official language of +the country; that of June 25,1825, establishing the <i>Collegium +Philosophicum</i>; and finally that of June 21, 1830, making the +Hague the seat of the supreme court of justice. All these produced +profound discontent and had a cumulative effect.</p> + +<p>The language decree of 1819 was tentative, declaring a knowledge +of Dutch obligatory for admission to all public offices, but it was +followed by a much more stringent decree in 1822 by which, in the +two Flanders, South Brabant and Limburg, Dutch was to be used in +the law-courts and in all public acts and notices. Although the +operation of this decree was confined to the Flemish-speaking +districts, it must be remembered that, from the time of the +Burgundian dukes right through the Spanish and Austrian periods, +French had always been the official language of the country, the +upper classes only spoke French, and with few exceptions the +advocates could only plead in that language. This was a great +hardship upon the Belgian bar, which would have been greatly +increased had the royal decree (June 21,1830), placing the court +of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_384" id= +"page_384">[pg.384]</a></span> appeal for the whole kingdom at the +Hague, been carried into effect.</p> + +<p>More serious in its results was the infringement of Art. CCXXVII +of the Fundamental Law guaranteeing liberty of the press. The +return of Napoleon from Elba, and the imminent danger to which the, +as yet, unorganised kingdom of the Netherlands was exposed, led to +the issue of an <i>arrêté</i> of the severest +character. By it all persons publishing news of any kind, or giving +information injurious to the State, or writing or distributing +political pamphlets, were to be brought before a special tribunal +of nine judges holding office at the king's pleasure; and, if +condemned, were liable to be sentenced to exposure in the pillory, +deprivation of civic rights, branding, imprisonment, and fines +varying from 100 to 10,000 francs. This harsh measure was possibly +justifiable in an extreme emergency upon the plea that it was +necessary for the safety of the State. When the danger was over, +and the Fundamental Law was passed, there was no excuse for its +further maintenance on the Statute-book. Yet before this court Abbé +de Foere was summoned for having defended in the <i>Spectateur +Beige</i> the <i>jugement doctrinal</i> of Bishop de Broglie, and +he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. In the following year, +1818, the government obtained the approval of the States-General +(with slight modification) for the continuance of this war-time +censorship of the press. The penalties remained, but the court +consisted of a judge and four assessors, all government nominees. +Under this law a Brussels advocate, Van der Straeten, was fined +3000 fl. for a brochure attacking the ministers; and several other +advocates were disbarred for protesting that this sentence was in +conflict with the Fundamental Law. Prosecutions henceforth followed +prosecutions, and the press was gagged.</p> + +<p>As a result of these press persecutions, the two Belgian +political parties, the clericals and the liberals, poles apart as +they were in their principles, drew closer together. All +differences of religious and political creed were fused in a common +sense of national grievances under what was regarded as a foreign +tyranny. This brought about in 1828 the formation of the +<i>Union</i>, an association for the co-operation of Belgians of +all parties in defence of liberty of worship, liberty of +instruction and liberty of the press. The ultra-clericals, who +looked to the Vatican for their guidance, and the advanced liberals +who professed the principles of the French<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_385" id="page_385">[pg.385]</a></span> Revolution were +thus by the force of events led on step by step to convert an +informal into a formal alliance. The Abbe de Foere in the +<i>Spectateur</i> and MM. D'Ellougue and Donker in the +<i>Observateur</i> had been for some years advocating united +action; and it was their success in winning over to their side the +support and powerful pen of Louis de Potter, a young advocate and +journalist of Franco-radical sympathies, that the <i>Union</i>, as +a party, was actually effected. From this time the onslaughts in +the press became more and more violent and embittered, and stirred +up a spirit of unrest throughout the country. Petitions began to +pour in against the <i>mouture</i> and <i>abbatage</i> taxes and +other unpopular measures, especially from the Walloon provinces. +These were followed by a National Petition, signed by +representatives of every class of the community asking for redress +of grievances, but it met with no response from the unyielding +king. He had in the early summer of this year, 1828, made a tour in +Belgium and had in several towns, especially in Antwerp and Ghent, +met with a warm reception, which led him to underestimate the +extent and seriousness of the existing discontent. At Liège, +a centre of Walloon liberalism, he was annoyed by a number of +petitions being presented to him; and, in a moment of irritation, +he described the conduct of those who there protested against +"pretended grievances" as infamous, "une conduite in-fâme." +The words gave deep offence; and the incident called forth a parody +of the League of the Beggars in 1566, an Order of Infamy being +started with a medal bearing the motto <i>fidèles jusqu' +à l'infamie.</i> The movement spread rapidly, but it remains +a curious fact that the animosity of the Belgians, as yet, was +directed against the Dutch ministers (especially Van Maanen the +Minister of Justice) and the Dutch people, whose overbearing +attitude was bitterly resented, rather than against the king or the +House of Orange. William's good deeds for the benefit of the +country were appreciated; his arbitrary measures in contravention +to the Fundamental Law were attributed chiefly to his bad +advisers.</p> + +<p>The month of December, 1829, was however to bring the king and +his Belgian subjects into violent collision. A motion was brought +forward in the Second Chamber (December 8) by M. Charles de +Broukère, an eminent Belgian liberal supported by the Catholics +under the leadership of M. de Gerlache, for the abolition of the +hated Press Law of 1815. The motion was defeated by the solid<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_386" id= +"page_386">[pg.386]</a></span> Dutch vote, supplemented by the +support of seven Belgians. The decennial budget was due, and +opposition to it was threatened unless grievances were +remedied—the cry was "point de redressements de griefs, point +d'argent." On December 11 came a royal message to the +States-General which, while promising certain concessions regarding +the taxes, the <i>Collegium Philosophicum</i> and the language +decree, stated in unequivocal terms the principle of royal +absolutism. To quote the words of a competent observer of these +events:</p> + +<p>The message declared in substance that the constitution was an +act of condescension on the part of the throne; that the king had +restrained rather than carried to excess the rights of his house; +that the press had been guilty of sowing discord and confusion +throughout the State; and that the opposition was but the fanatic +working of a few misguided men, who, forgetting the benefits they +enjoyed, had risen up in an alarming and scandalous manner against +a paternal government<a name="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_10_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p>The Minister of Justice, Van Maanen, on the next day issued a +circular calling upon all civil officials to signify their +adherence to the principles of the message within 24 hours. Several +functionaries, who had taken part in the petition-agitation, were +summarily dismissed; and prosecutions against the press were +instituted with renewed energy. From this time Van Maanen became +the special object of Belgian hatred.</p> + +<p>The threat of the Belgian deputies to oppose the decennial +budget was now carried out. At the end of December the ministerial +proposals were brought before the States-General. The expenditure +was sanctioned, the ways and means to meet it were rejected by 55 +votes to 52. The Finance Minister in this emergency was obliged to +introduce fresh estimates for one year only, from which the +<i>mouture</i> and <i>abbatage</i> taxes were omitted. This was +passed without opposition, but in his vexation at this rebuff the +king acted unworthily of his position by issuing an +<i>arrêté</i> (January 8, 1830) depriving six +deputies, who had voted in the majority, of their official posts. +Meanwhile the virulence of the attacks in the press against the +king and his ministers from the pens of a number of able and +unscrupulous journalists were too daring and offensive to be +overlooked by any government. Foremost in the bitterness of his +onslaught was Louis de Potter, whose <i>Lettre de Démophile +au Roi</i> was throughout a direct challenge to the autocratic +claims advanced<span class="newpage"><a name="page_387" id= +"page_387">[pg.387]</a></span> by the royal message. Nor was De +Potter content only with words. An appeal dated December 11, of +which he and his friend Tielemans were originators, appeared +(January 31,1830) in seventeen news-papers, for raising a national +subscription to indemnify the deputies who had been ejected from +their posts and salaries for voting against the budget. Proceedings +were taken against De Potter and Tielemans, and also against +Barthels, editor of the <i>Catholique</i>, and the printer, De +Nève, and all were sentenced by the court to +banishment—De Potter for eight years, Tielemans and Barthels +for seven years, DeNève for five years. These men had all +committed offences which the government were fully justified in +punishing, for their language had passed the limits not only of +good order but of decency, and was subversive of all authority. +Nevertheless they were regarded by their Belgian compatriots as +political martyrs suffering for the cause of their country's +liberties. Their condemnation was attributed to Van Maanen, already +the object of general detestation.</p> + +<p>The ministry had meanwhile taken the wise step of starting an +organ, the <i>National</i>, at Brussels to take their part in the +field of controversy. But in the circumstances it was an act of +almost inconceivable folly to select as the editor a certain +Libri-Bagnano, a man of Italian extraction, who, as it was soon +discovered by his opponents, had twice suffered heavy sentences in +France as a forger. He was a brilliant and caustic writer, well +able to carry the polemical war into his adversaries' camp. But his +antecedents were against him, and he aroused a hatred second only +to the aversion felt for Van Maanen.</p> + +<p>We have now arrived at the eve of the Belgian Revolt, which had +its actual origin in a riot. But the riot was not the cause of the +revolt; it was but the spark which brought about an explosion, the +materials for which had been for years preparing. The French secret +agent, Julian, reports a conversation which took place between the +king and Count Bylandt on July 20,1823<a name= +"FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a>. +The following extract proves that, so early as this date, William +had begun to perceive the impossibility of the situation:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>I say it and I repeat it often to Clancarty (the British +Minister) that I should love much better to have my Holland quite +alone. I should be<span class="newpage"><a name="page_388" id= +"page_388">[pg.388]</a></span> then a hundred times happier.... +When I am exerting myself to make a whole of this country, a party, +which in collusion with the foreigner never ceases to gain ground, +is working to disunite it. Besides the allies have not given me +this kingdom to submit it to every kind of influence. This +situation cannot last.</p> +</div> + +<p>Another extract from a despatch of the French Minister at the +Hague, Lamoussaye, dated December 26, 1828, depicts a state of +things in the relations between the two peoples, tending sooner or +later to make a political separation of some kind inevitable:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>The Belgian hates the Hollander and he (the Hollander) despises +the Belgian, besides which he assumes an infinite <i>hauteur</i>, +both from his national character, by the creations of his industry +and by the memories of his history. Disdained by their neighbour of +the North, governed by a prince whose confidence they do not +possess, hindered in the exercise of their worship, and, as they +say, in the enjoyment of their liberties, overburdened with taxes, +having but a share in the National Representation disproportionate +to the population of the South, the Belgians ask themselves whether +they have a country, and are restless in a painful situation, the +outcome of which they seek vainly to discover[12].</p> +</div> + +<p>From an intercepted letter from Louvain, dated July 30, 1829<a +name="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_12_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a>:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>What does one see? Hesitation uncertainty, embarrassment and +fear in the march of the government; organisation, re-organisation +and finally disorganisation of all and every administration. Again +a rude shock and the machine crumbles.</p> +</div> + +<p>A true forecast of coming events. <span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_389" id="page_389">[pg.389]</a></span> </p> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXI</h2> + +<p>THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION, 1830-1842</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>During the last days of July, 1830, came the revolution at Paris +that overthrew Charles X and placed the Duke of Orleans at the head +of a constitutional monarchy with the title of Louis Philippe, King +of the French. The Belgian liberals had always felt drawn towards +France rather than Holland, and several of the more influential +among them were in Paris during the days of July. Through their +close intercourse with their friends in Brussels the news of all +that had occurred spread rapidly, and was eagerly discussed. +Probably at this time few contemplated the complete separation of +Belgium from Holland, but rather looked to the northern and +southern provinces becoming administratively autonomous under the +same crown. This indeed appeared to be the only practical solution +of the <i>impasse</i> which had been reached. Even had the king met +the complaints of the Belgians by large concessions, had he +dismissed Van Maanen, removed Libri-Bagnano from the editorship of +the <i>National</i>, and created a responsible ministry—which +he had no intention of doing—he could not have granted the +demand for a representation of the south in the Second Chamber +proportionate to the population. For this would have meant that the +position of Holland would have henceforth been subordinate to that +of Belgium; and to this the Dutch, proud of their history and +achievements, would never have submitted. It had been proved that +amalgamation was impossible, but the king personally was popular +with those large sections of the Belgian mercantile and industrial +population whose prosperity was so largely due to the royal care +and paternal interest; and, had he consented to the setting-up of a +separate administration at Brussels, he might by a conciliatory +attitude have retained the loyalty of his Belgian subjects.</p> + +<p>He did none of these things; but, when in August, he and his two +sons paid a visit to Brussels at a time when the town was +celebrating with festivities the holding of an exhibition of +national industry, he was well received and was probably quite +unaware of the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_390" id= +"page_390">[pg.390]</a></span> imminence of the storm that was +brewing. It had been intended to close the exhibition by a grand +display of fireworks on the evening of August 23, and to have a +general illumination on the king's birthday (August 24). But the +king had hurried back to the Hague to keep his birthday, and during +the preceding days there were abundant signs of a spirit of +revolutionary ferment. Inscriptions were found on blank +walls—<i>Down with Van Maanen; Death to the Dutch; Down with +Libri-Bagnano and the National</i>; and, more ominous still, +leaflets were distributed containing the words <i>le 23 Août, +feu d'artifice; le 24 Août, anniversaïre du Roi; le 25 +Août, révolution.</i></p> + +<p>In consequence of these indications of subterranean unrest, +which were well known to Baron van der Fosse, the civil governor of +Brabant, and to M. Kuyff, the head of the city police, the +municipal authorities weakly decided on the ground of unfavourable +weather to postpone the fireworks and the illumination. The evening +of the 23rd, as it turned out, was exceedingly fine. At the same +time the authorities permitted, on the evening of the 25th, the +first performance of an opera by Scribe and Auber, entitled <i>La +Muette de Portici</i>, which had been previously proscribed. The +hero, Masaniello, headed a revolt at Naples in 1648 against foreign +(Spanish) rule. The piece was full of patriotic, revolutionary +songs likely to arouse popular passion.</p> + +<p>The evening of the performance arrived, and the theatre was +crowded. The excitement of the audience grew as the play proceeded; +and the thunders of applause were taken up by the throng which had +gathered outside. Finally the spectators rushed out with loud cries +of vengeance against Libri-Bagnano and Van Maanen, in which the mob +eagerly joined. Brussels was at that time a chosen shelter of +political refugees, ready for any excesses; and a terrible riot +ensued. The house of Van Maanen and the offices of the +<i>National</i> were attacked, pillaged and burnt. The city was +given over to wild confusion and anarchy; and many of the mob +secured arms by the plunder of the gun-smiths' shops. Meanwhile the +military authorities delayed action. Several small patrols were +surrounded and compelled to surrender, while the main body of +troops, instead of attacking and dispersing the rioters, was +withdrawn and stationed in front of the royal palace. Thus by the +extraordinary passiveness of Lieut.-General Bylandt, the military +governor of the province, and of Major-General Wauthier, commandant +of the city, who<span class="newpage"><a name="page_391" id= +"page_391">[pg.391]</a></span> must have been acting under secret +orders, the wild outbreak of the night began, as the next day +progressed and the troops were still inactive, to assume more of +the character of a revolution.</p> + +<p>This was checked by the action of the municipal authorities and +certain of the principal inhabitants, who called together the +civic-guard to protect any further tumultuary attacks by marauders +and ne'er-do-wells on private property. The guard were joined by +numbers of volunteers of the better classes and, under the command +of Baron D'Hoogvoort, were distributed in different quarters of the +town, and restored order. The French flags, which at first were in +evidence, were replaced at the Town Hall by the Brabant +tricolor—red, yellow and black. The royal insignia had in +many places been torn down, and the Orange cockades had +disappeared; nevertheless there was at this time no symptom of an +uprising to overthrow the dynasty, only a national demand for +redress of grievances. Meanwhile news arrived that reinforcements +from Ghent were marching upon the city. The notables however +informed General Bylandt that no troops would be allowed to enter +the city without resistance; and he agreed to stop the advance and +to keep his own troops in their encampment until he received +further orders from the Hague. For this abandonment of any attempt +to re-assert the royal authority he has been generally blamed.</p> + +<p>There is no lack of evidence to show that the riot of August 25 +and its consequences were not the work of the popular leaders. The +correspondence of Gendebien with De Potter at this time, and the +tone of the Belgian press before and after the outbreak, are proofs +of this. The <i>Catholique</i> of Ghent (the former organ of +Barthels) for instance declared:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>There is no salvation for the throne, but in an ample concession +of our rights. The essential points to be accorded are royal +inviolability and ministerial responsibility; the dismissal of Van +Maanen; liberty of education and the press; a diminution of +taxation ... in short, justice and liberty in all and for all, in +strict conformity with the fundamental law.</p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Coursier des Pays Bos</i> (the former organ of De +Potter), after demanding the dismissal of Van Maanen as the +absolute condition of pacification, adds:</p> + +<div class="blkquot"> +<p>We repeat that we are neither in a state of insurrection nor +revolution; all we want is a mitigation of the grievances we have +so long endured, and some guarantees for a better future.</p> +</div> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_392" id= +"page_392">[pg.392]</a></span> + +<p>In accordance with such sentiments an infuencial meeting on the +on the 28th at the townhall appointed a deputation of five, headed +by Alexandre de Gendebien and Felix, count de Mérode, to +bear to the king a loyal address setting forth the just grievances +which had led to the Brussels disturbances, and asking respectfully +for their removal.</p> + +<p>The news of the uprising reached the king on the 27th, and he +was much affected. At a Council held at the Hague the Prince of +Orange earnestly besought his father to accept the proffered +resignation of Van Maanen, and to consider in a conciliatory spirit +the grievances of the Belgians. But William refused flatly to +dismiss the minister or to treat with rebels. He gave the prince, +however, permission to visit Brussels, not armed with powers to +act, but merely with a mission of enquiry. He also consented to +receive the deputation from Brussels, and summoned an extraordinary +meeting of the States-General at the Hague for September 13. Troops +were at once ordered to move south and to join the camp at +Vilvoorde, where the regiments sent to reinforce the Brussels +garrison had been halted. The Prince of Orange and his brother +Frederick meanwhile had left the Hague and reached Vilvoorde on +August 31. Here Frederick assumed command of the troops; and Orange +sent his <i>aide-de-camp</i> to Baron D'Hoogvoort to invite him to +a conference at headquarters. The news of the gathering troops had +aroused immense excitement in the capital; and it was resolved that +Hoogvoort, at the head of a representative deputation, should go to +Vilvoorde to urge the prince to stop any advance of the troops on +Brussels, as their entrance into the town would be resisted, unless +the citizens were assured that Van Maanen was dismissed, and that +the other grievances were removed. They invited Orange to come to +Brussels attended only by his personal suite, and offered to be +sureties for his safety.</p> + +<p>The prince made his entry on September 1, the streets being +lined with the civic guard. He was personally popular, but, +possessing no powers, he could effect nothing. After three days of +parleying he returned to the camp, and his mission was a failure. +On the same day when Orange entered Brussels the deputation of five +was received by King William at the Hague. His reply to their +representations was that by the Fundamental Law he had the right to +choose his ministers, that the principle of ministerial +responsibility was<span class="newpage"><a name="page_393" id= +"page_393">[pg.393]</a></span> contrary to the Constitution, and +that he would not dismiss Van Maanen or deal with any alleged +grievances with a pistol at his head.</p> + +<p>William, however, despite his uncompromising words, did actually +accept the resignation of Van Maanen (September 3); but when the +Prince of Orange, returning from his experiences at Brussels, urged +the necessity of an administrative separation of north and south, +and offered to return to the Belgian capital if armed with full +authority to carry it out, his offer was declined. The king would +only consent to bring the matter to the consideration of the +States-General, which was to meet on the 13th. Instead of taking +any immediate action he issued a proclamation, which in no way +faced the exigencies of the situation, and was no sooner posted on +the walls at Brussels than it was torn down and trampled underfoot. +It is only just to say that the king had behind him the unanimous +support of the Dutch people, especially the commercial classes. To +them separation was far preferable to admitting the Belgians to +that predominant share of the representation which they claimed on +the ground of their larger population.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile at Brussels, owing to the inaction of the government, +matters were moving fast. The spirit of revolt had spread to other +towns, principally in the Walloon provinces. Liège and +Louvain were the first to move. Charles Rogier, an advocate by +profession and a Frenchman by birth, was the leader of the revolt +at Liège; and such was his fiery ardour that at the head of +some 400 men, whom he had supplied with arms from the armourer's +warehouses, he marched to Brussels, and arrived in that disturbed +city without encountering any Dutch force. The example of +Liège was followed by Jemappes, Wavre, and by the miners of +the Borinage; and Brussels was filled with a growing crowd of men +filled with a revolutionary spirit. Their aim was to proclaim the +independence of Belgium, and set up a provisional government.</p> + +<p>For such a step even pronounced liberals like Gendebien, Van de +Weyer and Rouppe, the veteran burgomaster of the city, were not yet +prepared; and they combined with the moderates, Count Felix de +Mérode and Ferdinand Meeus, to form a Committee of Public +Safety. They were aided, in the maintenance of order, by the two +Barons D'Hoogvoort (Emmanuel and Joseph), the first the commander +of the civic guard, and both popular and influential,<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_394" id="page_394">[pg.394]</a></span> and +by the municipality. While these were still struggling to maintain +their authority, the States-General had met at the Hague on +September 13. It was opened by a speech from the king which +announced his firm determination to maintain law and order in the +face of revolutionary violence. He had submitted two questions to +the consideration of the States-General: (1) whether experience had +shown the necessity for a modification of the Fundamental Law; (2) +whether any change should be made in the relations between the two +parts of the kingdom. Both questions were, after long debate +(September 29) answered in the affirmative; but, before this took +place, events at Brussels had already rendered deliberations at the +Hague futile and useless.</p> + +<p>The contents of the king's speech were no sooner known in +Brussels than they were used by the revolutionary leaders to stir +up the passions of the mob by inflammatory harangues. Rogier and +Ducpétiaux, at the head of the Liègeois and the +contingents from the other Walloon towns, with the support of the +lowest elements of the Brussels population, demanded the +dissolution of the Committee of Public Safety and the establishment +of a Provisional Government. The members of the Committee and of +the Municipality, sitting in permanence at the Hotel de Ville, did +their utmost to maintain order with the strong support of Baron +D'Hoogvoort and the Civic Guard. But it was in vain. On the evening +of September 20 an immense mob rushed the Hotel de Ville, after +disarming the Civic Guard; and Rogier and Ducpétiaux were +henceforth masters of the city. The Committee of Public Safety +disappeared and is heard of no more. Hoogvoort resigned his +command. On receipt of this news Prince Frederick at Vilvoorde was +ordered to advance upon the city and compel submission. But the +passions of the crowd had been aroused, and the mere rumour that +the Dutch troops were moving caused the most vigorous steps to be +taken to resist <i>à outrance</i> their penetrating into the +town.</p> + +<p>The royal forces, on the morning of September 23, entered the +city at three gates and advanced as far as the Park. But beyond +that point they were unable to proceed, so desperate was the +resistance, and such the hail of bullets that met them from +barricades and from the windows and roofs of the houses. For three +days almost without cessation the fierce contest went on, the +troops losing ground rather<span class="newpage"><a name="page_395" +id="page_395">[pg.395]</a></span> than gaining it. On the evening +of the 26th the prince gave orders to retreat, his troops having +suffered severely.</p> + +<p>The effect of this withdrawal was to convert a street +insurrection into a national revolt. The moderates now united with +the liberals, and a Provisional Government was formed, having +amongst its members Rogier, Van de Weyer, Gendebien, Emmanuel +D'Hoogvoort, Felix de Mérode and Louis de Potter, who a few +days later returned triumphantly from banishment. The Provisional +Government issued a series of decrees declaring Belgium +independent, releasing the Belgian soldiers from their allegiance, +and calling upon them to abandon the Dutch standard. They were +obeyed. The revolt, which had been confined mainly to the Walloon +districts, now spread rapidly over Flanders. Garrison after +garrison surrendered; and the remnants of the disorganised Dutch +forces retired upon Antwerp (October 2). Two days later the +Provisional Government summoned a National Congress to be elected +by all Belgian citizens of 25 years of age. The news of these +events caused great perturbation at the Hague. The Prince of +Orange, who had throughout advocated conciliation, was now +permitted by his father to go to Antwerp (October 4) and endeavour +to place himself at the head of the Belgian movement on the basis +of a grant of administrative separation, but without severance of +the dynastic bond with Holland.</p> + +<p>King William meanwhile had already (October 2) appealed to the +Great Powers, signatories of the Articles of London in 1814, to +intervene and to restore order in the Belgic provinces. The +difficulties of the prince at Antwerp were very great, for he was +hampered throughout by his father's unwillingness to grant him full +liberty of action. He issued a proclamation, but it was coldly +received; and his attempts to negotiate with the Provisional +Government at Brussels met with no success. Things had now gone too +far, and any proposal to make Belgium connected with Holland by any +ties, dynastic or otherwise, was unacceptable. The well-meaning +prince returned disappointed to the Hague on October 24. A most +unfortunate occurrence now took place. As General Chassé, +the Dutch commander at Antwerp, was withdrawing his troops from the +town to the citadel, attacks were made upon them by the mob, and +some lives were lost. Chassé in reprisal (October 27) +ordered the town to be bombarded from the citadel and the gunboats +upon<span class="newpage"><a name="page_396" id= +"page_396">[pg.396]</a></span> the river. This impolitic act +increased throughout Belgium the feeling of hatred against the +Dutch, and made the demand for absolute independence deeper and +stronger.</p> + +<p>The appeal of William to the signatory Powers had immediate +effect; and representatives of Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great +Britain, to whom a representative of France was now added, met at +London on November 4. This course of action was far from what the +king expected or wished. Their first step was to impose an +armistice; their next to make it clear that their intervention +would be confined to negotiating a settlement on the basis of +separation. A Whig ministry in England had (November 16) taken the +place of that of Wellington; and Lord Palmerston, the new Foreign +Secretary, was well-disposed to Belgium and found himself able to +work in accord with Talleyrand, the French plenipotentiary. Austria +and Russia were too much occupied with their own internal +difficulties to think of supporting the Dutch king by force of +arms; and Prussia, despite the close family connection, did not +venture to oppose the determination of the two western Powers to +work for a peaceful settlement. While they were deliberating, the +National Congress had met at Brussels, and important decisions had +been taken. By overwhelming majorities (November 18) Belgium was +declared to be an independent State; and four days later, after +vigorous debates, the Congress (by 174 votes to 13) resolved that +the new State should be a constitutional monarchy and (by 161 votes +to 28) that the house of Orange-Nassau be for ever excluded from +the throne. A committee was appointed to draw up a +constitution.</p> + +<p>William had appealed to the Powers to maintain the Treaties of +Paris and Vienna and to support him in what he regarded, on the +basis of those treaties, as his undoubted rights; and it was with +indignation that he saw the Conference decline to admit his envoy, +Falck, except as a witness and on precisely the same terms as the +representatives of the Brussels Congress. On December 20 a protocol +was issued by the Powers which defined their attitude. They +accepted the principle of separation and independence, subject to +arrangements being made for assuring European peace. The +Conference, however, declared that such arrangements would not +affect the rights of King William and of the German Confederation +in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. This part of the protocol was as +objectionable to the Belgians as the former part was to the<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_397" id= +"page_397">[pg.397]</a></span> Dutch king. The London +Plenipotentiaries had in fact no choice, for they were bound by the +unfortunate clauses of the treaties of 1815, which, to gratify +Prussian ambition for cis-Rhenan territory, converted this ancient +Belgian province into a German state. This ill-advised step was now +to be the chief obstacle to a settlement in 1831. The mere fact +that William had throughout the period of union always treated +Luxemburg as an integral part of the southern portion of his +kingdom made its threatened severance from the Belgic provinces a +burning question. For Luxemburgers had taken a considerable part in +the revolt, and Luxemburg representatives sat in the National +Congress. Of these eleven voted for the perpetual exclusion of the +Orange-Nassau dynasty, one only in its favour. It is not +surprising, therefore, that a strong protest was made against the +decision of the London Conference to treat the status of Luxemburg +as outside the subject of their deliberations. The Conference, +however, unmoved by this protest, proceeded in a protocol of +January 20,1831, to define the conditions of separation. Holland +was to retain her old boundaries of the year 1790, and Belgium to +have the remainder of the territory assigned to the kingdom of the +Netherlands in 1815. Luxemburg was again excluded. The Five Powers, +moreover, declared that within these limits the new Belgian State +was to be perpetually neutral, its integrity and inviolability +being guaranteed by all and each of the Powers. A second protocol +(January 27) fixed the proportion of the national debt to be borne +by Belgium at sixteen parts out of thirty-one. The sovereign of +Belgium was required to give his assent to these protocols, as a +condition to being recognised by the Powers. But the Congress of +Brussels was in no submissive mood. They had already (January 19) +resolved to proceed to the election of a king without consulting +anyone. The territorial boundaries assigned to Belgium met with +almost unanimous reprobation, a claim being made to the +incorporation not merely of Luxemburg, but also of Maestrieht, +Limburg and Dutch Flanders, in the new State. Nor were they more +contented with the proportion of the debt Belgium was asked to +bear. On February 1 the Five Powers had agreed that they would not +assent to a member of any of the reigning dynasties being elected +to the throne of Belgium. Nevertheless (February 3) the Duc de +Nemours, son of Louis Philippe, was elected by 94 votes, as against +67 recorded for the Duke of<span class="newpage"><a name="page_398" +id="page_398">[pg.398]</a></span> Leuchtenberg, son of +Eugène Beauharnais. The Conference took immediate action by +refusing to permit either Nemours or Leuchtenberg to accept the +proffered crown.</p> + +<p>These acute differences between the Conference and the Belgian +Congress were a cause of much satisfaction to the Dutch king, who +was closely watching the course of events; and he thought it good +policy (February 18) to signify his assent to the conditions set +forth in the protocols of January 20 and 27. He had still some +hopes of the candidature of the Prince of Orange (who was in +London) being supported by the Powers, but for this the time was +past.</p> + +<p>At this juncture the name of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who had +resided in England since the death of his wife the Princess +Charlotte, was put forward. This candidature was supported by Great +Britain; France raised no objection; and in Belgium it met with +official support. Early in April a deputation of five commissioners +was sent to offer the crown provisionally to the prince, subject to +his endeavouring to obtain some modification of the protocols of +January 20 and 27. The Five Powers, however, in a protocol, dated +April 15, announced to the Belgian Government that the conditions +of separation as laid down in the January protocols were final and +irrevocable, and, if not accepted, relations would be broken off. +Leopold was not discouraged, however; and such was his influence +that he did succeed in obtaining from the Conference an undertaking +that they would enter into negotiations with King William in regard +both to the territorial and financial disputes with a view to a +settlement, <i>moyennant de justes compensations</i>.</p> + +<p>The Saxe-Coburg prince was elected king by the Congress (June +4); and in redemption of their undertaking the Conference +promulgated (June 26) the preliminary treaty, generally known as +the Treaty of the XVIII Articles. By this treaty the question of +Luxemburg was reserved for a separate negotiation, the <i>status +quo</i> being meanwhile maintained. Other boundary disputes +(Maestricht, Limburg and various <i>enclaves</i>) were to be +amicably arranged, and the share of Belgium in the public debt was +reduced. Leopold had made his acceptance of the crown depend upon +the assent of the Congress being given to the Treaty. This assent +was given, but in the face of strong opposition (July 9); and the +new king made his public entry into Brussels and took the oath to +the Constitution twelve days later. On the same day (July 21) the +Dutch king refused to<span class="newpage"><a name="page_399" id= +"page_399">[pg.399]</a></span> accept the XVIII Articles, declaring +that he adhered to the protocols of January 20 and 27, which the +plenipotentiaries had themselves declared (April 15) to be +fundamental and irrevocable. Nor did he confine himself to a +refusal. He declared that if any prince should accept the +sovereignty of Belgium or take possession of it without having +assented to the protocols as the basis of separation he could only +regard such prince as his enemy. He followed this up (August 2) by +a despatch addressed to the Foreign Ministers of the Five Powers, +announcing his intention "to throw his army into the balance with a +view to obtaining more equitable terms of separation."</p> + +<p>These were no empty words. The facile success of the Belgian +revolution had led to the Dutch army being branded as a set of +cowards. The king, therefore, despite a solemn warning from the +Conference, was determined to show the world that Holland was +perfectly able to assert her rights by armed force if she chose to +do so. In this course he had the whole-hearted support of his +people. It was a bold act politically justified by events. +Unexpectedly, on August 2, the Prince of Orange at the head of an +army of 30,000 picked men with 72 guns crossed the frontier. The +Belgians were quite taken by surprise. Their army, though not +perhaps inferior in numbers to the invaders, was badly organised, +and was divided into two parts—the army of the Scheldt and +the army of the Meuse. The prince knew that he must act with +promptness and decision, and he thrust his army by rapid movements +between the two Belgian corps. That of the Meuse fell back in great +disorder upon Liège; that of the Scheldt was also forced to +beat a rapid retreat. Leopold, whose reign was not yet a fortnight +old, joined the western corps and did all that man could do to +organise and stiffen resistance. At Louvain (August 12) he made a +last effort to save the capital and repeatedly exposed his life, +but the Belgians were completely routed and Brussels lay at the +victor's mercy. It was a terrible humiliation for the new Belgian +state. But the prince had accomplished his task and did not advance +beyond Louvain. On hearing that a French army, at the invitation of +King Leopold, had entered Belgium with the sanction of the Powers, +he concluded an armistice, by the mediation of the British +Minister, Sir Robert Adair, and undertook to evacuate Belgian +territory. His army recrossed the Dutch frontier (August 20), and +the French thereupon withdrew.</p> + +<p>The Ten Days' Campaign had effected its purpose; and, when +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_400" id= +"page_400">[pg.400]</a></span> Conference met to consider the new +situation, it was felt that the XVIII Articles must be revised. +Belgium, saved only from conquest by French intervention, had to +pay the penalty of defeat. A new treaty in XXIV Articles was drawn +up, and was (October 14) again declared to be final and +irrevocable. By this treaty the northwestern (Walloon) portion of +Luxemburg was assigned to Belgium, but at the cost of ceding to +Holland a considerable piece of Belgian Limburg giving the Dutch +the command of both banks of the river Meuse from Maestricht to the +Gelderland frontier. The proportion of the debt was likewise +altered in favour of Holland. King William was informed that he +must obtain the assent of the Germanic Confederation and of the +Nassau agnates to the territorial adjustments.</p> + +<p>These conditions created profound dissatisfaction both in +Belgium and Holland. It was again the unhappy Luxemburg question +which caused so much heart-burning. The Conference however felt +itself bound by the territorial arrangements of the Congress of +Vienna; and Palmerston and Talleyrand, acting in concert +throughout, could not on this matter overrule the opposition of +Prussia and Austria supported by Russia. All they could do was to +secure the compromise by which Walloon Luxemburg was given to +Belgium in exchange for territorial compensation in Limburg. +Belgian feeling was strong against surrendering any part either of +Luxemburg or Limburg; but King Leopold saw that surrender was +inevitable and by a threat of abdication he managed to secure, +though against vehement opposition, the acceptance of the Treaty of +the XXIV Articles by the Belgian Chambers (November 1). The treaty +was signed at London by the plenipotentiaries of the Five Great +Powers and by the Belgian envoy, Van de Weyer, on November 15, +1831; and Belgium was solemnly recognised as an independent State, +whose perpetual neutrality and inviolability was guaranteed by each +of the signatories severally<a name="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_13_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a>.</p> + +<p>Once more the obstinacy of King William proved an insuperable +obstacle to a settlement. He had expected better results from the +Ten Days' Campaign, and he emphatically denied the right of the +Conference to interfere with the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, as this +was not a Belgian question, but concerned only the House of<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_401" id= +"page_401">[pg.401]</a></span> Nassau and the Germanic +Confederation. He also objected to the proposed regulations +regarding the navigation of the river Scheldt, and refused to +evacuate Antwerp or other places occupied by Dutch troops. He was +aware that Great Britain and France had taken the leading part in +drawing up the treaty, but he relied for support upon his close +family relations with Prussia and Russia<a name= +"FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a>, +with whom Austria acted. But, although these Powers bore him good +will, they had no intention of encouraging his resistance. Their +object in delaying their ratification of the treaty was to afford +time to bring good advice to bear upon the unbending temper of the +Dutch king. The Tsar even sent Count Alexis Orloff on a special +mission to the Hague, with instructions to act with the Prussian +and Austrian envoys in urging William to take a reasonable course. +All their efforts ended in failure.</p> + +<p>During the first nine months of the year 1832 a vigorous +exchange of notes took place between London and the Hague; and the +Conference did its utmost to effect an accommodation. At last +patience was exhausted, and the Powers had to threaten coercion. +The three eastern Powers declined indeed to take any active share +in coercive measures, but were willing that Great Britain and +France should be their delegates. Palmerston and Talleyrand, +however, were determined that the King of Holland should no longer +continue to defy the will of the European Great Powers; and on +October 22 the English and French governments concluded a +Convention for joint action. Notice was given to King William +(November 2) that he must withdraw his troops before November 13 +from all places assigned to Belgium by the Treaty of the XXIV +Articles. If he refused, the Dutch ports would be blockaded and an +embargo placed upon Dutch ships in the allies' harbours. Further, +if on November 13 any Dutch garrisons remained on Belgian soil, +they would be expelled by armed force. William at once (November 2) +replied to the notice by a flat refusal. In so acting he had behind +him the practically unanimous support of Dutch public opinion. The +allies took prompt measures. An Anglo-French squadron set sail +(November 7) to blockade the Dutch ports and the mouth of the +Scheldt; and in response to an appeal from the Belgian government +(as was required by the terms of the Convention) a French army of +60,000 men under<span class="newpage"><a name="page_402" id= +"page_402">[pg.402]</a></span> Marshal Gérard crossed the +Belgian frontier (November 15) and laid siege to the Antwerp +citadel, held by a garrison of 5000 men commanded by General +Chassé. The siege began on November 20, and it was not until +December 22 that Chassé, after a most gallant defence, was +compelled to capitulate. Rear-Admiral Koopman preferred to burn his +twelve gunboats rather than surrender them to the enemy. Marshal +Gérard offered to release his prisoners if the Dutch would +evacuate the forts of Lillo and Liefkenshoeck, lower down the +river. His offer was refused; and the French army, having achieved +its purpose, withdrew. For some time longer the blockade and +embargo continued, to the great injury of Dutch trade. An +interchange of notes between the Hague and London led to the +drawing up of a convention, known as the Convention of London, on +May 21, 1833. By this agreement King William undertook to commit no +acts of hostility against Belgium until a definitive treaty of +peace was signed, and to open the navigation of the Scheldt and the +Meuse for commerce. The Convention was in fact a recognition of the +<i>status quo</i> and was highly advantageous to Belgium, as both +Luxemburg and Limburg were <i>ad interim</i> treated as if they +were integral parts of the new kingdom.</p> + +<p>The cessation of hostilities, however, led to a fresh attempt to +reach a settlement. In response to an invitation sent by the +western Powers to Austria, Prussia and Russia, the Conference again +met in London on July 15. The thread of the negotiations was taken +up; but the Belgian government insisted, with the full support of +Palmerston, that as a preliminary to any further discussion the +King of Holland must obtain the assent of the German Confederation +and of the Nassau agnates to the proposed territorial +rearrangements. William declined to ask for this assent. The +Conference on this was indefinitely suspended. That the king's +refusal in August was a part of his fixed policy of waiting upon +events was shown by his actually approaching the Confederation and +the agnates in the following November (1833). Neither of these +would consent to any partition of Luxemburg, unless they received +full territorial compensation elsewhere. So matters drifted on +through the years 1834-1837. Meanwhile in Holland a change of +opinion had been gradually taking place. The heavy taxes consequent +upon the maintenance of an army on a war footing pressed more and +more upon a country whose income was insufficient to meet its +expenses. People grew<span class="newpage"><a name="page_403" id= +"page_403">[pg.403]</a></span> tired of waiting for a change in the +political position that became every year more remote. Luxemburg +was of little interest to the Dutch; they only saw that Belgium was +prosperous, and that the maintenance of the <i>status quo</i> was +apparently all to her advantage. The dissatisfaction of the Dutch +people, so long patient and loyal, made itself heard with +increasing insistence in the States-General; and the king saw that +the time had arrived for abandoning his obstinate +<i>non-possumus</i> attitude. Accordingly, in March, 1838, he +suddenly instructed his minister in London (Dedel) to inform +Palmerston that he (the king) was ready to sign the treaty of the +XXIV Articles, and to agree <i>pleinement et entièrement</i> +to the conditions it imposed.</p> + +<p>The unexpected news of this sudden step came upon the Belgians +like a thunderclap. From every part of the kingdom arose a storm of +protest against any surrender of territory. The people of Luxemburg +and Limburg appealed to their fellow-citizens not to abandon them; +and their appeal met with the strongest support from all classes +and in both Chambers. They argued that Holland had refused to sign +the treaty of 1831, which had been imposed on Belgium in her hour +of defeat; and that now, after seven years, the treaty had ceased +to be in force and required revision. The Belgians expected to +receive support from Great Britain and France, and more especially +from Palmerston, their consistent friend. But Palmerston was tired +of the endless wrangling; and, acting on his initiative, the Five +Powers determined that they would insist on the Treaty of the XXIV +Articles being carried out as it stood. The Conference met again in +October, 1838; and all the efforts of the Belgian government, and +of King Leopold personally, to obtain more favoured terms proved +unavailing. An offer to pay sixty million francs indemnity for +Luxemburg and Limburg was rejected both by King William and the +Germanic Confederation. Such was the passionate feeling in Belgium +that there was actually much talk of resisting in the last resort +by force of arms. Volunteers poured in; and in Holland also the +government began to make military preparations. But it was an act +of sheer madness for isolated Belgium to think of opposing the will +of the Great Powers of Europe. The angry interchange of diplomatic +notes resulted only in one modification in favour of Belgium. The +annual charge of 8,400,000 francs placed upon Belgium on account of +her share in the public debt<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_404" id="page_404">[pg.404]</a></span> of the Netherlands was +reduced to a payment of 5,000,000 francs. The Dutch king signed the +treaty on February 1, 1839. Finally the proposal that the treaty +should be signed, opposition being useless, met with a sullen +assent from the two Belgian Chambers. On April 19, 1839, the +Belgian envoy, Van de Weyer, affixed his signature at the Foreign +Office in London and so brought to an end the long controversy, +which had lasted for nine years. There were still many details to +be settled between the two kingdoms, which from this time became +two separate and distinct political entities; but these were +finally arranged in an amicable spirit, and were embodied in a +subsidiary treaty signed November 5, 1842. <span class="newpage"><a +name="page_405" id="page_405">[pg.405]</a></span></p> + +<br /> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXX</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>WILLIAM II. REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION.</p> + +<p>1842-1849</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The Dutch nation welcomed the final separation from Belgium with +profound relief. The national charges had risen from 15 million +florins in 1815 to 38 million florins in 1838. Taxation was +oppressive, trade stagnant, and the financial position growing more +and more intolerable. The long-tried loyalty of the people, who had +entrusted their sovereign with such wide and autocratic powers, had +cooled. The king's Belgian policy had obviously been a complete +failure; and the rotten state of public finance was naturally in +large part attributed to the sovereign, who had so long been +practically his own finance minister. Loud cries began to be raised +for a revision of the constitution on liberal lines. To the old +king any such revision was repugnant; but, unable to resist the +trend of public opinion, he gave his assent to a measure of +constitutional reform in the spring of 1840. Its limited +concessions satisfied no one. Its principal modifications of the +Fundamental Law were: (1) the division of the province of Holland +into two parts; (2) the reduction of the Civil List; (3) the +necessary alteration of the number of deputies in the Second +Chamber due to the separation from Belgium; (4) abolition of the +distinction between the ordinary and the extraordinary budget; (5) +a statement of the receipts and expenditure of the colonies to be +laid before the States-General. Finally the principle of +ministerial responsibility was granted most reluctantly, the king +yielding only after the Chambers had declined to consider the +estimates without this concession. But William had already made up +his mind to abdicate, rather than reign under the new conditions. +He knew that he was unpopular and out-of-touch with the times; and +his unpopularity had been increased by his announced intention of +marrying the Countess Henriette D'Oultremont, a Belgian and a +Catholic. On October 7 he issued a proclamation by which he handed +over the government to his son William Frederick, Prince of Orange. +He then<span class="newpage"><a name="page_406" id= +"page_406">[pg.406]</a></span> retired quietly to his private +estates in Silesia. He died at Berlin in 1843.</p> + +<p>William II was forty-eight years of age on his accession to the +throne. He was a man of a character very different from that of his +father. Amiable, accessible, easily influenced, liberal-handed even +to extravagance, he was deservedly popular. He had shown himself in +the Peninsula, at Quatre Bras and Waterloo and later in the Ten +Days' Campaign, to be a capable and courageous soldier, but he +possessed few of the qualities either of a statesman or a +financier. He had married in 1816 Anna Paulovna, sister of the Tsar +Alexander I, after his proposed marriage with the Princess +Charlotte of England had been broken off.</p> + +<p>He entered upon his reign in difficult times. There was a loud +demand for a further sweeping revision of the constitution. +Religious movements, which had been gathering force during the +reign of William I, required careful handling. One minister after +another had tried to grapple with the financial problem, but in +vain. In 1840 the public debt amounted to 2200 million florins; and +the burden of taxation, though it had become almost unendurable, +failed to provide for the interest on the debt and the necessary +expenses of administration. The State was in fact on the verge of +bankruptcy. The appointment in 1842 of F.A. van Hall (formerly an +Amsterdam advocate, who had held the post of minister of justice) +to be finance minister opened out a means of salvation. The arrears +to 1840 amounted to 35 million florins; the deficit for 1841-3 had +to be covered, and means provided for the expenditure for 1843-4. +Van Hall's proposals gave the people the choice between providing +the necessary money by an extraordinary tax of one and a half per +cent, on property and income, and raising a voluntary loan of 150 +million florins at 3 per cent. After long debates the +States-General accepted the proposal for the voluntary loan, but +the amount was reduced to 126 millions. The success of the loan, +though at first doubtful, was by March, 1844, complete. The +Amsterdam Bourse gave its utmost support; and the royal family set +a good example by a joint subscription of 11 million florins. By +this means, and by the capitalisation of the annual Belgian payment +of five million francs, Van Hall was able to clear off the four +years' arrears and to convert the 5 and 4-1/2 per cent. scrip into +4 per cent. He was helped by the large annual payments, which<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_407" id= +"page_407">[pg.407]</a></span> now began to come in from the Dutch +East Indies; and at length an equilibrium was established in the +budget between receipts and expenditure.</p> + +<p>In the years preceding the French Revolution the Reformed Church +in the United Provinces had become honey-combed with rationalism. +The official orthodoxy of the Dort synod had become "a fossilised +skeleton." By the Constitution of 1798 Church and State were +separated, and the property of the Church was taken by the State, +which paid however stipends to the ministers. Under King Louis +subsidies were paid from the public funds to teachers of every +religious persuasion; and this system continued during the union of +Holland and Belgium. A movement known as the <i>Reveil</i> had +meanwhile been stirring the dry-bones of Calvinistic orthodoxy in +Holland. Its first leaders were Bilderdijk, De Costa and Capadose. +Like most religious revivals, this movement gave rise to +extravagancies and dissensions. In 1816 a new sect was founded by a +sea-captain, Staffel Mulder, on communistic principles after the +example of the first Jerusalem converts, which gathered a number of +followers among the peasantry. The "New Lighters"—such was +the name they assumed—established in 1823 their headquarters +at Zwijndrecht. The first enthusiasm however died down, and the +sect gradually disappeared. More serious was the liberal revolt +against the cut-and-dried orthodoxy of Dort. Slowly it made +headway, and it found leaders in Hofstede de Groot, professor at +Groningen, and in two eloquent preachers, De Cocq at Ulrum and +Scholte at Deventer. These men, finding that their views met with +no sympathy or recognition by the synodal authorities, resolved +(October 14,1834) on the serious step of separating from the +Reformed Church and forming themselves and their adherents into a +new church body. They were known as "the Separatists" (<i>de +Afgescheidenen</i>). Though deprived of their pulpits, fined and +persecuted, the Separatists grew in number. In 1836 the government +refused to recognise them as a Church, but permitted local +congregations to hold meetings in houses. In 1838 more favourable +conditions were offered, which De Cocq and Scholte finally agreed +to accept, but no subsidies were paid to the sect by the State. +William II, in 1842, made a further concession by allowing +religious teaching to be given daily in the public schools (out of +school hours) by the Separatist ministers, as well as by those of +other denominations. All this while, however,<span class= +"newpage"><a name="page_408" id="page_408">[pg.408]</a></span> +certain congregations refused to accept the compromise of 1838; and +a large number, headed by a preacher named Van Raalte, in order to +obtain freedom of worship, emigrated to Michigan to form the +nucleus of a flourishing Dutch colony.</p> + +<p>The accession of William II coincided with a period of political +unrest, not only in Holland but throughout Europe. A strong +reaction had set in against the system of autocratic rule, which +had been the marked feature of the period which followed 1815. +Liberal and progressive ideas had during the later years been +making headway in Holland under the inspiring leadership of Johan +Rudolf Thorbecke, at that time a professor of jurisprudence at +Leyden. He had many followers; and the cause he championed had the +support of the brilliant writers and publicists, Donker-Curtius, +Luzac, Potgieter, Bakhuizen van der Brink and others. A strong +demand arose for a thorough revision of the constitution. In 1844 a +body of nine members of the Second Chamber, chief amongst them +Thorbecke, drew up a definite proposal for a revision; but the king +expressed his dislike to it, and it was rejected. The Van Hall +ministry had meanwhile been carrying out those excellent financial +measures which had saved the credit of the State, and was now +endeavouring to conduct the government on opportunist lines. But +the potato famine in 1845-46 caused great distress among the +labouring classes, and gave added force to the spirit of discontent +in the country. The king himself grew nervous in the presence of +the revolutionary ferment spreading throughout Europe, and was more +especially alarmed (February, 1848) by the sudden overthrow of the +monarchy of Louis Philippe and the proclamation of a republic at +Paris. He now resolved himself to take the initiative. He saw that +the proposals hitherto made for revision did not satisfy public +opinion; and on March 8, without consulting his ministers, he took +the unusual step of sending for the President of the Second +Chamber, Boreel van Hogelanden. He asked him to ascertain the +opinions and wishes of the Chamber on the matter of revision and to +report to him. The ministry on this resigned and a new liberal +ministry was formed, at the head of which was Count +Schimmelpenninck, formerly minister in London. On March 17 a +special Commission was appointed to draw up a draft scheme of +revision. It consisted of five members, four of whom, Thorbecke, +Luzac, Donker-Curtius and Kempenaer, were prominent liberals and +the fifth a Catholic<span class="newpage"><a name="page_409" id= +"page_409">[pg.409]</a></span> from North Brabant. Their work was +completed by April 11 and the report presented to the king. +Schimmelpenninck, not agreeing with the proposals of the +Commission, resigned; and on May 11 a new ministry under the +leadership of Donker-Curtius was formed for the express purpose of +carrying out the proposed revision. A periodical election of the +Second Chamber took place in July, and difficulties at first +confronted the new scheme. These were, however, overcome; and on +October 14 the revised constitution received the king's assent. It +was solemnly proclaimed on November 3.</p> + +<p>The Constitution of 1848 left in the hands of the king the +executive power, i.e. the conduct of foreign affairs, the right of +declaring war and making peace, the supreme command of the military +and naval forces, the administration of the overseas possessions, +and the right of dissolving the Chambers; but these prerogatives +were modified by the introduction of the principle of ministerial +responsibility. The ministers were responsible for all acts of the +government, and the king could legally do no wrong. The king was +president of the Council of State (15 members), whose duty it was +to consider all proposals made to or by the States-General. The +king shared the legislative power with the States-General, but the +Second Chamber had the right of initiative, amendment and +investigation; and annual budgets were henceforth to be presented +for its approval. All members of the States-General were to be at +least 30 years of age. The First Chamber of 39 members was elected +by the Provincial Estates from those most highly assessed to direct +taxation; the members sat for nine years, but one-third vacated +their seats every third year. All citizens of full age paying a +certain sum to direct taxation had the right of voting for members +of the Second Chamber, the country for this purpose being divided +into districts containing 45,000 inhabitants. The members held +their seats for four years, but half the Chamber retired every +second year. Freedom of worship to all denominations, liberty of +the press and the right of public meeting were guaranteed. Primary +education in public schools was placed under State control, but +private schools were not interfered with. The provincial and +communal administration was likewise reformed and made dependent on +the direct popular vote.</p> + +<p>The ministry of Donker-Curtius at once took steps for holding +fresh elections, as soon as the new constitution became the<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_410" id= +"page_410">[pg.410]</a></span> fundamental law of the country. A +large majority of liberals was returned to the Second Chamber. The +king in person opened the States-General on February 13, 1849, and +expressed his intention of accepting loyally the changes to which +he had given his assent. He was, however, suffering and weak from +illness, and a month later (March 17) he died at Tilburg. His +gracious and kindly personality had endeared him to his subjects, +who deeply regretted that at this moment of constitutional change +the States should lose his experienced guidance. He was succeeded +by his son, William III.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_411" id= +"page_411">[pg.411]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXIII</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>REIGN OF WILLIAM III TO THE DEATH OF THORBECKE, <br /> +1849-1872</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>William III succeeded to the throne at a moment of transition. +He was thirty-two years of age, and his natural leanings were +autocratic; but he accepted loyally the principle of ministerial +responsibility, and throughout his long reign endeavoured honestly +and impartially to fulfil his duties as a constitutional sovereign. +There were at this time in Holland four political parties: (1) the +old conservative party, which after 1849 gradually dwindled in +numbers and soon ceased to be a power in the State; (2) the +liberals, under the leadership of Thorbecke; (3) the +anti-revolutionary or orthodox Protestant party, ably led by G. +Groen van Prinsterer, better known perhaps as a distinguished +historian, but at the same time a good debater and resourceful +parliamentarian; (4) the Catholic party. The Catholics for the +first time obtained in 1849 the full privileges of citizenship. +They owed this to the liberals, and for some years they gave their +support to that party, though differing from them fundamentally on +many points. The anti-revolutionaries placed in the foreground the +upholding of the Reformed (orthodox Calvinistic) faith in the +State, and of religious teaching in the schools. In this last +article of their political creed they were at one with the +Catholics, and in its defence the two parties were destined to +become allies.</p> + +<p>The liberal majority in the newly elected States-General was +considerable; and it was the general expectation that Thorbecke +would become head of the government. The king however suspected the +aims of the liberal leader, and personally disliked him. He +therefore kept in office the Donker-Curtius-De Kempenaer cabinet; +but, after a vain struggle against the hostile majority, it was +compelled to resign, and Thorbecke was called upon to form a +ministry.</p> + +<p>Thorbecke was thus the first constitutional prime-minister of +Holland. His answer to his opponents, who asked for his +programme,<span class="newpage"><a name="page_412" id= +"page_412">[pg.412]</a></span> was contained in words which he was +speedily to justify: "Wait for our deeds." A law was passed which +added 55,000 votes to the electorate; and by two other laws the +provincial and communal assemblies were placed upon a popular +representative basis. The system of finance was reformed by the +gradual substitution of direct for indirect taxation. By the +Navigation Laws all differential and transit dues upon shipping +were reduced; tolls on through-cargoes on the rivers were +abolished, and the tariff on raw materials lowered. It was a +considerable step forward in the direction of free-trade. Various +changes were made to lighten the incidence of taxation on the +poorer classes. Among the public works carried to completion at +this time (1852) was the empoldering of the Haarlem lake, which +converted a large expanse of water into good pasture land.</p> + +<p>It was not on political grounds that the Thorbecke ministry was +to be wrecked, but by their action in matters which aroused +religious passions and prejudices. The prime-minister wished to +bring all charitable institutions and agencies under State +supervision. Their number was more than 3500; and a large +proportion of these were connected with and supported by religious +bodies. It is needless to say the proposal aroused strong +opposition. More serious was the introduction of a Catholic +episcopate into Holland. By the Fundamental Law of 1848 complete +freedom of worship and of organisation had been guaranteed to every +form of religious belief. It was the wish of the Catholics that the +system which had endured ever since the 16th century of a "Dutch +mission" under the direction of an Italian prelate (generally the +internuncio) should come to an end, and that they should have +bishops of their own. The proposal was quite constitutional and, +far from giving the papal curia more power in the Netherlands, it +decreased it. A petition to Pius IX in 1847 met with little favour +at Rome; but in 1851 another petition, much more widely signed, +urged the Pope to seize the favourable opportunity for establishing +a native hierarchy. Negotiations were accordingly opened by the +papal see with the Dutch government, which ended (October, 1852) in +a recognition of the right of the Catholic Church in Holland to +have freedom of organisation. It was stipulated, however, that a +previous communication should be made to the government of the +papal intentions and plans, before they were carried out. The only +communication<span class="newpage"><a name="page_413" id= +"page_413">[pg.413]</a></span> that was made was not official, but +confidential; and it merely stated that Utrecht was to be erected +into an archbishopric with Haarlem, Breda, Hertogenbosch and +Roeremonde, as suffragans. The ministry regarded the choice of such +Protestant centres as Utrecht and Haarlem with resentment, but were +faced with the <i>fait accompli</i>. This strong-handed action of +the Roman authorities was made still more offensive by the issuing +of a papal allocution, again without any consultation with the +Dutch government, in which Pius IX described the establishment of +the new hierarchy as a means of counteracting in the Netherlands +the heresy of Calvin.</p> + +<p>A wave of fierce indignation swept over Protestant Holland, +which united in one camp orthodox Calvinists +(anti-revolutionaries), conservatives and anti-papal liberals. The +preachers everywhere inveighed against a ministry which had +permitted such an act of aggression on the part of a foreign +potentate against the Protestantism of the nation. Utrecht took the +lead in drawing up an address to the king and to the States-General +(which obtained two hundred thousand signatures), asking them not +to recognise the proposed hierarchy. At the meeting of the Second +Chamber of the States-General on April 12, Thorbecke had little +difficulty in convincing the majority that the Pope had proceeded +without Consultation with the ministry, and that under the +Constitution the Catholics had acted within their rights in +re-modelling their Church organisation. But his arguments were far +from satisfying outside public opinion. On the occasion of a visit +of the king to Amsterdam the ministry took the step of advising him +not to receive any address hostile to the establishment of the +hierarchy, on the ground that this did not require the royal +approval. William, who had never been friendly to Thorbecke, was +annoyed at being thus instructed in the discharge of his duties; +and he not only received an address containing 51,000 signatures +but expressed his great pleasure in being thus approached (April +15). At the same time he summoned Van Hall, the leader of the +opposition, to Amsterdam for a private consultation. The ministry, +on hearing of what had taken place, sent its resignation, which was +accepted on April 19. Thus fell the Thorbecke ministry, not by a +parliamentary defeat, but because the king associated himself with +the uprising of hostile public opinion, known as the "April +Movement."</p> + +<p>A new ministry was formed under the joint leadership of Van<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_414" id= +"page_414">[pg.414]</a></span> Hall and Donker-Curtius; and an +appeal to the electors resulted in the defeat of the liberals. The +majority was a coalition of conservatives and anti-revolutionaries. +The followers of Groen van Prinsterer were small in number, but of +importance through the strong religious convictions and debating +ability of the leader. The presence of Donker-Curtius was a +guarantee for moderation; and, as Van Hall was an adept in +political opportunism, the new ministry differed from its liberal +predecessor chiefly in its more cautious attitude towards the +reforms which both were ready to adopt. As it had been carried into +office by the April Movement, a Church Association Bill was passed +into law making it illegal for a foreigner to hold any Church +office without the royal assent, and forbidding the wearing of a +distinctive religious dress outside closed buildings. Various +measures were introduced dealing with ministerial responsibility, +poor-law administration and other matters, such as the abolition of +the excise on meat and of barbarous punishments on the +scaffold.</p> + +<p>The question of primary education was to prove for the next +half-century a source of continuous political and religious strife, +dividing the people of Holland into hostile camps. The question was +whether the State schools should be "mixed" i.e. neutral schools, +where only those simple truths which were common to all +denominations should be taught; or should be "separate" i.e. +denominational schools, in which religious instruction should be +given in accordance with the wishes of the parents. A bill was +brought in by the government (September, 1854) which was intended +to be a compromise. It affirmed the general principle that the +State schools should be "neutral," but allowed "separate" schools +to be built and maintained. This proposal was fiercely opposed by +Groen and gave rise to a violent agitation. The ministry struggled +on, but its existence was precarious and internal dissensions at +length led to its resignation (July, 1856). The elections of 1856 +had effected but little change in the constitution of the Second +Chamber, and the anti-revolutionary J.J.L. van der Brugghen was +called upon to form a ministry. Groen himself declined office, Van +der Brugghen made an effort to conciliate opposition; and a bill +for primary education was introduced (1857) upholding the principle +of the "mixed" schools, but with the proviso that the aim of the +teaching was to be the instruction of<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_415" id="page_415">[pg.415]</a></span> the children "in +Christian and social virtues"; at the same time "separate" schools +were permitted and under certain conditions would be subsidised by +the State. Groen again did his utmost to defeat this bill, but he +was not successful; and after stormy debates it became law (July, +1857). The liberals obtained a majority at the elections of 1858, +and Van der Brugghen resigned. But the king would not send for +Thorbecke; and J.J. Rochussen, a former governor-general of the +Dutch East Indies, was asked to form a "fusion" ministry. During +his tenure of office (1858-60) slavery was abolished in the East +Indies, though not the cultivation-system, which was but a kind of +disguised slavery. The way in which the Javanese suffered by this +system of compulsory labour for the profit of the home +country—the amount received by the Dutch treasury being not +less than 250 million florins in thirty years—was now +scathingly exposed by the brilliant writer Douwes Dekker. He had +been an official in Java, and his novel <i>Max Havelaar</i>, +published in 1860 under the pseudonym "Multatuli," was widely read, +and brought to the knowledge of the Dutch public the character of +the system which was being enforced.</p> + +<p>Holland was at this time far behind Belgium in the construction +of a system of railroads, to the great hindrance of trade. A bill, +however, proposed by the ministry to remedy this want was rejected +by the First Chamber, and Rochussen resigned. The king again +declined to send for Thorbecke; and Van Hall was summoned for the +third time to form a ministry. He succeeded in securing the passage +of a proposal to spend not less than 10 million florins annually in +the building of State railways. All Van Hall's parliamentary +adroitness and practised opportunism could not, however, long +maintain in office a ministry supported cordially by no party. Van +Hall gave up the unthankful task (February, 1861), but still it was +not Thorbecke, but Baron S. van Heemstra that was called upon to +take his place. For a few months only was the ministry able to +struggle on in the face of a liberal majority. There was now no +alternative but to offer the post of first minister to Thorbecke, +who accepted the office (January 31, 1862).</p> + +<p>The second ministry of Thorbecke lasted for four years, and was +actively engaged during that period in domestic, trade and colonial +reforms. Thorbecke, as a free-trader, at once took in hand the +policy of lowering all duties except for revenue purposes. The +communal<span class="newpage"><a name="page_416" id= +"page_416">[pg.416]</a></span> dues were extinguished. A law for +secondary and technical education was passed in 1863; and in the +same year slavery was abolished in Surinam and the West Indies. +Other bills were passed for the canalising of the Hook of Holland, +and the reclaiming of the estuary of the Y. This last project +included the construction of a canal, the Canal of Holland, with +the artificial harbour of Ymuiden at its entrance, deep enough for +ocean liners to reach Amsterdam. With the advent of Fransen van de +Putte, as colonial minister in 1863, began a series of far-reaching +reforms in the East Indies, including the lowering of the +differential duties. His views, however, concerning the scandal of +the cultivation-system in Java did not meet with the approval of +some of his colleagues; and Thorbecke himself supported the +dissentients. The ministry resigned, and Van de Putte became head +of the government. He held office for four months only. His bill +for the abolition of the cultivation-system and the conversion of +the native cultivators into possessors of their farms was thrown +out by a small majority, Thorbecke with a few liberals and some +Catholics voting with the conservatives against it. This was the +beginning of a definite liberal split, which was to continue for +years.</p> + +<p>A coalition-ministry followed under the presidency of J. van +Heemskerk (Interior) and Baron van Zuylen van Nyevelt (Foreign +Affairs). The colonial minister Mijer shortly afterwards resigned +in order to take the post of governor-general of the East Indies. +This appointment did not meet with the approval of the Second +Chamber; and the government suffered a defeat. On this they +persuaded the king not only to dissolve the Chamber, but to issue a +proclamation impressing upon the electors the need of the country +for a more stable administration. The result was the return of a +majority for the Heemskerk-Van Zuylen combination. It is needless +to say that Thorbecke and his followers protested strongly against +the dragging of the king's name into a political contest, as +gravely unconstitutional. The ministry had a troubled +existence.</p> + +<p>The results of the victory of Prussia over Austria at Sadowa, +and the formation of the North German Confederation under Prussian +leadership, rendered the conduct of foreign relations a difficult +and delicate task, especially as regards Luxemburg and Limburg, +both of which were under the personal sovereignty of William III, +and at the same time formed part of the old German +Confederation.<span class="newpage"><a name="page_417" id= +"page_417">[pg.417]</a></span> The rapid success of Prussia had +seriously perturbed public opinion in France; and Napoleon III, +anxious to obtain some territorial compensation which would satisfy +French <i>amour-propre,</i> entered into negotiations with William +III for the sale of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. The king was +himself alarmed at the Prussian annexations, and Queen Sophie and +the Prince of Orange had decided French leanings; and, as Bismarck +had given the king reason to believe that no objection would be +raised, the negotiations for the sale were seriously undertaken. On +March 26, 1867, the Prince of Orange actually left the Hague, +bearing the document containing the Grand Duke's consent; and on +April 1 the cession was to be finally completed. On that very day +the Prussian ambassadors at Paris and the Hague were instructed to +say that any cession of Luxemburg to France would mean war with +Prussia. It was a difficult situation; and a conference of the +Great Powers met at London on May 11 to deal with it. Its decision +was that Luxemburg should remain as an independent state, whose +neutrality was guaranteed collectively by the Powers, under the +sovereignty of the House of Nassau; that the town of Luxemburg +should be evacuated by its Prussian garrison; and that Limburg +should henceforth be an integral part of the kingdom of the +Netherlands.</p> + +<p>Van Zuylen was assailed in the Second Chamber for his exposing +the country to danger and humiliation in this matter; and the +Foreign Office vote was rejected by a small majority. The ministry +resigned; but, rather than address himself to Thorbecke, the king +sanctioned a dissolution, with the result of a small gain of seats +to the liberals. Heemskerk and Van Zuylen retained office for a +short time in the face of adverse votes, but finally resigned; and +the king had no alternative but to ask Thorbecke to form a +ministry. He himself declined office, but he chose a cabinet of +young liberals who had taken no part in the recent political +struggles, P.P. van Bosse becoming first minister.</p> + +<p>From this time forward there was no further attempt on the part +of the royal authority to interfere in the constitutional course of +parliamentary government. Van Bosse's ministry, scoffingly called +by their opponents "Thorbecke's marionettes," maintained themselves +in office for two years(1868-70), passing several useful measures, +but are chiefly remembered for the abolition of capital punishment. +The outbreak of the Franco-German war in 1870 found, however, +the<span class="newpage"><a name="page_418" id= +"page_418">[pg.418]</a></span> Dutch army and fortresses +ill-prepared for an emergency, when the maintenance of strict +neutrality demanded an efficient defence of the frontiers. The +ministry was not strong enough to resist the attacks made upon it; +and at last the real leader of the liberal party, the veteran +Thorbecke, formed his third ministry (January, 1871). But Thorbecke +was now in ill-health, and the only noteworthy achievement of his +last premiership was an agreement with Great Britain by which the +Dutch possessions on the coast of Guinea were ceded to that country +in exchange for a free hand being given to the Dutch in Surinam. +The ministry, having suffered a defeat on the subject of the cost +of the proposed army re-organisation, was on the point of +resigning, when Thorbecke suddenly died (June 5, 1872). His death +brought forth striking expressions of sympathy and appreciation +from men and journals representing all parties in the State. For +five-and-twenty years, in or out of office, his had been the +dominating influence in Dutch politics; and it was felt on all +sides that the country was the poorer for the loss of a man of +outstanding ability and genuine patriotism.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_419" id= +"page_419">[pg.419]</a></span> +<h2>CHAPTER XXXIV</h2> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE LATER REIGN OF WILLIAM III, AND THE REGENCY OF QUEEN EMMA, +1872-1898</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>The death of Thorbecke was the signal for a growing cleavage +between the old <i>doctrinaire</i> school of liberals, who adhered +to the principles of 1848, and the advanced liberalism of many of +the younger progressive type. To Gerrit de Vries was entrusted the +duty of forming a ministry, and he had the assistance of the former +first minister, F. van de Putte. His position was weakened by the +opposition of the Catholic party, who became alienated from the +liberals, partly on the religious education question, but more +especially because their former allies refused to protest against +the Italian occupation of Rome. The election of 1873 did not +improve matters, for it left the divided liberals to face an +opposition of equal strength, whenever the conservatives, +anti-revolutionaries and Catholics acted together. This same year +saw the first phase of the war with the piratical state of Achin. +An expedition of 3600 men under General Köhler was sent out against +the defiant sultan in April, 1873, but suffered disaster, the +General himself dying of disease. A second stronger expedition +under General van Swieten was then dispatched, which was +successful; and the sultan was deposed in January, 1874. This +involved heavy charges on the treasury; and the ministry, after +suffering two reverses in the Second Chamber, resigned (June, +1874), being succeeded by a Heemskerk coalition ministry.</p> + +<p>Heemskerk in his former premiership had shown himself to be a +clever tactician, and for three years he managed to maintain +himself in office against the combined opposition of the advanced +liberals, the anti-revolutionaries and the Catholics. Groen van +Prinsterer died in May, 1876; and with his death the hitherto +aristocratic and exclusive party, which he had so long led, became +transformed. Under its new leader, Abraham Kuyper, it became +democratised, and, by combining its support of the religious +principle in education with that of progressive reform, was able to +exercise<span class="newpage"><a name="page_420" id= +"page_420">[pg.420]</a></span> a far wider influence in the +political sphere. Kuyper, for many years a Calvinist pastor, +undertook in 1872 the editorship of the anti-revolutionary paper, +<i>De Standdard</i>. In 1874 he was elected member for Gouda, but +resigned in order to give his whole time to journalism in the +interest of the political principles to which he now devoted his +great abilities.</p> + +<p>The Heemskerk ministry had the support of no party, but by the +opportunist skill of its chief it continued in office for three +years; no party was prepared to take its place, and "the government +of the king must be carried on." The measures that were passed in +this time were useful rather than important. An attempt to deal +with primary instruction led to the downfall of the ministry. The +elections of 1877 strengthened the liberals; and, an amendment to +the speech from the throne being carried, Heemskerk resigned. His +place was taken by Joannes Kappeyne, leader of the progressive +liberals. A new department of State was now created, that of +Waterways and Commerce, whose duties in a country like Holland, +covered with a net-work of dykes and canals, was of great +importance. A measure which denied State support to the "private" +schools was bitterly resisted by the anti-revolutionaries and the +Catholics, whose union in defence of religious education was from +this time forward to become closer. The outlay in connection with +the costly Achin war, which had broken out afresh, led to a +considerable deficit in the budget. In consequence of this a +proposal for the construction of some new canals was rejected by a +majority of one. The financial difficulties, which had necessitated +the imposing of unpopular taxes, had once more led to divisions in +the liberal ranks; and Kappeyne, finding that the king would not +support his proposals for a revision of the Fundamental Law, saw no +course open to him but resignation.</p> + +<p>In these circumstances the king decided to ask an +anti-revolutionary, Count van Lynden van Sandenburg, to form a +"Ministry of Affairs," composed of moderate men of various parties. +Van Lynden had a difficult task, but with the strong support of the +king his policy of conciliation carried him safely through four +disquieting and anxious years. The revolt of the Boers in the +Transvaal against British rule caused great excitement in Holland, +and aroused much sympathy. Van Lynden was careful to avoid any +steps which might give umbrage to England, and he was successful in +his efforts. The<span class="newpage"><a name="page_421" id= +"page_421">[pg.421]</a></span> Achin trouble was, however, still a +cause of much embarrassment. Worst of all was the series of +bereavements which at this time befell the House of Orange-Nassau. +In 1877 Queen Sophie died, affectionately remembered for her +interest in art and science, and her exemplary life. The king's +brother, Henry, for thirty years Stadholder of Luxemburg, died +childless early in 1879; and shortly afterwards in June the Prince +of Orange, who had never married, passed away suddenly at Paris. +The two sons of William III's uncle Frederick predeceased their +father, whose death took place in 1881. Alexander, the younger son +of the king, was sickly and feeble-minded; and with his decease in +1884, the male line of the House of Orange-Nassau became extinct. +Foreseeing such a possibility in January, 1879, the already aged +king took in second wedlock the youthful Princess Emma of +Waldeck-Pyrmont. Great was the joy of the Dutch people, when, on +August 31, 1880, she gave birth to a princess, Wilhelmina, who +became from this time forth the hope of a dynasty, whose history +for three centuries had been bound up with that of the nation.</p> + +<p>The Van Lynden administration, having steered its way through +many parliamentary crises for four years, was at last beaten upon a +proposal to enlarge the franchise, and resigned (February 26, +1883). To Heemskerk was confided the formation of a coalition +ministry of a neutral character; and this experienced statesman +became for the third time first minister of the crown. The +dissensions in the liberal party converted the Second Chamber into +a meeting-place of hostile factions; and Heemskerk was better +fitted than any other politician to be the head of a government +which, having no majority to support it, had to rely upon tactful +management and expediency. The rise of a socialist party under the +enthusiastic leadership of a former Lutheran pastor, Domela +Nieuwenhuis, added to the perplexities of the position. It soon +became evident that a revision of the Fundamental Law and an +extension of the franchise, which the king no longer opposed, was +inevitable. Meanwhile the death of Prince Alexander and the king's +growing infirmities made it necessary to provide, by a bill passed +on August 2,1884, that Queen Emma should become regent during her +daughter's minority.</p> + +<p>Everything conspired to beset the path of the Heemskerk ministry +with hindrances to administrative or legislative action. The bad +state of the finances (chiefly owing to the calls for the Achin +war) the subdivision of all parties into groups, the socialist<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_422" id= +"page_422">[pg.422]</a></span> agitation and the weak health of the +king, created something like a parliamentary deadlock. A revision +of the constitution became more and more pressing as the only +remedy, though no party was keenly in its favour. Certain proposals +for revision were made by the government (March, 1885), but the +anti-revolutionaries, the Catholics and the conservatives were +united in opposition, unless concessions were made in the matter of +religious education. Such concessions as were finally offered were +rejected (April, 1886), and Heemskerk offered his resignation. +Baron Mackay (anti-revolutionary) declining office, a dissolution +followed. The result of the elections, however, was inconclusive, +the liberals of all shades having a bare majority of four; but +there was no change of ministry. A more conciliatory spirit +fortunately prevailed under stress of circumstances in the new +Chamber; and at last, after many debates, the law revising the +constitution was passed through both Chambers, and approved by the +king (November 30, 1887). It was a compromise measure, and no +violent changes were made. The First Chamber was to consist of 50 +members, appointed by the Provincial Councils; the Second Chamber +of 100 members, chosen by an electorate of male persons of not less +than 25 years of age with a residential qualification and +possessing "signs of fitness and social well-being"—a vague +phrase requiring future definition. The number of electors was +increased from (in round numbers) 100,000 to 350,000, but universal +male suffrage, the demand of the socialists and more advanced +liberals, was not conceded.</p> + +<p>The elections of 1888 were fought on the question of religious +education in the primary schools. The two "Christian" parties, the +Calvinist anti-revolutionaries under the leadership of Dr Kuyper, +and the Catholics, who had found a leader of eloquence and power in +Dr Schaepman, a Catholic priest, coalesced in a common programme +for a revision of Kappeyne's Education Act of 1878. The coalition +obtained a majority, 27 anti-revolutionaries and 25 Catholics being +returned as against 46 liberals of various groups. For the first +time a socialist, Domela Nieuwenhuis, was elected. The conservative +party was reduced to one member. In the First Chamber the liberals +still commanded a majority. In April, 1888, Baron Mackay, an +anti-revolutionary of moderate views, became first minister. The +coalition made the revision of the Education Act of 1878 their +first business; and they obtained the support of some liberals who +were anxious to see the school question out<span class="newpage"><a +name="page_423" id="page_423">[pg.423]</a></span> of the way. The +so-called "Mackay Law" was passed in 1889. It provided that +"private" schools should receive State support on condition that +they conformed to the official regulations; that the number of +scholars should be not less than twenty-five; and that they should +be under the management of some body, religious or otherwise, +recognised by the State. This settlement was a compromise, but it +offered the solution of an acute controversy and was found to work +satisfactorily.</p> + +<p>The death of King William on November 23, 1890, was much mourned +by his people. He was a man of strong and somewhat narrow views, +but during his reign of 41 years his sincere love for his country +was never in doubt, nor did he lose popularity by his anti-liberal +attitude on many occasions, for it was known to arise from honest +conviction; and it was amidst general regret that the last male +representative of the House of Orange-Nassau was laid in his +grave.</p> + +<p>A proposal by the Catholic minister Borgesius for the +introduction of universal personal military service was displeasing +however to many of his own party, and it was defeated with the help +of Catholic dissidents. An election followed, and the liberals +regained a majority. A new government was formed of a moderate +progressive character, the premier being Cornelis van Tienhoven. It +was a ministry of talents, Tak van Poortvliet (interior) and N.G. +Pierson (finance) being men of marked ability. Pierson had more +success than any of his predecessors in bringing to an end the +recurring deficits in the annual balance sheet. He imposed an +income tax on all incomes above 650 florins derived from salaries +or commerce. All other sources of income were capitalised (funds, +investments, farming, etc.); and a tax was placed on all capital +above 13,000 florins. Various duties and customs were lowered, to +the advantage of trade. There was, however, a growing demand for a +still further extension of the franchise, and for an official +interpretation of that puzzling qualification of the Revision of +1889—"signs of fitness and social well-being." Tak van +Poortvliet brought in a measure which would practically have +introduced universal male suffrage, for he interpreted the words as +including all who could write and did not receive doles from +charity. This proposal, brought forward in 1893, again split up the +liberal party. The moderates under the leadership of Samuel van +Houten vigorously opposed such an increase of the electorate; and +they had the support<span class="newpage"><a name="page_424" id= +"page_424">[pg.424]</a></span> of the more conservative +anti-revolutionaries and a large part of the Catholics. The more +democratic followers of Kuyper and Schaepman and the progressive +radicals ranged themselves on the side of Tak van Poortvliet. All +parties were thus broken up into hostile groups. The election of +1894 was contested no longer on party lines, but between Takkians +and anti-Takkians. The result was adverse to Tak, his following +only mustering 46 votes against 54 for their opponents.</p> + +<p>A new administration therefore came into office (May, 1894) +under the presidency of Jonkheer Johan Roëll with Van Houten as +minister of the interior. On Van Houten's shoulders fell the task +of preparing a new electoral law. His proposals were finally +approved in 1896. Before this took place the minister of finance, +Spenger van Eyk, had succeeded in relieving the treasury by the +conversion of the public debt from a 3-1/2 to a 3 per cent, +security. The Van Houten reform of the franchise was very +complicated, as there were six different categories of persons +entitled to exercise the suffrage: (1) payers of at least one +guilder in direct taxation; (2) householders or lodgers paying a +certain minimum rent and having a residential qualification; (3) +proprietors or hirers of vessels of 24 tons at least; (4) earners +of a certain specified wage or salary; (5) investors of 100 +guilders in the public funds or of 50 guilders in a savings bank; +(6) persons holding certain educational diplomas. This very wide +and comprehensive franchise raised the number of electors to about +700,000.</p> + +<p>The election of 1897, after first promising a victory to the +more conservative groups, ended by giving a small majority to the +liberals, the progressive section winning a number of seats, and +the socialists increasing their representation in the Chamber. A +liberal-concentration cabinet took the place of the Roell-Van +Houten ministry, its leading members being Pierson (finance) and +Goeman-Borgesius (interior). For a right understanding of the +parliamentary situation at this time and during the years that +follow, a brief account of the groups and sections of groups into +which political parties in Holland were divided, must here +interrupt the narrative of events.</p> + +<p>It has already been told that the deaths of Thorbecke and Groen +van Prinsterer led to a breaking up of the old parties and the +formation of new groups. The Education Act of 1878 brought about an +alliance of the two parties, who made the question of +religious<span class="newpage"><a name="page_425" id= +"page_425">[pg.425]</a></span> education in the primary schools the +first article of their political programme—the +anti-revolutionaries led by the ex-Calvinist pastor Dr Abraham +Kuyper and the Catholics by Dr Schaepman, a Catholic priest. Kuyper +and Schaepman were alike able journalists, and used the press with +conspicuous success for the propagation of their views, both being +advocates of social reform on democratic lines. The +anti-revolutionaries, however, did not, as a body, follow the lead +of Kuyper. An aristocratic section, whose principles were those of +Groen van Prinsterer, "orthodox" and "conservative," under the +appellation of "Historical Christians," were opposed to the +democratic ideas of Kuyper, and were by tradition anti-Catholic. +Their leader was Jonkheer Savornin Lohman. For some years there was +a separate Frisian group of "Historical Christians," but these +finally amalgamated with the larger body. The liberals meanwhile +had split up into three groups: (1) the Old Independent +<i>(vrij)</i> Liberals; (2) the Liberal Progressive Union <i>(Unie +van vooruitstrevende Liberalen)</i>; (3) Liberal-Democrats +<i>(vrijzinnig-democratischen Bond)</i>. The socialist party was a +development of the <i>Algemeene Nederlandsche Werklieden +Verbond</i> founded in 1871. Ten years later, by the activities of +the fiery agitator, Domela Nieuwenhuis, the Social-Democratic Bond +was formed; and the socialists became a political party. The loss +of Nieuwenhuis' seat in 1891 had the effect of making him abandon +constitutional methods for a revolutionary and anti-religious +crusade. The result of this was a split in the socialist party and +the formation, under the leadership of Troelstra, Van Kol and Van +der Goes, of the "Social-Democratic Workmen's Party," which aimed +at promoting the welfare of the proletariat on socialistic lines, +but by parliamentary means. The followers of Domela Nieuwenhuis, +whose openly avowed principles were "the destruction of actual +social conditions by all means legal and illegal," were after 1894 +known as "the Socialist Bond." This anarchical party, who took as +their motto "neither God nor master," rapidly decreased in number; +their leader, discouraged by his lack of success in 1898, withdrew +finally from the political arena; and the Socialist Bond was +dissolved. This gave an accession of strength to the +"Social-Democratic Workmen's Party," which has since the beginning +of the present century gradually acquired an increasing hold upon +the electorate.</p> +<br /><br /><br /> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_426" id= +"page_426">[pg.426]</a></span> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h2>CHAPTER XXXV</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<br /> +<p>THE REIGN OF QUEEN WILHELMINA, 1898-1917</p> +<br /> + + +<p>THE Pierson-Borgesius ministry had not been long in office when +Queen Wilhelmina attained her majority (August 31, 1898) amidst +public enthusiasm. At the same time the Queen-Mother received many +expressions of high appreciation for the admirable manner in which +for eight years she had discharged her constitutional duties. The +measures passed by this administration dealt with many subjects of +importance. Personal military service was at last, after years of +controversy, enforced by law, ecclesiastics and students alone +being excepted. Attendance at school up to the age of 13 was made +obligatory, and the subsidies for the upkeep of the schools and the +payment of teachers were substantially increased. The year 1899 was +memorable for the meeting of the first Peace Congress (on the +initiative of the Tsar Nicholas II) at the <i>Huis in't Bosch.</i> +The deliberations and discussions began on May 18 and lasted until +June 29. By the irony of events, a few months later (October 10) a +war broke out, in which the Dutch people felt a great and +sympathetic interest, between the two Boer republics of South +Africa and Great Britain. Bitter feelings were aroused, and the +queen did but reflect the national sentiment when she personally +received in the most friendly manner President Krüger, who +arrived in Holland as a fugitive on board a Dutch man-of-war in the +summer of 1900. The official attitude of the government was however +perfectly correct, and there was never any breach in the relations +between Great Britain and the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>The marriage of Queen Wilhelmina, on February 7, 1901, with +Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was welcomed by the people, as +affording hopes, for some years to be disappointed, of the birth of +an heir to the throne.</p> + +<p>The elections of 1901 found the liberal ministry out of favour +through the laws enforcing military service and obligatory +attendance at school. Against them the indefatigable Dr Kuyper, who +had returned to active politics in 1897, had succeeded in +uniting<span class="newpage"><a name="page_427" id= +"page_427">[pg.427]</a></span> the three "Church" groups—the +democratic anti-revolutionaries, the aristocratic Historical +Christians (both orthodox Calvinists) and the Catholics of all +sections—into a "Christian Coalition" in support of religious +teaching in the schools. The victory lay with the coalition, and Dr +Kuyper became first minister. The new administration introduced a +measure on Higher Education, which was rejected by the First +Chamber. A dissolution of this Chamber led to the majority being +reversed, and the measure was passed. Another measure revised the +Mackay Law and conferred a larger subsidy on "private" schools. The +socialist party under the able leadership of Troelstra had won +several seats at the election; and in 1903 a general strike was +threatened unless the government conceded the demands of the +socialist labour party. The threat was met with firmness; an +anti-strike law was quickly passed; the military was called out; +and the strike collapsed. The costly war in Achin, which had been +smouldering for some years, burst out again with violence in the +years 1902-3, and led to sanguinary reprisals on the part of the +Dutch soldiery, the report of which excited indignation against the +responsible authorities. Various attempts had been made in 1895 and +1899 to introduce protectionist duties, but unsuccessfully.</p> + +<p>The quadrennial elections of 1905 found all the liberal groups +united in a combined assault upon the Christian Coalition. A severe +electoral struggle ensued, with the result that 45 liberals and 7 +socialists were returned against 48 coalitionists. Dr Kuyper +resigned; and a new ministry, under the leadership of the moderate +liberal, De Meester, took its place. The De Meester government was +however dependent upon the socialist vote, and possessed no +independent majority in either Chamber. For the first time a +ministry of agriculture, industry and trade was created. Such an +administration could only lead a precarious existence, and in 1907 +an adverse vote upon the military estimates led to its resignation. +Th. Heemskerk undertook the task of forming a new cabinet from the +anti-revolutionary and Catholic groups, and at the next general +election of 1909 he won a conclusive victory at the polls. This +victory was obtained by wholesale promises of social reforms, +including old age pensions and poor and sick relief. As so often +happens, such a programme could not be carried into effect without +heavy expenditure; and the means were not forthcoming. To meet<span +class="newpage"><a name="page_428" id= +"page_428">[pg.428]</a></span> the demand a bill was introduced in +August, 1911, by the finance minister, Dr Kolkmar, to increase +considerably the existing duties, and to extend largely the list of +dutiable imports. This bill led to a widespread agitation in the +country, and many petitions were presented against it, with the +result that it was withdrawn. A proposal made by this ministry in +1910 to spend 38,000,000 florins on the fortification of Flushing +excited much adverse criticism in the press of Belgium, England and +France, on the ground that it had been done at the suggestion of +the German government, the object being to prevent the British +fleet from seizing Flushing in the event of the outbreak of an +Anglo-German war. The press agitation met, however, with no +countenance on the part of responsible statesmen in any of the +countries named; it led nevertheless to the abandonment of the +original proposal and the passing of a bill in 1912 for the +improvement of the defences of the Dutch sea-ports generally.</p> + +<p>The election of 1913 reversed the verdict of 1909. Probably in +no country has the principle of the "swing of the pendulum" been so +systematically verified as it has in Holland in recent times. The +returns were in 1913: Church parties, 41; liberals of all groups, +39; socialists, 15. The most striking change was the increase in +the socialist vote, their representation being more than doubled; +and, as in 1905, they held the balance of parties in their hands. +With some difficulty Dr Cort van den Linden succeeded in forming a +liberal ministry. The outbreak of the Great War in August, 1914, +prevented them from turning their attention to any other matters +than those arising from the maintenance of a strict neutrality in a +conflict which placed them in a most difficult and dangerous +position. One of the first questions on which they had to take a +critical decision was the closing of the Scheldt. As soon as Great +Britain declared war on Germany (August 4), Holland refused to +allow any belligerent vessels to pass over its territorial waters. +The events of the six years that have since passed are too near for +comment here. The liberal ministry at least deserves credit for +having steered the country safely through perilous waters. +Nevertheless, at the quadrennial election of 1917 there was the +customary swing of the pendulum; and an anti-liberal ministry +(September 6) was formed, with a Catholic, M. Ruys de Beerenbronck, +as first minister.</p> +<br /><br /><br /> + +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_429" id= +"page_429">[pg.429]</a></span> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<a name="EPILOGUE"></a> + +<h2>EPILOGUE</h2> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<p>The dynastic connection of Luxemburg with Holland ceased with +the accession of Queen Wilhelmina. The conditions under which the +Belgian province of Luxemburg was created, by the Treaty of Vienna +in 1815, a grand-duchy under the sovereignty of the head of the +House of Orange-Nassau with succession in default of heirs-male by +the family compact, known as the <i>Nassauischer Erbverein</i>, to +the nearest male agnate of the elder branch of the Nassau family, +have already been related. With the death of William III the male +line of the House of Orange-Nassau became extinct; and the +succession passed to Adolphus, Duke of Nassau-Weilburg. How +unfortunate and ill-advised was the action of the Congress of +Vienna in the creation of the Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg was +abundantly shown by the difficulties and passions which it aroused +in the course of the negotiations for the erection of Belgium into +an independent state (1830-39). By the treaty of April 19, 1839, +the Walloon portion of Luxemburg became part of the kingdom of +Belgium, but in exchange for this cession the grand-duke obtained +the sovereignty of a strip of the Belgian province of Limburg. This +caused a fresh complication.</p> + +<p>Luxemburg in 1815 was not merely severed from the Netherlands; +it, as a sovereign grand-duchy, was made a state of the Germanic +confederation. By virtue of the exchange sanctioned by the treaty +of 1839, the ceded portion of Limburg became a state of the +confederation. But with the revision of the Dutch constitution, +which in 1840 followed the final separation of Holland and Belgium, +by the wish of the king his duchy of Limburg was included in the +new Fundamental Law, and thus became practically a Dutch province. +The Limburgers had thus a strange and ambiguous position. They had +to pay taxes, to furnish military contingents and to send deputies +to two different sovereign authorities. This state of things +continued with more or less friction, until the victory of Prussia +over Austria in 1866 led to the dissolution of the Germanic +confederation. At the conference of London, 1867, Luxemburg was +declared to be an independent state, whose neutrality was +guaranteed<span class="newpage"><a name="page_430" id= +"page_430">[pg.430]</a></span> by the Great Powers, while Limburg +became an integral portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>Since the middle of the last century the financial position of +Holland has been continuously improving. The heavy indebtedness of +the country, in the period which followed the separation from +Belgium, was gradually diminished. This was effected for a number +of years by the doubtful expedient of the profits derived from the +exploitation of the East Indian colonies through the "Cultivation +System." With the passing of the revised Fundamental Law of 1848 +the control of colonial affairs and of the colonial budget was +placed in the hands of the States-General; and a considerable +section of the Liberal party began henceforth to agitate for the +abolition of a system which was very oppressive to the Javanese +population. It was not, however, until 1871 that the reform was +carried out. Meanwhile, chiefly by the efforts of Thorbecke, the +methods of home finance had been greatly improved by the removal, +so far as possible, of indirect imposts, and the introduction of a +free trade policy, which since his days has been steadily +maintained. Such a policy is admirably suitable to a country which +possesses neither minerals nor coal<a name="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a +href="#Footnote_15_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a>, and whose wealth is +mainly due to sea-or river-borne trade, to dairy farming and to +horticulture. For its supply of corn and many other necessary +commodities Holland has to look to other countries. The fisheries +still form one of the staple industries of the land, and furnish a +hardy sea-faring population for the considerable mercantile marine, +which is needed for constant intercourse with a colonial empire +(the third in importance at the present time) consisting chiefly of +islands in a far-distant ocean.</p> + +<p>Between 1850 and 1914, 375,430,000 fl. have been devoted to the +reduction of debt; and the Sinking Fund in 1915 was 6,346,000 fl. +Since that date Holland has suffered from the consequences of the +Great War, but, having successfully maintained her neutrality, she +has suffered relatively far less than any of her neighbours. +Taxation in Holland has always been high. It is to a large extent +an artificial country; and vast sums have been expended and must +always be expended in the upkeep of the elaborate system of dykes +and canals, by which the waters of the ocean and the rivers are +controlled and prevented from flooding large areas of land lying +below sea level.</p> + +<p>Culture in Holland is widely diffused. The well-to-do +classes<span class="newpage"><a name="page_431" id= +"page_431">[pg.431]</a></span> usually read and speak two or three +languages beside their own; and the Dutch language is a finished +literary tongue of great flexibility and copiousness. The system of +education is excellent. Since 1900 attendance at the primary +schools between the ages of six and thirteen is compulsory. Between +the primary schools intermediate education +(<i>middelbaaronderwijs</i>) is represented by "burgher +night-schools" and "higher burgher schools." The night-schools are +intended for those engaged in agricultural or industrial work; the +"higher schools" for technical instruction, and much attention is +paid to the study of the <i>vier talen</i>—French, English, +German and Dutch. In connection with these there is an admirable +School of Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry at Wageningen in +Gelderland. To the teaching at Wageningen is largely due the +acknowledged supremacy of Holland in scientific horticulture. There +is a branch establishment at Groningen for agricultural training, +and another at Deventer for instruction in subjects connected with +colonial life. The <i>gymnasia</i>, which are to be found in every +town, are preparatory to the universities. The course lasts six +years; and the study of Latin and Greek in addition to modern +languages is compulsory. There are four universities, Leyden, +Utrecht, Groningen and Amsterdam. The possession of a doctor's +degree at one of these universities is necessary for magistrates, +physicians, advocates, and for teachers in the <i>gymnasia</i> and +higher burgher schools.</p> + +<p>In so small a country the literary output is remarkable, and, +marked as it is by scientific and intellectual distinction, +deserves to be more widely read. The Dutch are justly proud of the +great part their forefathers played during the War of Independence, +and in the days of John de Witt and William III. For scientific +historical research in the national archives, and in the +publication of documents bearing upon and illustrating the national +annals, Dutch historians can compare favourably with those of any +other country. Special mention should be made of the labours of +Robert Fruin, who may be described as the founder of a school with +many disciples, and whose collected works are a veritable +treasure-house of brilliant historical studies, combining careful +research with acute criticism. Among his many disciples the names +of Dr P.J. Blok and Dr H.T. Colenbrander are perhaps the best +known.</p> + +<p>In the department of Biblical criticism there have been in +Holland several writers of European repute, foremost among whom +stands the name of Abraham Kuenen.<span class="newpage"><a name= +"page_432" id="page_432">[pg.432]</a></span></p> + +<p>Dutch writers of fiction have been and are far more numerous +than could have been expected from the limited number of those able +to read their works. In the second half of the 19th century, J. van +Lennep and Mevrouw Bosboom-Toussaint were the most prolific +writers. Both of these were followers of the Walter Scott +tradition, their novels being mainly patriotic romances based upon +episodes illustrating the past history of the Dutch people. Van +Lennep's contributions to literature were, however, by no means +confined to the writing of fiction, as his great critical edition +of Vondel's poetical works testifies. Mevrouw Bosboom-Toussaint's +novels were not only excellent from the literary point of view, but +as reproductions of historical events were most conscientiously +written. Her pictures, for instance, of the difficult and involved +period of Leicester's governor-generalship are admirable. The +writings of Douwes Dekker (under the pseudonym Multatuli) are +noteworthy from the fact that his novel <i>Max Havelaar</i>, +dealing with life in Java and setting forth the sufferings of the +natives through the "cultivation system," had a large share in +bringing about its abolition.</p> + +<p>The 20th century school of Dutch novelists is of a different +type from their predecessors and deals with life and life's +problems in every form. Among the present-day authors of fiction, +the foremost place belongs to Louis Conperus, an idealist and +mystic, who as a stylist is unapproached by any of his +contemporaries.</p> + +<p>No account of modern Holland would be complete without a notice +of the great revival of Dutch painting, which has taken place in +the past half century. Without exaggeration it may indeed be said +that this modern renascence of painting in Holland is not unworthy +to be compared with that of the days of Rembrandt. The names of +Joseph Israels, Hendrik Mesdag, Vincent van Gogh, Anton Maure, and, +not least, of the three talented brothers Maris, have attained a +wide and well-deserved reputation. And to these must be added +others of high merit: Bilders, Scheffer, Bosboom, Rochussen, +Bakhuysen, Du Chattel, De Haas and Haverman. The traditional +representation of the Dutchman as stolid, unemotional, wholly +absorbed in trade and material interests, is a caricature. These +latter-day artists, like those of the 17th century, conclusively +prove that the Dutch race is singularly sensitive to the poetry of +form and colour, and that it possesses an inherited capacity and +power for excelling in the technical qualities of the painter's +art.</p> +<hr style="width: 45%;"> +<br /> + + +<p>FOOTNOTES:</p> + +<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Hollandais, Holländer, Olandesi, Olandeses, etc.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>In French books and documents, Jacqueline.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Bois-le-duc.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>By English and French writers generally translated Grand +Pensionary.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>It must be remembered that the States-General and the Holland +Estates sat in the same building.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Adam Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, I, 101.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Busken Huet, <i>Land van Rembrant</i>, III, 175.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">[8]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p><i>Acte van Seclusie.</i></p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9">[9]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Nassauischer Erbverein.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10">[10]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Charles White, <i>The Belgic Revolution</i>, 1835, vol. 1, p. +106.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11">[11]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p><i>Correspondence sécrète des Pays-Bas</i>. Julian +received his report of the conversation direct from Count Bylandt +by permission of the king.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12">[12]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>From Van Maanen's private papers. See Colenbrander's +<i>Belgische Omwenteling</i>, p. 139.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13">[13]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>The ratification by the Powers took place on the following +dates:—France and Great Britain, January 31; Austria and +Prussia, April 18; Russia, May 4, 1832.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14">[14]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>The Prince of Orange had married Anna Paulovna, sister of +Alexander I, in 1816.</p> +</div> + +<a name="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15">[15]</a> + +<div class="note"> +<p>The Belgian coal field extends into Dutch Limburg.</p> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<span class="newpage"><a name="page_433" id= +"page_433">[pg.433]</a></span> + +<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h3> +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + +<br /> + +<h3>GENERAL</h3> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>a</i>) ARCHIVALIA. BOOKS OF REFERENCE</p> + +<p>AA, A.J. VAN DER. Biographisch woordenboek d. Nederlanden +bevatt. levensbeschrijvingen der personen, die zich in ons +vaderland hebben vermaard gemacht, voortgezet door K.J.R. v. +Harderwijk en G.D.J. Schotel. 27 vols. Haarlem. 1851-70.</p> + +<p>BERGH, L. PH.C. VAN DEN. Over MSS betr. onze geschiedenis in het +Britsch Museum bewaard. Arnhem. 1858.</p> + +<p>BLOK, P.J. Onze archieven. Amsterdam. 1891.<br /> + Verslag aangaande een onderzoek in Duitschland naar Archivalia, +belangrijk voor de geschiedenis van Nederland. 2 vols. The Hague. +1888-9.<br /> + Verslag aangaande een voorloopig onderzoek in Engelandt naar +Archivalia, belangrijk voor de gesch. v.N. The Hague. 1891.<br /> + Verslag aangaande een voorloopig onderzoek in Parijs naar +Archivalia, belangrijk voor de gesch. v.N. The Hague. 1897.</p> + +<p>BRINK, R.C. BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN. Overzigt van het Nederl. Rijk's +Archief. The Hague. 1854.</p> + +<p>KNUTTEL, W.P.C. Nederlandsche bibliographic voor +kerkgeschiedenis. Amsterdam. 1889.</ br>Catalogus van de +pamfletten-verzameling berustende in de koninklijke biblioteek. 6 +vols. The Hague. 1899, 1900, 1902.</p> + +<p>KOK, J. Vaderlandsch Woordenboek. 35 vols. Amsterdam. +1735-99.</p> + +<p>PETIT, LOUIS D. Repertorium der verhandelingen en bijdragen +betreff. de geschied. des Vaterlands in tijdschriften en +mengelwerken tot op 1900 verschenen. Leyden. 1905.</p> + +<p>RIEMSDIJK, TH.V. Het Rijk's Archief te 's Gravenhage. The Hague. +1889.</p> + +<p>SCHELTEMA, P. Inventaris van het Amsterdamsch Archief. 3 vols. +Amsterdam. 1866-74.</p> + +<p>UHLENBEEK, C.C. Verslag aangaande een onderzoek in de archieven +van Rusland ten bate der Nederl. Geschiedenis. The Hague. 1891.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>b</i>) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS</p> + +<p>AREND, J.P. Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands van de +vroegste tijden tot op heden, voortgezet.... 13 vols. Amsterdam. +1840-83.</p> + +<p>BILDERDIJK, W. Geschiedenis des Vaderlands. 14 vols. 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The Hague. 1881.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>GEDDES, J. History of the administration of John De Witt. The +Hague. 1879.</p> + +<p>JAPIKSE, N. De verwikkelingen tusschen de Republiek en Engeland, +1660-5. London. 1900.</p> + +<p>LEFEVRE-PONTALIS, A. Vingt années de République +parlementaire au xvii^e siècle. Jean de Witt, Grand +Pensionaris de Hollande. 2 vols. Paris. 1884.</p> + +<p>MULLER, P. L. Wilhelm III von Oranien und Georg Friedrich van +Waldeck. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Kampfes um das Euro-paische +Gleichgewicht, 1679-92. 2 vols. The Hague. 1872-80.<br /> + Nederland en de Groote Keurvorst. The Hague. 1879.</p> + +<p>MUTZUKURI, G. Englisch-Niederländische Unionsstrebungen im +Zeit-alter Cromwell's. Tubingen. 1891.</p> + +<p>SIRTEMA DE GROVESTINS. Guillaume III et Louis XIV. 8 vols. +Paris. 1868.</p> + +<p>TREITSCHKE, H. VON. Die Republik der Vereinigten Niederlande. +Historische und politische Aufsatze. 4 vols. Leipzig. 1870.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>c</i>) BIOGRAPHICAL</p> + +<p>BAUMGÄRTNER, ALEXANDER. Joost van den Vondel, zijn leven en +zijne werken. (Trs. from German.) Amsterdam. 1886.</p> + +<p>BRANDT, C. Leven en bedrijf van Michiel De Ruyter. Amsterdam. +1687.</p> + +<p>DALTON, C. Life and times of Sir Edward Cecil, Viscount +Wimbledon, Colonel of an English Regiment in the Dutch Service, +1605-31.<br /> + 2 vols. London. 1885.</p> + +<p>EDMUNDSON, G. Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. (Eng. Hist. +Rev. 41, 264--1890.)<br /> + Louis de Geer. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 685--1891.)<br /> + Pieter Cornelisz. Hooft. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 77--1894.)</p> + +<p>GEER, J. L. W. DE. Lodewijk de Geer van Finspong en Leufsta, +1593-1652.<br /> + Utrecht. 1882.</p> + +<p>KEMP, C. M. v.d. Maurits van Nassau, prins v. Oranje, in zijn +leven en verdiensten. 4 vols. Rotterdam. 1843.</p> + +<p>LE CLERCQ, P. Het leven van Frederick Hendrick. 2 vols. The +Hague. 1737.</p> + +<p>MARKHAM, C.B. The fighting Veres. Lives of Sir Francis Vere and +Sir Horace Vere, successively generals of the Queen's forces in the +Low Countries. Boston. 1888.</p> + +<p>MICHEL, E. Rembrandt, sa vie, son oeuvre et son temps. Paris. +1893.</p> + +<p>MOTLEY, J. L. Life and death of John of Barneveldt. 2 vols. The +Hague. 1874.</p> + +<p>OOSTKAMP, J. A. Leven en daden van Marten Harpzn. Tromp en Jacob +van Wassenaar van Obdam. Deventer. 1825.</p> + +<p>SCHOTEL, G. D. J. Anna Maria van Schuurman. 'sHertogenbosch. +1853.</p> + +<p>SIMONS, P. Johan De Witt en zijn tijd. 3 vols. Amsterdam. +1832-48.</p> + +<p>TRAILL, H. D. William III. London. 1888.</p> + +<p>TREVOR, A. Life and times of William III, 1650-1702. 2 vols. +London. 1835-6.</p> + +<p>VLOTEN, J. VAN. Tesselschade Roemers en hare vrienden, +1632-49.</p> + +Leyden. 1652.<br /> +<br /> + <br /> +<p>(<i>d</i>) COLONIZATION, COMMERCE, VOYAGES</p> + +<p>DEVENTER, M. L. v. Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java. 2 +vols. Haarlem. 1886-7.</p> + +<p>DIJK, L. C. D. Nederland's vroegste betrekkingen met Borneo, den +Solo Archipels, Cambodja, Siam en Cochin China. Amsterdam. +1862.</p> + +<p>EDMUNDSON, G. The Dutch Power in Brazil (1) The struggle for +Bahia, 1624-7. (2) The First Conquests.<br /> + (Eng. Hist. Rev. 261--1896;676--1899.)<br /> + --The Dutch in Western Guiana. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 640--1901.)<br /> + --The Dutch on the Amazon and Negro in the 17th century.<br /> + (Eng. Hist. Rev. 642--1903; 1--1904.)<br /> + --The Swedish Legend in Guiana. (Eng. Hist. Rev. +71--1899.)</p> + +<p>HUET, P. D. Mémoires sur le commerce des Hollandais dans tous +les etats et empires du monde. Amsterdam. 1717.</p> + +<p>JONGE, J. K. J. DE. De Opkomst van het Nederl. gezag in Oost +Indie. 13 vols. The Hague. 1862-89.</p> + +<p>KAMPEN, N. G. VAN. Geschiedenis der Nederlanders buiten Europa. +4 vols. Haarlem. 1831-3.</p> + +<p>LAUTS, G. Geschiedenis van de vestiging, uitbreiding ... van de +magt der<br /> + Nederlanders in Indie. 7 vols. Groningen and Amsterdam. +1853-66.</p> + +<p>LEUPE, P. A. Reisen der Nederlanders naar het Zuidland of Nieuw +Holland in de 17e en 18e eeuw. Amsterdam. 1868.</p> + +<p>LUZAC, E. Holland's Rijkdom, behoudende den oorsprong van der +koophandel en de magt van dezer Staat. 4 vols. Leyden. 1781.</p> + +<p>NETSCHER, P. M. Les Hollandais au Bresil. The Hague. 1853.</p> + +<p>NETSCHER, P. M. Geschiedenis van de Kolonien Essequibo, Demerary +en Berbice van de vestiging der Nederlanders tot op onzen tijd. The +Hague. 1888.</p> + +<p>REES, O. VAN. Geschiedenis der Nederl. Volkplantingen in Noord +America. Tiel. 1855.</p> + +---- Geschiedenis der koloniale politiek. Utrecht. 1868.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>VALENTIJN, F. Oud-en Nieuw-Oost-Indien, vervatt. eene +verhandelinge v. Nederlands mogentheyd in die gewesten, also eene +verhandelinge over ...Kaap der Goede Hoop. 5 vols. Dort. 1724.</p> + +<br /> + + +<p>(<i>e</i>) LITERATURE, CULTURE, FINE ARTS</p> + +<p>BRINK, J. TEN. Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde. +Amsterdam. 1897.</p> + +<p>BUSKEN HUËT, C. Het land van Rembrandt. Studien over de +Noord Nederlandsche beschaving in de VXII’e eeuw. 5 vols. +Haarlem. 1890.</p> + +<p>COLLOT D'ESCURY, H. Holland's roem in kunsten en wetenschappen. +10 vols. The Hague. 1824-44.</p> + +<p>EDMUNDSON, G. Milton and Vondel. London. 1885.</p> + +<p>HAAR, B. TER. Holland's bloei in schoone kunsten en +wetenschappen by het sluiten van de Munstersche vrede. Leyden. +1849.</p> + +<p>HARTING, P. Leven en Werken van Christiaan Huyghens. Amsterdam. +1868.</p> + +<p>HAVARD, HENRI. L'art et les artistes hollandais. Paris. +1879.</p> + +<p>HELLWALD, F. VON. Geschichte des holländischen Theaters. +Rotterdam. 1874.</p> + +<p>JONCKBLOET, W. J. A. Geschiedenis des Nederlandsche Letterkunde +in de zeventiende eeuw. 2 vols. Groningen. 1881.</p> + +<p>KONING, J. Geschiedenis van het Slot te Muiden en Hooft's leven +op hetselve. Amsterdam. 1827.</p> + +<p>KORTEWEG, D. J. Het bloeitijdperk der wiskundige wetenschappen +in Nederland. Amsterdam. 1893-4.</p> + +<p>MÜLLER, LUCIAN. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in +den Niederlanden. Leipzig. 1869.</p> + +<p>SIEGENBEEK, M. Geschiedenis van der Leidsche Hooge School. +Leyden. 1829-32.</p> + +<p>STRAETEN, E. VAN DER. La musique aux Pays-Bas avant le +19’e siècle. Brussels. 1872.</p> + +<p>VLOTEN, J. VAN. Het Nederlandsche Kluctspel van de 14’e +tot de 18’e eeuw. 3 vols. Haarlem. 1878-80.</p> + +<p>VONDEL, J. VAN DEN. Werken in verband gebracht met zijn leven en +voorzien van verldaring en aanteekeningen d. J. v. Lennep. 12 vols. +Amsterdam. 1855-68.</p> + +<p>WILLEMS, A. Les Elzevier. Histoire et annales typographiques. +The Hague. 1880.</p> + +<p>WITSEN GEYSBEEK, P. G. Biographisch, anthologisch, en critisch +woordenboek der Nederlandsche dicters. 6 vols. Amsterdam. +1821-7.</p> + +<p>WYBRANTS, C. E. Het Amsterdamsch tooneel. Amsterdam. 1875.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>f</i>) RELIGIOUS AND ECCLESIASTICAL</p> + +<p>BRANDT, G. Historic der reformatie en andere kerkelijke +geschiedennissen in en omtrent de Nederlanden tot 1600. 4 vols. +Amsterdam. 1677-1704.</p> + +<p>CHATELAIN, N. Histoire du Synode de Dordrecht dès 1609 +à 1619.<br /> + Amsterdam. 1841.</p> + +<p>FRUIN, R. De wederopluiking van het Katholicisme in +Noord-Nederland omtrent den aanvang der 17'e eeuw. Amsterdam. +1894.</p> + +<p>KNUTTEL, W.P.C. De toestand der Nederl. Katholieken ten tijde +der Republiek. 2 vols. The Hague. 1892-4.</p> + +<p>MONTANUS, A. Kerkelijke historic van Nederland. Amsterdam. +1675.</p> + +<p>MONTIJN, G.G. Geschiedenis der Hervorming in de Nederlanden. 5 +vols. Arnhem. 1858-64.</p> + +<p>NUIJENS, W.J.F. Geschiedenis der kerkelijke en politieke +geschillen in de Republiek der Zeven Vereen. Prov., 1598-1625. 2 +vols. Amsterdam. 1886.</p> + +<p>REGENBORG, J. Historic der Remonstranten. 2 vols. Amsterdam. +1774.</p> + +<p>VEEN, A.J. V.D. Remonstranten en Contra-Remonstranten. 2 vols. +Sneek. 1858.</p> + +<br /> +<p>XVIIITH CENTURY</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>a</i>) ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES AND COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS +Actes, Mémoires et autres pièces authentiques +concernant la paix d'Utrecht. 6 vols. Utrecht. 1714-15.</p> + +<p>BOWDLER, T. Letters written in Holland in the months of +September and October, 1787, to which is added a Collection of +letters and other papers relating to the journey of the Princess of +Orange on June 29, 1787. London. 1788.</p> + +Brieven en negotiatien van L.L. van de Spiegel. Amsterdam. +1803.<br /> +<br /> + Brieven van Prins Willem V aan Baron v. Leynden. The Hague. +1893.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>DE JONGE, J.K.J. Documents politiques et diplomatiques sur les +revolutions de 1787 et 1795 dans la republique des Provinces Unies. +(Ned. Rijk's Archief.) The Hague. 1859.</p> + +Lettres et mémoires sur la conduite de la présente +guerre et sur les negotiations de paix, jusqu'à la fin des +conferences de Geertruidenbergh. 2 vols. The Hague. 1711-12.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>LINGUET, S.N.H. Lettres au Comte de Trauttmansdorf, ministre +plenipotentiaire par Empereur [Joseph II] aux Pays-Bas, 1788 et +1789. Brussels. 1790.</p> + +<p>MAGUETTE, F. Joseph II et la liberté de l'Escaut. +Mémoires couronnés et autres Mémoires +publiés par l'Académie Royale des Sciences de +Belgique. Vol. xv. Brussels. 1898.</p> + +Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence of James Harris, Earl of. 4 +vols. London. 1844.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>MANDRILLON, J.H. Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire +de la Révolution des Provinces Unies en 1787. Paris. +1791.</p> + +Marlborough, Despatches of John, Duke of. Ed. Sir G. Murray. 5 +vols. London. 1845.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>TORCY, MARQUIS DE. Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire des +négotiations depuis le traité de Rijswijck jusqu'a la +paix d'Utrecht. Paris. 1850.</p> + +<p>VREEDE, C.G. Correspondance diplomatique et militaire du duc de +Marlborough, du grand-pensionaris Heinsius, et du +trésorier-général J. Hop. Amsterdam. 1850.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>b</i>) HISTORICAL NARRATIVES</p> + +<p>BOSSCHE, E. VAN DER. Le traité de la Barrière. +Bruges. 1880.</p> + +<p>COLENBRANDER, H.T. De Patrioten Tijd, 1776-87. 3 vols. The +Hague. 1897-99.<br /> + ---- De Bataafsche Republiek. The Hague. 1908.</p> + +<p>ELLIS, GEORGE. History of the late Revolution in the Dutch +Republic. London. 1789.</p> + +History of the internal affairs of the United Provinces, from the +year 1780 to the commencement of hostilities in June, 1787. London. +1787.<br /> +<br /> + + +<p>JORISSEN, T. De Patriotten te Amsterdam in 1791. Amsterdam. +1793.</p> + +<p>KANE, RICHARD. Campaigns of King William and of the Duke of +Marlborough. 2nd ed. London. 1747.</p> + +<p>KLUIT, A. Historic der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot 1795. 5 +vols. Amsterdam. 1802-5.</p> + +<p>LEGRAND, L. La révolution française en Hollande; +la république batave. Paris. 1894.</p> + +<p>LOON, H.W.v. The Fall of the Dutch Republic. London. 1913.</p> + +<p>MEULEN, A.J.v.D. Studies over de ministrie van Van de Spiegel. +Leyden. 1906.</p> + +<p>ONDAATJE, Q. Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis der omwenteling van +1787. Dunkirk. 1791.</p> + +<p>SCHIMMELPENNICK, RUTGER. J.S. en eenige gebeurtenissen van zijn +tijd. Amsterdam. 1845.</p> + +<p>VERENET, G. Pierre le Grand en Hollande, 1697 et 1717. Utrecht. +1865.</p> + +<p>WEBER, O. Die Quadrupel-Allianz vom Jahre 1718. Vienna. +1887.</p> + +<p>WREEDE, G.W. Geschiedenis der diplomatic van de bataafsche +republiek. 3 vols. Utrecht. 1863.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>c</i>) BIOGRAPHICAL</p> + +<p>ARNETH, A., RITTER VON. Prinz Eugen van Savoyen. 3 vols. Vienna. +1856.</p> + +<p>KOLLEWIJN, B. Bilderdijk. 2 vols. Amsterdam. 1891.</p> + +<p>MENDELS, M.H.W. Daendels, 1762-1818. 2 vols. The Hague. +1890.</p> + +<p>NIJHOFF, I.A. De Hertog van Brunswijk. The Hague. 1849.</p> + +<p>SCHENK, W.G.F. Wilhelm der Fünfte. Stuttgart. 1884.</p> + +<p>SILLEM, J.A. Gogel. Amsterdam. 1864.<br /> + ---- Dirk van Hogendorp. Amsterdam. 1890.</p> + +<br /> +<p>XIXTH CENTURY AND AFTER</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>a</i>) ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES AND COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS</p> + +<p>BARTHELS, A. Documents historiques sur la Révolution +belge. Brussels. 1836.</p> + +<p>BONAPARTE, LOUIS (COMTE DE ST LEU). Documents historiques et +réflexions sur le gouvernement de la Hollande. 3 vols. +London. 1820.</p> + +<p>FALCK, A.R. Brieven 1796-1845 met levensberigt d.O.W. Hora +Siccama. The Hague. 1860.</p> + +---- Amtsbrieven, 1802-42. The Hague. 1878.<br /> +<br /> + Handelingen van de Staten General (1’e en 2’e Kamer), +1815-47. 51 vols. 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Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Volk van 1815 +tot op onze dagen. 4 vols. Amsterdam. 1883-6.</p> + +<p>RENGERS, W.J. VAN WALDEREN. Schets eener parlementaire +geschiedenis van Nederland sedert 1849. 2 vols. The Hague. +1889.</p> + +<p>WITKAMP EN CRAANDIJK. Vereeniging en Scheiding. Geschiedenis van +Noord-Nederland en Belgie van 1813-80. Doesburgh. 1881.</p> + +<p>WOLF, N.H. De regeering van Koningin Wilhelmina. Rotterdam. +1901.</p> + +<p>WÜPPERMAN, W.E.A. Geschiedenis van den Tiendagschen +Veldtocht. Amsterdam. 1880.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>c</i>) BIOGRAPHICAL</p> + +<p>ABBINK, J.J. Leven van Koning Willem II. Amsterdam. 1849.</p> + +<p>ARNOLDI, J. VAN. Leven en Karakter-Schets van Koning Willem I. +Zutphen. 1818.</p> + +<p>BOS, F. DE. Prins Frederik der Nederlanden. 4 vols. Schiedam. +1857-99.</p> + +<p>BOSSCHA, J. Het leven van Willem II, koning der Nederlanden, +1793-1849. Amsterdam. 1852.</p> + +<p>BRINK, J. TEN. Prins Frederik der Nederlanden. 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The Hague. 1840-96.</p> + +<br /> +<p>(<i>e</i>) GENERAL</p> + +<p>BOISSEVAIN, J.H.G. De Limburgsche Questie. Tiel. 1848.</p> + +<p>BRINK, J. TEN. Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche letteren in +de XIX^e eeuw.</p> + +<p>EENDEGEEST, G. VAN. Over de droogmaking van het Haarlemmer meer. +Vol. I. Leyden. 1842.<br /> + Vol. II. The Hague. 1853.<br /> + Vol. III. Amsterdam. 1860.</p> + +<p>FRUIN, J.A. De Nederlandsche Wetboeken tot 1876. Utrecht. +1881.</p> + +<p>HERINGA, DR A. Free Trade and Protection in Holland. London. +1914.</p> + +<p>LOHMAN, A.F. DE SAVORNIN. Onze Constitutie. Utrecht. 1907.</p> + +<p>MARIUS, G. HERMINE. Dutch painting in the 19th century. (Trans. +by De Mattos.) London. 1908.</p> + +<p>NIPPOLD, F. Die Römische Katholische Kirche im +Königreich der Niederlände. Leipzig. 1877.</p> + +<p>Painting, Modern Dutch. Edinburgh Review. July, 1909.</p> + +<p>ROBERTSON SCOTT, J.W. War-time and Peace in Holland. London. +1914.</p> + +<p>ROOT, E.W. DE. Geschiedenis van den Nederlandsche Handel. +Amsterdam. 1856.</p> + +<p>SECKENGA, F.W. Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Belastingen sedert +1810. The Hague. 1883.</p> + +<p>VERSCHAVE, P. La Hollande politique. The Hague. 1910.</p> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<center><a name="map_01"></a><a href="images/map.jpg"> +<img alt="The Netherlands, <i>about</i> 1550 (thumb)" src="images/mapthumb.jpg" /> +</a></center> +<br /> +<center><font color="#000000" face="ARIAL" size="2"> +<small>THE NETHERLANDS, <i>about</i> 1550</small></font></center><br /><br /> +<ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: The map of 'The Netherlands after 1648' is not available">THE NETHERLANDS <i>after</i> 1648</ins> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> + + +<h3>INDEX</h3> + +<hr style="width: 100%;"> +<ul> +<li>Aachen, <a href="#page_13"></a>, <a href= +"#page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Aalst, <a href="#page_64">64</a></li> + +<li><i>Abbatage</i>, <a href="#page_382">382</a>, <a href= +"#page_385">386</a> f.</li> + +<li>Abel Tasman river, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Abjuration, Act of (1581), <a href="#page_76">76</a></li> + +<li><i>Académie des Sciences</i> (Paris), <a href= +"#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Achin, <a href="#page_419">419</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Adair, Sir Robert, <a href="#page_399">399</a></li> + +<li>Admiralty colleges, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#page_117">117</a> f.<a href="#page_214"></a>, <a href= +"#page_236">236</a>f., <a href="#page_315">315</a>, <a href= +"#page_317">317</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>Adolf Duke of Gelderland <a href="#page_8">8</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Adolphus, Duke of Nassau-Weilburg, <a href= +"#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Adolphus of Nassau, <a href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Advocate, Land's, or Council-Pensionary, powers and functions +of, <a href="#page_116">116</a> f.</li> + +<li>Aerschot, Duke of, <a href="#page_65"></a>, <a href= +"#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Aerssens, Cornelis van, lord of Sommelsdijk, <a href= +"#page_203">203</a></li> + +<li>Aerssens, Francis van, lord of Sommelsdijk, <a href= +"#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a>, <a href="#page_142">142 f.</a>, <a href= +"#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_152">152 f.</a>, <a href= +"#page_203">203</a></li> + +<li>Agincourt, battle of, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry, School of, <a href= +"#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Aine, <a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of (1668), <a href="#page_245">245</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">(1748) <a href="#page_313">313 f.</a>, <a href= +"#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Alberoni Cardinal, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Albert, Cardinal Archduke, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#page_96">96</a>f., <a href="#page_100">100</a>ff., <a href= +"#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_140">140</a></li> + +<li>Albert of Saxe-Meissen, Duke, stadholder, <a href= +"#page_13">13</a> f.</li> + +<li>Albertina Agnes, wife of William Frederick, <a href= +"#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>Albuquerque, Duarte de, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href= +"#page_173">173</a></li> + +<li>Albuquerque, Matthias de, <a href="#page_171">171</a> ff., <a +href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li><i>Alcabala</i>, <a href="#page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Aldenhoven, <a href="#page_341">341</a></li> + +<li>Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a +href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Alexander, Prince, son of William III, <a href= +"#page_421">421</a></li> + +<li>Alexander of Parma, <i>see</i> Farnese</li> + +<li><i>Algemeene Nederlandsche Werklieden Verbond</i>, <a href= +"#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Algerian pirates, <a href="#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Algiers, Dey of, <a href="#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Alkmaar, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_184">184</a>, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a></li> + +<li>All Saints, Bay of (<i>Bahia de todos los Santos</i>), <a href= +"#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Alliance, treaties of, <a href="#page_95">95</a> f., <a href= +"#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a>, <a href= +"#page_302">302</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Almanza, <a href="#page_291">291</a></li> + +<li>Almonde, Philip van, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Alsace, <a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Alva, Duke of, <a href="#page_34">34</a>, <a href= +"#page_42">42-49</a>, <a href="#page_51">51-54</a>, <a href= +"#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#page_75">75</a>, <a href="#page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Amalia von Solms, Countess, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a +href="#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_213">213</a>, <a href= +"#page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Amazon river, <a href="#page_177">177</a> f.</li> + +<li>Amboina, <a href="#page_105">195</a>, <a href= +"#page_124">124</a> f., <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href= +"#page_162">162</a> f., <a href="#page_220">220</a></li> + +<li>Amboise, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>American Revolution, <a href="#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Amerongen, <a href="#page_267">267</a></li> + +<li>Amersfoort, <a href="#page_144">244</a>, <a href= +"#page_299">299</a>, <a href="#page_333">333</a></li> + +<li>Amiens, peace of (1802), <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li><i>Amortisatie-Syndikaat</i>, the, <a href= +"#page_382">382</a></li> + +<li>Amstel, the, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href= +"#page_351">351</a></li> + +<li>Amstelland, <a href="#page_357">357</a></li> + +<li>Amsterdam, <i>passim</i>; University of, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li><i>Amsterdam</i>, ship, <a href="#page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Anabaptists, <a href="#page_22">22</a> f.</li> + +<li>Anastro, Gaspar, <a href="#page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Anglo-Prussian alliance, <a href="#page_338">338</a></li> + +<li>Anjou, Duke of, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a href= +"#page_72">72</a>, <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page_76">76-79</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Anna Paulovna, <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href= +"#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Anne, Princess Royal, wife of William IV, <a href= +"#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_316">316-319</a></li> + +<li>Anne, Queen, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href= +"#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a></li> + +<li>Anne de Beaujeu, regent, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Anne of Austria, wife of Philip II, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Anne of Austria, regent of France, <a href="#page_154">154</a>, +<a href="#page_280">280</a></li> + +<li>Anne of Brittany, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Anne of Egmont, <a href="#page_30">30</a></li> + +<li>Anne of Saxony, wife of William, Prince of Orange, <a href= +"#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a> f., <a href= +"#page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Anthony, Duke of Brabant, husband of Duchess Elizabeth of +Görlitz, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Anthony of Burgundy, younger brother of John the Fearless, <a +href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Antonio Vaz, island, <a href="#page_172">172</a></li> + +<li>Antwerp, <i>passim</i>; treaty concluded at (1715), <a href= +"#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Appeldoorn canal, the, <a href="#page_379">379</a> "</li> + +<li>April Movement," the, <a href="#page_413">413</a> f.</li> + +<li>Archangel, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Architofsky, Colonel, <a href="#page_176">176</a></li> + +<li>Aremberg, Count of, stadholder, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a +href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Arlington, Lord, <a href="#page_242">242</a>, <a href= +"#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Armada, <a href="#page_86">86</a>, <a href="#page_89">89</a>, +<a href="#page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Armed Neutrality, League of, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a +href="#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>Armenteros (<i>Argenteros</i>), secretary of the Duchess of +Parma, <a href="#page_34">34</a> f.</li> + +<li>Arminius (Jacob Harmenz), <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Arnhem, <a href="#page_113">113</a></li> + +<li>Arnhem cape, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Arnold of Egmont, Duke, <a href="#page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>Arras, diocese of, <a href="#page_32">32</a> f.;</li> + +<li class="indent">Union of (1579), <a href="#page_71">71</a> +f.</li> + +<li><i>Arreyal de Bom Jesus</i>, <a href="#page_172">172</a>, <a +href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Artois, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a +href="#page_9">9</a>, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href= +"#page_29">29</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href= +"#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href= +"#page_292">292</a></li> + +<li>Ath, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Auchmuty, General, <a href="#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Augereau, General, <a href="#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Augsburg, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Augustus of Saxony, <a href="#page_303">303</a></li> + +<li>Australia, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Austrian Netherlands, insurrection in, <a href= +"#page_338">338</a></li> + +<li>Austrian Succession War, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href= +"#page_306">306-315</a></li> + +<li>Austruweel, <a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Axel, <a href="#page_311">311</a>,</li> + +<li>Ayscue, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href= +"#page_216">216</a> f., <a href="#page_240">240</a>,</li> + +<li>Aysma, agent of Leicester, <a href="#page_89">89</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Backhuizen, Ludolf, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Baden, <a href="#page_8">8</a>, <a href= +"#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Bahia, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a> +f., <a href="#page_173">173</a>, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Bakhuysen, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Balance of power in Europe, +<a href="#page_266">266</a>, +<a href="#page_283">283 f.</a>, +<a href="#page_294">294</a>, +<a href="#page_303">303</a></li> + +<li>Baltic trade, +<a href="#page_6">6</a>, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a>, +<a href="#page_120">120</a>, +<a href="#page_180">180</a>, +<a href="#page_182">182</a>, +<a href="#page_216">216</a>, +<a href="#page_229">229</a>, +<a href="#page_275">275</a>, +<a href="#page_301">301</a>, +<a href="#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>Banckers, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_252">252</a></li> + +<li>Banda islands, <a href="#page_124">124</a> f., <a href= +"#page_160">160</a>, , <a href="#page_162">162 f.</a></li> + +<li>Baner, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Bank of the Netherlands, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Banking houses, <a href="#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>Bantam, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#page_161">161</a>, , <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Barendtsz, William, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Barlaeus, Caspar, +<a href="#page_188">188</a>, +<a href="#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Barlaymont, Baron de, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>, +<a href="#page_31">31</a>, +<a href="#page_37">37</a> f., +<a href="#page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Barra, the, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Barrier treaties, +<a href="#page_293">293</a>, +<a href="#page_296">296</a> f., +<a href="#page_318">318</a></li> + +<li>Bart, Jean, <a href="#page_264">264</a></li> + +<li>Barthels, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_391">391</a>,</li> + +<li>Basel, <a href="#page_8">8</a>, <a href= +"#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Batavia, Java, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, , <a href= +"#page_164">164</a> f., <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href= +"#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Batavian legion, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Batavian Republic, the, <a href="#page_344">344-356</a></li> + +<li>Bavaria, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, +<a href="#page_307">307</a>f., <a href= +"#page_331">331</a></li> + +<li>Beachy Head, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Beauharnais, Eugène, <a href="#page_398">398</a></li> + +<li>Beerenbronck, Ruys de, <a href="#page_428">428</a> "</li> + +<li>Beggars of the Sea, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_58">58</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Belgian Limburg, <a href="#page_400">400</a>,</li> + +<li>Belgian Netherlands, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_331">331</a>, +<a href="#page_336">336</a></li> + +<li>Belgian Revolution, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_389">387-404</a></li> + +<li>Belgium, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href= +"#page_314">314</a>, <a href="#page_338">338</a>, <a href= +"#page_340">340</a>, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href= +"#page_371">371</a>, ff., <a href="#page_389">389</a>, etc.;</li> + +<li class="indent">union of, with Holland, <a href= +"#page_376">376-388</a></li> + +<li>Bender Abbas, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Bengal, <a href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Bentinck, Count William, +<a href="#page_313">313</a>, +<a href="#page_316">316</a>, +<a href="#page_319">319</a></li> + +<li>Bentinck, William, Earl of Portland, +<a href="#page_263">263</a>, +<a href="#page_269">269</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Berbice, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href= +"#page_320">320</a>, , <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Berbice river, <a href="#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Berchem, Nicolas, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Beresina, the, <a href="#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Bergen, <a href="#page_237">237</a> f., <a href= +"#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Bergen-op-Zoom, <a href="#page_140">140</a>, , <a href= +"#page_312">312</a></li> + +<li>Berghen, Marquis of, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, , <a href= +"#page_36">36</a>, <a href="#page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Berkeley, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_240">240</a>,</li> + +<li>Berlin, <a href="#page_308">308</a>, <a href= +"#page_321">321</a>, , <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href= +"#page_371">371</a>, , <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href= +"#page_6">6</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Decree of (1806), <a href= +"#page_358">358</a></li> + +<li>Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, <a href="#page_141">141</a>,</li> + +<li>Berwick, <a href="#page_291">291</a>,</li> + +<li>Béthune, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>, +<a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Beukelsz, William, of Biervliet, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a +href="#page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Beverweert, +<a href="#page_233">233</a> f., +<a href="#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Biberibi river, <a href="#page_171">171</a>,</li> + +<li>Bicker, Andries, <a href="#page_207">207</a> f., <a href= +"#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Bicker, Cornelis, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a> f., <a href="#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Bicker, Wendela, <a href="#page_225">225</a>, <a href= +"#page_247">247</a></li> + +<li>Bilderdijk, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href= +"#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Bilders, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Binnenhof, the (at the Hague), +<a href="#page_107">107</a>, +<a href="#page_134">134</a> f., +<a href="#page_210">210</a>, +<a href="#page_333">333</a>, +<a href="#page_336">336</a>, +<a href="#page_348">348</a></li> + +<li>Bishoprics, creation of, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Bismarck, <a href="#page_417">417</a></li> + +<li>Blaeu, Willem Jansz, <a href="#page_201">201</a>,</li> + +<li>Blake, naval commander, <a href= +"#page_215">215-219</a></li> + +<li>Bleiswijk, council-pensionary, +<a href="#page_332">332</a>, +<a href="#page_337">337</a></li> + +<li>Blenheim, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Blok, Dr P.J., <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Blood, Council of, <a href="#page_43">43</a>, <a href= +"#page_47">47</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Blood-placards, <a href="#page_23">23</a>, <a href= +"#page_38">38</a>f.</li> + +<li>Blossoming Eglantine, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, , <a href= +"#page_201">201</a>,</li> + +<li>Blücher, <a href="#page_371">371</a>,</li> + +<li>Boer War, <a href="#page_426"></a></li> + +<li>Boers, revolt of the, <a href="#page_420">420</a>,</li> + +<li>Bogerman of Leeuwarden, Johannes, <a href="#page_136">136</a> +f., <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Bohemia, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Bois-le-Duc, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>f.</li> + +<li>Boisot, commanding the Sea Beggars, <a href="#page_58">58</a> +ff.</li> + +<li>Bol, Ferdinand, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Bolduc la pucelle</i>, <a href="#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>Bolingbroke, Viscount, <i>see</i> St John</li> + +<li>Bologna, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Bonn, <a href="#page_259">259</a>, <a href= +"#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Bontekoe, Willem, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Bor, chronicler, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Borgesius, Catholic minister, +<a href="#page_423">423</a>, +<a href="#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Borinage, the, <a href="#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>Borkelo, lordship of, <a href="#page_238">238</a></li> + +<li>Borneo, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Borselen, Wolferd van, lord of Veere, stadholder, <a href= +"#page_10">10</a>,</li> + +<li>Bosboom, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Bosboom-Toussaint, Mevrouw, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Bosse, P.P. van, <a href="#page_417">417</a></li> + +<li>Bossu, stadholder, <a href="#page_52">52</a>, <a href= +"#page_55">55</a>f.</li> + +<li>Both, Andreas, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Both, Jan, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Both, Pieter, governor-general, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, , +<a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Bouchain, <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href= +"#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Bouches de Issel, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Bouches de l'Escaut, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Bouches de la Meuse, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Bouches du Rhin, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Boudaen, Admiral, <a href="#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Boufflers, Marshal, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_292">292</a></li> + +<li>Bouillon, duchy of, <a href="#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Bourges, <a href="#page_90">90</a>,</li> + +<li>Boyne, battle of the, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Brabant, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Brandenburg, +<a href="#page_108">108</a>, +<a href="#page_262">262</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264</a> ff., +<a href="#page_268">268</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Brandenburg, Elector of, <a href="#page_119">119</a> f., <a +href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a href= +"#page_238">238</a> f., <a href="#page_270">270</a>,</li> + +<li>Brandt, biographer, <a href="#page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Brantsen, envoy, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Brazil, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a> +f., <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a +href="#page_168">168</a> ff., <a href="#page_175">175</a> ff., <a +href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_276">276</a> "</li> + +<li>Bread and Cheese Folk, <a href="#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Breda, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>, +<a href="#page_61">61</a>, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>, +<a href="#page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#page_140">140</a>, +<a href="#page_150">150</a>, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_231">231</a>, +<a href="#page_242">242</a> ff., +<a href="#page_247">247</a>, +<a href="#page_341">341</a>, +<a href="#page_413">413;</a></li> + +<li class="indent">congress of, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, +f.;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaty of, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href= +"#page_245"></a>, <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <a href= +"#page_261">261</a></li> + +<li>Brederode, field-marshal, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, , <a +href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href="#page_238">238</a></li> + +<li>Brederode, Frans van, <a href="#page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Brederode, Henry, Count of, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, +<a href="#page_36">36-39</a>, +<a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Brederode, Lancelot, <a href="#page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Brederôo, Gerbrand Adriansz, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, +<a href="#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Breedevoort, <a href="#page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Brest, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a></li> + +<li>Brill, +<a href="#page_51">51</a>, f., +<a href="#page_62">62</a>, +<a href="#page_84">84</a>, +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Brink, Bakhuizen van der, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> + +<li>Brittany, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Broeck, Pieter van der, <a href="#page_161">161</a>,</li> + +<li>Broglie, Maurice de, Bishop of Ghent, <a href= +"#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page_384">384</a></li> + +<li>Brömsebro, treaty of, <a href="#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Bronkhorst, Dirk van, <a href="#page_60">60</a>,</li> + +<li>Broodhuis, the (at Brussels), <a href="#page_46">46</a></li> + +<li>Broukère, Charles de, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>Brouwer, Adrian, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Brouwershaven, <a href="#page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Browne, Scottish official, <a href="#page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Bruges, +<a href="#page_6">6</a> f., +<a href="#page_11">11</a>, +<a href="#page_13">13</a>, +<a href="#page_16">16</a>, +<a href="#page_23">23</a> f., +<a href="#page_70">70</a>, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>, +<a href="#page_77">77</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97</a>, +<a href="#page_153">153</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290</a> ff., +<a href="#page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Brugghen, J.J.L. van der, <a href="#page_414">414</a> f.</li> + +<li>Brun, Spanish envoy, <a href="#page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Brune, General, <a href="#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Brunswick, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Brunswick, Charles, Duke of, <a href="#page_335">335</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Brunswick-Lüneburg, <a href="#page_239">239</a></li> + +<li>Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Lewis Ernest, Duke of, <a href= +"#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_316">316-320</a>, <a href= +"#page_321">321</a>, , <a href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Brussels, <i>passim</i>;</li> + +<li class="indent">congress of, <a href="#page_396">396</a> +f.;</li> + +<li class="indent">Union of, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href= +"#page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Buat, the lord of, <a href="#page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Bubble companies, <a href="#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>Buchhorn, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Bulbs, trade in, <a href="#page_184">184</a></li> + +<li>Burchgrave, Daniel de, <a href="#page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Buren, Count of, <a href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>Burgos, <a href="#page_15">15</a>, <a href= +"#page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Burgundian Netherlands, <a href="#page_1">1-11</a>,</li> + +<li>Burgundy, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>, +<a href="#page_9">9</a>, +<a href="#page_12">12</a>, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>, +<a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Burnet, Bishop, <a href="#page_271">271</a>,</li> + +<li>Bushey Park, <a href="#page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Buys, Paul, Advocate, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, , <a href= +"#page_83">83</a> f., <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#page_90">90</a></li> + +<li>Buys, pensionary, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, , <a href= +"#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Bylandt, Count, Lieut-General, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a +href="#page_390">390</a> f.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Cabelliau, Abraham, <a href="#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li>Cabo Corso, <a href="#page_235">235</a></li> + +<li>Cadiz, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href= +"#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Cadsand, <a href="#page_254">254</a>, <a href= +"#page_311">311</a>,</li> + +<li>Caerden, Paulus van, <a href="#page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Calais, <a href="#page_16">16</a>, <a href="#page_28">28</a>, +<a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a></li> + +<li>Callantroog, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Callenberg, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Calmar, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Calvin, Calvinism, Calvinists, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, +<a href="#page_38">38</a> ff., +<a href="#page_42">42</a>, +<a href="#page_49">49</a> f., +<a href="#page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#page_407">407</a>, +<a href="#page_413">413</a></li> + +<li>Cambray, <a href="#page_20">20</a>, ;</li> + +<li class="indent">League of, <a href="#page_18">18</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">peace congress at (1508), <a href= +"#page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Camisaders, <a href="#page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Camperdown, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Canal of Holland, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Canals, <a href="#page_379">379</a>, <a href= +"#page_420">420</a>, <a href="#page_430">430</a>,</li> + +<li>Canary islands, <a href="#page_171">171</a>,</li> + +<li>Capadose, Calvinistic leader, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Cape Breton, <a href="#page_313">313</a></li> + +<li>Cape colony, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href= +"#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_346"></a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Capibaribi river, <a href="#page_171">171</a>,</li> + +<li>Carib tribes, <a href="#page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Caribbean sea, <a href="#page_170">170</a>,</li> + +<li>Carleton, Sir Dudley, +<a href="#page_123">123</a>, +<a href="#page_130">130</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>, +<a href="#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Carnot, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Caroline, Princess, regent, <a href="#page_319">319</a> f.</li> + +<li>Caroline, Queen, <a href="#page_316">316</a></li> + +<li>Carolingian empire, tripartite division of, <a href= +"#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Caron, Francis, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Caron cape, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Carpentaria, Gulf of, <a href="#page_163">163 f.</a></li> + +<li>Carpentier, Pieter, <a href="#page_163">163 f.</a></li> + +<li>Carrying-trade, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href= +"#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_85">85</a>, <a href= +"#page_97">97</a> f., <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a href= +"#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_218"></a>, <a href= +"#page_274">214</a> f., <a href="#page_298">298</a>, <a href= +"#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Cartagena, <a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Cartesian system, the, <a href="#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Castel-Rodrigo, Spanish governor, <a href= +"#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Castlereagh, Lord, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href= +"#page_368">368</a> f., <a href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Castricum, <a href="#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Castro, Alphonso de, <a href="#page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Catalonia, <a href="#page_291">291</a>,</li> + +<li>Cateau-Cambresis, treaty of (1559), <a href="#page_28">28</a>, +<a href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>Catherine II, Empress, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, <a href= +"#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>Catholic episcopate, establishment of, <a href="#page_412">412 +f.</a></li> + +<li>Catholique, the, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_391">391</a>,</li> + +<li>Cats, Jacob, council-pensionary, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, <a href= +"#page_214">214</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Hofwijck, Cluijswerck, Voorhout</i> and +<i>Zeestraet</i> of, <a href="#page_194">194</a></li> + +<li>Cautionary towns, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href= +"#page_96">96</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Ceylon, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href= +"#page_229">229</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href= +"#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a>, <a href= +"#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Chamber of Accounts, college of, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, +<a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Chambers of Rhetoric, <a href="#page_201">201</a>,</li> + +<li>Champagney, governor of Antwerp, <a href="#page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Charleroi, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#page_25">258</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href= +"#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>Charles I of England, +<a href="#page_142">142</a> f., +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, +<a href="#page_154">154</a> f., +<a href="#page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>f., +<a href="#page_215">215</a>, +<a href="#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Charles II of England, +<a href="#page_203">203</a> f., +<a href="#page_208">208</a>, +<a href="#page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#page_231">231-234</a>, +<a href="#page_236">236</a>, +<a href="#page_238">238</a>, +<a href="#page_242">242</a>, +<a href="#page_244">233</a> f., +<a href="#page_248">248</a> f., +<a href="#page_252">252</a> ff., +<a href="#page_261">261-266</a></li> + +<li>Charles II of Spain, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, ff.</li> + +<li>Charles V, Emperor, +<a href="#page_16">16-23</a>, +<a href="#page_25">25</a>, +<a href="#page_27">27-30</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#page_67">67</a>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, +<a href="#page_196">196</a>, +<a href="#page_281">281</a>, +<a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Charles V of France, <a href="#page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Charles VI, Emperor, <a href="#page_295">295</a>, <a href= +"#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Charles VII (Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria), Emperor, +<a href="#page_282">282</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290</a>, +<a href="#page_306">306</a> f., +<a href="#page_309">306</a></li> + +<li>Charles VIII of France, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Charles IX of France, <a href="#page_51">51</a>, <a href= +"#page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Charles IX of Sweden, <a href="#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li>Charles X Gustavus of Sweden, <a href="#page_141">141</a>,<a +href="#page_229">229</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Charles X of France, <a href="#page_389">389</a></li> + +<li>Charles XII of Sweden, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href= +"#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>Charles, Archduke, +<a href="#page_282">282</a>, +<a href="#page_286">286</a>, +<a href="#page_289">289</a> ff., +<a href="#page_293">293 f.</a></li> + +<li>Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg, <a href= +"#page_319">319</a></li> + +<li>Charles Edward, the young Pretender, <a href= +"#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>Charles of Egmont (Gelderland), <a href="#page_14">14</a>, <a +href="#page_18">18</a>f., <a href="#page_21">21</a>,</li> + +<li>Charles of Lorraine, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Charles the Bold (<i>le Téméraire</i>), +<a href="#page_3">3</a> ff., +<a href="#page_7">7-10</a></li> + +<li>Charlotte, Princess of England, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a +href="#page_398">398</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Charlotte de Bourbon, <a href="#page_61">61</a>, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Charnacé, French ambassador, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Chassé, General, <a href="#page_395"></a>, <a href= +"#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Chatham, <a href="#page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Chatham, Lord, <a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Châtillon, conference of (1814), <a href= +"#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Châtillon, French commander, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Châtillon, French envoy, <a href="#page_135">135</a></li> + +<li>Chaumont, <a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Cheribon, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Chesapeake bay, <a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Chesterfield, Lord, <a href="#page_303">303</a></li> + +<li>China, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Christian IV of Denmark, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, f., <a +href="#page_180">180-183</a></li> + +<li>Christian Coalition, <a href="#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Christianopel, treaty of, <a href="#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Christina of Sweden, <a href="#page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>Christopher, Duke, son of the Elector Palatine, <a href= +"#page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Church Association Act, <a href="#page_414">414</a></li> + +<li>Churchill, John, <i>see</i> Marlborough</li> + +<li>Clancarty, Lord, <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href= +"#page_387">387</a></li> + +<li>Clarendon, <a href="#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Claude, sister of Philibert, Prince of Orange-Châlons, <a +href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>Clement VII, Pope, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Cleves, <a href="#page_120">120</a>,</li> + +<li>Cloppenburch, <a href="#page_201">201</a>,</li> + +<li>Coburg, Austrian commander, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, +f.</li> + +<li>Coccaeus, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Cochon, member of National Convention, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>Cockayne, Alderman, <a href="#page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Cockerill, of Seraing machine factory, <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Code Napoléon</i>, the, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, +<a href="#page_362">362</a></li> + +<li>Cods of Holland, <a href="#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Coehoorn, <a href="#page_279">279</a></li> + +<li>Coelim, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Coevorden, +<a href="#page_93">95</a>, +<a href="#page_258">258</a></li> + +<li>Colberg Heath, <a href="#page_181">181</a>,</li> + +<li>Colbert, <a href="#page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Colenbrander, Dr H.T., <a href="#page_388">388</a>, <a href= +"#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Coligny, Admiral, +<a href="#page_47">47</a>, +<a href="#page_53">53</a>, +<a href="#page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Coligny (Téligny), Louise de, +<a href="#page_78">78</a>f., +<a href="#page_83">85</a>, +<a href="#page_130">130</a>, +<a href="#page_135">135</a>, +<a href="#page_138">138</a></li> + +<li>Collegium Philosophicum, +<a href="#page_381">381</a>, +<a href="#page_383">383</a>, +<a href="#page_386">386</a></li> + +<li>Cologne, +<a href="#page_8">8</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a> f., +<a href="#page_252">252</a> f., +<a href="#page_258">258</a>f., +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Cologne, Archbishop of, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Cologne, Elector-Archbishop of, Bishop of Liège, <a +href="#page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Colombo, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Colonies, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a href= +"#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, <a href= +"#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_430">430</a>, etc.</li> + +<li>Commercial and economic expansion, <a href= +"#page_159">159-185</a></li> + +<li>Commissioned</li> + +<li>Councillors, college of, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>"Compromise," the, <a href="#page_37">37-40</a></li> + +<li>"Concept of Harmony", <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href= +"#page_248">248</a>, <a href="#page_250">250</a>,</li> + +<li>Condé, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href= +"#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Condé, Princess of, <a href="#page_120">120</a>,</li> + +<li>Conperus, Louis, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Constance, <i>League of</i> (1474), <a href= +"#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Constantine the Great, <a href="#page_193">193</a></li> + +<li>Constantinople, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Constitution, revision of the, <a href= +"#page_405">405-410</a></li> + +<li><i>Consulta</i>, <a href="#page_29">29</a>, <a href= +"#page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Consultation, Act of (1766), <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a +href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Contarini, Tommaso, <a href="#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li>Continental system, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>, +<a href="#page_362">362</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Contra-Remonstrants, +<a href="#page_129">129</a> ff., +<a href="#page_133">133</a> f., +<a href="#page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Contra-Remonstratie, <a href="#page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Cook's strait, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Coornheert, Dirk Volkertz, <a href="#page_191">191</a>,</li> + +<li>Copenhagen, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Coromandel, <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href= +"#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>Council of State, powers and functions of, <a href= +"#page_110">110</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Council-pensionaries, powers and functions of, <a href= +"#page_116">116</a> f.</li> + +<li><i>Coursier des Pays Bas</i>, the, <a href= +"#page_391">391</a>,</li> + +<li>Courtrai, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href= +"#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Crécy, battle of, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Cromwell, +<a href="#page_163">163</a>, +<a href="#page_215">215</a>, +<a href="#page_218">218-224</a>, +<a href="#page_229">229</a>, +<a href="#page_234">234</a>, +<a href="#page_236">236</a></li> + +<li>Cuba, <a href="#page_170">170</a>,</li> + +<li>Culemberg,</li> + +<li>Count of, <a href="#page_36">36</a> f., <a href= +"#page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Cultivation-system, <a href="#page_415">415</a> f., <a href= +"#page_430">430</a>, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Cumberland, Duke of, <a href="#page_309">309</a>, <a href= +"#page_311">311</a> f.</li> + +<li>Curaçoa, +<a href="#page_276">276</a>, +<a href="#page_323">323</a>, +<a href="#page_327">327</a></li> + +<li>Cuyp, Albert, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>D'Affry, French ambassador, <a href="#page_317">317</a> +ff.</li> + +<li>D'Allègne, Marquis, <a href="#page_290">290</a>,</li> + +<li>D'Alphonse, Baron, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>D'Argenson, French minister, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, +f.</li> + +<li>D'Avaux, French ambassador, <a href="#page_266">266</a>, <a +href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href="#page_272">272</a></li> + +<li>D'Avila, Sancho, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, <a href= +"#page_66">66</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>D'Ellougue, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>D'Estrades, Count, <a href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href= +"#page_208">208</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a> f., <a href= +"#page_265">265</a></li> + +<li>D'Estrées, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href= +"#page_259">259</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>D'Hoogvoort, Baron Emmanuel, <a href= +"#page_391">391-395</a></li> + +<li>D'Hoogvoort, Baron Joseph, <a href="#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>D'Oultremont, Countess Henriette, <a href= +"#page_405">405</a></li> + +<li>D'Ursel, Duke, <a href="#page_378">378</a></li> + +<li>Daendels, General, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_344">344</a> f., <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page_350">350-353</a>, <a href="#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Dale, Sir Thomas, <a href="#page_161">161</a>,</li> + +<li>Danube, the, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Danzig, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href= +"#page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>David, son of Philip the Good and Bishop of Utrecht, <a href= +"#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Davis' straits, <a href="#page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>De Beaufort, Admiral, <a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href= +"#page_241">241</a>,</li> + +<li>De Beauharnais, Hortense, <a href="#page_356">356</a>, <a href= +"#page_360">360</a>, f.</li> + +<li>De Berg, Count, <a href="#page_144">144</a> f.</li> + +<li>De Brézé, French commander, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>De Celles, <i>préfet</i>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, +<a href="#page_381">381</a>,</li> + +<li>De Cocq, preacher, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>De Costa, Calvinistic leader, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>De Fénelon, French ambassador, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>De Foere, Abbé, <a href="#page_384">384</a> f.</li> + +<li>De Gerlache, Catholic leader, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>De Graeff, governor of St Eustatius, <a href= +"#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>De Groot, pensionary, <a href="#page_131">131-136</a>, <a href= +"#page_142">142 f.</a></li> + +<li>De Haan, pensionary, <a href="#page_131">131</a>,</li> + +<li>De Haas, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>De Hembyze, Calvinist leader, <a href="#page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>De Héze, Baron, <a href="#page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>De Klundert, <a href="#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>De la Vauguyon,</li> + +<li>Duke, <a href="#page_323">323 f.</a></li> + +<li>De la Ville, Abbé, <a href="#page_311">311</a>,</li> + +<li>De Laet, historian, <a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>De Larrey, Count, <a href="#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>De Maulde, French ambassador, <a href="#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>De Méan, Count, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, f.</li> + +<li>De Meester, ministry of, <a href="#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>De Mist, leader of the federalists, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>De Nemours,</li> + +<li>Duc, <a href="#page_397">397</a> f.</li> + +<li>De Neufville, <a href="#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>De Nève, printer, <a href="#page_387">387</a></li> + +<li>De Perponcher, envoy, <a href="#page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>De Rosne, Seigneur, <a href="#page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>De Ryhove, Calvinist leader, <a href="#page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>De Standaart, <i>préfet</i>, <a href= +"#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>De Vérac, Count, <a href="#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>De Vries, Admiral, <a href="#page_241">241</a>,</li> + +<li>De Vrij Temminck, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>De With, Cornelisz Witte, Vice-Admiral, <a href= +"#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_182">182</a> f., <a href= +"#page_217">217</a>, <a href="#page_219">219</a> f., <a href= +"#page_230">230</a></li> + +<li>De Witt, Cornelis, Ruwaard, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a +href="#page_236">236</a>, <a href="#page_241">241</a>, <a href= +"#page_243">243</a>, <a href="#page_252">252-255</a></li> + +<li>De Witt, Jacob, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_209">209</a>, +<a href="#page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>De Witt, John, +<a href="#page_117">117</a>, +<a href="#page_198">198</a>, +<a href="#page_212">212-224</a>, +<a href="#page_225">225-235</a> +<a href="#page_236">236-250</a>, +<a href="#page_252">252-257</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a>, +<a href="#page_301">301</a>, +<a href="#page_317">317</a>, +<a href="#page_320">320</a>, +<a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Deane, commanding English fleet, <a href= +"#page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Dedel, Belgian minister, <a href="#page_403">403 "</a></li> + +<li>Defensive Confederacy," the, <a href="#page_331">331</a>,</li> + +<li>Deforgues, <a href="#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Dekker,</li> + +<li>Douwes, <a href="#page_415">415</a>, <a href="#page_432">432</a>; +<i>Max Havelaar</i> of, <a href="#page_415">415</a>, <a href= +"#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Delacroix, Charles, <a href="#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Delft, +<a href="#page_62">62</a> f., +<a href="#page_79">79</a> ff., +<a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_157">157</a>, +<a href="#page_159">159</a>, +<a href="#page_183">163</a>, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_277">277</a></li> + +<li><ins class="correction" title="Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'Delfware'"> Delftware</ins>, <a href="#page_183">183 </a></li> + +<li>Delfziil, <a href="#page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Demerara, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Denain, <a href="#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Dendermonde, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Deputed-Estates, functions of, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Descartes, Réné, <a href= +"#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Dettingen, <a href="#page_308">308</a></li> + +<li>Deventer, <a href="#page_87">97</a> f., <a href="#page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href= +"#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Deventer, Gerard Prounick, <a href="#page_86">86</a>, <a href= +"#page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Devolution, law of, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href= +"#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Diamond industry, <a href="#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Dieden, Colonel, <a href="#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>Dieren, <a href="#page_208">208</a> f.</li> + +<li>Diest, <a href="#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Dietz, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Dijkveld, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href= +"#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href= +"#page_280">280</a>,</li> + +<li>Dillenburg, town and principality of, <a href="#page_42">42</a>, <a +href="#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_47">47</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Djapara, <a href="#page_161">161</a>,</li> + +<li>Doce river, <a href="#page_172">172</a></li> + +<li>Does, Jan van der, <a href="#page_60">60</a>,</li> + +<li>Doesburg, <a href="#page_87">87</a>, <a href= +"#page_252">252</a></li> + +<li>Doggerbank, the, <a href="#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>Dohna, Swedish ambassador, <a href="#page_244">244</a> f.</li> + +<li>Dokkum, <a href="#page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Dolhain, the lord of, <a href="#page_50">50</a>,</li> + +<li>Dolman, Colonel, <a href="#page_218">218</a></li> + +<li>Donker, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>Donker-Curtius, <a href="#page_408">408</a> f., <a href= +"#page_411">411</a>, <a href="#page_414">414</a></li> + +<li>Dordrecht, +<a href="#page_51">51</a>, f., +<a href="#page_54">54</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a>, +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_135">135</a> ff., +<a href="#page_178">178</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, +<a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_209">209</a> f., +<a href="#page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#page_226">226</a>, +<a href="#page_247">247</a>, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>f., +<a href="#page_274">274</a>, +<a href="#page_279">279</a>, +<a href="#page_335">335</a>, +<a href="#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>Doreslaer, <a href="#page_203">203</a> f., <a +href="#page_212">212 f.</a></li> + +<li>Dort, synod at, +<a href="#page_87">87</a>, +<a href="#page_162">162</a>, +<a href="#page_184">184</a> f., +<a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Dorth, Colonel Jan van, lord of Horst, <a href= +"#page_167">167</a> f.</li> + +<li>Dortmund, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Douat, Merlin de, <a href="#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>Douay, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a +href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Douw, Gerard, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Dover, <a href="#page_215">215</a>, <a href= +"#page_217">217</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">secret treaty of, <a href="#page_248">248</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Downing, George, <a href="#page_234">234</a>, <a href= +"#page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Downs, battle of the, <a href="#page_151">151</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_212">212</a>, <a href= +"#page_215">215</a>, <a href="#page_217">217</a></li> + +<li>Drake, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Drebbel, Cornelius, <a href="#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Drente, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a +href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#page_96">96</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href= +"#page_138">138</a>, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href= +"#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, <a href= +"#page_304">304</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href= +"#page_357">357</a>, <a href="#page_367">367</a></li> + +<li>Du Chattel, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Ducpétiaux, <a href="#page_394">394</a></li> + +<li>Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester, <a href="#page_77">77</a>, +<a href="#page_84">84-91</a>, <a href="#page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#page_97">97</a> f., <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href= +"#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href= +"#page_432"></a></li> + +<li>Duiveland, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Dumonceau, General, <a href="#page_347">347</a></li> + +<li>Dumouriez, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Duncan, Admiral, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Dungeness, <a href="#page_217">217</a> f.</li> + +<li>Dunkirk, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, +ff., <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_149"></a>, <a +href="#page_151">151</a>, f., <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href= +"#page_228"></a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href= +"#page_240">240</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page_292">292</a>, <a href="#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Düren, <a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Dutch Brabant, <a href="#page_312">312</a></li> + +<li>Dutch Flanders, <a href="#page_156">156</a>, <a href= +"#page_185">185</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href= +"#page_330">330</a>, f., <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a> f., <a href="#page_397">397</a></li> + +<li>"Dutch mission", <a href="#page_412">412</a></li> + +<li>Dutch Republic, beginnings of the, <a href= +"#page_82">82-1091</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>East Friesland, <a href="#page_357">357</a></li> + +<li>East India Company (Dutch), <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a +href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_159">159-185</a>, <a href= +"#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_252">252</a>, <a href= +"#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href= +"#page_305">305</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a> f., <a href= +"#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>East India Company (English), <a href="#page_159">159</a>, <a +href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_320">320</a></li> + +<li>East Indies, +<a href="#page_98">98</a> ff., +<a href="#page_106">106</a>, +<a href="#page_124">124</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>, +<a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_160">160</a> f., +<a href="#page_229">229</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>, +<a href="#page_275">275</a>, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>, +<a href="#page_346">346</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a>, +<a href="#page_407">407</a>, +<a href="#page_415">415</a> f., +<a href="#page_430">430</a></li> + +<li>Edam, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a></li> + +<li>Education Act (1878), <a href="#page_424">424</a></li> + +<li>Educational affairs, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page_391"></a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href= +"#page_414">414</a>, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, <a href= +"#page_422">422</a>, <a href="#page_424">424</a> f., <a href= +"#page_427">427</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Edward I of England, <a href="#page_16">16</a></li> + +<li>Edward, Prince, of Bohemia, <a href="#page_213">213</a></li> + +<li>Effingham, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Egmont, <i>see</i> Lamoral</li> + +<li>Elba, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page_384">384</a></li> + +<li>Elbing, <a href="#page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>Elburg, <a href="#page_334">334</a></li> + +<li>Elizabeth, Queen of England, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, <a +href="#page_57">57</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_70">70</a>, f., <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_83">83-86</a>, <a href= +"#page_88">88</a> f., <a href="#page_95">95</a> f., <a href= +"#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_122">122f.</a></li> + +<li>Elizabeth of Bohemia, <a href="#page_141">141</a>,</li> + +<li>Elizabeth of Görlitz, Duchess of Luxemburg, <a href= +"#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Elizabeth of Parma, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Elsass, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Elseviers, the, <a href="#page_201">201</a>,</li> + +<li>Elsinore, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont, Princess, queen-regent, <a href= +"#page_421">421</a>,</li> + +<li>Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, regent, <a href= +"#page_27">27</a> f.</li> + +<li>Ems, the, <a href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Ems Occidental, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Ems Oriental, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Enghien, Duke of, <a href="#page_155">155</a></li> + +<li>English Muscovy Company, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Enkhuizen, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#page_89">89</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#page_159">159</a></li> + +<li>Enschede, <a href="#page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Episcopius, Simon, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Ermerius, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Ernest Casimir of Nassau, stadholder, <a href= +"#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_138">138</a>, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Ernest of Austria, Archduke, <a href="#page_93">93f.</a></li> + +<li>Erp, Christina van, <a href="#page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Essequibo river and colony, <a href="#page_177">177</a>, <a +href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a>, <a href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Eternal Edict, <a href="#page_246">246</a> f., <a href= +"#page_253">253</a></li> + +<li>Eugene of Savoy, Prince, <a href="#page_387">387</a> f., +<a href="#page_290">290-296</a></li> + +<li>"Evangelicals", <a href="#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Evertsen, Cornelis, Admiral, <a href="#page_240">240</a>, f., +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Evertsen, Jan, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a +href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Exclusion, Act of (<i>Acte van Seclusie</i>), <a href= +"#page_222">222-225</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a></li> + +<li>Exeter, <a href="#page_273">273</a></li> + +<li>Exhibition at Brussels, <a href="#page_389">389</a> f.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Fadrique de Toledo, Don, <a href="#page_168">168</a></li> + +<li>Fagel, Caspar, council-pensionary, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, +<a href="#page_255">255</a> f.</li> + +<li>Fagel, Francis, council-pensionary, <a href= +"#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page_303">303</a>, <a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href= +"#page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Falck, Captain of the National Guard, <a href= +"#page_364">364</a> f., <a href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a></li> + +<li>Farnese, Alexander, Prince of Parma, <a href= +"#page_70">70-74</a>, <a href="#page_77">77</a>-80, <a href= +"#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_84">84</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_88">88</a> f., <a href="#page_92">92</a> f., <a href= +"#page_192">192</a></li> + +<li>Federation, Act of (1576), <a href="#page_63">63</a></li> + +<li>Femern, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Ferdinand I, <a href="#page_306"></a></li> + +<li>Ferdinand, Cardinal Infante, <a href="#page_148"></a> ff., <a +href="#page_153"></a></li> + +<li>Ferdinand of Aragon, <a href="#page_14"></a> ff., <a href= +"#page_18"></a> f.</li> + +<li>Ferrara, <a href="#page_97">97</a></li> + +<li>Fiji archipelago, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Fijnje, member of Executive Council, <a href= +"#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Finance, Chamber of, <a href="#page_52">52</a>, <a href= +"#page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Finspong, <a href="#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Fisheries, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href="#page_16"></a>, <a +href="#page_97">97</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#page_218">218</a>, <a href="#page_430">430</a></li> + +<li>Fishing rights dispute, <a href="#page_16">16</a>, <a href= +"#page_122">122-125</a>, <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Fivelingoo, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Flanders, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Flemish Belgium, <a href="#page_378">378</a></li> + +<li>Fleurus, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href= +"#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Fleury, Cardinal, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>Flinck, Govaert, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Florence, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Floriszoon, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href= +"#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Flushing, <a href="#page_28">28</a>, <a href="#page_30">30</a>, +<a href="#page_51">51</a>, f., <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_84">84</a> f., <a href= +"#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_331">331</a>, <a href= +"#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_357">357</a>, <a href= +"#page_359">359</a>, <a href="#page_428">428</a></li> + +<li>Flushing and Veere, marquisate of, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a +href="#page_304">304</a></li> + +<li>Fokker, member of Executive Council, <a href= +"#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Fontainebleau, <a href="#page_138">138</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaty of (1785), <a href= +"#page_331">331</a>,</li> + +<li>Fontenoy, battle of, <a href="#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>Formosa, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Fort Zelandia, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Forth, Firth of, <a href="#page_243">243</a></li> + +<li>"Forty-Eighters", <a href="#page_315">315</a></li> + +<li>Fox, <a href="#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>France, treaty with (1482), <a href="#page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Franche-Comté, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, <a href= +"#page_9">9</a>, <a href="#page_30">30</a>, <a href= +"#page_34">34</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Franchise, reforms of the, <a href= +"#page_421">421-424</a>,</li> + +<li>Francis I, <a href="#page_19">19</a> f.</li> + +<li>Francis, Emperor, <a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, <a href= +"#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Franco-German War (1870), <a href="#page_417">417</a></li> + +<li>Franeker, University of, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#page_190"></a>,</li> + +<li>Frankfort, <a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Franklin, <a href="#page_325">325</a></li> + +<li>Frederick II the Great, of Prussia, <a href= +"#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a> f., <a href= +"#page_321">321</a>,</li> + +<li>Frederick III, Emperor, <a href="#page_7">7</a> f., <a href= +"#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Frederick III of Denmark, <a href="#page_218">218</a>, <a href= +"#page_230">230</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Frederick, Elector Palatine, King of Bohemia, <a href= +"#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Frederick, Prince, second son of King William I, <a href= +"#page_375">375</a>, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href= +"#page_394">394</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a></li> + +<li>Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, stadholder, +<a href="#page_103">103</a> f., +<a href="#page_116">116</a>, +<a href="#page_121">121</a>, +<a href="#page_130">130</a>, +<a href="#page_138">138</a> f., +<a href="#page_141">141-144</a>, +<a href="#page_146">146-150</a>, +<a href="#page_153">153-157</a>, +<a href="#page_178">178</a>, +<a href="#page_181">181</a>, f., +<a href="#page_186">186</a>, +<a href="#page_192">192</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, +<a href="#page_199">199</a>, +<a href="#page_202">202</a>, +<a href="#page_209">209</a>, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a> f., +<a href="#page_312">312</a></li> + +<li>Frederick Henry bay, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Frederick Henry cape, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Frederick of Toledo, Don, <a href="#page_53">53</a>, <a href= +"#page_55">55</a> f.</li> + +<li>Frederick William I of Prussia, <a href= +"#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Frederick William II of Prussia, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, +<a href="#page_366">366</a></li> + +<li>Frederick William of Brandenburg (the Great Elector), <a href= +"#page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Frederikshald, <a href="#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>French annexation, <a href="#page_357">357</a>-366 "</li> + +<li>French Fury, <a href="#page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>French Revolution, <a href="#page_340">340</a>,</li> + +<li>Friendly or Tonga islands, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Friesland, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Frise, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Friso, John William, of Nassau-Siegen, <a href= +"#page_285">285</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href= +"#page_304">304</a></li> + +<li>Fruin, Robert, <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Fryscell, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Fuchs, Paul, <a href="#page_270">270</a>,</li> + +<li>Fuentes, Count of, <a href="#page_93">93 f.</a></li> + +<li>Fulda, Bishopric of, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Fundamental Assemblies, <a href="#page_351">351</a>,</li> + +<li>Fundamental Law, +<a href="#page_366">366</a> f., +<a href="#page_370">370</a>, +<a href="#page_372">372</a> f., +<a href="#page_375">375</a> f, +<a href="#page_378">378</a>, +<a href="#page_380">380</a>, +<a href="#page_384">384</a> f., +<a href="#page_391">391</a>, f., +<a href="#page_394">394</a>, +<a href="#page_405">405</a>, +<a href="#page_412">412</a>, +<a href="#page_420">420</a>, f., +<a href="#page_429">429</a>f.</li> + +<li>Funen, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Furnes, <a href="#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Fürstenberg, Cardinal Archbishop, <a href= +"#page_272">272</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Gabbard, the, <a href="#page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Galle, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Ganges, the, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li><i>Gecommitteerde-Raden</i>, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li><i>Gedeputeerde-Staten</i>, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Geer, Louis de, <a href="#page_178">178</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_181">181</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Geertruidenberg, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, <a href= +"#page_93">93</a>, <a href="#page_293">293</a> f., <a href= +"#page_341">341</a></li> + +<li>Gelder, <a href="#page_88">88</a></li> + +<li>Gelderland, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Gembloux, <a href="#page_70">70</a>,</li> + +<li>Gendebien, Alexandre de, <a href="#page_391">391</a>, ff., <a +href="#page_395">395</a></li> + +<li>Genlis, Huguenot leader, <a href="#page_53">53</a></li> + +<li>Gennep, <a href="#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Genoa, <a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>George II of England, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a> f.</li> + +<li>George of Saxe-Meissen, <a href="#page_21">21</a>,</li> + +<li>Gérard, Balthazar, <a href="#page_80">80</a>,</li> + +<li>Gérard, Marshal, <a href="#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Gevangenpoort, the, <a href="#page_255">255</a></li> + +<li>Ghent, +<a href="#page_6">6</a>, +<a href="#page_9">9</a>, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>, ff., +<a href="#page_16">16</a>, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>, +<a href="#page_28">28</a>, +<a href="#page_45">45</a> f., +<a href="#page_65">65</a> f., +<a href="#page_69">69</a>, +<a href="#page_71">71</a>, +<a href="#page_73">73</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_97">97</a>, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290</a>, ff., +<a href="#page_310">310</a>, +<a href="#page_377">377</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a>f., +<a href="#page_385">385</a>, +<a href="#page_391">391</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Pacification of, <a href="#page_66">66</a>f., <a +href="#page_71">71</a>, f., <a href="#page_81">81</a>, <a href= +"#page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Gibraltar, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href= +"#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Gilds, <a href="#page_5">5</a></li> + +<li>Gilles, Jacob, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Goa, <a href="#page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Goch, <a href="#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Godolphin, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href= +"#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Goeman-Borgesius, <a href="#page_424">424</a></li> + +<li>Goerce, <a href="#page_254">254</a></li> + +<li>Gogel, finance minister, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a>, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href= +"#page_357">357</a>f.</li> + +<li>Golden Fleece, Order of the, <a href="#page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>Gomarus, Franciscus, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Gomez, Ruy, <a href="#page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Gondomar, Count of, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Gonzales de Cordova, Don, <a href="#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Gooiland, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Gorkum, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a>, +<a href="#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Gotheborg, <a href="#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li>Gouda, +<a href="#page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_129">129</a>, +<a href="#page_259">259</a>, +<a href="#page_335">335</a>, +<a href="#page_420">420</a> ;</li> + +<li class="indent">convention at (1610), <a href= +"#page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Goyen, Jan van, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Graeff, Cornelis de, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href= +"#page_234">234</a></li> + +<li>Graeff, Jacob van der, <a href="#page_253">253</a></li> + +<li>Grain, traffic in, <a href="#page_85">85</a>f.</li> + +<li>Grand Alliance (1689), <a href="#page_273">273</a>f., <a href= +"#page_281">281</a>, f., <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href= +"#page_289">289</a>, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href= +"#page_294">294</a>f.</li> + +<li>Granson, battle at, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Granvelle, Anthony Perrenot de, Cardinal, Bishop of Arras, +Archbishop of Mechlin, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#page_28">28</a>f., <a href="#page_31">31-35</a>, <a href= +"#page_49"></a>, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Grave, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a +href="#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Grave, Admiral, <a href="#page_308">308</a></li> + +<li>Gravelines, <a href="#page_28">28</a>, <a href= +"#page_70">70</a>,</li> + +<li>Great Assembly, the, <a href="#page_209">209-213</a></li> + +<li>Great Fire of London, <a href="#page_242">242</a></li> + +<li>Great Privilege, the, <a href="#page_9">9</a>f., <a href= +"#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Great Rebellion, the, <a href="#page_152">152</a></li> + +<li>Great War (1914), the, <a href="#page_428">428</a>, <a href= +"#page_430">430</a>,</li> + +<li>Greenland, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Grobendonc, governor of Hertogenbosch, <a href= +"#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>Groenloo, <a href="#page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Groll, <a href="#page_104">104</a></li> + +<li><i>Grondwet</i>, <a href="#page_366">366</a></li> + +<li>Groningen, <i>passim</i>; University of, <a href= +"#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Groot, Hofstede de, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Groot, Pieter de, pensionary, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a +href="#page_248">248</a>f., <a href="#page_252">252ff.</a></li> + +<li>Groote Eylandt cape, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Grotius, Hugo (Huig van</li> + +<li>Groot), <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a>f.;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Mare Liberum</i> of, <a href="#page_132">132</a>, +<a href="#page_189">189</a></li> + +<li>Guadeloupe, <a href="#page_376">376</a> "</li> + +<li>Gueux, les, <a href="#page_38">38</a></li> + +<li><i>Gueux de mer</i>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>,</li> + +<li>Guiana, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href="#page_177">177</a> +f., <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a +href="#page_376">376</a></li> + +<li>Guinea, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href="#page_234">234</a> +f., <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href="#page_418">418</a></li> + +<li>Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page_178">178</a> ff., <a href="#page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>Guyon, Francis (Balthazar Gérard), <a href= +"#page_80">80</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Gymnasia</i>, <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Haarlem, +<a href="#page_55">55</a> f., +<a href="#page_58">58</a>, +<a href="#page_60">60</a>, +<a href="#page_62">62</a>, +<a href="#page_74">74</a>, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_131">131</a>, +<a href="#page_183">183</a> f., +<a href="#page_207">207</a>, +<a href="#page_246">246</a>, +<a href="#page_314">314</a>, +<a href="#page_341">341</a>, +<a href="#page_357">357</a>, +<a href="#page_413">413</a></li> + +<li>Haarlem lake, <a href="#page_55">55</a>, <a href= +"#page_412">412</a></li> + +<li>Haasrecht, <a href="#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Habsburg rule in the Netherlands, <a href= +"#page_12">12-26</a></li> + +<li>Hadamar, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Haersolte, <a href="#page_226">226</a> f.</li> + +<li>Haga, Cornells, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Hagen, Steven van der, <a href="#page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Hague, the, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Hahn, leader of the moderates, <a href="#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Hainault, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_9">9</a>, <a +href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a>, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href= +"#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href= +"#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Hals, Frans, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f.</li> + +<li>Hamburg, <a href="#page_25">25</a>, <a href= +"#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>Hanover, <a href="#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a +href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Hanse League,</li> + +<li>Hanse towns, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href= +"#page_25">25</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>f.</li> + +<li>Harderwijk, University of, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Harlingen, <a href="#page_118">118</a></li> + +<li>Harmensz, Jacob, <i>see</i> Arminius</li> + +<li>Harmignies, <a href="#page_53">53 f.</a></li> + +<li>Harris, Sir James (Lord Malmesbury), <a href="#page_332">332</a>, +<a href="#page_335">335</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Harwich, <a href="#page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Harwood, Colonel, <a href="#page_147">147</a></li> + +<li>Hattem, <a href="#page_334">334</a>, <a href= +"#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>Haverman, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Havré, commander, <a href="#page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Heemskerk, Th., <a href="#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Heidelberg, <a href="#page_90">90</a>, <a href= +"#page_119">119</a></li> + +<li>Heidelberg catechism, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Heiligerlee, <a href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Heim, Antony van der, council-pensionary, <a href= +"#page_303">303</a> f., <a href="#page_309">309</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Hein, Piet, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_167">167</a>, <a href= +"#page_169">169</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Heinsius, Antony, council-pensionary, <a href= +"#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, <a href= +"#page_282">282</a> f., <a href="#page_285">285</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_290">290</a>, f., <a href="#page_294">294</a>, <a href= +"#page_300">300</a></li> + +<li>Heinsius, Daniel, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Heinsius, Nicolas, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Helder, the, <a href="#page_352">352</a>, <a href= +"#page_367">367</a>, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Hellemans, Heleonore, <a href="#page_196">196</a> f.</li> + +<li>Helst, Bartolomaus van der, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f.</li> + +<li>Helvoetsluis, <a href="#page_273">273</a></li> + +<li>Hendrikszoon, Boudewyn, <a href="#page_168">168</a> f.</li> + +<li>Heneage, Lord, <a href="#page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, <a href="#page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Henrietta Maria, <a href="#page_154">154</a> f.</li> + +<li>Henry III of France, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a> f., <a href="#page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Henry IV of France (Henry of Navarre), <a href="#page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#page_94">94</a> ff., <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a +href="#page_109">109</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href= +"#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Henry VII of England, <a href="#page_16">16</a> f.</li> + +<li>Henry, stadholder of Luxemburg, <a href= +"#page_421">421</a>,</li> + +<li>Henry Casimir, stadholder, son of William Frederick, <a href= +"#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page_266">266</a>, <a href="#page_268">268</a>, <a href= +"#page_270">270</a>, <a href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href= +"#page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>Henry Casimir of Nassau, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#page_153">153</a></li> + +<li>Henry of Bavaria, Bishop of Utrecht, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>,</li> + +<li>Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Prince, <a href= +"#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Henry of Nassau, brother of the Prince of Orange, <a href= +"#page_47">47</a>, <a href="#page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Henry of Nassau, friend and adviser of Charles V, <a href= +"#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>Herbert, Admiral, <a href="#page_273">273</a></li> + +<li>Heresy, extirpation of, +<a href="#page_23">23</a>, +<a href="#page_31">31</a>, ff., +<a href="#page_35">35</a> ff., +<a href="#page_39">39</a>, +<a href="#page_42">42</a> f., +<a href="#page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Herring fisheries, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href= +"#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_254">254</a></li> + +<li>Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), +<a href="#page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143-146</a>, +<a href="#page_150">150</a>, +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_171">171</a>, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>, +<a href="#page_315">315</a>, +<a href="#page_328">328</a>, +<a href="#page_413">413</a></li> + +<li>Hesse, <a href="#page_272">272</a></li> + +<li>Hesse-Cassel, <a href="#page_283">283</a></li> + +<li>Het Loo, <a href="#page_333">333</a>, <a href= +"#page_358">358</a> +</li> + +<li>Higher education, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page_427">427</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>"High-Mightinesses", <a href="#page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Historical Christians, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href= +"#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Hobbema, Meindert, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Hochstädt, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Hoeth, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Hohenlo, Count of, <a href="#page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Holland, <i>passim</i>; incorporation of, with Zeeland in the +Burgundian dominion, <a href="#page_2">2;</a></li> + +<li class="indent">union of, with Belgium, <a href= +"#page_376">376-388</a></li> + +<li>Holmes, Admiral, <a href="#page_234">234</a> f.</li> + +<li>Holstein, <a href="#page_181">181</a>,</li> + +<li>Honthorst, Gerard, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Hooft, burgomaster of Amsterdam, <a href= +"#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Hooft, Cornelis Pietersz, <a href="#page_195"></a></li> + +<li>Hooft, party leader, <a href="#page_264"></a>, <a href= +"#page_266"></a></li> + +<li>Hooft, Pieter Cornelisz, <a href= +"#page_194">194-197</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Geerard van Velzen, Warenar</i> and +<i>Baeto</i> of, <a href="#page_195"></a>;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Netherland Histories</i> of, <a href= +"#page_196"></a></li> + +<li>Hoogerbeets, pensionary, <a href="#page_131">131-136</a>, <a +href="#page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Hoogh, Pieter van der, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Hooghley, the, <a href="#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>Hooghly on the Ganges, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Hoogstraeten, Count of, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href= +"#page_33">33</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_44">44</a> f., <a href="#page_47">47</a> +</li> + +<li>Hook faction, <a href="#page_12">12 ff.</a></li> + +<li>Hook of Holland, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Hoorn, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a +href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, <a href= +"#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_166"></a> +</li> + +<li>Hoorn, Count of, <i>see</i> Montmorency</li> + +<li>Hoorn, dowager Countess of, <a href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Hop, Jan, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href= +"#page_316">316</a></li> + +<li>Houtman, Cornelis, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Hudde, Johan, <a href="#page_267">267</a></li> + +<li>Hudson, Henry, <a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Hugonet, the lord, <a href="#page_10">10</a>,</li> + +<li>Huguenot refugees, <a href="#page_269">269</a> f., <a href= +"#page_276">276</a></li> + +<li><i>Huis in't Bosch,</i> the, <a href="#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Hulst, <a href="#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a +href="#page_153">153</a>, <a href="#page_156">156</a> +</li> + +<li>Humbercourt, the lord, <a href="#page_10">10</a>,</li> + +<li>Hume, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Hunsingoo, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Huy, <a href="#page_67">67</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a +href="#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>Huyghens, Christian, <a href="#page_198">198</a> f.</li> + +<li>Huyghens, Constantine, <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href= +"#page_194">194</a>, <a href="#page_196">196</a> f.</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>India, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Indies, trade in the, <a href="#page_107">107</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_145">145</a>, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page_155">155</a> ff., <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href= +"#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href= +"#page_336">336</a>, <a href="#page_339">339</a></li> + +<li>Infamy, Order of, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>Inquisition, <a href="#page_36">36-39</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_54"></a>, <a href= +"#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Isabel, Queen of Portugal, <a href="#page_15">15</a> f.</li> + +<li>Isabel Clara Eugenia,</li> + +<li>Infanta, Archduchess, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#page_96">96</a> f., <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_145">145-148</a></li> + +<li>Isabel of Castile, <a href="#page_14">14</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_19">19</a></li> + +<li>Isabel of Portugal, wife of Philip the Good, <a href= +"#page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>Isny, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Israels, Joseph, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Issel supérieur, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Ita, Pieter Adriansz, <a href="#page_170">170</a>,</li> + +<li>Itamarca, <a href="#page_173">173</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Jacatra, <a href="#page_161">161</a>,</li> + +<li>Jacoba, heiress of William V</li> + +<li>I of</li> + +<li>Holland, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Jacobin clubs, <a href="#page_348">348</a> f.</li> + +<li>James</li> + +<li>I of England, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>, ff., <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href= +"#page_139">139</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a>, <a href= +"#page_162">162</a> f., <a href="#page_189">189</a>, <a href= +"#page_212">212</a></li> + +<li>James II of England, Duke of York, +<a href="#page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#page_234">234</a>, +<a href="#page_236">236</a> f., +<a href="#page_242">242</a>, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_262">262</a> f., +<a href="#page_269">269-273</a>, +<a href="#page_283">283</a></li> + +<li>James III of England, son of James II so termed, <a href= +"#page_271">271</a>, <a href="#page_283">283</a>, <a href= +"#page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>Janssens, governor-general of</li> + +<li>Java, <a href="#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Japan, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Japara, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Jarnac, battle of, <a href="#page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Jaureguy,</li> + +<li>Juan, <a href="#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_79">79</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Java, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, +ff., <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a +href="#page_339">339</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page_363">363</a> f., <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href= +"#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_415">415</a> f., <a href= +"#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Jeannin, President, <a href="#page_108">108</a> f.</li> + +<li>Jemappes, <a href="#page_340">340</a>, <a href= +"#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>Jemmingen, <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href= +"#page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Jever, <a href="#page_357">357</a></li> + +<li>Joachimi, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href= +"#page_212">212</a></li> + +<li>Joan Maurice of Nassau, <a href="#page_175">175</a> ff., <a +href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href= +"#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#page_251">251</a>,</li> + +<li>Joanna, Duchess of Brabant, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>João IV of Portugal, <a href="#page_176">176</a></li> + +<li>John II of France, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>John III, Count of Namur, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>John IV, son of Anthony of Burgundy and husband of Tacoba +of Holland, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>John Casimir, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, f.</li> + +<li>John de Marnix, lord of Thoulouse, <a href= +"#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>John of Austria, Don, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page_66">66-70</a></li> + +<li>John of Bavaria, husband of Duchess Elizabeth of Görlitz, <a +href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>John of Leyden, <a href="#page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>John of Nassau, Count, stadholder, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, +f., <a href="#page_45">45</a>, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, <a href= +"#page_61">61</a>, <a href="#page_72">72</a>, <a href= +"#page_79">79</a>, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>John the Fearless, <a href="#page_1">1</a> f.</li> + +<li>Jones, Paul, <a href="#page_325">325</a></li> + +<li>Joseph I, Emperor, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#page_294">294</a>, <a href="#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Joseph II, Emperor, <a href="#page_330">330</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_338">338</a></li> + +<li>Joseph Ferdinand, <a href="#page_281">281</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Joubert, General, <a href="#page_350">350</a>, <a href= +"#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Jourdan, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Juan, Infante, son of Ferdinand and Isabel, <a href= +"#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Juan de Vargas, <a href="#page_44">44</a> f.</li> + +<li>Juana, Infanta, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabel and wife of +Philip the Fair, <a href="#page_14">14</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Julian, French secret agent, <a href="#page_387">387</a></li> + +<li>Jülich, fortress of, <a href="#page_120">120</a>,</li> + +<li>Jülich and Cleves, Duke of, <a href= +"#page_119">119</a></li> + +<li>Jülich-Cleves duchies, question concerning succession to, +<a href="#page_119">119</a> f., <a href="#page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>Junius, <a href="#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Jutland, <a href="#page_181">181</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Kaiserwerth, <a href="#page_287">287</a> f.</li> + +<li>Kampen, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Kandy, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Kantelaur, leader of the moderates, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Kappeyne, Joannes, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, ;</li> + +<li class="indent">Education Act of (1878), <a href= +"#page_422">422</a></li> + +<li>Katwijk, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href= +"#page_358">358</a></li> + +<li>Kempenaer, <a href="#page_408">408</a>, <a href= +"#page_411">411</a>,</li> + +<li>Kemper, <a href="#page_365">365</a> f.</li> + +<li>Kennemerland, <a href="#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Kentish</li> + +<li>Knock, <a href="#page_217">217</a></li> + +<li>Keppel, Earl of Albemarle, <a href="#page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Kerkoven, Jan van der, lord of</li> + +<li>Heenyliet, <a href="#page_152">152</a></li> + +<li>Kijkduin, <a href="#page_259">259</a></li> + +<li>Kitzingen, <a href="#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Klein-Schnellendorf, convention of, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>Knocke, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href= +"#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Knodsenburg, <a href="#page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Koen, Jan Pieterzoon, governor-general, <a href= +"#page_124">124</a>, <a href="#page_161">161</a>, ff., <a href= +"#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Köhler, General, <a href="#page_419">419</a></li> + +<li>Kolkmar, Dr, <a href="#page_428">428</a></li> + +<li>Koning, Salomon, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Koningh, Pieter de, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Koopman, Rear-Admiral, <a href="#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Korvey, abbey of, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Kragenhoff, Minister of War, <a href="#page_358">358</a></li> + +<li>Kraijenhoff, revolutionary leader, <a href= +"#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Kronborg, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Krüger, President, <a href="#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Kuenen, Abraham, <a href="#page_431">431</a>,</li> + +<li>Kuyff, head of city police, <a href="#page_390">390</a>,</li> + +<li>Kuyper, Dr Abraham, <a href="#page_419">419</a> f., <a href= +"#page_422">422</a>, <a href="#page_424">424-427</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>L'Oyseleur, Pierre, Seigneur de Villiers, <a href= +"#page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>La</li> + +<li>Hogue, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>La Motte, <a href="#page_71">71</a>,</li> + +<li>La Rochelle, <a href="#page_50">50</a>,</li> + +<li>Laaland, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>"Ladies' Peace," the (1529), <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Lafayette, <a href="#page_322">322</a></li> + +<li>Lalaing, George, Count of Renneberg, stadholder, <a href= +"#page_65">65</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href= +"#page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Lamoral, Count of Egmont, stadholder, <a href="#page_28">28</a> +f., <a href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href="#page_33">33-37</a>, <a +href="#page_39">39-43</a>, <a href="#page_45">45</a> f., <a href= +"#page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Lamoussaye, French minister, <a href="#page_388">388</a></li> + +<li>Landrecies, <a href="#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Land's Advocate or Council-Pensionary, office of, <a href= +"#page_116">116</a> f.</li> + +<li>Landskrona, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Language decree (1819), <a href="#page_383">283</a>, <a href= +"#page_386">386</a></li> + +<li>Lauffeldt, <a href="#page_312">312</a></li> + +<li>Law, Edward, <a href="#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>Lawrence,</li> + +<li>Henry, <a href="#page_325">325</a></li> + +<li>Le Brun, Duke of Piacenza, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a +href="#page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>League of the Beggars, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>Ledenburg, <a href="#page_133">133</a> f.</li> + +<li>Lee, <a href="#page_325">325</a></li> + +<li>Leeuwarden, <a href="#page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, <a href="#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Leffingen, <a href="#page_101">101</a>,</li> + +<li>Leghorn, <a href="#page_218">218</a></li> + +<li>Leicester, Earl of, <i>see</i> Dudley</li> + +<li>Leipzig, <a href="#page_364">364</a> f.</li> + +<li>Leopold I, Emperor, <a href="#page_290">290</a>,</li> + +<li>Leopold II, Emperor, <a href="#page_338">338</a></li> + +<li>Leopold, Archduke, Bishop of Passau, <a href= +"#page_119">119</a> f.</li> + +<li>Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, King of Belgium, <a href= +"#page_398">398</a> ff., <a href="#page_403">403</a></li> + +<li>Leuchtenberg, Duke of, <a href="#page_398">398</a></li> + +<li>Lewis Ernest, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, <i>see</i> +Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</li> + +<li>Lewis of Baden, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Lewis of Nassau, <a href="#page_36">36</a> f., <a href= +"#page_39">39</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, <a href= +"#page_44">44</a> f., <a href="#page_47">47</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_51">51-54</a>, <a href= +"#page_58">58</a> f.</li> + +<li>Ley, the, <a href="#page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Leyden, +<a href="#page_12">12</a>, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>, +<a href="#page_55">55</a> f., +<a href="#page_58">58-61</a>, +<a href="#page_74">74</a>, +<a href="#page_89">89</a> f., +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#page_131">131</a>, +<a href="#page_183">183</a> f., +<a href="#page_187">187</a> f., +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>, +<a href="#page_201">201</a>, +<a href="#page_314">314</a>, +<a href="#page_341">314</a>, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>, +<a href="#page_360">360</a>, +<a href="#page_365">365</a>, +<a href="#page_408">408</a>; +<li class=indent>University of, +<a href="#page_60">60</a>, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>, +<a href="#page_190">190</a>, +<a href="#page_431">431</a>, </li> + +<li>Libertines, <a href="#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Libri-Bagnano, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_389">389</a> f.</li> + +<li>Liefkenshoek, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href= +"#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Liège, district and town of, <a href="#page_13">13</a> +f., <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#page_178">178</a> f., <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a href= +"#page_287">287</a> f., <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href= +"#page_374">374</a> f., <a href="#page_378">378</a>, <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_385">385</a>, <a href= +"#page_393">393</a>, <a href="#page_399">399</a></li> + +<li>Lievens, Jan, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Ligny, <a href="#page_371">371</a>,</li> + +<li>Lilienrot, Count, <a href="#page_280">280</a>,</li> + +<li>Lille, <a href="#page_15">15</a>, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a +href="#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#page_292">292</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Lillo, <a href="#page_403">403</a></li> + +<li>Limburg, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a +href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href= +"#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_383">383</a>, <a href= +"#page_397">397</a> f., <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href= +"#page_402">402</a> f., <a href="#page_416">416</a> f., <a href= +"#page_429">429</a> f.</li> + +<li>Linden, Cort van den, <a href="#page_428">428</a></li> + +<li>Lindhoven, <a href="#page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Lingen, <a href="#page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#page_104">104</a></li> + +<li>Linschoten, Jan</li> + +<li>Huyghen van, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Lionne, French minister, <a href="#page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Lipsius, Justus, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Lisbon, <a href="#page_159">159</a> f., <a href= +"#page_167">167</a> f., <a href="#page_173">173</a> f., <a href= +"#page_176">176</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a></li> + +<li>Listerdiep passage, <a href="#page_181">181</a>,</li> + +<li>Literary gilds, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href= +"#page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Literature, <a href="#page_431">431</a> f.</li> + +<li>Livonia, <a href="#page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Loevestein, <a href="#page_136">136</a>, <a href= +"#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a></li> + +<li>Lohman, Jonkheer Savornin, <a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Lombardy, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Lonck, Hendrik Cornelisz, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, f.</li> + +<li>London, <a href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>, +<a href="#page_396">396</a> f.,</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>et passim</i>; Articles of (1814), <a href= +"#page_395">395</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">conferences at, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a +href="#page_429">429</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Conventions of, <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a +href="#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Loos, Admiral, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Lorraine, <a href="#page_7">7</a> ff., <a href="#page_42">42</a>, +<a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href="#page_306">206</a></li> + +<li>Lothaire, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis II, Count of Flanders, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis XI of France, <a href="#page_8">8</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_12">12</a>, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Louis XIII of France, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href= +"#page_154">154</a>, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Louis XIV of France, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>, +<a href="#page_239">239</a>, +<a href="#page_243">243</a> ff., +<a href="#page_248">248</a> f., +<a href="#page_252">252</a>ff., +<a href="#page_260">260</a>, f., +<a href="#page_263">263</a> ff., +<a href="#page_266">266-270</a>, +<a href="#page_272">272</a>, +<a href="#page_277">277</a> f., +<a href="#page_280">280 -283</a>, +<a href="#page_285">285</a>, +<a href="#page_290">290-293</a>, +<a href="#page_396">396</a></li> + +<li>Louis XV of France, <a href="#page_280"></a>, <a href= +"#page_311">311</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis XVI of France, <a href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href= +"#page_331">331</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis, King of Hungary, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis Bonaparte, <a href="#page_355">355-361</a>, <a href= +"#page_363">363</a></li> + +<li>Louis de Male, Count of Flanders, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Louis del Rio, <a href="#page_44">44</a> f.</li> + +<li>Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans,</li> + +<li>King</li> + +<li class="indent">of the French, <a href="#page_389">389</a>, <a +href="#page_397">379</a>, <a href="#page_407">407</a> f.</li> + +<li>Louise Henrietta, wife of Frederick</li> + +<li class="indent">William of Brandenburg, <a href= +"#page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Louise of Savoy, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Louvain, <a href="#page_53">53</a>, <a href="#page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_388">388</a>, <a href="#page_393">393</a>, <a href= +"#page_399">399</a></li> + +<li>Louvois, Minister of War, <a href="#page_249">249</a></li> + +<li>Löwenthal, Count, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Lübeck, <a href="#page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Lucas, Rear-Admiral, <a href="#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Luis de Requesens, Don, <a href="#page_56">56</a> f.</li> + +<li>Lumbres, the lord of, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Lüneburg, <a href="#page_283">283</a></li> + +<li>Luther, Martin, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#page_22">22 f.</a></li> + +<li>Lützen, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Luxemburg, duchy and town of, +<a href="#page_2">2</a>, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>, +<a href="#page_42">42</a>, +<a href="#page_66">66</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#page_267">267</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a>, +<a href="#page_371">371</a>, +<a href="#page_373">373</a> ff., +<a href="#page_378">378</a>, +<a href="#page_396">396</a> ff., +<a href="#page_400">400</a>, +<a href="#page_402">402</a> f., +<a href="#page_416">416</a>, +<a href="#page_421">421</a>, +<a href="#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Luxemburg, French marshal, <a href="#page_249">249</a>, <a +href="#page_258">258</a> f., <a href="#page_265">265</a>, <a href= +"#page_278">276</a> f., <a href="#page_286">286</a></li> + +<li>Luzac, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Maas, the, <a href="#page_51">51</a>, <a href= +"#page_59">59</a>, <a href="#page_62">52</a>, <a href= +"#page_159">159</a>, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href= +"#page_251">251</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a></li> + +<li>Maasland, <a href="#page_357">357</a></li> + +<li><i>Maatschappij van Weldadigheid</i>, <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li>Macassar, <a href="#page_229">229</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Mackay, Baron, <a href="#page_422">422 f.</a></li> + +<li>Mackay</li> + +<li>Law, <a href="#page_423">423</a>, <a href= +"#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Madagascar, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Madrid, <a href="#page_29">29</a>, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a> ff., <a href="#page_37">37</a>, <a href= +"#page_39">39</a>, <a href="#page_41">41</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href= +"#page_51">51</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page_70">70</a>, <a href="#page_75">75</a>, <a href= +"#page_89">89</a>, <a href="#page_94">94</a>, <a href= +"#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a>, <a href="#page_167">167</a> f., <a href= +"#page_171">171</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a></li> + +<li>Maerlandt, <a href="#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Maes, Nicholas, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Maestricht, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_74">74</a> f., +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, +<a href="#page_149">149</a> f., +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_253">253</a>, +<a href="#page_258">258</a> f., +<a href="#page_262">262</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264</a> f., +<a href="#page_312">312</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a>, f., +<a href="#page_341">341</a>, f., +<a href="#page_346">346</a>, +<a href="#page_368">368</a>, +<a href="#page_397">397</a> f., +<a href="#page_400">400</a></li> + +<li>Magellan, Straits of, +<a href="#page_99">99</a> f., +<a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li><i>Magnus Intercursus</i>, <a href="#page_16">16</a> f., <a +href="#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Main, the, <a href="#page_308">308</a></li> + +<li>Malacca, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a>, <a href="#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Malaga, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Malay Archipelago, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a +href="#page_160">160</a>, f.</li> + +<li>"Malcontents," the, <a href="#page_71">71</a>,</li> + +<li>Malines, <a href="#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li>Malmesbury, Lord, <i>see</i> Harris</li> + +<li>Malplaquet, <a href="#page_293">293</a></li> + +<li><i>Mains Intercursus</i>, <a href="#page_17">17</a></li> + +<li>Manhattan, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Mansfeld, Count of, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_93">93</a></li> + +<li>Maranhão, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Marcelis, Gabriel, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Margaret, Archduchess, daughter of Mary and Maximilian, regent, +<a href="#page_11">11</a>, f., <a href="#page_15">15</a>, <a href= +"#page_17">17-20</a>, <a href="#page_22">22 </a>f., <a href= +"#page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Margaret, daughter of Louis de Male, Count of Flanders, +and wife of Philip the Hardy, +<a href="#page_1">1</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Margaret, dowager Countess of Flanders, widow of Louis II, <a +href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Margaret, Duchess of Parma, regent, <a href="#page_28">28</a> +f., <a href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href="#page_33">33</a> ff., <a +href="#page_37">37</a>, <a href="#page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a>, ff., <a href="#page_70">70</a>,</li> + +<li>Margaret, sister of William VI of Holland and wife of John the +Fearless, <a href="#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Margaret of Burgundy, wife of William VI of Holland, <a href= +"#page_1">1</a>,</li> + +<li>Margaret of York, wife of Charles the Bold, <a href= +"#page_7">7</a>, <a href="#page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Maria cape, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Maria island, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Maria Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a +href="#page_320">320</a>,</li> + +<li>Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, +<a href="#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a>, <a href= +"#page_281">281</a>,</li> + +<li>Maria Theresa of Austria, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page_306">306-309</a></li> + +<li>Maria van Diemen cape, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Marie de'</li> + +<li>Medici, regent, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href= +"#page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon, <a href="#page_360">360</a>, <a +href="#page_363">363</a></li> + +<li>Maris brothers, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Marlborough, Duke of (John Churchill), <a href= +"#page_283">283</a>, <a href="#page_286">286</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_290">290-295</a></li> + +<li>Mary, princess royal, wife of William II of Orange, <a href= +"#page_152">152</a>, <a href="#page_210">210</a>, <a href= +"#page_234">234</a></li> + +<li>Mary, Princess, wife of William III of Orange, <a href= +"#page_263">263</a>, <a href="#page_271">271</a>, <a href= +"#page_273">273</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Mary, regent, queen of Louis of Hungary, <a href= +"#page_20">20</a>, <a href="#page_22">22</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_26">26</a> f., <a href="#page_29">29</a> f., <a href= +"#page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold and wife of +Maximilian of Austria, <a href="#page_8">8-12</a></li> + +<li>Mary of</li> + +<li>Modena, <a href="#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Mary Tudor, Queen, <a href="#page_27">27</a> f.</li> + +<li>Massa, Isaac, <a href="#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li>Matanzas bay, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Matelief, Cornelis, <a href="#page_105">105</a> f., <a href= +"#page_160">160</a>,</li> + +<li>Matsjan, <a href="#page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Matthias, Archduke, <a href="#page_69">69</a> f., <a href= +"#page_72">72</a>, <a href="#page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Maure, Anton, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, stadholder, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a> ff., <a href="#page_87">87-93</a>, <a href= +"#page_95">95</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-104</a>, <a href= +"#page_106">106-109</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href= +"#page_115">115</a> ff., <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href= +"#page_122">122</a>, <a href="#page_127">127-138</a>, <a href= +"#page_139">139</a> ff., <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#page_195">195</a>, <a href="#page_198">198</a>, <a href= +"#page_202">202</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a>, <a href= +"#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a>, <a href= +"#page_314">314</a></li> + +<li>Maurice of Nassau-Ouwerkerk, Count, <a href= +"#page_308">308</a></li> + +<li>Maurice of Saxony, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Maurier, Aubrey du, <a href="#page_135">135</a></li> + +<li>Mauritius, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_164">164</a> f.</li> + +<li>Mauritshuis, the Hague, <a href="#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Mauritsstad, <a href="#page_175">175</a> f.</li> + +<li>Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, <a href= +"#page_281">281</a>,</li> + +<li>Maximilian Joseph, Emperor, <a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Maximilian of Austria, Emperor, King of the Romans, <a href= +"#page_8">8</a>, <a href="#page_10">10-15</a>, , <a href= +"#page_17">17</a> ff., <a href="#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>May, Job, <a href="#page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Mazarin, Cardinal, <a href="#page_154">154</a> f., <a href= +"#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href= +"#page_232">232</a></li> + +<li>Mechlin, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, <a href="#page_5">5</a>, <a +href="#page_10">10</a>, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, <a href= +"#page_17">17</a>, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href= +"#page_32">32</a>, <a href="#page_53">53</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Medemblik, <a href="#page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Medina-Coeli, Duke of, <a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page_56"></a></li> + +<li>Medway, the, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href= +"#page_252">252</a></li> + +<li>Meer, Jan van der, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Meerman, John, <a href="#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Meeus, Ferdinand, <a href="#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>Meghem, Count of, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href= +"#page_37">37</a>, <a href="#page_39">39</a> f., <a href= +"#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Melliton, General, <a href="#page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Mendoça Furdado, Diogo de, <a href= +"#page_167">167</a></li> + +<li>Mendoza, Admiral of Aragon, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a +href="#page_102">102</a></li> + +<li>Menin, <a href="#page_290">290</a>, <a href= +"#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Mennonites, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, <a href= +"#page_185">185</a></li> + +<li>Mercantile Marine, Dutch, formation of, +<a href="#page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Merchant Adventurers, Fellowship of, <a href= +"#page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Mérode, Count Felix de, <a href="#page_392">392</a> f., <a +href="#page_395">395</a></li> + +<li>Mesdag, Hendrik, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Mesnager, <a href="#page_295">295</a></li> + +<li>Metzu, Gabriel, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Meurs, <a href="#page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#page_102">102</a></li> + +<li>Meuse, the, +<a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_74">74</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#page_144">144</a>, +<a href="#page_146">146</a>, +<a href="#page_288">288</a>, +<a href="#page_361">361</a>, +<a href="#page_368">368</a> f., +<a href="#page_399">399</a> f., +<a href="#page_402">402</a></li> + +<li>Mexico, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Meyer, envoy, <a href="#page_345">345</a> f.</li> + +<li>Michigan, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> + +<li>Middelburg, <a href="#page_51">51</a>, <a href= +"#page_58">58</a>, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a href= +"#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_160">160</a>, <a href= +"#page_247">247</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, f., <a href= +"#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Midderigh, revolutionary leader, <a href="#page_349">349</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Middle kingdom, restoration of, <a href="#page_1">1</a>, f., <a +href="#page_7">7</a> f.</li> + +<li>Mijer, colonial minister, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Milan, <a href="#page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Milanese, the, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href= +"#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Military service, <a href="#page_362">362</a>, <a href= +"#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Million de l'industrie, the, <a href="#page_383">383</a></li> + +<li>Milton, John, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a href= +"#page_193">193</a></li> + +<li>Miranda, General, <a href="#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>Mississippi Company, <a href="#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>Moerdijk, the, <a href="#page_341">341</a>,</li> + +<li>Mohacs, battle of, <a href="#page_20">20</a>,</li> + +<li>Moluccas, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_124">124</a> f., <a href= +"#page_160">160-163</a>, <a href="#page_233">233</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a> f., <a href="#page_330">330</a>, <a href= +"#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Moncontour, battle of, <a href="#page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Mondragon, Spanish commander, <a href="#page_58">58</a> f., <a +href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a>, <a href= +"#page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Monk, commanding English fleet, <a href="#page_219">219</a> f., +<a href="#page_239">239-242</a></li> + +<li>Monmouth, commanding English force, <a href= +"#page_264">264</a></li> + +<li>Monnikendam, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_207">207</a></li> + +<li>Mons, <a href="#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_70">70</a>, <a +href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a> f., <a href= +"#page_293">293</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Mont-Cassel, <a href="#page_263">263</a></li> + +<li>Montesquieu, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Montigny, the lord of, <a href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href= +"#page_34">34</a>, <a href="#page_39">39</a>, <a href= +"#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_71">71</a>,</li> + +<li>Montmorency, Philip de, Count of Hoorn, Admiral of Flanders, <a +href="#page_31">31</a>, <a href="#page_33">33</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_37">37</a>, <a href="#page_41">47</a>, ff., <a href= +"#page_45"></a> f., <a href="#page_68">68</a></li> + +<li>Montpensier, Duke of, <a href="#page_61">61</a>,</li> + +<li>Mook, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, <a href="#page_66">66</a>, <a +href="#page_272">272</a></li> + +<li>Morat, battle at, <a href="#page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Moreau, General, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Morgan, Colonel, <a href="#page_146">146</a> f.</li> + +<li>Moscow, <a href="#page_364">364</a></li> + +<li>Moucheron, Balthazar de, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Mouture</i>, +<a href="#page_382">382</a>, +<a href="#page_385">385</a>f.</li> + +<li>Mozambique, the, <a href="#page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Muiden, <a href="#page_195">195</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_251">251</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Muidener Kring</i>, <a href="#page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Mulder, Staffel, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>"Multatuli" (Douwes Dekker), +<a href="#page_415">415</a>, +<a href="#page_432">432</a> +</li> + +<li>Münster, <a href="#page_22">22</a>, +<a href="#page_238">238</a> f., +<a href="#page_248">248</a> f., +<a href="#page_252">252</a> f., +<a href="#page_258">258</a> f., +<a href="#page_261">261</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">congress of, <a href="#page_156">156</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaty of (1648), +<a href="#page_157">157</a>f., +<a href="#page_165">165</a>, +<a href="#page_177">177</a>, +<a href="#page_186">186</a>, +<a href="#page_202">202</a>, +<a href="#page_205">205</a>, +<a href="#page_280">280</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Muscovy, <a href="#page_301">301</a>,</li> + +<li>Music, modern development of, <a href="#page_201">201</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Naarden, <a href="#page_55">55</a> f., <a href= +"#page_258">258</a> f.</li> + +<li>Namur, <a href="#page_2">2</a>, <a href="#page_9">9</a>, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a>, <a href="#page_67">67</a> f., <a href= +"#page_71">71</a>, <a href="#page_149">149</a>, <a href= +"#page_228">228</a>, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page_297">297</a>, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href= +"#page_378">378</a></li> + +<li>Nancy, <a href="#page_8">8</a> f.</li> + +<li>Nantes, the Edict of, Revocation of, <a href= +"#page_269">269</a></li> + +<li>Naples, <a href="#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, +<a href="#page_390">390</a>,</li> + +<li>Napoleon III, <a href="#page_417">417</a></li> + +<li>Napoleon Bonaparte, <a href="#page_353">353-364</a>, <a href= +"#page_371">371</a>, f., <a href="#page_376">376</a>, <a href= +"#page_379">379</a>, <a href="#page_384">384</a></li> + +<li>Napoleon Louis, <a href="#page_361">361</a>,</li> + +<li>Nassau, <a href="#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Nassau river, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li><i>Nassauische Erbverein</i>, the, <a href= +"#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Nassau-Siegen, house of, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href= +"#page_138">138</a></li> + +<li><i>National</i>, the, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_389">389</a> f.</li> + +<li>National Assembly, formation of, <a href="#page_348">348</a> +ff.</li> + +<li>Navigation Act, <a href="#page_214">214</a>, <a href= +"#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_242">242</a> f., <a href= +"#page_274">274</a></li> + +<li>Nederlandsche Handelsmaatschappij, De, <a href= +"#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Neer, Aart van der, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Neerwinden, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page_341">341</a></li> + +<li>Negapatam, <a href="#page_328">328</a>, <a href= +"#page_330">330</a>,</li> + +<li>Negro slave trade, <a href="#page_276">276</a></li> + +<li>Negumbo, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Netherland confession, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Netherlands, the revolt of, <a href="#page_47">47-68</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">formation of the kingdom of, <a href= +"#page_367">367-375</a>, <a href="#page_376">376-388</a></li> + +<li>Netscher, Caspar, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Neuss, battle at, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Nevers, <a href="#page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>New Amsterdam, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>New England, <a href="#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>New Guinea, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>"New Lighters", <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>New</li> + +<li>Netherland, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page_177">177</a>, <a href="#page_235">235</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Company of, <a href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>New South Wales, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>New York, <a href="#page_261">261</a>, <a href="#page_325">325</a>, +<a href="#page_343">343</a></li> + +<li>New Zealand, <a href="#page_164">164</a> f.</li> + +<li>Newfoundland, <a href="#page_166">166</a>, <a href= +"#page_325">325</a></li> + +<li>Ney, commanding French force, <a href="#page_371">371</a></li> + +<li>Neyen, Father John, <a href="#page_106">106</a>, <a href= +"#page_108">108</a></li> + +<li>Nicholas II, Tsar, <a href="#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Nicolas de Harnes, <a href="#page_36">36</a></li> + +<li>Nieuport, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>f., <a +href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href="#page_318">318</a></li> + +<li>Nieuwenaar, Count, stadholder, <a href="#page_83">83</a>, <a +href="#page_86">86</a>, <a href="#page_91">91</a></li> + +<li>Nieuwenhuis, Domela, +<a href="#page_421">421</a> f., +<a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Nieuwerbrug, <a href="#page_259">259</a></li> + +<li>Nieuwpoort, <a href="#page_222">222 ff.</a></li> + +<li>Nijmwegen, <a href="#page_92">92</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_263">263</a> ff., <a +href="#page_287">287</a>, <a href="#page_299">299</a>, <a href= +"#page_333">333</a>, <a href="#page_335">335</a>, <a href= +"#page_341">341</a>, <a href="#page_360">360</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaty of (1678), <a href= +"#page_265">265-268</a>, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page_280">280</a>,</li> + +<li>Nobles, league of, <a href="#page_33">33-38</a>, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Noël, French ambassador, <a href="#page_348">348</a> +ff.</li> + +<li>Noircarmes, royalist noble, <a href="#page_44">44</a></li> + +<li>Nördlingen, battle of, <a href="#page_148">148</a></li> + +<li>Nore, the, <a href="#page_243">243</a></li> + +<li>Norrköping, <a href="#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>North American colonies, British, revolt of, <a href= +"#page_322">322 f.</a></li> + +<li>North Brabant, <a href="#page_144">144</a>, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_185">185</a>, <a href= +"#page_258">258</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a></li> + +<li>North Holland, <a href="#page_56">56</a>, <a href= +"#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>North Holland Canal, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>North Quarter, the, <a href="#page_87">87</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_159">159</a></li> + +<li>Northern or Greenland Company, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a +href="#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>Nova Zembla, <a href="#page_124">124</a></li> + +<li>Nyborg, <a href="#page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Nymphenburg, <a href="#page_307">307</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Obdam, <i>see</i> Wassenaer</li> + +<li>Oberstein, Count, <a href="#page_66">66</a></li> + +<li><i>Observateur</i>, the, <a href="#page_385">385</a></li> + +<li>Ogle, Colonel, <a href="#page_133">133</a></li> + +<li>Oldenbarneveldt, John van, Advocate, pensionary, <a href= +"#page_83">83</a>, <a href="#page_85">85-91</a>, <a href= +"#page_96">96</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, ff., <a href= +"#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_127">127-138</a>, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>, ff., <a href="#page_165">165</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a>, <a href= +"#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_257">257</a></li> + +<li>Oldenzaal, <a href="#page_96">96</a>, <a href= +"#page_104">104</a></li> + +<li>Olinda, <a href="#page_171">171</a> f., <a href= +"#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Oliva, peace of, <a href="#page_231">231</a></li> + +<li>Ommelanden, <a href="#page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Ondaatje, party leader, <a href="#page_333">333</a></li> + +<li>Oostergoo, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Ootmarsum, <a href="#page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Oquendo, Antonio de, Admiral, <a href="#page_151">151</a> f., <a +href="#page_173">173</a> ff</li> + +<li>Orange, Princes of, <i>see</i> Fred. Henry,</li> + +<li>Maurice, Philip William, William</li> + +<li>Orange-</li> + +<li>Nassau, house of, <a href="#page_115">115</a> f., <a href= +"#page_396">396</a> f., <a href="#page_421">421</a>, <a href= +"#page_423">423</a>, <a href="#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Orchies, <a href="#page_21">21</a>, <a href= +"#page_71">71</a></li> + +<li>Orinoco, the, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Orleans, Duke of, <i>see</i> Louis Philippe</li> + +<li>Orloff, Count Alexis, <a href="#page_401">401</a></li> + +<li>Ormonde, Duke of, <a href="#page_289">289</a>, <a href= +"#page_295">295</a> f.</li> + +<li>Ostade, Adrian van, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Ostade, Isaac van, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Ostend, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>ff., +<a href="#page_290">290</a>, +<a href="#page_292">292</a>, +<a href="#page_302">302</a>, +<a href="#page_308">308</a>, +<a href="#page_310">310</a>, +<a href="#page_318">318</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a></li> + +<li>Ostend Company, <a href="#page_302">302 f.</a></li> + +<li>Otto, branch of house of</li> + +<li>Nassau, <a href="#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Oudenarde, <a href="#page_291">291</a>, <a href="#page_309">309</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Oudinot,</li> + +<li>Marshal, <a href="#page_359">359</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Ouwerkerk, field-marshal, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Overyssel, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Oxenstierna, Axel, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#page_179">179-182</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Oxford, Earl of, Colonel, <a href="#page_147">147</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Painting, art of, <a href="#page_199">199</a> f., <a href= +"#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Palembang, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Palmerston, Lord, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href= +"#page_400">400-403</a></li> + +<li><i>Pangeran</i>, the, native ruler, <a href= +"#page_161">161</a></li> + +<li>Pappenheim, commanding Imperialist army, <a href= +"#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Para, <a href="#page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Paris,<i>passim</i>;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaties of, <a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a +href="#page_369">369</a>, <a href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href= +"#page_376">376</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a></li> + +<li>Parker, Hyde, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_329">329</a></li> + +<li>Parma, <a href="#page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Partition treaties, <a href="#page_281">281 f.</a></li> + +<li>Pater, Adrian Jansz, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page_173">173</a> f.</li> + +<li>Patrician oligarchy, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href= +"#page_300">300</a>, <a href="#page_304">304</a>, <a href= +"#page_315">315</a>, <a href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href= +"#page_344">344</a></li> + +<li>Patriot party, <a href="#page_332">332-336</a>, <a href= +"#page_344">344</a></li> + +<li>Paul IV,</li> + +<li>Pope, <a href="#page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Paul of Russia, Emperor, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Paulus,</li> + +<li>Pieter, <a href="#page_344">344</a>, <a href= +"#page_347">347</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Pauw, Adrian, pensionary, <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#page_148">148</a>, <a href="#page_157">157</a>, <a href= +"#page_204">204</a>, <a href="#page_209">209</a>, <a href= +"#page_214">214</a> f., <a href="#page_218">218</a></li> + +<li>Pauw, Reinier, <a href="#page_131">131</a>, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>"Pays de par deçà", <a href="#page_3">3</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Peace Congress, the first (1899), <a href= +"#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Pecquinius, Chancellor of Brabant, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>,</li> + +<li>Peñaranda, Spanish envoy, <a href= +"#page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Penn, naval commander, <a href="#page_216">216</a></li> + +<li>Pennington, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_151">151f.</a></li> + +<li>Pernambuco, <a href="#page_171">171</a>, <a href= +"#page_173">173</a>f.</li> + +<li>"Perpetual Edict," the, <a href="#page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Perre,</li> + +<li>Paulus van der, <a href="#page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Perrenot,</li> + +<li>Nicholas, <a href="#page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Peru, <a href="#page_170">170</a>, <a href= +"#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Peter the Great, Tsar, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Philibert,</li> + +<li>Prince of Orange-Châlons, <a href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>Philip II of Spain, +<a href="#page_6">6</a>, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, +<a href="#page_25">25-36</a>, +<a href="#page_39">39-42</a>, +<a href="#page_45">45</a>, +<a href="#page_47">47</a> ff., +<a href="#page_49">49</a>, +<a href="#page_52">52</a>, +<a href="#page_57">57</a>, +<a href="#page_61">61-64</a>, +<a href="#page_67">67</a>, +<a href="#page_70">70</a>, +<a href="#page_73">73-76</a>, +<a href="#page_80">80</a>, +<a href="#page_83">83</a> f., +<a href="#page_86">86</a>, +<a href="#page_92">92</a> ff., +<a href="#page_96">96</a> f., +<a href="#page_99">99</a>, +<a href="#page_183">183</a>, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>, +<a href="#page_281">281</a></li> + +<li>Philip III of Spain, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>,</li> + +<li>Philip IV of Spain, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#page_170">170</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a> f., <a href= +"#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Philip V of Spain, <a href="#page_282">282</a> f., <a href= +"#page_286">286</a>, <a href="#page_290">290-293</a>, <a href= +"#page_296">296</a> f., <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Philip de</li> + +<li>Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde, <a href="#page_36">36</a>, <a +href="#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, <a href= +"#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_56">56</a> f., <a href= +"#page_77">77</a>, <a href="#page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Philip of Anjou, Duke, <a href="#page_281">281</a> f., <a href= +"#page_291">291</a></li> + +<li>Philip of Baden, Bishop of Utrecht, <a href= +"#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Philip of Cleef, <a href="#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Philip of Hesse, <a href="#page_33">33</a>, <a href= +"#page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Philip of St</li> + +<li>Pol, <a href="#page_2">2</a></li> + +<li>Philip the Fair, Archduke, <a href="#page_11">11-17</a>, <a +href="#page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Philip the Good, <a href="#page_1">1</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_5">5</a> ff., <a href="#page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Philip the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, <a href= +"#page_1">1f.</a></li> + +<li>Philip William, Count of Buren,</li> + +<li>Prince of Orange, <a href="#page_30">30</a>, <a href= +"#page_44">44</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href= +"#page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Philippines, the, <a href="#page_106">106</a></li> + +<li>Picardy, <a href="#page_9">9</a>, <a href= +"#page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Piccolomini, commanding Imperialist troops, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Pichegru, commander, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Piedmont, <a href="#page_293">293</a></li> + +<li>Pierson, N.G., <a href="#page_423">423</a> f., <a href= +"#page_426">426</a></li> + +<li>Pijman, Minister of War, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Pitt, <a href="#page_341">341</a></li> + +<li>Pius IV,</li> + +<li>Pope, <a href="#page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Pius IX,</li> + +<li>Pope, <a href="#page_412">412 f.</a></li> + +<li>Plancius,</li> + +<li>Petrus, <a href="#page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Plessis-les-Tours (1580), <a href="#page_74">74</a>, <a href= +"#page_76">76</a></li> + +<li>Plymouth, <a href="#page_217">217</a></li> + +<li>Poeloe-Rum, <a href="#page_162">162</a>, <a href= +"#page_233">233</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a></li> + +<li>Poictiers, battle of, <a href="#page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Pondicherry, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Portland, <a href="#page_218">218</a></li> + +<li>Portsmouth, <a href="#page_324">324</a></li> + +<li>Potgieter, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> + +<li>Potter, Louis de, <a href="#page_385">385</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_395">395</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Lettre de Démophile au Roi</i> of, <a +href="#page_386">386</a></li> + +<li>Potter,</li> + +<li>Paul, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Povo, or the Reciff, <a href="#page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Pozo, <a href="#page_171">171 f.</a></li> + +<li>"Pragmatic Army," the, <a href="#page_308">308</a> f.</li> + +<li>Pragmatic Sanction, the, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Prague, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>"Precisians", <a href="#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Press laws, <a href="#page_384">384</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_391">391</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a></li> + +<li>Price, Richard, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Priestley, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Primary education, <a href="#page_355">355</a>, <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_409">409</a>, <a href= +"#page_414">414</a>, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, <a href= +"#page_422">422</a>, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href= +"#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Prins Willem, ship, <a href="#page_173">173</a> f.</li> + +<li>Prinsenhof, Delft, <a href="#page_79">79</a> f.</li> + +<li>Provincial Estates, powers and functions of, <a href= +"#page_112">112 ff.</a></li> + +<li>Provintie van Utrecht, ship, <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Prussian invasion, <a href="#page_335">335</a> f.</li> + +<li>Pultova, <a href="#page_301">301</a></li> + +<li>Purmerend, <a href="#page_113">113</a></li> + +<li>Putte, Fransen van de, <a href="#page_416">416</a>, <a href= +"#page_419">419</a></li> + +<li>Putten, <a href="#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Pyrenees, peace of the (1659), <a href="#page_228">228</a>, <a +href="#page_231">231</a> f., <a href="#page_274">274</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Quadruple Alliance, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Quatre Bras, <a href="#page_371">371</a> f., <a href= +"#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Quesnoy, <a href="#page_295">295</a> f.</li> + +<li><i>Quotisatie</i>, <a href="#page_4">4</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Raad-Pensionaris, powers and functions of, <a href= +"#page_117">117</a></li> + +<li>Railways, <a href="#page_415">415</a></li> + +<li>Ramel, member of National Convention, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>Ramillies, <a href="#page_290">290</a>,</li> + +<li>Rammekens, <a href="#page_84">84</a>, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Rastatt, peace of (1714), <a href="#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Ratisbon, truce of (1684), <a href="#page_268">268</a></li> + +<li>Reading-societies, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Reciff, the, <a href="#page_171">171-175</a>, <a href= +"#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>"Reduction, Treaty of", <a href="#page_93">93</a></li> + +<li>Reformation movements, <a href="#page_2">2 ff.</a></li> + +<li>"Reformed" congregations, <a href="#page_128">128</a></li> + +<li>Regnier, lord of Groeneveldt, <a href="#page_140">140</a>,</li> + +<li>Reingoud, Jacques, <a href="#page_86">86</a></li> + +<li>Reinierz, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Rembrandt van</li> + +<li>Rhyn, <a href="#page_199">199</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Remonstrants, <a href="#page_129">129</a>, <a href= +"#page_132">132</a> f., <a href="#page_136">136</a> f., <a href= +"#page_142">142</a>, <a href="#page_193">193</a></li> + +<li>Remonstratie, <a href="#page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Réné of Lorraine, Duke, <a href="#page_8">8</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Réné of Nassau, <a href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Repartìtie</i>, <a href="#page_111">111</a></li> + +<li>Repelaer, envoy, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Requesens, <a href="#page_61">61</a> f., <a href= +"#page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>"Request," the, <a href="#page_37">37</a> f.</li> + +<li><i>Reveil</i> movement, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Rewbell, plenipotentiary, <a href="#page_345">345</a> f.</li> + +<li>Rheims, <a href="#page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Rheinberg, <a href="#page_95">95</a>, <a href= +"#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href= +"#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Rhetoric, Chambers of, <a href="#page_190">190</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Rhine, the, +<a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_62">62</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_102">102</a>, +<a href="#page_119">119</a>, +<a href="#page_149">149</a>, +<a href="#page_288">288</a>, +<a href="#page_291">291</a>, +<a href="#page_293">293</a>, +<a href="#page_358">358</a>, +<a href="#page_361">361</a>, +<a href="#page_368">368</a>, +<a href="#page_371">371</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Rhineland, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href= +"#page_49">49</a>, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page_139">139</a></li> + +<li>Ricardot, president of the Privy Council, <a href= +"#page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>Richelieu, Cardinal, <a href="#page_142">142</a> f., <a href= +"#page_148">148</a> f., <a href="#page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Rights of Man, the, <a href="#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, <a href="#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Rio Grande, the, <a href="#page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Rio Negro, the, <a href="#page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Ripperda, ambassador, <a href="#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Ripperda, Calvinist leader, <a href="#page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Robert de la Marck, <a href="#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Rochefoucault, <a href="#page_360">360</a>,</li> + +<li>Rochussen, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Rochussen, J.J., <a href="#page_415">415</a></li> + +<li>Rocroi, <a href="#page_155">155</a></li> + +<li>Roda, <a href="#page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Rodney, Admiral, <a href="#page_327">327</a>, <a href= +"#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Roëll, Jonkheer Johan, <a href="#page_424">424</a></li> + +<li>Roëll, Minister of Foreign Affairs, <a href= +"#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li>Roemerswaal, <a href="#page_14">14</a>, <a href= +"#page_58">58</a></li> + +<li>Roeremonde, <a href="#page_53">53</a> f., <a href= +"#page_146">146</a>, <a href="#page_288">288</a>, <a href= +"#page_413">413</a></li> + +<li>Roeskilde, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Rogier, Charles, <a href="#page_393">393</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Rome, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a +href="#page_419">419</a></li> + +<li>Ronkens, burgomaster, <a href="#page_299">299</a></li> + +<li>Rooke, Sir George, Admiral, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Rotterdam, <a href="#page_12">12</a>, +<a href="#page_59">59</a>, +<a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a> f., +<a href="#page_112">112</a>, +<a href="#page_118">118</a>, +<a href="#page_129">129</a>, +<a href="#page_131">131</a>, +<a href="#page_136">136</a> f., +<a href="#page_159">159</a>, +<a href="#page_300">300</a>, +<a href="#page_334">334</a>, +<a href="#page_341">341</a>, +<a href="#page_364">364</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Roucoux, <a href="#page_310">310</a>,</li> + +<li>Rouillé, French agent, <a href="#page_290">290</a>,</li> + +<li>Rouppe, burgomaster, <a href="#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>Rousseau, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href= +"#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Royal Academies of the Arts, <a href="#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li>Royal African Company, <a href="#page_234">234</a></li> + +<li><i>Royal Charles</i>, flag-ship, <a href= +"#page_243">243</a></li> + +<li><i>Royal James</i>, flag-ship, <a href="#page_252">252</a></li> + +<li>Royal Netherland Institute for Science, Letters and the Fine +Arts, <a href="#page_358">358</a></li> + +<li>Rudolph II, Emperor, <a href="#page_119">119</a></li> + +<li>Rump Parliament, the, <a href="#page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Rupert, Prince, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href= +"#page_239">239-242</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a></li> + +<li>Russell, Admiral, <a href="#page_271">271</a></li> + +<li>Russian trade, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_275">275</a>, <a href= +"#page_301">301</a></li> + +<li>Ruysch, Nicholas, <a href="#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Ruysdael, Jacob, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Ruyter, Michael Adriansz de, Admiral, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, +<a href="#page_216">216</a> ff., +<a href="#page_219">219</a> f., +<a href="#page_228">228</a> f., +<a href="#page_231">231</a>, +<a href="#page_234">234</a> f., +<a href="#page_237">237</a> f., +<a href="#page_240">240</a>, f., +<a href="#page_243">243</a>, +<a href="#page_252">252</a>, +<a href="#page_259">259</a>, +<a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Ryswyck, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href= +"#page_140">140</a>, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, ;</li> + +<li class="indent">peace of, <a href="#page_280">280</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Saba, <a href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Sadowa, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Saftingen, <a href="#page_331">331</a></li> + +<li>Sainte Aldegonde, <i>see</i> Philip de Marnix</li> + +<li>Salamanca, <a href="#page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Saldanha bay, <a href="#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Sallant, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Salmasius, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>San Francisco fort, <a href="#page_171">171 f.</a></li> + +<li>San Jorge fort, <a href="#page_171">171 f.</a></li> + +<li>San</li> + +<li>Salvador, <a href="#page_167">167</a> ff.</li> + +<li>San Thomé de Guiana, <a href="#page_170">170</a>,</li> + +<li>Sandwich, Earl of, <a href="#page_237">237</a></li> + +<li>Sasbout, councillor of state, <a href="#page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Sas-van-Gent, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href= +"#page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Savoy, <a href="#page_286">286</a>, <a href= +"#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Saxe, Maurice de, Marshal, <a href="#page_309">309-312</a></li> + +<li>Saxe-Weimar, Duke of, <a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Saxony, <a href="#page_272">272</a></li> + +<li>Scaliger, Josephus Justus, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Schaep, Gerard, <a href="#page_204">204</a>, <a href= +"#page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Schaepman, Dr, <a href="#page_422">422</a>, <a href= +"#page_424">424</a> f.</li> + +<li>Scheffer, artist, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Scheldt, the, +<a href="#page_23">23</a>, +<a href="#page_79">79</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_89">89</a>f., +<a href="#page_150">150</a>, f., +<a href="#page_156">156</a>, +<a href="#page_158">158</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>, +<a href="#page_259">259</a>, +<a href="#page_311">311</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a>, f., +<a href="#page_359">359</a>, +<a href="#page_361">361</a>, +<a href="#page_379">379</a>, +<a href="#page_399">399</a>, +<a href="#page_401">401</a> f., +<a href="#page_428">428</a></li> + +<li>Schenck, <a href="#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li><i>Schepens</i>, or sheriffs, <a href="#page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Scheveningen, <a href="#page_155">155</a>, <a href= +"#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_232">232</a>, <a href= +"#page_343">343</a>, <a href="#page_366">366</a></li> + +<li>Schiedam, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href= +"#page_207">207</a></li> + +<li>Schieringers, <a href="#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Schimmelpenninck, Count, <a href="#page_408">408</a> f.</li> + +<li>Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan, council-pensionary, <a href= +"#page_344">344</a>, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href= +"#page_353">353-356</a></li> + +<li>Schleswig, <a href="#page_181">181</a></li> + +<li>Scholte, preacher, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Schomberg, Marshal, <a href="#page_272">272</a></li> + +<li>Schönbrunn, treaty of, <a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Schonen, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Schools, <a href="#page_414">414</a> f., <a href= +"#page_420">420</a>, <a href="#page_422">422</a> f., <a href= +"#page_425">425</a> ff., <a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Schoonhoven, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href= +"#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Schouburg (theatre), the, Amsterdam, <a href= +"#page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Schout, or chief judge, <a href="#page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Schouten, Willem, <a href="#page_168">168</a></li> + +<li>Schouwen, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Schutterij, <a href="#page_255">255</a> f.</li> + +<li>Schuurman, Anna Maria, <a href="#page_197">197</a> f.</li> + +<li>Scribe and Auber, <i>La Muette de Portici</i> of, <a href= +"#page_390">390</a>,</li> + +<li>"Sea Terror of Delft," the, <a href="#page_169">169</a></li> + +<li>Secondary and technical education, <a href="#page_416">416</a>, +<a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Seeland, <a href="#page_230">230</a>,</li> + +<li>Selden, <i>Mare clausum</i> of, <a href= +"#page_189">189</a></li> + +<li>Sémonville, French ambassador, <a href= +"#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>Seneff, <a href="#page_262">262</a></li> + +<li>Senlis, treaty of (1493), <a href="#page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>"Separatists," the (<i>de Afgescheidenen</i>), <a href= +"#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Seraing, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page_383">383</a></li> + +<li><i>Settinge</i>, <a href="#page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Seven Bishops, acquittal of (1688), <a href= +"#page_271">271</a></li> + +<li>Seven Years' War, <a href="#page_320">320</a>, <a href= +"#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Seventeen, College of the, <a href="#page_100">100</a>,</li> + +<li>"Sharp Resolution," the, <a href="#page_131">131</a></li> + +<li>Sheerness, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href= +"#page_273">273</a></li> + +<li>Shetlands, the, <a href="#page_216">216</a></li> + +<li>Ship-money, <a href="#page_215">215</a></li> + +<li>Siam, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Sicilies, the two, <a href="#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Sidney,</li> + +<li>Sir Philip, <a href="#page_87">87</a></li> + +<li>Siegen, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Siéyès, <a href="#page_345">345</a> f.</li> + +<li>Sigismund of Austria, Duke, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Silesia, <a href="#page_306">306</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Simonszoon, Menno, <a href="#page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Six, burgomaster, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Skagerak, the, <a href="#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Slaak, the, <a href="#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Slangenburg, General, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Slave trade, <a href="#page_276">276</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">abolition of, <a href="#page_415">415</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Slingelandt, pensionary, <a href="#page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Sluis, +<a href="#page_12">12</a> f., +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_89">89</a>, +<a href="#page_103">103</a>, +<a href="#page_254">254</a>, +<a href="#page_311">311</a>, +<a href="#page_330">330</a>, +<a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Social Contract, the, <a href="#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Social-Democratic Bond, the, <a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>"Social-Democratic Workmen's Party," the, <a href= +"#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>"Socialist Bond," the, <a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Sommelsdijk, lord of, <i>see</i> Aerssens</li> + +<li>Sonoy, Diedrich, stadholder, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, <a +href="#page_87">87</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Sophie, Queen, <a href="#page_417">417</a>, <a href= +"#page_421">421</a></li> + +<li>Sound, the, <a href="#page_180">180</a>, ff., <a href= +"#page_229">229</a> ff.</li> + +<li>South Beveland, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>South Brabant, <a href="#page_383">383</a></li> + +<li>South Holland, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page_60">60</a>, <a href="#page_62">62</a>, <a href= +"#page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>South</li> + +<li>Sea Company, <a href="#page_301">301</a></li> + +<li>Southampton, treaty of (1625), <a href="#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Southwold bay, <a href="#page_237">237</a>, <a href= +"#page_252">252</a></li> + +<li>Spa, <a href="#page_93">93</a></li> + +<li>"Spanish Fury," the, <a href="#page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Spanish Succession, War of the, <a href="#page_280">280</a>, +ff., <a href="#page_285">285-297</a>, <a href= +"#page_299">299</a></li> + +<li><i>Spectateur Belge</i>, the, <a href="#page_384">384</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Spice trade, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_161">161</a> ff., <a href="#page_276">276</a></li> + +<li>Spiegel, Hendrik Laurensz, <a href="#page_191">191f.</a></li> + +<li>Spinola, Ambrosio de, <a href="#page_103">103</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href= +"#page_139">139</a> f., <a href="#page_145">145</a>, <a href= +"#page_150">150</a>,</li> + +<li>Spinoza, Baruch, <a href="#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Spinozan system, the, <a href="#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Spitsbergen, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page_123">123</a> f., <a href="#page_143">143</a>, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>St Agatha, convent of, <a href="#page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>St Anthony fort, <a href="#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>St Antonio de Padua, <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>St Bartholomew, massacre of, <a href="#page_53">53</a>, <a +href="#page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>St Denis, <a href="#page_265">265</a></li> + +<li>St Dizier, <a href="#page_30">30</a>,</li> + +<li>St Eustatius, <a href="#page_323">323</a>, <a href= +"#page_327">327</a></li> + +<li>St Germain, <a href="#page_283">283</a></li> + +<li>St Germain-en-Laye, <a href="#page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>St Isabella fort, <a href="#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li><i>St Jago</i>, ship, <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>St John, Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke, <a href= +"#page_294">294</a> f.</li> + +<li>St John, Oliver, <a href="#page_212">212 ff.</a></li> + +<li>St Martin, <a href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>St Omer, <a href="#page_40">40</a>,</li> + +<li>St Quentin, battle at (1557), <a href="#page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>St Trond, <a href="#page_39">39</a></li> + +<li>St Venant, <a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>St Vincent, <a href="#page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Stad en Landen, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#page_111">111</a></li> + +<li>Stadholders, powers and functions of, <a href= +"#page_4">4</a>f., <a href="#page_115">115</a> f.</li> + +<li>Stair, Lord, <a href="#page_307">307</a></li> + +<li><i>Standdard, De</i>, <a href="#page_420">420</a>,</li> + +<li>Stanley,</li> + +<li>Sir William, <a href="#page_87">87</a> f.</li> + +<li>Staten river, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>States-Flanders, <a href="#page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>States-General, constitution of, <a href="#page_3">3</a> f., <a +href="#page_111">111</a> f., <a href="#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>Steen, Jan, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Steenbergen, <a href="#page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Steenwijk, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#page_258">258</a></li> + +<li>Steinkirk, <a href="#page_279">279</a></li> + +<li>Stevin,</li> + +<li>Simon, <a href="#page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Steyn, council-pensionary, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, <a +href="#page_318">318</a> f.</li> + +<li>Stock-dealing, <a href="#page_322">322</a></li> + +<li>Stockholm, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a>, <a +href="#page_230">230</a></li> + +<li>Stoke, Melis, <a href="#page_190">190</a>,</li> + +<li>Story, Rear-Admiral, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Strafford, Earl of, <a href="#page_152">152</a></li> + +<li>Strafford, Lord, <a href="#page_295">295</a></li> + +<li>Strasburg, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href= +"#page_280">280</a>,</li> + +<li>Strickland, Walter, <a href="#page_203">203</a> f., <a href= +"#page_212">212 f.</a></li> + +<li>Strickland, William, <a href="#page_154">154</a></li> + +<li>Stuyvesant, Peter, <a href="#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Suffren, French admiral, <a href="#page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Sugar plantations, <a href="#page_276">276</a>, <a href= +"#page_340">340</a>,</li> + +<li>Sumatra, <a href="#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Surat, <a href="#page_275">275</a></li> + +<li>Surinam, +<a href="#page_243">243</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_276">276</a>, +<a href="#page_327">327</a>, +<a href="#page_347">347</a>, +<a href="#page_416">416</a>, +<a href="#page_418">418</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Society of, <a href="#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li><i>Survivance Acte de</i> (1631), <a href="#page_145">145</a>, +<a href="#page_202">202</a></li> + +<li>Swammerdam, Jan, <a href="#page_199">199</a></li> + +<li>Sweden and Holland, relations of, <a href= +"#page_178">178-182</a></li> + +<li>Swedo-Dutch Company, <a href="#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Swiss Cantons, the, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li><i>Tableau sommaire des prétensions</i>, <a href= +"#page_330">330</a>,</li> + +<li>Tagus, the, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Tallard, Marshal, <a href="#page_288">288</a></li> + +<li>Talleyrand, <a href="#page_349">349</a>, <a href= +"#page_352">352</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a>, <a href= +"#page_400">400</a>, f.</li> + +<li>Tasman, Abel, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Tasmania, <a href="#page_164">164</a> f.</li> + +<li>Tasman's head, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Tasman's peninsula, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Tasso's <i>Gerusalemme Liberata</i>, Dutch translation of, <a +href="#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Téligny, Louise de, <i>see</i> Coligny</li> + +<li>Téligny,</li> + +<li>Sieur de, <a href="#page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Temple, Sir William, <a href="#page_244">244</a> f., <a href= +"#page_248">248</a> f., <a href="#page_265">265</a></li> + +<li>Ten Days' Campaign, <a href="#page_399">399</a> f., <a href= +"#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Terburg, Gerard, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Termonde, <a href="#page_53">53</a></li> + +<li>Ternate, <a href="#page_124">124</a>, <a href= +"#page_160">160</a>,</li> + +<li>Terneuzen, canal of, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Terschelling, island, <a href="#page_241">241</a></li> + +<li>Terscholen, <a href="#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Texel, the, <a href="#page_220">220</a>, <a href= +"#page_237">237</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href= +"#page_329">329</a>, <a href="#page_347">347</a>, <a href= +"#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Textile industries, <a href="#page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Thames, the, <a href="#page_238">238</a>, <a href= +"#page_241">241</a>, <a href="#page_243">243</a>, <a href= +"#page_252">252</a>, <a href="#page_259">259</a></li> + +<li>Thijssen, Marten, <a href="#page_173">173</a> f., <a href= +"#page_181">181 f.</a></li> + +<li>Thirty Years' War, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href= +"#page_143">143</a>, <a href="#page_148">148</a>, <a href= +"#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page_188">188</a>, <a href="#page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Tholen island, <a href="#page_146">146</a></li> + +<li>Thomas of Savoy, Prince, <a href="#page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Thorbecke, Johan Rudolf, +<a href="#page_408">408</a>, +<a href="#page_411">411</a> ff., +<a href="#page_415">415-419</a>, +<a href="#page_424">424</a>, +<a href="#page_430">430</a></li> + +<li>Tichelaer, barber, <a href="#page_255">255</a>, <a href= +"#page_257">257</a></li> + +<li>Tidor, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href= +"#page_160">160</a>,</li> + +<li>Tielemans, <a href="#page_387">387</a></li> + +<li>Tilburg, <a href="#page_410">410</a>,</li> + +<li>Tilly, Count, <a href="#page_255">255</a> f.</li> + +<li>Tilsit, peace of (1807), <a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Tonga islands, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Torbay, <a href="#page_273">273</a>, <a href= +"#page_277">277</a></li> + +<li>Torcy, French minister, <a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Torre, Count de, <a href="#page_175">175</a> f.</li> + +<li>Torrington, Admiral, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Torstensson, General, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href= +"#page_180">180</a>, ff.</li> + +<li>Toulon, <a href="#page_278">278</a>, <a href= +"#page_289">289</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Toulouse, Count of, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Tournay, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>, +<a href="#page_32">32</a>, +<a href="#page_40">40</a>, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>, +<a href="#page_293">293</a>, +<a href="#page_297">297</a>, +<a href="#page_309">309</a> f., +<a href="#page_380">380</a></li> + +<li>Tourville, Admiral, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Towerson, Gabriel, <a href="#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Trade and industries, prosperous state of, <a href= +"#page_6">6</a>, <a href="#page_23">23</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_120">120</a>, ff.</li> + +<li>Transvaal, <a href="#page_420">420</a>,</li> + +<li>Treaty of the XVIII Articles, <a href="#page_398">398</a> +ff.</li> + +<li>Treaty of the XXIV Articles, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, f., +<a href="#page_403">403</a></li> + +<li>Trent, Council of, <a href="#page_35">35</a> f.</li> + +<li>Treves, <a href="#page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Trevor, English ambassador, <a href="#page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Trier, <a href="#page_7">7</a> f.</li> + +<li>Trip, Elias, <a href="#page_178">178</a>, <a href= +"#page_182">182</a></li> + +<li>Triple Alliance, <a href="#page_245">245</a>, <a href= +"#page_248">248</a></li> + +<li>Troelstra, <a href="#page_425">425</a>, <a href= +"#page_427">427</a></li> + +<li>Tromp, Cornelis, <a href="#page_237">237</a> f., <a href= +"#page_240">240</a> f.</li> + +<li>Tromp, Martin, Admiral, <a href="#page_151">151</a> f., <a href= +"#page_175">175</a>, <a href="#page_194">194</a>, <a href= +"#page_216">216-220</a>, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Troubles, Council of, <a href="#page_43">43</a>, <a href= +"#page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Tulip mania, <a href="#page_184">184</a></li> + +<li>Turenne, General, <a href="#page_141">141</a>, <a href= +"#page_249">249</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href= +"#page_286">286</a></li> + +<li>Turkish advance, <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#page_287">287</a></li> + +<li>Turnhout, <a href="#page_95">95</a></li> + +<li>Tuscany, Grand Duchy of, <a href="#page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Twelve years' truce, <a href="#page_109">109</a> f., <a href= +"#page_119">119-126</a>, <a href="#page_139">139</a>, <a href= +"#page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Twente, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page_226">226</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Uilenburg, Saskia, <a href="#page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Uitgeest, Dirk Simonsz, <a href="#page_170">170</a>,</li> + +<li>Ulrum, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Union, Act of, Utrecht, <a href="#page_210">210</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Union</i>, the, association, <a href="#page_384">384</a> +f.</li> + +<li>United East-India Company, creation of, <a href= +"#page_100">100</a>,</li> + +<li>United States of Belgium, <a href="#page_338">338</a></li> + +<li>Universities, <a href="#page_60">60</a>, <a href= +"#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_187">187</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_380">380</a>, <a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Upper Gelderland, <a href="#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Usselincx, Willem, <a href="#page_165">165</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Utrecht, town, bishopric, and district of, <i>passim</i>;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaties of, +<a href="#page_285">285-301</a>, +<a href="#page_331">331;</a></li> + +<li class="indent">Union of, <a href="#page_72">72</a> f., <a href= +"#page_89">89</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">University of, <a href="#page_188">188</a>, <a +href="#page_190">190</a>, <a href="#page_380">380</a>, <a href= +"#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Uyttenbogaert, Johannes, <a href="#page_128">128</a>, <a href= +"#page_130">130</a>, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Valckenier, Gillis, <a href="#page_246">246</a>, <a href= +"#page_260">260</a>, <a href="#page_264">264</a>, <a href= +"#page_266">266</a> f.</li> + +<li>Valckenier, revolutionary leader, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Valdez, commander, <a href="#page_59">59</a> f.</li> + +<li>Valenciennes, <a href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_52">52</a> +f., <a href="#page_263">263</a></li> + +<li>Vallecilla, Francisco de,</li> + +<li>Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Valmy, <a href="#page_340">340</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Alphen river, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Van Asperen, <a href="#page_256">256</a></li> + +<li>Van Bankhem, banker, <a href="#page_256">256</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Berckel, burgomaster, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Van Beuningen, diplomatist, <a href="#page_230">230</a>, <a +href="#page_245">245</a> f., <a href="#page_248">248</a>, <a href= +"#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Beverningh, treasurer-general, +<a href="#page_221">221-224</a>, +<a href="#page_245">245</a>, +<a href="#page_258">258</a>, +<a href="#page_260">260</a>, +<a href="#page_264">264</a> f., +<a href="#page_267">267</a></li> + +<li>Van Blauw, envoy, <a href="#page_342">342</a>, <a href= +"#page_345">345</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Bylandt, Admiral, <a href="#page_324">324</a></li> + +<li>Van Dam, revolutionary leader, <a href="#page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Van de Spiegel of Goes, Laurens Pieter, council-pensionary, <a +href="#page_332">332</a>, <a href="#page_335">335-342</a></li> + +<li>Van de Weyer, envoy, <a href="#page_393">393</a>, <a href= +"#page_395">395</a>, <a href="#page_400">400</a>, <a href= +"#page_404">404</a></li> + +<li>Van den Berg, Count, stadholder, <a href="#page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Van den Bosch, General, <a href="#page_380">380</a>,</li> + +<li>Van der Capellen, <a href="#page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Van der Capellen tot de Pol, Jan Dirk, <a href= +"#page_323">323</a>, <a href="#page_327">327</a> f., <a href= +"#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Van der Capellen van den Marsch, <a href= +"#page_332">332ff.</a></li> + +<li>Van der Duyn van Maasdam, Baron, <a href="#page_364">364</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Van der Fosse, Baron, <a href="#page_390">390</a>,</li> + +<li>Van der Goes, <a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Van der Myle, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#page_127">127</a>, <a href="#page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Van der Straeten, advocate, <a href="#page_384">384</a></li> + +<li>Van Diemen, Antony, <a href="#page_164">164</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Diemen, Maria, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Van Diemen cape, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Van Diemen gulf, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Van Diemen river, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Van Diemen's Land, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Van Dussen, envoy, <a href="#page_294">294</a></li> + +<li>Van Eyk, Spenger, <a href="#page_424">424</a></li> + +<li>Van Galen, Jan, Admiral, <a href="#page_217">217</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Ghent, Admiral, <a href="#page_243">243</a></li> + +<li>Van Gogh,</li> + +<li>Vincent, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Van Haersolte, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Van Hagenbach, Peter, <a href="#page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Van Hall, F.A., <a href="#page_406">406</a>, <a href= +"#page_408">408</a>, <a href="#page_413">413</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Van Haren, Otto Zwier, <a href="#page_313">313</a>, <a href= +"#page_316">316</a></li> + +<li>Van Hasselt, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Van Heemskerk, J., <a href="#page_416">416</a> f., <a href= +"#page_419">419</a> ff., <a href="#page_422">422</a></li> + +<li>Van Heemskerk, Jacob, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page_106">106</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Van Heemstra, Baron S., <a href="#page_415">415</a></li> + +<li>Van Heyliger, governor of St Eustatius, <a href= +"#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Van Hoeft, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Van Hogelanden, Boreel, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> + +<li>Van Hogendorp, Gijsbert Karel, +<a href="#page_364">364-367</a>, +<a href="#page_372">372</a>, +<a href="#page_380">380</a></li> + +<li>Van Hoogstraeten, Samuel, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Hoornbeck, Isaac, pensionary, <a href= +"#page_300">300</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Hout, Jan, <a href="#page_60">60</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Houten, Samuel, <a href="#page_423">423</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Knuyt, plenipotentiary, <a href="#page_157">157</a></li> + +<li>Van Kol, <a href="#page_425">425</a></li> + +<li>Van Langen, member of Executive Council, <a href= +"#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Lennep, J., <a href="#page_192">192</a>, <a href= +"#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Van Limburg-Stirum, Count, <a href="#page_364">364</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Lynden van Sandenburg, Count, <a href="#page_420">420</a>, +f.</li> + +<li>Van Maanen, Minister of Justice, <a href="#page_358">358</a>, +<a href="#page_385">385-393</a></li> + +<li>Van Marle, leader of the federalists, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Van Meteren, chronicler, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Van Mieris, Frans, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Naaldwijk, Jan, <a href="#page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Van Nagell, <a href="#page_369">369</a></li> + +<li>Van Neck, Jacob, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Van Noort, Olivier, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Van Odijk, Seigneur, <a href="#page_247">247</a>, <a href= +"#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_274">274</a></li> + +<li>Van Poortvliet,</li> + +<li>Tak, <a href="#page_423">423</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Prinsterer, G. Groen, <a href="#page_411">411</a>, <a href= +"#page_414"></a> f., <a href="#page_419">419</a>, <a href= +"#page_424">424</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Raalte, preacher, <a href="#page_408">408</a></li> + +<li>Van Rechteren, Count, <a href="#page_301">301</a></li> + +<li>Van Reigersberg, Nicholas, <a href="#page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Van Rheede, Godard, lord of Amerongen, <a href= +"#page_267">267</a></li> + +<li>Van Rhoon, Count Bentinck, <a href="#page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Van Rhyn, <i>see</i> Rembrandt</li> + +<li>Van Riebeck, Jan, <a href="#page_165">165</a></li> + +<li>Van Schooten, Francis, <a href="#page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Van Slingelandt, Simon, <a href="#page_285">285</a>, <a href= +"#page_301">301</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Speult, governor of Amboina, <a href= +"#page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Van Stoutenberg, William, <a href="#page_140">140</a>,</li> + +<li>Van Stralen, Antony, <a href="#page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Van Swieten, General, <a href="#page_419">419</a></li> + +<li>Van</li> + +<li>Tienhoven, Cornelis, <a href="#page_423">423</a></li> + +<li>Van Waesberg, <a href="#page_201">201</a></li> + +<li>Van Weede, Everhard, lord of Dijkveld, <a href= +"#page_267">267</a></li> + +<li>Van Welderen, ambassador, <a href="#page_325">325</a> f.</li> + +<li>Van Zuylen van Nyevelt, Baron, <a href="#page_416">416</a> +f.</li> + +<li>"Vaste Colleges," establishment of, <a href= +"#page_5">5</a></li> + +<li>Vauban, <a href="#page_279">279</a></li> + +<li>Vaucelles, peace of (1556), <a href="#page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Vecht river, <a href="#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Veere, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>, +<a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a href="#page_311">311</a>, <a href= +"#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Velde, Adrian van der, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Velde, William van der, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Vendôme, <a href="#page_291">291 f.</a></li> + +<li>Venetia, <a href="#page_368">368</a></li> + +<li>Venice, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href= +"#page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Venloo, <a href="#page_146">146</a>, <a href= +"#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_341">341</a>, <a href= +"#page_346">346</a></li> + +<li>Verdugo, Spanish commander, <a href="#page_93">93</a> f.</li> + +<li>Verdun, treaty of (843), <a href="#page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>Vere, Sir Francis, <a href="#page_93">93</a>, <a href= +"#page_101">101 f.</a></li> + +<li>Vere, Sir Horace, <a href="#page_139">139</a></li> + +<li><i>Vereenigte Provintien</i>, ship, <a href="#page_173">173</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Verhoef, goldsmith, <a href="#page_256">256</a> f.</li> + +<li>Verhuell, Admiral, <a href="#page_355">355</a> f., <a href= +"#page_358">358</a>, <a href="#page_361">361</a>, <a href= +"#page_367">367</a></li> + +<li>Versailles, <a href="#page_282">282</a>, <a href= +"#page_290">290</a>, <a href="#page_308">308</a></li> + +<li>Vervins, peace of (1598), <a href="#page_96">96</a></li> + +<li><i>Vetkoopers</i>, <a href="#page_14">14</a></li> + +<li>Victoria, <a href="#page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Vienna, <a href="#page_69">69</a>, <a href="#page_266">266</a>, +<a href="#page_287">287</a> f., <a href="#page_302">302</a>, <a href= +"#page_306">306</a> f.;</li> + +<li class="indent">congress of, <a href="#page_370">370</a>, f., <a +href="#page_373">373</a>, <a href="#page_375">375</a>, <a href= +"#page_400">400</a>, ;</li> + +<li class="indent">treaties of, <a href="#page_274">274</a>, <a +href="#page_277">277</a>, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page_396">396</a>, <a href="#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Viglius van Zwychem van Aytta, councillor, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, +<a href="#page_29">29</a>, +<a href="#page_31">31</a>, +<a href="#page_33">33</a>, +<a href="#page_35">35</a> f., +<a href="#page_65"></a></li> + +<li>Vigo, <a href="#page_289">289</a></li> + +<li>Villars, Marshal, <a href="#page_291">291-294</a>, <a href= +"#page_296">296</a></li> + +<li>Villeroy, Marshal, <a href="#page_279">279</a>, <a href= +"#page_288">288</a>, <a href="#page_290">290</a>,</li> + +<li>Vilvoorde, <a href="#page_392">392</a>, <a href= +"#page_394">394</a></li> + +<li>Vin et Pain, Colonel, <a href="#page_259">259</a></li> + +<li>Vincent, General Baron, <a href="#page_369">369</a></li> + +<li>Virginia, <a href="#page_177">177</a></li> + +<li>Visscher, Anna, <a href="#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Visscher, Maria Tesselschade, <a href="#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Visscher, Roemer, <a href="#page_191">191</a>, <a href= +"#page_197">197</a></li> + +<li>Vitringa, leader of the federalists, <a href= +"#page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Vivien, pensionary, <a href="#page_226">226</a>, <a href= +"#page_247">247</a></li> + +<li>Vlieter, <a href="#page_352">352</a></li> + +<li>Voetius, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Vollenhove, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Voltaire, <a href="#page_323">323</a></li> + +<li>Von Thulemeyer, Prussian ambassador, <a href= +"#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Vondel, Joost van den, <a href="#page_192">192</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_197">197</a>, <a href="#page_432">432</a></li> + +<li>Voorne, <a href="#page_254">254</a></li> + +<li>Voorne canal, the, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Vossius, Gerardus Johannes, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Vossius, Isaac, <a href="#page_188">188</a></li> + +<li>Vreede, revolutionary leader, <a href="#page_349">349</a> +f.</li> + +<li>Vries, Gerrit de, <a href="#page_419">419</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Waal, the, <a href="#page_59">59</a>, <a href= +"#page_89">89</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href= +"#page_149">149</a>, <a href="#page_345">345</a>, <a href= +"#page_360">360</a>,</li> + +<li><i>Waardgelders</i>, <a href="#page_130">130-133</a></li> + +<li>Waas, <a href="#page_92">92</a></li> + +<li>Waerdenburgh, Jonckheer Diederik van, <a href="#page_171">171</a> +f., <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Waerwyck,</li> + +<li>Wybrand van, <a href="#page_99">99</a>, <a href= +"#page_105">105</a></li> + +<li>Wageningen, <a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>Wagram, <a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Waigat, the, <a href="#page_99">99</a></li> + +<li>Walcheren, +<a href="#page_51">51</a>, +<a href="#page_64">64</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>, +<a href="#page_248">248</a>, +<a href="#page_254">254</a>, +<a href="#page_311">311</a>, +<a href="#page_345">345</a>, +<a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Walcheren, ship, <a href="#page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Waldeck, George Frederick von, Count, <a href= +"#page_239">239</a>, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href= +"#page_267">267</a>, <a href="#page_269">269</a>, <a href= +"#page_272">272</a>, <a href="#page_278">278</a></li> + +<li>Waldeck, Prince of, <a href="#page_310">310</a>, <a href= +"#page_312">312</a></li> + +<li>Walpole, Robert, <a href="#page_303">303</a>, <a href= +"#page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>Walram, branch of house of Nassau, <a href= +"#page_374">374</a></li> + +<li>Walraven, lord of Brederode, <a href="#page_107">107</a></li> + +<li>Warneton, <a href="#page_297">297</a></li> + +<li>Warnsfeld, combat of, <a href="#page_87">87</a></li> + +<li>Wassenaer, Jacob van, lord of Obdam, <a href= +"#page_220">220</a>, <a href="#page_229">229</a> f., <a href= +"#page_237">237</a> f.</li> + +<li>Wassenaer-Twickel, Count of, <a href="#page_309">309</a> ff., +<a href="#page_317">317</a></li> + +<li>Waterloo, <a href="#page_371">317</a> f., <a href= +"#page_377">377</a>, <a href="#page_406">406</a></li> + +<li>Wauthier, Major-General, <a href="#page_390">390</a>,</li> + +<li>Wavre, <a href="#page_371">371</a>, <a href= +"#page_393">393</a></li> + +<li>Webb, General, <a href="#page_292">292</a></li> + +<li>Weingarten, abbey of, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Wellington, <a href="#page_366">366</a>, <a href= +"#page_371">371</a>, <a href="#page_396">396</a></li> + +<li>Werf, Pieter Adriaanzoon van der, <a href= +"#page_60">60</a>,</li> + +<li>Wesel, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href= +"#page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>Wesenbeke, Jacob van, <a href="#page_50">50</a>,</li> + +<li>West Coast of Africa, the, company for trading on, <a href= +"#page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>West Flanders, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, +<a href="#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>West Friesland, <a href="#page_13">13</a>, <a href= +"#page_52">52</a>, <a href="#page_54">54</a>, <a href= +"#page_87">87</a></li> + +<li>West India Company, <a href="#page_147">147</a>, <a href= +"#page_155">155</a>, <a href="#page_159">159-185</a>, <a href= +"#page_276">276</a>, <a href="#page_305">305</a>, <a href= +"#page_339">339</a> f., <a href="#page_345">345</a></li> + +<li>West Indies, <a href="#page_158">158</a>, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a>, <a href="#page_169">169</a> f., <a href= +"#page_214">214</a>, <a href="#page_216">216</a>, <a href= +"#page_318">318</a> f., <a href="#page_346">346</a> f., <a href= +"#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Westergoo, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Westminster, peace of (1674), <a href="#page_261">261</a></li> + +<li>Westphalia, treaty of, <a href="#page_270">270</a>, <a href= +"#page_274">274</a></li> + +<li>West-Quarter, district of Groningen, <a href= +"#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Whale fishery, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href= +"#page_166">166</a></li> + +<li>White, Charles, <a href="#page_386">386</a></li> + +<li>White Sea trade, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_121">121</a></li> + +<li>Wild Coast of Guiana, the, traders on, <a href= +"#page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Wildrik, member of Executive Council, <a href= +"#page_350">350</a>,</li> + +<li>Wilhelmina, Queen, <a href="#page_421">421</a>, <a href= +"#page_426">426-428</a>, <a href="#page_429">429</a></li> + +<li>Wilhelmina of Prussia, Frederika Louise, wife of William V, <a +href="#page_321">321</a>, <a href="#page_335">335-338</a></li> + +<li><i>Wilhelmus</i>, the, <a href="#page_333">333</a></li> + +<li>Willebroek, <a href="#page_42">42</a></li> + +<li>Willekens, Jacob, admiral-in-chief, <a href= +"#page_167">167</a></li> + +<li>William the Silent, Prince of Orange, stadholder, +<a href="#page_29">29</a> ff., +<a href="#page_33">33-37</a>, +<a href="#page_39">39-42</a>, +<a href="#page_44">44</a> f., +<a href="#page_47">47</a>, +<a href="#page_49">49-83</a>, +<a href="#page_87">87</a>, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#page_103">103</a>, +<a href="#page_113">113</a>, +<a href="#page_115">115</a> ff., +<a href="#page_128">128</a>, +<a href="#page_187">187</a>, +<a href="#page_191">191</a>, +<a href="#page_268">268</a>, +<a href="#page_285">285</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent"><i>Apology</i> of, <a href= +"#page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>William II of Orange, stadholder, +<a href="#page_116">116</a>, +<a href="#page_143">143</a>, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, +<a href="#page_202">202-211</a>, +<a href="#page_212">212</a>, +<a href="#page_226">226</a>, +<a href="#page_249">249</a>, +<a href="#page_261">261</a>, +<a href="#page_268">268</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a>, +<a href="#page_314">314</a>, +<a href="#page_321">321</a></li> + +<li>William III of Orange, stadholder, +<a href="#page_116">116</a>, +<a href="#page_152">152</a>, +<a href="#page_194">194</a>, +<a href="#page_227">227</a>, +<a href="#page_232">232</a>, +<a href="#page_234">234</a>, +<a href="#page_241">241</a> f., +<a href="#page_246">246</a> ff., +<a href="#page_250">250</a>, f., +<a href="#page_253">253</a> f., +<a href="#page_256">256</a> f., +<a href="#page_258">258-273</a>, +<a href="#page_274">274-284</a>, +<a href="#page_285">285</a>, +<a href="#page_287">287</a>, +<a href="#page_289">289</a>, +<a href="#page_298">298</a> ff., +<a href="#page_301">301</a>, +<a href="#page_303">303</a>, +<a href="#page_312">312</a>, +<a href="#page_314">314</a> f., +<a href="#page_317">317</a>, +<a href="#page_320">320</a>, f., +<a href="#page_324">324</a>, +<a href="#page_431">431</a></li> + +<li>William IV of Orange, stadholder, <a href="#page_304">304</a> +f., <a href="#page_306">306-315</a>, <a href="#page_316">316</a> +f., <a href="#page_321">321</a></li> + +<li>William V of Orange, stadholder, <a href="#page_316">316</a>, +<a href="#page_319">319</a>, <a href="#page_321">321-326</a>, <a +href="#page_327">327-336</a>, <a href="#page_343">343</a>, <a href= +"#page_346">346</a>, <a href="#page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>William I, King of the Netherlands, VI Prince of Orange, <a +href="#page_341">341</a> ff., <a href="#page_354">354</a>, <a href= +"#page_364">364-367</a>, <a href="#page_369">369-374</a>, <a href= +"#page_376">376</a> f., <a href="#page_379">379</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_385">385</a>, <a href="#page_387">387</a>, <a href= +"#page_392">392</a> f., <a href="#page_395">395-398</a>, <a href= +"#page_400">400-406</a></li> + +<li>William II (William Frederick), King of the Netherlands, <a +href="#page_392">392</a> f., <a href="#page_395">395</a>, <a href= +"#page_398">398</a> f., <a href="#page_401">401</a>, <a href= +"#page_405">405-410</a></li> + +<li>William III, King of the Netherlands, <a href= +"#page_410">410</a>, <a href="#page_411">411-418</a>, <a href= +"#page_419">419-425</a>, <a href="#page_429">429</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">Prince of Orange, son of, <a href= +"#page_417">417</a>, <a href="#page_421">421</a></li> + +<li>William, Count of Holland, husband of Margaret of Burgundy, <a +href="#page_1">1</a></li> + +<li>William, Count-Palatine of Neuburg, <a href="#page_119">119</a> +f.</li> + +<li>William de Blois, lord of Treslong, <a href="#page_50">50</a>, +f.</li> + +<li>William de la Marck, lord of Lumey, <a href= +"#page_50">50</a>,</li> + +<li>William de la Marck, ruler of Liège, <a href= +"#page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>William Frederick, stadholder, <a href="#page_153">153</a>, <a +href="#page_203">203</a>, <a href="#page_205">205</a> ff., <a href= +"#page_209">209</a> f., <a href="#page_223">223</a>, <a href= +"#page_225">225</a>, <a href="#page_227">227</a>, <a href= +"#page_238">238</a>, <a href="#page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>William Lewis of Nassau, stadholder, +<a href="#page_83">83</a>, +<a href="#page_90">90</a>, +<a href="#page_93">93</a>, +<a href="#page_101">101</a>, +<a href="#page_103">103</a> f., +<a href="#page_107">107</a>, +<a href="#page_115">115</a>, +<a href="#page_130">130</a>, f., +<a href="#page_135">135</a>, +<a href="#page_138">138</a></li> + +<li>William of Jülich and Cleves, <a href= +"#page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>William of Nassau, Count, <a href="#page_150">150</a>,</li> + +<li>William of Nassau, lord of Zuilestein, <a href= +"#page_271">271</a></li> + +<li>William of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count, <a href= +"#page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Willoughby, Hugh, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Willoughby, Lord, <a href="#page_89">89</a></li> + +<li>Winter, Jan de, Vice-Admiral, <a href="#page_347">347</a></li> + +<li>Winwood, Sir Ralph, <a href="#page_123">123</a></li> + +<li>Witsen, Nicolaes, <a href="#page_267">267</a>, <a href= +"#page_274">274</a></li> + +<li>Witt, Jacob de, <i>see</i> De Witt</li> + +<li>Witt, John de, <i>see</i> De Witt</li> + +<li>Witte de With, <i>see</i> De With</li> + +<li>Woerden, <a href="#page_258">258</a>, <a href= +"#page_335">335</a></li> + +<li>Wool and cloth trade, <a href="#page_7">7</a>, <a href= +"#page_16">16</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a></li> + +<li>Worcester, battle of, <a href="#page_208">208</a>, <a href= +"#page_212">212</a></li> + +<li>Worms, diet of (1521), <a href="#page_19">19</a>, <a href= +"#page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Wouvermans, Philip, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> + +<li>Wouw, <a href="#page_88">88</a></li> + +<li>Wrangel, Swedish admiral, <a href="#page_182">182</a>, <a href= +"#page_230">230</a></li> + +<li>Wynendael, <a href="#page_292">292</a></li> + +<li>Wyvants, Jan, <a href="#page_200">200</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Xanten, treaty of (1614), <a href="#page_120">120</a>,</li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Y, the, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a href="#page_55">55</a>, +<a href="#page_181">181</a>, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>Ymuiden, <a href="#page_416">416</a></li> + +<li>York, Duke of, second son of George III, <a href= +"#page_341">341</a> f., <a href="#page_353">353</a></li> + +<li>York, royal camp at, <a href="#page_155">155</a></li> + +<li>Yorke, British ambassador, <a href="#page_318">318</a>, <a +href="#page_323">323</a> ff.</li> + +<li>Yorke, Sir Robert, <a href="#page_87">87</a> f.</li> + +<li>Ypres, <a href="#page_6">6</a>, <a href="#page_24">24</a>, <a +href="#page_40">40</a>, <a href="#page_73">73</a>, <a href= +"#page_79">79</a>, <a href="#page_82">82</a>, <a href= +"#page_264">264</a>, <a href="#page_297">297</a>, <a href= +"#page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Yssel, the, <a href="#page_89">89</a>, <a href= +"#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_251">251</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul> +<li>Zaandam, <a href="#page_98">98</a>, <a href= +"#page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Zederik canal, the, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Zeeland, <i>passim</i></li> + +<li>Zevenwolden, <a href="#page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Zierikzee, <a href="#page_58">58</a>, <a href= +"#page_62">62</a>, <a href="#page_64">64</a></li> + +<li>Zoutman, Rear-Admiral, <a href="#page_328">328</a> f.</li> + +<li>Zuid-Beveland, <a href="#page_359">359</a></li> + +<li>Zuid-Willemsvaart canal, the, <a href="#page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Zuilestein, <a href="#page_271">271</a></li> + +<li>Zutphen, +<a href="#page_21">21</a>, +<a href="#page_55">55</a> f., +<a href="#page_72">72</a>, +<a href="#page_82">82</a>, +<a href="#page_87">87</a> f., +<a href="#page_92">92</a>, +<a href="#page_113">113</a></li> + +<li>Zuyder-Zee, the, +<a href="#page_24">24</a>, +<a href="#page_56">56</a>, +<a href="#page_72">72</a>, +<a href="#page_98">98</a>, +<a href="#page_195">195</a>, +<a href="#page_251">251</a>;</li> + +<li class="indent">department, <a href="#page_361">361</a></li> + +<li>Zwijn, the, <a href="#page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Zwijndrecht, <a href="#page_407">407</a></li> + +<li>Zwingli, Zwinglians, +<a href="#page_22">22</a>, +<a href="#page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Zwolle, <a href="#page_114">114</a>, <a href= +"#page_226">226</a></li> +</ul> +<br /><br /><br /> +<h6>PRINTED IN ENGLAND BY J.B. PEACE, M.A.<br /> + AT THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS</h6> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Holland, by George Edmundson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HOLLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 14971-h.htm or 14971-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/9/7/14971/ + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading +Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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