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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Holland, by George Edmundson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of Holland
+
+Author: George Edmundson
+
+Release Date: February 8, 2005 [EBook #14971]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HOLLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+  C.F. CLAY, MANAGER LONDON:
+  FETTER LANE, E.C.4
+
+
+
+
+  NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.
+  BOMBAY  }
+  CALCUTTA} MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.
+  MADRAS  }
+  TORONTO: THE MACMILLAN CO.
+                    OF CANADA, LTD.
+  TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
+
+
+
+
+  HISTORY OF HOLLAND
+
+
+
+
+  BY GEORGE EDMUNDSON D.
+  LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HIST.S.
+
+  SOMETIME FELLOW OF BRASENOSE COLLEGE, OXFORD
+  HON. MEMBER OF THE DUTCH HISTORICAL SOCIETY, UTRECHT
+  FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE NETHERLAND SOCIETY OF LITERATURE, LEYDEN
+
+
+
+  CAMBRIDGE
+  AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+  1922
+
+
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PREFACE
+
+
+_The aim of this series is to sketch the history of Modern Europe, with
+that of its chief colonies and conquests, from about the end of the
+fifteenth century down to the present time. In one or two cases the
+story commences at an earlier date; in the case of the colonies it
+generally begins later. The histories of the different countries are
+described, as a rule, separately; for it is believed that, except in
+epochs like that of the French Revolution and Napoleon I, the connection
+of events will thus be better understood and the continuity of
+historical development more clearly displayed.
+
+The series is intended for the use of all persons anxious to understand
+the nature of existing political conditions. 'The roots of the present
+lie deep in the past'; and the real significance of contemporary events
+cannot be grasped unless the historical causes which have led to them
+are known. The plan adopted makes it possible to treat the history of
+the last four centuries in considerable detail, and to embody the most
+important results of modern research. It is hoped therefore that the
+series will be useful not only to beginners but to students who have
+already acquired some general knowledge of European History. For those
+who wish to carry their studies further, the bibliography appended to
+each volume will act as a guide to original sources of information and
+works of a more special character.
+
+Considerable attention is paid to political geography; and each volume
+is furnished with such maps and plans as may be requisite for the
+illustration of the text_.
+
+G.W. PROTHERO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROLOGUE
+
+
+The title, "History of Holland," given to this volume is fully justified
+by the predominant part which the great maritime province of Holland
+took in the War of Independence and throughout the whole of the
+subsequent history of the Dutch state and people. In every language the
+country, comprising the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
+Friesland, Gelderland, Overyssel and Groningen, has, from the close of
+the sixteenth century to our own day, been currently spoken of as
+Holland, and the people (with the solitary exception of ourselves) as
+'Hollanders[1].' It is only rarely that the terms the Republic of the
+United Provinces, or of the United Netherlands, and in later times the
+Kingdom of the Netherlands, are found outside official documents. Just
+as the title "History of England" gradually includes the histories of
+Wales, of Scotland, of Ireland, and finally of the widespread British
+Empire, so is it in a smaller way with the history that is told in the
+following pages. That history, to be really complete, should begin with
+an account of mediaeval Holland in the feudal times which preceded the
+Burgundian period; and such an account was indeed actually written, but
+the plan of this work, which forms one of the volumes of a series,
+precluded its publication.
+
+The character, however, of the people of the province of Holland, and of
+its sister and closely allied province of Zeeland, its qualities of
+toughness, of endurance, of seamanship and maritime enterprise, spring
+from the peculiar amphibious nature of the country, which differs from
+that of any other country in the world. The age-long struggle against
+the ocean and the river floods, which has converted the marshes, that
+lay around the mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, by
+toilsome labour and skill into fertile and productive soil, has left its
+impress on the whole history of this people. Nor must it be forgotten
+how largely this building up of the elaborate system of dykes, dams and
+canals by which this water-logged land was transformed into the Holland
+of the closing decades of the sixteenth century, enabled her people to
+offer such obstinate and successful resistance to the mighty power of
+Philip II.
+
+The earliest dynasty of the Counts of Holland--Dirks, Floris, and
+Williams--was a very remarkable one. Not only did it rule for an
+unusually long period, 922 to 1299, but in this long period without
+exception all the Counts of Holland were strong and capable rulers. The
+fiefs of the first two Dirks lay in what is now known as North Holland,
+in the district called Kennemerland. It was Dirk III who seized from the
+bishops of Utrecht some swampy land amidst the channels forming the
+mouth of the Meuse, which, from the bush which covered it, was named
+Holt-land (Holland or Wood-land). Here he erected, in 1015, a stronghold
+to collect tolls from passing ships. This stronghold was the beginning
+of the town of Dordrecht, and from here a little later the name Holland
+was gradually applied to the whole county. Of his successors the most
+illustrious was William II (1234 to 1256) who was crowned King of the
+Romans at Aachen, and would have received from Pope Innocent IV the
+imperial crown at Rome, had he not been unfortunately drowned while
+attempting to cross on horseback an ice-bound marsh.
+
+In 1299 the male line of this dynasty became extinct; and John of
+Avennes, Count of Hainault, nephew of William II, succeeded. His son,
+William III, after a long struggle with the Counts of Flanders,
+conquered Zeeland and became Count henceforth of Holland, Zeeland and
+Hainault. His son, William IV, died childless; and the succession then
+passed to his sister Margaret, the wife of the Emperor Lewis of Bavaria.
+It was contested by her second son William, who, after a long drawn-out
+strife with his mother, became, in 1354, Count of Holland and Zeeland
+with the title William V, Margaret retaining the county of Hainault.
+Becoming insane, his brother Albert in 1358 took over the reins of
+government. In his time the two factions, known by the nicknames of "the
+Hooks" and "the Cods," kept the land in a continual state of disorder
+and practically of civil war. They had already been active for many
+years. The Hooks were supported by the nobles, by the peasantry and by
+that large part of the poorer townsfolk that was excluded from all share
+in the municipal government. The Cods represented the interests of the
+powerful burgher corporations. In later times these same principles and
+interests divided the Orangist and the States parties, and were
+inherited from the Hooks and Cods of mediaeval Holland. The marriages
+of Albert's son, William, with Margaret the sister of John the Fearless,
+Duke of Burgundy, and of John the Fearless with Albert's daughter,
+Margaret, were to have momentous consequences. Albert died in 1404 and
+was succeeded by William VI, who before his death in 1417 caused the
+nobles and towns to take the oath of allegiance to his daughter and only
+child, Jacoba or Jacqueline.[2]
+
+Jacoba, brave, beautiful and gifted, for eleven years maintained her
+rights against many adversaries, chief among them her powerful and
+ambitious cousin, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Her courage and
+many adventures transformed her into a veritable heroine of romance. By
+her three marriages with John, Duke of Brabant, with Humphry, Duke of
+Gloucester, and, finally, with Frans van Borselen, she had no children.
+Her hopeless fight with Philip of Burgundy's superior resources ended at
+last in the so-called "Reconciliation of Delft" in 1428, by which, while
+retaining the title of countess, she handed over the government to
+Philip and acknowledged his right of succession to the Countship upon
+her death, which took place in 1436.
+
+G.E.
+
+_November_, 1921
+
+
+
+
+
+  TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+                                                        PAGES
+
+
+  GENERAL PREFACE                                       v
+
+  PROLOGUE                                              vii-ix
+
+  CHAP.
+
+
+     I. The Burgundian Netherlands                      1-11
+
+    II. Habsburg Rule in the Netherlands                12-26
+
+   III. The Prelude to the Revolt                       27-46
+
+   IV. The Revolt of the Netherlands                    47-68
+
+    V. William the Silent                               69-81
+
+   VI. The Beginnings of the Dutch Republic             82-109
+
+  VII. The System of Government                         110-118
+
+ VIII. The Twelve Years' Truce                          119-126
+
+   IX. Maurice and Oldenbarneveldt                      127-138
+
+    X. From the end of the Twelve Years' Truce
+         to the Peace of Munster, 1621-1648.
+         The Stadholderate
+         of Frederick Henry of Orange                   139-158
+
+    XI. The East and West India Companies.
+          Commercial and Economic Expansion             159-185
+
+   XII. Letters, Science and Art                        186-201
+
+  XIII. The Stadholderate of William II.
+        The Great Assembly                              202-211
+
+   XIV. Rise of John de Witt.
+       The First English War                            212-224
+
+    XV. The Administration of John de Witt, 1654-1665,
+        from the Peace of Westminster to
+        the Out-break of the Second English War         225-235
+
+  XVI.  The last years of De Witt's Administration,
+        1665-1672. The Second English War.
+        The Triple Alliance.
+        The French Invasion                             236-250
+
+ XVII.  War with France and England. William III,
+        Stadholder. Murder of the brothers De
+        Witt, 1672                                      251-257
+
+XVIII.  The Stadholderate of William III,
+        1672-1688                                       258-273
+
+  XIX.    The King-Stadholder, 1688-1702                274-284
+
+  XX.     The War of the Spanish Succession and the
+        Treaties of Utrecht, 1702-1715                  285-297
+
+  XXI.    The Stadholderless Republic, 1715-1740        298-305
+
+  XXII.   The Austrian Succession War and William
+          IV, 1740-1751                                 306-315
+
+ XXIII. The Regency of Anne and of Brunswick,
+          1751-1766                                     316-320
+
+ XXIV.   William V. First Period, 1766-1780             321-326
+
+  XXV.  Stadholderate of William V (_continued_),
+        1780-1788. The English War.
+        Patriot Movement. Civil War. Prussian
+        Intervention                                    327-336
+
+ XXVI. The Orange Restoration. Downfall of the
+        Republic, 1788-1795                             337-343
+
+XXVII.  The Batavian Republic, 1795-1806                344-356
+
+XXVIII. The Kingdom of Holland and the French
+        Annexation, 1806-1814                           357-366
+
+XXIX.   The Formation of the Kingdom of the
+        Netherlands, 1814-1815                          367-375
+
+XXX.  The Kingdom of the Netherlands--Union
+          of Holland and Belgium, 1815-1830             376-388
+
+XXXI.  The Belgian Revolution. The Separation of
+        Holland and Belgium, 1830-1842                  389-404
+
+XXXII.  William I abdicates. Reign of William II.
+          Revision of the Constitution, 1842-1849       405-410
+
+XXXIII.  Reign of William III to the death of
+           Thorbecke, 1849-1872                         411-418
+
+XXXIV.  The later reign of William III, and the
+        Regency of Queen Emma, 1872-1898                419-425
+
+XXXV.  The Reign of Queen Wilhelmina, 1898-1917         426-428
+
+  EPILOGUE                                              429-432
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                          433-444
+
+  INDEX                                                 445-464
+
+
+  MAPS
+
+  THE NETHERLANDS, _about_ 1550
+  THE NETHERLANDS, _after_ 1648                AFTER p. 444
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE BURGUNDIAN NETHERLANDS
+
+
+The last duke of the ancient Capetian house of Burgundy dying in 1361
+without heirs male, the duchy fell into the possession of the French
+crown, and was by King John II bestowed upon his youngest son, Philip
+the Hardy, Duke of Touraine, as a reward, it is said, for the valour he
+displayed in the battle of Poictiers. The county of Burgundy, generally
+known as Franche-Comte, was not included in this donation, for it was an
+imperial fief; and it fell by inheritance in the female line to
+Margaret, dowager Countess of Flanders, widow of Count Louis II, who was
+killed at Crecy. The duchy and the county were soon, however, to be
+re-united, for Philip married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis de
+Male, Count of Flanders, and granddaughter of the above-named Margaret.
+In right of his wife he became, on the death of Louis de Male in 1384,
+the ruler of Flanders, Mechlin, Artois, Nevers and Franche-Comte. Thus
+the foundation was laid of a great territorial domain between France and
+Germany, and Philip the Hardy seems from the first to have been
+possessed by the ambitious design of working for the restoration of a
+powerful middle kingdom, which should embrace the territories assigned
+to Lothaire in the tripartite division of the Carolingian empire by the
+treaty of Verdun (843). For this he worked ceaselessly during his long
+reign of forty years, and with singular ability and courage. Before his
+death he had by the splendour of his court, his wealth and his successes
+in arms and diplomacy, come to be recognised as a sovereign of great
+weight and influence, in all but name a king. The Burgundian policy and
+tradition, which he established, found in his successors John the
+Fearless (murdered in 1419) and John's son, Philip the Good, men of like
+character and filled with the same ambitions as himself. The double
+marriage of John with Margaret, the sister of William VI of Holland, and
+of William VI with Margaret of Burgundy, largely helped forward their
+projects of aggrandisement. Philip the Good was, however, a much abler
+ruler than his father, a far-seeing statesman, who pursued his plans
+with a patient and unscrupulous pertinacity, of which a conspicuous
+example is to be found in his long protracted struggle with his cousin
+Jacoba, the only child and heiress of William of Holland, whose
+misfortunes and courage have made her one of the most romantic figures
+of history. By a mixture of force and intrigue Philip, in 1433, at last
+compelled Jacoba to abdicate, and he became Count of Holland, Zeeland
+and Hainault. Nor was this by any means the end of his acquisitions.
+Joanna, Duchess of Brabant (1355-1404) in her own right, was aunt on the
+mother's side to Margaret of Flanders, wife of Philip the Hardy. Dying
+without heirs, she bequeathed Brabant, Limburg and Antwerp to her
+great-nephew, Anthony of Burgundy, younger brother of John the Fearless.
+Anthony was killed at Agincourt and was succeeded first by his son John
+IV, the husband of Jacoba of Holland, and on his death without an heir
+in 1427, by his second son, Philip of St Pol, who also died childless in
+1430. From him his cousin Philip the Good inherited the duchies of
+Brabant and Limburg and the marquisate of Antwerp. Already he had
+purchased in 1421 the territory of Namur from the last Count John III,
+who had fallen into heavy debt; and in 1443 he likewise purchased the
+duchy of Luxemburg from the Duchess Elizabeth of Goerlitz, who had
+married in second wedlock Anthony, Duke of Brabant, and afterwards John
+of Bavaria, but who had no children by either of her marriages. Thus in
+1443 Philip had become by one means or another sovereign under various
+titles of the largest and most important part of the Netherlands, and he
+increased his influence by securing in 1456 the election of his
+illegitimate son David, as Bishop of Utrecht. Thus a great step forward
+had been taken for the restoration of the middle kingdom, which had been
+the dream of Philip the Hardy, and which now seemed to be well-nigh on
+the point of accomplishment.
+
+The year 1433, the date of the incorporation of Holland and Zeeland in
+the Burgundian dominion, is therefore a convenient starting-point for a
+consideration of the character of the Burgundian rule in the
+Netherlands, and of the changes which the concentration of sovereign
+power in the hands of a single ruler brought into the relations of the
+various provinces with one another and into their internal
+administration. The Netherlands become now for the first time something
+more than a geographical expression for a number of petty feudal
+states, practically independent and almost always at strife.
+Henceforward there was peace; and throughout the whole of this northern
+part of his domains it was the constant policy of Philip gradually to
+abolish provincialism and to establish a centralised government. He was
+far too wise a statesman to attempt to abolish suddenly or arbitrarily
+the various rights and privileges, which the Flemings, Brabanters and
+Hollanders had wrung from their sovereigns, and to which they were
+deeply attached; but, while respecting these, he endeavoured to restrict
+them as far as possible to local usage, and to centralise the general
+administration of the whole of the "pays de par deca" (as the Burgundian
+dukes were accustomed to name their Netherland dominions) by the
+summoning of representatives of the Provincial States to an assembly
+styled the States-General, and by the creation of a common Court of
+Appeal.
+
+The first time the States-General were called together by Philip was in
+1465 for the purpose of obtaining a loan for the war with France and the
+recognition of his son Charles as his successor; and from this time
+forward at irregular intervals, but with increasing frequency, the
+practice of summoning this body went on. The States-General (in a sense)
+represented the Netherlands as a whole; and it was a matter of great
+convenience for the sovereign, especially when large levies of money had
+to be raised, to be enabled thus to bring his proposals before a single
+assembly, instead of before a number of separate and independent
+provincial states. Nevertheless, it must be borne in mind that the
+States-General had, as such, no authority to act on behalf of these
+several provincial states. Each of these sent their deputies to the
+General Assembly, but these deputies had to refer all matters to their
+principals before they could give their assent, and each body of
+deputies gave this assent separately, and without regard to the others.
+It was thus but a first provisional step towards unity of
+administration, but it did tend to promote a feeling of community of
+interests between the provinces and to lead to the deputies having
+intercourse with one another and interchanging their views upon the
+various important subjects that were brought before their consideration.
+The period of disturbance and the weakening of the authority of the
+sovereign, which followed the death of Charles the Bold, led to the
+States-General obtaining a position of increased importance; and they
+may from that time be regarded as forming a regular and necessary part
+of the machinery of government in the Burgundian Netherlands. The
+States-General however, like the Provincial States, could only meet when
+summoned by the sovereign or his stadholder; and the causes for which
+they were summoned were such special occasions as the accession of a new
+sovereign or the appointment of a new stadholder, or more usually for
+sanctioning the requests for levies of money, which were required for
+the maintenance of splendid courts and the cost of frequent wars. For
+not only the Burgundian princes properly so-called, but even Charles V,
+had mainly to depend upon the wealth of the Netherlands for their
+financial needs. And here a distinction must be drawn. For solemn
+occasions, such as the accession of a new sovereign, or the acceptance
+of a newly appointed governor, representatives of all the provinces
+(eventually seventeen) were summoned, but for ordinary meetings for the
+purpose of money levies only those of the so-called patrimonial or old
+Burgundian provinces came together. The demands for tribute on the
+provinces acquired later, such as Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland and
+Overyssel, were made to each of these provinces separately, and they
+jealously claimed their right to be thus separately dealt with. In the
+case of the other provinces the States-General, as has been already
+stated, could only grant the money after obtaining from each province
+represented, severally, its assent; and this was often not gained until
+after considerable delay and much bargaining. Once granted, however, the
+assessment regulating the quota, which the different provinces had to
+contribute, was determined on the basis of the so-called _quotisatie_ or
+_settinge_ drawn up in 1462 on the occasion of a tribute for 10 years,
+which Charles the Bold, as his father's stadholder in the "pays de par
+deca," then demanded. The relative wealth of the provinces may be judged
+from the fact that at this date Flanders and Brabant each paid a quarter
+of the whole levy, Holland one sixth, Zeeland one quarter of Holland's
+share.
+
+As regards the provincial government the Burgundian princes left
+undisturbed the local and historical customs and usages, and each
+province had its individual characteristics. At the head of each
+provincial government (with the exception of Brabant, at whose capital,
+Brussels, the sovereign himself or his regent resided) was placed a
+governor, with the title of Stadholder, who was the representative of
+the sovereign and had large patronage. It was his duty to enforce
+edicts, preserve order, and keep a watchful eye over the administration
+of justice. He nominated to many municipal offices, but had little or no
+control over finance. The raising of troops and their command in the
+field was entrusted to a captain-general, who might not be the same
+person as the stadholder, though the offices were sometimes united. In
+the northern Netherlands there was but one stadholder for the three
+provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and one (at a somewhat later
+date) for Friesland, Groningen, Drente and Overyssel.
+
+The desire of the Burgundian princes to consolidate their dominions into
+a unified sovereignty found itself thwarted by many obstacles and
+especially by the lack of any supreme tribunal of appeal. It was galling
+to them that the _Parlement_ of Paris should still exercise appellate
+jurisdiction in Crown-Flanders and Artois, and the Imperial Diet in some
+of the other provinces. Already in 1428 Philip had erected the Court of
+Holland at the Hague to exercise large powers of jurisdiction and
+financial control in the provinces of Holland and Zeeland; and in 1473
+Charles the Bold set up at Mechlin the body known as the Great Council,
+to act as a court of appeal from the provincial courts. It was to be, in
+the Netherlands, what the _Parlement_ of Paris was in France. The Great
+Council, which had grown out of the Privy Council attached to the person
+of the prince, and which under the direction of the Chancellor of
+Burgundy administered the affairs of the government, more particularly
+justice and finance, was in 1473, as stated above, re-constituted as a
+Court of Appeal in legal matters, a new Chamber of Accounts being at the
+same time created to deal with finance. These efforts at centralisation
+of authority were undoubtedly for the good of the country as a whole,
+but such was the intensity of provincial jealousy and particularism that
+they were bitterly resented and opposed.
+
+In order to strengthen the sovereign's influence in the towns, and to
+lessen the power of the Gilds, Philip established in Holland, and so far
+as he could elsewhere, what were called "vaste Colleges" or fixed
+committees of notables, to which were entrusted the election of the town
+officials and the municipal administration. These bodies were composed
+of a number of the richest and most influential burghers, who were
+styled the Twenty-four, the Forty, the Sixty or the Eighty, according
+to the number fixed for any particular town. These men were appointed
+for life and their successors were chosen by co-option, so that the town
+corporations gradually became closed hereditary aristocracies, and the
+mass of the citizens were deprived of all voice in their own affairs.
+The _Schout_ or chief judge was chosen directly by the sovereign or his
+stadholder, who also nominated the _Schepens_ or sheriffs from a list
+containing a double number, which was submitted to him.
+
+The reign of Philip the Good was marked by a great advance in the
+material prosperity of the land. Bruges, Ghent, Ypres and Antwerp were
+among the most flourishing commercial and industrial cities in the
+world, and when, through the silting up of the waterway, Bruges ceased
+to be a seaport, Antwerp rapidly rose to pre-eminence in her place, so
+that a few decades later her wharves were crowded with shipping, and her
+warehouses with goods from every part of Europe. In fact during the
+whole of the Burgundian period the southern Netherlands were the richest
+domain in Christendom, and continued to be so until the disastrous times
+of Philip II of Spain. Meanwhile Holland and Zeeland, though unable to
+compete with Brabant and Flanders in the populousness of their towns and
+the extent of their trade, were provinces of growing importance. Their
+strength lay in their sturdy and enterprising sea-faring population. The
+Hollanders had for many years been the rivals of the Hanse Towns for the
+Baltic trade. War broke out in 1438 and hostilities continued for three
+years with the result that the Hanse League was beaten, and henceforth
+the Hollanders were able without further let or hindrance more and more
+to become the chief carriers of the "Eastland" traffic. Amsterdam was
+already a flourishing port, though as yet it could make no pretension of
+competing with Antwerp. The herring fisheries were, however, the staple
+industry of Holland and Zeeland. The discovery of the art of curing
+herrings by William Beukelsz of Biervliet (died 1447) had converted a
+perishable article of food into a marketable commodity; and not only did
+the fisheries give lucrative employment to many thousands of the
+inhabitants of these maritime provinces, but they also became the
+foundation on which was to be built their future commercial
+supremacy.
+
+The Burgundian dukes were among the most powerful rulers of their
+time--the equals of kings in all but name--and they far surpassed all
+contemporary sovereigns in their lavish display and the splendour of
+their court. The festival at Bruges in 1430 in celebration of the
+marriage of Philip the Good and Isabel of Portugal, at which the Order
+of the Golden Fleece was instituted, excited universal wonder; while his
+successor, Charles the Bold, contrived to surpass even his father in the
+splendour of his espousals with Margaret of York in 1468, and at his
+conference with the Emperor Frederick III at Trier in 1473. On this last
+occasion he wore a mantle encrusted all over with diamonds.
+
+The foundation of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1430 was an event of
+great importance, as marking a step forward on the part of Philip in its
+assumption of quasi-regal attributes. The title was very appropriate,
+for it pointed to the wool and cloth trade as being the source of the
+wealth of Flanders. The Order comprised thirty-one knights, chosen from
+the flower of the Burgundian nobles and the chief councillors of the
+sovereign. The statutes of the Order set forth in detail the privileges
+of the members, and their duties and obligations to their prince. They
+had a prescriptive claim to be consulted on all matters of importance,
+to be selected for the chief government posts, and to serve on military
+councils. The knights were exempt from the jurisdiction of all courts,
+save that of their own chapter.
+
+Philip died in 1467 and was succeeded by his son, Charles, who had
+already exercised for some years authority in the Netherlands as his
+father's deputy. Charles, as his surname _le Temeraire_ witnesses, was
+a man of impulsive and autocratic temperament, but at the same time a
+hard worker, a great organiser, and a brilliant soldier. Consumed with
+ambition to realise that restoration of a great middle Lotharingian
+kingdom stretching from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, for which
+his father had been working during his long and successful reign, he
+threw himself with almost passionate energy into the accomplishment of
+his task. With this object he was the first sovereign to depart from
+feudal usages and to maintain a standing army. He appeared at one time
+to be on the point of accomplishing his aim. Lorraine, which divided his
+southern from his northern possessions, was for a short time in his
+possession. Intervening in Gelderland between the Duke Arnold of
+Egmont and his son Adolf, he took the latter prisoner and obtained the
+duchy in pledge from the former. Uprisings in the Flemish towns against
+heavy taxation and arbitrary rule were put down with a strong hand. In
+September, 1474, the duke, accompanied by a splendid suite, met the
+emperor Frederick III at Trier to receive the coveted crown from the
+imperial hands. It was arranged that Charles' only daughter and heiress
+should be betrothed to Maximilian of Austria, the emperor's eldest son,
+and the very day and hour for the coronation were fixed. But the
+Burgundian had an enemy in Louis XI of France, who was as prudent and
+far-seeing as his rival was rash and impetuous, and who was far more
+than his match in political craft and cunning. French secret agents
+stirred up Frederick's suspicions against Charles' designs, and the
+emperor suddenly left Trier, where he had felt humiliated by the
+splendour of his powerful vassal.
+
+The duke was furious at his disappointment, but was only the more
+obstinately bent on carrying out his plans. But Louis had been meanwhile
+forming a strong league (League of Constance, March 1474) of various
+states threatened by Charles' ambitious projects. Duke Sigismund of
+Austria, Baden, Basel, Elsass, and the Swiss Cantons united under the
+leadership of France to resist them. Charles led an army of 60,000 men
+to aid the Archbishop of Cologne against his subjects, but spent eleven
+months in a fruitless attempt to take a small fortified town, Neuss, in
+which a considerable portion of his army perished. He was compelled to
+raise large sums of money from his unwilling subjects in the Netherlands
+to repair his losses, and in 1475 he attacked Duke Rene of Lorraine,
+captured Nancy and conquered the duchy, which had hitherto separated his
+Netherland from his French possessions. It was the first step in the
+accomplishment of his scheme for the restoration of the Lotharingian
+kingdom. In Elsass, however, the populace had risen in insurrection
+against the tyranny of the Burgundian governor, Peter van Hagenbach, and
+had tried and executed him. Finding that the Swiss had aided the rebels,
+Charles now, without waiting to consolidate his conquest of Lorraine,
+determined to lead his army into Switzerland. At the head of a
+splendidly equipped force he encountered the Confederates near Granson
+(March 2, 1476) and was utterly routed, his own seal and order of the
+Golden Fleece, with vast booty, falling into the hands of the victors.
+A few months later, having recruited and reorganised his beaten army, he
+again led them against the Swiss. The encounter took place (June 21,
+1476) at Morat and once more the chivalry of Burgundy suffered complete
+defeat. Charles fled from the field, half insane with rage and
+disappointment, when the news that Duke Rene had reconquered Lorraine
+roused him from his torpor. He hastily gathered together a fresh army
+and laid siege to Nancy. But in siege operations he had no skill, and in
+the depth of winter (January 5, 1477) he was attacked by the Swiss and
+Lorrainers outside the walls of the town. A panic seized the
+Burgundians; Charles in person in vain strove to stem their flight, and
+he perished by an unknown hand. His body was found later, stripped
+naked, lying frozen in a pool.
+
+Charles left an only child, Mary, not yet twenty years of age. Mary
+found herself in a most difficult and trying situation. Louis XI, the
+hereditary enemy of her house, at once took possession of the duchy of
+Burgundy, which by failure of heirs-male had reverted to its liege-lord.
+The sovereignty of the county of Burgundy (Franche-Comte), being an
+imperial fief descending in the female line, she retained; but, before
+her authority had been established, Louis had succeeded in persuading
+the states of the county to place themselves under a French
+protectorate. French armies overran Artois, Hainault and Picardy, and
+were threatening Flanders, where there was in every city a party of
+French sympathisers. Gelderland welcomed the exiled duke, Adolf, as
+their sovereign. Everywhere throughout the provinces the despotic rule
+of Duke Charles and his heavy exactions had aroused seething discontent.
+Mary was virtually a prisoner in the hands of her Flemish subjects; and,
+before they consented to support her cause, there was a universal demand
+for a redress of grievances. But Mary showed herself possessed of
+courage and statesmanship beyond her years, and she had at this critical
+moment in her step-mother, Margaret of York, an experienced and capable
+adviser at her side. A meeting of the States-General was at once
+summoned to Ghent. It met on February 3, 1477, Mary's 20th birthday.
+Representatives came from Flanders, Brabant, Artois and Namur, in the
+southern, and from Holland and Zeeland in the northern Netherlands. Mary
+saw there was no course open to her but to accede to their demands. Only
+eight days after the Assembly met, the charter of Netherland
+liberties, called The Great Privilege, was agreed to and signed. By this
+Act all previous ordinances conflicting with ancient privileges were
+abolished. The newly-established Court of Appeal at Mechlin was replaced
+by a Great Council of twenty-four members chosen by the sovereign from
+the various states, which should advise and assist in the administration
+of government. Mary undertook not to marry or to declare war without the
+assent of the States-General. The States-General and the Provincial
+States were to meet as often as they wished, without the summons of the
+sovereign. All officials were to be native-born; no Netherlander was to
+be tried by foreign judges; there were to be no forced loans, no
+alterations in the coinage. All edicts or ordinances infringing
+provincial rights were to be _ipso facto_ null and void. By placing her
+seal to this document Mary virtually abdicated the absolute sovereign
+power which had been exercised by her predecessors, and undid at a
+stroke the results of their really statesmanlike efforts to create out
+of a number of semi-autonomous provinces a unified State. Many of their
+acts and methods had been harsh and autocratic, especially those of
+Charles the Bold, but who can doubt that on the whole their policy was
+wise and salutary? In Holland and Zeeland a Council was erected
+consisting of a Stadholder and eight councillors (six Hollanders and two
+Zeelanders) of whom two were to be nobles, the others jurists. Wolferd
+van Borselen, lord of Veere, was appointed Stadholder.
+
+The Great Privilege granted, the States willingly raised a force of
+34,000 men to resist the French invasion, and adequate means for
+carrying on the war. But the troubles of the youthful Mary were not yet
+over. The hand of the heiress of so many rich domains was eagerly sought
+for (1) by Louis of France for the dauphin, a youth of 17 years; (2) by
+Maximilian of Austria to whom she had been promised in marriage; (3) by
+Adolf, Duke of Gelderland, who was favoured by the States-General.
+Adolf, however, was killed in battle. In Flanders there was a party who
+favoured the French and actually engaged in intrigues with Louis, but
+the mass of the people were intensely averse to French domination. To
+such an extent was this the case that two influential officials, the
+lords Hugonet and Humbercourt, on whom suspicion fell of treacherous
+correspondence with the French king, were seized, tried by a special
+tribunal, and, despite the tears and entreaties of the duchess, were
+condemned and beheaded in the market-place of Ghent. Maximilian became
+therefore the accepted suitor; and on August 19, 1477, his marriage with
+Mary took place at Bruges. This marriage was to have momentous
+consequences, not only for the Netherlands, but for Europe. The union
+was a happy one, but, unfortunately, of brief duration. On March 29,
+1482, Mary died from the effects of a fall from her horse, leaving two
+children, Philip and Margaret.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HABSBURG RULE IN THE NETHERLANDS
+
+
+Maximilian, on the death of Mary, found himself in a very difficult
+position. The archduke was a man of high-soaring ideas, chivalrous,
+brave even to the point of audacity, full of expedients and never
+daunted by failure, but he was deficient in stability of character, and
+always hampered throughout his life by lack of funds. He had in 1477 set
+himself to the task of defending Flanders and the southern provinces of
+the Netherlands against French attack, and not without considerable
+success. In 1482, as guardian of his four-year old son Philip, the heir
+to the domains of the house of Burgundy, he became regent of the
+Netherlands. His authority however was little recognised. Gelderland and
+Utrecht fell away altogether. Liege acknowledged William de la Marck as
+its ruler. Holland and Zeeland were torn by contending factions.
+Flanders, the centre of the Burgundian power, was specially hostile to
+its new governor. The burghers of Ghent refused to surrender to him his
+children, Philip and Margaret, who were held as hostages to secure
+themselves against any attempted infringement of their liberties. The
+Flemings even entered into negotiations with Louis XI; and the archduke
+found himself compelled to sign a treaty with France (December 23,
+1482), one of the conditions being the betrothal of his infant daughter
+to the dauphin. Maximilian, however, found that for a time he must leave
+Flanders to put down the rising of the Hook faction in Holland, who,
+led by Frans van Brederode, and in alliance with the anti-Burgundian
+party in Utrecht, had made themselves masters of Leyden. Beaten in a
+bloody fight by the regent, Brederode nevertheless managed to seize
+Sluis and Rotterdam; and from these ports he and his daring
+companion-in-arms, Jan van Naaldwijk, carried on a guerrilla warfare for
+some years. Brederode was killed in a fight at Brouwershaven (1490), but
+Sluis still held out and was not taken till two years later.
+
+Meanwhile Maximilian had to undertake a campaign against the Flemings,
+who were again in arms at the instigation of the turbulent burghers of
+Ghent and Bruges. Entering the province at the head of a large force he
+compelled the rebel towns to submit and obtained possession of the
+person of his son Philip (July, 1485). Elected in the following year
+King of the Romans, Maximilian left the Netherlands to be crowned at
+Aachen (April, 1486). A war with France called him back, in the course
+of which he suffered a severe defeat at Bethune. At the beginning of
+1488 Ghent and Bruges once more rebelled; and the Roman king, enticed to
+enter Bruges, was there seized and compelled to see his friends executed
+in the market-place beneath his prison window. For seven months he was
+held a prisoner; nor was he released until he had sworn to surrender his
+powers, as regent, to a council of Flemings and to withdraw all his
+foreign troops from the Netherlands. He was forced to give hostages as a
+pledge of his good faith, among them his general, Philip of Cleef, who
+presently joined his captors.
+
+Maximilian, on arriving at the camp of the Emperor Frederick III, who
+had gathered together an army to release his imprisoned son, was
+persuaded to break an oath given under duress. He advanced therefore at
+the head of his German mercenaries into Flanders, but was able to
+achieve little success against the Flemings, who found in Philip of
+Cleef an able commander. Despairing of success, he now determined to
+retire into Germany, leaving Duke Albert of Saxe-Meissen, a capable and
+tried soldier of fortune, as general-in-chief of his forces and
+Stadholder of the Netherlands. With the coming of Duke Albert order was
+at length to be restored, though not without a severe struggle.
+
+Slowly but surely Duke Albert took town after town and reduced province
+after province into submission. The Hook party in Holland and Zeeland,
+and their anti-Burgundian allies in Utrecht, and Robert de la Marck in
+Liege, in turn felt the force of his arm. An insurrection of the
+peasants in West Friesland and Kennemerland--the "Bread and Cheese
+Folk," as they were called--was easily put down. Philip of Cleef with
+his Flemings was unable to make head against him; and, with the fall of
+Ghent and Sluis in the summer of 1492, the duke was able to announce to
+Maximilian that the Netherlands, except Gelderland, were pacified. The
+treaty of Senlis in 1493 ended the war with France. In the following
+year, after his accession to the imperial throne, Maximilian retired to
+his ancestral dominions in Germany, and his son, Philip the Fair, took
+in his hands the reins of government. The young sovereign, who was a
+Netherlander by birth and had spent all his life in the country, was
+more popular than his father; and his succession to the larger part of
+the Burgundian inheritance was not disputed. He received the homage of
+Zeeland at Roemerswaal, of Holland at Geertruidenburg, and seized the
+occasion to announce the abrogation of the Great Privilege, and at the
+same time restored the Grand Council at Mechlin.
+
+In Utrecht the authority of Bishop David of Burgundy was now firmly
+re-established; and on his death, Philip of Baden, an obsequious
+adherent of the house of Austria, was elected. These results of the
+pacification carried out so successfully by Duke Albert had, however,
+left Maximilian and Philip deeply in debt to the Saxon; and there was no
+money wherewith to meet the claim, which amounted to 300,000 guilders.
+After many negotiations extending over several years, compensation was
+found for Albert in Friesland. That unhappy province and the adjoining
+territory of Groningen had for a long time been torn by internal
+dissensions between the two parties, the _Schieringers_ and the
+_Vetkoopers_, who were the counterparts of the Hooks and Cods of
+Holland. The Schieringers called in the aid of the Saxon duke, who
+brought the land into subjection. Maximilian now recognised Albert as
+hereditary Podesta or governor of Friesland on condition that the House
+of Austria reserved the right of redeeming the territory for 100,000
+guilders; and Philip acquiesced in the bargain by which Frisian freedom
+was sold in exchange for the cancelling of a debt. The struggle with
+Charles of Egmont in Gelderland was not so easily terminated. Not till
+1505 was Philip able to overcome this crafty and skilful adversary.
+Charles was compelled to do homage and to accompany Philip to Brussels
+(October, 1505). It was, however, but a brief submission. Charles made
+his escape once more into Gelderland and renewed the war of
+independence.
+
+Before these events had taken place, the marriage of Philip with Juana,
+the daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile, had brought
+about a complete change in his fortunes. Maximilian, always full of
+ambitious projects for the aggrandisement of his House, had planned with
+Ferdinand of Aragon a double marriage between their families, prompted
+by a common hatred and fear of the growing power of France. The
+Archduke Philip was to wed the Infanta Juana, the second daughter of
+Ferdinand and Isabel; the Infante Juan, the heir to the thrones of
+Aragon and Castile, Philip's sister, Margaret. Margaret had in 1483,
+aged then three years, been betrothed to the Dauphin Charles, aged
+twelve, and she was brought up at the French Court, and after the death
+of Louis XI (August 30, 1483) had borne the title of Queen and had lived
+at Amboise with other children of the French royal house, under the care
+of the Regent, Anne de Beaujeu. The marriage, however, of Charles VIII
+and Margaret was never to be consummated. In August, 1488, the male line
+of the Dukes of Brittany became extinct; and the hand of the heiress,
+Anne of Brittany, a girl of twelve, attracted many suitors. It was
+clearly a matter of supreme importance to the King of France that this
+important territory should not pass by marriage into the hands of an
+enemy. The Bretons, on the other hand, clung to their independence and
+dreaded absorption in the unifying French state. After many intrigues
+her council advised the young duchess to accept Maximilian as her
+husband, and she was married to him by proxy in March, 1490. Charles
+VIII immediately entered Brittany at the head of a strong force and,
+despite a fierce and prolonged resistance, conquered the country, and
+gained possession of Anne's person (August, 1491). The temptation was
+too strong to be resisted. Margaret, after residing in France as his
+affianced wife for eight years, was repudiated and finally, two years
+later, sent back to the Netherlands, while Anne was compelled to break
+off her marriage with Margaret's father, and became Charles' queen. This
+double slight was never forgiven either by Maximilian or by Margaret,
+and was the direct cause of the negotiations for the double Spanish
+marriage, which, though delayed by the suspicious caution of the two
+chief negotiators, Ferdinand and Maximilian, was at length arranged. In
+August, 1496, an imposing fleet conveyed the Infanta Juana to Antwerp
+and she was married to Philip at Lille. In the following April Margaret
+and Don Juan were wedded in the cathedral of Burgos. The union was
+followed by a series of catastrophes in the Spanish royal family. While
+on his way with his wife to attend the marriage of his older sister
+Isabel with the King of Portugal, Juan caught a malignant fever and
+expired at Salamanca in October, 1497.
+
+The newly-married Queen of Portugal now became the heiress to the crowns
+of Aragon and Castile, but she died a year later and shortly afterwards
+her infant son. The succession therefore passed to the younger sister,
+Juana; and Philip the Fair, the heir of the House of Austria and already
+through his mother the ruler of the rich Burgundian domain, became
+through his wife the prospective sovereign of the Spanish kingdoms of
+Ferdinand and Isabel. Fortune seemed to have reserved all her smiles for
+the young prince, when on February 24, 1500, a son was born to him at
+Ghent, who received the name Charles. But dark days were soon to follow.
+Philip was pleasure-loving and dissolute, and he showed little affection
+for his wife, who had already begun to exhibit symptoms of that weakness
+of mind which was before long to develop into insanity. However in 1501,
+they journeyed together to Spain, in order to secure Juana's rights to
+the Castilian succession and also to that of Aragon should King
+Ferdinand die without an heir-male.
+
+In November, 1504, Isabel the Catholic had died; and Philip and his
+consort at once assumed the titles of King and Queen of Castile, in
+spite of the opposition of Ferdinand, who claimed the right of regency
+during his life-time. Both parties were anxious to obtain the support of
+Henry VII. Already since the accession of Philip the commercial
+relations between England and the Netherlands had been placed on what
+proved to be a permanently friendly basis by the treaty known as the
+_Magnus Intercursus_ of 1496. Flanders and Brabant were dependent upon
+the supply of English wool for their staple industries, Holland and
+Zeeland for that freedom of fishery on which a large part of their
+population was employed and subsisted. In reprisals for the support
+formerly given by the Burgundian government to the house of York, Henry
+had forbidden the exportation of wool and of cloth to the Netherlands,
+had removed the staple from Bruges to Calais, and had withdrawn the
+fishing rights enjoyed by the Hollanders since the reign of Edward I.
+But this state of commercial war was ruinous to both countries; and, on
+condition that Philip henceforth undertook not to allow any enemies of
+the English government to reside in his dominions, a good understanding
+was reached, and the _Magnus Intercursus_, which re-established
+something like freedom of trade between the countries, was duly signed
+in February, 1496. The treaty was solemnly renewed in 1501, but shortly
+afterwards fresh difficulties arose concerning Yorkist refugees, and a
+stoppage of trade was once more threatened. At this juncture a storm
+drove Philip and Juana, who had set sail in January, 1506, for Spain, to
+take refuge in an English harbour. For three months they were hospitably
+entertained by Henry, but he did not fail to take advantage of the
+situation to negotiate three treaties with his unwilling guest: (1) a
+treaty of alliance, (2) a treaty of marriage with Philip's sister, the
+Archduchess Margaret, already at the age of 25 a widow for the second
+time, (3) a revision of the treaty of commerce of 1496, named from its
+unfavourable conditions, _Malus Intercursus_. The marriage treaty came
+to nothing through the absolute refusal of Margaret to accept the hand
+of the English king.
+
+Philip and Juana left England for Spain, April 23, to assume the
+government of the three kingdoms, Castile, Leon and Granada, which Juana
+had inherited from her mother. Owing to his wife's mental incapacity
+Philip in her name exercised all the powers of sovereignty, but his
+reign was very short, for he was suddenly taken ill and died at Burgos,
+September 25, 1506. His hapless wife, after the birth of a posthumous
+child, sank into a state of hopeless insanity and passed the rest of her
+long life in confinement. Charles, the heir to so vast an inheritance,
+was but six years old. The representatives of the provinces, assembled
+at Mechlin (October 18), offered the regency of the Burgundian dominions
+to the Emperor Maximilian; he in his turn nominated his daughter,
+Margaret, to be regent in his place and guardian of his grandson during
+Charles' minority, and she with the assent of the States-General took
+the oath on her installation as _Mambour_ or Governor-General of the
+Netherlands, March, 1507. Margaret was but 27 years of age, and for
+twenty-four years she continued to administer the affairs of the
+Netherlands with singular discretion, firmness and Statesmanlike
+ability. The superintendence and training of the young archduke could
+have been placed in no better hands. Charles, who with his three sisters
+lived with his aunt at Mechlin, was thus both by birth and education a
+Netherlander.
+
+One of the first acts of Margaret was a refusal to ratify the _Malus
+Intercursus_ and the revival of the _Magnus Intercursus_ of 1496. This
+important commercial treaty from that time forward continued in force
+for more than a century. The great difficulty that Margaret encountered
+in her government was the lack of adequate financial resources. The
+extensive privileges accorded to the various provinces and their mutual
+jealousies and diverse interests made the task of levying taxes arduous
+and often fruitless. Margaret found that the granting of supplies, even
+for so necessary a purpose as the raising of troops to resist the raids
+of Charles of Gelderland, aided by the French king, into Utrecht and
+Holland, was refused. She fortunately possessed in a high degree those
+qualities of persuasive address and sound judgment, which gave to her a
+foremost place among the diplomatists and rulers of her time. Such was
+the confidence that her brilliant abilities inspired that she was
+deputed both by the Emperor Maximilian and by Ferdinand of Aragon to be
+their plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress that assembled at Cambray in
+November, 1508. Chiefly through her exertions the negotiations had a
+speedy and successful issue, and the famous treaty known as the League
+of Cambray was signed on December 10. By this treaty many of the
+disputes concerning the rights and prerogatives of the French crown in
+the Burgundian Netherlands were amicably settled; and it was arranged
+that Charles of Egmont should be provisionally recognised as Duke of
+Gelderland on condition that he should give up the towns in Holland that
+he had captured and withdraw his troops within his own borders.
+
+The extant correspondence between Maximilian and Margaret, which is of
+the most confidential character, on matters of high policy, is a proof
+of the high opinion the emperor entertained of his daughter's
+intelligence and capacity. In nothing was his confidence more justified
+than in the assiduous care and interest that the regent took in the
+education of the Archduke Charles and his three sisters, who had been
+placed in her charge. In 1515 Charles, on entering his sixteenth year,
+was declared by Maximilian to be of age; Margaret accordingly handed
+over to him the reins of government and withdrew for the time into
+private life. Her retirement was not, however, to be of long
+continuance. On January 23, 1516, King Ferdinand of Aragon died, and
+Charles, who now became King of Castile and of Aragon, was obliged to
+leave the Netherlands to take possession of his Spanish dominions.
+Before sailing he reinstated his aunt as governess, and appointed a
+council to assist her. This post she continued to hold till the day of
+her death, for Charles was never again able to take up his permanent
+residence in the Netherlands. During the first years after his
+accession to the thrones of Ferdinand and Isabel he was much occupied
+with Spanish affairs; and the death of Maximilian, January 12, 1519,
+opened out to him a still wider field of ambition and activity. On June
+28 Charles was elected emperor, a result which he owed in no small
+degree to the diplomatic skill and activity of Margaret. Just a year
+later the emperor visited the Netherlands, where Charles of Gelderland
+was again giving trouble, and his presence was required both for the
+purpose of dealing with the affairs of the provinces and also for
+securing a grant of supply, for he was sorely in need of funds. Margaret
+had at his request summoned the States-General to meet at Brussels,
+where Charles personally addressed them, and explained at some length
+the reasons which led him to ask his loyal and devoted Netherland
+subjects for their aid on his election to the imperial dignity. The
+States-General on this, as on other occasions, showed no niggardliness
+in responding to the request of a sovereign who, though almost always
+absent, appealed to their patriotism as a born Netherlander, who had
+been brought up in their midst and spoke their tongue. Charles was
+crowned at Aachen, October 23, 1520, and some three months later
+presided at the famous diet of Worms, where he met Martin Luther face to
+face. Before starting on his momentous journey he again appointed
+Margaret regent, and gave to her Council, which he nominated, large
+powers; the Council of Mechlin, the Court of Holland and other
+provincial tribunals being subjected to its superior authority and
+jurisdiction. By this action the privileges of the provinces were
+infringed, but Charles was resolute in carrying out the centralising
+policy of his ancestors, the Dukes of Burgundy, and he had the power to
+enforce his will in spite of the protests that were raised. And so
+under the wise and conciliatory but firm administration of Margaret
+during a decade of almost continuous religious and international
+strife--a decade marked by such great events as the rapid growth of the
+Reformation in Germany, the defeat and capture of Francis I at Pavia,
+the sack of Rome by the troops of Bourbon and the victorious advance of
+the Turks in Hungary and along the eastern frontier of the empire--the
+Netherland provinces remained at peace, save for the restless intrigues
+of Charles of Egmont in Gelderland, and prospered. Their wealth
+furnished indeed no small portion of the funds which enabled Charles to
+face successfully so many adversaries and to humble the power of
+France. The last important act of Margaret, like her first, was
+connected with the town of Cambray. In this town, as the representative
+and plenipotentiary of her nephew the emperor, she met, July, 1529,
+Louise of Savoy, who had been granted similar powers by her son Francis
+I, to negotiate a treaty of peace. The two princesses proved worthy of
+the trust that had been placed in them, and a general treaty of peace,
+often spoken of as "the Ladies' Peace," was speedily drawn up and
+ratified. The conditions were highly advantageous to the interests of
+Spain and the Netherlands. On November 30 of the following year Margaret
+died, as the result of a slight accident to her foot which the medical
+science of the day did not know how to treat properly, in the 50th year
+of her age and the 24th of her regency.
+
+Charles, who had a few months previously reached the zenith of his power
+by being crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy and with the imperial
+crown at the hands of Pope Clement VII at Bologna (February 22 and 24,
+1530), appointed as governess in Margaret's place his sister Mary, the
+widowed queen of Louis, King of Hungary, who had been slain by the Turks
+at the battle of Mohacs, August 29, 1526.
+
+Mary, who had passed her early life in the Netherlands under the care of
+her aunt Margaret, proved herself in every way her worthy successor. She
+possessed, like Margaret, a strong character, statesmanlike qualities
+and singular capacity in the administration of affairs. She filled the
+difficult post of regent for the whole period of twenty-four years
+between the death of Margaret and the abdication of Charles V in 1555.
+It was fortunate indeed for that great sovereign that these two eminent
+women of his house should, each in turn for one half of his long reign,
+have so admirably conducted the government of this important portion of
+his dominions, as to leave him free for the carrying out of his
+far-reaching political projects and constant military campaigns in other
+lands. Two years after Mary entered upon her regency Charles appointed
+three advisory and administrative bodies--the Council of State, the
+Council of Finance and the Privy Council--to assist her in the
+government. The Council of State dealt with questions of external and
+internal policy and with the appointment of officials; the Council of
+Finance with the care of the revenue and private domains of the
+sovereign; to the Privy Council were entrusted the publication of edicts
+and "placards," and the care of justice and police.
+
+When Charles succeeded Philip the Fair only a portion of the Netherlands
+was subject to his sway. With steady persistence he set himself to the
+task of bringing all the seventeen provinces under one sovereign. In
+1515 George of Saxe-Meissen sold to him his rights over Friesland. Henry
+of Bavaria, who in opposition to his wishes had been elected Bishop of
+Utrecht, was compelled (1528) to cede to him the temporalities of the
+see, retaining the spiritual office only. Charles thus added the Upper
+and Lower _Sticht_--Utrecht and Overyssel--to his dominions. He made
+himself (1536) master of Groningen and Drente after a long and obstinate
+struggle with Charles of Gelderland, and seven years later he forced
+Charles' successor, William of Juelich and Cleves, to renounce in his
+favour his claims to Gelderland and Zutphen. During the reign of Charles
+V the States-General were summoned many times, chiefly for the purpose
+of voting subsidies, but it was only on special and solemn occasions,
+that the representatives of all the seventeen provinces were present, as
+for instance when Philip received their homage in 1549 and when Charles
+V announced his abdication in 1555. The names of the seventeen provinces
+summoned on these occasions were Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg,
+Gelderland, Flanders, Holland, Zeeland, Artois, Hainault, Namur, Lille
+with Douay and Orchies, Tournay and district, Mechlin, Friesland,
+Utrecht, Overyssel with Drente and Groningen. The bishopric of Liege,
+though nominally independent, was under the strict control of the
+government at Brussels. The relations of Charles' Burgundian domains
+to the empire were a matter of no small moment, and he was able to
+regulate them in a manner satisfactory to himself. Several times during
+his reign tentative attempts were made to define those relations, which
+were of a very loose kind. The fact that the head of the house of
+Habsburg was himself emperor had not made him any less determined than
+the Burgundian sovereigns, his ancestors, to assert for his Netherland
+territories a virtual independence of imperial control or obligation.
+The various states of which the Netherlands were composed were as much
+opposed as the central government at Brussels to any recognition of the
+claims of the empire; and both Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary
+ventured to refuse to send representatives to the imperial diets, even
+when requested to do so by the emperor. At last in 1548, when all the
+Netherland provinces had been brought under the direct dominion or
+control of one sovereign prince, a convention was drawn up at the diet
+of Augsburg, chiefly by the exertions of the Regent Mary and her tried
+councillors Viglius and Granvelle, by which the unity of the Netherland
+territories was recognised and they were freed from imperial
+jurisdiction. Nominally, they formed a circle of the empire,--the
+Burgundian circle--and representatives of the circle were supposed to
+appear at the diets and to bear a certain share of imperial taxation in
+return for the right to the protection of the empire against attacks by
+France. As a matter of fact, no representatives were ever sent and no
+subsidy was paid, nor was the protection of the empire ever sought or
+given.
+
+This convention, which in reality severed the shadowy links which had
+hitherto bound the Netherlands to the empire, received the sanction of
+the States-General in October, 1548; and it was followed by the issuing,
+with the consent of the Estates of the various provinces, of a
+"Pragmatic Sanction" by which the inherited right of succession to the
+sovereignty in each and every province was settled upon the male and
+female line of Charles' descendants, notwithstanding the existence of
+ancient provincial privileges to the contrary. In 1549 the emperor's
+only son Philip was acknowledged by all the Estates as their future
+sovereign, and made a journey through the land to receive homage.
+
+The doctrines of the Reformation had early obtained a footing in
+various parts of the Netherlands. At first it was the teaching of Luther
+and of Zwingli which gained adherents. Somewhat later the Anabaptist
+movement made great headway in Holland and Friesland, especially in
+Amsterdam. The chief leaders of the Anabaptists were natives of Holland,
+including the famous or infamous John of Leyden, who with some thousands
+of these fanatical sectaries perished at Muenster in 1535. Between 1537
+and 1543 a more moderate form of Anabaptist teaching made rapid progress
+through the preaching of a certain Menno Simonszoon. The followers of
+this man were called Mennonites. Meanwhile Lutheranism and Zwinglianism
+were in many parts of the country being supplanted by the sterner
+doctrines of Calvin. All these movements were viewed by the emperor
+with growing anxiety and detestation. Whatever compromises with the
+Reformation he might be compelled to make in Germany, he was determined
+to extirpate heresy from his hereditary dominions. He issued a strong
+placard soon after the diet of Worms in 1521 condemning Luther and his
+opinions and forbidding the printing or sale of any of the reformer's
+writings; and between that date and 1555 a dozen other edicts and
+placards were issued of increasing stringency. The most severe was the
+so-called "blood-placard" of 1550. This enacted the sentence of death
+against all convicted of heresy--the men to be executed with the sword
+and the women buried alive; in cases of obstinacy both men and women
+were to be burnt. Terribly harsh as were these edicts, it is doubtful
+whether the number of those who Suffered the extreme penalty has not
+been greatly exaggerated by partisan writers. Of the thousands who
+perished, by far the greater part were Anabaptists; and these met their
+fate rather as enemies of the state and of society, than as heretics.
+They were political as well as religious anarchists.
+
+In the time of Charles the trade and industries of the Netherlands were
+in a highly prosperous state. The Burgundian provinces under the wise
+administrations of Margaret and Mary, and protected by the strong arm of
+the emperor from foreign attack, were at this period by far the richest
+state in Europe and the financial mainstay of the Habsburg power.
+Bruges, however, had now ceased to be the central market and exchange of
+Europe, owing to the silting up of the river Zwijn. It was no longer a
+port, and its place had been taken by Antwerp. At the close of the reign
+of Charles, Antwerp, with its magnificent harbour on the Scheldt, had
+become the "counting-house" of the nations, the greatest port and the
+wealthiest and most luxurious city in the world. Agents of the principal
+bankers and merchants of every country had their offices within its
+walls. It has been estimated that, inclusive of the many foreigners who
+made the town their temporary abode, the population of Antwerp in 1560
+was about 150,000. Five hundred vessels sailed in and out of her harbour
+daily, and five times that number were to be seen thronging her wharves
+at the same time.
+
+To the north of the Scheldt the condition of things was not less
+satisfactory than in the south, particularly in Holland. The commercial
+prosperity of Holland was in most respects different in kind from that
+of Flanders and Brabant, and during the period with which we are dealing
+had been making rapid advances, but on independent lines. A manufactory
+of the coarser kinds of cloth, established at Leyden, had indeed for a
+time met with a considerable measure of success, but had fallen into
+decline in the time of Mary of Hungary. The nature of his country led
+the Hollander to be either a sailor or a dairy-farmer, not an artisan or
+operative. Akin though he was in race to the Fleming and the Brabanter,
+his instincts led him by the force of circumstances to turn his energies
+in other directions. Subsequent history has but emphasised the
+fact--which from the fourteenth century onwards is clearly evident--that
+the people who inhabited the low-lying sea-girt lands of dyke, canal and
+polder in Holland and Zeeland were distinct in character and temper from
+the citizens of Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Brussels or Mechlin, who were
+essentially landsmen and artisans. Ever since the discovery of the art
+of curing herrings (ascribed to William Beukelsz), the herring fishery
+had acquired a great importance to the Hollanders and Zeelanders, and
+formed the chief livelihood of a large part of the entire population of
+those provinces; and many thousands, who did not themselves sail in the
+fishing fleets, found employment in the ship and boat-building wharves
+and in the making of sails, cordage, nets and other tackle. It was in
+this hazardous occupation that the hardy race of skilled and seasoned
+seamen, who were destined to play so decisive a part in the coming wars
+of independence, had their early training. The herring harvest, through
+the careful and scientific methods that were employed in curing the
+fish and packing them in barrels, became a durable and much sought for
+article of commerce. A small portion of the catch served as a supply of
+food for home consumption, the great bulk in its thousands of barrels
+was a marketable commodity, and the distribution of the cured herring to
+distant ports became a lucrative business. It had two important
+consequences, the formation of a Dutch Mercantile Marine, and the growth
+of Amsterdam, which from small beginnings had in the middle of the
+sixteenth century become a town with 40,000 inhabitants and a port
+second only in importance in the Netherlands to Antwerp. From its
+harbour at the confluence of the estuary of the Y with the Zuyder Zee
+ships owned and manned by Hollanders sailed along the coasts of France
+and Spain to bring home the salt for curing purposes and with it wines
+and other southern products, while year by year a still larger and
+increasing number entered the Baltic. In those eastern waters they
+competed with the German Hanseatic cities, with whom they had many
+acrimonious disputes, and with such success that the Hollanders
+gradually monopolised the traffic in grain, hemp and other "Eastland"
+commodities and became practically the freight-carriers of the Baltic.
+And be it remembered that they were able to achieve this because many of
+the North-Netherland towns were themselves members of the Hanse League,
+and possessed therefore the same rights and privileges commercially as
+their rivals, Hamburg, Luebeck or Danzig. The great industrial cities of
+Flanders and Brabant, on the other hand, not being members of the League
+nor having any mercantile marine of their own, were content to transact
+business with the foreign agents of the Hanse towns, who had their
+counting-houses at Antwerp. It will thus be seen that in the middle of
+the sixteenth century the trade of the northern provinces, though as yet
+not to be compared in volume to that of the Flemings and Walloons, had
+before it an opening field for enterprise and energy rich in
+possibilities and promise for the future.
+
+Such was the state of affairs political, religious and economical when
+in the year 1555 the Emperor Charles V, prematurely aged by the heavy
+burden of forty years of world-wide sovereignty, worn out by constant
+campaigns and weary of the cares of state, announced his intention of
+abdicating and retiring into a monastery. On October 25, 1555, the act
+of abdication was solemnly and with impressive ceremonial carried out
+in the presence of the representatives of the seventeen provinces of the
+Netherlands specially summoned to meet their sovereign for the last time
+in the Great Hall of the Palace at Brussels. Charles took an affecting
+farewell of his Netherland subjects and concluded by asking them to
+exhibit the same regard and loyalty to his son Philip as they had always
+displayed to himself. Much feeling was shown, for Charles, despite the
+many and varied calls and duties which had prevented him from residing
+for any length of time in the Netherlands, had always been at pains to
+manifest a special interest in the country of his birth. The Netherlands
+were to him throughout life his homeland and its people looked upon him
+as a fellow-countryman, and not even the constant demands that Charles
+had made for financial aid nor the stern edicts against heresy had
+estranged them from him. The abdication was the more regretted because
+at the same time Mary of Hungary laid down her office as regent, the
+arduous duties of which she had so long and so ably discharged. On the
+following day, October 26, the Knights of the Golden Fleece, the members
+of the Councils and the deputies of the provinces took the oath of
+allegiance to Philip, the emperor's only son and heir; and Philip on his
+side solemnly undertook to maintain unimpaired the ancient rights and
+privileges of the several provinces.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE PRELUDE TO THE REVOLT
+
+
+Philip at the time of his accession to the sovereignty of the
+Netherlands was already King of Naples and Sicily, and Duke of Milan,
+and, by his marriage in 1554 to Mary Tudor, King-consort of England, in
+which country he was residing when summoned by his father to assist at
+the abdication ceremony at Brussels. A few months later (January 16,
+1556) by a further act of abdication on the part of Charles V he became
+King of Castile and Aragon. It was a tremendous inheritance, and there
+is no reason to doubt that Philip entered upon his task with a deep
+sense that he had a mission to fulfil and with a self-sacrificing
+determination to spare himself no personal labour in the discharge of
+his duties. But though he bore to his father a certain physical
+likeness, Philip in character and disposition was almost his antithesis.
+Silent, reserved, inaccessible, Philip had none of the restless energy
+or the geniality of Charles, and was as slow and undecided in action as
+he was bigoted in his opinions and unscrupulous in his determination to
+compass his ends. He found himself on his accession to power faced with
+many difficulties, for the treasury was not merely empty, it was
+burdened with debt. Through lack of means he was compelled to patch up
+a temporary peace (February 5, 1556) with the French king at Vaucelles,
+and to take steps to reorganise his finances.
+
+One of Philip's first acts was the appointment of Emmanuel Philibert,
+Duke of Savoy, to the post vacated by his aunt Mary; but it was a
+position, as long as the king remained in the Netherlands, of small
+responsibility. Early in 1556 he summoned the States-General to Brussels
+and asked for a grant of 1,300,000 florins. The taxes proposed were
+disapproved by the principal provinces and eventually refused. Philip
+was very much annoyed, but was compelled to modify his proposals and
+accept what was offered by the delegates. There was indeed from the very
+outset no love lost between the new ruler and his Netherland subjects.
+Philip had spent nearly all his life in Spain, where he had received
+his education and early training, and he had grown up to manhood, in the
+narrowest sense of the word, a Spaniard. He was as unfamiliar with the
+laws, customs and privileges of the several provinces of his Netherland
+dominions as he was with the language of their peoples. He spoke and
+wrote only Castilian correctly, and during his four years' residence at
+Brussels he remained coldly and haughtily aloof, a foreigner and alien
+in a land where he never felt at home. Philip at the beginning of his
+reign honestly endeavoured to follow in his father's steps and to carry
+out his policy; but acts, which the great emperor with his conciliatory
+address and Flemish sympathies could venture upon with impunity, became
+suspect and questionable when attempted by the son. Philip made the
+great mistake of taking into his private confidence only foreign
+advisers, chief among whom was Anthony Perrenot de Granvelle, Bishop of
+Arras, a Burgundian by birth, the son of Nicholas Perrenot, who for
+thirty years had been the trusted counsellor of Charles V.
+
+The opening of Philip's reign was marked by signal military successes.
+War broke out afresh with France, after a brief truce, in 1557. The
+French arms however sustained two crushing reverses at St Quentin,
+August 10, 1557, and at Gravelines, July 13, 1558. Lamoral, Count of
+Egmont, who commanded the cavalry, was the chief agent in winning these
+victories. By the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis peace was concluded, in
+which the French made many concessions, but were allowed to retain, at
+the cost of Philip's ally, the town of Calais which had been captured
+from the English by a surprise attack in 1558. By the death of Queen
+Mary, which was said to have been hastened by the news of the loss of
+Calais, Philip's relations with England were entirely changed, and one
+of the reasons for a continuance of his residence in the Netherlands was
+removed. Peace with France therefore was no sooner assured than Philip
+determined to return to Spain, where his presence was required. He chose
+his half-sister Margaret, Duchess of Parma, to be regent in place of the
+Duke of Savoy. In July he summoned the Chapter of the Order of the
+Golden Fleece--destined to be the last that was ever held--to Ghent in
+order to announce his intended departure. A little later the
+States-General were called together, also at Ghent, for a solemn
+leave-taking. On August 26, Philip embarked at Flushing, and quitted the
+Netherlands, never again to return.
+
+Philip's choice of Margaret as governess-general was a happy one. She
+was a natural daughter of Charles V. Her mother was a Fleming, and she
+had been brought up under the care of her aunts, Margaret of Austria and
+Mary of Hungary. She resembled those able rulers in being a woman of
+strong character and statesmanlike qualities, and no doubt she would
+have been as successful in her administration had she had the same
+opportunities and the same freedom of action as her predecessors.
+Philip, however, though henceforth he passed the whole of his life in
+Spain, had no intention of loosening in any way his grasp of the reins
+of power or of delegating any share of his sovereign authority. On his
+return to Madrid he showed plainly that he meant to treat the Netherland
+provinces as if they were dependencies of the Spanish crown, and he
+required from Margaret and her advisers that all the details of policy,
+legislation and administration should be submitted to him for
+supervision and sanction. This necessitated the writing of voluminous
+despatches and entailed with a man of his habits of indecision
+interminable delays. Margaret moreover was instructed that in all
+matters she must be guided by the advice of her three councils. By far
+the most important of the three was the Council Of State, which at this
+time consisted of five members--Anthony Granvelle, Bishop of Arras;
+Baron de Barlaymont; Viglius van Zwychem van Aytta; Lamoral, Count of
+Egmont; and William, Prince of Orange. Barlaymont was likewise
+president of the Council of Finance and Viglius president of the Privy
+Council. By far the most important member of the Council of State, as he
+was much the ablest, was the Bishop of Arras; and he, with Barlaymont
+and Viglius, formed an inner confidential council from whom alone the
+regent asked advice. The members of this inner council, nicknamed the
+_Consulta_, were all devoted to the interests of Philip. Egmont and
+Orange, because of their great influence and popularity with the people,
+were allowed to be nominally Councillors of State, but they were rarely
+consulted and were practically shut out from confidential access to the
+regent. It is no wonder that both were discontented with their position
+and soon showed openly their dissatisfaction.
+
+Egmont, a man of showy rather than of solid qualities, held in 1559 the
+important posts of Stadholder of Flanders and Artois. The Prince of
+Orange was the eldest of the five sons of William, Count of
+Nassau-Dillenburg, head of the younger or German branch of the famous
+house of Nassau. Members of the elder or Netherland branch had for
+several generations rendered distinguished services to their Burgundian
+and Habsburg sovereigns. This elder branch became extinct in the person
+of Rene, the son of Henry of Nassau, one of Charles V's most trusted
+friends and advisers, by Claude, sister of Philibert, Prince of
+Orange-Chalons. Philibert being childless bequeathed his small
+principality to Rene; and Rene in his turn, being killed at the siege of
+St Dizier in 1544, left by will all his possessions to his cousin
+William, who thus became Prince of Orange. His parents were Lutherans,
+but Charles insisted that William, at that time eleven years of age,
+should be brought up as a Catholic at the Court of Mary of Hungary. Here
+he became a great favourite of the emperor, who in 1550 conferred on him
+the hand of a great heiress, Anne of Egmont, only child of the Count of
+Buren. Anne died in 1558, leaving two children, a son, Philip William,
+and a daughter. At the ceremony of the abdication in 1555, Charles
+entered the hall leaning on the shoulder of William, on whom, despite
+his youth, he had already bestowed an important command. Philip likewise
+specially recognised William's ability and gave evidence of his
+confidence in him by appointing him one of the plenipotentiaries to
+conclude with France the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. He had also
+made him a Knight of the Golden Fleece, a Councillor of State and
+Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Burgundy (Franche-Comte).
+Nevertheless there arose between Philip and Orange a growing feeling of
+distrust and dislike, with the result that William speedily found
+himself at the head of a patriotic opposition to any attempts of the
+Spanish king to govern the Netherlands by Spanish methods. The presence
+of a large body of Spanish troops in the country aroused the suspicion
+that Philip intended to use them, if necessary, to support him in
+overriding by force the liberties and privileges of the provinces. It
+was largely owing to the influence of Orange that the States-General in
+1559 refused to vote the grant of supplies for which Philip had asked,
+unless he promised that all foreign troops should be withdrawn from the
+Netherlands. The king was much incensed at such a humiliating rebuff and
+is reported, when on the point of embarking at Flushing, to have charged
+William with being the man who had instigated the States thus to thwart
+him.
+
+Thus, when Margaret of Parma entered upon her duties as regent, she
+found that there was a feeling of deep dissatisfaction and general
+irritation in the provinces; and this was accentuated as soon as it was
+found that, though Philip had departed, his policy remained. The spirit
+of the absent king from his distant cabinet in Madrid brooded, as it
+were, over the land. It was soon seen that Margaret, whatever her
+statesmanlike qualities or natural inclination might be, had no real
+authority, nor was she permitted to take any steps or to initiate any
+policy without the advice and approval of the three confidential
+councillors placed at her side by Philip--Granvelle, Viglius and
+Barlaymont. Of these Granvelle, both by reason of his conspicuous
+abilities and of his being admitted more freely than anyone else into
+the inner counsels of a sovereign, as secretive in his methods as he was
+suspicious and distrustful of his agents, held the foremost position and
+drew upon himself the odium of a policy with which, though it was
+dictated from Spain, his name was identified.
+
+Orange and Egmont, with whom were joined a number of other leading
+nobles (among these Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn, his brother
+the lord of Montigny, the Counts of Meghem and Hoogstraeten and the
+Marquis of Berghen), little by little adopted an attitude of increasing
+hostility to this policy, which they regarded as anti-national and
+tending to the establishment of a foreign despotism in the Netherlands.
+
+The continued presence of the Spanish troops, the severe measures that
+were being taken for the suppression of heresy, and a proposal for the
+erection of a number of new bishoprics, aroused popular discontent and
+suspicion. Orange and Egmont, finding that they were never consulted
+except on matters of routine, wrote to Philip (July, 1561) stating that
+they found that their attendance at the meetings of the Council of State
+was useless and asked to be allowed to resign their posts. Meanwhile,
+feeling that the presence of the Spanish troops was a source of weakness
+rather than of strength, Margaret and Granvelle were urging upon the
+king the necessity of their withdrawal. Neither the nobles nor the
+regent succeeded in obtaining any satisfactory response. Orange and
+Egmont accordingly absented themselves from the Council, and Margaret
+ventured on her own authority to send away the Spanish regiments.
+
+The question of the bishoprics was more serious. It was not a new
+question. The episcopal organisation in the Netherlands was admittedly
+inadequate. It had long been the intention of Charles V to create a
+number of new sees, but in his crowded life he had never found the
+opportunity of carrying out the proposed scheme, and it was one of the
+legacies that at his abdication he handed on to his son. One of the
+first steps taken by Philip was to obtain a Bull from Pope Paul IV for
+the creation of the new bishoprics, and this Bull was renewed and
+confirmed by Pius IV, January, 1560. Up to this time the entire area of
+the seventeen provinces had been divided into three unwieldy
+dioceses--Utrecht, Arras and Tournay. The See of Utrecht comprised
+nearly the whole of the modern kingdom of the Netherlands. Nor was there
+any archiepiscopal see. The metropolitical jurisdiction was exercised by
+the three foreign Archbishops of Cologne, Rheims and Treves. Philip now
+divided the land into fourteen dioceses (Charles had proposed six) with
+three Metropolitans at Mechlin, Utrecht and 'sHertogenbosch[3].
+Granvelle, who had obtained the Cardinal's hat, February, 1561, was
+appointed Archbishop of Mechlin, and by virtue of this office Primate of
+the Netherlands, December, 1561. This new organisation was not carried
+out without arousing widespread opposition.
+
+The existing bishops resented the diminution of their jurisdiction and
+dignity, and still louder were the protests of the abbots, whose
+endowments were appropriated to furnish the incomes of the new sees.
+Still more formidable was the hostility of the people generally, a
+hostility founded on fear, for the introduction of so many new bishops
+nominated by the king was looked upon as being the first step to prepare
+the way for the bringing in of the dreaded Spanish Inquisition. Already
+the edicts against heretics, which Charles V had enacted and severely
+enforced, were being carried out throughout the length and breadth of
+the land with increasing and merciless barbarity. Both papal and
+episcopal inquisitors were active in the work of persecution, and so
+many were the sentences that in many places the civil authorities, and
+even some of the stadholders, declined to carry out the executions.
+Public opinion looked upon Granvelle as the author of the new bishoprics
+scheme and the instigator of the increased activity of the persecutors.
+He was accused of being eager to take any measures to repress the
+ancient liberties of the Netherland provinces and to establish a
+centralised system of absolute rule, in order to ingratiate himself with
+the king and so to secure his own advancement. That the cardinal was
+ambitious of power there can be no question. But to men of Granvelle's
+great abilities, as administrator and statesman, ambition is not
+necessarily a fault; and access to the secret records and correspondence
+of the time has revealed that the part played by him was far from being
+so sinister as was believed. The Bishop of Arras was not consulted about
+the bishoprics proposal until after the Papal Bull had been secured, and
+at first he was unfavourable to it and was not anxious to become
+archbishop and primate. It was his advice which led Margaret to send
+away the hated Spanish regiments from Netherland soil; and, far from
+being naturally a relentless persecutor, there is proof that neither he
+nor the president of the Privy Council, the jurist Viglius, believed in
+the policy of harsh and brutal methods for stamping out heretical
+opinions. They had in this as in other matters to obey their master, and
+allow the odium to fall upon themselves.
+
+To Orange and Egmont, the two leaders of the opposition to Granvelle, a
+third name, that of Philip de Montmorency, Count of Hoorn and Admiral of
+Flanders, has now to be added. These three worked together for the
+overthrow of the Cardinal, but their opposition at this time was based
+rather on political than on religious grounds. They all professed the
+Catholic faith, but the marriage of Orange in August, 1561, with a
+Lutheran, Anne daughter of Maurice of Saxony and granddaughter of
+Philip of Hesse, was ominous of coming change in William's religious
+opinions. In 1562 the discontent of the nobles led to the formation of a
+league against the cardinal, of which, in addition to the three leaders,
+the Counts of Brederode, Mansfeld and Hoogstraeten were the principal
+members. This league, of which Orange was the brain and moving spirit,
+had as its chief aim the removal of Granvelle from office, and then
+redress of grievances. It found widespread support. The cardinal was
+assailed by a torrent of lampoons and pasquinades of the bitterest
+description. But, though Margaret began to see that the unpopularity of
+the minister was undermining her position, and was rendering for her the
+task of government more and more difficult, Philip was obdurate and
+closed his ears. The long distance between Madrid and Brussels and the
+procrastinating habits of the Spanish king added immensely to the
+regent's perplexities. She could not act on her own initiative, and her
+appeals to Philip were either disregarded or after long delay met by
+evasive replies.
+
+The discontented nobles in vain tried to obtain redress for their
+grievances. In the autumn of 1562 Montigny was sent on a special mission
+to Madrid, but returned without effecting anything. Orange, Egmont and
+Hoorn thereupon drew up a joint letter containing a bold demand for the
+dismissal of Granvelle, as the chief cause of all the troubles in the
+land. The king replied by asking that one of them should go in person to
+Spain to discuss the grievances with him, and suggesting that Egmont
+should be sent. Egmont however was averse to the proposal, and another
+and stronger letter signed by the three leaders was despatched to
+Madrid. Finding that both Margaret and Granvelle himself were in
+agreement with Orange, Egmont and Hoorn in their view of the situation,
+Margaret advising, with the cardinal's acquiescence, the necessity of
+the minister's removal from his post, Philip determined at last that
+Granvelle should leave the Netherlands. But in accordance with the
+counsel of Alva, who was opposed on principle to any concession, he
+characteristically employed circuitous and clandestine means to conceal
+from the world any appearance of yielding to the request of his
+subjects. In January, 1564 he sent a letter to the Duchess of Parma
+expressing his displeasure at the lords' letter, and saying that they
+must substantiate their complaints. The same messenger (Armenteros, the
+duchess' secretary) carried another letter for Granvelle headed
+"secret," in which the cardinal was told that "owing to the strong
+feeling that had been aroused against him, he was to ask permission from
+the regent to go away for a short time to visit his mother." About a
+week after these letters had reached their destination another courier
+brought a reply to the three nobles, which, though written on the same
+day as the others, bore a date three weeks later, in which they were
+bidden to take their places again in the Council of State, and a promise
+was given that the charges against Granvelle after substantiation should
+be maturely considered. This letter was delivered on March 1, after
+Granvelle had already, in obedience to the king's orders, asked for
+leave of absence to visit his mother in Franche-Comte. The cardinal
+actually left Brussels on March 13, to the great joy of every class of
+the people, never to return.
+
+With the departure of Granvelle, the nobles once more took their seats
+on the Council of State. The _Consulta_ disappeared, and the regent
+herself appeared to be relieved and to welcome the disappearance of the
+man whose authority had overshadowed her own. But the change, though it
+placed large powers of administration and of patronage in the hands of
+Netherlanders instead of foreigners, did not by any means introduce
+purer methods of government. Many of the nobles were heavily in debt;
+most of them were self-seeking; offices and emoluments were eagerly
+sought for, and were even put up for sale. Armenteros, Margaret's
+private secretary (to whom the nickname of _Argenteros_ was given), was
+the leading spirit in this disgraceful traffic, and enriched himself by
+the acceptance of bribes for the nomination to preferments. It was an
+unedifying state of things; and public opinion was not long in
+expressing its discontent with such an exhibition of widespread venality
+and greed. All this was duly reported to Philip by Granvelle, who
+continued, in his retirement, to keep himself well informed of all that
+was going on.
+
+Meanwhile by the efforts of Orange, Egmont and Hoorn, chiefly of the
+former, proposals of reform were being urged for the strengthening of
+the powers of the Council of State, for the reorganisation of finance,
+and for the more moderate execution of the placards against heresy.
+While discussion concerning these matters was in progress, came an order
+from Philip (August, 1564) for the enforcing of the decrees of the
+recently concluded Council of Trent. This at once aroused protest and
+opposition. It was denounced as an infringement of the fundamental
+privileges of the provinces. Philip's instructions however were
+peremptory. In these circumstances it was resolved by the Council of
+State to despatch Egmont on a special mission to Madrid to explain to
+the king in person the condition of affairs in the Netherlands. Egmont
+having expressed his willingness to go, instructions were drawn up for
+him by Viglius. When these were read at a meeting of the council
+convened for the purpose, Orange in a long and eloquent speech boldly
+expressed his dissent from much that Viglius had written, and wished
+that Philip should be plainly told that it was impossible to enforce the
+decrees and that the severity of religious persecution must be
+moderated. The council determined to revise the instructions on the
+lines suggested by Orange, whose words had such an effect upon the
+aged Viglius, that he had that very night a stroke of apoplexy, which
+proved fatal.
+
+Egmont set out for Spain, January 15, 1565, and on his arrival was
+received by Philip with extreme courtesy and graciousness. He was
+entertained splendidly; presents were made to him, which, being
+considerably in debt, he gladly accepted; but as regards his mission he
+was put off with evasions and blandishments, and he returned home with a
+reply from the king containing some vague promises of reform in
+financial and other matters, but an absolute refusal to modify the
+decrees against heresy. Rather would he sacrifice a hundred thousand
+lives, if he had them, than concede liberty of worship in any form. For
+some months however no attempt was made to carry out active
+persecutions; and the regent meanwhile did her utmost to place before
+the king urgent reasons for the modification of his policy, owing to the
+angry spirit of unrest and suspicion which was arising in the provinces.
+She begged Philip to visit the Netherlands and acquaint himself
+personally with the difficulties of a situation which, unless her advice
+were taken, would rapidly grow worse and pass beyond her control. Philip
+however was deaf alike to remonstrance or entreaty. On November 5, 1565,
+a royal despatch reached Brussels in which the strictest orders were
+renewed for the promulgation throughout the provinces of the decrees of
+the Council of Trent and for the execution of the placards against
+heretics, while the proposals that had been made for an extension of the
+powers of the Council of State and for the summoning of the
+States-General were refused. As soon as these fateful decisions were
+known, and the Inquisition began to set about its fell work in real
+earnest, the popular indignation knew no bounds. A large number of the
+magistrates refused to take any part in the cruel persecution that
+arose, following the example of Orange, Egmont, Berghen and others of
+the stadholders and leading nobles. A strong spirit of opposition to
+arbitrary and foreign rule arose and found expression in the action
+taken by a large number of the members of the so-called "lesser
+nobility." Many of these had come to Brussels, and at a meeting at the
+house of the Count of Culemburg the formation of a league to resist
+arbitrary rule was proposed. The leaders were Lewis of Nassau, brother
+of the Prince of Orange, Nicolas de Harnes, Philip de Marnix, lord of
+Sainte Aldegonde, and Henry, Viscount of Brederode. Other meetings
+were held, and a document embodying the principles and demands of the
+Confederates was drawn up, known as _the Compromise_, which was widely
+distributed among the nobles and quickly obtained large and constantly
+increasing support. The signatories of the Compromise, while professing
+themselves to be faithful and loyal subjects of the king, denounced the
+Inquisition in its every form "as being unjust and contrary to all laws
+human and divine"; and they pledged themselves to stand by one another
+in resisting its introduction into the Netherlands and in preventing the
+carrying-out of the placards against heresy, while at the same time
+undertaking to maintain the royal authority and public peace in the
+land.
+
+At first the great nobles stood aloof, doubtful what course to pursue.
+At the instigation of Orange conferences were held, at which, by his
+advice, a petition or _Request_, setting forth the grievances and asking
+for redress, should be made in writing for presentation to the regent.
+The original draft of this document was the work of Lewis of Nassau.
+These conferences, however, revealed that there was a considerable
+divergence of views among the leading nobles. Egmont and Meghem were
+indeed so alarmed at the character of the movement, which seemed to them
+to savour of treason, that they separated themselves henceforth from
+Orange and Hoorn and openly took the side of the government. The duchess
+after some demur agreed to receive the petition. A body of confederates
+under the leadership of Brederode and Lewis of Nassau marched to the
+palace, where they were received by Margaret in person. The petitioners
+asked the regent to send an envoy to Madrid to lay before the king the
+state of feeling among his loyal subjects in the Netherlands, praying
+him to withdraw the Inquisition and moderate the placards against
+heresy, and meanwhile by her own authority to suspend them until the
+king's answer had been received. The regent replied that she had no
+power to suspend the Inquisition or the placards, but would undertake,
+while awaiting the royal reply, to mitigate their operation.
+
+On the last day of their stay at Brussels, April 8, the confederates
+under the presidency of Brederode, to the number of about three hundred,
+dined together at the Hotel Culemburg. In the course of the meal
+Brederode drew the attention of the company now somewhat excited with
+wine to a contemptuous phrase attributed by common report to Barlaymont.
+Margaret was somewhat perturbed at the formidable numbers of the
+deputation, as it entered the palace court, and it was said that
+Barlaymont remarked that "these beggars" (_ces gueux_) need cause her no
+fear. Brederode declared that he had no objection to the name and was
+quite willing to be "a beggar" in the cause of his country and his king.
+It was destined to be a name famous in history. Immediately loud cries
+arose from the assembled guests, until the great hall echoed with the
+shouts of _Vivent les Gueux_. From this date onwards the confederates
+were known as "les gueux," and they adopted a coarse grey dress with the
+symbols of beggarhood--the wallet and the bowl--worn as the _insignia_
+of their league. It was the beginning of a popular movement, which made
+rapid headway among all classes. A medal was likewise struck, which bore
+on one side the head of the king, on the other two clasped hands with
+the inscription--_Fideles au roy jusques a la besace_.
+
+Thus was the opposition to the tyrannical measures of the government
+organising itself in the spring of 1566. It is a great mistake to
+suppose that the majority of those who signed "the Compromise" or
+presented "the Request" were disloyal to their sovereign or converts to
+the reformed faith. Among those who denounced the methods of the
+Inquisition and of the Blood Placards were a large number, who without
+ceasing to be Catholics, had been disillusioned by the abuses which had
+crept into the Roman Church, desired their removal only to a less degree
+than the Protestants themselves, and had no sympathy with the terrible
+and remorseless persecution on Spanish lines, which sought to crush out
+all liberty of thought and all efforts of religious reform by the stake
+and the sword of the executioner. Nevertheless this league of the nobles
+gave encouragement to the sectaries and was the signal for a great
+increase in the number and activity of the Calvinist and Zwinglian
+preachers, who flocked into the land from the neighbouring countries.
+Such was the boldness of these preachers that, instead of being
+contented with secret meetings, they began to hold their conventicles in
+the fields or in the outskirts of the towns. Crowds of people thronged
+to hear them, and the authority of the magistrates was defied and
+flouted. The regent was in despair. Shortly after the presentation of
+the Request it was determined by the advice of the council to send
+special envoys to lay before the king once more the serious state of
+things. The Marquis of Berghen and Baron Montigny consented with some
+demur to undertake the mission, but for various reasons they did not
+reach Madrid till some two months later. They were received with
+apparent courtesy, and after several conferences the king, on July 31,
+despatched a letter to Margaret in which he undertook to do away with
+the Papal Inquisition and offered to allow such moderation of the
+Placards as did not imply any recognition of heretical opinions or any
+injury to the Catholic faith. He refused to consent to the meeting of
+the States, but he sent letters couched in most friendly terms to Orange
+and Egmont appealing to their loyalty and asking them to support the
+regent by their advice and influence. These demonstrations of a
+conciliatory temper were however mere temporising. He was playing false.
+A document is in existence, dated August 9, in which Philip states that
+these concessions had been extorted from him against his will and that
+he did not regard himself as bound by them, and he informed the Pope
+that the abolition of the Papal Inquisition was a mere form of words.
+
+Meanwhile events were moving fast in the Netherlands. The open-air
+preachings were attended by thousands; and at Antwerp, which was one of
+the chief centres of Calvinism, disorders broke out, and armed conflicts
+were feared. Orange himself, as burgrave of Antwerp, at the request of
+the duchess visited the town and with the aid of Brederode and Meghem
+succeeded in effecting a compromise between the Catholic and Protestant
+parties. The latter were allowed to hold their preachings undisturbed,
+so long as they met outside and not within the city walls. The regent
+in her alarm was even driven to make overtures to the confederates to
+assist her in the maintenance of order. There was much parleying, in
+which Orange and Egmont took part; and in July an assembly of the
+signatories of the Compromise was called together at St Trond in the
+district of Liege. Some two thousand were present, presided over by
+Lewis of Nassau. It was resolved to send twelve delegates to Margaret to
+lay before her the necessity of finding a remedy for the evils which
+were afflicting and disturbing the land. They offered to consult with
+Orange and Egmont as to the best means by which they could work together
+for the country's good, but hinting that, if no redress was given, they
+might be forced to look for foreign aid. Indeed this was no empty
+threat, for Lewis had already been in communication with the Protestant
+leaders both in France and in the Rhinelands, as to the terms on which
+they would furnish armed assistance; and Orange was probably not
+altogether in ignorance of the fact. The regent was angry at the tone of
+the delegates, whom she received on July 26, but in her present
+impotence thought it best to dissemble. She promised to give
+consideration to the petition, and summoned a meeting of the Knights of
+the Golden Fleece to meet at Brussels on August 18, when she would
+decide upon her answer. But, when that date arrived, other and more
+pressing reasons than the advice of counsellors compelled her to yield
+to the confederates a large part of their demands. On August 23 she
+agreed, in return for help in the restoration of order, to concede
+liberty of preaching, so long as those who assembled did not bear arms
+and did not interfere with the Catholic places of worship and religious
+services. Further an indemnity was promised to all who had signed the
+Compromise.
+
+The reasons which influenced her were, first the receipt, on August 12,
+of the conciliatory letter from the king, to which reference has already
+been made, in which he consented to a certain measure of toleration; and
+secondly a sudden outburst of iconoclastic fury on the part of the
+Calvinistic sectaries, which had spread with great rapidity through many
+parts of the land. On August 14, at St Omer, Ypres, Courtray,
+Valenciennes and Tournay, fanatical mobs entered the churches destroying
+and wrecking, desecrating the altars, images, vestments and works of
+art, and carrying away the sacred vessels and all that was valuable. On
+August 16 and 17 the cathedral of Antwerp was entered by infuriated and
+sacrilegious bands armed with axes and hammers, who made havoc and ruin
+of the interior of the beautiful church. In Holland and Zeeland similar
+excesses were committed. Such conduct aroused a feeling of the deepest
+indignation and reprobation in the minds of all right-thinking men, and
+alienated utterly those more moderate Catholics who up till now had been
+in favour of moderation. Of the great nobles, who had hitherto upheld
+the cause of the national liberties and privileges against the
+encroachments of a foreign despotism, many now fell away. Among these
+were Aremberg, Meghem and Mansfeld. Egmont hesitated. As might have been
+expected, the news of the outrages, when it reached Philip's ears,
+filled him with rage and grief; and he is reported to have exclaimed,
+"It shall cost them dear. I swear it by the soul of my father." From
+this time forward he was determined to visit with exemplary punishment
+not only the rioters and the Protestant sectaries, but more especially
+the great nobles on whose shoulders he laid the whole blame for the
+troubles that had arisen.
+
+He was in no hurry to act, and announced that it was his intention to go
+to the Netherlands in person and enquire into the alleged grievances. So
+he told his councillors and wrote to Margaret. No one seems to have
+suspected his deep-laid scheme for allaying the suspicions of his
+intended victims until the right moment came for laying his hands upon
+them and crushing all opposition by overwhelming force. Orange alone,
+who had his paid spies at Madrid, had a presage of what was coming and
+took measures of precaution betimes. An intercepted letter from the
+Spanish ambassador at Paris to the Regent Margaret, specifically
+mentioned Orange, Egmont and Hoorn as deserving of exemplary punishment;
+and on October 3 the prince arranged a meeting at Dendermonde to
+consider what should be their course of action. In addition to Egmont
+and Hoorn, Hoogstraeten and Lewis of Nassau were present. William and
+Lewis urged that steps should be taken for preparing armed resistance
+should the necessity arise. But neither Egmont nor Hoorn would consent;
+they would not be guilty of any act of disloyalty to their sovereign.
+The result of the meeting was a great disappointment to Orange, and this
+date marked a turning-point in his life. In concert with his brothers,
+John and Lewis, he began to enter into negotiations with several of the
+German Protestant princes for the formation of a league for the
+protection of the adherents of the reformed faith in the Netherlands.
+Now for the first time he severed his nominal allegiance to the Roman
+Church, and in a letter to Philip of Hesse avowed himself a Lutheran.
+
+During these same autumn months Philip furnished his sister with
+considerable sums of money for the levying of a strong mercenary force,
+German and Walloon. Possessed now of a body of troops that she could
+trust, Margaret in the spring of 1567 took energetic steps to suppress
+all insurrectionary movements and disorders, and did not scruple to
+disregard the concessions which had been wrung from her on August 23.
+The confederate nobles, satisfied with her promises, had somewhat
+prematurely dissolved their league; but one of the most fiery and
+zealous among them, John de Marnix, lord of Thoulouse, collected at
+Antwerp a body of some 2000 Calvinists and attempted to make himself
+master of that city. At Austruweel he was encountered (March 13) by a
+Walloon force despatched by Margaret with orders to "exterminate the
+heretics." Thoulouse and almost the whole of his following perished in
+the fight. In the south at the same time the conventicles were
+mercilessly suppressed and the preachers driven into exile.
+
+Margaret now felt herself strong enough to demand that the stadholders
+and leading nobles should, on pain of dismissal from their posts, take
+an oath "to serve the king and to act for and against whomsoever His
+Majesty might order." Egmont took the oath; Hoorn, Hoogstraeten and
+Brederode declined to do so and resigned their offices. Orange offered
+his resignation, but Margaret was unwilling to accept it and urged him
+to discuss the matter first with Egmont and Meghem. The three nobles met
+accordingly at Willebroek, April 2. William used his utmost powers of
+persuasion in an attempt to convince Egmont that he was courting
+destruction. But in vain. He himself was not to be moved from his
+decision, and the two friends, who had worked together so long in the
+patriot cause, parted, never to meet again. Orange saw that he was no
+longer safe in the Netherlands and, on April 22, he set out from Breda
+for the residence of his brother John at Dillenburg. Here in exile he
+could watch in security the progress of events, and be near at hand
+should circumstances again require his intervention in the affairs of
+the Netherlands.
+
+Orange did not take this extreme step without adequate cause. At the
+very time that he left the Netherlands Philip was taking leave of the
+Duke of Alva, whom he was despatching at the head of a veteran force to
+carry out without pity or remorse the stern duty of expelling heresy
+from the provinces and punishing all those, and especially the leaders,
+who had ventured to oppose the arbitrary exercise of the royal
+authority. He had for some time been preparing this expedition. He still
+kept up the pretence that he was coming in person to enquire into the
+alleged grievances, but he never had the slightest intention of quitting
+Madrid. Alva sailed from Cartagena (April 27) for Genoa, and proceeded
+at once to draw together from the various Spanish garrisons in Italy a
+picked body of some 12,000 men. With these he set out in June for his
+long march across the Alps and through Burgundy, Lorraine and Luxemburg.
+His progress, jealously watched by the French and Swiss, met with no
+opposition save for the difficulties of the route. He entered the
+Netherlands on August 8, with his army intact. A number of notables,
+amongst whom was Egmont, came to meet him on his way to Brussels. He
+received them, more particularly Egmont, with every appearance of
+graciousness. Alva as yet bore only the title of Captain-General, but
+the king had bestowed on him full powers civil and military; and the
+Duchess of Parma, though still nominally regent, found herself reduced
+to a nonentity. Alva's first step was to place strong Spanish garrisons
+in the principal cities, his next to get the leaders who had been marked
+for destruction into his power. To effect this he succeeded by fair and
+flattering words in securing the presence of both Egmont and Hoorn at
+Brussels. Under the pretence of taking part in a consultation they were
+(September 9) invited to the duke's residence and on their arrival
+suddenly found themselves arrested. At the same time their secretaries
+and papers were seized, and Antony van Stralen, the burgomaster of
+Antwerp, was placed under arrest. These high-handed actions were the
+prelude to a reign of terror; and Margaret, already humiliated by
+finding herself superseded, requested her brother to accept her
+resignation. On October 6 the office of Governor-General was conferred
+upon Alva; and shortly afterwards the duchess left the Netherlands and
+returned to Parma.
+
+Alva had now the reins of power in his hand, and with a relentless zeal
+and cold-blooded ferocity, which have made his name a by-word, he set
+about the accomplishment of the fell task with which his master had
+entrusted him. He had to enforce with drastic rigour all the penalties
+decreed by the placards against heretics and preachers, and to deal
+summarily with all who had taken any part in opposition to the
+government. But to attempt to do this by means of the ordinary courts
+and magistrates would consume time and lead to many acquittals. Alva
+therefore had no sooner thrown off the mask by the sudden and skilfully
+planned arrest of Egmont and Hoorn, than he proceeded to erect an
+extraordinary tribunal, which had no legal standing except such as the
+arbitrary will of the duke conferred upon it. This so-called Council of
+Troubles, which speedily acquired in popular usage the name of the
+Council of Blood, virtually consisted of Alva himself, who was president
+and to whose final decision all cases were referred, and two Spanish
+lawyers, his chosen tools and agents, Juan de Vargas and Louis del
+Rio. The two royalist nobles, Noircarmes and Barlaymont, and five
+Netherland jurists also had seats; but, as only the Spaniards voted, the
+others before long ceased to attend the meetings. The proceedings indeed
+were, from the legal point of view, a mere travesty of justice. A whole
+army of commissioners was let loose upon the land, and informers were
+encouraged and rewarded. Multitudes of accused were hauled before the
+tribunal and were condemned by batches almost without the form of a
+trial. For long hours day by day Vargas and del Rio revelled in their
+work of butchery; and in all parts of the Netherlands the executioners
+were busy. It was of no use for the accused to appeal to the charters
+and privileges of their provinces. All alike were summoned to Brussels;
+_non curamus privilegios vestros_ declared Vargas in his ungrammatical
+Latin. Hand in hand with the wholesale sentences of death went the
+confiscation of property. Vast sums went into the treasury. The whole
+land for awhile was terror-stricken. All organised opposition was
+crushed, and no one dared to raise his voice in protest.
+
+The Prince of Orange was summoned to appear in person before the council
+within six weeks, under pain of perpetual banishment and confiscation of
+his estates. He refused to come, and energetically denied that the
+council had any jurisdiction over him. The same sentence was passed upon
+all the other leaders who had placed themselves out of reach of Alva's
+arm--Sainte Aldegonde, Hoogstraeten, Culemburg, Montigny, Lewis of
+Nassau and others. Unable to lay hands upon the prince himself, the
+governor-general took dastardly advantage of William's indiscretion in
+leaving his eldest son at Louvain to pursue his studies at the
+university. At the beginning of 1568 Philip William, Count of Buren in
+right of his mother, was seized and sent to Madrid to be brought up at
+the court of Philip to hate the cause to which his father henceforth
+devoted his life. Already indeed, before the abduction of his son,
+Orange from his safe retreat at Dillenburg had been exerting himself to
+raise troops for the invasion of the Netherlands. He still professed
+loyalty to the king and declared that in the king's name he wished to
+restore to the provinces those liberties and privileges which Philip
+himself had sworn that he would maintain. The difficulty was to find the
+large sum of money required for such an enterprise, and it was only by
+extraordinary efforts that a sufficient amount was obtained. Part of
+the money was collected in Antwerp and various towns of Holland and
+Zeeland, the rest subscribed by individuals. John of Nassau pledged his
+estates, Orange sold his plate and jewels, and finally a war-chest of
+200,000 florins was gathered together. It was proposed to attack the
+Netherlands from three directions. From the north Lewis of Nassau was to
+lead an army from the Ems into Friesland; Hoogstraeten on the east to
+effect an entrance by way of Maestricht; while another force of
+Huguenots and refugees in the south was to march into Artois. It was an
+almost desperate scheme in the face of veteran troops in a central
+position under such a tried commander as Alva. The last-named French
+force and that under Hoogstraeten were easily defeated and scattered by
+Spanish detachments sent to meet them. Lewis of Nassau was at first more
+successful. Entering Groningen at the head of eight or nine thousand
+undisciplined troops he was attacked, May 23, in a strong position
+behind a morass by a Spanish force under the Count of Aremberg,
+Stadholder of Friesland, at Heiligerlee. He gained a complete victory.
+Aremberg himself was slain, as was also the younger brother of Lewis,
+Adolphus of Nassau. The triumph of the invaders was of short duration.
+Alva himself took in hand the task of dealing with the rebels. At the
+head of 15,000 troops he drove before him the levies of Nassau to
+Jemmingen on the estuary of the Ems, and here with the loss of only
+seven men he completely annihilated them. Lewis himself and a few others
+alone escaped by throwing themselves into the water and swimming for
+their lives.
+
+The action at Heiligerlee, by compelling the governor-general to take
+the field, had hastened the fate of Egmont and Hoorn. After their arrest
+the two noblemen were kept in solitary confinement in the citadel of
+Ghent for several months, while the long list of charges against them
+was being examined by the Council of Troubles--in other words by Vargas
+and del Rio. These charges they angrily denied; and great efforts were
+made on their behalf by the wife of Egmont and the dowager Countess of
+Hoorn. Appeals were made to the governor-general and to Philip himself,
+either for pardon on the ground of services rendered to the State, or at
+least for a trial, as Knights of the Golden Fleece, before the Court of
+the Order. The Emperor Maximilian himself pleaded with Philip for
+clemency, but without avail. Their doom had been settled in advance, and
+the king was inflexible. Alva accordingly determined that they should
+be executed before he left Brussels for his campaign in the north. On
+June 2, the council, after refusing to hear any further evidence in the
+prisoners' favour, pronounced them guilty of high treason; and Alva at
+once signed the sentences of death. Egmont and Hoorn the next day were
+brought by a strong detachment of troops from Ghent to Brussels and were
+confined in a building opposite the town hall, known as the Broodhuis.
+On June 5, their heads were struck off upon a scaffold erected in the
+great square before their place of confinement. Both of them met their
+death with the utmost calmness and courage. The effect of this momentous
+stroke of vengeance upon these two patriot leaders, both of them good
+Catholics, who had always professed loyalty to their sovereign, and one
+of whom, Egmont, had performed distinguished services for his country
+and king, was profound. A wave of mingled rage and sorrow swept over the
+land. It was not only an act of cruel injustice, but even as an act of
+policy a blunder of the first magnitude, which was sure to bring, as it
+did bring, retribution in its train.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS
+
+
+The complete failure of the expeditions of Hoogstraeten and of Lewis of
+Nassau was a great discouragement to the Prince of Orange. Nevertheless
+after receiving the news of Jemmingen he wrote to his brother, "With
+God's help I am determined to go on." By great exertions he succeeded in
+gathering together a heterogeneous force of German and Walloon
+mercenaries numbering about 18,000 men, and with these in the beginning
+of October he crossed the frontier. But to maintain such a force in the
+field required far larger financial resources than William had at his
+disposal. Alva was aware of this, and, as the prince made his way into
+Brabant, he followed his steps with a small body of veteran troops,
+cutting off supplies and stragglers, but declining battle. The
+mercenaries, debarred from plunder and in arrears of pay, could not be
+kept together more than a few weeks. In November Orange withdrew into
+France and disbanded the remnants of his army. In disguise he managed to
+escape with some difficulty through France to Dillenburg. His brothers,
+Lewis and Henry, joined the Huguenot army under Coligny and took part in
+the battles of Moncontour and Jarnac.
+
+Alva was now apparently supreme in the Netherlands; and crowds of
+refugees fled the country to escape the wholesale persecutions of the
+Council of Blood. Alva however, like his predecessor and indeed like all
+Spanish governors engaged in carrying out the policy of Philip II, was
+always hampered by lack of funds. The Spanish treasury was empty. The
+governor-general's troops no less than those of Orange clamoured for
+their regular pay, and it was necessary to find means to satisfy them.
+The taxes voted for nine years in 1559 had come to an end. New taxes
+could only be imposed with the assent of the States-General. Alva,
+however, after his victory at Jemmingen and the dispersion of the army
+of Orange, felt himself strong enough to summon the States-General and
+demand their assent to the scheme of taxation which he proposed. The
+governor-general asked for (1) a tax of five per cent., the "twentieth
+penny," on all transfers of real estate, (2) a tax of ten per cent., the
+"tenth penny," on all sales of commodities. These taxes, which were an
+attempt to introduce into the Netherlands the system known in Castile as
+_alcabala_, were to be granted in perpetuity, thus, as the duke hoped,
+obviating the necessity of having again to summon the States-General. In
+addition to these annual taxes he proposed a payment once for all of one
+per cent., "the hundredth penny," on all property, real or personal.
+Such a demand was contrary to all precedent in the Netherlands and an
+infringement of time-honoured charters and privileges; and even the
+terror, which Alva's iron-handed tyranny had inspired, did not prevent
+his meeting with strong opposition. The proposals had to be referred to
+the provincial estates, and everywhere difficulties were raised. All
+classes were united in resistance. Petitions came pouring in protesting
+against impositions which threatened to ruin the trade and industries of
+the country. Alva found it impossible to proceed.
+
+The "hundredth penny" was voted, but instead of the other taxes, which
+were to provide a steady annual income, he had to content himself with a
+fixed payment of 2,000,000 guilders for two years only. The imposition
+of these taxes on the model of the _alcabala_ had been part of a scheme
+for sweeping away all the provincial jurisdictions and rights and
+forming the whole of the Netherlands into a unified state, as
+subservient to despotic rule as was Castile itself. A greater
+centralisation of government had been the constant policy of the
+Burgundian and Habsburg rulers since the time of Philip the Good, a
+policy to be commended if carried out in a statesmanlike and moderate
+spirit without any sudden or violent infringement of traditional
+liberties. The aim of Philip of Spain as it was interpreted by his
+chosen instrument, the Duke of Alva, was far more drastic. With Alva and
+his master all restrictions upon the absolute authority of the sovereign
+were obstacles to be swept remorselessly out of the way; civil and
+religious liberty in their eyes deserved no better fate than to be
+suppressed by force. Alva's experience was that of many would-be tyrants
+before and since his day, that the successful application of force is
+limited by the power of the purse. His exchequer was empty. Philip was
+himself in financial difficulties and could spare him no money from
+Spain. The refusal of the provincial estates of the Netherlands to
+sanction his scheme of taxation deprived him of the means for imposing
+his will upon them. His reign of terror had produced throughout the land
+a superficial appearance of peace. There were at the beginning of 1570
+no open disturbances or insurrectionary movements to be crushed, but the
+people were seething with discontent, and the feeling of hatred aroused
+by the presence of the Spanish Inquisition and the foreign soldiery and
+by the proceedings of the Council of Blood was, day by day, becoming
+deeper and more embittered.
+
+This condition of affairs was duly reported to the king at Madrid; and
+there was no lack of councillors at his side who were unfriendly to Alva
+and eager to make the most of the complaints against him. Among these
+enemies was Ruy Gomez, the king's private secretary, who recommended a
+policy of leniency, as did Granvelle, who was now at Naples. Philip
+never had any scruples about throwing over his agents, and he announced
+his intention of proclaiming an amnesty on the occasion when Anne of
+Austria, his intended bride and fourth wife, set sail from Antwerp for
+Spain. The proclamation was actually made at Antwerp by the
+governor-general in person, July 16, 1570. It was a limited declaration
+of clemency, for six classes of offenders were excepted, and it only
+extended to those who within two months made their peace with the
+Catholic Church and abjured the Reformed doctrines.
+
+During the years 1570-71 there were however few outward signs of the
+gradual undermining of Alva's authority. There was sullen resentment and
+discontent throughout the land, but no attempt at overt resistance. The
+iron hand of the governor-general did not relax its firm grasp of the
+reins of power, and the fear of his implacable vengeance filled men's
+hearts. He ruled by force, not by love; and those who refused to submit
+had either to fly the country or to perish by the hands of the
+executioner. Nevertheless during these sad years the Prince of Orange
+and Lewis of Nassau, in spite of the apparent hopelessness of the
+situation, were unremitting in their efforts to raise fresh forces.
+William at Dillenburg exerted himself to the uttermost to obtain
+assistance from the Protestant princes of the Rhineland. With the
+Calvinists he was, however, as yet strongly suspect. He himself was held
+to be a lukewarm convert from Catholicism to the doctrines of Augsburg;
+and his wife was the daughter and heiress of Maurice of Saxony, the
+champion of Lutheranism. William's repudiation of Anne of Saxony for her
+ repeated infidelities (March, 1571) severed this Lutheran alliance.
+The unfortunate Anne, after six years' imprisonment, died insane in
+1577. At the same time the closest relations of confidence and
+friendship sprang up between Orange and the well-known Calvinist writer
+and leader, Philip de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde. This connection
+with Sainte Aldegonde ensured for William the support of the Calvinists;
+and secret agents of the prince were soon busily at work in the
+different parts of the provinces promising armed assistance and
+collecting levies for the raising of an invading force. Foremost among
+these active helpers were Jacob van Wesenbeke, Diedrich Sonoy and Paul
+Buys; and the chief scene of their operations were the provinces of
+Holland and Zeeland, already distinguished for their zeal in the cause
+of freedom. The amount of cash that was raised was, however, for some
+time very small. There was goodwill in plenty, but the utter failure of
+the prince's earlier efforts had made people despair.
+
+These earlier efforts had indeed, on land, been disastrous, but they
+had not been confined entirely to land operations. Orange, in his
+capacity as a sovereign prince, had given _letters of marque_ to a
+number of vessels under the command of the lord of Dolhain. These
+vessels were simply corsairs and they were manned by fierce fanatical
+sectaries, desperadoes inflamed at once by bitter hatred of the papists
+and by the hope of plunder. These "Beggars of the Sea" (_Gueux de mer_),
+as they were called, rapidly increased in number and soon made
+themselves a terror in the narrow seas by their deeds of reckless daring
+and cruelty. William tried in vain to restrain excesses which brought
+him little profit and no small discredit. It was to no purpose that he
+associated the lord of Lumbres in the chief command with Dolhain. Their
+subordinates, William de Blois, lord of Treslong, and William de la
+Marck, lord of Lumey, were bold, unscrupulous adventurers who found it
+to their interest to allow their unruly crews to burn and pillage, as
+they lusted, not only their enemies' ships in the open sea, but churches
+and monasteries along the coast and up the estuaries that they infested.
+The difficulty was to find harbours in which they could take refuge and
+dispose of their booty. For some time they were permitted to use the
+English ports freely, and the Huguenot stronghold at La Rochelle was
+also open to them as a market. Queen Elizabeth, as was her wont, had no
+scruple in conniving at acts of piracy to the injury of the Spaniard;
+but at last, at the beginning of 1572, in consequence of strong
+representations from Madrid, she judged it politic to issue an order
+forbidding the Sea-Beggars to enter any English harbours. The pirates,
+thus deprived of the shelter which had made their depredations possible,
+would have been speedily in very bad case, but for an unexpected and
+surprising stroke of good fortune. It chanced that a large number of
+vessels under Lumbres and Treslong were driven by stress of weather into
+the estuary of the Maas; and finding that the Spanish garrison of Brill
+had left the town upon a punitive expedition, the rovers landed and
+effected an entry by burning one of the gates. The place was seized and
+pillaged, and the marauders were on the point of returning with their
+spoil to their ships, when at the suggestion of Treslong it was
+determined to place a garrison in the town and hold it as a harbour of
+refuge in the name of the Prince of Orange, as Stadholder of Holland. On
+April 1, 1572, the prince's flag was hoisted over Brill, and the
+foundation stone was laid of the future Dutch republic.
+
+William himself at first did not realise the importance of this capture,
+and did not take any steps to express his active approval; but it was
+otherwise with his brother Lewis, who was at the time using his utmost
+endeavours to secure if not the actual help, at least the connivance, of
+Charles IX to his conducting an expedition from France into the
+Netherlands. Lewis saw at once the great advantage to the cause of the
+possession of a port like Brill, and he urged the Beggars to try and
+gain possession of Flushing also, before Alva's orders for the
+strengthening of the garrison and the defences had been carried out.
+Flushing by its position commanded the approach by water to Antwerp.
+When the ships of Lumbres and Treslong appeared before the town, the
+inhabitants rose in revolt, over-powered the garrison, and opened the
+gates. This striking success, following upon the taking of Brill,
+aroused great enthusiasm. The rebels had now a firm foothold both in
+Holland and Zeeland, and their numbers grew rapidly from day to day.
+Soon the whole of the island of Walcheren, on which Flushing stands, was
+in their hands with the exception of the capital Middelburg; and in
+Holland several important towns hoisted the flag of revolt and
+acknowledged the Prince of Orange as their lawful Stadholder. From
+Holland the rebellion spread into Friesland. Finally on June 19 an
+assembly of the Estates of Holland was, at the instance of Dordrecht,
+convened to meet in that town. There was but one representative of the
+nobility present at this meeting, whose legality was more than doubtful,
+but it included deputies of no less than twelve out of the fourteen
+towns which were members of the Estates. The prince sent Ste Aldegonde
+as his plenipotentiary. The step taken was practically an act of
+insurrection against the king. William had resigned his stadholdership
+in 1568 and had afterwards been declared an outlaw. Bossu had been by
+royal authority appointed to the vacant office. The Estates now formally
+recognised the prince as Stadholder of the king in Holland, Zeeland,
+West Friesland and Utrecht; and he was further invested with the supreme
+command of the forces both by land and sea and was charged with the duty
+of protecting the country against foreign oppression or invasion by
+foreign troops. Ste Aldegonde in the name of the prince announced his
+acceptance of the posts that had been conferred on him and declared that
+he desired, as a condition of such acceptance, that the principle of
+religious freedom and liberty of worship should be conceded to
+Catholics and Protestants alike. To this the Estates assented. Orange
+took an oath to maintain the towns in the rights and privileges of which
+they had been deprived by Alva and not to enter into any negotiations or
+conclude any treaty with Spain without their consent. The Court of
+Holland for the administration of justice was reconstituted and a
+Chamber of Finance erected. The question of finance was indeed crucial,
+for the new stadholder asked for a subsidy of 100,000 crowns a month for
+the support of the army he had raised for the invasion of Brabant; and
+the Estates agreed to take measures for appropriating certain taxes for
+the purpose, an undertaking which had, however, in this time of present
+distress small likelihood of effectual result.
+
+The course of events indeed in the months which followed this historic
+gathering at Dordrecht was not encouraging to those who had thus dared
+somewhat prematurely to brave the wrath of Philip and the vengeance of
+Alva. Lewis of Nassau had for some time been engaged in raising a
+Huguenot force for the invasion of the southern Netherlands. The news of
+the capture of Brill and Flushing stirred him to sudden action. He had
+collected only a small body of men, but, with characteristic impetuosity
+he now led these across the frontier, and, before Alva was aware of his
+presence in Hainault, had captured by surprise Valenciennes and Mons
+(May 24). It was a rash move, for no sooner did the news reach the
+governor-general than he sent his son, Don Frederick of Toledo, at the
+head of a powerful force to expel the invader. Don Frederick quickly
+made himself master of Valenciennes and then proceeded (June 3) to lay
+siege to Mons, where Lewis, in hopes that relief would reach him,
+prepared for an obstinate defence. These hopes were not without
+foundation, for he knew that, beyond the Rhine, Orange with a
+considerable army was on the point of entering the Netherlands from the
+east, and that the Huguenot leader, Genlis, was leading another force
+from France to his succour. William at the head of 20,000 German and
+3000 Walloon mercenaries actually entered Gelderland (July 7), captured
+Roeremonde and then marched into Brabant. Here (July 19) the news
+reached him of the complete defeat and annihilation of the raw levies of
+Genlis by Toledo's veteran troops. Hampered by lack of funds William
+now, as throughout his life, showed himself to be lacking in the higher
+qualities of military leadership. With an ill-paid mercenary force time
+was a factor of primary importance, nevertheless the prince made no
+effort to move from his encampment near Roeremonde for some five weeks.
+Meanwhile his troops got out of hand and committed many excesses, and
+when, on August 27, he set out once more to march westwards, he found to
+his disappointment that there was no popular rising in his favour.
+Louvain and Brussels shut their gates, and though Mechlin, Termonde and
+a few other places surrendered, the prince saw only too plainly that his
+advance into Flanders would not bring about the relief of Mons. All his
+plans had gone awry. Alva could not be induced to withdraw any portion
+of the army that was closely blockading Mons, but contented himself in
+following Orange with a force under his own command while avoiding a
+general action. And then like a thunderclap, September 5, the news of
+the massacre of St Bartholomew was brought to the prince, and he knew
+that the promise of Coligny to conduct 12,000 arquebusiers to the
+succour of Lewis could not be redeemed. In this emergency William saw
+that he must himself endeavour to raise the siege. He accordingly
+marched from Flanders and, September 11, encamped at the village of
+Harmignies, a short distance from Mons. In the night six hundred
+Spaniards, each of whom to prevent mistakes wore a white shirt over his
+armour, surprised the camp. The prince himself was awakened by a little
+dog that slept in his tent and only narrowly escaped with his life,
+several hundred of his troops being slain by the _Camisaders_. He was
+now thoroughly discouraged and on the following day retreated first to
+Mechlin, then to Roeremonde, where on September 30 the ill-fated
+expedition was disbanded. The retirement from Harmignies decided the
+fate of Mons. Favourable conditions were granted and Lewis of Nassau,
+who was ill with fever, met with chivalrous treatment and was allowed to
+return to Dillenburg.
+
+William now found himself faced with something like financial ruin.
+Mercenary armies are very costly, and by bitter experience he had learnt
+the futility of opposing a half-hearted and badly disciplined force to
+the veteran troops of Alva. He resolved therefore to go in person to
+Holland to organise and direct the strong movement of revolt, which had
+found expression in the meeting of the Estates at Dordrecht. His agents
+had long been busy going about from town to town collecting funds in the
+name of the prince and encouraging the people in their resistance to the
+Inquisition and to foreign tyranny. William's declaration that
+henceforth he intended to live and die in their midst and to devote
+himself with all his powers to the defence of the rights and liberties
+of the land met with willing and vigorous support throughout the greater
+part of Holland, West Friesland and Zeeland; and contributions for the
+supply of the necessary ways and means began to flow in. It was,
+however, a desperate struggle to which he had pledged himself, and to
+which he was to consecrate without flinching the rest of his life. If,
+however, the prince's resolve was firm, no less so was that of Alva.
+
+Alva had his enemies at the Spanish court, always ready to excite
+distrust against the duke in the mind of the suspicious king. In July,
+1572, the Duke of Medina-Coeli had been sent from Spain to enquire into
+the state of affairs in the Netherlands; probably it was intended that
+he should take over the administration and supersede the
+governor-general. On his arrival, however, Medina-Coeli quickly saw that
+the difficulties of the situation required a stronger hand than his, and
+he did not attempt to interfere with Alva's continued exercise of
+supreme authority. The governor-general, on his side, knew well what was
+the meaning of this mission of Medina-Coeli, and no sooner was the army
+of Orange dispersed than he determined, while the reins of power were
+still in his hands, to visit the rebellious towns of the north with
+condign vengeance.
+
+At the head of a powerful force, Frederick of Toledo marched northwards.
+Mechlin, which had received Orange, was given over for three days to
+pillage and outrage. Then Zutphen was taken and sacked. Naarden, which
+had, though without regular defences, dared to resist the Spaniards, was
+utterly destroyed and the entire population massacred. Amsterdam, one of
+the few towns of Holland which had remained loyal to the king, served as
+a basis for further operations. Although it was already December and the
+season was unfavourable, Toledo now determined to lay siege to the
+important town of Haarlem. Haarlem was difficult of approach. It was
+protected on two sides by broad sheets of shallow water, the Haarlem
+lake and the estuary of the Y, divided from one another by a narrow neck
+of land. On another side was a thick wood. It was garrisoned by 4000
+men, stern Calvinists, under the resolute leadership of Ripperda and
+Lancelot Brederode. An attempt to storm the place (December 21) was
+beaten off with heavy loss to the assailants; so Toledo, despite the
+inclemency of the weather, had to invest the city. Another desperate
+assault, January 31, disastrously failed, and the siege was turned into
+a blockade. The position, however, of the besiegers was in some respects
+worse than that of the besieged; and Toledo would have abandoned his
+task in despair had not his father ordered him at all costs to proceed.
+William meanwhile made several efforts to relieve the town. Bodies of
+skaters in the winter, and when the ice disappeared, numbers of boats
+crossed over the Haarlem lake from Leyden and managed to carry supplies
+of food into the town, and resistance might have been indefinitely
+prolonged had not Bossu put a stop to all intercourse between Haarlem
+and the outside world by convoying a flotilla of armed vessels from the
+Y into the lake. Surrender was now only a question of time. On July
+11,1573, after a relieving force of 4000 men, sent by Orange, had been
+utterly defeated, and the inhabitants were perishing by famine, Toledo
+gained possession of Haarlem. The survivors of the heroic garrison were
+all butchered, and Ripperda and Brederode, their gallant leaders,
+executed. A number of the leading citizens were likewise put to death,
+but the town was spared from pillage on condition of paying a heavy
+fine. The siege had lasted seven months, and the army of Toledo, which
+had suffered terribly during the winter, is said to have lost twelve
+thousand men.
+
+Alva in his letters to the king laid great stress on the clemency with
+which he had treated Haarlem. It had been spared the wholesale
+destruction of Zutphen and Naarden, and the duke hoped that by this
+exhibition of comparative leniency he might induce the other rebel towns
+to open their gates without opposition. He was deceived. On July 18
+Alkmaar was summoned to surrender, but refused. Alva's indignation knew
+no bounds, and he vowed that every man, woman and child in the
+contumacious town should be put to the sword. The threat, however, could
+not at once be executed. Toledo's army, debarred from the sack of
+Haarlem, became mutinous through lack of pay. Until they received the
+arrears due to them, they refused to stir. Not till August 21 was Don
+Frederick able to invest Alkmaar with a force of 16,000 men. The
+garrison consisted of some 1300 burghers with 800 troops thrown into the
+town by Sonoy, Orange's lieutenant in North Holland. Two desperate
+assaults were repulsed with heavy loss, and then the Spaniards proceeded
+to blockade the town. Sonoy now, by the orders of the prince, gained the
+consent of the cultivators of the surrounding district to the cutting of
+the dykes. The camps and trenches of the besiegers were flooded out; and
+(October 8) the siege was raised and the army of Don Frederick retired,
+leaving Alkmaar untaken. Within a week another disaster befell the
+Spanish arms. Between Hoorn and Enkhuizen the fleet of Bossu on the
+Zuyder Zee was attacked by the Sea-Beggars and was completely defeated.
+Bossu himself was taken prisoner and was held as a hostage for the
+safety of Ste Aldegonde, who fell into the hands of the Spaniards about
+month later.
+
+This naval victory, following upon the retreat from Alkmaar,
+strengthened greatly the efforts of Orange and gave fresh life to the
+patriot cause. It likewise marked the end of the six years of Alva's
+blood-stained rule in the Netherlands. Weary and disappointed, always
+hampered by lack of funds, angry at the loss of the king's confidence
+and chafing at the evidence of it in the presence of Medina-Coeli at his
+side, the governor-general begged that he might be relieved of his
+functions. His request was granted, October 29. The chosen successor was
+the Grand Commander, Don Luis de Requesens, governor of Milan. It was
+only with much reluctance that Requesens, finding the king's command
+insistent and peremptory, accepted the charge.
+
+The Grand Commander was indeed far from being a suitable man for dealing
+with the difficult situation in the Netherlands, for he was a Spanish
+grandee pure and simple and did not even speak French. Even the
+loyalists received him coolly. He knew nothing of the country, and
+whatever his ability or disposition it was felt that he would not be
+allowed a free hand in his policy or adequate means for carrying it out.
+That his temper was conciliatory was quickly shown. An amnesty was
+proclaimed for political offenders except three hundred persons (among
+these Orange and his principal adherents), and pardon to all heretics
+who abjured their errors. He went even further than this by entering
+into a secret exchange of views with William himself through Ste
+Aldegonde as an intermediary, in the hope of finding some common
+meeting-ground for an understanding. But the prince was immovable.
+Unless freedom of worship, the upholding of all ancient charters and
+liberties and the removal of Spaniards and all foreigners from any share
+in the government or administration of the land were granted, resistance
+would be continued to the last. These were conditions Requesens had no
+power even to consider.
+
+Orange during this time was on his side using all his diplomatic ability
+to gain help for the oppressed Netherlanders from France and England.
+But Charles IX had his own difficulties and was in too feeble health (he
+died May, 1574) to take any decided step, and Queen Elizabeth, though
+she connived at assistance being given to the rebel cause on strictly
+commercial terms, was not willing either to show open hostility to
+Philip or to support subjects in revolt against their sovereign.
+William's position appeared well-nigh desperate, for at the opening of
+the year 1574 his authority was only recognised in a few of the towns of
+Holland and in some of the Zeeland islands, and the Spaniards had sent a
+large force to invest Leyden. He had, however, made up his mind to cast
+in his lot with the brave Hollanders and Zeelanders in their gallant
+struggle against overwhelming odds. To identify himself more completely
+with his followers, the prince, October, 1573, openly announced his
+adhesion to Calvinism. There are no grounds for doubting his sincerity
+in taking this step; it was not an act of pure opportunism. His early
+Catholicism had probably been little more than an outward profession,
+and as soon as he began to think seriously about religious questions,
+his natural bent had led him first to the Lutheran faith of his family,
+and then to the sterner doctrines, which had gained so firm a foothold
+in the towns of Holland and Zeeland. Nevertheless William, though
+henceforth a consistent Calvinist, was remarkable among his
+contemporaries for the principles of religious toleration he both
+inculcated and practised. He was constitutionally averse to religious
+persecution in any form, and by the zealots of his party he was
+denounced as lukewarm; but throughout his life he upheld the right of
+the individual, who was peaceful and law-abiding, to liberty of opinion
+and freedom of worship.
+
+The year 1574 opened favourably. By a remarkable feat of arms the
+veteran Spanish commander Mondragon had, October, 1572, reconquered
+several of the Zeeland islands. His men on one occasion at ebb-tide
+marched across the channel which lies between South Beveland and the
+mainland, the water reaching up to their necks. The patriot forces had
+since then recovered much of the lost ground, but Middelburg was
+strongly held, and so long as the Spaniards had command of the sea, was
+the key to the possession of Zeeland. On January 29, 1574, the
+Sea-Beggars under Boisot attacked the Spanish fleet near Roemerswaal and
+after a bloody encounter gained a complete victory. The siege of
+Middelburg was now pressed and Mondragon surrendered, February 18. The
+prince at once set to work to create a patriot government in the
+province. Four towns had representatives, Middelburg, Zierikzee, Veere
+and Flushing. William himself acquired by purchase the marquisate of
+Flushing and thus was able to exercise a preponderating influence in the
+Provincial Estates, all of whose members were required to be Calvinists
+and supporters of the rebel cause.
+
+The investment of Leyden by the Spaniards threatened however, now
+that Haarlem had fallen, to isolate South Holland and Zeeland; and
+William did not feel himself strong enough to make any serious attempt
+to raise the siege. Lewis of Nassau therefore, with the help of French
+money, set himself to work with his usual enthusiastic energy to
+collect a force in the Rhineland with which to invade the Netherlands
+from the east and effect a diversion. At the head of 7000 foot and
+3000 horse--half-disciplined troops, partly Huguenot volunteers,
+partly German mercenaries--he tried to cross the Meuse above Maestricht
+with the intention of effecting a junction with the Prince of Orange.
+He was accompanied by John and Henry of Nassau, his brothers, and
+Christopher, son of the Elector Palatine. He found his course blocked
+by a Spanish force under the command of Sancho d'Avila and Mondragon.
+The encounter took place on the heath of Mook (April 14) and ended in
+the crushing defeat of the invaders. Lewis and his young brother,
+Henry, and Duke Christopher perished, and their army was completely
+scattered. The death of his brothers was a great grief to William.
+Lewis had for years been his chief support, and the loss of this
+dauntless champion was indeed a heavy blow to the cause for which he
+had sacrificed his life. He was only thirty-six years of age, while
+Henry, the youngest of the Nassaus, to whom the Prince was deeply
+attached, was but a youth of twenty-four.
+
+The invasion of Lewis had nevertheless the result of raising the siege
+of Leyden; but only for a time. After the victory at Mook the Spanish
+troops were free to continue the task of reconquering rebel Holland for
+the king. On May 26 a strong force under Valdez advanced to Leyden and
+completely isolated the town by surrounding it with a girdle of forts.
+The attack came suddenly, and unfortunately the place had not been
+adequately provisioned. So strong was the position of the Spaniards that
+the stadholder did not feel that any relieving force that he could send
+would have any chance of breaking through the investing lines and
+revictualling the garrison. In these circumstances he summoned, June 1,
+a meeting of the Estates of Holland at Rotterdam and proposed, as a
+desperate resource, that the dykes should be cut and the land submerged,
+and that the light vessels of the Sea-Beggars under Boisot should sail
+over the waters, attack the Spanish forts and force an entrance into the
+town. After considerable opposition the proposal was agreed to and the
+waters were allowed to flow out upon the low-lying fields, villages and
+farms, which lie between the sea, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas.
+Unfortunately the season was not favourable, and though the water
+reached nearly to the higher land round Leyden on which the Spanish
+redoubts were erected, and by alarming Valdez caused him to press the
+blockade more closely, it was not deep enough even for the light-draught
+vessels, which Boisot had gathered together, to make their way to the
+town. So the month of August passed and September began. Meanwhile the
+prince, who was the soul of the enterprise, was confined to his sick-bed
+by a violent attack of fever, and the pangs of famine began to be
+cruelly felt within the beleaguered town. A portion of the citizens were
+half-hearted in the struggle, and began to agitate for surrender and
+even sent out emissaries to try to make terms with the Spanish
+commander. But there were within Leyden leaders of iron resolution, the
+heroic Burgomaster Pieter Adriaanzoon van der Werf; the commandant of
+the garrison, Jan van der Does; Dirk van Bronkhorst, Jan van Hout and
+many others who remained staunch and true in face of the appalling agony
+of a starving population; men who knew the fate in store for them if
+they fell into the enemy's hands and were determined to resist as long
+as they had strength to fight. At last in mid-September faint hopes
+began to dawn. William recovered, and a fierce equinoctial gale driving
+the flood-tide up the rivers gradually deepened the waters up to the
+very dyke on which the entrenchments of the besiegers stood. Urged on by
+Orange, Boisot now made a great effort. Anxiously from the towers was
+the approach of the relieving fleet watched. The town was at the very
+last extremity. The people were dying of hunger on every side. Some
+fierce combats took place as soon as the Sea-Beggars, experts at this
+amphibious warfare, arrived at the outlying Spanish forts, but not for
+long. Alarmed at the rising of the waters and fearing that the fleet of
+Boisot might cut off their escape, the Spaniards retreated in the night;
+and on the morning of October 3 the vessels of the relieving force,
+laden with provisions, entered the town. The long-drawn-out agony was
+over and Leyden saved from the fate of Haarlem, just at the moment when
+further resistance had become impossible. Had Leyden fallen the
+probability is that the whole of South Holland would have been
+conquered, and the revolt might have collapsed. In such a narrow escape
+well might the people of the town see an intervention of Providence on
+their behalf. The prince himself hastened to Leyden on the following
+day, reorganised the government of the town and in commemoration of this
+great deliverance founded the University, which was to become in the
+17th century one of the most famous seats of learning in Europe.
+
+The successful relief of Leyden was followed by a mutiny of the army of
+Valdez. They were owed long arrears of pay, had endured great hardships,
+and now that they saw themselves deprived of the hope of the pillage
+of the town, they put their commander and his officers under arrest and
+marched under a leader elected by themselves into Utrecht. Other
+mutinies occurred in various parts of the southern provinces, for
+Requesens had no funds, and it was useless to appeal to Philip, for the
+Spanish treasury was empty. This state of things led to a practical
+cessation of active hostilities for many months; and Requesens seized
+the opportunity to open negotiations with Orange. These were, however,
+doomed to be fruitless, for the king would not hear of any real
+concessions being made to the Protestants. The position of William was
+equally beset with difficulties, politically and financially. In the
+month following the relief of Leyden he even threatened to withdraw from
+the country unless his authority were more fully recognised and adequate
+supplies were furnished for the conduct of the war. The Estates
+accordingly, November 12, asked him to assume the title of Regent or
+Governor, with "absolute might, authority and sovereign control" of the
+affairs of the country. They also voted him an allowance of 49,000
+guilders a month; but, while thus conferring on the man who still
+claimed to be the "Stadholder of the king" practically supreme power,
+the burgher-corporations of the towns were very jealous of surrendering
+in the smallest degree that control over taxation which was one of their
+most valued rights. The exercise of authority, however, by the prince
+from this time forward was very great, for he had complete control in
+military and naval matters, and in the general conduct of affairs he
+held all the administrative threads in his own hands. He had become
+indispensable, and in everything but name a sovereign in Holland and
+Zeeland.
+
+The first part of 1575 was marked by a lull in warlike operations, and
+conferences were held at Breda between envoys of Orange and Requesens,
+only to find that there was no common ground of agreement. The marriage
+of the prince (June 24) with Charlotte de Bourbon, daughter of the Duke
+of Montpensier, was a daring step which aroused much prejudice against
+him. The bride, who was of the blood-royal of France, had been Abbess of
+Jouarre, but had abjured her vows, run away and become a Calvinist. This
+was bad enough, but the legality of the union was rendered the more
+questionable by the fact that Anne of Saxony was still alive. On all
+sides came protests--from Charlotte's father, from John of Nassau, and
+from Anne's relations in Saxony and Hesse. But William's character was
+such that opposition only made him more determined to carry out his
+purpose. The wedding was celebrated at Brill with Calvinist rites. The
+union, whether legitimate or not, was undoubtedly one of great
+happiness.
+
+Meanwhile the governor-general, unable to obtain any financial help from
+Spain, had managed to persuade the provinces, always in dread of the
+excesses of the mutinous soldiery, to raise a loan of 1,200,000 guilders
+to meet their demands for arrears of pay. Requesens was thus enabled to
+put in the late summer a considerable army into the field and among
+other successes to gain possession of the Zeeland islands, Duiveland and
+Schouwen. On September 27 a force under the command of the veteran
+Mondragon waded across the shallow channels dividing the islands, which
+fell into their hands. Zierikzee, the chief town of Schouwen, made a
+stout resistance, but had at length to surrender (July, 1576). This
+conquest separated South Holland from the rest of Zeeland; and, as
+Haarlem and Amsterdam were in the hands of the Spaniards, the only
+territory over which the authority of Orange extended was the low-lying
+corner of land between the Rhine and the Maas, of which Delft was the
+centre.
+
+The situation again appeared well-nigh desperate, and the stadholder
+began to look anxiously round in the hope of obtaining foreign
+assistance. It was to the interest of both France and England to assist
+a movement which distracted the attention and weakened the power of
+Spain. But Henry III of France was too much occupied with civil and
+religious disturbances in his own country, and Elizabeth of England,
+while receiving with courtesy the envoys both of Orange and Requesens,
+gave evasive replies to both. She was jealous of France, and pleased to
+see the growing embarrassment of her enemy Philip, but the Tudor queen
+had no love either for rebels or for Calvinists. While refusing
+therefore openly to take the side of the Hollanders and Zeelanders, she
+agreed to give them secret help; and no obstacle was placed in the way
+of the English volunteers, who had already since 1572 been enlisting in
+the Dutch service. It was at this time that those English and Scottish
+Brigades were first formed which remained for nearly two centuries in
+that service, and were always to be found in the very forefront of the
+fighting throughout the great war of Liberation.
+
+On March 4, 1576, Requesens died; and in the considerable interval
+that elapsed before the arrival of his successor, the outlook for the
+patriot cause became distinctly brighter. The Estates of Holland and
+Zeeland met at Delft (April 25, 1576); and the assembly was noteworthy
+for the passing of an Act of Federation. This Act, which was the work of
+Orange, bound the two provinces together for common action in defence of
+their rights and liberties and was the first step towards that larger
+union, which three years later laid the foundations of the Dutch
+Republic. By this Act sovereign powers were conferred upon William; he
+was in the name of the king to exercise all the prerogatives of a ruler.
+It required all his influence to secure the insertion of articles (1)
+extending a certain measure of toleration to all forms of religious
+worship that were not contrary to the Gospel, (2) giving authority to
+the prince in case of need to offer the Protectorate of the federated
+provinces to a foreign prince. Orange knew only too well that Holland
+and Zeeland were not strong enough alone to resist the power of Spain.
+His hopes of securing the support of the other provinces, in which
+Catholics were in the majority, depended, he clearly saw, on the
+numerous adherents to the ancient faith in Holland and Zeeland being
+protected against the persecuting zeal of the dominant Calvinism of
+those provinces. In any case--and this continued to be his settled
+conviction to the end of his life--the actual independence of the whole
+or any portion of the Netherlands did not seem to him to lie within the
+bounds of practical politics. The object for which he strove was the
+obtaining of substantial guarantees for the maintenance of the ancient
+charters, which exempted the provinces from the presence of foreign
+officials, foreign tribunals, foreign soldiery and arbitrary methods of
+taxation. As Philip had deliberately infringed all those privileges
+which he had sworn to maintain, it was the duty of all patriotic
+Netherlanders to resist his authority, and, if resistance failed to
+bring redress, to offer the sovereignty with the necessary restrictions
+to some other prince willing to accept it on those conditions and
+powerful enough to protect the provinces from Spanish attack. In order
+to grasp the principles which guided William's policy during the next
+few years it is essential to bear in mind (1) that he sought to bring
+about a union of all the Netherland provinces on a basis of toleration,
+(2) that he did not aim at the erection of the Netherlands into an
+independent State.
+
+On the death of Requesens the Council of State had assumed temporary
+charge of the administration. There had for some time been growing
+dissatisfaction even amongst the loyalist Catholics of the southern
+provinces at the presence and over-bearing attitude of so many Spanish
+officials and Spanish troops in the land and at the severity of the
+religious persecution. Representations were made to the king by the
+Council of State of the general discontent throughout the country, of
+the deplorable results of the policy of force and repression, and urging
+the withdrawal of the troops, the mitigation of the edicts, and the
+appointment of a member of the royal house to the governorship. To these
+representations and requests no answer was sent for months in accordance
+with Philip's habitual dilatoriness in dealing with difficult affairs of
+State. He did, however, actually nominate in April his bastard brother,
+Don John of Austria, the famous victor of Lepanto, as Requesens'
+successor. But Don John, who was then in Italy, had other ambitions, and
+looked with suspicion upon Philip's motives in assigning him the
+thankless task of dealing with the troubles in the Low Countries.
+Instead of hurrying northwards, he first betook himself to Madrid where
+he met with a cold reception. Delay, however, so far from troubling
+Philip, was thoroughly in accordance with the whole bent of his
+character and policy. For six months Don John remained in Spain, and it
+was a half-year during which the situation in the Netherlands had been
+to a very large extent transformed.
+
+The position of Orange and his followers in Holland and Zeeland in the
+spring of 1576 had again darkened. In June the surrender of Zierikzee to
+Mondragon was a heavy blow to the patriot cause, for it gave the
+Spaniards a firm footing in the very heart of the Zeeland archipelago
+and drove a wedge between South Holland and the island of Walcheren.
+This conquest was, however, destined to have important results of a very
+different character from what might have been expected. The town had
+surrendered on favourable terms and pillage was forbidden. Baulked of
+their expected booty, the Spanish troops, to whom large arrears of pay
+were due, mutinied. Under their own "eletto" they marched to Aalst,
+where they were joined by other mutineers, and soon a large force was
+collected together, who lived by plunder and were a terror to the
+country. The Council declared them to be outlaws, but the revolted
+soldiery defied its authority and scoffed at its threats. This was a
+moment which, as Orange was quick to perceive, was extremely favourable
+for a vigorous renewal of his efforts to draw together all the provinces
+to take common action in their resistance to Spanish tyranny. His agents
+and envoys in all parts of the Netherlands, but especially in Flanders
+and Brabant, urged his views upon the more influential members of the
+provincial estates and upon leading noblemen, like the Duke of Aerschot
+and other hitherto loyal supporters of the government, who were now
+suspected of wavering. His efforts met with a success which a few months
+earlier would have been deemed impossible. The conduct of the Spanish
+troops, and the lack of any central authority to protect the inhabitants
+against their insolence and depredations, had effected a great change
+in public opinion. In Brussels Baron de Heze (a god-child of the prince)
+had been appointed to the command of the troops in the pay of the
+Estates of Brabant. De Heze exerted himself to arouse popular opinion in
+the capital in favour of Orange and against the Spaniards. To such an
+extent was he successful that he ventured, Sept. 21, to arrest the whole
+of the Council of State with the exception of the Spanish member Roda,
+who fled to Antwerp. William now entered into direct negotiations with
+Aerschot and other prominent nobles of Flanders and Brabant. He took a
+further step by sending, at the request of the citizens of Ghent, a
+strong armed force to protect the town against the Spanish garrison in
+the citadel. In the absence of any lawful government, the States-General
+were summoned to meet at Brussels on September 22. Deputies from
+Brabant, Flanders and Hainault alone attended, but in the name of the
+States-General they nominated Aerschot, Viglius and Sasbout as
+Councillors of State, and appointed Aerschot to the command of the
+forces, with the Count of Lalaing as his lieutenant. They then, Sept.
+27, approached the prince with proposals for forming a union of all the
+provinces. As a preliminary it was agreed that the conditions, which had
+been put forward by William as indispensable--namely, exclusion of all
+foreigners from administrative posts, dismissal of foreign troops, and
+religious toleration--should be accepted. The proposals were gladly
+received by William, and Ghent was chosen as the place where nine
+delegates from Holland and Zeeland should confer with nine delegates
+nominated by the States-General as representing the other provinces.
+They met on October 19. Difficulties arose on two points--the
+recognition to be accorded to Don John of Austria, and the principle of
+non-interference with religious beliefs. Orange himself had always been
+an advocate of toleration, but the representatives of Holland and
+Zeeland showed an obstinate disinclination to allow liberty of Catholic
+worship within their borders; and this attitude of theirs might, in
+spite of the prince's efforts, have led to a breaking-off of the
+negotiations, had not an event occurred which speedily led to a sinking
+of differences on the only possible basis, that of mutual concession and
+compromise.
+
+The citadel of Antwerp was, during this month of October, garrisoned by
+a body of mutinous Spanish troops under the command of Sancho d'Avila,
+the victor of Mook. Champagney, the governor, had with him a body of
+German mercenaries under a certain Count Oberstein; and at his request,
+such was the threatening attitude of the Spaniards, the States-General
+sent Havre with a reinforcement of Walloon troops. On Sunday, November
+4, the garrison, which had been joined by other bands of mutineers,
+turned the guns of the citadel upon the town and sallying forth attacked
+the forces of Champagney. The Germans offered but a feeble resistance.
+Oberstein perished; Champagney and Havre took refuge on vessels in the
+river; and the Spaniards were masters of Antwerp. The scene of massacre,
+lust and wholesale pillage, which followed, left a memory behind it
+unique in its horror even among the excesses of this blood-stained time.
+The "Spanish Fury," as it was called, spelt the ruin of what, but a
+short time before, had been the wealthiest and most flourishing
+commercial city in the world.
+
+The news of this disaster reached the States-General, as they were in
+the act of considering the draft proposals which had been submitted to
+them by the Ghent conference. At the same time tidings came that Don
+John, who had travelled through France in disguise, had arrived at
+Luxemburg. They quickly therefore came to a decision to ratify the pact,
+known as the _Pacification of Ghent,_ and on November 8 it was signed.
+The _Pacification_ was really a treaty between the Prince of Orange and
+the Estates of Holland and Zeeland on the one hand, and the
+States-General representing the other provinces. It was agreed that the
+Spanish troops should be compelled to leave the Netherlands and that the
+States-General of the whole seventeen provinces, as they were convened
+at the abdication of Charles V, should be called together to decide upon
+the question of religious toleration and other matters of national
+importance. Meanwhile the placards against heresy were suspended, and
+all the illegal measures and sentences of Alva declared null and void.
+His confiscated property was restored to Orange, and his position, as
+stadholder in Holland and Zeeland, acknowledged. Don John was informed
+that he would not be recognised as governor-general unless he would
+consent to dismiss the Spanish troops, accept the Pacification of Ghent,
+and swear to maintain the rights and privileges of the Provinces.
+Negotiations ensued, but for a long time to little purpose; and Don
+John, who was rather an impetuous knight-errant than a statesman and
+diplomatist, remained during the winter months at Namur, angry at his
+reception and chafing at the conditions imposed upon him, which he dared
+not accept without permission from the king. In December the
+States-General containing deputies from all the provinces met at
+Brussels, and in January the Pacification of Ghent was confirmed, and a
+new compact, to which the name of the Union of Brussels was given, was
+drawn up by a number of influential Catholics. This document, to which
+signatures were invited, was intended to give to the Pacification of
+Ghent the sanction of popular support and to be at the same time a
+guarantee for the maintenance of the royal authority and the Catholic
+religion. The Union of Brussels was generally approved throughout the
+southern provinces, and the signatories from every class were numbered
+by thousands. Don John, who was at Huy, saw that it was necessary to
+temporise. He was willing, he declared, to dismiss the foreign troops
+and send them out of the country and to maintain the ancient charters
+and liberties of the provinces, provided that nothing was done to
+subvert the king's authority or the Catholic faith. Finally, on February
+12, a treaty called "The Perpetual Edict," a most inappropriate name,
+was signed, and the States-General acknowledged Don John as
+governor-general. The agreement was principally the work of Aerschot and
+the loyalist Catholic party, who followed his leadership, and was far
+from being entirely acceptable to Orange. He had no trust in the good
+faith of either Philip or his representative, and, though he recommended
+Holland and Zeeland to acquiesce in the treaty and acknowledge Don John
+as governor-general, it was with the secret resolve to keep a close
+watch upon his every action, and not to brook any attempt to interfere
+with religious liberty in the two provinces, in which he exercised
+almost sovereign power and with whose struggles for freedom he had
+identified himself.
+
+The undertaking of Don John with regard to the Spanish troops was
+punctually kept. Before the end of April they had all left the country;
+and on May 1 the new governor-general made his state entry into
+Brussels. It was to outward appearances very brilliant. But the hero of
+Lepanto found himself at once distrusted by the Catholic nobles and
+checkmated by the influence and diplomacy of the ever watchful William
+of Orange. Chafing at his impotence, and ill-supported by the king, who
+sent no reply to his appeals for financial help, Don John suddenly left
+the capital and, placing himself at the head of a body of Walloon
+troops, seized Namur. Feeling himself in this stronghold more secure, he
+tried to bring pressure on the States-General to place in his hands
+wider powers and to stand by him in his efforts to force Orange to
+submit to the authority of the king. His efforts were in vain. William
+had warned the States-General and the nobles of the anti-Spanish party
+in Brabant and Flanders that Don John was not to be trusted, and he now
+pointed to the present attitude of the governor-general, as a proof that
+his suspicions were well-founded. Indeed the eyes of all true patriots
+began to turn to the prince, who had been quietly strengthening his
+position, not only in Holland and Zeeland, where he was supreme, but
+also in Utrecht and Gelderland; and popular movements in Brussels and
+elsewhere took place in his favour. So strongly marked was the Orange
+feeling in the capital that the States-General acceded to the general
+wish that the prince should be invited to come in person to Brussels.
+Confidence was expressed by Catholics no less than by Protestants that
+only under his leadership could the country be delivered from Spanish
+tyranny. A deputation was sent, bearing the invitation; but for a while
+William hesitated in giving an affirmative reply. On September 23,
+however, he made his entry into Brussels amidst general demonstrations
+of joy and was welcomed as "the Restorer and Defender of the
+Father-land's liberty." Thus, ten years after he had been declared an
+outlaw and banished, did the Prince of Orange return in triumph to the
+town which had witnessed the execution of Egmont and Hoorn. It was the
+proudest day of his life and the supreme point of his career.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WILLIAM THE SILENT
+
+
+The position of William at Brussels after his triumphant entry,
+September 23, 1577, was by no means an easy one. His main support was
+derived from a self-elected Council of Eighteen, containing
+representatives of the gilds and of the citizens. This Council
+controlled an armed municipal force and was really master in the city.
+In these circumstances the States-General did not venture upon any
+opposition to the popular wishes, in other words to William, whose
+influence with the masses was unbounded. The States-General, therefore,
+under pressure from the Eighteen, informed Don John, October 8, that
+they no longer recognised him as governor-general; and the Estates of
+Brabant appointed the prince to the office of _Ruward_ or governor of
+the province. Meanwhile a fresh factor of disturbance had been
+introduced into the troubled scene. Certain of the Catholic nobles
+opposed to Spanish rule, but suspicious of Orange, had invited the
+twenty year old Archduke Matthias, brother of the emperor, to accept the
+sovereignty of the Netherlands. Matthias, who was of an adventurous
+spirit, after some parleying agreed. He accordingly left Vienna
+secretly, and at the end of October arrived in the Netherlands. Not
+content with this counter-stroke, Aerschot went to Ghent to stir up
+opposition to the appointment of William as Ruward of Brabant. The
+populace however in Ghent was Orangist, and, rising in revolt, seized
+Aerschot and a number of other Catholic leaders and threw them into
+prison. They were speedily released, but the breach between the Catholic
+nobles and the Calvinist stadholder of Holland was widened. William
+himself saw in the coming of Matthias a favourable opportunity for
+securing the erection of the Netherlands into a constitutional State
+under the nominal rule of a Habsburg prince. By his influence,
+therefore, the States-General entered into negotiations with the
+Archduke; and Matthias finally was recognised (December 8) as governor
+on condition that he accepted the Union of Brussels, He was also induced
+to place the real power in the hands of Orange with the title of
+Lieutenant-General. Matthias made his state entry into Brussels, January
+18, 1578. His position appeared to be strengthened by a treaty concluded
+with the English queen (January 7) by which Elizabeth promised to send
+over a body of troops and to grant a subsidy to the States, for the
+repayment of which the towns of Middelburg, Bruges and Gravelines were
+to be pledges.
+
+The news however of the step taken by Matthias had had more effect upon
+Philip II than the despairing appeals of his half-brother. A powerful
+army of tried Spanish and Italian troops under the command of Alexander
+Farnese, Prince of Parma, son of the former regent Margaret, was sent to
+Flanders. Farnese was Don John's nephew, and they had been brought up
+together at Madrid, being almost of the same age. Already Philip had
+determined to replace Don John, whose brilliance as a leader in the
+field did not compensate for his lack of statesmanlike qualities. In
+Farnese, whether by good fortune or deliberate choice, he had at length
+found a consummate general who was to prove himself a match even for
+William the Silent in all the arts of political combination and
+intrigue. At Gembloux, January 31, Don John and Parma fell upon the
+levies of the States and gained a complete and almost bloodless victory.
+Had Philip supplied his governor-general with the money he asked for,
+Don John might now have conquered the whole of the southern Netherlands,
+but without funds he could achieve little.
+
+Meanwhile all was confusion. The States-General withdrew from Brussels
+to Antwerp; and William, finding that Matthias was useless, began
+negotiations with France, England and Germany in the hope of finding in
+this emergency some other foreign prince ready to brave the wrath of
+Philip by accepting the suzerainty of the Netherlands. The Duke of
+Anjou, brother of the French king, was the favoured candidate of the
+Catholic party; and William, whose one aim was to secure the aid of a
+powerful protector in the struggle against Spain, was ready to accept
+him. Anjou at the head of an army of 15,000 men crossed the frontier at
+Mons, July 12; and, on the following August 13, a treaty was agreed upon
+between him and the States-General, by which the French duke, with the
+title of _Defender of the Liberties of the Netherlands_, undertook to
+help the States to expel the Spaniards from the Low Countries. But, to
+add to the complications of the situation, a German force under the
+command of John Casimir, brother of the Elector Palatine, and in the pay
+of Queen Elizabeth, invaded the hapless provinces from the east. The
+advent of John Casimir was greeted with enthusiasm by the Calvinist
+party; and it required all the skill and sagacity of the Prince of
+Orange to keep the peace and prevent the rival interests from breaking
+out into open strife in the face of the common enemy. But Don John was
+helpless, his repeated appeals for financial help remained unanswered,
+and, sick at heart and weary of life, he contracted a fever and died in
+his camp at Namur, October 1, 1578. His successor in the
+governor-generalship was Alexander of Parma, who had now before him a
+splendid field for the exercise of his great abilities.
+
+The remainder of the year 1578 saw a violent recrudescence of religious
+bitterness. In vain did Orange, who throughout his later life was a
+genuine and earnest advocate of religious toleration, strive to the
+utmost of his powers and with untiring patience to allay the suspicions
+and fears of the zealots. John Casimir at Ghent, in the fervour of his
+fanatical Calvinism, committed acts of violence and oppression, which
+had the very worst effect in the Walloon provinces. In this part of the
+Netherlands Catholicism was dominant; and there had always been in the
+provinces of Hainault, Artois, and in the southern districts generally,
+a feeling of distrust towards Orange. The upholding of the principle of
+religious toleration by a man who had twice changed his faith was itself
+suspect; and Farnese left no means untried for increasing this growing
+anti-Orange feeling among the Catholic nobles. A party was formed, which
+bore the name of "The Malcontents," whose leaders were Montigny, Lalaing
+and La Motte. With these the governor-general entered into negotiations,
+with the result that an alliance was made between Hainault, Artois,
+Lille, Douay and Orchies (January 6, 1579), called the Union of Arras,
+for the maintenance of the Catholic faith, by which these Walloon
+provinces and towns expressed their readiness to submit to the king on
+condition that he were willing to agree to uphold their rights and
+privileges in accordance with the provisions of the Pacification of
+Ghent. The Union of Arras did not as yet mean a complete reconciliation
+with the Spanish sovereign, but it did mean the beginning of a breach
+between the Calvinist north and the Catholic south, which the
+statecraft of Parma gradually widened into an impossible chasm. Before
+this took place, Anjou, Matthias and John Casimir had alike withdrawn
+from the scene of anarchic confusion, in which for a brief time each had
+been trying to compass his own ambitious ends in selfish indifference
+to the welfare of the people they were proposing to deliver from the
+Spanish yoke. The opening of the year 1579 saw Orange and Parma face to
+face preparing to measure their strength in a grim struggle for the
+mastery.
+
+In the very same month as witnessed the signing of the Union of Arras, a
+rival union had been formed in the northern Netherlands, which was
+destined to be much more permanent. The real author however of the Union
+of Utrecht was not Orange, but his brother, John of Nassau. In March,
+1578, John had been elected Stadholder of Gelderland. He, like William,
+had devoted himself heart and soul to the cause of Netherland freedom,
+but his Calvinism was far more pronounced than his brother's. From the
+moment of his acceptance of the stadholdership he set to work to effect
+a close union between Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht with Gelderland and
+the adjoining districts which lay around the Zuyder Zee. It was a
+difficult task, since the eastern provinces were afraid (and not
+unjustly) that its much greater wealth would give Holland predominance
+in the proposed confederation. Nevertheless it was accomplished, and an
+Act of Union was drawn up and signed at Utrecht, January 29, 1579, by
+the representatives of Holland, Zeeland, the town and district
+(_sticht_) of Utrecht, Gelderland and Zutphen, by which they agreed to
+defend their rights and liberties and to resist all foreign intervention
+in their affairs by common action as if they were one province, and to
+establish and maintain freedom of conscience and of worship within their
+boundaries. William does not seem at first to have been altogether
+pleased with his brother's handiwork. He still hoped that a
+confederation on a much wider scale might have been formed, comprising
+the greater part of those who had appended their signatures to the
+Pacification of Ghent. It was not until some months had passed and he
+saw that his dreams of a larger union were not to be realised, that he
+signed, on May 3, the Act of Union drawn up at Utrecht. By this time he
+was well aware that Parma had succeeded in winning over the malcontent
+nobles to accept his terms. On May 19 the Walloon provinces, whose
+representatives had signed the Union of Arras, agreed to acknowledge,
+with certain nominal reservations, the sovereignty of Philip and to
+allow only Catholic worship. In fact the reconciliation was complete.
+
+Thus, despite the efforts of Orange, the idea of the federation of all
+the seventeen provinces on national lines became a thing of the past,
+henceforth unattainable. The Netherlands were divided into two camps.
+Gradually in the course of 1580 Overyssel, Drente and the greater part
+of Friesland gave in their adherence to the Union of Utrecht, and
+Groningen and the Ommelanden allied themselves with their neighbours. In
+the rest of the Low Countries all fell away and submitted themselves to
+the king's authority, except Antwerp and Breda in Brabant, and Ghent,
+Bruges and Ypres in Flanders. William felt that Parma was constantly
+gaining ground. Defection after defection took place, the most serious
+being that of George Lalaing, Count of Renneberg, the Stadholder of
+Groningen. Negotiations were indeed secretly opened with William
+himself, and the most advantageous and flattering terms offered to him,
+if he would desert the patriot cause. But with him opposition to Spain
+and to Spanish methods of government was a matter of principle and
+strong conviction. He was proof alike against bribery and cajolery, even
+when he perceived, as the year 1580 succeeded 1579, that he had no
+staunch friends on whom he could absolutely rely, save in the devoted
+provinces of Holland and Zeeland.
+
+For things had been going from bad to worse. The excesses and cruelties
+committed by the Calvinists, wherever they found themselves in a
+position to persecute a Catholic minority, and especially the outrages
+perpetrated at Ghent under the leadership of two Calvinist fanatics, De
+Ryhove and De Hembyze, although they were done in direct opposition to
+the wishes and efforts of Orange, always and at all times the champion
+of toleration, did much to discredit him in Flanders and Brabant and to
+excite bitter indignation among the Catholics, who still formed the
+great majority of the population of the Netherlands. William felt
+himself to be month by month losing power. The action he was at last
+compelled to take, in rescuing Ghent from the hands of the
+ultra-democratic Calvinist party and in expelling De Ryhove and De
+Hembyze, caused him to be denounced as "a papist at heart." Indeed the
+bigots of both creeds in that age of intolerance and persecution were
+utterly unable to understand his attitude, and could only attribute it
+to a lack of any sincere religious belief at all. Farnese, meanwhile,
+whose genius for Machiavellian statesmanship was as remarkable as those
+gifts for leadership in war which entitled him to rank as the first
+general of his time, was a man who never failed to take full advantage
+of the mistakes and weaknesses of his opponents. At the head of a
+veteran force he laid siege in the spring of 1579 to the important
+frontier town of Maestricht. He encountered a desperate resistance,
+worthy of the defence of Haarlem or of Leyden, and for four months the
+garrison held out grimly in the hope of relief. But, despite all the
+efforts of Orange to despatch an adequate force to raise the siege, at
+last (June 29) the town was carried by assault and delivered up for
+three days to the fury of a savage soldiery. By the possession of this
+key to the Meuse, Parma was now able to cut off communications between
+Brabant and Protestant Germany. Had he indeed been adequately supported
+by Philip it is probable that at this time all the provinces up to the
+borders of Holland might have been brought into subjection by the
+Spanish forces.
+
+The position of William was beset with perils on every side. One by one
+his adherents were deserting him; even in the provinces of Holland and
+Zeeland he was losing ground. He saw clearly that without foreign help
+the national cause for which he had sacrificed everything was doomed. In
+this emergency he reopened negotiations with Anjou, not because he had
+any trust in the French prince's capacity or sincerity, but for the
+simple reason that there was no one else to whom he could turn. As heir
+to the throne of France and at this time the favoured suitor of Queen
+Elizabeth, his acceptance of the sovereignty of the Netherlands would
+secure, so Orange calculated, the support both of France and England. It
+was his hope also that the limiting conditions attached to the offer of
+sovereignty would enable him to exercise a strong personal control over
+a man of weak character like Anjou. The Duke's vanity and ambition were
+flattered by the proposal; and on September 19, 1580, a provisional
+treaty was signed at Plessis-les-Tours by which Anjou accepted the offer
+that was made to him, and showed himself quite ready to agree to any
+limitations imposed upon his authority, since he had not any intention,
+when once he held the reins of power, of observing them.
+
+The first effect of William's negotiations with Anjou was to alienate
+the Calvinists without gaining over the Catholics. Anjou was suspect
+to both. The action of the Spanish government, however, at this critical
+juncture did much to restore the credit of the prince with all to whom
+the Spanish tyranny and the memory of Alva were abhorrent. Cardinal
+Granvelle, after fifteen years of semi-exile in Italy, had lately been
+summoned to Madrid to become chief adviser to the king. Granvelle
+spared no pains to impress upon Philip the necessity of getting rid of
+Orange as the chief obstacle to the pacification of the Netherlands, and
+advised that a price should be placed upon his life. "The very fear of
+it will paralyse or kill him" was the opinion of the cardinal, who ought
+to have had a better understanding of the temper and character of his
+old adversary. Accordingly at Maestricht, March 15, 1581, "a ban and
+edict in form of proscription" was published against the prince, who was
+denounced as "a traitor and miscreant, an enemy of ourselves and of our
+country"; and all and everywhere empowered "to seize the person and
+goods of this William of Nassau, as enemy of the human race." A solemn
+promise was also made "to anyone who has the heart to free us of this
+pest, and who will deliver him dead or alive, or take his life, the sum
+of 25,000 crowns in gold or in estates for himself and his heirs; and we
+will pardon him any crimes of which he has been guilty, and give him a
+patent of nobility, if he be not noble." It is a document which, however
+abhorrent or loathsome it may appear to us, was characteristic of the
+age in which it was promulgated and in accordance with the ideas of that
+cruel time. The ban was a declaration of war to the knife, and as such
+it was received and answered.
+
+In reply to the ban the prince at the close of the year (December 13)
+published a very lengthy defence of his life and actions, the famous
+_Apology_. To William himself is undoubtedly due the material which the
+document embodies and the argument it contains, but it was almost
+certainly not written by him, but by his chaplain, Pierre L'Oyseleur,
+Seigneur de Villiers, to whom it owes its rather ponderous prolixity and
+redundant verbiage. Historically it is of very considerable value,
+though the facts are not always to be relied upon as strictly accurate.
+The _Apology_ was translated into several languages and distributed to
+the leading personages in every neighbouring country, and made a deep
+impression on men's minds.
+
+The combined effect of the _Ban_ and _the Apology_ was to strengthen
+William's position in all the provinces where the patriot party still
+held the upper hand; and he was not slow to take advantage of the strong
+anti-Spanish feeling which was aroused. Its intensity was shown by the
+solemn Act of Abjuration, July 26, 1581, by which the provinces of
+Brabant, Flanders, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Gelderland renounced
+their allegiance to Philip II on the ground of his tyranny and misrule.
+But after signing this Act it never seems to have occurred to the prince
+or to the representatives of the provinces, that these now derelict
+territories could remain without a personal sovereign. Orange used all
+his influence and persuasiveness to induce them to accept Anjou. Anjou,
+as we have seen, had already agreed to the conditions under which he
+should, when invited, become "prince and lord" of the Netherlands. In
+the autumn of 1581 the position was an ambiguous one. The States-General
+claimed that, after the abjuration of Philip, the sovereignty of the
+provinces had reverted to them, as the common representative of a group
+of provinces that were now sovereign in their own right, and that the
+conferring of that sovereignty on another overlord was their
+prerogative. The position of Orange was peculiar, for _de facto_ under
+one title or another he exercised the chief authority in each one of the
+rebel provinces, but in the name of the States-General, instead of the
+king. His influence indeed was so great as to over-shadow that of the
+States-General, but great as it was, it had to be exerted to the utmost
+before that body could be induced to accept a man of Anjou's despicable
+and untrustworthy character as their new ruler. William however had
+committed himself to the candidature of the duke, through lack of any
+fitter choice; and at last both the States-General and the several
+provincial Estates (Holland and Zeeland excepted) agreed to confer the
+sovereignty upon the French prince subject to the conditions of the
+treaty of Plessis-les-Tours.
+
+William himself exercised the powers with which Holland and Zeeland had
+invested him in the name of the king, whose stadholder he was, even when
+waging war against him. After the Abjuration this pretence could no
+longer be maintained. The Estates of Holland and Zeeland had indeed
+petitioned Orange to become their count, but he refused the title,
+fearing to give umbrage to Anjou. Finding, however, the two provinces
+resolute in their opposition to the Valois prince, he consented, July
+24, 1581, to exercise provisionally, as if he were count, the powers
+of "high supremacy," which had already been conferred upon him.
+Meanwhile Anjou was dallying in England, but on receiving through Ste
+Aldegonde an intimation that the States could brook no further delay,
+he set sail and landed at Flushing. Lord Leicester and a brilliant
+English escort accompanied him; and Elizabeth asked the States to
+receive her suitor as "her own self." At Antwerp, where he took up his
+residence, Anjou was (February 19) solemnly invested with the duchy of
+Brabant, and received the homage of his new subjects. He was far from
+popular, and William remained at his side to give him support and
+counsel. On March 18 (Anjou's birthday) an untoward event occurred,
+which threatened to have most disastrous consequences. As Orange was
+leaving the dinner-table, a young Biscayan, Juan Jaureguy by name,
+attempted his assassination, by firing a pistol at him. The ball entered
+the head by the right ear and passed through the palate. Jaureguy was
+instantly killed and it was afterwards found that he had, for the sake
+of the reward, been instigated to the deed by his master, a merchant
+named Caspar Anastro. Anjou, who was at first suspected of being
+accessory to the crime, was thus exculpated. It was a terrible wound and
+William's life was for some time in great danger; but by the assiduous
+care of his physicians and nurses he very slowly recovered, and was
+strong enough, on May 2, to attend a solemn service of thanksgiving. The
+shock of the event and the long weeks of anxiety were however too heavy
+a strain upon his wife, Charlotte de Bourbon, who had recently given
+birth to their sixth daughter. Her death, on May 5, was deeply grieved
+by the prince, for Charlotte had been a most devoted helpmeet and
+adviser to him throughout the anxious years of their married life.
+During the whole of the summer and autumn William remained at Antwerp,
+patiently trying to smooth away the difficulties caused by the dislike
+and suspicion felt by the Netherlanders for the man whom they were asked
+to recognise as their sovereign. It was an arduous task, but William, at
+the cost of his own popularity, succeeded in getting the duke
+acknowledged in July as Lord of Friesland and Duke of Gelderland, and in
+August Anjou was solemnly installed at Bruges, as Count of Flanders.
+Meanwhile he was planning, with the help of the large French force which
+Anjou had undertaken to bring into the Netherlands, to take the
+offensive against Parma. The truth is that he and Anjou were really
+playing at cross-purposes. Orange wished Anjou to be the
+_roi-faineant_ of a United Netherland state of which he himself should
+be the real ruler, but Anjou had no intention of being treated as a
+second Matthias. He secretly determined to make himself master of
+Antwerp by a sudden attack and, this achieved, to proceed to seize by
+force of arms some of the other principal cities and to make himself
+sovereign in reality as well as in name. He resented his dependence upon
+Orange and was resolved to rid himself of it. With shameless treachery
+in the early morning of January 17, 1583, he paid a visit to the prince
+in Antwerp, and, with the object of gaining possession of his person,
+tried to persuade him to attend a review of the French regiments who
+were encamped outside the town. The suspicions of William had however
+been aroused, and he pleaded some excuse for declining the invitation.
+At midday some thousands of Anjou's troops rushed into the city at the
+dinner-hour with loud cries of "Ville gagnee! Tue! Tue!" But the
+citizens flew to arms; barricades were erected; and finally the French
+were driven out with heavy loss, leaving some 1500 prisoners in the
+hands of the town-guard. Many French nobles perished, and the "French
+Fury," as it was called, was an ignominious and ghastly failure.
+Indignation was wide and deep throughout the provinces; and William's
+efforts to calm the excitement and patch up some fresh agreement with
+the false Valois, though for the moment partially successful, only added
+to his own growing unpopularity.
+
+The prince in fact was so wedded to the idea that the only hope for the
+provinces lay in securing French aid that he seemed unable to convince
+himself that Anjou after this act of base treachery was impossible. His
+continued support of the duke only served to alienate the people of
+Brabant and Flanders. The Protestants hated the thought of having as
+their sovereign a prince who was a Catholic and whose mother and
+brothers were looked upon by them as the authors of the massacre of St
+Bartholomew. The Catholics, cajoled by Parma's fair words, and alarmed
+by the steady progress of his arms, were already inclining to return to
+their old allegiance. The marriage of Orange, April 7, 1583, to Louise,
+daughter of the famous Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny, and widow of the
+Sieur de Teligny, added to the feelings of distrust and hostility he had
+already aroused, for the bride was a Frenchwoman and both her father and
+husband had perished on the fatal St Bartholomew's day.
+
+Finding himself exposed to insult, and his life ever in danger,
+William, at the end of July, left Antwerp and took up his residence
+again at Delft in the midst of his faithful Hollanders. They, too,
+disliked his French proclivities, but his alliance with Louise de
+Teligny seemed to be an additional pledge to these strong Calvinists of
+his religious sincerity.
+
+Meanwhile Anjou had already returned to France; and Parma had now a
+freer field for his advance northwards and, though sorely hampered by
+lack of funds, was rapidly taking town after town. In the spring of 1584
+he took Ypres and Bruges, and a strong party in Ghent was in traitorous
+correspondence with him. Many nobles had fallen away from the patriot
+cause, among them William's brother-in-law, Count van den Berg, who had
+succeeded John of Nassau as Stadholder of Gelderland. The hold of Orange
+upon Brabant and the Scheldt was, however, still ensured by the
+possession of Antwerp, of which strongly fortified town the trusty Ste
+Aldegonde was governor.
+
+Meanwhile the prince, who was still striving hard to persuade the
+provinces that were hostile to Spanish rule that their only hope lay in
+obtaining aid from France through Anjou, was living at the old convent
+of St Agatha, afterwards known as the Prinsenhof at Delft. His manner of
+life was of the most modest and homely kind, just like that of an
+ordinary Dutch burgher. He was in fact deeply in debt, terribly worried
+with the outward aspect of things, and his position became one of
+growing difficulty, for on June 10, 1584, the miserable Anjou died, and
+the policy on which he had for so long expended his best efforts was
+wrecked. Even his own recognition as Count of Holland and Zeeland had
+led to endless negotiations between the Estates and the various town
+councils which claimed to have a voice in the matter; and in July, 1584,
+he had, though provisionally exercising sovereign authority, not yet
+received formal homage. And all this time, in addition to the other
+cares that weighed heavily upon him, there was the continual dread of
+assassination. Ever since the failure of the attempt of Jaureguy, there
+had been a constant succession of plots against the life of the rebel
+leader and heretic at the instigation of the Spanish government, and
+with the knowledge of Parma. Religious fanaticism, loyalty to the
+legitimate sovereign, together with the more sordid motive of pecuniary
+reward, made many eager to undertake the murderous commission. It was
+made the easier from the fact that the prince always refused to
+surround himself with guards or to take any special precautions, and was
+always easy of access. Many schemes and proposed attempts came to
+nothing either through the vigilance of William's spies or through the
+lack of courage of the would-be assassins. A youth named Balthazar
+Gerard had however become obsessed with the conviction that he had a
+special mission to accomplish the deed in which Jaureguy had failed, and
+he devoted himself to the task of ridding the world of one whom he
+looked upon as the arch-enemy of God and the king. Under the false name
+of Francis Guyon he made his way to Delft, pretended to be a zealous
+Calvinist flying from persecution, and went about begging for alms. The
+prince, even in his poverty always charitable, hearing of his needy
+condition sent to the man a present of twelve crowns. With this gift
+Gerard bought a pair of pistols and on July 10, 1584, having managed on
+some pretext to gain admittance to the Prinsenhof, he concealed himself
+in a dark corner by the stairs just opposite the door of the room where
+William and his family were dining. As the prince, accompanied by his
+wife, three of his daughters and one of his sisters, came out and was
+approaching the staircase, the assassin darted forward and fired two
+bullets into his breast. The wound was mortal; William fell to the
+ground and speedily expired. Tradition says that, as he fell, he
+exclaimed in French: "My God, have pity on my soul! My God, have pity on
+this poor people!" But an examination of contemporary records of the
+murder throws considerable doubt on the statement that such words were
+uttered. The nature of the wound was such that the probability is that
+intelligible speech was impossible.
+
+Balthazar Gerard gloried in his deed, and bore the excruciating tortures
+which were inflicted upon him with almost superhuman patience and
+courage. He looked upon himself as a martyr in a holy cause, and as such
+he was regarded by Catholic public opinion. His deed was praised both by
+Granvelle and Parma, and Philip bestowed a patent of nobility on his
+family, and exempted them from taxation.
+
+In Holland there was deep and general grief at the tragic ending of the
+great leader, who had for so many years been the fearless and
+indefatigable champion of their resistance to civil and religious
+tyranny. He was accorded a public funeral and buried with great pomp
+in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft, where a stately memorial, recording his
+many high qualities and services, was erected to his memory.
+
+William of Orange was but fifty-one years of age when his life was thus
+prematurely ended, and though he had been much aged by the cares and
+anxieties of a crushing responsibility, his physicians declared that at
+the time of his death he was perfectly healthy and that he might have
+been spared to carry on his work for many years, had he escaped the
+bullets of the assassin. But it was not to be. It is possible that he
+should be reckoned in the number of those whose manner of death sets the
+seal to a life-work of continuous self-sacrifice. The title of "Father
+of his Country," which was affectionately given to him by Hollanders of
+every class, was never more deservedly bestowed, for it was in the
+Holland that his exertions had freed and that he had made the
+impregnable fortress of the resistance to Spain that he ever felt more
+at home than anywhere else. It was in the midst of his own people that
+he laid down the life that had been consecrated to their cause. As a
+general he had never been successful. As a statesman he had failed to
+accomplish that union of the Netherlands, north and south, which at one
+triumphant moment had seemed to be well-nigh realised by the
+Pacification of Ghent. But he had by the spirit that he had aroused in
+Holland and its sister province of Zeeland created a barrier against
+Spanish domination in the northern Netherlands which was not to be
+broken down.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC
+
+
+At the moment of the assassination of William the Silent it might well
+have seemed to an impartial observer that the restoration of the
+authority of the Spanish king over the whole of the Netherlands was only
+a question of time. The military skill and the statecraft of Alexander
+Farnese were making slow but sure progress in the reconquest of Flanders
+and Brabant. Despite the miserable inadequacy of the financial support
+he received from Spain, the governor-general, at the head of a
+numerically small but thoroughly efficient and well-disciplined army,
+was capturing town after town. In 1583 Dunkirk, Nieuport, Lindhoven,
+Steenbergen, Zutphen and Sas-van-Gent fell; in the spring of 1584 Ypres
+and Bruges were already in Spanish hands, and on the very day of
+William's death the fort of Liefkenshoek on the Scheldt, one of the
+outlying defences of Antwerp, was taken by assault. In August
+Dendermonde, in September Ghent, surrendered. All West Flanders, except
+the sea-ports of Ostend and Sluis, had in the early autumn of 1584 been
+reduced to the obedience of the king. The campaign of the following year
+was to be even more successful. Brussels, the seat of government, was
+compelled by starvation to capitulate, March 10; Mechlin was taken, July
+19; and finally Antwerp, after a memorable siege, in which Parma
+displayed masterly skill and resource, passed once more into the
+possession of the Spaniards. The fall of this great town was a very
+heavy blow to the patriot cause, and it was likewise the ruin of Antwerp
+itself. A very large part of its most enterprising inhabitants left
+their homes rather than abjure their religious faith and took refuge in
+Holland and Zeeland, or fled across the Rhine into Germany. Access to
+the sea down the Scheldt was closed by the fleets of the Sea Beggars,
+and the commerce and industry of the first commercial port of western
+Europe passed to Amsterdam and Middelburg. Meanwhile there had been no
+signs of weakness or of yielding on the part of the sturdy burghers of
+Holland and Zeeland. On the fatal July 10, 1584, the Estates of
+Holland were in session at Delft. They at once took energetic action
+under the able leadership of Paul Buys, Advocate of Holland, and John
+van Oldenbarneveldt, Pensionary of Rotterdam. They passed a resolution
+"to uphold the good cause with God's help without sparing gold or
+blood." Despatches were at once sent to the Estates of the other
+provinces, to the town councils and to the military and naval
+commanders, affirming their own determined attitude and exhorting all
+those who had accepted the leadership of the murdered Prince of Orange
+"to bear themselves manfully and piously without abatement of zeal on
+account of the aforesaid misfortune." Their calm courage at such a
+moment of crisis reassured men's minds. There was no panic. Steps were
+at once taken for carrying on the government in Holland, Zeeland and
+Utrecht. Stimulated by the example of Holland, the States-General
+likewise took prompt action. On August 18 a Council of State was
+appointed to exercise provisionally the executive powers of sovereignty,
+consisting of eighteen members, four from Holland, three each from
+Zeeland and Friesland, two from Utrecht and six from Brabant and
+Flanders. Of this body Maurice of Nassau, William's seventeen year-old
+son, was nominated first Councillor, and a pension of 30,000 guilders
+per annum was granted him. At the same time Louise de Coligny was
+invited to take up her residence in Holland and suitable provision was
+made for her. William Lewis, son of Count John of Nassau, was elected
+Stadholder of Friesland. Count Nieuwenaar was Stadholder of Gelderland
+and shortly afterwards also of Utrecht and Overyssel. Owing to the youth
+of Maurice the question as to whether he should become Count of Holland
+and Zeeland or be elected Stadholder was left in abeyance until it
+should be settled to which of two foreign rulers the sovereignty of the
+provinces, now that Anjou was dead, should be offered.
+
+In the revolted provinces the responsible leaders were at this time
+practically unanimous in their opinion that any attempt on their part to
+carry on the struggle against the power of Spain without foreign
+assistance was hopeless; and it was held that such assistance could only
+be obtained by following in the footsteps of William and offering to
+confer the overlordship of the provinces on another sovereign in the
+place of Philip II. There were but two possible candidates, Henry III of
+France and Elizabeth of England.
+
+There were objections to both, but the rapid successes of Parma made it
+necessary to take action. The partisans of a French alliance were in the
+majority, despite the efforts of a strong opposition headed by Paul
+Buys; and an embassy (January, 1585) was despatched to Paris to offer
+conditionally to the French king the Protectorship of Holland and
+Zeeland and sovereignty over the other provinces. The negotiations went
+on for a couple of months, but Henry III finally declined the offer.
+Another embassy was sent, July, 1585, to England, but Elizabeth refused
+absolutely to accept the sovereignty. She however was not averse to the
+proposal that she should despatch a body of troops to the armed
+assistance of the provinces, provided that adequate guarantees were
+given for the outlay. She was afraid of Philip II and, though she had no
+love for men who were rebels to their lawful sovereign, was quite
+willing to use them for her own ends. Her motives therefore were mixed
+and purely self-interested; nevertheless it is doubtful if the
+negotiations would have led to any definite result, had not the news of
+the fall of Antwerp made both parties feel that this was no time for
+haggling or procrastination. Elizabeth therefore promised to send at
+once 6000 troops under the command of a "gentleman of quality," who
+should bear the title of governor-general. He was to co-operate with the
+Council of State (on which two Englishmen were to sit) in restoring
+order and in maintaining and defending the ancient rights and privileges
+of the provinces. The governor-general and all other officials were to
+take an oath of fealty both to the States-General and to the queen. The
+towns of Flushing and Brill with the fort of Rammekens were to be handed
+over in pledge to Elizabeth for the repayment of expenses and received
+English garrisons. They were known as "the cautionary towns."
+
+At the end of October the States were informed that the choice of the
+queen had fallen upon her favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester,
+and that he would shortly set out for the Netherlands. Holland and
+Zeeland, ever jealous of foreign interference with their rights and
+privileges, resolved now to forestall the arrival of the English
+governor-general by appointing Maurice of Nassau, with the title of
+"Excellency," to the offices of Stadholder and Admiral and
+Captain-General of both provinces; and the Count of Hohenlo was
+nominated (Maurice being still little more than a boy) to the actual
+command of the State's forces. Leicester set sail from Harwich
+accompanied by a fleet of fifty vessels and landed at Flushing on
+December 19. He met everywhere with an enthusiastic reception. The
+States-General were eager to confer large powers upon him. Practically
+he was invested with the same authority as the former regent, Mary of
+Hungary, with the reservation that the States-General and the Provincial
+Estates should meet at their own instance, that the present stadholders
+should continue in office, and that appointments to vacant offices
+should be made from two or three persons nominated by the Provincial
+Estates. A new Council of State was created which, as previously agreed,
+included two Englishmen. On February 4, 1586, Leicester's government was
+solemnly inaugurated in the presence of Maurice of Nassau and the
+States-General, and he accepted the title of "Excellency." Elizabeth on
+hearing this was very angry and even threatened to recall Leicester, and
+she sent Lord Heneage to express both to the States-General and the
+governor-general her grave displeasure at what had taken place. She bade
+Leicester restrict himself to the functions that she had assigned to
+him, and it was not until July that she was sufficiently appeased to
+allow him to be addressed as "Excellency."
+
+All this was galling to Leicester's pride and ambition, and did not tend
+to improve his relations with the States. An English governor would in
+any case have had a difficult task, and Leicester had neither tact nor
+capacity as a statesman, and no pretensions as a military leader. He
+possessed no knowledge of the institutions of the country or the
+character of the people, and was ignorant of the Dutch language. The
+measures he took and the arbitrary way in which he tried to enforce
+them, soon brought him face to face with the stubborn resistance of the
+Estates of Holland under the leadership of Oldenbarneveldt. In April,
+1586, he issued a very stringent placard forbidding all traffic with the
+enemy's lands and more especially the supplying of the enemy with grain.
+He meant it well, for he had been informed that the cutting-off of this
+commerce, which he regarded as illicit, would deprive the Spaniards of
+the necessaries of life, and Parma's position would become desperate.
+This carrying trade had, however, for long been a source of much profit
+to the merchants and shipowners of Holland and Zeeland; indeed it
+supplied no small part of the resources by which those two provinces
+had equipped the fleets and troops by which they had defended themselves
+against the efforts of the Spanish king. Two years before this the
+States-General had tried to place an embargo on the traffic in grain,
+but the powerful town-council of Amsterdam had refused obedience and the
+Estates of Holland supported them in their action. The deputies of the
+inland provinces, which had suffered most from the Spanish armies, were
+jealous of the prosperity of the maritime States, and regarded this
+trade with the Spaniard as being carried on to their injury. But Holland
+and Zeeland supplied the funds without which resistance would long since
+have been impossible, and they claimed moreover, as sovereign provinces,
+the right to regulate their trade affairs. The edict remained a
+dead-letter, for there was no power to enforce it.
+
+The governor made a still greater mistake when, in his annoyance at the
+opposition of the Hollanders, he courted the democratic anti-Holland
+party in Utrecht, which had as its leader the ultra-Calvinist
+stadholder, Nieuwenaar, and caused one of his confidants, a Brabanter,
+Gerard Prounick, surnamed Deventer, to be elected burgomaster of
+Utrecht, although as a foreigner he was disqualified from holding that
+office. An even more arbitrary act was his creation of a Chamber of
+Finance armed with inquisitorial powers, thus invading the rights of the
+Provincial Estates and depriving the Council of State of one of its most
+important functions. To make matters worse, he appointed Nieuwenaar to
+preside over the new Chamber, with a Brabanter, Jacques Reingoud, as
+treasurer-general, and a Fleming, Daniel de Burchgrave, as auditor. The
+Estates of Holland, under the guidance of Oldenbarneveldt, prepared
+themselves to resist stubbornly this attempt to thrust upon them a new
+tyranny.
+
+As a military leader Leicester was quite unfitted to oppose successfully
+such a general as Parma. Both commanders were in truth much hampered by
+the preparations that were being made by Philip for the invasion of
+England. The king could spare Parma but little money for the pay of his
+troops, and his orders were that the Spanish forces in the Netherlands
+should be held in reserve and readiness for embarkation, as soon as the
+Great Armada should hold command of the Channel. England was the first
+objective. When its conquest was accomplished that of the rebel
+provinces would speedily follow. On the other hand Elizabeth, always
+niggardly, was little disposed in face of the threatened danger to
+dissipate her resources by any needless expenditure. Leicester
+therefore found himself at the head of far too small a force to deal any
+effective blows at the enemy. He succeeded in capturing Doesburg, but
+failed to take Zutphen. It was in a gallant effort to prevent a Spanish
+convoy from entering that town that Sir Philip Sidney met his death at
+the combat of Warnsfeld (Sept. 22, 1586). An important fort facing
+Zutphen was however stormed, and here Leicester left Sir Robert Yorke
+with a strong garrison, and at the same time sent Sir William Stanley
+with 1200 men to be governor of Deventer. These appointments gave rise
+to much criticism that proved later to be fully justified, for both
+these officers were Catholics and had formerly been in the Spanish
+service. Leicester had also taken other steps that were ill-judged. West
+Friesland had for many years been united to Holland and was known as the
+North-Quarter. The governor-general, however, appointed Sonoy Stadholder
+of West Friesland, and was thus infringing the rights and jurisdiction
+of Maurice of Nassau. Maurice also held the post of Admiral-General of
+Holland and Zeeland, but Leicester took it upon himself to create three
+distinct Admiralty Colleges, those of Holland, Zeeland, and the
+North-Quarter, thus further dividing authority in a land where greater
+unity was the chief thing to be aimed at. Leicester was equally unwise
+in the part he took in regard to religious matters. Oldenbarneveldt,
+Paul Buys and the great majority of burgher-regents in Holland belonged
+to the moderate or, as it was called, the "libertine" party, to which
+William the Silent had adhered and whose principles of toleration he had
+strongly upheld. Leicester, largely influenced by spite against
+Oldenbarneveldt and the Hollanders for their opposition to his edict
+about trade with the enemy and to his appointment of Sonoy, threw
+himself into the arms of the extreme Calvinists, who were at heart as
+fanatical persecutors as the Spanish inquisitors themselves. These
+"precisian" zealots held, by the governor-general's permission and under
+his protection, a synod at Dort, June, 1586, and endeavoured to organise
+the Reformed Church in accordance with their strict principles of
+exclusiveness.
+
+By this series of maladroit acts Leicester had made himself so unpopular
+and distrusted in Holland that the Estates of that predominant province
+lost no opportunity of inflicting rebuffs upon him. Stung by the
+opposition he met and weary of a thankless task, the governor determined
+at the end of November to pay a visit to England. The Council of State
+was left in charge of the administration during his absence.
+
+His departure had the very important effect of bringing the question of
+State-rights acutely to the front. The dislike and distrust felt by the
+Hollanders towards the English governor-general was greatly increased by
+the treachery of Yorke and Stanley, who delivered the fort at Zutphen
+and the town of Deventer, with the defence of which they had been
+charged, into the hands of the Spaniards. The town of Gelder and the
+fort at Wouw were likewise betrayed, and there can be small doubt that,
+had Parma at this time been able to take advantage of the dissensions in
+the ranks of his adversaries, he would have met with little effectual
+resistance to his arms. His whole attention was, however, centred in
+preparations for the proposed invasion of England. Leicester had no
+sooner left the country than the Estates of Holland, under the strong
+leadership of Oldenbarneveldt, took measures to assert their right to
+regulate their own affairs, independently of the Council of State. A
+levy of troops was made (in the pay of the province of Holland), who
+were required to take an oath to the Provincial Estates and the
+stadholder. To Maurice the title of "Prince" was given; and Sonoy in the
+North-Quarter and all the commanders of fortified places were compelled
+to place themselves under his orders. The States-General, in which the
+influence of Holland and its chief representative, Oldenbarneveldt, was
+overpoweringly great, upheld the Provincial Estates in the measures they
+were taking. As a result of their action the trade restrictions were
+practically repealed, the Council of State was reconstituted, and a
+strong indictment of Leicester's conduct and administration was drawn up
+in the name of the States-General and forwarded to the absent governor
+in England.
+
+Elizabeth was indignant at the language of this document, but at this
+particular time the dangers which were threatening her throne and people
+were too serious for her to take any steps to alienate the States. It
+was her obvious policy to support them in their resistance, and to keep,
+if possible, Parma's forces occupied in the Netherlands. Accordingly
+Leicester returned to his post, July 1587, but in an altogether wrong
+spirit. He knew that he had a strong body of partisans in Utrecht,
+Friesland and elsewhere, for he had posed as the friend of the people's
+rights against the nobles and those burgher-aristocracies in the cities
+in whose hands all real power rested, and by his attitude in religious
+matters he had won for himself the support of the Calvinist preachers.
+His agents, Deventer in Utrecht, Aysma in Friesland and Sonoy in the
+North-Quarter, were able men, who could count on the help of the
+democracy, whom they flattered. So Leicester came back with the
+determination to override the opposition of the Estates of Holland and
+compel their submission to his will. But he found that he only succeeded
+in making that opposition more resolute. His attempts to overthrow the
+supremacy of the "regents" in Amsterdam, Leyden, Enkhuizen and other
+towns were complete failures. Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice were supreme
+in Holland and Zeeland; and the power of the purse gave to Holland a
+controlling voice in the States-General. The position of Leicester was
+shaken also by his inability to relieve Sluis, which important seaport
+fell after a long siege into Parma's hands, August 5. Its capture was
+attributed by rumour, which in this case had no foundation, to the
+treachery of the English governor and garrison. Moreover it was
+discovered that for some months secret peace negotiations had been
+passing between the English government and Parma; and this aroused
+violent suspicions that the Netherlands were merely being used as pawns
+in English policy, and alienated from the governor-general the sympathy
+of the preachers, who had been his strongest supporters. Humiliated and
+broken in spirit, Leicester, after many bickerings and recriminations,
+finally left the Netherlands (December 10), though his formal
+resignation of his post did not reach the States-General until the
+following April. Lord Willoughby was placed in command of the English
+troops.
+
+The year 1588 was the beginning of a decade full of fate for the Dutch
+Republic. The departure of Leicester left the seven provinces of the
+Union of Utrecht weak, divided, torn by factions, without allies, the
+country to the east of the Yssel and to the south of the Scheldt and the
+Waal already in the hands of the enemy. Moreover the armed forces of
+that enemy were far stronger than their own and under the command of a
+consummate general. But this was the year of the Spanish Armada, and
+Parma's offensive operations were, by the strictest orders from Madrid,
+otherwise directed. And Elizabeth on her side, though highly offended
+at the treatment which her favourite, Leicester, had received from the
+Hollanders, was too astute to quarrel at such a moment with a people
+whose ships kept a strict blockade in the Scheldt and before the Flemish
+harbours. Thus a respite was obtained for the States at this critical
+time, which was turned to good account and was of vital import for their
+constitutional development. The Leicestrian period, despite its record
+of incompetence and failure, had however the distinction of being the
+period which for good or for evil gave birth to the republic of the
+United Netherlands, as we know it in history. The curious, amorphous,
+hydra-headed system of government, which was to subsist for some two
+centuries, was in its origin the direct result of the confused welter of
+conflicting forces, which was the legacy of Leicester's rule. As a
+preliminary to a right understanding of the political system, which was
+now, more by accidental force of circumstances than by design,
+developing into a permanent constitution, it will be necessary to trace
+the events of the years which immediately followed the departure of
+Leicester, and which under the influence and by the co-operation of
+three striking personalities were to mould the future of the Dutch
+republic.
+
+Those three personalities were John van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of
+Nassau and his cousin William Lewis of Nassau, the Stadholder of
+Friesland. Born in 1547, Oldenbarneveldt, after studying Jurisprudence
+at Louvain, Bourges and Heidelberg, became a devoted adherent of William
+the Silent and took part in the defence of Haarlem and of Leyden. His
+abilities, however, fitted him to take a prominent part as a politician
+and administrator rather than as a soldier; and his career may be said
+to have begun by his appointment to the post of Pensionary of Rotterdam
+in 1576. In this capacity his industry and his talent speedily won for
+him a commanding position in the Estates of Holland, and he became one
+of the Prince of Orange's confidential friends and advisers. In 1586 he
+was appointed Advocate of Holland in succession to Paul Buys. This
+office included the duties of legal adviser, secretary and likewise in a
+sense that of "Speaker" to the Provincial Estates. In addition to all
+this he was the mouthpiece in the States-General of the deputation
+representing the Provincial Estates, and exercised in that assembly all
+the authority attaching to the man who spoke in the name of Holland. At
+this time of transition, by his predominance alike in his own province
+of Holland and in the States-General, he was able to secure for the
+general policy of the Union, especially in the conduct of foreign
+affairs, a continuity of aim and purpose that enabled the
+loosely-cemented and mutually jealous confederacy of petty sovereign
+states to tide-over successfully the critical years which followed the
+departure of Leicester, and to acquire a sense of national unity.
+
+The brain and the diplomatic skill of the great statesman would,
+however, have been of little avail without the aid of the military
+abilities of Maurice of Nassau. Maurice was twenty years of age when
+Leicester left Holland. He was a man very different from his father in
+opinions and in the character of his talents. Maurice had nothing of his
+father's tolerance in religious matters or his subtle skill in
+diplomacy. He was a born soldier, but no politician, and had no wish to
+interfere in affairs of State. He had the highest respect for
+Oldenbarneveldt and complete confidence in his capacity as a statesman,
+and he was at all times ready to use the executive powers, which he
+exercised by virtue of the numerous posts he was speedily called upon to
+fill, for the carrying out of Oldenbarneveldt's policy; while the
+Advocate on his side found in the strong arm of the successful general
+the instrument that he needed for the maintenance of his supremacy in
+the conduct of the civil government. Already in 1587 Maurice was
+Stadholder of Holland and Zeeland. In 1588 he became Captain-General and
+Admiral-General of the Union with the control and supervision of all the
+armed forces of the Provinces by sea and by land. The death of
+Nieuwenaar in the following year created a vacancy in the stadholderates
+of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel. Maurice was in each province
+elected as Nieuwenaar's successor. The Advocate therefore and the
+Prince, through the close accord which was for many years to subsist
+between them, gathered thus into their hands (except in Friesland)
+practically the entire administrative, executive and military powers of
+the United Provinces and by their harmonious co-operation with William
+Lewis, the wise and capable Stadholder of Friesland, were able to give
+something of real unity to a group of states, each claiming to be a
+sovereign entity, and to give them the outward semblance of a federal
+republic. There was no "eminent head," but the sovereignty in reality,
+if not in name, was vested during the period with which we have now to
+deal in this triumvirate.
+
+Circumstances provided a favourable field for the display of the
+youthful Maurice's military abilities. In 1589 the assassination of
+Henry III placed Henry of Navarre on the throne of France. The accession
+of the brilliant Huguenot leader led to civil war; and the Catholic
+opposition was encouraged and supported by Philip II, who regarded Henry
+IV as a menace and danger to the Spanish power. Parma, therefore, whose
+active prosecution of the war against the rebel provinces had been so
+long hindered by having to hold his army in readiness for the projected
+invasion of England, found himself, after the failure and destruction of
+the Armada, in no better position for a campaign in the northern
+Netherlands. Disappointment and false charges against him brought on a
+serious illness, and on his recovery he received orders to conduct an
+expedition into France. William Lewis of Nassau had for sometime been
+urging upon the States-General that the time for remaining upon the
+strict defensive was past, and that, when the enemy's efforts were
+weakened and distracted, the best defence was a vigorous offensive. At
+first he spoke to deaf ears, but he found now a powerful supporter in
+Maurice, and the two stadholders prevailed. They had now by careful and
+assiduous training created a strong and well-disciplined army for the
+service of the States. This army was made up by contingents of various
+nationalities, English, Scottish, French and German as well as
+Netherlanders. But the material was on the whole excellent, and the
+entire force was welded together by confidence in their leaders.
+
+In 1590 the capture of Breda by a ruse (seventy men hidden beneath a
+covering of peat making their entrance into the town and opening the
+gates to their comrades outside) was a good omen for the campaign that
+was planned for 1591. For the first time Maurice had an opportunity for
+showing his genius for war and especially for siege warfare. By rapid
+movements he took first Zutphen, then Deventer and Delfzijl, and
+relieved the fort of Knodsenburg (near Nijmwegen). Thus successful on
+the eastern frontier, the stadholder hurried to Zeeland and captured
+Hulst, the key to the land of Waas. He then turned his steps again to
+the east and appearing suddenly before Nijmwegen made himself master of
+this important city. Such a succession of brilliant triumphs established
+Maurice's fame, and to a lesser degree that of William Lewis, whose
+co-operation and advice were of the greatest service to the younger man.
+This was markedly the case in the following year (1592) when the two
+stadholders set to work to expel the Spaniards from the two strongly
+fortified towns of Steenwijk and Coevorden, whose possession enabled a
+strong force under the veteran Verdugo to retain their hold upon
+Friesland. The States army was not at its full strength, for the English
+contingent under Sir Francis Vere had been sent to France; and Verdugo
+was confident that any attempt to capture these well-garrisoned
+fortresses was doomed to failure. He had to learn how great was the
+scientific skill and resource of Maurice in the art of beleaguering.
+Steenwijk after an obstinate defence capitulated on June 5. Coevorden
+was then invested and in its turn had to surrender, on September 12.
+During this time Parma had been campaigning with no great success in
+northern France. In the autumn he returned to the Netherlands suffering
+from the effects of a wound and broken in spirit. Never did any man fill
+a difficult and trying post with more success and zeal than Alexander
+Farnese during the sixteen years of his governor-generalship.
+Nevertheless Philip was afraid of his nephew's talents and ambition, and
+he despatched the Count of Fuentes with a letter of recall. It was never
+delivered. Parma set out to meet him, but fell ill and died at Spa,
+December 2, 1592. He appointed the Count of Mansfeld to take his place,
+until the Archduke Ernest of Austria, who had been appointed to succeed
+him, arrived in the Netherlands.
+
+The campaign of 1593 was marked by the taking of Geertruidenberg, a
+fortress which barred the free access of the Hollanders and Zeelanders
+to the inland waters. The science which Maurice displayed in the siege
+of this town greatly increased his renown. In the following year the
+stadholders turned their attention to the north-east corner of the land,
+which was still in the possession of the Spaniards. After a siege of two
+months Groningen surrendered; and the city with the surrounding district
+was by the terms of the capitulation--known as "The Treaty of
+Reduction"--admitted as a province into the Union under the name of
+_Stad en Landen._ William Lewis was appointed stadholder, and Drente was
+placed under his jurisdiction. The northern Netherlands were now cleared
+of the enemy, and Maurice at the conclusion of the campaign made a
+triumphal entry into the Hague amidst general rejoicing. William Lewis
+lost no time in taking steps to establish Calvinism as the only
+recognised form of faith in his new government. His strong principles
+did not allow him to be tolerant, and to Catholicism he was a
+convinced foe. Everywhere throughout the United Provinces the reformed
+religion was now dominant, and its adherents alone could legally take
+part in public worship.
+
+In January, 1595, Henry IV declared war against Spain and was anxious
+for an alliance with the States against the common enemy. The Archduke
+Ernest, on whose coming into the Netherlands great hopes had been
+placed, found himself now in a difficult position with hostile armies
+threatening from both sides and no hope of efficient financial or other
+support from Spain. He was instructed therefore to enter into
+negotiations at the Hague with a view to the conclusion of a peace,
+based upon the terms of the Pacification of Ghent. But there was never
+any prospect of an agreement being reached; and the sudden death of the
+archduke (February 20,1595) brought the negotiations to an end. Archduke
+Ernest was succeeded by the Count of Fuentes as governor _ad interim._
+Fuentes proved himself to be a strong and capable commander; and the
+summer was marked by a series of successes against the hostile forces
+both of the French and the Netherlanders. There was no decisive
+encounter, but the Spanish forces foiled the efforts of their
+adversaries to effect an invasion or capture any towns.
+
+The Cardinal Archduke Albert arrived at Brussels to replace Fuentes in
+January, 1596. Albert was the favourite nephew of King Philip, and had
+been brought up at Madrid. Although an ecclesiastic, he proved himself
+to be a statesman and soldier of more than ordinary capacity. It was
+intended that he should, as soon as the Pope's consent could be
+obtained, divest himself of his orders and marry his cousin the Infanta
+Isabel. The bankrupt condition of Spain prevented Philip from furnishing
+the archduke with adequate financial help on entering upon his
+governorship, but Albert was provided with some money, and he found in
+the Netherlands the well-disciplined and war-tried force of which
+Fuentes had made such good use in the previous campaign. He was anxious
+to emulate that general's success, and as the veteran leaders, Mondragon
+and Verdugo, had both died, he gave the command to the Seigneur de
+Rosne, a French refugee. This man was a commander of skill and
+enterprise, and special circumstances enabled him by two brilliant
+offensive strokes to capture first Calais and afterwards Hulst. Hulst
+was only taken after a severe struggle, in which De Rosne himself
+fell.
+
+The special circumstances which favoured these operations were brought
+about by the conclusion of a treaty of alliance between France, England
+and the States. This treaty was the result of prolonged negotiations; it
+was of short duration and its conditions were far from favourable to the
+United Provinces, but it was of great importance from the fact that for
+the first time the new-fledged republic was recognised by the
+neighbouring sovereigns of France and England as an independent state
+and was admitted into alliance on terms of equality. It was, however,
+only with difficulty and through the insistence of Henry IV that
+Elizabeth was induced to acknowledge the independent status of the rebel
+provinces. In return the republic was required to keep up a force of
+8000 men for service in the Netherlands, and to despatch 4000 men to act
+with the French army in northern France--this auxiliary force to include
+the five English regiments in the States' service. Thus Maurice was
+deprived of a considerable part of his army and obliged to act on the
+defensive. Elizabeth also insisted upon the carrying out of Leicester's
+placard forbidding trade with the enemy. This clause of the treaty was
+very unpalatable to Amsterdam and the Hollanders generally, and only a
+sullen acquiescence was given to it. From the first it was
+systematically evaded. The English government on their part undertook to
+support the French king with a force equal in strength to that furnished
+by the Provinces, _i.e._ 4000 men, but at the same time a secret treaty
+was drawn up by which Henry agreed to a reduction of the English troops
+by one-half. This piece of underhand work was in due time discovered by
+the States, who saw that their allies were not to be trusted and that
+they must be on the watch lest their interests should be sacrificed to
+the selfish policy of France. The issue showed that Henry IV was in fact
+ready to make terms with Spain, as soon as it was to his advantage to do
+so. Meanwhile in 1597 the French king, by advancing in force into
+Picardy, drew upon this frontier the chief attention of the Spaniards;
+and Maurice seized the opportunity that was offered to him to conduct an
+offensive campaign with signal success.
+
+He began the year brilliantly by surprising in January, while still in
+its winter quarters, a Spanish force of 4500 near Turnhout. More than
+half the force was destroyed. On the side of the Netherlands eight men
+only fell. With the spring began a series of sieges; and, one after the
+other, Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenloo, Breedevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum,
+Oldenzaal and Lingen were captured. Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente
+were entirely freed from the presence of the enemy. With the opening of
+1598 Henry IV and Philip II entered upon negotiations for a peace. The
+French king felt the necessity of a respite from war in order to
+reorganise the resources of his country, exhausted by a long continuance
+of civil strife; and Philip was ill and already feeling his end
+approaching. The States strove hard to prevent what they regarded as
+desertion, and two embassies were despatched to France and to England to
+urge the maintenance of the alliance. Oldenbarneveldt himself headed the
+French mission, but he failed to turn Henry from his purpose. A treaty
+of peace between France and Spain was signed at Vervins, May 2, 1598.
+Oldenbarneveldt went from Paris to England and was more successful.
+Elizabeth bargained however for the repayment of her loan by annual
+installments, and for armed assistance both by land and sea should an
+attack be made by the Spaniards on England. The queen, however, made two
+concessions. Henceforth only one English representative was to have a
+seat in the Council of State; and all the English troops in the
+Netherlands, including the garrisons of the cautionary towns, were to
+take an oath of allegiance to the States.
+
+This year saw the accomplishment of a project on which the Spanish king
+had for some time set his heart--the marriage of the Cardinal Archduke
+Albert to his cousin the Infanta Isabel Clara Eugenia, and the erection
+of the Netherlands into an independent sovereignty under their joint
+rule. Philip hoped in this way to provide suitably for a well-beloved
+daughter and at the same time, by the grant of apparent independence to
+the Netherland provinces, to secure their allegiance to the new
+sovereigns. The use of the word "apparent" is justified, for provision
+was made in the deed of cession that the Netherlands should revert to
+the Spanish crown in case the union should prove childless; and there
+was a secret agreement that the chief fortresses should still be
+garrisoned by Spanish troops and that the archdukes, as they were
+officially styled, should recognise the suzerainty of the King of Spain.
+ Philip did not actually live to carry his plan into execution. His
+death took place on September 13, 1598. But all the necessary
+arrangements for the marriage and the transfer of sovereignty had
+already been made. Albert, having first divested himself of his
+ecclesiastical dignities, was married by proxy to Isabel at Ferrara in
+November. It was not until the end of the following year that the new
+rulers made their _joyeuse entree_ into Brussels, but their marriage
+marks the beginning of a fresh stage in the history of the Netherlands.
+Albert and Isabel were wise and capable, and they succeeded in gaining
+the affection and willing allegiance of the southern provinces. The
+States-General of the revolted provinces of the north had, however,
+already enjoyed for some years a real independence won by suffering and
+struggle and they showed no disposition to meet the overtures of the
+archdukes. They were resolved to have no further connection with Spain
+or with Spanish rulers, and from this time forward the cleavage in
+character, sentiment, and above all in religion, between north and south
+was to become, as time went on, more and more accentuated. The Dutch
+republic and the Spanish Netherlands were henceforth destined to pursue
+their separate course along widely divergent paths.
+
+The ten years which had elapsed between the departure of Leicester and
+the advent of Albert and Isabel had witnessed a truly marvellous
+transformation in the condition of the rebel provinces, and especially
+of Holland and Zeeland. Gradually they had been freed from the presence
+of the Spaniard, while at the same time the Spanish yoke had been firmly
+riveted upon Flanders and Brabant. These provinces were now devastated
+and ruined. The quays of Antwerp were deserted, the industries of Ghent
+and Bruges destroyed. The most enterprising and skilful of their
+merchants and artisans had fled over the frontier into Holland or across
+the sea into England. Holland and Zeeland were thronged with refugees,
+Flemings and Brabanters, French Huguenots and numerous Spanish and
+Portuguese Jews, driven out by the pitiless persecution of Philip II.
+The Hollanders and Zeelanders had long been a seafaring people, who had
+derived the chief part of their wealth from their fisheries and their
+carrying trade; and this influx of new and vigorous blood, merchants,
+traders, and textile workers, bringing with them their knowledge, skill
+and energy, aroused such a phenomenal outburst of maritime and
+commercial activity and adventure as the world had never seen before.
+The fleets of the Hollanders and Zeelanders had during the whole of the
+war of independence been the main defence of those provinces against
+Spanish invasion; but, great as had been the services they had
+rendered, it was the carrying-trade which had furnished the rebel states
+with the sinews of war, and of this a large part had been derived from
+that very trading with the enemy which Leicester had striven in vain to
+prevent. The Spaniards and Portuguese were dependent upon the Dutch
+traders for the supply of many necessaries of life; and thus Spanish
+gold was made to pay for the support of the war which was waged against
+the Spanish king. The dues in connection with this trade, known as
+licences and convoys, alone furnished large sums to replenish the
+war-chest; and it is said that from 25,000 to 30,000 seamen found
+employment by it.
+
+Amsterdam during this decade had been rapidly growing in importance and
+it was soon to be the first seaport in the world. It had become the
+_emporium_ of the Baltic trade. In 1601 it is stated that between 800
+and 900 ships left its quays in three days, carrying commodities to the
+Baltic ports. They came back laden with corn and other "east-sea" goods,
+which they then distributed in French, Portuguese and Spanish havens,
+and even as far as Italy and the Levant. Ship-building went on apace at
+Enkhuizen, Hoorn and other towns on the Zuyder Zee; and Zaandam was soon
+to become a centre of the timber trade. In Zeeland, Middelburg, through
+the enterprise of an Antwerp refugee of French extraction, by name
+Balthazar de Moucheron, was second only to Amsterdam as a sea-port,
+while Dordrecht and Rotterdam were also busy with shipping.
+
+The energies of the Dutch at this springtide of their national life were
+far from being confined to European, waters. Dutch sailors already knew
+the way to the East-Indies round the Cape of Good Hope through
+employment on Portuguese vessels; and the trade-routes by which the
+Spaniards brought the treasures of the New World across the Atlantic
+were likewise familiar to them and for a similar reason. The East-Indies
+had for the merchants of Holland and Zeeland, ever keenly on the
+look-out for fresh markets, a peculiar attraction. At first the Cape
+route was thought to be too dangerous, and several attempts were made to
+discover a north-west passage along the coast of Siberia. Balthazar de
+Moucheron was the pioneer in these northern latitudes. He established a
+regular traffic with the Russians by way of the White Sea, and had a
+factory (built in 1584) at Archangel. Through his instances, aided by
+those of the famous geographer Petrus Plancius (likewise a refugee from
+Antwerp), an expedition was fitted out and despatched in 1594 to try
+to sail round northern Asia, but it was driven back after passing
+through the Waigat by ice and storms. A like fate befell a second
+expedition in the following year. Discouraged, but still not despairing,
+a third fleet set out in 1596 under the command of Jacob van Heemskerk
+with William Barendtsz as pilot. Forced to winter in Spitsbergen, after
+terrible sufferings, Heemskerk returned home in the autumn of 1597 with
+the remnant of his crews. Barendtsz was one of those who perished. This
+was the last effort in this direction, for already a body of Amsterdam
+merchants had formed a company for trafficking to India by the Cape; and
+four ships had sailed, April 2, 1596, under the command of Cornelis
+Houtman, a native of Gouda. A certain Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, who
+had been in the Portuguese service, had published in 1595 a book
+containing a description from personal knowledge of the route to the
+East and the character of the Portuguese commerce. It was the
+information contained in this work that led the Amsterdam merchants to
+venture their money upon Houtman's expedition, which Linschoten himself
+accompanied as guide. They reached Madagascar, Java and the Moluccas,
+and, after much suffering and many losses by sickness, what was left of
+the little fleet reached home in July, 1597. The rich cargo they brought
+back, though not enough to defray expenses, proved an incentive to
+further efforts. Three companies were formed at Amsterdam, two at
+Rotterdam, one at Delft and two in Zeeland, for trading in the
+East-Indies, all vying with one another in their eagerness to make large
+profits from these regions of fabled wealth, hitherto monopolised by the
+Portuguese. One expedition sent out by two Amsterdam companies under the
+command of Jacob van Neck and Wybrand van Waerwyck was very successful
+and came back in fifteen months richly laden with East-Indian products.
+The year 1598 was one of great commercial activity. Two-and-twenty large
+vessels voyaged to the East-Indies; others made their way to the coasts
+of Guinea, Guiana and Brazil; and one daring captain, Olivier van Noort,
+sailing through the Straits of Magellan, crossed the Pacific. It was in
+this year that Philip II prohibited by decree all trading in Spain with
+the Dutch, and all the Dutch ships in the harbours of the Peninsula were
+confiscated. But the Spanish trade was no longer of consequence to the
+Hollanders and Zeelanders. They had sought and found compensation
+elsewhere.
+
+The small companies formed to carry out these ventures in the
+far-Eastern seas continued to grow in number, and by the very keenness
+of their competition threatened each other's enterprises with ruin. In
+these circumstances the States-General and the Estates of Holland
+determined, under the leadership of Oldenbarneveldt, to take a step
+which was to be fraught with very important consequences. The rival
+companies were urged to form themselves into a single corporation to
+which exclusive rights would be given for trading in the East-Indies.
+Such a proposal was in direct contradiction to that principle of free
+trade which had hitherto been dear to the Netherlanders, and there was
+much opposition, and many obstacles had to be overcome owing to the
+jealousies of the various provinces, towns and bodies of merchants who
+were interested. But at length the patience and statesmanship of
+Oldenbarneveldt overcame all difficulties, and on March 20,1601, a
+charter was issued creating the United East-India Company and giving it
+a monopoly of the East-India trade (for 21 years) with all lands east of
+the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. The executive
+control was vested in a College known as the Seventeen. Extensive
+sovereign privileges were conferred upon the company and exercised by
+the Seventeen in the name of the States-General. They might make
+treaties with native rulers and potentates, erect forts for the
+protection of their factories, appoint governors and officials with
+administrative and judicial functions, and enlist troops, but these
+officials and troops were required to take an oath of allegiance to the
+States-General. The States-General themselves became "participants" by
+investing the 25,000 pounds, which the company had paid them for the
+grant of the charter. The capital speedily reached the amount of six and
+a half million guilders.
+
+The warlike operations of the year 1599 were uneventful and in the main
+defensive, except on the eastern frontier where the Spanish forces under
+the command of the Admiral of Aragon, Mendoza, captured Wesel and
+Rheinberg. The new rulers of the Netherlands, Albert and Isabel, did
+not make their entry into Brussels until the end of 1599; and almost
+before they had had time to organise the new government and gain firm
+possession of the reins of power in the Belgic provinces, they found
+themselves confronted with a serious danger. The seaport of Dunkirk had
+for many years been a nest of pirates, who preyed upon Dutch commerce
+in the narrow seas. The States-General, urged on by Oldenbarneveldt,
+resolved in the spring of 1606 to despatch an expedition to besiege and
+capture Dunkirk. Both Maurice and William Lewis were opposed to the
+project, which they regarded as rash and risky. The States-General,
+however, hearing reports of the archduke's soldiery being mutinous for
+lack of pay, persisted in their purpose, and Maurice, against his better
+judgment, acquiesced. A body of picked troops, 12,000 foot and 3000
+horse, was assembled on the island of Walcheren. A succession of
+contrary winds delaying the sailing of the force, it was determined to
+march straight through West Flanders to Nieuport and then along the
+shore to Dunkirk. A deputation of the States-General, of which
+Oldenbarneveldt was the leading member, went to Ostend to supervise,
+much to Maurice's annoyance, the military operations. The stadholder,
+however, reached Nieuport without serious opposition and proceeded to
+invest it. Meanwhile the Archduke Albert had been acting with great
+energy. By persuasive words and large promises he succeeded in winning
+back the mutineers, and at the head of a veteran force of 10,000
+infantry and 1500 cavalry he followed Maurice and, advancing along the
+dunes, came on July 1 upon a body of 2000 men under the command of
+Ernest Casimir of Nassau, sent by the stadholder to defend the bridge of
+Leffingen. At the sight of the redoubtable Spanish infantry a panic
+seized these troops and they were routed with heavy loss. The fight,
+however, gave Maurice time to unite his forces and draw them up in
+battle order in front of Nieuport. Battle was joined the following
+afternoon, and slowly, foot by foot, after a desperate conflict the
+archduke's Spanish and Italian veterans drove back along the dunes the
+troops of the States. Every hillock and sandy hollow was fiercely
+contested, the brunt of the conflict falling on the English and Frisians
+under the command of Sir Francis Vere. Vere himself was severely
+wounded, and the battle appeared to be lost. At this critical moment the
+Spaniards began to show signs of exhaustion through their tremendous
+exertions in two successive fights under a hot sun in the yielding
+sand-hills; and the prince, at the critical moment, throwing himself
+into the midst of his retreating troops, succeeded in rallying them. At
+the same time he ordered some squadrons of cavalry which he had kept in
+reserve to charge on the flank of the advancing foe. The effect was
+instantaneous. The Spaniards were thrown into confusion, broke and
+fled. The victory was complete. The archduke only just escaped capture,
+and of his army 5000 perished and a large number were taken prisoners,
+among these the Admiral of Aragon. Almost by a miracle was the States'
+army thus rescued from a desperate position. Maurice's hard-won triumph
+greatly enhanced his fame, for the battle of Nieuport destroyed the
+legend of the invincibility of the Spanish infantry in the open field.
+The victorious general, however, was not disposed to run any further
+risks. He accordingly retreated to Ostend and there embarked his troops
+for the ports from which they had started. The expedition had been very
+costly and had been practically fruitless. Oldenbarneveldt and those who
+had acted with him were deeply disappointed at the failure of their
+plans for the capture of Dunkirk and were far from satisfied with
+Maurice's obstinate refusal to carry out any further offensive
+operations. From this time there arose a feeling of soreness between the
+advocate and the stadholder, which further differences of opinion were
+to accentuate in the coming years.
+
+The vigour and powers of leadership displayed by their new sovereigns in
+meeting the invasion of Flanders by the States' army, though a defeat in
+the field had been suffered at Nieuport, had inspired their subjects in
+the southern Netherlands with confidence and loyalty. Albert had proved
+himself a brave commander, and his efforts had at least been successful
+in compelling the enemy to withdraw within his own borders.
+
+Ostend had long been a thorn in the side of the government at Brussels
+and energetic steps were soon taken to besiege it. But the possession of
+Ostend was important also to Elizabeth, and she promised active
+assistance. The larger part of the garrison was, indeed, formed of
+English troops, and Sir Francis Vere was governor of the town. The siege
+which ensued was one of the memorable sieges of history, it lasted for
+more than three years (July 15,1601, to September 20,1604) and was
+productive of great feats of valour, skill and endurance on the part
+alike of besiegers and besieged. The States' army under Maurice, though
+it did not march to the relief of Ostend, endeavoured to divert the
+attention of Albert from his objective by attacks directed elsewhere. In
+1601 the fortresses of Rheinberg and Meurs on the Rhine were captured,
+and an attack made upon Hertogenbosch. In 1602 the important town of
+Grave on the Meuse was taken and a raid made into Brabant and
+Luxemburg.
+
+Meanwhile the defenders of Ostend had been making a desperate
+resistance, and little progress was made by the besiegers, with the
+result that a great drain was made upon the finances of the archdukes
+and there were threatenings of mutiny among the troops. But the
+situation was saved by the intervention of a wealthy Genoese banker,
+Ambrosio de Spinola, who offered his services and his money to the
+archdukes and promised that if he, though inexperienced in warfare, were
+given the command, he would take Ostend. He fulfilled his promise.
+Without regard to loss of life he pressed on the siege, and though as
+fast as one line of defences was taken another arose behind it to bar
+his progress, little by little he advanced and bit by bit the area held
+by the garrison grew less. At last in the spring of 1604, under the
+pressure of the States-General, Maurice led an army of 11,000 men into
+Flanders in April, 1604, and laid siege to Sluis on May 19. Both Maurice
+and William Lewis were still unwilling to run the risk of an attack on
+Spinola's army in its lines, and so the two sieges went on side by side,
+as it were independently. Sluis fell at the end of August, and Ostend
+was then at its last gasp. Urged now by the deputies of the States to
+make a direct effort to relieve the heroic garrison, Maurice and his
+cousin, after wasting some precious time in protesting against the step,
+began to march southward. It was too late. What was left of Ostend
+surrendered on September 20, and Spinola became the master of a heap of
+ruins. It is said that this three years' siege cost the Spaniards 80,000
+lives, to say nothing of the outlay of vast expenditure. Whether Maurice
+and William Lewis were right or wrong in their reluctance to assail
+Spinola's entrenched camp, it is certain that they were better judges of
+the military situation than the civilian deputies of the States. In any
+case the capture of Sluis was an offset to the loss of Ostend; and its
+importance was marked by the appointment of Frederick Henry, the young
+brother of the stadholder, as governor of the seaport and the
+surrounding district, which received the name of States-Flanders. The
+tremendous exertions put forward for the defence of Ostend had been a
+very serious drain upon the resources of the United Provinces,
+especially upon those of Holland. Taxation was already So high that
+Oldenbarneveldt and many other leading members of the States-General and
+Provincial Estates began to feel despondent and to doubt whether it were
+possible to continue the war. No longer could the States rely upon the
+assistance of England. James I had concluded peace with Spain; and,
+though he made professions of friendship and goodwill to the Dutch, wary
+statesmen, like the Advocate, did not trust him, and were afraid lest he
+should be tempted to deliver up the cautionary towns into the hands of
+the enemy. Reverting to the policy of William the Silent,
+Oldenbarneveldt even went so far as to make tentative approaches to
+Henry IV of France touching the conditions on which he would accept the
+sovereignty of the Provinces. Indeed it is said that such was the
+despair felt by this great statesman, who knew better than any man the
+economic difficulties of the situation, that he even contemplated the
+possibility of submission to the archdukes. Had he suggested submission,
+there would have been no question, however, that he could not have
+retained office, for Maurice, William Lewis and the military leaders on
+the one hand, and on the other the merchants and the adventurous seamen,
+whom they employed in the profitable Indian traffic, would not have
+listened for a moment to any thought of giving up a struggle which had
+been so resolutely and successfully maintained for so many years. For
+financially the archdukes were in even worse plight than the
+Netherlanders, even though for a short time, with the help of Spinola,
+appearances seemed to favour the Belgic attacks on the Dutch frontier
+districts. In 1605 the Genoese general, at the head of a mixed but
+well-disciplined force in his own pay, made a rapid advance towards
+Friesland, and, after capturing Oldenzaal and Lingen and ravaging the
+eastern provinces, concluded the campaign with a brilliant success
+against a body of the States cavalry commanded by Frederick Henry, who
+nearly lost his life. Maurice with inferior forces kept strictly on the
+defensive, skilfully covering the heart of the land from attack, but
+steadily refusing a pitched battle. In the following year Spinola with
+two armies attempted to force the lines of the Waal and the Yssel, but,
+though thwarted in this aim by the wariness of the stadholder and by a
+very wet season, he succeeded in taking the important fortresses of
+Groll and Rheinberg. Maurice made no serious effort to relieve them, and
+his inactivity caused much discontent and adverse comment. His military
+reputation suffered, while that of his opponent was enhanced. But
+subsequent events showed that Maurice, though perhaps erring on the side
+of caution, had acted rightly. The armies which had threatened the
+safety of the Provinces had been raised at the charges of a private
+individual, but the financial resources, even of a Spinola, were not
+capable of a prolonged effort; there was no money in the State treasury;
+and the soldiery, as soon as their pay was in arrears, began once more
+to be mutinous. The bolt had been shot without effect, and the year 1607
+found both sides, through sheer lack of funds, unable to enter upon a
+fresh campaign on land with any hope of definite success. But though the
+military campaigns had been so inconclusive, it had been far different
+with the fortunes of maritime warfare in these opening years of the
+seventeenth century. The sea-power of the Dutch republic was already a
+formidable factor which had to be reckoned with and which was destined
+to be decisive.
+
+The East-India Company was no sooner founded than active steps were
+taken to make full use of the privileges granted by the Charter. A fleet
+of 17 vessels was despatched in 1602 under Wybrand van Waerwyck.
+Waerwyck visited Ceylon and most of the islands of the Malay
+Archipelago, established a factory at Bantam with a staff of officials
+for developing trade relations with the natives, and even made his way
+to Siam and China. He sent back from time to time some of his vessels
+richly laden, and finally returned himself with the residue of his fleet
+after an absence of five years in June, 1607. Another expedition of
+thirteen ships sailed in 1604 under Steven van der Hagen, whose
+operations were as widespread and as successful as those of Waerwyck.
+Van der Hagen took possession of Molucca and built factories at Amboina,
+Tidor and other places in the spice-bearing islands. On his way back in
+1606 with his cargo of cloves, spices and other products of the far
+Orient, he encountered at Mauritius another westward-bound fleet of
+eleven ships under Cornelis Matelief. Matelief's first objective was the
+town of Malacca, held by the Portuguese and commanding the straits to
+which it gave its name. Alphonso de Castro, the Viceroy of India,
+hastened however with a naval force far more powerful than the Dutch
+squadron to the relief of this important fortress; and after a
+hardly-fought but indecisive action Matelief raised the siege on August
+17. Returning, however, about a month later, the Dutch admiral found
+that De Castro had sailed away, leaving only a detachment of ten vessels
+before Malacca. Matelief at once attacked this force, whose strength was
+about equal to his own, and with such success that he sank or burnt
+every single ship of the enemy with scarcely any loss, September 21,
+1606.
+
+These successful incursions into a region that the Spaniards and
+Portuguese had jealously regarded as peculiarly their own aroused both
+anger and alarm. All available forces in the East (the Portuguese from
+the Mozambique and Goa, the Spaniards from the Philippines) were
+equipped and sent to sea with the object of expelling the hated and
+despised Netherlanders from East-Indian waters. Paulus van Caerden,
+Matelief's successor in command, was defeated and himself taken
+prisoner. Nor were the Spaniards content with attacking the Dutch fleets
+in the far East. As the weather-worn and heavily-laden Company's vessels
+returned along the west coast of Africa, they had to pass within
+striking distance of the Spanish and Portuguese harbours and were in
+constant danger of being suddenly assailed by a superior force and
+captured. In 1607 rumours reached Holland of the gathering of a large
+Spanish fleet at Gibraltar, whose destination was the East-Indies. The
+directors of the Company were much alarmed, an alarm which was shared by
+the States-General, many of whose deputies were cargo-shareholders.
+Accordingly, in April, 1607, a fleet of twenty-six vessels set sail for
+the purpose of seeking out and attacking the Spaniards whether in
+harbour or on the open sea. The command was given to one of the most
+daring and experienced of Dutch seamen, Jacob van Heemskerk. He found
+twenty-one ships still at anchor in Gibraltar Bay, ten of them large
+galleons, far superior in size and armament to his own largest vessels.
+Heemskerk at once cleared for action. Both Heemskerk and the Spanish
+commander, d'Avila, were killed early in the fight, the result of which
+however was not long doubtful. The Spanish fleet was practically
+destroyed. On the Dutch side no vessel was lost and the casualties were
+small. Such a disaster was most humiliating to Castilian pride, and its
+effect in hastening forward the peace negotiations, which were already
+in progress, was considerable.
+
+The initial steps had been taken by the archdukes. Through the secret
+agency of Albert's Franciscan Confessor, Father John Neyen, both
+Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice were approached in May, 1606, but without
+any result. Early in 1607 however the efforts were renewed, and
+negotiations were actively set on foot for the purpose of concluding a
+peace or a truce for a term of twelve, fifteen or twenty years. There
+were, however, almost insuperable difficulties in the way. In the first
+place the stadholders, the military and naval leaders, the Calvinist
+clergy, and the great majority of the traders honestly believed that a
+peace would be detrimental to all the best interests of the States, and
+were thoroughly distrustful of the motives which had prompted the
+archdukes and the Spanish government to make these advances.
+Oldenbarneveldt on the other hand thought that peace was necessary for
+the land to recuperate after the exhausting struggle, which had already
+lasted for forty years; and he found strong support among the
+burgher-regents and that large part of the people who were over-burdened
+and impoverished by the weight of taxation, and sick and weary of
+perpetual warfare. There were, however, certain preliminary conditions,
+which all were agreed must be assented to, and without which it would be
+useless to continue the negotiations. The independence of the United
+Provinces must be recognised, freedom of trade in the Indies conceded,
+and the public exercise of Catholic worship prohibited. After some
+parleying the archdukes agreed to treat with the United Provinces "in
+the quality and as considering them free provinces and states," and an
+armistice was concluded in April, 1607, for eight months, in order that
+the matters in dispute might be referred to the King of Spain and his
+views upon them ascertained. Not till October did the king's reply
+arrive at Brussels. He consented to negotiate with the States "as free
+and independent" parties, but he required that liberty of Catholic
+worship should be permitted during the truce, and no mention was made of
+the Indian trade. This was by no means satisfactory; nevertheless the
+influence of Oldenbarneveldt prevailed and the negotiations were not
+broken off. On February 1, 1608, the archdukes' envoys, the two leading
+members being Ambrosio de Spinola and the president of the Privy
+Council, Ricardot, arrived in Holland. They were met at Ryswyck by
+Maurice and William Lewis in person, and with much ceremony and
+splendour a solemn entry was made into the Hague, the procession with
+the brilliant retinues forming a memorable spectacle, as it made its way
+through the crowds which lined the roads. The negotiations were
+conducted in the Binnenhof. The Special Commissioners to represent the
+States-General were William Lewis of Nassau, Walraven, lord of
+Brederode, and a deputy from each of the provinces under the leadership
+of Oldenbarneveldt. Envoys from France, England, Denmark, the
+Palatinate and Brandenburg were present, took part in the discussions,
+and acted as friendly mediators.
+
+The question of treating the United Provinces "as free States" was soon
+settled. The archdukes, who were aiming at the conclusion of a truce in
+which to recuperate and not of a definitive peace, showed an unexpected
+complaisance in granting a concession which they regarded as only
+temporary. Then came the really serious questions as to freedom of trade
+in the Indies and the liberty of Catholic worship. Of these the first
+was of most immediate interest, and showed irreconcilable differences
+between the two parties. The Spaniards would never consent to any
+trespassing in the closed area, which they regarded as their own
+peculiar preserve. The Dutch traders and sailors were fired with the
+spirit of adventure and of profit, and their successful expeditions had
+aroused an enthusiasm for further effort in the distant seas, which had
+hardened into a fixed resolve not to agree to any peace or truce
+shutting them out from the Indian trade. For months the subject was
+discussed and re-discussed without result. Some of the foreign delegates
+left. The armistice was prolonged, in order that Father Neyen might go
+to Madrid for further instructions. It was found, however, that the King
+of Spain would yield nothing. The negotiations came to a standstill, and
+both sides began to make preparations for a renewal of the war.
+President Jeannin on behalf of the French king, by his skilful
+mediation, in which he was supported by his English colleague, saved the
+situation. He proposed as a compromise a twelve years' truce, pointing
+out that whatever terms were arranged would only be binding for that
+short period. He managed to bring about a personal interview between
+Oldenbarneveldt and Maurice, who had respectively headed the peace and
+war parties in the provinces; and henceforth both consented to work
+together for this proposal of a limited truce, during which the trade to
+the Indies should be open and the religious question be untouched. The
+assent of the States-General and of the several Provincial Estates was
+obtained. The two most interested, Holland and Zeeland, were won over,
+Holland by the arguments and persuasions of the Advocate, Zeeland, which
+was the last to agree, by the influence of Maurice. Jeannin was aware
+that the finances of Spain were at their last gasp, and that both the
+archdukes and Philip III were most anxious for a respite from the
+ever-consuming expense of the war. At last the long and wearisome
+negotiations came to an end, and the treaty concluding a truce for
+twelve years was signed at the Hague on April 9,1609. The territorial
+_status quo_ was recognised. The United Provinces were treated "as free
+States over which the archdukes made no pretensions." Nothing was said
+about the religious difficulty nor about trade in the Indies, but in a
+secret treaty the King of Spain undertook not to interfere with Dutch
+trade, wherever carried on. Thus access to the Indies was conceded,
+though to save appearances the word was not mentioned. This result was
+due solely to the diplomatic tact and resource of Jeannin, who was able
+to announce to Henry IV that he had accomplished his task "to the
+satisfaction of everyone, and even of Prince Maurice."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
+
+
+One of the reasons which influenced the archdukes and the King of Spain
+to make large concessions in order to secure the assent of the
+States-General to the conclusion of a twelve years' truce was their firm
+belief that the unstable political condition of the United Provinces
+must lead to civil discord, as soon as the relaxing of the pressure of
+war loosened the bonds which had, since Leicester's departure, held
+together a number of separate authorities and discordant interests. They
+were right in their supposition. In order, therefore, to understand the
+course of events in the republic, which had been correctly recognised by
+the treaty not as a single state, but as a group of "free and
+independent States," it is necessary to give a brief account of one of
+the most strangely complicated systems of government that the world has
+ever seen--especially strange because no one could ever say positively
+where or with whom the sovereignty really resided.
+
+Let us take into separate consideration the powers and functions of (1)
+the Council of State, (2) the States-General, (3) the Provincial
+Estates, (4) the Stadholders, (5) the Advocate (later the
+_Raad-Pensionarius_ or Council-Pensionary) of Holland, (6) the Admiralty
+Colleges.
+
+The Council of State was not a legislative, but an executive, body. In
+the time of Leicester the Council was the executive arm of the
+governor-general and had large powers. After his departure the presence
+of the English ambassador, who by treaty had a seat in the Council,
+caused the States-General gradually to absorb its powers, and to make
+its functions subordinate to their own, until at last its authority was
+confined to the administration of the affairs of war and of finance. The
+right of the English representative to sit in the Council and take an
+active part in its deliberations continued till 1626. The Stadholders
+were also _ex officio_ members. The Provinces, since 1588, were
+represented by twelve councillors. Holland had three; Gelderland,
+Zeeland and Friesland two each; Utrecht, Overyssel and Groningen
+(_Stad en Landeri_) one each. The treasurer-general and the clerk
+(_Griffier_) of the States-General took part in the deliberations and
+had great influence. The chief duty of the Council, during the period
+with which we are dealing, was the raising of the "quotas" from the
+various provinces for the military defence of the State. The General
+Petition or War Budget was prepared by the Council and presented to the
+States-General at the end of each year, providing for the military
+expenses in the following twelve months. The "quotas" due towards these
+expenses from the several provinces were set forth in smaller petitions
+sent to the Provincial Estates, whose consent was necessary. The
+so-called _repartitie_ fixing the amount of these quotas was likewise
+drawn up by the Council of State, and was the subject at times of
+considerable haggling and discontent. In 1612 it was settled that the
+proportions to be borne by the provinces should be Holland 57.1 per
+cent.; Friesland 11.4; Zeeland 11 (afterwards reduced to 9); Utrecht and
+Groningen 5.5; Overyssel 3.5. It will thus be seen that the quota of
+Holland was considerably more than half of the whole; and, as the naval
+expenditure was to an even larger extent borne by Holland, the
+preponderating influence of this province in the Union can be easily
+understood. The forces of the republic that were distributed in the
+several provinces received their pay from the provinces, but those
+maintained by the Council, as troops of the State, were paid by monies
+received from the Generality lands, _i.e._ lands such as the conquered
+portions of Brabant and Flanders, governed by the States-General, but
+without representation in that body. The Council of State, though its
+political powers were curtailed and absorbed by the States-General,
+continued to exercise, as a court of justice, appellate jurisdiction in
+military and financial questions.
+
+The States-General consisted of representatives of the Estates of the
+seven sovereign provinces of Gelderland, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
+Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen (_Stad en Landeri_) in the order of
+precedence given above. Gelderland, having been a duchy, ranked before
+those that had formerly been counties or lordships. The provinces sent
+deputations varying in number; Holland and Gelderland generally six, the
+others less. Each province had but a single vote. The president changed
+week by week, being chosen in turn from each province according to their
+order of precedence. Holland had nominally no more weight than the
+others; its practical influence, however, was great in proportion to the
+burden of taxation that it bore and was increased by the fact that the
+sessions, which after 1593 were permanent, were held at the Hague in the
+same building with the Estates of Holland, and that the
+Council-Pensionary of Holland was the spokesman of the province in the
+States-General. The States-General had control of the foreign affairs of
+the Union. To them belonged the supreme control of military and naval
+matters. The Captain-General and Admiral-General of the Union were
+appointed by them; and a deputation of the States-General accompanied
+the army into the field and the commanders were bound to consult it.
+They exercised a strong supervision of finance, and sovereign authority
+over the entire administration of the "Generality" lands. Ambassadors
+were appointed by them, also the Treasurer-General of the Union, and
+numerous other important officials. Yet with all these attributes and
+powers the States-General possessed only a derived, not an inherent,
+authority. To foreigners the sovereignty of the republic of the United
+Netherlands appeared to be vested in their "High-Mightinesses." In
+reality the States-General was, as already stated, a gathering of
+deputations from the seven sovereign provinces. Each deputation voted as
+a unit; and in all important affairs of peace and war, treaties and
+finance, there must be no dissentient. A single province, however small,
+could, by obstinate opposition, block the way to the acceptance of any
+given proposal. Moreover the members, despite their lofty designation as
+High-Mightinesses, did not vote according to their convictions or
+persuasions, but according to the charge they had received from their
+principals. The deputation of a province had no right to sanction any
+disputable measure or proposal without referring it back to the Estates
+of that province for approval or disapproval. Hence arose endless
+opportunities and occasions for friction and dissension and manifold
+delays in the transaction of the business of the republic, oftentimes
+in a manner inimical to its vital interests.
+
+The Provincial Estates in their turn were by no means homogeneous or
+truly representative bodies. In Holland the nobles had one vote; and
+eighteen towns, Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leyden, Amsterdam, Gouda,
+Rotterdam, Gorkum, Schiedam, Schoonhoven, Brill, Alkmaar, Hoorn,
+Enkhuizen, Edam, Monnikendam, Medemblik and Purmerend, had one each.
+The nobles, though they had only one vote, were influential, as they
+represented the rural districts and the small towns which had no
+franchise, and they voted first. Here again, as in the States-General,
+though each of the privileged towns counted equal in the voting, as a
+matter of fact their weight and influence was very different. The
+opposition of wealthy and populous Amsterdam was again and again
+sufficient to override the decision of the majority, for there was no
+power to enforce its submission, except the employment of armed force.
+For at this point it may be as well to explain that each one of these
+municipalities (_vroedschappen_) claimed to be a sovereign entity, and
+yet, far from being bodies representing the citizens as a whole, they
+were close corporations of the narrowest description. The ordinary
+inhabitants of these towns had no voice whatever in the management of
+their own affairs. The governing body or _vroedschap_ consisted of a
+limited number of persons, sometimes not more than forty, belonging to
+certain families, which filled up vacancies by co-option and chose the
+burgomasters and sheriffs (_schepenen_). Thus it will be seen that
+popular representation had no place in Holland. The regent-burghers were
+a small patrician oligarchy, in whose hands the entire government and
+administration of the towns rested, and from their number were chosen
+the deputies, who represented the eighteen privileged cities in the
+Provincial Estates.
+
+The other provinces do not need such detailed notice. In Zeeland the
+Estates consisted of seven members, the "first noble" (who presided) and
+six towns. There was but one noble, the Marquis of Flushing and Veere.
+William the Silent in 1581 obtained this marquisate by purchase; and his
+heirs, through its possession, continued to exercise great influence in
+the Provincial Estates. As Philip William, Prince of Orange, was in
+Madrid, Maurice sat in the assembly as "first noble" in his place. In
+Utrecht the three Estates were represented, _i.e._ the nobles, the towns
+(four in number) and the clergy. The representatives of the clergy
+were, however, chosen no longer from the Chapter but from the possessors
+of what had been Church lands and property. They were elected by the
+knights and the small towns out of a list drawn up by the corporation of
+Utrecht. They necessarily belonged to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith.
+Gelderland was divided into three (so-called) quarters, Nijmwegen,
+Zutphen and Arnhem. Each of these quarters had its separate assembly;
+and there was also a general diet. The nobles, who were numerous and had
+large estates, were here very influential. Friesland was divided into
+four quarters, three of which (Oostergoo, Westergoo and Zevenwolden)
+were country districts, the fourth a gathering of the deputies of eleven
+towns. The Diet of Friesland was not formed of Estates, the nobles and
+the town representatives sitting together in the same assembly, which was
+elected by a popular vote, all who had a small property-qualification
+possessing the franchise, Roman Catholics excepted. The system of
+administration and divided authority was in Friesland a very
+complicated one, inherited from mediaeval times, but here again the
+nobles, being large land-owners, had much influence. The stadholder
+presided at the diet and had a casting vote. The Estates of Groningen
+were divided into two parts--town and districts--each with one vote. The
+districts were those of Hunsingoo, Fivelingoo and the West-Quarter. Here
+also the stadholder had a casting vote. In Overyssel the Estates, like
+those of Groningen, consisted of two members, the nobles from the
+three quarters, Sallant, Twente and Vollenhove, and the deputies of
+the three towns, Deventer, Kampen and Zwolle.
+
+The ordinary executive and administrative work of Provincial
+government was carried out in Holland by a body known as the
+Commissioned-Councillors--_Gecommitteerde-Raden;_ in the other provinces
+by Deputed-Estates--_Gedeputeerde-Staten._ The Commissioned-Councillors
+were to the Estates of Holland what the Council of State was to the
+States-General. They enjoyed considerable independence, for they were
+not appointed by the Estates but directly by the nobles and cities
+according to a fixed system of rotation, and they sat continuously,
+whereas the Estates only met for short sessions. Their duty was to see
+that all provincial edicts and ordinances decreed by the Estates were
+published and enforced, to control the finances and to undertake the
+provision and oversight of all military requirements; and to them it
+belonged to summon the meetings of the Estates. The Deputed-Estates in
+the other provinces had similar but generally less extensive and
+authoritative functions.
+
+Such a medley of diverse and often conflicting authorities within a
+state of so small an area has no counterpart in history. It seemed
+impossible that government could be carried on, or that there could be
+any concerted action or national policy in a republic which was rather a
+many-headed confederation than a federal state. That the United
+Netherlands, in spite of all these disadvantages, rapidly rose in the
+17th century to be a maritime and commercial power of the first rank was
+largely due to the fact that the foreign policy of the republic and the
+general control of its administration was directed by a succession of
+very able men, the stadholders of the house of Orange-Nassau and the
+council-pensionaries of Holland. For a right understanding of the period
+of Dutch history with which we are about to deal, it is necessary to
+define clearly what was the position of the stadholder and of the
+council-pensionary in this cumbrous and creaking machinery of government
+that has just been described, and the character of those offices, which
+conferred upon their holders such wide-reaching influence and authority.
+
+The Stadholder or governor was really, both in title and office, an
+anomaly in a republic. Under the Burgundian and Habsburg rulers the
+Stadholder exercised the local authority in civil and also in military
+matters as representing the sovereign duke, count or lord in the
+province to which he was appointed, and was by that fact clothed with
+certain sovereign attributes during his tenure of office. William the
+Silent was Stadholder of Holland and Zeeland at the outbreak of the
+revolt, and, though deprived of his offices, he continued until the time
+of the Union of Utrecht to exercise authority in those and other
+provinces professedly in the name of the king. After his death one would
+have expected that the office would have fallen into abeyance, but the
+coming of Leicester into the Netherlands led to a revival of the
+stadholderate. Holland and Zeeland, in their desire to exercise a check
+upon the governor-general's arbitrary exercise of his powers, appointed
+Maurice of Nassau to take his father's place; and at the same time
+William Lewis of Nassau became Stadholder of Friesland, and stadholders
+were also appointed in Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel. In 1609
+Maurice was Stadholder in the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland,
+Gelderland, Utrecht and Overyssel; his cousin William Lewis in Friesland
+and Groningen with Drente. The powers of the stadholder were not the
+same in the different provinces, but generally speaking he was the
+executive officer of the Estates; and in Holland, where his authority
+was the greatest, he had the supervision of the administration of
+justice, the appointment of a large number of municipal magistrates,
+and the prerogative of pardon, and he was charged with the military and
+naval defence of the province. The stadholder received his commission
+both from the Provincial Estates and from the States-General and took an
+oath of allegiance to the latter. In so far, then, as he exercised
+quasi-sovereign functions, he did it in the name of the States, whose
+servant he nominally was. But when the stadholder, as was the case with
+Maurice and the other Princes of Orange, was himself a sovereign-prince
+and the heir of a great name, he was able to exercise an authority far
+exceeding those of a mere official. The descendants of William the
+Silent--Maurice, Frederick Henry, William II and William III--were,
+moreover, all of them men of exceptional ability; and the stadholderate
+became in their hands a position of almost semi-monarchical dignity and
+influence, the stadholder being regarded both by foreign potentates and
+by the people of the Netherlands generally as "the eminent head of the
+State." Maurice, as stated above, was stadholder in five provinces;
+Frederick Henry, William II and William III in six; the seventh
+province, Friesland, remaining loyal, right through the 17th century, to
+their cousins of the house of Nassau-Siegen, the ancestors of the
+present Dutch royal family. That the authority of the States-General and
+States-Provincial should from time to time come into conflict with that
+of the stadholder was to be expected, for the relations between them
+were anomalous in the extreme. The Stadholder of Holland for instance
+appointed, directly or indirectly, the larger part of the municipal
+magistrates; they in their turn the representatives who formed the
+Estates of the Province. But, as the stadholder was the servant of the
+Estates, he, in a sense, may be said to have had the power of appointing
+his own masters. The stadholders of the house of Orange had also, in
+addition to the prestige attaching to their name, the possession of
+large property and considerable wealth, which with the emoluments they
+received from the States-General, as Captain-General and
+Admiral-General of the Union, and from the various provinces, where they
+held the post of stadholder, enabled them in the days of Frederick Henry
+and his successors to maintain the state and dignity of a court.
+
+The office of Land's Advocate or Council-Pensionary was different
+altogether in character from the stadholderate, but at times scarcely
+less influential, when filled by a man of commanding talents. The
+Advocate in the time of Oldenbarneveldt combined the duties of being
+legal adviser to the Estates of Holland, and of presiding over and
+conducting the business of the Estates at their meetings, and also those
+of the Commissioned-Councillors. He was the leader and spokesman of the
+Holland deputies in the States-General. He kept the minutes, introduced
+the business and counted the votes at the provincial assemblies. It was
+his duty to draw up and register the resolutions. What was perhaps
+equally important, he carried on the correspondence with the ambassadors
+of the republic at foreign courts, and received their despatches, and
+conducted negotiations with the foreign ambassadors at the Hague. It is
+easy to see how a man like Oldenbarneveldt, of great industry and
+capacity for affairs, although nominally the paid servant of the
+Estates, gradually acquired an almost complete control over every
+department of administration and became, as it were, a Minister of State
+of all affairs. In Oldenbarneveldt's time the post was held for life;
+and, as Maurice did not for many years trouble himself about matters of
+internal government and foreign diplomacy, the Advocate by the length of
+his tenure of office had at the opening of the 17th century become the
+virtual director and arbiter of the policy of the State. After his death
+the title of advocate and the life-tenure ceased. His successors were
+known as Council-Pensionaries, and they held office for five years only,
+but with the possibility of re-election. The career of John de Witt
+showed, however, that in the case of a supremely able man these
+restrictions did not prevent a _Raad-Pensionarius_[4] from exercising
+for eighteen years an authority and influence greater even than that of
+Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+An account of the multiplied subdivision of administrative control in
+the United Provinces would not be complete without some mention of the
+Admiralty Colleges in Holland. Holland with Zeeland furnished the fleets
+on which the existence and well-being of the republic depended. Both
+William the Silent and his son Maurice were, as stadholders, admirals of
+Holland and of Zeeland, and both likewise were by the States-General
+appointed Admirals-General of the Union. They thus wielded a double
+authority over maritime affairs in the two provinces. In 1574 William
+had at his side a Council of Admiralty erected by the Provincial
+Estates, but Leicester in 1585 was annoyed by the immediate control of
+naval matters being withdrawn from the governor-general and the
+Council of State. He succeeded therefore in obtaining a division of the
+Council of Admiralty into three Chambers, shortly afterwards increased
+to five--Rotterdam, Hoorn with Enkhuizen, Veere, Amsterdam and Harlingen
+with Dokkum. In 1597 it was determined that each Admiralty should
+consist of seven members nominated by the States-General. The
+Admiral-General presided over each College and over joint meetings of
+the five Colleges. The Admiralties nominated the lieutenants of the
+ships and proposed a list of captains to be finally chosen by the
+States-General. The Lieutenant-Admiral and Vice-Admirals of Holland and
+the Vice-Admiral of Zeeland were chosen by the Provincial Estates. The
+States-General appointed the Commander-in-Chief. Such a system seemed to
+be devised to prevent any prompt action or swift decision being taken at
+times of emergency or sudden danger.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE TWELVE YEARS' TRUCE
+
+
+The first years of the truce were for the United Provinces, now
+recognised as "free and independent States," a period of remarkable
+energy and enterprise. The young republic started on its new career with
+the buoyant hopefulness that comes from the proud consciousness of
+suffering and dangers bravely met and overcome, and, under the wise and
+experienced guidance of Oldenbarneveldt, acquired speedily a position
+and a weight in the Councils of Europe out of all proportion to its
+geographical area or the numbers of its population. The far-seeing
+statecraft and practised diplomatic skill of the Advocate never rendered
+greater services to his country than during these last years of his long
+tenure of power. A difficult question as to the succession to the
+Juelich-Cleves duchies arose at the very time of the signing of the
+truce, which called for delicate and wary treatment.
+
+In March, 1609, the Duke of Juelich and Cleves died without leaving a
+male heir, and the succession to these important border territories on
+the Lower Rhine became speedily a burning question. The two principal
+claimants through the female line were the Elector of Brandenburg and
+William, Count-Palatine of Neuburg. The Emperor Rudolph II, however,
+under the pretext of appointing imperial commissioners to adjudicate
+upon the rival claims, aroused the suspicions of Brandenburg and
+Neuburg; and these two came to an agreement to enter into joint
+possession of the duchies, and were styled "the possessors." The
+Protestant Union at Heidelberg recognised "the possessors," for it was
+all-important for the balance of power in Germany that these lands
+should not pass into the hands of a Catholic ruler of the House of
+Austria. For the same reason Brandenburg and Neuburg were recognised by
+the States-General, who did not wish to see a partisan of Spain
+established on their borders. The emperor on his part not only refused
+to acknowledge "the possessors," but he also sent his cousin Archduke
+Leopold, Bishop of Passau, to intervene by armed force. Leopold seized
+the fortress of Juelich and proceeded to establish himself.
+
+It was an awkward situation, for neither the United Provinces nor the
+archdukes nor the King of Spain had the smallest desire to make the
+Juelich succession the cause of a renewal of hostilities, immediately
+after the conclusion of the truce. The eagerness of the French king to
+precipitate hostilities with the Habsburg powers however forced their
+hands. Henry IV had for some time been making preparations for war, and
+he was at the moment irritated by the protection given by the archdukes
+to the runaway Princess of Conde, who had fled to Brussels. He had
+succeeded in persuading the States to send an auxiliary force into
+Germany to assist the French army of invasion in the spring of 1610,
+when just as the king was on the point of leaving Paris to go to the
+front he was assassinated on May 14. This event put an end to the
+expedition, for the regent, Marie de' Medici, was friendly to Austria.
+The States nevertheless did not feel disposed to leave Leopold in
+possession of Juelich. Maurice led an army into the duchy and laid siege
+to the town. It capitulated on September 1. As might have been
+anticipated, however, the joint rule of the "possessors" did not turn
+out a success. They quarrelled, and Neuburg asked for Catholic help.
+Maurice and Spinola in 1614 found themselves again face to face at the
+head of rival forces, but actual hostilities were avoided; and by the
+treaty of Nanten (November 12, 1614) it was arranged that the disputed
+territory should be divided, Brandenburg ruling at Cleves, Neuburg at
+Juelich. Thus, in the settlement of this thorny question, the influence
+of Oldenbarneveldt worked for a temporary solution satisfactory to the
+interests of the United Provinces; nor was his successful intervention
+in the Juelich-Cleves affair an isolated instance of his diplomatic
+activity. On the contrary it was almost ubiquitous.
+
+The growth of the Dutch trade in the Baltic had for some years been
+advancing by leaps and bounds, and now far exceeded that of their old
+rivals, the Hanseatic league. Christian IV, the ambitious and warlike
+King of Denmark, had been seriously interfering with this trade by
+imposing such heavy dues for the passage of the Sound as on the one hand
+to furnish him with a large revenue, and on the other hand to support
+his claim to sovereign rights over all traffic with the inland sea. The
+Hanse towns protested strongly and sought the support of the
+States-General in actively opposing the Danish king. It was granted. A
+force of 7000 men under Frederick Henry was sent into Germany to the
+relief of Brunswick, which was besieged by Christian IV. The siege was
+raised; and an alliance was concluded between the republic and the Hanse
+towns for common action in the protection of their commercial interests.
+Nor was this all. Oldenbarneveldt entered into diplomatic relations with
+Charles IX of Sweden and with Russia. Cornelis Haga was sent to
+Stockholm; and from this time forward a close intimacy was established
+between Sweden and the States. The seaport of Gotheborg, just outside
+the entrance to the Sound, was founded by a body of Dutch colonists
+under a certain Abraham Cabelliau, an Amsterdam merchant, and continued
+to be for years practically a Dutch town.
+
+Scarcely less important was the enterprise shown in the establishment of
+friendly relations with distant Russia. Balthazar de Moucheron
+established a Dutch factory at Archangel so early as 1584; and a growing
+trade sprang up with Russia by way of the White Sea, at first in rivalry
+with the English Muscovy Company. But a Dutch merchant, by name Isaac
+Massa, having succeeded in gaining the ear and confidence of the Tsar,
+Russian commerce gradually became a Dutch monopoly. In 1614 a Muscovite
+embassy conducted by Massa came to the Hague, and access to the interior
+of Russia was opened to the traders of Holland and to them only.
+
+In the Mediterranean no less foresight and dexterity was shown in
+forwarding the interests of the States. The Advocate's son-in-law, Van
+der Myle, went in 1609 as ambassador to Venice; and the following year
+the first Venetian envoy, Tommaso Contarini, arrived in Holland. In 1612
+Cornelis Haga, who had been in Sweden, was sent to Constantinople to
+treat with the Turks about commercial privileges in the Levant and for
+the suppression of piracy, and he remained in the East in charge of the
+republic's interests for many years.
+
+More difficult was the maintenance of friendly relations with England.
+In 1604 James I had made peace with Spain; and the growing rivalry upon
+the seas between the Dutch and English tended to alienate his sympathies
+from the rising maritime power of the republic. He outwardly maintained
+friendly relations; his ambassador had a seat on the Council of State;
+he retained his garrisons in the cautionary towns; and after the signing
+of the truce he bestowed the Garter upon Prince Maurice. But at this
+very time, May, 1609, James took a step which was most hurtful to that
+industry which had laid the foundation of the commercial prosperity of
+Holland--this was the issuing of an edict imposing a tax on all
+foreigners fishing in English waters. Though general in its form, this
+edict was really directed against the right heretofore enjoyed by the
+Netherlanders to fish on the English coast, a right conferred by a
+series of treaties and never challenged since its confirmation by the
+_Magnus Intercursus_ of 1496. Dutch public opinion was strongly aroused
+and a special embassy was sent to London, April, 1610, to protest
+against the edict and endeavour to procure its withdrawal or its
+modification. This was by no means an easy matter. The fisheries, on
+which a large part of the population of Holland and Zeeland depended for
+their livelihood, were of vital importance to the States. On the other
+hand their virtual monopoly by the Dutch caused keen resentment in
+England. In the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth that adventurous
+sea-faring spirit, which was destined eventually to plant the flag of
+England on the shores of every ocean, had come to the birth, and
+everywhere it found, during this early part of the 17th century, Dutch
+rivals already in possession and Dutch ships on every trading route. The
+Dutch mercantile marine in fact far exceeded the English in numbers and
+efficiency. The publication of Hugo Grotius' famous pamphlet, _Mare
+Liberum_, in March, 1609, was probably the final cause which decided
+James to issue his Fisheries' proclamation. The purpose of Grotius was
+to claim for every nation, as against the Portuguese, freedom of trade
+in the Indian Ocean, but the arguments he used appeared to King James
+and his advisers to challenge the _dominium maris_, which English kings
+had always claimed in the "narrow seas." The embassy of 1610,
+therefore, had to deal not merely with the fisheries, but with the whole
+subject of the maritime relations of the two countries; and a crowd of
+published pamphlets proves the intense interest that was aroused. But
+the emergence of the dispute as to the Juelich-Cleves succession, and the
+change in the policy of the French government owing to the assassination
+of Henry IV, led both sides to desire an accommodation; and James
+consented, not indeed to withdraw the edict, but to postpone its
+execution for two years. It remained a dead letter until 1616, although
+all the time the wranglings over the legal aspects of the questions in
+dispute continued. The Republic, however, as an independent State, was
+very much hampered by the awkward fact of the cautionary towns remaining
+in English hands. The occupation of Flushing and Brill, commanding the
+entrances to important waterways, seemed to imply that the Dutch
+republic was to a certain extent a vassal state under the protection of
+England. Oldenbarneveldt resolved therefore to take advantage of King
+James' notorious financial embarrassments by offering to redeem the
+towns by a ready-money payment. The nominal indebtedness of the United
+Provinces for loans advanced by Elizabeth was L600,000; the Advocate
+offered in settlement L100,000 in cash and L150,000 more in half-yearly
+payments. James accepted the offer, and the towns were handed over, the
+garrisons being allowed to pass into the Dutch service, June 1616. Sir
+Dudley Carleton, however, who about this time succeeded Sir Ralph
+Winwood as English envoy at the Hague, continued to have a seat in the
+Council of State.
+
+Oldenbarneveldt thus, at a time when his dominant position in the State
+was already being undermined and his career drawing to an end, performed
+a great service to his country, the more so as King James, in his
+eagerness to negotiate a marriage between the Prince of Wales and a
+Spanish infanta, was beginning to allow his policy to be more and more
+controlled by the Count of Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador at
+Whitehall. James' leaning towards Spain naturally led him to regard with
+stronger disfavour the increasing predominance of the Dutch flag upon
+the seas, and it was not long before he was sorry that he had
+surrendered the cautionary towns. For the fishery rights and the
+principle of the _dominium maris_ in the narrow seas were no longer the
+only questions in dispute between England and the States. English
+seamen and traders had other grievances to allege against the Hollanders
+in other parts of the world. The exclusive right to fish for whales in
+the waters of Spitsbergen and Greenland was claimed by the English on
+the ground of Hugh Willoughby's alleged discovery of Spitsbergen in
+1553. The Dutch would not admit any such claim, and asserted that
+Heemskerk was the first to visit the archipelago, and that he planted in
+1596 the Dutch flag on the shores of the island, to which he gave the
+name of Spitsbergen. In 1613 James conferred the monopoly upon the
+English Muscovy Company, who sent out a fishing fleet with orders to
+drive off any interlopers; and certain Dutch vessels were attacked and
+plundered. The reply of the States-General was the granting of a
+charter, January 27, 1614, to a company, known as the Northern or
+Greenland Company, with the monopoly of fishing between Davis' Straits
+and Nova Zembla; and a fishing fleet was sent out accompanied by
+warships. The result was a temporary agreement between the English and
+Dutch companies for using separate parts of Spitsbergen as their bases,
+all others being excluded. Meanwhile the dispute was kept open; and
+despite conferences and negotiations neither side showed any disposition
+to yield. Matters reached an acute stage in 1618. English and Dutch
+fishing fleets of exceptional strength sailed into the northern waters
+in the early summer of that year, and a fierce fight took place, which,
+as two Dutch war vessels were present, resulted in the scattering of the
+English vessels and considerable loss of life and property.
+
+The rivalry and opposition between the Dutch and English traders in the
+East-Indies was on a larger scale, but here there was no question of the
+Dutch superiority in force, and it was used remorselessly. The Dutch
+East India Company had thriven apace. In 1606 a dividend of 50 per cent,
+had been paid; in 1609 one of 325 per cent. The chief factory was at
+Bantam, but there were many others on the mainland of India, and at
+Amboina, Banda, Ternate and Matsjan in the Moluccas; and from these
+centres trade was carried on with Ceylon, with Borneo and even with
+distant China and Japan. But the position of the company was precarious,
+until the secret article of the treaty of 1609 conceded liberty of trade
+during the truce. The chief need was to create a centre of
+administration, from which a general control could be exercised over all
+the officials at the various trading factories throughout the
+East-Indian archipelago. It was resolved, therefore, by the Council of
+Seventeen to appoint a director-general, who should reside at Bantam,
+armed with powers which made him, far removed as he was from
+interference by the home authorities, almost a sovereign in the
+extensive region which he administered. Jan Pieterszoon Koen, appointed
+in 1614, was the first of a series of capable men by whose vigorous and
+sometimes unscrupulous action the Dutch company became rapidly the
+dominant power in the eastern seas, where their trade and influence
+overshadowed those of their European competitors. The most enterprising
+of those competitors were the English. Disputes quickly arose between
+the rival companies as to trading rights in the Moluccas, the Banda
+group and Amboina; and some islands, where the English had made treaties
+with the natives, were occupied by the Dutch, and the English expelled.
+
+Another grievance was the refusal of the States-General in 1616 to admit
+English dyed cloths into the United Provinces. This had caused especial
+irritation to King James. The manufacture of woollen cloth and the
+exportation of wool had for long been the chief of English industries;
+and the monopoly of the trade was, when James ascended the throne, in
+the hands of the oldest of English chartered companies, the Fellowship
+of Merchant Adventurers. The Adventurers held since 1598 their Court and
+Staple at Middelburg in Zeeland. The English had not learnt the art of
+finishing and dyeing the cloth that they wove; it was imported in its
+unfinished state, and was then dyed and prepared for commerce by the
+Dutch. Some thousands of skilled hands found employment in Holland in
+this work. James, always impecunious, determined in 1608, on the
+proposal of a certain Alderman Cockayne, to grant Cockayne a patent for
+the creation of a home-dyeing industry, reserving to the crown a
+monopoly for the sale of the goods. The Adventurers complained of this
+as a breach of their charter; and, after much bickering, the king in
+1615 settled the dispute by withdrawing the charter. Cockayne now hoped
+that the company he had formed would be a profitable concern, but he and
+the king were doomed to disappointment. The Estates of Holland refused
+to admit the English dyed cloths, and their example was followed by the
+other provinces and by the States-General. Cockayne became bankrupt, and
+in 1617 the king had to renew the charter of the Adventurers. James was
+naturally very sore at this rebuff, and he resolved upon reprisals by
+enforcing the proclamation of 1609 and exacting a toll from all foreign
+vessels fishing in British waters. Great was the indignation in Holland,
+and the fishing fleet in 1617 set sail with an armed convoy. A Scottish
+official named Browne, who came to collect the toll, was seized and
+carried as a prisoner to Holland. James at once laid hands on two Dutch
+skippers in the Thames, as hostages, and demanded satisfaction for the
+outrage upon his officer. Neither side would at first give way, and it
+was not until after some months that an accommodation was patched up.
+The general question of the fishery privileges remained however just
+as far from settlement as ever, for the States stood firm upon their
+treaty rights. At length it was resolved by the States to send a special
+mission to England to discuss with the king the four burning questions
+embittering the relations between the two countries. The envoys arrived
+in London, December, 1618. For seven months the parleyings went on
+without any definite result being reached, and in August, 1619, the
+embassy returned. Very important events had meanwhile been occurring
+both in the United Provinces and in Germany, which made it necessary to
+both parties that the decision on these trade questions, important as
+they were, should be postponed for awhile, as they were overshadowed by
+the serious political crises in Holland and in Bohemia, which were then
+occupying all men's attention.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MAURICE AND OLDENBARNEVELDT
+
+
+The conclusion of the truce did not bring, with material progress and
+trade expansion, internal peace to the United Provinces. The relations
+between the Prince-stadholder and the all-powerful Advocate had long
+been strained. In the long-drawn-out negotiations Maurice had never
+disguised his dislike to the project of a truce, and, though he finally
+acquiesced, it was a sullen acquiescence. At first there was no overt
+breach between the two men, but Maurice, though he did not refuse to
+meet Oldenbarneveldt, was cold and unfriendly. He did not attempt to
+interfere with the old statesman's control of the machinery of
+administration or with his diplomatic activities, for he was naturally
+indolent and took little interest in politics. Had he been ambitious, he
+might many years before have obtained by general consent sovereign
+power, but he did not seek it. His passion was the study of military
+science. From his early youth he had spent his life in camps, and now he
+found himself without occupation. The enemies of Oldenbarneveldt seized
+the opportunity to arouse Maurice's suspicions of the Advocate's motives
+in bringing about the truce, and even to hint that he had been bribed
+with Spanish gold. Chief among these enemies was Francis van Aerssens,
+for a number of years ambassador of the States at Paris. Aerssens owed
+much to the Advocate, but he attributed his removal from his post at
+the French court to the decision of Oldenbarneveldt to replace him by
+his son-in-law, Van der Myle. He never forgave his recall, and alike by
+subtle insinuation and unscrupulous accusation, strove to blacken the
+character and reputation of his former benefactor.
+
+By a curious fatality it was the outbreak of fierce sectarian strife and
+dissension between the extreme and the moderate Calvinists which was
+eventually to change the latent hostility of Maurice to Oldenbarneveldt
+into open antagonism. Neither of the two men had strong religious
+convictions, but circumstances brought it about that they were to range
+themselves irrevocably on opposite sides in a quarrel between
+fanatical theologians on the subject of predestination and grace.
+
+From early times Calvinism in the northern Netherlands had been divided
+into two schools. The strict Calvinists or "Reformed," known by their
+opponents as "Precisians," and the liberal Calvinists, "the
+Evangelicals," otherwise "the Libertines." To this Libertine party
+belonged William the Silent, Oldenbarneveldt and the majority of the
+burgher-regents of Holland. These men regarded the religious question
+from the statesman's point of view. Having risen in rebellion against
+the tyranny of the Spanish Inquisition, they were anxious to preserve
+their countrymen (only a minority of whom were Protestants) from being
+placed under the heel of a religious intolerance as narrow and bigoted
+as that from which they had escaped. The "Reformed" congregations on the
+other hand, led by the preachers, were anxious to summon a National
+Synod for the purpose of creating a State Church to whose tenets,
+rigidly defined by the Heidelberg catechism and the Netherland
+confession, all would be required to conform on pain of being deprived
+of their rights as citizens. The Libertines were opposed to such a
+scheme, as an interference with the rights of each province to regulate
+its own religious affairs, and as an attempt to assert the supremacy of
+Church over State.
+
+The struggle between the two parties, which had continued intermittently
+for a number of years, suddenly became acute through the appointment by
+Maurice of Jacob Harmensz, better known as Arminius, to the Chair of
+Theology at Leyden, vacated by the death of Junius in 1602. The leader
+of the strict Calvinist school, the learned Franciscus Gomarus, had at
+the time of the appointment of Arminius already been a professor at
+Leyden for eight years. Each teacher gathered round him a following of
+devoted disciples, and a violent collision was inevitable. Prolonged and
+heated controversy on the high doctrines of Predestination and Freewill
+led to many appeals being made to the States-General and to the Estates
+of Holland to convene a Synod to settle the disputed questions, but
+neither of these bodies in the midst of the negotiations for the truce
+was willing to complicate matters by taking a step that could not fail
+to accentuate existing discords. Six months after the truce was signed
+Arminius died. The quarrel, however, was only to grow more embittered.
+Johannes Uyttenbogaert took the leadership of the Arminians, and
+finally, after consultation with Oldenbarneveldt, he called together a
+convention of Arminian preachers and laymen at Gouda (June, 1610). They
+drew up for presentation to the Estates a petition, known as the
+_Remonstratie,_ consisting of five articles, in which they defined the
+points wherein they differed from the orthodox Calvinist doctrines on
+the subjects of predestination, election and grace. The Gomarists on
+their part drew up a _Contra-Remonstratie_ containing seven articles,
+and they declined to submit to any decision on matters of doctrine, save
+from a purely Church Synod. These two weighty declarations gained for
+the two parties henceforth the names of Remonstrants and
+Contra-Remonstrants. For the next three years a fierce controversy raged
+in every province, pulpit replying to pulpit, and pamphlet to pamphlet.
+The Contra-Remonstrants roundly accused their adversaries of holding
+Pelagian and Socinian opinions and of being Papists in disguise. This
+last accusation drew to their side the great majority of the Protestant
+population, but the Remonstrants had many adherents among the
+burgher-regents, and they could count upon a majority in the Estates of
+Holland, Utrecht and Overyssel, and they had the powerful support of
+Oldenbarneveldt.
+
+The Advocate was no theologian, and on the doctrinal points in dispute
+he probably held no very clear views. He inclined, however, to the
+Arminians because of their greater tolerance, and above all for their
+readiness to acknowledge the authority of the State as supreme, in
+religious as well as in civil matters. He was anxious to bring about an
+accommodation which should give satisfaction to both parties, but he was
+dealing with fanatics, and the fires of religious bigotry when once
+kindled are difficult to quench. And now was seen a curious object
+lesson in the many-headed character of the government of the United
+Netherlands. A majority of the provinces in the States-General favoured
+the Contra-Remonstrants. The Estates of Holland, however, under the
+influence of Oldenbarneveldt by a small majority refused the
+Contra-Remonstrant demand and resolved to take drastic action against
+the Gomarists. But a number of the representative towns in Holland, and
+among them Amsterdam, declined to enforce the resolution. At Rotterdam,
+on the other hand, and in the other town-councils, where the Arminians
+had the majority, the Gomarist preachers were expelled from their
+pulpits; and the Advocate was determined by coercion, if necessary, to
+enforce the authority of the Estates throughout the province. But
+coercion without the use of the military force was impossible in face of
+the growing uprising of popular passion; and the military forces could
+not be employed without the consent of the stadholder. Thus in 1617,
+with the question of civil war in Holland trembling in the balance, the
+ultimate decision lay with the stadholder; and Maurice after long
+hesitation determined to throw the sword of the soldier into the scale
+against the influence of the statesman.
+
+Maurice had not as yet openly broken with his father's old friend, whose
+immense services to the republic during the greater part of four decades
+he fully recognised. As to the questions now in dispute the stadholder
+was to an even less degree than the Advocate a zealous theologian. It is
+reported that he declared that he did not know whether predestination
+was blue or green. His court-chaplain, Uyttenbogaert, was a leading
+Arminian; and both his step-mother, Louise (see p. 78), to whose
+opinions he attached much weight, and his younger brother, Frederick
+Henry, were by inclination "libertines." On the other hand William
+Lewis, the Frisian Stadholder, was a zealous Calvinist, and he used all
+his influence with his cousin to urge him to make a firm stand against
+Oldenbarneveldt, and those who were trying to overthrow the Reformed
+faith. Sir Dudley Carleton, the new English ambassador, ranged himself
+also as a strong opponent of the Advocate. While Maurice, however, was
+hesitating as to the action he should take, Oldenbarneveldt determined
+upon a step which amounted to a declaration of war. In December, 1616,
+he carried in the Estates of Holland a proposal that they should, in
+the exercise of their sovereign rights, enlist a provincial force of
+4000 militia (_waardgelders_) in their pay. Thus Holland, though a
+strong minority in the Estates was in opposition, declared its intention
+of upholding the principle of provincial sovereignty against the
+authority of the States-General. The States-General at the instance of
+the two stadholders, May, 1617, declared for the summoning of a National
+Synod by a vote of four provinces against three. The Estates of Holland,
+again with a sharp division of opinion but by a majority, declined to
+obey the summons. An impasse was thus reached and Maurice at last openly
+declared for the Contra-Remonstrant side.
+
+On July 23 the Prince, accompanied by his suite, ostentatiously attended
+divine service at the Cloister Church at the Hague, where the
+Contra-Remonstrants had a fortnight before, in face of the prohibition
+of the Estates, established themselves. This step was countered by
+decisive action on the part of Oldenbarneveldt. A proposal was made in
+the Estates of Holland, August 4, known as the "Sharp Resolution"--and
+it well merited its name, for it was of the most drastic character. It
+was a most unqualified declaration of provincial sovereignty, and yet it
+was only passed in the teeth of a strong minority by the exertion of the
+Advocate's personal influence. By this resolution Holland declined to
+assent to the summoning of any Synod, National or Provincial, and
+asserted the supremacy of the Estates in matters of religion. The
+municipal authorities were ordered to raise levies of _Waardgelders_ to
+keep the peace; and all officials, civil or military, were required to
+take an oath of obedience to the Estates on pain of dismissal. A strong
+protest was made by the representatives of the dissenting cities headed
+by Reinier Pauw, burgomaster of Amsterdam.
+
+On the plea of ill-health Oldenbarneveldt now left the Hague, and took
+up his residence at Utrecht. His object was to keep this province firm
+in its alliance with Holland. He did not return till November 6, but all
+the time he was in active correspondence with his party in Holland, at
+whose head were the three pensionaries of Rotterdam, Leyden and
+Haarlem--De Groot, Hoogerbeets and De Haan. Under their leadership
+levies of _Waardgelders_ were made in a number of towns; but other
+towns, including Amsterdam, refused, and the total levy did not amount
+to more than 1800 men. Meanwhile the majority of the States-General,
+urged on by Maurice and William Lewis, were determined, despite the
+resistance of Holland and Utrecht, to carry through the proposal for the
+summoning of a National Synod. Overyssel had been overawed and persuaded
+to assent, so that there were five votes against two in its favour. All
+through the winter the wrangling went on, and estrangement between the
+contending parties grew more bitter and acute. A perfect flood of
+pamphlets, broadsheets and pasquinades issued from the press; and in
+particular the most violent and envenomed attacks were made upon the
+character and administration of the Advocate, in which he was accused of
+having received bribes both from Spanish and French sources and to have
+betrayed the interests of his country. The chief instigator of these
+attacks was Oldenbarneveldt's personal enemy, Francis van Aerssens,
+whose pen was never idle. The defenders of the Remonstrant cause and
+of the principles of provincial sovereignty were not lacking in the
+vigour and virulence of their replies; and the Advocate himself felt
+that the accusations which were made against him demanded a formal and
+serious rejoinder. He accordingly prepared a long and careful defence of
+his whole career, in which he proved conclusively that the charges made
+against him had no foundation. This _Remonstratie_ he addressed to the
+Estates of Holland, and he also sent a copy to the Prince. If this
+document did not at the time avail to silence the voices of prejudiced
+adversaries whose minds were made up, it has at least had the effect of
+convincing posterity that, however unwise may have been the course now
+deliberately pursued by the Advocate, he never for the sake of personal
+gain betrayed the interests of his country. Had he now seen that the
+attempt of a majority in the Estates of Holland to resist the will of
+the majority in the States-General could only lead to civil war, and had
+he resigned his post, advising the Estates to disband the _Waardgelders_
+and yield to superior force, a catastrophe might have been averted.
+There is no reason to believe that in such circumstances Maurice would
+have countenanced any extreme harshness in dealing with the Advocate.
+But Oldenbarneveldt, long accustomed to the exercise of power, was
+determined not to yield one jot of the claim of the sovereign province
+of Holland to supremacy within its own borders in matters of religion.
+The die was cast and the issue had to be decided by force of arms.
+
+On June 28, 1618, a solemn protest was made by the Advocate in the
+States-General against the summoning of a National Synod in opposition
+to the expressed opinion of the Estates of Holland; and a threat was
+made that Holland might withhold her contribution to the general fund.
+The majority of the States-General (July 9) declared the raising of
+local levies illegal, and (July 23) it was resolved that a commission be
+sent to Utrecht with Maurice at its head to demand the disbanding of the
+_Waardgelders_ in that town.
+
+The Estates of Holland[5] impelled by Oldenbarneveldt now took a very
+strong step, a step which could not be retrieved. They resolved also to
+despatch commissioners to Utrecht to urge the town-council to stand
+firm. De Groot, Hoogerbeets and two others were nominated, and they at
+once set out for Utrecht. Maurice, with the deputation from the
+States-General and a large suite, left the Hague only a little later
+than De Groot and his companions, and reached Utrecht on the evening of
+the 25th. This strange situation lasted for several days, and much
+parleying and several angry discussions took place. Matters were further
+complicated by the news that the dissentient towns of Holland were also
+sending a deputation. This news had a considerable effect upon Colonel
+Ogle, the commander of the _Waardgelders_ in Utrecht, and his officers.
+They were already wavering; they now saw that resistance to the orders
+of the States-General would be useless. The Prince, who had been
+collecting a body of troops, now determined on action. His force entered
+the city on the evening of the 31st, and on the following morning he
+commanded the local levies to lay down their arms. They at once obeyed,
+and Maurice took possession of the city. The Holland commissioners and
+the members of the town-council fled. Maurice appointed a new
+town-council entirely Contra-Remonstrant; and changes were made in both
+branches of the Estates, so as to secure a Contra-Remonstrant majority
+and with it the vote of the province in the States-General for the
+National Synod. Holland now stood alone, and its opposition had to be
+dealt with in a fashion even sterner than that of Utrecht.
+
+The Remonstrant cities of Holland were still for resistance, and
+attempts were made to influence the stadholder not to resort to extreme
+measures. Maurice had, however, made up his mind. On August 18 the
+States-General passed a resolution demanding the dismissal of the
+_Waardgelders_ in Holland within twenty-four hours. The placard was
+published on the 20th and was immediately obeyed. The Estates of
+Holland had been summoned to meet on the 21st, and were at once called
+upon to deal with the question of the National Synod. A few days later
+(August 28) a secret resolution was adopted by the majority in the
+States-General, without the knowledge of the Holland deputies, to arrest
+Oldenbarneveldt, De Groot, Hoogerbeets and Ledenburg, the secretary of
+the Estates of Utrecht, on the ground that their action in the troubles
+at Utrecht had been dangerous to the State. On the following day the
+Advocate, on his way to attend the meeting of the Estates, was arrested
+and placed in confinement. De Groot, Hoogerbeets and Ledenburg met with
+similar treatment. After protesting the Estates adjourned on the 30th
+until September 12, the deputies alleging that it was necessary to
+consult their principals in this emergency, but in reality because the
+suddenness of the blow had stricken them with terror. It was a prudent
+step, for Maurice was resolved to purge the Estates and the
+town-councils of Holland, as he had already purged those of Utrecht.
+Attended by a strong body-guard he went from town to town, changing the
+magistracies, so as to place everywhere the Contra-Remonstrants in
+power. As a consequence of this action the deputies sent by the towns
+were likewise changed; and, when the Estates next met, the supporters of
+Oldenbarneveldt and his policy had disappeared. A peaceful revolution
+had been accomplished. All opposition to the summoning of the Synod was
+crushed; and (November 9) the Estates passed a vote of thanks to the
+stadholder for "the care and fidelity" with which he had discharged a
+difficult and necessary duty.
+
+Meanwhile Oldenbarneveldt and the other prisoners had been confined in
+separate rooms in the Binnenhof and were treated with excessive
+harshness and severity. They were permitted to have no communication
+with the outside world, no books, paper or writing materials; and the
+conditions of their imprisonment were such as to be injurious to health.
+A commission was appointed by the States-General to examine the accused,
+and it began its labours in November. The method of procedure was unjust
+and unfair in the extreme, even had it been a case of dealing with vile
+criminals. The treatment of Oldenbarneveldt in particular was almost
+indecently harsh. The aged statesman had to appear sixty times before
+the commission and was examined and cross-examined on every incident of
+the forty years of his administration and on every detail of his
+private life. He was allowed not only to have no legal adviser, but
+also was forbidden access to any books of reference or to any papers or
+to make any notes. It was thus hoped that, having to trust entirely to
+his memory, the old man might be led into self-contradictions or to
+making damaging admissions against himself. De Groot and Hoogerbeets had
+to undergo a similar, though less protracted, inquisition. Such was its
+effect upon Ledenburg that he committed suicide.
+
+It was not until February 20, 1619, that the States-General appointed an
+extraordinary court for the trial of the accused. It consisted of
+twenty-four members, of whom twelve were Hollanders.
+
+It is needless to say that such a court had no legal status; and the
+fact that nearly all its members were the Advocate's personal or
+political enemies is a proof that the proceedings were judicial only in
+name. It was appointed not to try, but to condemn the prisoners.
+Oldenbarneveldt protested in the strongest terms against the court's
+competence. He had been the servant of the Estates of the sovereign
+province of Holland, and to them alone was he responsible. He denied to
+the States-General any sovereign rights; they were simply an assembly
+representing a number of sovereign allies. These were bold statements,
+and they were accompanied by an absolute denial of the charges brought
+against him. It was quite useless. All the prisoners were condemned,
+first De Groot, then Hoogerbeets, then Oldenbarneveldt. The trials were
+concluded on May 1, but it was resolved to defer the sentences until
+after the close of the National Synod, which had been meeting at
+Dordrecht. This took place on May 9.
+
+Meanwhile strong and influential efforts were made for leniency. The
+French ambassador, Aubrey du Maurier, during the trial did his utmost to
+secure fair treatment for the Advocate; and a special envoy, Chatillon,
+was sent from Paris to express the French king's firm belief in the aged
+statesman's integrity and patriotism based on an intimate knowledge of
+all the diplomatic proceedings during and after the negotiations for the
+Truce. But these representations had no effect and were indeed resented.
+Equally unfruitful were the efforts made by Louise de Coligny to soften
+the severity of her step-son's attitude. Even William Lewis wrote to
+Maurice not to proceed too harshly in the matter. All was in vain. The
+Prince's heart was steeled. He kept asking whether the Advocate or his
+family had sued for pardon. But Oldenbarneveldt was far too proud to
+take any step which implied an admission of guilt; and all the members
+of his family were as firmly resolved as he was not to supplicate for
+grace. Few, however, believed that capital punishment would be carried
+out. On Sunday, May 12, however, sentence of death was solemnly
+pronounced; and on the following morning the head of the great statesman
+and patriot was stricken off on a scaffold erected in the Binnenhof
+immediately in front of the windows of Maurice's residence. The
+Advocate's last words were a protestation of his absolute innocence of
+the charge of being a traitor to his country; and posterity has endorsed
+the declaration.
+
+That Oldenbarneveldt had in the last two years of his life acted
+indiscreetly and arrogantly there can be no question. His long tenure of
+power had made him impatient of contradiction; and, having once
+committed himself to a certain course of action, he determined to carry
+it through in the teeth of opposition, regardless of consequences and
+with a narrow obstinacy of temper that aroused bitter resentment. His
+whole correspondence and private papers were however seized and
+carefully scrutinised by his personal enemies; and, had they found any
+evidence to substantiate the charges brought against him, it would have
+been published to the world. It is clear that not a shred of such
+evidence was discovered, and that the Advocate was perfectly innocent of
+the treasonable conduct for which a packed court condemned him to suffer
+death. Such was the reward that Oldenbarneveldt received for life-long
+services of priceless value to his country. He more than any other man
+was the real founder of the Dutch Republic; and it will remain an
+ineffaceable stain on Maurice's memory that he was consenting unto this
+cruel and unjust sentence.
+
+Sentences of imprisonment for life were passed upon De Groot and
+Hoogerbeets. They were confined in the castle of Loevestein. The
+conditions of captivity were so far relaxed that the famous jurist was
+allowed to receive books for the continuance of his studies. Through the
+ingenuity and daring of his wife De Groot contrived to escape in 1621 by
+concealing himself in a trunk supposed to be filled with heavy tomes.
+The trunk was conveyed by water to Rotterdam, from whence the prisoner
+managed to make his way safely to France.
+
+Concurrently with the political trials the National Synod had been
+pursuing its labours at Dordrecht. On November 13 rather more than one
+hundred delegates assembled under the presidency of Johannes Bogerman of
+Leeuwarden. Fifty-eight of the delegates were preachers, professors and
+elders elected by the provincial synods, fifteen were commissioners
+appointed by the States-General, twenty-eight were members of foreign
+Reformed churches. English and Scottish representatives took an active
+part in the proceedings. The Synod decided to summon the Remonstrants to
+send a deputation to make their defence. On December 6 accordingly, a
+body of twelve leading Remonstrants with Simon Episcopius at their head
+took their seats at a table facing the assembly. Episcopius made a
+long harangue in Latin occupying nine sessions. His eloquence was,
+however, wasted on a court that had already prejudged the cause for
+which he pleaded. After much wrangling and many recriminations Bogerman
+ordered the Remonstrants to withdraw. They did so only to meet in an
+"anti-synod" at Rotterdam at which the authority of the Dordrecht
+assembly to pronounce decisions on matters of faith was denied.
+Meanwhile the Contra-Remonstrant divines at Dordrecht during many weary
+sessions proceeded to draw up a series of canons defining the true
+Reformed doctrine and condemning utterly, as false and heretical, the
+five points set forth in the Remonstrance. On May 1 the Netherland
+confession and the Heidelberg catechism were unanimously adopted, as
+being in conformity with Holy Scripture, and as fixing the standard of
+orthodox teaching. The Synod was dissolved eight days later. The final
+session was the 154th; and this great assembly of delegates from many
+lands, the nearest approach to a general council of the Protestant
+churches that has ever been held, came to a close amidst much festivity
+and no small congratulation. No time was lost in taking action by the
+dominant party against their opponents. Two hundred Remonstrant
+preachers were driven into exile; and the congregations were treated
+with the same spirit of intolerance as had hitherto been the lot of the
+Catholics, and were forbidden the exercise of public worship.
+
+After the Advocate's death, except for the persecution directed against
+the Remonstrant party, the course of public affairs went on smoothly.
+Maurice, who by the death of his brother, Philip William, had in
+February, 1618, become Prince of Orange, was virtually sovereign in the
+United Provinces. His name appeared in treaties with eastern potentates
+and in diplomatic despatches, just as if he were a reigning monarch; and
+the people of the Netherlands were even at times spoken of as his
+subjects. But Maurice never cared to trouble himself about the details
+of politics, and he now left the management of affairs in the hands of a
+few men that he could trust, notably in those of Francis van Aerssens
+(henceforth generally known as lord of Sommelsdijk) and Reinier Pauw,
+the influential burgomaster of Amsterdam. Aerssens had shown himself
+spiteful and vindictive in his conduct towards his earlier patron,
+Oldenbarneveldt, but being a clever diplomatist and gifted with
+considerable powers of statesmanship, he became henceforth for many
+years the trusted adviser and confidant not only of Maurice, but of his
+successor Frederick Henry.
+
+The year 1620 was marked by the sudden death in June of William Lewis,
+the Stadholder of Friesland. His loss was much deplored by Maurice, who
+had for years been accustomed to rely upon the tried experience and
+sound judgment of his cousin both in peace and war. A few months earlier
+(March) Louise de Coligny had died at Fontainebleau. She too had been
+from his youth the wise adviser of her step-son, but she was deeply
+grieved at the fate of Oldenbarneveldt, and after his execution left the
+Netherlands to take up her residence in her native country. By the death
+of William Lewis the two stadholderates of Groningen with Drente and of
+Friesland became vacant. Maurice succeeded to that of Groningen, but the
+Frieslanders remained faithful to the house of Nassau-Siegen and elected
+Ernest Casimir, the younger brother of William Lewis, as their
+stadholder.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+FROM THE END OF THE TWELVE YEARS' TRUCE TO THE PEACE OF MUENSTER
+(1621-48). THE STADHOLDERATE OF FREDERICK HENRY OF ORANGE
+
+
+Civil disturbances and religious persecutions were not the only causes
+of anxiety to the political leaders in the United Provinces during the
+crisis of 1618-19; foreign affairs were also assuming a menacing aspect.
+The year 1618 saw the opening in Germany of the Thirty Years' War. The
+acceptance of the Crown of Bohemia by Frederick, Elector Palatine, meant
+that the long-delayed struggle for supremacy between Catholics and
+Protestants was to be fought out; and it was a struggle which neither
+Spain nor the Netherlands could watch with indifference. Maurice was
+fully alive to the necessity of strengthening the defences of the
+eastern frontier; and subsidies were granted by the States-General to
+Frederick and also to some of the smaller German princes. This support
+would have been larger, but the unexpected refusal of James I to give
+aid to his son-in-law made the Dutch doubtful in their attitude. The
+States, though friendly, were unwilling to commit themselves. In the
+spring of 1620, however, by James' permission, the English regiments in
+the Dutch service under the command of Sir Horace Vere were sent to
+oppose Spinola's invasion of the Rhineland. Accompanied by a Dutch force
+under Frederick Henry, they reached the Palatinate, but it was too late.
+The fate of the King of Bohemia was soon to be decided elsewhere than in
+his hereditary dominions. Completely defeated at the battle of Prague,
+Frederick with his wife and family fled to Holland to seek the
+protection of their cousin, the Prince of Orange. They met with the most
+generous treatment at his hands, and they were for many years to make
+the Hague the home of their exile.
+
+As the date at which the Twelve Years' Truce came to an end drew near,
+some efforts were made to avert war. There were advocates of peace in
+the United Provinces, especially in Gelderland and Overyssel, the two
+provinces most exposed to invasion.
+
+The archdukes had no desire to re-open hostilities; and Pecquinius, the
+Chancellor of Brabant, was sent to the Hague to confer with Maurice, and
+was authorised to name certain conditions for the conclusion of a peace.
+These conditions proved, however, to be wholly unacceptable, and the
+early summer of 1621 saw Maurice and Spinola once more in the field at
+the head of rival armies. The operations were, however, dilatory and
+inconclusive. The stadholder now, and throughout his last campaigns, was
+no longer physically the same man as in the days when his skilful
+generalship had saved the Dutch republic from overthrow; he had lost the
+brilliant energy of youth. The deaths in the course of this same year,
+1621, of both the Archduke Albert and Philip III of Spain, were also
+hindrances to the vigorous prosecution of the war. In 1622 there was
+much marching and counter-marching, and Maurice was successful in
+compelling Spinola to raise the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, the last
+success he was destined to achieve. In the course of this year the
+prince's life was in serious danger. A plot was laid to assassinate him
+on his way to Ryswyck, the leading conspirator being William van
+Stoutenberg, the younger son of Oldenbarneveldt. Stoutenberg had, in
+1619, been deprived of his posts and his property confiscated, and he
+wished to avenge his father's death and his own injuries. The plot was
+discovered, but Stoutenberg managed to escape and took service under the
+Archduchess Isabel. Unfortunately he had implicated his elder brother,
+Regnier, lord of Groeneveldt, in the scheme. Groeneveldt was seized and
+brought to the scaffold.
+
+From this time nothing but misfortune dogged the steps of Maurice, whose
+health began to give way under the fatigues of campaigning. In 1623 a
+carefully planned expedition against Antwerp, which he confidently
+expected to succeed, was frustrated by a long continuance of stormy
+weather. Spinola in the following year laid siege to Breda. This
+strongly fortified town, an ancestral domain of the Princes of Orange,
+had a garrison of 7000 men. The Spanish commander rapidly advancing
+completely invested it. Maurice, who had been conducting operations on
+the eastern frontier, now hastened to Breda, and did his utmost by
+cutting off Spinola's own supplies to compel him to raise the blockade.
+All his efforts however failed, and after holding out for many months
+Breda surrendered. In the spring of 1625 the prince became so
+seriously ill that he asked the States-General to appoint his brother
+commander-in-chief in his stead. Feeling his end drawing near, Maurice's
+chief wish was to see Frederick Henry married before his death.
+Frederick Henry, like Maurice himself, had never shown any inclination
+for wedlock and there was no heir to the family. He had, however, been
+attracted by the Countess Amalia von Solms, a lady of the suite of
+Elizabeth of Bohemia. Under pressure from the dying man the
+preliminaries were speedily arranged, and the wedding was quietly
+celebrated on April 4. Though thus hastily concluded, the marriage
+proved to be in every way a thoroughly happy one. Amalia was throughout
+his life to be the wise adviser of her husband and to exercise no small
+influence in the conduct of public affairs. Maurice died on April 23, in
+the fifty-eighth year of his age. His forty years of continuous and
+strenuous service to the State had made him prematurely old; and there
+can be but little doubt that the terrible anxieties of the crisis of
+1618-19 told upon him. Above all a feeling of remorse for his share in
+the tragedy of Oldenbarneveldt's death preyed upon his mind.
+
+The new Prince of Orange succeeded to a difficult position, but he was
+endowed with all the qualities of a real leader of men. Forty-one years
+old and brought up from boyhood in camps under the eye of his brother,
+Frederick Henry was now to show that he was one of the most accomplished
+masters of the military art, and especially siege-craft, in an age of
+famous generals, for Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, Torstenson, Turenne,
+Charles Gustavus and the Great Elector were all trained in his school.
+He was, however, much more than an experienced and resourceful commander
+in the field. He inherited much of his father's wary and tactful
+statesmanship and skill in diplomacy. He was, moreover, deservedly
+popular. He was a Hollander born and bred, and his handsome face,
+chivalrous bearing, and conciliatory genial temper, won for him an
+influence, which for some years was to give him almost undisputed
+predominance in the State. To quote the words of a contemporary, Van der
+Capellen, "the prince in truth disposed of everything as he liked;
+everything gave way to his word."
+
+The offices and dignities held by Maurice were at once conferred on
+Frederick Henry. He was elected Stadholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
+Gelderland and Overyssel, and was appointed Captain-General and
+Admiral-General of the Union and head of the Council of State. During
+practically the whole of his life the prince spent a considerable part
+of the year in camp, but he was able all the time to keep in touch with
+home affairs, and to exercise a constant supervision and control of the
+foreign policy of the State by the help of his wife, and through the
+services of Francis van Aerssens. The Court of the Princess of Orange,
+graced as it was by the presence of the exiled King and Queen of
+Bohemia, was brilliant and sumptuous, and gave to the reality of power
+possessed by the stadholder more than a semblance of sovereign pomp.
+During her husband's absence she spared no pains to keep him
+well-acquainted with all the currents and under-currents of action and
+opinion at the Hague, and was not only able to give sound advice, but
+was quite ready, when necessity called, to meet intrigue with intrigue
+and render abortive any movements or schemes adverse to the prince's
+policy or authority. The obligations of Frederick Henry to Aerssens were
+even greater. The stadholder was at first suspicious of the man, whom he
+disliked for the leading part he had taken against Oldenbarneveldt. But
+he did not allow personal prejudice to prevent him from employing a
+diplomatist of Aerssens' experience and capacity, and, with
+acquaintance, he learned to regard him, not merely as a clever and wise
+councillor, but as a confidential friend.
+
+The right conduct of foreign affairs was of peculiar importance at the
+moment, when Frederick Henry became stadholder, for a change of
+_regime_ took place almost simultaneously both in France and England. In
+Paris Cardinal Richelieu had just laid firm hands upon the reins of
+power, and the timorous and feeble James I died in the autumn of 1625.
+Richelieu and Charles I were both hostile to Spain, and the republic had
+reason to hope for something more than friendly neutrality in the coming
+years of struggle with the united forces of the two Habsburg monarchies.
+
+One of the chief difficulties which confronted the new stadholder was
+the religious question. The prince himself, as was well known, was
+inclined to Remonstrant opinions. He was, however, anxious not to stir
+up the smouldering embers of sectarian strife, and he made no effort to
+withdraw the placards against the Remonstrants, but confined himself to
+moderate in practice their severity. He recalled from exile Van der
+Myle, Oldenbarneveldt's son-in-law; made Nicholas van Reigersberg, De
+Groot's brother-in-law, a member of the council; and released
+Hoogerbeets from his captivity at Loevestein. When, however, De Groot
+himself, presuming on the stadholder's goodwill, ventured to return to
+Holland without permission, the prince refused to receive him and he was
+ordered to leave the country once more.
+
+The year 1626 was marked by no events of military importance; both sides
+were in lack of funds and no offensive operations were undertaken. Much
+rejoicing, however, attended the birth of a son and heir to the Prince
+of Orange, May 27. The child received the name of William. Early in the
+following year Sir Dudley Carleton, as envoy-extraordinary of King
+Charles I, invested Frederick Henry at the Hague with the Order of the
+Garter. This high distinction was not, however, a mark of really
+friendlier relations between the two countries. The long-standing
+disputes as to fishing rights in the narrow seas and at Spitsbergen, and
+as to trading spheres in the East Indian Archipelago, remained
+unsettled; and in the unfortunate and ill-considered war, which broke
+out at this time between England and France, the sympathies of the
+States were with the latter. Already those close relations between the
+French and the Dutch, which for the next decade were to be one of the
+dominating factors in determining the final issue of the Thirty Years'
+War, were by the diplomatic efforts of Richelieu and of Aerssens being
+firmly established. France advanced to the States a large subsidy by the
+aid of which the stadholder was enabled to take the field at the head
+of a really fine army and to give to the world a brilliant display of
+his military abilities. Throughout his stadholderate the persistent aim
+which Frederick Henry held before himself was never aggression with a
+view to conquest, but the creation of a scientific frontier, covered by
+strong fortresses, within which the flat lands behind the defensive
+lines of the great rivers could feel reasonably secure against sudden
+attack. It was with this object that in 1629 he determined to lay siege
+to the town of Hertogenbosch. A force of 24,000 infantry and 4000
+cavalry were gathered together for the enterprise. It was composed of
+many nationalities, like all the armies commanded by Maurice and
+Frederick Henry, but was admirably disciplined and devoted to its
+commander. Four English, three Scottish and four French regiments, all
+choice troops, raised by permission of their sovereigns for the service
+of the States, formed the backbone of the force. On April 30 the town
+was invested.
+
+Hertogenbosch, or Bois-le-duc, was strongly fortified, and so surrounded
+by marshy ground, intersected by a number of small streams, that the
+only way of approach for a besieging force was a single causeway
+defended by the forts of St Isabella and St Anthony. The garrison
+consisted of 8000 men, and the governor, Grobendonc, was an experienced
+and resolute soldier.
+
+The stadholder began by surrounding the town with a double line of
+circumvallation. The marshes were crossed by dykes, and two streams were
+dammed so as to fill a broad deep moat round the lines and flood the
+country outside. Other lines, three miles long, connected the investing
+lines with the village of Crevecceur on the Meuse, Frederick Henry's
+base of supplies, which were brought by water from Holland. These works
+completed, approaches were at once opened against the forts of St
+Anthony and St Isabella, the task being entrusted to the English and
+French troops. The court of Brussels now began to take serious measures
+for relieving the town. At first regarding _Bolduc la pucelle_ as
+impregnable, they had been pleased to hear that the prince had committed
+himself to an enterprise certain to be a dismal failure. Then came the
+news of the circumvallation, and with it alarm. The Count de Berg was
+therefore ordered (June 17) at the head of an army of 30,000 foot and
+7000 horse to advance into North Brabant and raise the siege. But the
+stadholder was prepared and ceaselessly on his guard; and the Spanish
+general, after several vain attempts, found the Dutch lines
+unassailable. With the view of compelling Frederick Henry to follow him,
+Berg now marched into the heart of the United Provinces, devastating as
+he went with fire and sword, took Amersfoort and threatened Amsterdam.
+But the prince confined himself to despatching a small detached force of
+observation; and meanwhile a happy stroke, by which a certain Colonel
+Dieden surprised and captured the important frontier fortress of Wesel,
+forced the Spaniards to retreat, for Wesel was Berg's depot of supplies
+and munitions.
+
+While all this was going on the Prince of Orange had been pushing
+forward the siege operations. On July 17 the forts of St Isabella and St
+Anthony were stormed. The attack against the main defences, in which the
+English regiments specially distinguished themselves, was now pressed
+with redoubled vigour. The resistance at every step was desperate, but
+at last the moat was crossed and a lodgment effected within the walls.
+On September 14 Hertogenbosch surrendered; and the virgin fortress
+henceforth became the bulwark of the United Provinces against Spanish
+attack on this side. The consummate engineering skill, with which the
+investment had been carried out, attracted the attention of all Europe
+to this famous siege. It was a signal triumph and added greatly to the
+stadholder's popularity and influence in the republic.
+
+It was needed. The Estates of Holland were at this time once more
+refractory. The interests of this great commercial and maritime province
+differed from those of the other provinces of the Union; and it bore a
+financial burden greater than that of all the others put together. The
+Estates, then under the leadership of Adrian Pauw, the influential
+pensionary of Amsterdam, declined to raise the quota of taxation
+assigned to the province for military needs and proceeded to disband a
+number of troops that were in their pay. Inconsistently with this action
+they declined to consider certain proposals for peace put forward by the
+Infanta Isabel, for they would yield nothing on the questions of liberty
+of worship or of freedom to trade in the Indies. Their neglect to
+furnish the requisite supplies for the war, however, prevented the
+prince from undertaking any serious military operations in 1630.
+Fortunately the other side were in no better case financially, while the
+death of Spinola and the withdrawal of the Count de Berg from the
+Spanish service deprived them of their only two competent generals. This
+attitude of Holland, though it thwarted the stadholder's plans and was
+maintained in opposition to his wishes, by no means however implied any
+distrust of him or lack of confidence in his leadership. This was
+conclusively proved by the passing, at the instigation of Holland, of
+the _Acte de Survivance_ (April 19,1631). This Act declared all the
+various offices held by the prince hereditary in the person of his
+five-year-old son. He thus became, in all but name, a constitutional
+sovereign.
+
+An expedition planned for the capture of Dunkirk at this time, spring
+1631, proved too hazardous and was abandoned, but later in the year the
+Dutch sailors gave a signal proof of their superiority at sea.
+Encouraged by the failure of the attempted attack on Dunkirk the
+government at Brussels determined on a counter-stroke. A flotilla of 35
+frigates, accompanied by a large number of smaller vessels to carry
+supplies and munitions and having on board a body of 6000 soldiers,
+set sail from Antwerp under the command of Count John of Nassau (a
+cousin of the stadholder) and in the presence of Isabel herself to
+effect the conquest of some of the Zeeland islands. As soon as the
+news reached Frederick Henry, detachments of troops were at once
+despatched to various points; and about a dozen vessels were rapidly
+equipped and ordered to follow the enemy and if possible bring him to
+action. A landing at Terscholen was foiled by Colonel Morgan, who, at
+the head of 2000 English troops, waded across a shallow estuary in
+time to prevent a descent. At last (September 12) the Dutch ships
+managed to come up with their adversaries in the Slaak near the island
+of Tholen. They at once attacked and though so inferior in numbers
+gained a complete victory. Count John of Nassau just contrived to
+escape, but his fleet was destroyed and 5000 prisoners were taken.
+
+The year 1632 witnessed a renewal of military activity and was memorable
+for the famous siege and capture of Maestricht. This fortress held the
+same commanding position on the eastern frontier as Hertogenbosch on the
+southern; and, though its natural position was not so strong as the
+capital of North Brabant, Maestricht, lying as it did on both sides of
+the broad Meuse, and being strongly fortified and garrisoned, was very
+difficult to invest. The stadholder, at the head of a force of 17,000
+infantry and 4000 horse, first made himself master of Venloo and
+Roeremonde and then advanced upon Maestricht. Unfortunately before
+Roeremonde, Ernest Casimir, the brave stadholder of Friesland and
+Groningen, was killed. He was succeeded in his offices by his son, Henry
+Casimir. Arriving (June 10) before Maestricht, Frederick Henry proceeded
+to erect strongly entrenched lines of circumvallation round the town
+connecting them above and below the town by bridges. Supplies reached
+him plentifully by the river. To the English and French regiments were
+once more assigned the place of honour in the attack. All went well
+until July 2, when Don Gonzales de Cordova led a superior Spanish force
+from Germany, consisting of 18,000 foot and 6000 horse, to raise the
+siege, and encamped close to the Dutch lines on the south side of the
+river. Finding however no vulnerable spot, he awaited the arrival at the
+beginning of August of an Imperialist army of 12,000 foot and 4000
+horse, under the renowned Pappenheim. This impetuous leader determined
+upon an assault, and the Dutch entrenchments were attacked suddenly with
+great vigour at a moment when the prince was laid up with the gout. He
+rose, however, from his bed, personally visited all the points of
+danger, and after desperate fighting the assailants were at last driven
+off with heavy loss. The Spaniards and Imperialists, finding that the
+stadholder's lines could not be forced, instituted a blockade, so that
+the besiegers were themselves besieged. But Frederick Henry had laid up
+such ample stores of munitions and provisions that he paid no heed to
+the cutting of his communications, and pushed on his approaches with the
+utmost rapidity. All difficulties were overcome by the engineering skill
+of the scientific commander; and finally two tunnels sixty feet deep
+were driven under the broad dry moat before the town walls. The English
+regiments during these operations bore the brunt of the fighting and
+lost heavily, Colonels Harwood and the Earl of Oxford being killed and
+Colonel Morgan dangerously wounded. After exploding a mine, a forlorn
+hope of fifty English troops rushed out from one of the tunnels and made
+good their footing upon the ramparts. Others followed, and the garrison,
+fearing that further resistance might entail the sacking of the town,
+surrendered (August 23) with honours of war.
+
+One result of the fall of Maestricht was a renewal on the part of the
+Archduchess Isabel of negotiations for peace or a long truce. On the
+authority of Frederick Henry's memoirs the terms first offered to him in
+camp were favourable and might have been accepted. When, however, the
+discussion was shifted to the Hague, the attitude of the Belgic
+representatives had stiffened. The cause was not far to seek, for on
+November 6, 1632 the ever-victorious Gustavus Adolphus had fallen in the
+hour of triumph in the fatal battle of Luetzen. The death of the Swedish
+hero was a great blow to the Protestant cause and gave fresh heart to
+the despondent Catholic alliance. The negotiations dragged however their
+slow length along, the chief point of controversy being the old dispute
+about freedom to trade in the Indies. On this point agreement was
+impossible. Spain would yield nothing of her pretensions; and the
+Hollanders would hear of no concessions that threatened the prosperity
+of the East and West India Companies in which so many merchants and
+investors were deeply interested. Any admission of a Spanish monopoly or
+right of exclusion would have spelt ruin to thousands. The diplomatic
+discussions, however, went on for many months in a desultory and
+somewhat futile manner; and meanwhile though hostilities did not
+actually cease, the campaign of 1633 was conducted in a half-hearted
+fashion. The death of Isabel on November 29, 1633, shattered finally any
+hopes that the peace party in the Provinces (for there was a strong
+peace party) might have had of arriving at any satisfactory agreement.
+By the decease of the arch-duchess, who had been a wise and beneficent
+ruler and had commanded the respect and regard not only of her own
+subjects but of many northerners also, the Belgic provinces reverted to
+the crown of Spain and passed under the direct rule of Philip IV. The
+Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, fresh from his crushing victory over the
+Swedes at Noerdlingen, came as governor to Brussels in 1634, at the head
+of considerable Spanish forces, and an active renewal of the war in 1635
+was clearly imminent.
+
+In these circumstances Frederick Henry determined to enter into
+negotiations with France for the conclusion of an offensive and
+defensive alliance against Spain, the common enemy. He had many
+difficulties to encounter. The Estates of Holland, though opposed to the
+terms actually offered by the Brussels government, were also averse to
+taking any step which shut the door upon hopes of peace. Richelieu on
+his side, though ready, as before, to grant subsidies and to permit the
+enrolment of French regiments for the Dutch service, shrank from
+committing France to an open espousal of the Protestant side against the
+Catholic powers. The stadholder, however, was not deterred by the
+obstacles in his way; and the diplomatic skill and adroitness of
+Aerssens, aided by his own tact and firmness of will, overcame the
+scruples of Richelieu. The opposition of the Estates of Holland, without
+whose consent no treaty could be ratified, was likewise surmounted.
+Adrian Pauw, their leader, was despatched on a special embassy to Paris,
+and in his absence his influence was undermined, and Jacob Cats was
+appointed Council-Pensionary in his stead. In the spring of 1635 a firm
+alliance was concluded between France and the United Provinces, by which
+it was agreed that neither power should make peace without the consent
+of the other, each meanwhile maintaining a field force of 25,000 foot
+and 5000 horse and dividing conquests in the Southern Netherlands
+between them. This treaty was made with the concurrence and strong
+approval of the Swedish Chancellor, Oxenstierna, and was probably
+decisive in its effect upon the final issue of the Thirty Years' War.
+
+In the early spring of 1635, therefore, a French force entered the
+Netherlands and, after defeating Prince Thomas of Savoy at Namur, joined
+the Dutch army at Maestricht. Louis XIII had given instructions to the
+French commanders, Chatillon and de Breze, to place themselves under the
+orders of the Prince of Orange; and Frederick Henry at the head of
+32,000 foot and 9000 horse now entered the enemy's territory and
+advanced to the neighbourhood of Louvain. Here however, owing to the
+outbreak of disease among his troops, to lack of supplies and to
+differences of opinion with his French colleagues, the prince determined
+to retreat. His action was attended by serious results. His adversary,
+the Cardinal Infante Ferdinand, was a wary and skilful general. He now
+seized his opportunity, rapidly made himself master of Diest, Gennep,
+Goch and Limburg, and took by surprise the important fort of Schenck at
+the junction of the Waal and the Rhine. Vexed at the loss of a
+stronghold which guarded two of the main waterways of the land, the
+stadholder at once laid siege to Schenck. But the Spanish garrison held
+out obstinately all through the winter and did not surrender until April
+26,1636. The Dutch army had suffered much from exposure and sickness
+during this long investment and was compelled to abstain for some months
+from active operations. Ferdinand thereupon, as soon as he saw that
+there was no immediate danger of an attack from the north, resolved to
+avenge himself upon the French for the part they had taken in the
+preceding year's campaign. Reinforced by a body of Imperialist troops
+under Piccolomini he entered France and laid the country waste almost to
+the gates of Paris. This bold stroke completely frustrated any plans
+that the allies may have formed for combined action in the late summer.
+
+The following year the States determined, somewhat against the wishes of
+Frederick Henry, to send an expedition into Flanders for the capture of
+Dunkirk. This was done at the instance of the French ambassador,
+Charnace, acting on the instructions of Richelieu, who promised the
+assistance of 5000 French troops and undertook, should the town be
+taken, to leave it in the possession of the Dutch. The stadholder
+accordingly assembled (May 7) an army of 14,000 foot and a considerable
+body of horse at Rammekens, where a fleet lay ready for their transport
+to Flanders. Contrary winds, however, continued steadily to blow for
+many weeks without affording any opportunity for putting to sea. At
+last, wearied out with the long inaction and its attendant sickness
+the prince (July 20) suddenly broke up his camp and marched upon Breda.
+Spinola, after capturing Breda in 1625, had greatly strengthened its
+defences; and now, with a garrison of 4000 men under a resolute
+commander, it was held to be secure against any attack. The siege was a
+repetition of those of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht. In vain did the
+Cardinal Infante with a powerful force try to break through the lines of
+circumvallation, which the prince had constructed with his usual skill.
+Called away by a French invasion on the south, he had to leave Breda to
+its fate. The town surrendered on October 10.
+
+During the years 1637 and 1638 the ever-recurring dissensions between
+the province of Holland and the Generality became acute once more. The
+Provincial Estates insisted on their sovereign rights and refused to
+acknowledge the authority of the States-General to impose taxes upon
+them. This opposition of Holland was a great hindrance to the prince in
+the conduct of the war, and caused him constant anxiety and worry. It
+was impossible to plan or to carry out a campaign without adequate
+provision being made for the payment and maintenance of the military and
+naval forces, and this depended upon Holland's contribution. Amsterdam
+was the chief offender. On one occasion a deputation sent to Amsterdam
+from the States-General was simply flouted. The burgomaster refused to
+summon the council together, and the members of the deputation had to
+return without an audience. All the prince's efforts to induce the
+contumacious city to consider his proposals in a reasonable and
+patriotic spirit were of no avail; they were rejected insultingly. In
+his indignation Frederick Henry is reported to have exclaimed, "I have
+no greater enemy, but if only I could take Antwerp, it would bring them
+to their senses."
+
+The immense and growing prosperity of Amsterdam at this time was indeed
+mainly due to the fall of Antwerp from its high estate. To reconquer
+Antwerp had indeed long been a favourite project of Frederick Henry. In
+1638 he made careful and ample preparations for its realisation. But it
+was not to be. Misfortune this year was to dog his steps. The advance
+was made in two bodies. The larger under the prince was to march
+straight to Antwerp. The second, of 6000 men, commanded by Count William
+of Nassau, was instructed to seize some outlying defences on the Scheldt
+before joining the main force before the town. Count William began
+well, but, hearing a false rumour that a fleet was sailing up the
+Scheldt to intercept his communications, he hastily retreated. While his
+ranks were in disorder he was surprised by a Spanish attack, and
+practically his entire force was cut to pieces. On hearing of this
+disaster the stadholder had no alternative but to abandon the siege.
+
+Constant campaigning and exposure to the hardships of camp life year
+after year began at this time seriously to affect the health of the
+stadholder. He was much troubled by attacks of gout, which frequently
+prevented him from taking his place in the field. In 1639 there were no
+military events of importance; nevertheless this year was a memorable
+one in the annals of the Dutch republic.
+
+It was the year of the battle of the Downs. A great effort was made by
+Spain to re-establish her naval supremacy in the narrow seas, and the
+finest fleet that had left the harbours of the peninsula since 1588
+arrived in the Channel in September, 1639. It consisted of seventy-seven
+vessels carrying 24,000 men, sailors and soldiers, and was under the
+command of an experienced and capable seaman, Admiral Oquendo. His
+orders were to drive the Dutch fleet from the Channel and to land 10,000
+men at Dunkirk as a reinforcement for the Cardinal Infante. Admiral
+Tromp had been cruising up and down the Channel for some weeks on the
+look-out for the Spaniards, and on September 16 he sighted the armada.
+He had only thirteen vessels with him, the larger part of his fleet
+having been detached to keep watch and ward over Dunkirk. With a
+boldness, however, that might have been accounted temerity, Tromp at
+once attacked the enemy and with such fury that the Spanish fleet sought
+refuge under the lee of the Downs and anchored at the side of an English
+squadron under Vice-Admiral Pennington. Rejoined by seventeen ships from
+before Dunkirk, the Dutch admiral now contented himself with a vigilant
+blockade, until further reinforcements could reach him. Such was the
+respect with which he had inspired the Spaniards, that no attempt was
+made to break the blockade; and in the meantime Tromp had sent urgent
+messages to Holland asking the Prince of Orange and the admiralties to
+strain every nerve to give him as many additional ships as possible. The
+request met with a ready and enthusiastic response. In all the dockyards
+work went on with relays of men night and day. In less than a month
+Tromp found himself at the head of 105 sail with twelve fire-ships. They
+were smaller ships than those of his adversary, but they were more
+than enough to ensure victory. On October 21, after detaching
+Vice-Admiral Witte de with 30 ships to watch Pennington's squadron,
+Tromp bore down straight upon the Spanish fleet though they were lying
+in English waters. Rarely has there been a naval triumph more complete.
+Under cover of a fog Oquendo himself with seven vessels escaped to
+Dunkirk; all the rest were sunk, burnt, or captured. It is said that
+15,000 Spaniards perished. On the side of the Dutch only 100 men were
+killed and wounded. The Spanish power at sea had suffered a blow from
+which it never recovered.
+
+Charles I was very angry on learning that English ships had been obliged
+to watch the fleet of a friendly power destroyed in English waters
+before their eyes. The king had inherited from his father a long series
+of grievances against the Dutch; and, had he not been involved in
+serious domestic difficulties, there would probably have been a
+declaration of war. But Charles' finances did not permit him to take a
+bold course, and he was also secretly irritated with the Spaniards for
+having sought the hospitality of English waters (as written evidence
+shows) without his knowledge and permission. Aerssens was sent to London
+to smooth over the matter. He had no easy task, but by skill and
+patience he contrived, in spite of many adverse influences at the
+court, so to allay the bitter feelings that had been aroused by "the
+scandal of the Downs" that Charles and his queen were willing, in the
+early months of 1640, to discuss seriously the project of a marriage
+between the stadholder's only son and one of the English princesses. In
+January a special envoy, Jan van der Kerkoven, lord of Heenvlict, joined
+Aerssens with a formal proposal for the hand of the princess royal; and
+after somewhat difficult negotiations the marriage was at length
+satisfactorily arranged. The ceremony took place in London, May 12,
+1641. As William was but fifteen years of age and Mary, the princess
+royal, only nine, the bridegroom returned to Holland alone, leaving the
+child-bride for a time at Whitehall with her parents. The wedding took
+place at an ominous time. Ten days after it was celebrated Strafford was
+executed; and the dark shadow of the Great Rebellion was already hanging
+over the ill-fated Charles. In the tragic story of the House of Stewart
+that fills the next two decades there is perhaps no more pathetic figure
+than that of Mary, the mother of William III. At the time this alliance
+gave added lustre to the position of the Prince of Orange, both at
+home and abroad, by uniting his family in close bonds of relationship
+with the royal houses both of England and France.
+
+In 1640, as the Spaniards remained on the defensive, the stadholder
+entered Flanders and by a forced march attempted to seize Bruges. His
+effort, however, was foiled, as was a later attempt to capture Hulst,
+when Frederick Henry and the States sustained a great loss in the death
+of the gallant Henry Casimir of Nassau, who was killed in a chance
+skirmish at the age of 29 years. This regrettable event caused a vacancy
+in the stadholderates of Friesland and Groningen with Drente. A number
+of zealous adherents of the House of Orange were now anxious that
+Frederick Henry should fill the vacant posts to the exclusion of his
+cousin, William Frederick, younger brother of Henry Casimir. They urged
+upon the prince, who was himself unwilling to supplant his relative,
+that it was for the good of the State that there should be a unification
+of authority in his person; and at last he expressed himself ready to
+accept the offices, if elected. The result of the somewhat mean
+intrigues that followed, in which Frederick Henry himself took no part,
+gave a curious illustration of the extreme jealousy of the provinces
+towards anything that they regarded as outside intrusion into their
+affairs. The States-General ventured to recommend the Estates of
+Friesland to appoint the Prince of Orange; the recommendation was
+resented, and William Frederick became stadholder. The Frieslanders on
+their part sent a deputation to Groningen in favour of William
+Frederick, and Groningen-Drente elected the Prince of Orange. This
+dispute caused an estrangement for a time between the two branches of
+the House of Nassau, which was afterwards healed by the marriage of the
+Friesland stadholder with Albertine Agnes, a daughter of Frederick
+Henry. From this union the present royal family of Holland trace their
+descent.
+
+The military operations of the years 1641, 1642 and 1643 were dilatory
+and featureless. Both sides were sick of the war and were content to
+remain on the defensive. This was no doubt largely due to the fact that
+in rapid succession death removed from the stage many of those who had
+long played leading parts in the political history of the times.
+Aerssens died shortly after his return from his successful mission to
+England in the autumn of 1641; and almost at the same time the Cardinal
+Infante Ferdinand, who during his tenure of the governor-generalship
+had shown great capacity and prudence both as a statesman and as a
+commander, expired. In 1642, after eighteen years of almost autocratic
+rule, Richelieu passed away, his death (December 4, 1642) coming almost
+half-way between those of his enemy, the intriguing Marie de' Medici
+(July 3,1642), and that of her son, Louis XIII (May 18, 1643). Anne of
+Austria, the sister of the King of Spain, became regent in France; but
+this did not imply any change of policy with regard to the United
+Provinces, for Cardinal Mazarin, who, through his influence over the
+regent succeeded to the power of Richelieu, was a pupil in the school of
+that great statesman and followed in his steps. Moreover, during this
+same period the outbreak of civil war in England had for the time being
+caused that country to be wholly absorbed in its own domestic concerns,
+and it ceased to have any weight in the councils of western Europe. Thus
+it came to pass that there was a kind of lull in the external affairs of
+the United Provinces; and her statesmen were compelled to take fresh
+stock of their position in the changed situation that had been created.
+
+Not that this meant that these years were a time of less pressure and
+anxiety to the Prince of Orange. His new relations with the English
+royal family were a source of difficulty to him. Henrietta Maria (March,
+1642) came to Holland, bringing with her the princess royal, and for a
+whole year took up her residence at the Hague. She was received with
+kindliness and courtesy not only by the stadholder and his family, but
+by the people of Holland generally. Her presence, together with that of
+the Queen of Bohemia, at the Princess of Orange's court gave to it quite
+a regal dignity and splendour, which was particularly gratifying to
+Amalia von Solms. But the English queen had other objects in view than
+those of courtesy. She hoped not merely to enlist the sympathies of
+Frederick Henry for the royal cause in the English civil war, but to
+obtain through his help supplies of arms and munitions from Holland for
+King Charles. But in this she did not succeed. The Parliament had sent
+an envoy, William Strickland, to counteract the influence of Henrietta
+Maria, and to represent to the States-General that it was fighting in
+defence of the same principles which had led to the revolt against
+Spain. The prince was far too prudent to allow his personal inclinations
+to override his political judgment as a practical statesman. He knew
+that public opinion in the United Provinces would never sanction in
+any form active support of King Charles against his parliament, and he
+did not attempt it. Intervention was confined to the despatch of an
+embassy to England with instructions to mediate between the two
+parties. When the unfortunate queen found that all her efforts on
+behalf of King Charles were in vain, she determined to leave the safe
+refuge where she had been so hospitably entertained and to return to
+her husband's side. She sailed from Scheveningen on March 9, 1643, and
+reached the royal camp at York in safety.
+
+In the autumn of this year, 1643, two special envoys were sent by
+Cardinal Mazarin to the Hague; and one of the results of their visit was
+a renewal of the treaty of 1635 by which France and the United Provinces
+had entered upon an offensive and defensive alliance and had agreed to
+conclude no peace but by mutual consent. Nevertheless Frederick Henry,
+whom long experience had made wary and far-sighted, had been growing for
+some little time suspicious of the advantage to the republic of
+furthering French aggrandisement in the southern Netherlands. He saw
+that France was a waxing, Spain a waning power, and he had no desire to
+see France in possession of territory bordering on the United Provinces.
+This feeling on his part was possibly the cause of the somewhat
+dilatory character of his military operations in 1641 and 1642. The
+revolt of Portugal from Spain in December, 1640, had at first been
+welcomed by the Dutch, but not for long. The great and successful
+operations of the East and West India Companies had been chiefly carried
+on at the expense of the Portuguese, not of the Spaniards. The great
+obstacle to peace with Spain had been the concession of the right to
+trade in the Indies. It was Portugal, rather than Spain, which now stood
+in the way of the Dutch merchants obtaining that right, for the Spanish
+government, in its eagerness to stamp out a rebellion which had spread
+from the Peninsula to all the Portuguese colonies, was quite ready to
+sacrifice these to secure Dutch neutrality in Europe. The dazzling
+victory of the French under the young Duke of Enghien over a veteran
+Spanish army at Rocroi (May, 1643) also had its effect upon the mind of
+the prince. With prophetic foresight, he rightly dreaded a France too
+decisively victorious. In the negotiations for a general peace between
+all the contending powers in the Thirty Years' War, which dragged on
+their slow length from 1643 to 1648, the stadholder became more and
+more convinced that it was in the interest of the Dutch to maintain
+Spain as a counterpoise to the growing power of France, and to secure
+the favourable terms, which, in her extremity, Spain would be ready to
+offer.
+
+At first, however, there was no breach in the close relations with
+France; and Frederick Henry, though hampered by ill-health, showed in
+his last campaigns all his old skill in siege-craft. By the successive
+captures of Hertogenbosch, Maestricht and Breda he had secured the
+frontiers of the republic in the south and south-east. He now turned to
+the north-west corner of Flanders. In 1644 he took the strongly
+fortified post of Sas-van-Gent, situated on the Ley, the canalised river
+connecting Ghent with the Scheldt. In 1645 he laid siege to and captured
+the town of Hulst, and thus gained complete possession of the strip of
+territory south of the Scheldt, known as the Land of Waes, which had
+been protected by these two strongholds, and which has since been called
+Dutch Flanders.
+
+Very shortly after the capitulation of Hulst, the ambassadors
+plenipotentiary of the United Provinces set out (November, 1645) to take
+their places at the Congress of Muenster on equal terms with the
+representatives of the Emperor and of the Kings of France and Spain.
+The position acquired by the Dutch republic among the powers of Europe
+was thus officially recognised _de facto_ even before its independence
+had been _de jure_ ratified by treaty. The parleyings at Muenster made
+slow headway, as so many thorny questions had to be settled. Meanwhile,
+with the full approval of the prince, negotiations were being secretly
+carried on between Madrid and the Hague with the view of arriving at a
+separate understanding, in spite of the explicit terms of the treaty of
+1635. As soon as the French became aware of what was going on, they
+naturally protested and did their utmost to raise every difficulty to
+prevent a treaty being concluded behind their backs. The old questions
+which had proved such serious obstacles in the negotiations of 1607-9
+were still sufficiently formidable. But the situation was very different
+in 1646-7. The Spanish monarchy was actually _in extremis._ Portugal and
+Catalonia were in revolt; a French army had crossed the Pyrenees; the
+treasury was exhausted. Peace with the Dutch Republic was a necessity;
+and, as has been already said, the vexed question about the Indies had
+resolved itself rather into a Portuguese than a Spanish question. By a
+recognition of the Dutch conquests in Brazil and in the Indian Ocean
+they were acquiring an ally without losing anything that they had not
+lost already by the Portuguese declaration of independence. But, as the
+basis of an agreement was on the point of being reached, an event
+happened which caused a delay in the proceedings.
+
+The Prince of Orange, who had been long a martyr to the gout, became in
+the autumn of 1646 hopelessly ill. He lingered on in continual suffering
+for some months and died on March 14, 1647. Shortly before his death he
+had the satisfaction of witnessing the marriage of his daughter Louise
+Henrietta to Frederick William of Brandenburg, afterwards known as the
+Great Elector. He was not, however, destined to see peace actually
+concluded, though he ardently desired to do so. Frederick Henry could,
+however, at any rate feel that his life-work had been thoroughly and
+successfully accomplished. The services he rendered to his country
+during his stadholderate of twenty-two years can scarcely be
+over-estimated. It is a period of extraordinary prosperity and
+distinction, which well deserves the title given to it by Dutch
+historians--"the golden age of Frederick Henry." The body of the
+stadholder was laid, amidst universal lamentation and with almost regal
+pomp, besides those of his father and brother in the Nieuwe Kerk at
+Delft.
+
+The removal of a personality of such authority and influence at this
+critical time was a dire misfortune, for there were many cross-currents
+of policy in the different provinces and of divergence of interests
+between the seafaring and merchant classes and other sections of the
+population. Finally the skill and perseverance of the two leading Dutch
+plenipotentiaries, Pauw and Van Knuyt, and of the Spanish envoys,
+Penaranda and Brun, brought the negotiations to a successful issue. The
+assent of all the provinces was necessary, and for a time Utrecht and
+Zeeland were obstinately refractory, but at length their opposition was
+overcome; and on January 30,1648, the treaty of Muenster was duly
+signed. Great rejoicings throughout the land celebrated the end of the
+War of Independence, which had lasted for eighty years. Thus, in spite
+of the solemn engagement made with France, a separate peace was
+concluded with Spain and in the interests of the United Provinces. Their
+course of action was beyond doubt politically wise and defensible, but,
+as might be expected, it left behind it a feeling of soreness, for the
+French naturally regarded it as a breach of faith. The treaty of
+Muenster consisted of 79 articles, the most important of which were:
+the King of Spain recognised the United Provinces as free and
+independent lands; the States-General kept all their conquests in
+Brabant, Limburg and Flanders, the so-called Generality lands; also
+their conquests in Brazil and the East Indies made at the expense of
+Portugal; freedom of trading both in the East and West Indies was
+conceded; the Scheldt was declared closed, thus shutting out Antwerp
+from access to the sea; to the House of Orange all its confiscated
+property was restored; and lastly a treaty of trade and navigation with
+Spain was negotiated. On all points the Dutch obtained all and more than
+all they could have hoped for.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE EAST AND WEST INDIA COMPANIES. COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC EXPANSION
+
+
+An account of the foundation, constitution and early efforts of the
+Dutch East India Company has been already given. The date of its charter
+(March 20, 1602) was later than that of its English rival (Dec. 31,
+1600), but in reality the Dutch were the first in the field, as there
+were several small companies in existence and competing with one another
+in the decade previous to the granting of the charter, which without
+extinguishing these companies incorporated them by the name of chambers
+under a common management, the Council of Seventeen. The four chambers
+however--Amsterdam, Zeeland, the Maas (Rotterdam and Delft) and the
+North Quarter (Enkhuizen and Hoorn)--though separately administered and
+with different spheres, became gradually more and more unified by the
+growing power of control exercised by the Seventeen. This was partly due
+to the dominating position of the single Chamber of Amsterdam, which
+held half the shares and appointed eight members of the council. The
+erection of such a company, with its monopoly of trade and its great
+privileges including the right of maintaining fleets and armed forces,
+of concluding treaties and of erecting forts, was nothing less than the
+creation of an _imperium in imperio_; and it may be said to have
+furnished the model on which all the great chartered companies of later
+times have been formed. The English East India Company was, by the side
+of its Dutch contemporary, almost insignificant; with its invested
+capital of L30,000 it was in no position to struggle successfully
+against a competitor which started with subscribed funds amounting to
+L540,000.
+
+The conquest of Portugal by Spain had spelt ruin to that unhappy country
+and to its widespread colonial empire and extensive commerce. Before
+1581 Lisbon had been a great centre of the Dutch carrying-trade; and
+many Netherlanders had taken service in Portuguese vessels and were
+familiar with the routes both to the East Indies and to Brazil. It was
+the closing of the port of Lisbon to Dutch vessels that led the
+enterprising merchants of Amsterdam and Middelburg to look further
+afield. In the early years of the seventeenth century a large number of
+expeditions left the Dutch harbours for the Indian Ocean and made great
+profits; and very large dividends were paid to the shareholders of the
+company. How far these represented the actual gain it is difficult to
+discover, for the accounts were kept in different sets of ledgers; and
+it is strongly suspected that the size of the dividends may, at times
+when enhanced credit was necessary for the raising of loans, have been
+to some extent fictitious. For the enterprise, which began as a trading
+concern, speedily developed into the creation of an empire overseas, and
+this meant an immense expenditure.
+
+The Malay Archipelago was the chief scene of early activity, and more
+especially the Moluccas. Treaties were made with the native chiefs; and
+factories defended by forts were established at Tidor, Ternate,
+Amboina, Banda and other places. The victories of Cornelis Matelief
+established that supremacy of the Dutch arms in these eastern waters
+which they were to maintain for many years. With the conclusion of the
+truce the necessity of placing the general control of so many scattered
+forts and trading posts in the hands of one supreme official led, in
+1609, to the appointment of a governor-general by the Seventeen with the
+assent of the States-General. The governor-general held office for five
+years, and he was assisted by a council, the first member of which,
+under the title of director-general, was in reality minister of
+commerce. Under him were at first seven (afterwards eight) local
+governors. These functionaries, though exercising considerable powers in
+their respective districts, were in all matters of high policy entirely
+subordinate to the governor-general. The first holders of the office
+were all men who had risen to that position by proving themselves to
+possess energy and enterprise, and being compelled by the distance from
+home to act promptly on their own initiative, were practically endowed
+with autocratic authority. In consequence of this the Dutch empire in
+the East became in their hands rapidly extended and consolidated, to the
+exclusion of all competitors. This meant not only that the Portuguese
+and Spaniards were ousted from their formerly dominant position in the
+Orient, but that a collision with the English was inevitable.
+
+The first governor-general, Pieter Both, had made Java the centre of
+administration and had established factories and posts at Bantam,
+Jacatra and Djapara, not without arousing considerable hostility among
+the local rulers, jealous of the presence of the intruders. This
+hostility was fostered and encouraged by the English, whose vessels had
+also visited Java and had erected a trading-post close to that of the
+Dutch at Jacatra. Already the spice islands had been the scene of
+hostile encounters between the representatives of the two nations, and
+had led to many altercations. This was the state of things when Jan
+Pieterzoon Koen became governor-general in 1615. This determined man,
+whose experience in the East Indies was of long date, and who had
+already served as director-general, came into his new office with an
+intense prejudice against the English, and with a firm resolve to put an
+end to what he described as their treachery and intrigues. "Were they
+masters," he wrote home, "the Dutch would quickly be out of the Indies,
+but praise be to the Lord, who has provided otherwise. They are an
+unendurable nation." With this object he strongly fortified the factory
+near Jacatra, thereby arousing the hostility of the _Pangeran_, as the
+native ruler was styled. The English in their neighbouring post also
+began to erect defences and to encourage the _Pangeran_ in his hostile
+attitude. Koen thereupon fell upon the English and destroyed and burnt
+their factory, and finding that there was a strong English fleet under
+Sir Thomas Dale in the neighbourhood, he sailed to the Moluccas in
+search of reinforcements, leaving Pieter van der Broeck in command at
+the factory. The _Pangeran_ now feigned friendship, and having enticed
+Broeck to a conference, made him prisoner and attacked the Dutch
+stronghold. The garrison however held out until the governor-general
+returned with a strong force. With this he stormed and destroyed the
+town of Jacatra and on its site erected a new town, as the seat of the
+company's government, to which the name Batavia was given. From this
+time the Dutch had no rivalry to fear in Java. The conquest of the whole
+island was only a question of time, and the "pearl of the Malay
+Archipelago" has from 1620 to the present been the richest and most
+valuable of all the Dutch colonial possessions. Koen was planning to
+follow up his success by driving the English likewise from the Moluccas,
+when he heard that the home government had concluded a treaty which tied
+his hands.
+
+The position in the Moluccas had for some years been one of continual
+bickering and strife; the chief scene being in the little group known as
+the Banda islands. The lucrative spice-trade tempted both companies to
+establish themselves by building forts; and the names of Amboina and
+Pulo Rum were for many years to embitter the relations of the two
+peoples. Meanwhile the whole subject of those relations had been in 1619
+discussed at London by a special embassy sent nominally to thank King
+James for the part he had taken in bringing the Synod of Dort to a
+successful termination of its labours, but in reality to settle several
+threatening trade disputes. Almost the only result of the prolonged
+conferences was an agreement (June 2, 1619) by which the East India
+Companies were for twenty years to be virtually amalgamated. The English
+were to have half the pepper crop in Java and one-third of the spices in
+the Moluccas, Amboina and the Banda islands. Forts and posts were to
+remain in their present hands, but there was to be a joint council for
+defence, four members from each company, the president to be appointed
+alternately month by month. Such a scheme was a paper scheme, devised
+by those who had no personal acquaintance with the actual situation.
+There was no similarity between a great military and naval organisation
+like the Dutch Company and a body of traders like the English, whose
+capital was small, and who were entirely dependent on the political
+vagaries of an impecunious sovereign, whose dearest wish at the time was
+to cultivate close relations with the very power in defiance of whose
+prohibition the East India Company's trade was carried on. The agreement
+received indeed a fresh sanction at another conference held in London
+(1622-23), but it never was a working arrangement. The bitter
+ill-feeling that had arisen between the Dutch and English traders was
+not to be allayed by the diplomatic subterfuge of crying peace when
+there was no peace. Events were speedily to prove that this was so.
+
+The trade in spices had proved the most lucrative of all, and measures
+had been taken to prevent any undue lowering of the price by a glut in
+the market. The quantity of spices grown was carefully regulated,
+suitable spots being selected, and the trees elsewhere destroyed. Thus
+cloves were specially cultivated at Amboina; nutmegs in the Banda
+islands. Into this strictly guarded monopoly, from which the English had
+been expelled by the energy of Koen, they were now by the new treaty to
+be admitted to a share.
+
+It was only with difficulty that the Dutch were induced to acquiesce
+sullenly in the presence of the intruders. A fatal collision took place
+almost immediately after the convention between the Companies, about the
+trade in the spice islands, had been renewed in London, 1622-3.
+
+In 1623 Koen was succeeded, as governor-general, by Pieter Carpentier,
+whose name is still perpetuated by the Gulf of Carpentaria on the north
+of Australia. At this time of transition the Governor of Amboina, Van
+Speult, professed to have discovered a conspiracy of the English
+settlers, headed by Gabriel Towerson, to make themselves masters of the
+Dutch fort. Eighteen Englishmen were seized, and though there was no
+evidence against them, except what was extorted by torture and
+afterwards solemnly denied, twelve, including Towerson, were executed.
+Carpentier admitted that the proceedings were irregular, and they were
+in any case unnecessary, for a despatch recalling Towerson was on its
+way to Amboina. It was a barbarous and cruel act; and when the news of
+the "massacre of Amboina," as it was called, reached England, there was
+loud indignation and demands for redress. But the quarrel with Spain
+over the marriage of the Prince of Wales had driven James I at the very
+end of his life, and Charles I on his accession, to seek the support of
+the United Provinces. By the treaty of Southampton, September 17, 1625,
+an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded with the
+States-General; and Charles contented himself with a demand that the
+States should within eighteen months bring to justice those who were
+responsible "for the bloody butchery on our subjects." However, Carleton
+again pressed for the punishment of the perpetrators of "the foule and
+bloody act" of Amboina. The Dutch replied with evasive promises, which
+they never attempted to carry out; and Charles' disastrous war with
+France and his breach with his parliament effectually prevented him from
+taking steps to exact reparation. But Amboina was not forgotten; the
+sore rankled and was one of the causes that moved Cromwell to war in
+1654.
+
+The activity of the Dutch in eastern waters was, however, by no means
+confined to Java, their seat of government, or to the Moluccas and Banda
+islands with their precious spices. Many trading posts were erected on
+the large islands of Sumatra and Borneo. Trading relations were opened
+with Siam from 1613 onwards. In 1623 a force under Willem Bontekoe was
+sent by Koen to Formosa. The island was conquered and a governor
+appointed with his residence at Fort Zelandia. Already under the first
+governor-general, Pieter Both, permission was obtained from the Shogun
+for the Dutch, under close restrictions, to trade with Japan, a
+permission which was still continued, after the expulsion of the
+Portuguese and the bloody persecution of the Christian converts
+(1637-42), though under somewhat humiliating conditions. But, with the
+Dutch, trade was trade, and under the able conduct of Francis Caron it
+became of thriving proportions. During the next century no other
+Europeans had any access to the Japanese market except the agents of the
+Dutch East India Company.
+
+Among the governors-general of this early period the name of Antony van
+Diemen (1636-45) deserves special recognition. If Koen laid the firm
+foundations of Dutch rule in the East, Van Diemen built wisely and ably
+on the work of Koen. Carpentier's rule had been noteworthy for several
+voyages of discovery along the coasts of New Guinea and of the adjoining
+shore of Australia, but the spirit of exploration reached its height in
+the days of Van Diemen. The north and north-west of Australia being to
+some extent already known, Abel Tasman was despatched by Van Diemen to
+find out, if possible, how far southward the land extended. Sailing in
+October, 1642, from Mauritius, he skirted portions of the coast of what
+is now Victoria and New South Wales and discovered the island which he
+named after his patron Van Diemen's land, but which is now very
+appropriately known as Tasmania. Pressing on he reached New Zealand,
+which still bears the name that he gave to it, and sailed through the
+strait between the northern and southern islands, now Cook's strait. In
+the course of this great voyage he next discovered the Friendly or Tonga
+islands and the Fiji archipelago. He reached Batavia in June, 1643, and
+in the following year he visited again the north of Australia and
+voyaged right round the Gulf of Carpentaria. Even in a modern map of
+Australia Dutch names will be found scattered round certain portions of
+the coast of the island-continent, recording still, historically, the
+names of the early Dutch explorers, their patrons, ships and homes.
+Along the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria may be seen Van Diemen
+river, gulf and cape; Abel Tasman, Van Alphen, Nassau and Staten rivers;
+capes Arnhem, Caron and Maria (after Francis Caron and Maria van
+Diemen) and Groote Eylandt. In Tasmania, with many other names, may be
+found Frederick Henry bay and cape, Tasman's peninsula and Tasman's head
+and Maria island; while the wife of the governor-general is again
+commemorated, the northernmost point of New Zealand bearing the name of
+Maria van Diemen cape.
+
+To Van Diemen belongs the credit of giving to the Dutch their first
+footing (1638) in the rich island of Ceylon, by concluding a treaty with
+the native prince of Kandy. The Portuguese still possessed forts at
+Colombo, Galle, Negumbo and other places, but Galle and Negumbo were now
+taken by the Dutch, and gradually the whole island passed into their
+hands and became for a century and a half their richest possession in
+the East, next to Java. On the Coromandel coast posts were also early
+established, and trade relations opened up with the Persians and Arabs.
+At the time when the Treaty of Muenster gave to the United Provinces the
+legal title to that independence for which they had so long fought, and
+conceded to them the freedom to trade in the Indies, that trade was
+already theirs, safe-guarded by the fleets, the forts and the armed
+forces of the chartered company. The governor-general at Batavia had
+become a powerful potentate in the Eastern seas; and a succession of
+bold and able men, by a policy at once prudent and aggressive, had in
+the course of a few decades organised a colonial empire. It was a
+remarkable achievement for so small a country as the United Provinces,
+and it was destined to have a prolonged life. The voyage round by the
+cape was long and hazardous, so Van Diemen in 1638 caused the island of
+Mauritius to be occupied as a refitting station; and in 1652 one of his
+successors (Reinierz) sent a body of colonists under Jan van Riebeck to
+form a settlement, which should be a harbour of refuge beneath the Table
+mountain at the Cape itself. This was the beginning of the Cape colony.
+
+Quite as interesting, and even more exciting, was the history of Dutch
+enterprise in other seas during this eventful period. The granting of
+the East India Company's charter led a certain Willem Usselincx to come
+forward as an earnest and persistent advocate for the formation of a
+West India Company on the same lines. But Oldenbarneveldt, anxious to
+negotiate a peace or truce with Spain and to maintain good relations
+with that power, refused to lend any countenance to his proposals,
+either before or after the truce was concluded. He could not, however,
+restrain the spirit of enterprise that with increasing prosperity was
+abroad in Holland. The formation of the Northern or Greenland Company in
+1613, specially created in order to contest the claims of the English
+Muscovy Company to exclusive rights in the whale fishery off
+Spitsbergen, led to those violent disputes between the fishermen of the
+two countries, of which an account has been given. The granting of a
+charter to the Company of New Netherland (1614) was a fresh departure.
+The voyage of Henry Hudson in the Dutch service when, in 1610, he
+explored the coast of North America and sailed up the river called by
+his name, led certain Amsterdam and Hoorn merchants to plan a settlement
+near this river; and they secured a charter giving them exclusive rights
+from Chesapeake bay to Newfoundland. The result was the founding of the
+colony of New Netherland, with New Amsterdam on Manhattan island as its
+capital. This settlement was at first small and insignificant, but,
+being placed midway between the English colonies on that same coast, it
+added one more to the many questions of dispute between the two
+sea-powers.
+
+Willem Usselincx had all this time continued his agitation for the
+erection of a West India Company; and at last, with the renewal of the
+war with Spain in 1621, his efforts were rewarded. The charter granted
+by the States-General (June 3, 1621) gave to the company for twenty-four
+years the monopoly of navigation and trade to the coast-lands of America
+and the West Indies from the south-end of Newfoundland to the Straits of
+Magellan and to the coasts and lands of Africa from the tropic of Cancer
+to the Cape of Good Hope. The governing body consisted of nineteen
+representatives, the Nineteen. The States-General contributed to the
+capital 1,000,000 fl., on half of which only they were to receive
+dividends. They also undertook in time of war to furnish sixteen ships
+and four yachts, the company being bound to supply a like number. The
+West India Company from the first was intended to be an instrument of
+war. Its aims were buccaneering rather than commerce. There was no
+secret about its object; it was openly proclaimed. Its historian De Laet
+(himself a director) wrote, "There is no surer means of bringing our
+Enemy at last to reason, than to infest him with attacks everywhere in
+America and to stop the fountain-head of his best finances." After some
+tentative efforts, it was resolved to send out an expedition in great
+force; but the question arose, where best to strike? By the advice of
+Usselincx and others acquainted with the condition of the defences of
+the towns upon the American coast, Bahia, the capital of the Portuguese
+colony of Brazil, was selected, as specially vulnerable. Thus in the
+West, as in the East, Portugal was to suffer for her unwilling
+subjection to the crown of Castile.
+
+The consent of the States-General and of the stadholder being obtained,
+some months were spent in making preparations on an adequate scale. The
+fleet, which consisted of twenty-three ships of war with four yachts,
+armed with 500 pieces of ordnance, and carrying in addition to the crews
+a force of 1700 troops, sailed in two contingents, December, 1623, and
+January, 1624. Jacob Willekens was the admiral-in-chief, with Piet Hein
+as his vice-admiral. Colonel Jan van Dorth, lord of Horst, was to
+conduct the land operations and to be the governor of the town, when its
+conquest was achieved. On May 9 the fleet sailed into the Bay of All
+Saints (_Bahia de todos os Santos_) and proceeded to disembark the
+troops on a sandy beach a little to the east of the city of San
+Salvador, commonly known as Bahia. It was strongly situated on heights
+rising sheer from the water; and, as news of the Dutch preparations had
+reached Lisbon and Madrid, its fortifications had been repaired and its
+garrison strengthened. In front of the lower town below the cliffs was a
+rocky island, and on this and on the shore were forts well provided with
+batteries, and under their lee were fifteen ships of war. On May 10 Piet
+Hein was sent with five vessels to contain the enemy's fleet and cover
+the landing of the military forces. But Hein, far from being content
+with a passive role, attacked the Portuguese, burnt or captured all
+their ships and then, embarking his men in launches, stormed the
+defences of the island and spiked the guns. Meanwhile the troops had,
+without opposition, occupied a Benedictine convent on the heights
+opposite the town. But the daring of Piet Hein had caused a panic to
+seize the garrison. Despite the efforts of the governor, Diogo de
+Mendoca Furdado, there was a general exodus in the night, both of the
+soldiery and the inhabitants. When morning came the Dutch marched into
+the undefended town, the governor and his son, who had refused to desert
+their posts, being taken prisoners. They, with much booty, were at once
+sent to Holland as a proof of the completeness of the victory. Events,
+however, were to prove that it is easier for an expeditionary force to
+capture a town at such a distance from the home-base of supplies, than
+to retain it.
+
+Governor Van Dorth had scarcely entered upon his duties when he fell
+into an ambush of native levies near San Salvador and was killed. His
+successor, Willem Schouten, was incompetent and dissolute; and, when the
+fleet set sail on its homeward voyage at the end of July, the garrison
+soon found itself practically besieged by bodies of Portuguese troops
+with Indian auxiliaries, who occupied the neighbouring woods and stopped
+supplies. Meanwhile the news of the capture of San Salvador reached
+Madrid and Lisbon; and Spaniards and Portuguese vied with one another in
+their eagerness to equip a great expedition to expel the invaders. It
+was truly a mighty armada which set sail, under the supreme command of
+Don Fadrique de Toledo, from the Iberian ports at the beginning of 1625,
+for it consisted of fifty ships with five caravels and four pinnaces,
+carrying 12,566 men and 1185 guns. On Easter Eve (March 29) the fleet
+entered All Saints' Bay in the form of a vast crescent measuring six
+leagues from tip to tip. The Dutch garrison of 2300 men, being strongly
+fortified, resisted for a month but, shut in by sea and by land and
+badly led, they capitulated on April 28, on condition that they were
+sent back to Holland.
+
+That the brilliant success of 1624 was thus so soon turned into disaster
+was in no way due to the supineness of the home authorities. The
+Nineteen were in no way surprised to hear of great preparations being
+made by the King of Spain to retake the town, and they on their part
+were determined to maintain their conquest by meeting force with force.
+Straining all their resources, three squadrons were equipped; the first
+two, numbering thirty-two ships and nine yachts, were destined for
+Brazil; the third, a small flying squadron of seven vessels, was
+despatched early to watch the Spanish ports. The general-in-chief of the
+Brazilian expedition was Boudewyn Hendrikszoon. Driven back by a
+succession of storms, it was not until April 17, 1625, that the fleet
+was able to leave the Channel and put out to sea. The voyage was a rapid
+one and on May 23, Hendrikszoon sailed into the bay in battle order,
+only to see the Spanish flag waving over San Salvador and the mighty
+fleet of Admiral Toledo drawn up under the protection of its batteries.
+Hendrikszoon sailed slowly past the Spaniards, who did not stir, and
+perceiving that it would be madness to attack a superior force in such
+a position he reluctantly gave orders to withdraw. On the homeward
+journey by the West Indies a number of rich prizes were made, but
+sickness made great ravages among the crews, and counted Hendrikszoon
+himself among its victims.
+
+The events of the following year seem to show that with audacity he
+might have at least inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. For in 1626 the
+directors, ignorant of his failure, sent out a reinforcement of nine
+ships and five yachts under the command of the redoubtable Piet Hein.
+Hein sailed on May 21 for the West Indies, where he learnt that
+Hendrikszoon was dead and that the remnant of his expedition had
+returned after a fruitless voyage of misadventure. Hein however was not
+the man to turn back. He determined to try what he could effect at Bahia
+by a surprise attack. He reached the entrance to the bay on March 1,
+1627, but was unluckily becalmed; and the Portuguese were warned of his
+presence. On arriving before San Salvador he found thirty ships drawn up
+close to the land; sixteen of these were large and armed, and four were
+galleons with a considerable number of troops on board. The Dutch
+admiral with great daring determined to attack them by sailing between
+them and the shore, making it difficult for the guns on shore to fire on
+him without injury to their own ships. It was a hazardous stroke, for
+the passage was narrow, but entirely successful. One of the four
+galleons, carrying the admiral's flag, was sunk, the other three struck.
+Taking to their launches, the Dutchmen now fiercely assailed the other
+vessels, and in a very short time were masters of twenty-two prizes. It
+was a difficult task to carry them off at the ebb-tide, and it was not
+achieved without loss. Hein's own ship, the _Amsterdam,_ grounded and
+had to be burnt, and another ship by some mischance blew up. The total
+loss, except through the explosion, was exceedingly small. The captured
+vessels contained 2700 chests of sugar, besides a quantity of cotton,
+hides and tobacco. The booty was stored in the four largest ships and
+sent to Holland; the rest were burnt.
+
+Hein now made a raid down the coast as far as Rio de Janeiro and then
+returned. The "Sea Terror of Delft" for some weeks after this remained
+in unchallenged mastery of the bay, picking up prizes when the
+opportunity offered. Then he sailed by the West Indies homewards and
+reached Dutch waters on October 31, 1627, having during this expedition
+captured no less than fifty-five enemy vessels. The value of the booty
+was sufficient to repay the company for their great outlay, and it was
+wisely used in the equipment of fresh fleets for the following year.
+
+This next year, 1628, was indeed an _annus mirabilis_ in the records of
+the Dutch West India Company. On January 24 two fleets put to sea, one
+under Dirk Simonsz Uitgeest for the coast of Brazil; another under
+Pieter Adriansz Ita for the West Indies. Both were successful and came
+back laden with spoil. It was reserved, however, for the expedition
+under Piet Hein to make all other successes seem small. This fleet,
+consisting of thirty-one ships of war, left Holland at the end of May
+for the West Indies with instructions to lie in wait for the Spanish
+Treasure Fleet. Many attempts had been made in previous years to
+intercept the galleons, which year by year carried the riches of Mexico
+and Peru to Spain, but they had always failed. After some weeks of
+weary cruising, Piet Hein, when off the coast of Cuba, was rewarded
+(September 8) by the sight of the Spanish fleet approaching, and at once
+bore down upon them. After a sharp conflict, the Spaniards took refuge
+in the bay of Matanzas and, running the galleons into shoal-water, tried
+to convey the rich cargoes on shore. It was in vain. The Dutch sailors,
+taking to their boats, boarded the galleons and compelled them to
+surrender. The spoil was of enormous value, comprising 177,537 lbs. of
+silver, 135 lbs. of gold, 37,375 hides, 2270 chests of indigo, besides
+cochineal, logwood, sugar, spices and precious stones. It brought
+11,509,524 fl. into the coffers of the company, and a dividend of 50 per
+cent, was paid to the shareholders. It was a wrong policy thus to deal
+with the results of a stroke of good fortune not likely to be repeated.
+This year was, however, to be a lucky year unto the end. A fourth
+expedition under Adrian Jansz Pater which left on August 15 for the
+Caribbean sea, sailed up the Orinoco and destroyed the town of San Thome
+de Guiana, the chief Spanish settlement in those parts. All this, it may
+be said, partook of the character of buccaneering, nevertheless these
+were shrewd blows struck at the very source from whence the Spanish
+power obtained means for carrying on the war. The West India Company was
+fulfilling triumphantly one of the chief purposes for which it was
+created, and was threatening Philip IV with financial ruin.
+
+The successes of 1628 had the effect of encouraging the directors to try
+to retrieve the failure at Bahia by conquest elsewhere.
+
+
+Olinda, on the coast of Pernambuco, was selected as the new objective.
+An expeditionary force of exceptional strength was got ready; and, as
+Piet Hein, at the very height of his fame, unfortunately lost his life
+in the spring of 1629 in an encounter with the Dunkirk pirates, Hendrik
+Cornelisz Lonck, who had served as vice-admiral under Hein at Matanzas
+bay, was made admiral-in-chief, with Jonckheer Diederik van Waerdenburgh
+in command of the military forces. A considerable delay was caused by
+the critical position of the United Provinces when invaded by the
+Spanish-Imperialist armies at the time of the siege of Hertogenbosch,
+but the capture of that fortress enabled the last contingents to sail
+towards the end of the year; and Lonck was able to collect his whole
+force at St Vincent, one of the Canary islands, on Christmas Day to
+start on their voyage across the Atlantic. That force consisted of
+fifty-two ships and yachts and thirteen sloops, carrying 3780 sailors
+and 3500 soldiers, and mounting 1170 guns. Adverse weather prevented the
+arrival of the fleet in the offing of Olinda until February 13. Along
+the coast of Pernambuco runs a continuous reef of rock with narrow
+openings at irregular intervals, forming a barrier against attack from
+the sea. Olinda, the capital of the provinces, was built on a hill a
+short distance inland, having as its port a village known as Povo or the
+Reciff, lying on a spit of sand between the mouths of the rivers
+Biberibi and Capibaribi. There was a passage through the rocky reef
+northwards about two leagues above Olinda and three others southwards
+(only one of which, the _Barra_, was navigable for large ships) giving
+access to a sheet of water of some 18 ft. in depth between the reef and
+the spit of sand, and forming a commodious harbour, the Pozo.
+
+The problem before the Dutch commander was a difficult one, for news of
+the expedition had reached Madrid; and Matthias de Albuquerque, brother
+of "the proprietor" of Pernambuco, Duarte de Albuquerque, a man of great
+energy and powers of leadership, had arrived in October to put Olinda
+and the Reciff into a state of defence. Two forts strongly garrisoned
+and armed, San Francisco and San Jorge, defended the entrances through
+the reef and the neck of the spit of sand; sixteen ships chained
+together and filled with combustibles barred access to the harbour; and
+the village of the Reciff was surrounded by entrenchments. Within the
+fortifications of Olinda, Albuquerque held himself in readiness to
+oppose any body of the enemy that should effect a landing above the
+town. Lonck, after consultation with Waerdenburgh, determined to make
+with the main body of the fleet under his own command an attempt to
+force the entrances to the Pozo, while Waerdenburgh, with the bulk of
+the military contingent on sixteen ships, sailed northwards to find some
+spot suitable for disembarkation.
+
+The naval attack was made on February 15, but was unavailing. All the
+efforts of the Dutch to make their way through any of the entrances to
+the Pozo, though renewed again and again with the utmost bravery, were
+beaten off. In the evening Lonck withdrew his ships. He had learnt by an
+experience, to which history scarcely offers an exception, that a naval
+attack unsupported by military co-operation against land defences
+cannot succeed. But Waerdenburgh had used the opportunity, while the
+enemy's attention was directed to the repelling of the assault on the
+Reciff, to land his army without opposition. At dawn the Dutch general
+advanced and, after forcing the crossing of the river Doce in the teeth
+of the resistance of a body of irregular troops led by Albuquerque in
+person, marched straight on Olinda. There was no serious resistance. The
+fortifications were carried by storm and the town fell into the hands of
+Waerdenburgh. The garrison and almost all the inhabitants fled into the
+neighbouring forest.
+
+Aware of the fact that the occupation of Olinda was useless without a
+harbour as a base of supplies, it was resolved at once with the aid of
+the fleet to lay siege to the forts of San Francisco and San Jorge.
+Despite obstinate resistance, first San Jorge, then San Francisco
+surrendered; and on March 3 the fleet sailed through the Barra, and the
+Reciff with the island of Antonio Vaz behind it was occupied by the
+Dutch. No sooner was the conquest made than steps were taken for its
+administration. A welcome reinforcement arrived from Holland on March
+11, having on board three representatives sent by the Nineteen, who were
+to form with Waerdenburgh, appointed governor, an administrative
+council, or Court of Policy. The Reciff, rather than Olinda, was
+selected as the seat of government, and forts were erected for its
+defence. The position, however, was perilous in the extreme.
+Albuquerque, who was well acquainted with the country and skilled in
+guerrilla warfare, formed an entrenched camp to which he gave the name
+of the _Arreyal de Bom Jesus_, a position defended by marshes and thick
+woods. From this centre, by the aid of large numbers of friendly
+Indians, he was able to cut off all supplies of fresh water, meat or
+vegetables from reaching the Dutch garrison. They had to depend for the
+necessaries of life upon stores sent to them in relief fleets from
+Holland. It was a strange and grim struggle of endurance, in which both
+Dutch and Portuguese suffered terribly, the one on the barren sea-shore,
+the other in the pathless woods under the glare of a tropical sun, both
+alike looking eagerly for succour from the Motherland. The Dutch
+succours were the first to arrive. The first detachment under Marten
+Thijssen reached the Reciff on December 18, 1630; the main fleet under
+Adrian Jansz Pater on April 14, 1631. The whole fleet consisted of
+sixteen ships and yachts manned by 1270 sailors and 860 soldiers. Their
+arrival was the signal for offensive operations. An expedition under
+Thijssen's command sailed on April 22 for the large island of Itamaraca
+about fifteen miles to the north of the Reciff. It was successful.
+Itamaraca was occupied and garrisoned, and thus a second and
+advantageous post established on the Brazilian coast.
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish government had not been idle. After many delays a
+powerful fleet set sail from Lisbon on May 5 for Pernambuco, consisting
+of fifteen Spanish and five Portuguese ships and carrying a large
+military force, partly destined for Bahia, but principally as a
+reinforcement for Matthias de Albuquerque. The expedition was commanded
+by Admiral Antonio de Oquendo, and was accompanied by Duarte de
+Albuquerque, the proprietor of Pernambuco. After landing troops and
+munitions at Bahia, the Spaniards wasted several weeks before starting
+again to accomplish the main object of blockading the Dutch in the
+Reciff and compelling their surrender by famine. But Pater had learnt by
+his scouts of the presence of Oquendo at Bahia, and though his force was
+far inferior he determined to meet the hostile armada at sea. The
+Spanish fleet was sighted at early dawn on September 12, and Pater at
+once gave orders to attack. His fleet consisted of sixteen ships and
+yachts, that of the enemy of twenty galleons and sixteen caravels. The
+Dutch admiral had formed his fleet in two lines, himself in the _Prins
+Willem_ and Vice-Admiral Thijssen in the _Vereenigte Provintien_ being
+the leaders. On this occasion the sight of the great numbers and size of
+the Spanish galleons caused a great part of the Dutch captains to lose
+heart and hang back. Pater and Thijssen, followed by only two ships,
+bore down however on the Spaniards. _The Prins Willem_ with the
+_Walcheren_ in attendance laid herself alongside the _St Jago_, flying
+the flag of Admiral Oquendo; the _Vereenigte Provintien_ with the
+_Provintie van Utrecht_ in its wake drew up to the _St Antonio de
+Padua_, the ship of Vice-Admiral Francisco de Vallecilla. For six hours
+the duel between the _Prins Willem_ and the _St Jago_ went on with
+fierce desperation, the captain of the _Walcheren_ gallantly holding at
+bay the galleons who attempted to come to the rescue of Oquendo.
+At 4 p.m. the _St Jago_ was a floating wreck with only a remnant of
+her crew surviving, when suddenly a fire broke out in the _Prins
+Willem_, which nothing could check. With difficulty the _St Jago_ drew
+off and, finding that his vessel was lost, Pater, refusing to
+surrender, wrapped the flag round his body and threw himself into the
+sea. Meanwhile success had attended Thijssen. The lagging Dutch ships
+coming up gradually threatened the convoy of Spanish transports and
+drew off many of the galleons for their protection. The _Provintie van
+Utrecht_ indeed, like the _Prins Willem_, caught fire and was burnt to
+the water's edge; but the vice-admiral himself sank the _St Antonio de
+Padua_ and another galleon that came to Vallecilla's help, and
+captured a third. It was a bloody and apparently indecisive fight, but
+the Dutch enjoyed the fruits of victory. Oquendo made no attempt to
+capture the Reciff and Olinda, but, after landing the troops he
+convoyed at a favourable spot, sailed northwards, followed by
+Thijssen.
+
+But though relieved the position was still very serious. Albuquerque,
+now considerably reinforced from his impregnable post at the _Arreyal de
+Bom Jesus_, cut off all intercourse inland. The Dutch even abandoned
+Olinda and concentrated themselves at the Reciff, where they remained as
+a besieged force entirely dependent upon supplies sent from Holland.
+Several expeditions were despatched with the hope of seizing other
+positions on the coast, but all of them proved failures; and, when
+Waerdenburgh returned home in 1633, having reached the end of his three
+years' service as governor, all that could be said was that the Dutch
+had retained their foothold on the coast of Pernambuco, but at vast cost
+to the company in men, vessels and treasure, and without any apparent
+prospect for the future. But pertinacity was to be rewarded. For the
+period of success that followed special histories must be consulted. In
+the year following the return of Waerdenburgh the efforts of the Dutch
+authorities to extend their possessions along the coast at the various
+river mouths were steadily successful; and with the advent of Joan
+Maurice of Nassau to the governorship, in 1637, the dream of a Dutch
+empire in Brazil seemed to be on the point of realisation. This cousin
+of the Prince of Orange was endowed with brilliant qualities, and during
+the seven years of his governorship he extended the Dutch dominion from
+the Rio Grande in the south to the island of Maranhao on the north and
+to a considerable distance inland, indeed over the larger part of seven
+out of the fourteen captaincies into which Portuguese Brazil was
+divided. On his arrival, by a wise policy of statesmanlike conciliation,
+he contrived to secure the goodwill of the Portuguese planters, who,
+though not loving the Dutch heretics, hated them less than their Spanish
+oppressors, and also of the Jews, who were numerous in the conquered
+territory. Under his rule the Reciff as the seat of the Dutch government
+was beautified and enlarged; many fine buildings and gardens adorned it,
+and the harbour made commodious for commerce with rows of warehouses and
+ample docks. To the new capital he gave the name of Mauritsstad.
+
+During the earlier part of his governor-generalship Joan Maurice was
+called upon to face a really great danger. The year 1639 was to witness
+what was to be the last great effort (before the Portuguese revolt) of
+the still undivided Spanish monarchy for supremacy at sea. Already it
+has been told how a great fleet sent under Antonio de Oquendo to drive
+the Dutch from the narrow seas was crushed by Admiral Tromp at the
+battle of the Downs. In the same year the most formidable armada ever
+sent from the Peninsula across the ocean set sail for Brazil. It
+consisted of no less than eighty-six vessels manned by 12,000 sailors
+and soldiers under the command of the Count de Torre. Unpropitious
+weather conditions, as so often in the case of Spanish naval
+undertakings, ruined the enterprise. Making for Bahia they were detained
+for two months in the Bay of All Saints by strong northerly winds.
+Meanwhile Joan Maurice, whose naval force at first was deplorably weak,
+had managed by energetic efforts to gather together a respectable fleet
+of forty vessels under Admiral Loos, which resembled the English fleet
+of 1588 under Effingham and Drake, in that it made up for lack of
+numbers and of size by superior seamanship and skill in manoeuvring. At
+length, the wind having shifted, the Count de Torre put to sea; and on
+January 12, 1640, the Dutch squadrons sighted the Spaniards, who were
+being driven along by a southerly gale which had sprung up. Clinging to
+their rear and keeping the weather-gauge, the Dutch kept up a running
+fight, inflicting continual losses on their enemies, and, giving them no
+opportunity to make for land and seek the shelter of a port, drove them
+northwards in disorder never to return. By this signal deliverance the
+hold of the Netherlanders upon their Brazilian conquests appeared to be
+assured; and, as has been already stated, Joan Maurice took full
+advantage of the opportunity that was offered to him to consolidate and
+extend them. A sudden change of political circumstances was, however,
+to bring to a rapid downfall a dominion which had never rested on a
+sound basis.
+
+The revolt of Portugal in 1641 was at first hailed in the United
+Provinces as the entry of a new ally into the field against their
+ancient enemy the Spaniard. But it was soon perceived that there could
+be no friendship with independent Portugal, unless both the East and
+West India Companies withdrew from the territories they had occupied
+overseas entirely at the expense of the Portuguese. King Joao IV and his
+advisers at Lisbon, face to face as they were with the menacing Spanish
+power, showed willingness to make great concessions, but they could not
+control the spirit which animated the settlers in the colonies
+themselves. Everywhere the Spanish yoke was repudiated, and the Dutch
+garrisons in Brazil suddenly found themselves confronted in 1645 with a
+loyalist rising, with which they were not in a position to deal
+successfully. The West India Company had not proved a commercial
+success. The fitting out of great fleets and the maintenance of numerous
+garrisons of mercenaries at an immense distance from the home country
+had exhausted their resources and involved the company in debt. The
+building of Mauritsstad and the carrying out of Joan Maurice's ambitious
+schemes for the administration and organisation of a great Brazilian
+dominion were grandiose, but very costly. The governor, moreover, who
+could brook neither incompetence nor interference on the part of his
+subordinates, had aroused the enmity of some of them, notably of a
+certain Colonel Architofsky, who through spite plotted and intrigued
+against him with the authorities at home. The result was that, the
+directors having declined to sanction certain proposals made to them by
+Joan Maurice, he sent in his resignation, which was accepted (1644).
+It must be remembered that their position was a difficult one. The
+charter of the company had been granted for a term of twenty-four years,
+and it was doubtful whether the States-General, already beginning to
+discuss secretly the question of a separate peace with Spain, would
+consent to renew it. The relations with Portugal were very delicate; and
+a formidable rebellion of the entire body of Portuguese settlers, aided
+by the natives, was on the point of breaking out. Indeed the successors
+of Joan Maurice, deprived of any adequate succour from home, were unable
+to maintain themselves against the skill and courage of the insurgent
+Portuguese leaders. The Dutch were defeated in the field, and one by
+one their fortresses were taken. The Reciff itself held out for some
+time, but it was surrendered at last in 1654; and with its fall the
+Dutch were finally expelled from the territory for the acquisition of
+which they had sacrificed so much blood and treasure.
+
+The West India Company at the peace of Muenster possessed, besides the
+remnant of its Brazilian dominion, the colony of New Netherland in North
+America, and two struggling settlements on the rivers Essequibo and
+Berbice in Guiana. New Netherland comprised the country between the
+English colonies of New England and Virginia; and the Dutch settlers had
+at this time established farms near the coast and friendly relations
+with the natives of the interior, with whom they trafficked for furs.
+The appointment of Peter Stuyvesant as governor, in 1646, was a time of
+real development in New Netherland. This colony was an appanage of the
+Chamber of Amsterdam, after which New Amsterdam, the seat of government
+on the island of Manhattan, was named. The official trading posts on the
+Essequibo and the Berbice, though never abandoned, had for some years a
+mere lingering existence, but are deserving of mention in that they were
+destined to survive the vicissitudes of fortune and to become in the
+18th century a valuable possession. Their importance also is to be
+measured not by the meagre official reports and profit and loss accounts
+that have survived in the West India Company's records, but by the much
+fuller information to be derived from Spanish and Portuguese sources, as
+to the remarkable daring and energy of Dutch trading agents in all that
+portion of the South American continent lying between the rivers Amazon
+and Orinoco. Expelled from the Amazon itself in 1627 by the Portuguese
+from Para, the Dutch traders established themselves at different times
+at the mouths of almost all the rivers along what was known as the Wild
+Coast of Guiana, and penetrating inland through a good understanding
+with the natives, especially with the ubiquitous Carib tribes, carried
+on a barter traffic beyond the mountains into the northern watershed of
+the Amazon, even as far as the Rio Negro itself. This trade with the
+interior finds no place in the company's official minutes, for it was
+strictly speaking an infringement of the charter, and therefore
+illegitimate. But it was characteristically Dutch, and it was winked at,
+for the chief offenders were themselves among the principal
+shareholders of the company.
+
+No account of Dutch commerce during the period of Frederick Henry would
+be complete, however, which did not refer to the relations between
+Holland and Sweden, and the part played by an Amsterdam merchant in
+enabling the Swedish armies to secure the ultimate triumph of the
+Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War. Louis de Geer sprang from an
+ancient noble family of Liege. His father fled to Dordrecht in 1595 to
+escape from the Inquisition and became prosperous in business. Liege was
+then, as now, a great centre of the iron industry; and after his
+father's death Louis de Geer in 1615 removed to Amsterdam, where he
+became a merchant in all kinds of iron and copper goods, more especially
+of ordnance and fire-arms. In close alliance with him, though not in
+partnership, was his brother-in-law, Elias Trip, the head of a firm
+reputed to have the most extensive business in iron-ware and weapons in
+the Netherlands. The commanding abilities of de Geer soon gave to the
+two firms, which continued to work harmoniously together as a family
+concern, a complete supremacy in the class of wares in which they dealt.
+At this time the chief supply of iron and copper ore came from Sweden;
+and in 1616 de Geer was sent on a mission by the States-General to that
+country to negotiate for a supply of these raw materials for the forging
+of ordnance. This mission had important results, for it was the first
+step towards bringing about those close relations between Sweden and the
+United Provinces which were to subsist throughout the whole of the
+Thirty Years' War. In the following year, 1617, Gustavus Adolphus, then
+about to conduct an expedition into Livonia, sent an envoy to Holland
+for the purpose of securing the good offices of the States-General for
+the raising of a loan upon the security of the Swedish copper mines. The
+principal contributor was Louis de Geer. He had, during his visit to
+Sweden, learnt how great was the wealth of that country in iron ore, and
+at the same time that the mines were lying idle and undeveloped through
+lack of capital and skilled workmen. He used his opportunity therefore
+to obtain from Gustavus the lease of the rich mining domain of Finspong.
+The lease was signed on October 12, 1619, and de Geer at once began
+operations on the largest scale. He introduced from Liege a body of
+expert Walloon iron-workers, built forges and factories, and was in a
+few years able to supply the Swedish government with all the ordnance
+and munitions of war that they required, and to export through the port
+of Norrkoeping large supplies of goods to his warehouses at Amsterdam.
+His relations with Gustavus Adolphus soon became intimate. The king
+relied upon de Geer for the supply of all the necessaries for his armies
+in the field, and even commissioned him to raise troops for the Swedish
+service. In 1626 the Dutch merchant was appointed by the king
+acting-manager of the copper mines, which were royal property; and, in
+order to regularise his position and give him greater facilities for the
+conduct of his enterprises, the rights of Swedish citizenship were
+conferred by royal patent upon him. It was a curious position, for
+though de Geer paid many visits to Sweden, once for three consecutive
+years, 1626-29, he continued to make Amsterdam his home and principal
+residence. He thus had a dual nationality. Year after year saw an
+increasing number of mines and properties passing into the great
+financier's hands, and in return for these concessions he made large
+advances to the king for his triumphant expedition into Germany;
+advancing him in 1628 50,000 rixdalers, and somewhat later a further sum
+of 32,000 rixdalers. So confidential were the relations between them
+that Gustavus sent for de Geer to his camp at Kitzingen for a personal
+consultation on business matters in the spring of 1632. It was their
+last interview, for before that year closed the Swedish hero was to
+perish at Luetzen.
+
+The death of Gustavus made no difference to the position of Louis de
+Geer in Sweden, for he found Axel Oxenstierna a warm friend and powerful
+supporter. Among other fresh enterprises was the formation of a
+Swedo-Dutch Company for trading on the West Coast of Africa. In this
+company Oxenstierna himself invested money. In reward for his many
+services the Swedish Council of Regency conferred upon de Geer and his
+heirs a patent of nobility (August 4,1641); and as part repayment of the
+large loans advanced by him to the Swedish treasury he obtained as his
+own the districts containing his mines and factories in different parts
+of Sweden, making him one of the largest landed proprietors in the
+country. He on his part in return for this was able to show in a
+remarkable way that he was not ungrateful for the favours that he had
+received.
+
+With Christian IV of Denmark for many years the Swedes and the Dutch had
+had constant disputes and much friction. This able and ambitious king,
+throughout a long and vigorous reign, which began in 1593, had watched
+with ever-increasing jealousy the passing of the Baltic trade into Dutch
+hands, and with something more than jealousy the rapid advance to power
+of the sister Scandinavian kingdom under Gustavus Adolphus. Of the 1074
+merchant ships that passed through the Sound between June 19 and
+November 16, 1645, all but 49 came from Dutch ports, by far the largest
+number from Amsterdam; and from these Christian IV drew a large revenue
+by the exaction of harsh and arbitrary toll-dues. Again and again the
+States-General had complained and protested; and diplomatic pressure had
+been brought to bear upon the high-handed king, but without avail.
+Between Sweden and Denmark there had been, since Gustavus Adolphus came
+to the throne in 1613, no overt act of hostility; but smouldering
+beneath the surface of an armed truce were embers of latent rivalries
+and ambitions ready at any moment to burst into flame. Christian IV was
+a Protestant, but his jealousy of Sweden led him in 1639 openly to take
+sides with the Catholic powers, Austria and Spain. Fearing that he might
+attempt to close the passage of the Sound, the States-General and the
+Swedish Regency in 1640 concluded a treaty "for securing the freedom and
+protection of shipping and commerce in the Baltic and North Seas"; and
+one of the secret articles gave permission to Sweden to buy or hire
+ships in the Netherlands and in case of necessity to enlist crews for
+the same. Outward peace was precariously maintained between the
+Scandinavian powers, when the seizure of a number of Swedish ships in
+the Sound in 1643 made Oxenstierna resolve upon a bold stroke. Without
+any declaration of war the Swedish general, Torstensson, was ordered to
+lead his victorious army from North Germany into Denmark and to force
+King Christian to cease intriguing with the enemy. Holstein, Schleswig
+and Jutland were speedily in Torstensson's hands, but the Danish fleet
+was superior to the Swedish, and he could make no further progress. Both
+sides turned to the United Provinces. Christian promised that the
+grievances in regard to the Sound dues should be removed if the
+States-General would remain neutral. Oxenstierna addressed himself to
+Louis de Geer. The merchant on behalf of the Swedish government was
+instructed to approach the stadholder and the States-General, and to
+seek for naval assistance under the terms of the treaty of 1640; and, if
+he failed in obtaining their assent, then he--de Geer--should himself
+(in conformance with the secret article of that treaty) raise on his
+own account and equip a fleet of thirty ships for the Swedish service.
+
+De Geer soon discovered that Frederick Henry, being intent on peace
+negotiations, was averse to the proposal. The stadholder, and the
+States-General acting under his influence, did not wish to create fresh
+entanglements by embroiling the United Provinces in a war with Denmark.
+De Geer therefore at once began on his own responsibility to equip ships
+in the various seaports of Holland and Zeeland which had been the chief
+sufferers by the vexatious Sound dues, and he succeeded in enlisting the
+connivance of the Estates of Holland to his undertaking. Before the end
+of April, 1644, a fleet of thirty-two vessels was collected under the
+command of Marten Thijssen. Its first efforts were unsuccessful. The
+Danish fleet effectually prevented the junction of Thijssen with the
+Swedes, and for a time he found himself blockaded in a narrow passage
+called the Listerdiep. Taking advantage of a storm which dispersed the
+Danes, the Dutch admiral at last was able to put to sea again, and early
+in July somewhat ignominiously returned to Amsterdam to refit. For the
+moment King Christian was everywhere triumphant. On July 11 he gained a
+signal victory over the Swedish fleet at Colberg Heath, and he had the
+satisfaction of seeing Torstensson compelled by the Imperialists to
+retreat from Jutland. But the energy and pertinacity of the Amsterdam
+merchant saved the situation. Though the retreat of Thijssen meant for
+him a heavy financial loss, de Geer never for a moment faltered in his
+purpose. Within three weeks Thijssen again put to sea with twenty-two
+ships, and by skilful manoeuvring he succeeded in making his way
+through the Skagerak and the Sound, and finally brought his fleet to
+anchor in the Swedish harbour of Calmar. From this harbour the united
+Swedo-Dutch squadrons sailed out and on October 23, between Femern and
+Laaland, met the Danish fleet, and after a desperate conflict completely
+defeated and destroyed it. Thus were the wealth and resources of a
+private citizen of Amsterdam able to intervene decisively at a critical
+moment in the struggle for supremacy in the Baltic between the two
+Scandinavian powers. But it is not in the victory won by Marten Thijssen
+that de Geer rendered his greatest service to Sweden. As the Swedish
+historian Fryxell truly says, "all that was won by the statesmanship of
+Oxenstierna, by the sword of Baner, Torstensson and Wrangel, in a
+desolated Germany streaming with blood, has been already lost again; but
+the benefits which Louis de Geer brought to Sweden, by the path of
+peaceful industry and virtue, these still exist, and bear wholesome
+fruit to a late posterity."
+
+This expedition under Marten Thijssen, who after his victory was created
+a Swedish noble and definitely entered the Swedish naval service, though
+connived at by Frederick Henry and the States-General, did not express
+any desire on their part to aggrandise Sweden unduly at the expense of
+Denmark. If some great merchants such as Louis de Geer and Elias Trip
+were exploiting the resources of Sweden, others, notably a certain
+Gabriel Marcelis, had invested their capital in developing the Danish
+grazing lands; and politically and commercially the question of the
+Sound dues, pre-eminently a Danish question, overshadowed all others in
+importance. The Dutch had no desire to give Sweden a share in the
+control of the Sound; they preferred in the interests of their vast
+Baltic trade to have to deal with Christian IV alone. The Swedish threat
+was useful in bringing diplomatic pressure to bear on the Danish king,
+but ultimately they felt confident that, if he refused to make
+concessions in the matter of the dues, they could compel him to do so.
+As one of their diplomatists proudly declared, "the wooden keys of the
+Sound were not in the hands of King Christian, but in the wharves of
+Amsterdam." In June, 1645, his words were put to a practical test.
+Admiral Witte de With at the head of a fleet of fifty war-ships was
+ordered to convoy 300 merchantmen through the Sound, peacefully if
+possible, if not, by force. Quietly the entire fleet of 350 vessels
+sailed through the narrow waters. The Danish fleet and Danish forts
+made no attempt at resistance. All the summer De With cruised to and fro
+and the Dutch traders suffered no molestation. Christian's obstinacy at
+last gave way before this display of superior might, and on August 23,
+by the treaty of Christianopel he agreed to lower the tolls for forty
+years and to make many other concessions that were required from him. At
+the same time by Dutch mediation peace was concluded between Denmark and
+Sweden, distinctly to the advantage of the former, by the treaty of
+Broemsebro.
+
+To pass to other regions. In the Levant, during the long residence of
+Cornelis Haga at Constantinople, trade had been greatly extended.
+Considerable privileges were conceded to the Dutch by the so-called
+"capitulation" concluded by his agency with the Porte in 1612; and Dutch
+consuls were placed in the chief ports of Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria,
+Egypt, Tunis, Greece and Italy. The trading however with the
+Mediterranean and the Levant was left to private enterprise, the
+States-General which had given charters to the different Companies--East
+India, West India and Northern--not being willing to create any further
+monopolies.
+
+The lack of coal and of metals has always seriously hindered industrial
+development in the United Provinces. Nevertheless the advent into
+Holland of so many refugees who were skilled artisans, from the southern
+Netherlands, led to the establishment of various textile industries at
+Leyden, Haarlem and other towns. One of the chief of these was the
+dressing and dyeing of English cloth for exportation.
+
+Amsterdam, it should be mentioned, had already at this time become the
+home of the diamond industry. The art of cutting and polishing diamonds
+was a secret process brought to the city on the Y by Portuguese Jews,
+who were expelled by Philip II; and in Amsterdam their descendants still
+retain a peculiar skill and craftmanship that is unrivalled. Jewish
+settlers were indeed to be found in many of the Dutch towns; and it was
+through them that Holland became famous in 17th century Europe for the
+perfection of her goldsmiths' and silversmiths' art and for jewelry of
+every kind. Another industry, which had its centre at Delft, was that of
+the celebrated pottery and tiles known as "delfware." It will be evident
+from what has been said above that vast wealth flowed into Holland at
+this period of her history, but, as so often happens, this sudden
+growth of riches had a tendency to accumulate in the hands of a minority
+of the people, with the inevitable consequence, on the one hand, of the
+widening of the gulf which divided poverty from opulence; on the other,
+with the creation among rich and poor alike of a consuming eagerness and
+passion for gain, if not by legitimate means, then by wild speculation
+or corrupt venality. Bubble companies came into existence, only to bring
+disaster on those who rashly invested their money in them. The fever of
+speculation rose to its height in the mania for the growing of bulbs and
+more especially of tulips, which more and more absorbed the attention of
+the public in Holland in the years 1633-6. Perfectly inordinate sums
+were offered in advance for growing crops or for particular bulbs; most
+of the transactions being purely paper speculations, a gambling in
+futures. Millions of guilders were risked, and hundreds of thousands
+lost or won. In 1637 the crash came, and many thousands of people, in
+Amsterdam, Haarlem, Leyden, Alkmaar and other towns in Holland, were
+brought to ruin. The Estates of Holland and the various municipal
+corporations, numbers of whose members were among the sufferers, were
+compelled to take official action to extend the time for the liquidation
+of debts, and thus to some extent limit the number of bankruptcies. The
+tulip mania reduced, however, so many to beggary that it came as a stern
+warning. It was unfortunately only too typical of the spirit of the
+time.
+
+Even worse in some ways was the venality and corruption which began to
+pervade the public life of the country. The getting of wealth, no matter
+how, was an epidemic, which infected not merely the business community,
+but the official classes of the republic. There was malversation in the
+admiralties and in the military administration. The government was in
+the hands of narrow oligarchies, who took good care to oppose jealously
+any extension of the privileges which placed so much valuable patronage
+at their disposal. Even envoys to foreign courts were reputed not to be
+inaccessible to the receipt of presents, which were in reality bribes;
+and in the law-courts the wealthy suitor or offender could generally
+count on a charitable construction being placed upon all points in his
+favour. The severe placards, for instance, against the public
+celebration of any form of worship but that of the Reformed religion,
+according to the decrees of the Synod of Dort, were notoriously not
+enforced. Those who were able and willing to pay for a dispensation
+found a ready and judicious toleration.
+
+This toleration was not entirely due to the venality of the officials,
+but rather to the spirit of materialistic indifference that was abroad
+among the orthodox Calvinists, who were alone eligible for public
+office. Large numbers of those who professed the established faith were
+in reality either nominal conformists too much immersed in affairs to
+trouble about religious questions, or actually free-thinkers in
+disguise. It must never be forgotten that in the United Provinces taken
+as a whole, the Calvinists, whether orthodox or arminian, formed a
+minority of the population. Even in Holland itself more than half the
+inhabitants were Catholics, including many of the old families and
+almost all the peasantry. Likewise in Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel
+the Catholics were in the majority. The Generality lands, North Brabant
+and Dutch Flanders, were entirely of the Roman faith. In Holland,
+Zeeland and especially in Friesland and Groningen the Mennonite Baptists
+and other sects had numerous adherents. Liberty of thought and to a
+large extent of worship was in fact at this time the characteristic of
+the Netherlands, and existed in spite of the unrepealed placards which
+enforced under pain of heavy penalties a strict adherence to the
+principles of Dort.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+LETTERS, SCIENCE AND ART
+
+
+The epithet "glorious"--_roemrijke_--has been frequently applied by
+Dutch historians to the period of Frederick Henry--and deservedly. The
+preceding chapter has told that it was a time of wonderful maritime and
+colonial expansion, of commercial supremacy and material prosperity. But
+the spirit of the Holland, which reached its culminating point of
+national greatness in the middle of the 17th century, was far from being
+wholly occupied with voyages of adventure and conquest on far distant
+seas, or engrossed in sordid commercialism at home. The rapid
+acquisition of wealth by successful trade is dangerous to the moral
+health and stability alike of individuals and of societies; and the
+vices which follow in its train had, as we have already pointed out,
+infected to a certain extent the official and commercial classes in the
+Dutch republic at this epoch. There is, however, another side of the
+picture. The people of the United Provinces in their long struggle for
+existence, as a free and independent state, had had all the dormant
+energies and qualities of which their race was capable called into
+intense and many-sided activity, with the result that the quickening
+impulse, which had been sent thrilling through the veins, and which had
+made the pulses to throb with the stress of effort and the eagerness of
+hope, penetrated into every department of thought and life. When the
+treaty of Muenster was signed, Holland had taken her place in the very
+front rank in the civilised world, as the home of letters, science and
+art, and was undoubtedly the most learned state in Europe.
+
+In an age when Latin was the universal language of learning, it was this
+last fact which loomed largest in the eyes of contemporaries. The wars
+and persecutions which followed the Reformation made Holland the place
+of refuge of many of the most adventurous spirits, the choicest
+intellects and the most independent thinkers of the time. Flemings and
+Walloons, who fled from Alva and the Inquisition, Spanish and Portuguese
+Jews driven out by the fanaticism of Philip II, French Huguenots and
+German Calvinists, found within the borders of the United Provinces a
+country of adoption, where freedom of the press and freedom of opinion
+existed to a degree unknown elsewhere until quite modern times. The
+social condition of the country, the disappearance of a feudal nobility,
+and the growth of a large and well-to-do burgher aristocracy in whose
+hands the government of the republic really lay, had led to a
+widespread diffusion of education and culture. All travellers in 17th
+century Holland were struck by the evidences which met their eyes, in
+all places that they visited, of a general prosperity combined with
+great simplicity of life and quiet domesticity. Homely comfort was to be
+seen everywhere, but not even in the mansions of the merchant princes of
+Amsterdam was there any ostentatious display of wealth and luxury.
+Probably of no other people could it have been said that "amongst the
+Dutch it was unfashionable not to be a man of business[6]." And yet, in
+spite of this, there was none of that narrowness of outlook, which is
+generally associated with burgher-society immersed in trade. These men,
+be it remembered, were necessarily acquainted with many languages, for
+they had commercial relations with all parts of the world. The number
+too of those who had actually voyaged and travelled in far distant
+oceans, in every variety of climate, amidst every diversity of race, was
+very large; and their presence in their home circles and in social
+gatherings and all they had to tell of their experiences opened men's
+minds, stirred their imaginations, and aroused an interest and a
+curiosity, which made even the stay-at-home Hollanders alert, receptive
+and eager for knowledge.
+
+The act of William the Silent in founding the University of Leyden, as a
+memorial of the great deliverance of 1574, was prophetic of the future
+that was about to dawn upon the land, which, at the moment of its lowest
+fortunes, the successful defence of Leyden had done so much to save from
+utter disaster. For the reasons which have been already stated, scholars
+of renown driven by intolerance from their own countries found in the
+newly-founded Academy in Holland a home where they could pursue their
+literary work undisturbed, and gave to it a fame and celebrity which
+speedily attracted thousands of students not only from the Netherlands,
+but also from foreign lands. This was especially the case during the
+terrible time when Germany was devastated by the Thirty Years' War.
+Among the scholars and philologists, who held chairs at Leyden during
+the first century of its existence, are included a long list of names of
+European renown. Justus Lipsius and Josephus Justus Scaliger may be
+justly reckoned among the founders of the science of critical
+scholarship. These were of foreign extraction, as was Salmasius, one of
+their successors, famous for his controversy with John Milton. But only
+less illustrious in the domain of philology and classical learning were
+the Netherlanders Gerardus Johannes Vossius (1577-1649) and his five
+sons, one of whom Isaac (1618-89) may be even said to have surpassed his
+father; Daniel Heinsius (1580-1665) and his son Nicolas (1620-1681), men
+of immense erudition and critical insight; and the brilliant Latinist
+Caspar Barlaeus (1584-1648). Of theologians and their bitter disputes
+posterity retains a less grateful remembrance. Gomarus and Arminius by
+their controversies were the authors of party strife and civil
+dissensions which led to the death of Oldenbarneveldt on the scaffold;
+and with them may be mentioned Episcopius, Voetius, Coecaeus, Bogerman
+and Uyttenbogaert. Not all these men had a direct connection with
+Leyden, for the success which attended the creation of the academy in
+that town quickly led to the erection of similar institutions elsewhere.
+Universities were founded at Franeker, 1584; Groningen, 1614; Amsterdam,
+1632; Utrecht, 1636; and Harderwijk, 1646. These had not the same
+attraction as Leyden for foreigners, but they quickly became, one and
+all, centres for the diffusion of that high level of general culture
+which was the distinguishing mark of the 17th century Netherlands.
+
+All the writers, whose names have just been mentioned, used Latin almost
+exclusively as their instrument of expression. But one name, the most
+renowned of them all, has been omitted, because through political
+circumstances he was compelled to spend the greater part of his life in
+banishment from his native land. Hugo Grotius (Huig van Groot), after
+his escape from the castle of Loevestein in 1621, though he remained
+through life a true patriot, never could be induced to accept a pardon,
+which implied an admission of guilt in himself or in Oldenbarneveldt. So
+the man, who was known to have been the actual writer of the Advocate's
+_Justification_, continued to live in straitened circumstances at Paris,
+until Oxenstierna appointed him Swedish ambassador at the French
+court. This post he held for eleven years. Of his extraordinary ability,
+and of the variety and range of his knowledge, it is not possible to
+speak without seeming exaggeration. Grotius was in his own time styled
+"the wonder of the world"; he certainly stands intellectually as one of
+the very foremost men the Dutch race has produced. Scholar, jurist,
+theologian, philosopher, historian, poet, diplomatist, letter-writer, he
+excelled in almost every branch of knowledge and made himself a master
+of whatever subject he took in hand. For the student of International
+Law the treatise of Grotius, _De Jure belli et pacis_, still remains the
+text-book on which the later superstructure has been reared. His _Mare
+liberum_, written expressly to controvert the Portuguese claim of an
+exclusive right to trade and navigate in the Indian Ocean, excited much
+attention in Europe, and was taken by James I to be an attack on the
+oft-asserted _dominium maris_ of the English crown in the narrow seas.
+It led the king to issue a proclamation forbidding foreigners to fish in
+British waters (May, 1609). Selden's _Mare clausum_ was a reply, written
+by the king's command, to the _Mare liberum_. Of his strictly historical
+works the _Annales et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis_, for its impartiality
+and general accuracy no less than for its finished and lucid style,
+stands out as the best of all contemporary accounts from the Dutch side
+of the Revolt of the Netherlands. As a theologian Grotius occupied a
+high rank. His _De Veritate Religionis Christianae_ and his
+_Annotationes in Vetus et in Novum Testamentum_ are now out of date; but
+the _De Veritate_ was in its day a most valuable piece of Christian
+apologetic and was quickly translated into many languages. The
+_Annotationes_ have, ever since they were penned, been helpful to
+commentators on the Scriptures for their brilliancy and suggestiveness
+on many points of criticism and interpretation. His voluminous
+correspondence, diplomatic, literary, confidential, is rich in
+information bearing on the history and the life of his time. Several
+thousands of these letters have been collected and published.
+
+But if the smouldering embers of bitter sectarian and party strife
+compelled the most brilliant of Holland's own sons to spend the last
+twenty-three years of his life in a foreign capital and to enter the
+service of a foreign state, Holland was at the same time, as we have
+seen, gaining distinction by the presence within her hospitable
+boundaries of men of foreign extraction famous for their learning.
+
+It was thus that both the Cartesian and Spinozan systems of philosophy
+had their birth-place on Dutch soil. Rene Descartes sought refuge from
+France at Amsterdam in 1629, and he resided at different places in the
+United Provinces, among them at the university towns of Utrecht,
+Franeker and Leyden, for twenty years. During this time he published
+most of his best known works, including the famous _Discours de la
+methode_. His influence was great. He made many disciples, who openly or
+secretly became "Cartesians." Among his pupils was Baruch Spinoza
+(1632-1677) the apostle of pantheism. A Portuguese Jew by descent,
+Spinoza was born in Amsterdam and was a resident in his native city
+throughout life.
+
+The fame of Holland in 17th century Europe as the chosen home of
+learning had thus been established by scholars and thinkers whose
+literary language was ordinarily Latin. It is now time to speak of the
+brilliant band of poets, dramatists and stylists, who cultivated the
+resources of their native tongue with such success as to make this great
+era truly the Golden Age of Dutch Literature properly so-called. The
+growth of a genuine national literature in the Netherlands, which had
+produced during the latter part of the 13th century a Maerlandt and a
+Melis Stoke, was for some considerable time checked and retarded by the
+influence of the Burgundian _regime_, where French, as the court
+language, was generally adopted by the upper classes. The Netherland or
+Low-German tongue thus became gradually debased and corrupted by the
+introduction of bastard words and foreign modes of expression.
+Nevertheless this period of linguistic degradation witnessed the uprise
+of a most remarkable institution for popularising "the Art of Poesy." I
+refer to the literary gilds, bearing the name of "Chambers of Rhetoric,"
+which, though of French origin, became rapidly acclimatised in the
+Netherlands. In well-nigh every town one or more of these "gilds" were
+established, delighting the people with their quaint pageantry and
+elaborate ritual, and forming centres of light and culture throughout
+the land. Rhyming, versifying, acting, became through their means the
+recreation of many thousands of shop-keepers, artisans and even
+peasants. And with all their faults of style and taste, their endless
+effusion of bad poetry, their feeble plays and rude farces, the mummery
+and buffoonery which were mingled even with their gravest efforts, the
+"Rhetoricians" effectually achieved the great and important work of
+attracting an entire people in an age of ignorance and of darkness
+towards a love of letters, and thereby broke the ground for the great
+revival of the 17th century. Amsterdam at one time possessed several
+of these Chambers of Rhetoric, but towards the end of the 16th century
+they had all disappeared, with one brilliant exception, that of the
+"Blossoming Eglantine," otherwise known as the "Old Chamber." Founded in
+1518 under the special patronage of Charles V, the "Eglantine" weathered
+safely the perils and troubles of the Revolt, and passed in 1581 under
+the joint direction of a certain notable triumvirate, Coornheert,
+Spiegel and Visscher. These men banded themselves together "to raise,
+restore and enrich" their mother-tongue. But they were not merely
+literary purists and reformers; the "Eglantine" became in their hands
+and through their efforts the focus of new literary life and energy, and
+Amsterdam replaced fallen Antwerp as the home of Netherland culture.
+
+The senior member of the triumvirate, Dirk Volkertz Coornheert, led a
+stormy and adventurous life. He was a devoted adherent of William the
+Silent and for a series of years, through good and ill-fortune, devoted
+himself with pen and person to the cause of his patron. As a poet he did
+not attain any very high flight, but he was a great pamphleteer, and,
+taking an active part in religious controversy, by his publications he
+drew upon himself a storm of opposition and in the end of persecution.
+He was, like his patron, a man of moderate and tolerant views, which in
+an age of religious bigotry brought upon him the hatred of all parties
+and the accusation of being a free-thinker. His stormy life ended in
+1590. Hendrik Laurensz Spiegel (1549-1612) was a member of an old
+Amsterdam family. In every way a contrast to Coornheert, Spiegel was a
+Catholic. A prosperous citizen, simple, unostentatious and charitable,
+he spent the whole of his life in his native town, and being
+disqualified by his religion from holding public office he gave all his
+leisure to the cultivation of his mind and to literary pursuits. The
+work on which his fame chiefly rests was a didactic poem entitled the
+_Hert-Spiegel_. In his pleasant country house upon the banks of the
+Amstel, beneath a wide and spreading tree, which he was wont to call the
+"Temple of the Muses" he loved to gather a circle of literary friends,
+irrespective of differences of opinion or of faith, and with them to
+spend the afternoon in bright congenial converse on books and men and
+things. Roemer Visscher, the youngest member of the triumvirate, was
+like Spiegel an Amsterdammer, a Catholic and a well-to-do merchant. His
+poetical efforts did not attain a high standard, though his epigrams,
+which were both witty and quaint, won for him from his contemporaries
+the name of the "Second Martial." Roemer Visscher's fame does not,
+however, rest chiefly upon his writings. A man of great affability,
+learned, shrewd and humorous, he was exceedingly hospitable, and he was
+fortunate in having a wife of like tastes and daughters more gifted than
+himself. During the twenty years which preceded his death in 1620 his
+home was the chosen rendezvous of the best intelligence of the day. To
+the young he was ever ready to give encouragement and help; and
+struggling talent always found in him a kindly critic and a sympathising
+friend. He lived to see and to make the acquaintance of Brederoo,
+Vondel, Cats and Huyghens, the men whose names were to make the period
+of Frederick Henry the most illustrious in the annals of Dutch
+literature.
+
+Gerbrand Adriansz Brederoo, strictly speaking, did not belong to that
+period. He died prematurely in 1618, a victim while still young to a
+wayward life of dissipation and disappointment. His comedies, written in
+the rude dialect of the fish-market and the street, are full of native
+humour and originality and give genuine glimpses of low life in old
+Amsterdam. His songs show that Brederoo had a real poetic gift. They
+reveal, beneath the rough and at times coarse and licentious exterior, a
+nature of fine susceptibilities and almost womanly tenderness. Joost van
+den Vondel was born in the same year as Brederoo, 1587, but his career
+was very different. Vondel survived till 1679, and during the whole of
+his long life his pen was never idle. His dramas and poems (in the
+edition of Van Lennep) fill twelve volumes. Such a vast production, as
+is inevitable, contains material of very unequal merit; but it is not
+too much to say that the highest flights of Vondel's lyric poetry, alike
+in power of expression and imagery, in the variety of metre and the
+harmonious cadence of the verse, deserve a far wider appreciation than
+they have ever received, through the misfortune of having been written
+in a language little known and read. Vondel was the son of an Antwerp
+citizen compelled as a Protestant to fly from his native town after its
+capture by Parma. He took refuge at Cologne, where the poet was born,
+and afterwards settled at Amsterdam. In that town Vondel spent all his
+life, first as a shopkeeper, then as a clerk in the City Savings' Bank.
+He was always a poor man; he never sought for the patronage of the
+great, but rather repelled it. His scathing attacks on those who had
+compassed the death of Oldenbarneveldt, and his adhesion to the
+Remonstrant cause brought him in early life into disfavour with the
+party in power, while later his conversion to Catholicism--in 1641--and
+his eager and zealous advocacy of its doctrines, were a perpetual bar to
+that public recognition of his talents which was his due. Vondel never
+at any time sacrificed his convictions to his interest, and he wrote
+poetry not from the desire of wealth or fame, but because he was a born
+poet and his mind found in verse the natural expression of its thought
+and emotions.
+
+But, though Vondel was a poor man, he was not unlearned. On the contrary
+he was a diligent student of Greek and Latin literature, and translated
+many of the poetical masterpieces in those languages into Dutch verse.
+Indeed so close was his study that it marred much of his own work.
+Vondel wrote a great number of dramas, but his close imitation of the
+Greek model with its chorus, and his strict adherence to the unities,
+render them artificial in form and lacking in movement and life. This is
+emphasised by the fact that many of them are based on Scriptural themes,
+and by the monotony of the Alexandrine metre in which all the dialogues
+are written. It is in the choruses that the poetical genius of Vondel is
+specially displayed. Lyrical gems in every variety of metre are to be
+found in the Vondelian dramas, alike in his youthful efforts and in
+those of extreme old age. Of the dramas, the finest and the most famous
+is the _Lucifer_, 1654, which treats of the expulsion of Lucifer and his
+rebel host of angels from Heaven. We are here in the presence of a
+magnificent effort to deal grandiosely with a stupendous theme. The
+conception of the personality of Lucifer is of heroic proportions; and a
+comparison of dates renders it at least probable that this Dutch drama
+passed into John Milton's hands, and that distinct traces of the
+impression it made upon him are to be found in certain passages of the
+_Paradise Lost_. Vondel also produced hundreds of occasional pieces,
+besides several lengthy religious and didactic poems. He even essayed an
+epic poem on Constantine the Great, but it was never completed. Of the
+occasional poems the finest are perhaps the triumph songs over the
+victories of Frederick Henry, and of the great admirals Tromp and De
+Ruyter.
+
+Jacob Cats (1577-1660) lived, like Vondel, to a great age, but in very
+different circumstances. He was a native of Dordrecht and became
+pensionary of that town, and, though not distinguished as a statesman or
+politician, he was so much respected for his prudence and moderation
+that for twenty-two years he filled the important office of
+Council-Pensionary of Holland and was twice sent as an Envoy
+Extraordinary to England. He was a prolific writer and was undoubtedly
+the most popular and widely-read of the poets of his time. His works
+were to be found in every Dutch homestead, and he was familiarly known
+as "Father Cats." His gifts were, however, of a very different order
+from those of Vondel. His long poems dealt chiefly with the events of
+domestic, every-day existence; and the language, simple, unpretentious
+and at times commonplace, was nevertheless not devoid of a certain
+restful charm. There are no high flights of imagination or of passion,
+but there are many passages as rich in quaint fancy as in wise maxims.
+With Constantine Huyghens (1596-1687) the writing of verse was but one
+of the many ways in which one of the most cultured, versatile, and busy
+men of his time found pleasant recreation in his leisure hours. The
+trusted secretary, friend and counsellor of three successive Princes of
+Orange, Huyghens in these capacities was enabled for many years to
+render great service to Frederick Henry, William II and William III,
+more especially perhaps to the last-named during the difficult and
+troubled period of his minority. Nevertheless all these cares and
+labours of the diplomatist, administrator, courtier and man of the world
+did not prevent him from following his natural bent for intellectual
+pursuits. He was a man of brilliant parts and of refined and artistic
+tastes. Acquainted with many languages and literatures, an accomplished
+musician and musical composer, a generous patron of letters and of art,
+his poetical efforts are eminently characteristic of the personality of
+the man. His volumes of short poems--_Hofwijck, Cluijswerck, Voorhout_
+and _Zeestraet_--contain exquisite and witty pictures of life at the
+Hague--"the village of villages"--and are at once fastidious in form and
+pithy in expression.
+
+It remains to speak of the man who may truly be described as the central
+figure among his literary contemporaries. Pieter Cornelisz Hooft
+(1583-1647) was indisputably the first man of letters of his time. He
+sprang from one of the first families of the burgher-aristocracy of
+Amsterdam, in which city his father, Cornelis Pietersz Hooft, filled the
+office of burgomaster no less than thirteen times. He began even as a
+boy to write poetry, and his strong bent to literature was deepened by a
+prolonged tour of more than three years in France, Germany and Italy,
+almost two years of which were spent at Florence and Venice. After his
+return he studied jurisprudence at Leyden, but when he was only
+twenty-six years old he received an appointment which was to mould and
+fix the whole of his future career. In 1609 Prince Maurice, in
+recognition of his father's great services, nominated Hooft to the
+coveted post of Drost, or Governor, of Muiden and bailiff of Gooiland.
+This post involved magisterial and administrative duties of a
+by-no-means onerous kind; and the official residence of the Drost, the
+"High House of Muiden," an embattled feudal castle with pleasant
+gardens, lying at the point where at no great distance from Amsterdam
+the river Vecht sleepily empties itself into the Zuyder Zee, became
+henceforth for thirty years a veritable home of letters.
+
+Hooft's literary life may be divided into two portions. In the decade
+after his settlement at Muiden, he was known as a dramatist and a writer
+of pretty love songs. His dramas--_Geerard van Velzen, Warenar_ and
+_Baeto_--caught the popular taste and were frequently acted, but are not
+of high merit. His songs and sonnets are distinguished for their musical
+rhythm and airy lightness of touch, but they were mostly penned, as he
+himself tells us, for his own pleasure and that of his friends, not for
+general publication. There are, nevertheless, charming pieces in the
+collected edition of Hooft's poems, and he was certainly an adept in the
+technicalities of metrical craft. But Hooft himself was ambitious of
+being remembered by posterity as a national historian. He aimed at
+giving such a narrative of the struggle against Spain as would entitle
+him to the name of "the Tacitus of the Netherlands." He wished to
+produce no mere chronicle like those of Bor or Van Meteren, but a
+literary history in the Dutch tongue, whose style should be modelled on
+that of the great Roman writer, whose works Hooft is said to have read
+through fifty-two times. He first, to try his hand, wrote a life of
+Henry IV of France, which attained great success. Louis XIII was so
+pleased with it that he sent the author a gold chain and made him a
+Knight of St Michael. Thus encouraged, on August 19, 1628, Hooft began
+his _Netherland Histories_, and from this date until his death in 1647
+he worked ceaselessly at the _magnum opus_, which, beginning with the
+abdication of Charles V, he intended to carry on until the conclusion of
+the Twelve Years' Truce. He did not live to bring the narrative further
+than the end of the Leicester regime. In a small tower in the orchard at
+Muiden he kept his papers; and here, undisturbed, he spent all his
+leisure hours for nineteen years engaged on the great task, on which he
+concentrated all his energies. He himself tells us of the enormous pains
+that he took to get full and accurate information, collecting records,
+consulting archives and submitting every portion as it was written to
+the criticism of living authorities, more especially to Constantine
+Huyghens and through him to the Prince of Orange himself. Above all
+Hooft strove, to use his own words, "never to conceal the truth, even
+were it to the injury of the fatherland"; and the carrying-out of this
+principle has given to the great prose-epic that he wrote a permanent
+value apart altogether from its merits as a remarkable literary
+achievement. And yet perhaps the most valuable legacy that Hooft has
+left to posterity is his collection of letters. Of these a recent
+writer[7] has declared "that, though it could not be asserted that they
+[Hooft's letters] threw into the shade the whole of the rest of
+Netherland literature, still the assertion would not be far beyond the
+mark." They deal with every variety of subject, grave and gay; and they
+give us an insight into the literary, social and domestic life of the
+Holland of his time, which is of more value than any history.
+
+In these letters we find life-like portraits of the scholars, poets,
+dramatists, musicians, singers, courtiers and travellers, who formed
+that brilliant society which received from their contemporaries the name
+of the "Muiden Circle"--_Muidener Kring_. The genial and hospitable
+Drost loved to see around him those "five or six couple of friends,"
+whom he delighted to invite to Muiden. Hooft was twice married; and both
+his wives, Christina van Erp and Heleonore Hellemans, were charming and
+accomplished women, endowed with those social qualities which gave an
+added attractiveness to the Muiden gatherings. Brandt, Hooft's
+biographer, describes Christina as "of surpassing capacity and
+intelligence, as beautiful, pleasing, affable, discreet, gentle and
+gracious, as such a man could desire to have"; while, of Heleonore,
+Hooft himself writes: "Within this house one ever finds sunshine, even
+when it rains without."
+
+This reference to the two hostesses of Muiden calls attention to one of
+the noteworthy features of social life in the Holland of this
+period--namely, the high level of education among women belonging to
+the upper burgher-class. Anna and Maria Tesselschade Visscher, and Anna
+Maria Schuurman may be taken as examples. Anna, the elder of the two
+daughters of Roemer Visscher (1584-1651), was brought up amidst cultured
+surroundings. For some years after her mother's death she took her place
+as mistress of the house which until 1620 had been the hospitable
+rendezvous of the literary society of Amsterdam. She was herself a woman
+of wide erudition, and her fame as a poet was such as to win for her,
+according to the fashion of the day, the title of "the Dutch Sappho."
+Tesselschade, ten years younger than her sister and educated under her
+fostering care, was however destined to eclipse her, alike by her
+personal charms and her varied accomplishments. If one could believe all
+that is said in her praise by Hooft, Huyghens, Barlaeus, Brederoo,
+Vondel and Cats, she must indeed have been a very marvel of perfect
+womanhood. As a singer she was regarded as being without a rival; and
+her skill in painting, carving, etching on glass and tapestry work was
+much praised by her numerous admirers. Her poetical works, including her
+translation into Dutch verse of Tasso's _Gerusalemme Liberata_, have
+almost all unfortunately perished, but a single ode that survives--"the
+Ode to a Nightingale"--is an effort not unworthy of Shelley and shows
+her possession of a true lyrical gift. At Muiden the presence of the
+"beautiful" Tesselschade was almost indispensable. "What feast would be
+complete," wrote Hooft to her, "at which you were not present? Favour us
+then with your company if it be possible"; and again: "that you will
+come is my most earnest desire. If you will but be our guest, then, I
+hope, you will cure all our ills." He speaks of her to Barlaeus as "the
+priestess"; and it is clear that at her shrine all the frequenters of
+Muiden were ready to burn the incense of adulation. Both Anna and
+Tesselschade, like their father, were devout Catholics.
+
+Anna Maria van Schuurman (1607-84) was a woman of a different type. She
+does not seem to have loved or to have shone in society, but she was a
+very phenomenon of learning. She is credited with proficiency in
+painting, carving and other arts; but it is not on these, so to speak,
+accessory accomplishments that her fame rests, but on the extraordinary
+range and variety of her solid erudition. She was at once linguist,
+scholar, theologian, philosopher, scientist and astronomer. She was a
+remarkable linguist and had a thorough literary and scholarly knowledge
+of French, English, German, Italian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Syriac,
+Chaldee, Arabic and Ethiopic. Her reputation became widespread; and, in
+the latter part of her long life, many strangers went to Utrecht, where
+she resided, to try to get a glimpse of so great a celebrity, which was
+not easy owing to her aversion to such visits.
+
+Turning to the domain of mathematical and physical science and of
+scientific research and discovery, we find that here also the 17th
+century Netherlanders attained the highest distinction. As
+mathematicians Simon Stevin, the friend and instructor of Maurice of
+Orange, and Francis van Schooten, the Leyden Professor, who numbered
+among his pupils Christian Huyghens and John de Witt, did much excellent
+work in the earlier years of the century. The published writings of De
+Witt on "the properties of curves" and on "the theory of probabilities"
+show that the greatest of Dutch statesmen might have become famous as a
+mathematician had the cares of administration permitted him to pursue
+the abstract studies that he loved. Of the scientific achievements of
+Christian Huyghens (1629-95), the brilliant son of a brilliant father,
+it is difficult to speak in adequate terms. There is scarcely any name
+in the annals of science that stands higher than his. His abilities, as
+a pure mathematician, place him in the front rank among mathematicians
+of all time; and yet the services that he rendered to mathematical
+science were surpassed by his extraordinary capacity for the combination
+of theory with practice. His powers of invention, of broad
+generalisation, of originality of thought were almost unbounded. Among
+the mathematical problems with which he dealt successfully were the
+theory of numbers, the squaring of the circle and the calculation of
+chances. To him we owe the conception of the law of the conservation of
+energy, of the motion of the centre of gravity, and of the undulatory
+theory of light. He expounded the laws of the motion of the pendulum,
+increased the power of the telescope, invented the micrometer,
+discovered the rings and satellites of Saturn, constructed the first
+pendulum clock, and a machine, called the gunpowder machine, in
+principle the precursor of the steam engine. For sheer brain power and
+inventive genius Christian Huyghens was a giant. He spent the later
+years of his life in Paris, where he was one of the founders and
+original members of the _Academie des Sciences_. Two other names of
+scientists, who gained a European reputation for original research and
+permanent additions to knowledge, must be mentioned; those of Antoni van
+Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), and of Jan Swammerdam (1637-80). Leeuwenhoek
+was a life-long observer of minute life. The microscope (the invention
+of which was due to a Dutchman, Cornelius Drebbel) was the favourite
+instrument of his patient investigations, and he was able greatly to
+improve its mechanism and powers. Among the results of his labours was
+the discovery of the infusoria, and the collection of a valuable mass of
+information concerning the circulation of the blood and the structure of
+the eye and brain. Swammerdam was a naturalist who devoted himself to
+the study of the habits and the metamorphoses of insects, and he may be
+regarded as the founder of this most important branch of scientific
+enquiry. His work forms the basis on which all subsequent knowledge on
+this subject has been built up.
+
+To say that the school of Dutch painting attained its zenith in the
+period of Frederick Henry and the decades which preceded and followed
+it, is scarcely necessary. It was the age of Rembrandt. The works of
+that great master and of his contemporaries, most of whom were
+influenced and many dominated by his genius, are well known to every
+lover of art, and are to be seen in every collection of pictures in
+Europe. One has, however, to visit the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam and the
+Mauritshuis at the Hague to appreciate what an extraordinary outburst of
+artistic skill and talent had at this time its birth within the narrow
+limits of the northern Netherlands. To the student of Dutch history
+these two galleries are a revelation, for there we see 17th century
+Holland portrayed before us in every phase of its busy and prosperous
+public, social and domestic life. Particularly is this the case with the
+portraits of individuals and of civic and gild groups by Rembrandt,
+Frans Hals, Van der Helst and their followers, which form an inimitable
+series that has rarely been equalled. To realise to what an extent in
+the midst of war the fine arts flourished in Holland, a mere list of the
+best-known painters of the period will suffice, it tells its own tale.
+They are given in the order of their dates: Frans Hals (1584-1666),
+Gerard Honthorst (1592-1662), Jan van Goyen (1596-1656), Jan Wyvants
+(1600-87), Albert Cuyp (1606-72), Jan Lievens (1607-63), Rembrandt van
+Rhyn (1608-69), Gerard Terburg (1608-81), Adrian Brouwer (1608-41),
+Ferdinand Bol (1609-81), Salomon Koning (1609-74), Andreas Both
+(1609-60), Jan Both (1610-62), Adrian van Ostade (1610-85), Bartolomaus
+van der Helst (1613-70), Gerard Douw (1613-80), Gabriel Metzu (1615-58),
+Govaert Flinck (1615-60), Isaac van Ostade (1617-71), Aart van der Neer
+(1619-83), Pieter de Koningh (1619-89), Philip Wouvermans (1620-68),
+Pieter van der Hoogh (?), Nicolas Berchem (1624-83), Paul Potter
+(1625-54), Jacob Ruysdael (1625-81), Meindert Hobbema (?), Jan Steen
+(1626-79), Samuel van Hoogstraeten (1627-78), Ludolf Backhuizen
+(1631-1709), Jan van der Meer of Delft (1632-?), Nicholas Maes
+(1632-93), William van der Velde (1633-1707), Frans van Mieris
+(1635-81), Caspar Netscher (1639-84), Adrian van der Velde (1639-72).
+
+It is strange that little is known of the lives of the great majority of
+these men; they are scarcely more than names, but their memory survives
+in their works. No better proof could be brought of the general
+abundance of money and at the same time of the widespread culture of the
+land than the fact that art found among all classes so many patrons. The
+aristocratic burgher-magistrates and the rich merchants loved to adorn
+their houses with portraits and a choice selection of pictures; it was a
+favourite investment of capital, and there was a certain amount of
+rivalry among the principal families in a town like Amsterdam in being
+possessed of a fine collection. The "Six" collection still remains as an
+example upon the walls of the 17th century house of Burgomaster Six,
+where it was originally placed. The governing bodies of gilds and
+boards, members of corporations, the officers of the town _schutterij_
+or of archer companies delighted to have their portraits hung around
+their council chambers or halls of assembly. In the well-to-do
+farmer-homesteads and even in the dwellings of the poorer classes
+pictures were to be found, as one may see in a large number of the
+"interiors" which were the favourite subject of the _genre_ painters of
+the day. But with all this demand the artists themselves do not seem to
+have in any case been highly paid. The prices were low. Even Rembrandt
+himself, whose gains were probably much larger than those of any of
+his contemporaries, and whose first wife, Saskia Uilenburg, was a woman
+of means, became bankrupt in 1656, and this at a time when he was still
+in his prime, and his powers at their height. Some of his most famous
+pictures were produced at a later date.
+
+During the Thirty Years' War Holland became the centre of the publishing
+and book-selling trade; and Leyden and Amsterdam were famed as the
+foremost seats of printing in Europe. The devastation of Germany and
+the freedom of the press in the United Provinces combined to bring about
+this result. The books produced by the Elseviers at Leyden and by Van
+Waesberg and Cloppenburch at Amsterdam are justly regarded as fine
+specimens of the printer's art, while the maps of Willem Jansz Blaeu and
+his Dutch contemporaries were quite unrivalled, and marked a great step
+forward in cartography.
+
+This chapter must not conclude without a reference to the part taken by
+the Netherlanders in the development of modern music and the modern
+stage. The love of music was widespread; and the musicians of the
+Netherlands were famed alike as composers and executants. It was from
+its earlier home in the Low Countries that the art of modern music
+spread into Italy and Germany and indeed into all Europe. Similarly in
+the late Middle Ages the people of the Netherlands were noted for their
+delight in scenic representations and for the picturesque splendour with
+which they were carried out. The literary gilds, named Chambers of
+Rhetoric, never took such deep root elsewhere; and in the performance of
+Mystery Plays and Moralities and of lighter comic pieces (_chuttementen_
+and _cluyten_) many thousands of tradespeople and artisans took part. In
+the 17th century all the Chambers of Rhetoric had disappeared with the
+single exception of the famous "Old Chamber" at Amsterdam, known as _The
+Blossoming Eglantine_, to which the leading spirits of the Golden Age of
+Dutch Literature belonged and which presided over the birth of the Dutch
+Stage. From the first the stage was popular and well-supported; and the
+new theatre of Amsterdam, the Schouburg (completed in 1637), became
+speedily renowned for the completeness of its arrangements and the
+ability of its actors. Such indeed was their reputation that travelling
+companies of Dutch players visited the chief cities of Germany, Austria
+and Denmark, finding everywhere a ready welcome and reaping a rich
+reward, whilst at Stockholm for a time a permanent Dutch theatre was
+established.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM II.
+
+THE GREAT ASSEMBLY
+
+
+Upon the death of Frederick Henry of Orange (March, 1647), his only son
+succeeded to his titles and estates and also by virtue of the Act of
+Survivance to the offices of Stadholder in six provinces and to the
+Captain-Generalship and Admiral-Generalship of the Union. William was
+but twenty-one years of age and, having been excluded during Frederick
+Henry's lifetime from taking any active part in affairs of state, he had
+turned his energies into the pursuit of pleasure, and had been leading a
+gay and dissolute life. His accession to power was, however, speedily to
+prove that he was possessed of great abilities, a masterful will and a
+keen and eager ambition. He had strongly disapproved of the trend of the
+peace negotiations at Muenster, and would have preferred with the help of
+the French to have attempted to drive the Spaniards out of the southern
+Netherlands. The preliminaries were, however, already settled in the
+spring of 1647; and the determination of the province of Holland and
+especially of the town of Amsterdam to conclude an advantageous peace
+with Spain and to throw over France rendered the opposition of the young
+Stadholder unavailing. But William, though he had perforce to acquiesce
+in the treaty of Muenster, was nevertheless resolved at the earliest
+opportunity to undo it. Thus from the outset he found himself in a
+pronounced antagonism with the province of Holland, which could only
+issue in a struggle for supremacy similar to that with which his uncle
+Maurice was confronted in the years that followed the truce of 1609,
+and, to a less degree, his father after 1640.
+
+Commerce was the predominant interest of the burgher-aristocracies who
+held undisputed sway in the towns of Holland; and they, under the
+powerful leadership of Amsterdam, were anxious that the peace they had
+secured should not be disturbed. They looked forward to lightening
+considerably the heavy load of taxation which burdened them, by reducing
+the number of troops and of ships of war maintained by the States. To
+this policy the young prince was resolutely opposed, and he had on his
+side the prestige of his name and a vast body of popular support even
+in Holland itself, among that great majority of the inhabitants, both of
+town and country, who were excluded from all share in government and
+administration and were generally Orangist in sympathy. He had also with
+him the officers of the army and navy and the preachers. His chief
+advisers were his cousin William Frederick, Stadholder of Friesland, and
+Cornelis van Aerssens (son of Francis) lord of Sommelsdijk. By the
+agency of Sommelsdijk he put himself in secret communication with Count
+d'Estrades, formerly French ambassador at the Hague, now Governor of
+Dunkirk, and through him with Mazarin, with the view of concluding an
+alliance with France for the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands, and
+for sending a joint expedition to England to overthrow the Parliamentary
+forces and establish the Stewarts on the throne. Mazarin was at this
+time, however, far too much occupied by his struggle with the Fronde to
+listen to the overtures of a young man who had as yet given no proof of
+being in a position to give effect to his ambitious proposals.
+Nevertheless the prince was in stern earnest. In April, 1648, his
+brother-in-law, James, Duke of York, had taken refuge at the Hague, and
+was followed in July by the Prince of Wales. William received them with
+open arms and, urged on by his wife, the Princess Royal, and by her aunt
+the exiled Queen of Bohemia, who with her family was still residing at
+the Hague, he became even more eager to assist in effecting a Stewart
+restoration than in renewing the war with Spain. The difficulties in his
+way were great. In 1648 public opinion in the States on the whole
+favoured the Parliamentary cause. But, when the Parliament sent over Dr
+Doreslaer and Walter Strickland as envoys to complain of royal ships
+being allowed to use Dutch harbours, the States-General, through the
+influence of the prince, refused them an audience. The Estates of
+Holland on this gave a signal mark of their independence and antagonism
+by receiving Doreslaer and forbidding the royal squadron to remain in
+any of the waters of the Province.
+
+The news of the trial of King Charles for high-treason brought about a
+complete revulsion of feeling. The Prince of Wales himself in person
+begged the States-General to intervene on his father's behalf; and the
+proposal met with universal approval. It was at once agreed that Adrian
+Pauw, the now aged leader of the anti-Orange party in Holland, should go
+to London to intercede for the king's life. He was courteously received
+on January 26 o.s., and was granted an audience by the House of Commons,
+but the decision had already been taken and his efforts were
+unavailing. The execution of the king caused a wave of horror to sweep
+over the Netherlands, and an address of condolence was offered by the
+States-General to the Prince of Wales; but, to meet the wishes of the
+delegates of Holland, he was addressed not as King of Great Britain, but
+simply as King Charles II, and it was agreed that Joachimi, the resident
+ambassador in London, should not be recalled at present. The new English
+Government on their part sent over once more Dr Doreslaer with friendly
+proposals for drawing the two republics into closer union. Doreslaer,
+who had taken part in the trial of Charles I, was specially obnoxious to
+the royalist exiles, who had sought refuge in Holland. He landed on May
+9. Three days later he was assassinated as he was dining at his hotel.
+The murderers, five or six in number, managed to make their escape and
+were never apprehended.
+
+Although highly incensed by this outrage, the English Government did not
+feel itself strong enough to take decided action. The Estates of Holland
+expressed through Joachimi their abhorrence at what had occurred; and
+the Parliament instructed Strickland to approach the States-General
+again with friendly advances. The States-General refused to grant him an
+audience, while receiving the envoy despatched by Charles II from
+Scotland to announce his accession. The English Council of State had no
+alternative but to regard this as a deliberate insult. Strickland was
+recalled and left Holland, July 22. On September 26 Joachimi was ordered
+to leave London. The breach between the two countries seemed to be
+complete, but the Estates of Holland, who for the sake of their commerce
+dreaded the thought of a naval war, did all in their power to work for
+an accommodation. They received Strickland in a public audience before
+his departure, and they ventured to send a special envoy to Whitehall,
+Gerard Schaep, January 22, to treat with the Parliament. By this action
+the Provincial Estates flouted the authority of the States-General and
+entered into negotiations on their own account, as if they were an
+independent State. The Hollanders were anxious to avoid war almost at
+any price, but circumstances proved too strong for them.
+
+In order to carry out this pacifist policy the Estates of Holland now
+resolved to effect a large reduction of expenditure by disbanding a
+portion of the troops and ships. When the peace of Muenster was signed
+the States possessed an army of 60,000 men, and all parties were agreed
+that this large force might safely be reduced. In July 1648, a drastic
+reduction was carried out, twenty-five thousand men being disbanded. The
+Estates of Holland, however, demanded a further retrenchment of military
+charges, but met with the strong opposition of the Prince and his cousin
+William Frederick, who declared that an army of at least 30,000 was
+absolutely necessary for garrisoning the frontier fortresses and
+safeguarding the country against hostile attack. Their views had the
+support of all the other provinces, but Holland was obdurate. In Holland
+commerce reigned supreme; and the burgher-regents and merchants were
+suspicious of the prince's warlike designs and were determined to thwart
+them. Finding that the States-General refused to disband at their
+dictation some fifty-five companies of the excellent foreign troops who
+formed the kernel of the States' army, the Provincial Estates proceeded
+to take matters into their own hands, and discharged a body of 600
+foreign troops which were paid by the Province. In doing this they were
+acting illegally. The old question of the sovereign rights of the
+Provinces, which had been settled in 1619 by the sword of Maurice, was
+once more raised. The States-General claimed to exercise the sole
+authority in military matters. There were not seven armies in the Union,
+but one army under the supreme command of the captain-general appointed
+by the States-General. The captain-general was now but a young and
+inexperienced man, but he had none of the hesitation and indecision
+shown by his uncle Maurice in the troubles of 1618-19, and did not
+shrink from the conflict with the dominant province to which he was
+challenged.
+
+For some time, indeed, wrangling went on. There was a strong minority in
+the Estates of Holland opposed to extreme measures; and the
+council-pensionary, Jacob Cats, was a moderate man friendly to the House
+of Orange. An accommodation was reached on the subject of the disbanding
+of the 600 foreign troops, but the conflict was renewed, and in the
+middle of 1650 it assumed grave proportions. The heart and soul of the
+opposition to the prince was Amsterdam. William had for some time been
+urged by his Friesland cousin to take action, since the attitude of
+Amsterdam threatened the dissolution of the Union. The prince was at
+this time engaged in negotiating with France, but nothing had as yet
+been settled, and his projects were not ripe for execution. Nevertheless
+it was absolutely necessary for their realisation that the military
+forces should not be excessively reduced. Under his influence the
+States-General decided that, though the number of troops in the several
+regiments should be decreased, the _cadres_ of all regiments with their
+full quota of officers should be retained. To this the Estates of
+Holland dissented, and finding that they could not prevail, they
+determined on a daring step. Orders were sent (June 1, 1650) to the
+colonels of the regiments on the Provincial war-sheet to disband their
+regiments on pain of stoppage of pay. The colonels refused to take any
+orders save from the Council of State and the captain-general. The
+prince accordingly, with William Frederick and the Council of State,
+appeared in the States-General and appealed to them to uphold the
+colonels in their refusal. There could be no question that the Estates
+of Holland were hopelessly in the wrong, for their representatives in
+the States-General had in 1623,1626,1630 and 1642 voted for the
+enforcement on recalcitrant provinces of the full quota at which they
+were assessed for the payment of the army of the Union. The
+States-General, June 5, therefore determined to send a "notable
+deputation" to the towns of Holland. The prince was asked to head the
+deputation, the members of which were to be chosen by him; and he was
+invested with practically dictatorial powers to take measures for the
+keeping of the peace and the maintenance of the Union. In doing this the
+Generality were themselves acting _ultra vires_. The States-General was
+an assembly consisting of the representatives of the Provincial Estates.
+It could deal or treat therefore only with the Estates of the several
+provinces, not with the individual towns within a province. In resisting
+the interference of the Estates of Holland with matters that concerned
+the Union as a whole, they were themselves infringing, by the commission
+given to the "notable deputation," the jurisdiction of the Provincial
+Estates over their own members.
+
+The prince set out on June 8, and visited all the "privileged" towns.
+The result was more than disappointing. The Council of the premier
+municipality, Dordrecht, set the example by declaring that they were
+answerable only to the Estates of the Province. Schiedam, Alkmaar, Edam
+and Monnikendam gave the same reply. Delft and Haarlem were willing to
+receive the prince as stadholder, but not the deputation. Amsterdam,
+under the influence of the brothers Andries and Cornelis Bicker, went
+even further and after some parleying declined to admit either the
+deputation or the prince. On June 25 William returned to the Hague
+bitterly chagrined by his reception and determined to crush resistance
+by force.
+
+The stroke he planned was to seize the representatives of six towns
+which had been specially obstinate in their opposition, and at the same
+time to occupy Amsterdam with an armed force. His preparations were
+quickly made. On July 30 an invitation was sent to Jacob de Witt,
+ex-burgomaster of Dordrecht, and five other prominent members of the
+Estates of Holland, to visit the prince. On their arrival they were
+arrested by the stadholder's guard, and carried off as prisoners to the
+Castle of Loevestein. William had meanwhile left the execution of the
+_coup-de-main_ against Amsterdam to his cousin William Frederick. The
+arrangements for gathering together secretly a large force from various
+garrisons were skilfully made, and it was intended at early dawn to
+seize unexpectedly one of the gates, and then to march in and get
+possession of the town without opposition. The plan, however,
+accidentally miscarried. Some of the troops in the night having lost
+their way, attracted the notice of a postal messenger on his way to
+Amsterdam, who reported their presence to the burgomaster, Cornelis
+Bicker. Bicker at once took action. The gates were closed, the council
+summoned, and vigorous measures of defence taken. William Frederick
+therefore contented himself with surrounding the city, so as to prevent
+ingress or egress from the gates. On the next morning, July 31, William,
+having learnt that the surprise attack had failed, set out for
+Amsterdam, determined to compel its surrender. The council, fearing the
+serious injury a siege would cause to its commerce, opened negotiations
+(August 1). The prince, however, insisting on unconditional submission,
+no other course was open. Amsterdam undertook to offer no further
+opposition to the proposals of the States-General, and was compelled to
+agree to the humiliating demand of the stadholder that the brothers
+Bicker should not only resign their posts in the municipal government,
+but should be declared ineligible for any official position in the
+future.
+
+The Prince of Orange had now secured the object at which he had aimed.
+His authority henceforth rested on a firm basis. His opponents had been
+overthrown and humiliated. The Estates of six provinces thanked him for
+the success of his efforts, and he on his part met the general wish for
+economy by agreeing to a reduction of the foreign troops in the pay of
+the States on the distinct understanding that only the States-General
+had the right to disband any portion of the forces, not the provincial
+paymasters. In the flush of triumph William at the end of August left
+the Hague for his country seat at Dieren, nominally for hunting and for
+rest, in reality to carry on secret negotiations with France for the
+furtherance of his warlike designs. The complete defeat of Charles II at
+the battle of Worcester, September 3, must have been a severe blow to
+his hopes for the restoration of the Stuarts, but it did not deter him
+from pursuing his end. With d'Estrades, now Governor of Dunkirk, the
+prince secretly corresponded, and through him matters were fully
+discussed with the French Government. In a letter written from the Hague
+on October 2, William expressed a strong wish that d'Estrades should
+come in person to visit him; and it was the intention of d'Estrades to
+accept this invitation as soon as he had received from Paris the copy of
+a draft-treaty, which was being prepared. This draft-treaty, which was
+probably drawn up by Mazarin, reached d'Estrades in the course of
+October, but circumstantial evidence proves that it was never seen by
+William. Its provisions were as follows. Both Powers were to declare war
+on Spain and attack Flanders and Antwerp. The Dutch were to besiege
+Antwerp, which city, if taken, was to become the personal appanage of
+the Prince, of Orange. When the Spanish power in the southern
+Netherlands had been overthrown, then France and the United Provinces
+were to send a joint expedition to England to place Charles II on the
+throne. Whether the prince would have approved these proposals we know
+not; in all probability he would have declined to commit himself to a
+plan of such a far-reaching and daring character, for he was aware of
+the limitations of his power, and knew that even his great influence
+would have been insufficient to obtain the consent of the States-General
+to an immediate renewal of war. Speculation however is useless, for an
+inexorable fate raised other issues.
+
+On October 8 the stadholder returned to Dieren, on the 27th he fell ill
+with an attack of small-pox. He was at once taken back to the Hague and
+for some days he progressed favourably, but the illness suddenly took a
+turn for the worse and he expired on November 6. The news of the
+prince's death fell like a shock upon the country. Men could scarcely
+believe their ears. William was only 24 years old; and, though his wife
+gave birth to a son a week later, he left no heir capable of succeeding
+to the high offices that he had held. The event was the more tragic,
+following, as it did, so swiftly upon the _coup d'etat_ of the previous
+summer, and because of the youth and high promise of the deceased
+prince. William II was undoubtedly endowed with high and brilliant
+qualities of leadership, and he had proved his capacity for action with
+unusual decision and energy. Had his life not been cut short, the course
+of European politics might have been profoundly changed.
+
+As was to be expected, the burgher-regents of Holland, when once the
+first shock was over, lost no time in taking advantage of the
+disappearance of the man who had so recently shown that he possessed the
+power of the sword and meant to be their master. The States-General at
+once met and requested the Provincial Estates to take steps to deal with
+the situation. The Estates of Holland proposed that an extraordinary
+assembly should be summoned. This was agreed to by the States-General;
+and "the Great Assembly" met on January 11, 1651. In the meantime the
+Holland regents had been acting. The Estates of that province were
+resolved to abolish the stadholderates and to press the States-General
+to suspend the offices of Captain-and Admiral-General of the Union.
+Utrecht, Gelderland, Overyssel and Zeeland were induced to follow their
+example. Groningen, however, elected William Frederick of Friesland to
+be stadholder in the place of his cousin.
+
+The "States party" in Holland had for their leaders the aged Adrian
+Pauw, who had for so many years been the moving spirit of the opposition
+in powerful Amsterdam to Frederick Henry's authority, and Jacob de Witt,
+the imprisoned ex-burgomaster of Dordrecht. The "Orange party" was for
+the moment practically impotent. Stunned by the death of their youthful
+chief, they were hopelessly weakened and disorganised by the
+dissensions and rivalries which surrounded the cradle of the infant
+Prince of Orange. The princess royal quarrelled with her mother-in-law,
+Amalia von Solms, over the guardianship of the child. Mary asserted her
+right to be sole guardian; the dowager-princess wished to have her
+son-in-law, the Elector of Brandenburg, associated with her as
+co-guardian. After much bickering the question was at last referred to
+the Council of State, who appointed the princess royal, the
+dowager-princess and the elector jointly to the office. This decision
+however was far from effecting a reconciliation between the mother and
+the grandmother. Mary did not spare the Princess Amalia the humiliation
+of knowing that she regarded her as inferior in rank and social standing
+to the eldest daughter of a King of England. There was rivalry also
+between the male relatives William Frederick, Stadholder of Friesland,
+and Joan Maurice, the "Brazilian," both of them being ambitious of
+filling the post of captain-general, either in succession to the dead
+prince, or as lieutenant in the name of his son. In these circumstances
+a large number of the more moderate Orangists were ready to assist the
+"States party" in preventing any breach of the peace and securing that
+the government of the republic should be carried on, if not in the
+manner they would have wished, at least on stable and sound lines, so
+far as possible in accordance with precedent.
+
+The Great Assembly met on January 11,1651, in the Count's Hall in the
+Binnenhof at the Hague. The sittings lasted until September, for there
+were many important matters to be settled on which the representatives
+of the seven provinces were far from being in entire agreement. The
+chief controversies centred around the interpretation of the Utrecht Act
+of Union, the Dordrecht principles, and military affairs. The last-named
+proved the most thorny. The general result was decentralisation, and the
+strengthening of the Provincial Estates at the expense of the
+States-General. It was agreed that the established religion should be
+that formulated at Dordrecht, that the sects should be kept in order,
+and the placards against Roman Catholicism enforced. In accordance with
+the proposal of Holland there was to be no captain-or admiral-general.
+Brederode, with the rank of field-marshal, was placed at the head of the
+army. The Provincial Estates were entrusted with considerable powers
+over the troops in their pay. The effect of this, and of the decision
+of five provinces to dispense with a stadholder and to transfer his
+power and prerogatives to the Estates, was virtually the establishment
+in permanent authority of a number of close municipal corporations. It
+meant the supersession alike of monarchy and popular government, both of
+which were to a certain extent represented by the authority vested in,
+and the influence exerted by, the stadholder princes of Orange, in
+favour of a narrow oligarchic rule. Moreover, in this confederation of
+seven semi-sovereign provinces, Holland, which contributed to the
+strength, the finances and the commerce of the Union more than all the
+other provinces added together, obtained now, in the absence of an
+"eminent head," that position of predominance, during the stadholderless
+period which now follows, for which its statesmen had so long striven.
+When the amiable Jacob Cats, the Council-Pensionary of Holland, closed
+the Great Assembly in a flowery speech describing the great work that it
+had accomplished, a new chapter in the history of the republic may be
+said to have begun.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE RISE OF JOHN DE WITT.
+
+THE FIRST ENGLISH WAR
+
+
+Before the sittings of the Great Assembly had come to an end, a young
+statesman, destined to play the leading part in the government of the
+Dutch republic during two decades, had already made his mark. After the
+death of William II Jacob de Witt was not only reinstated in his former
+position at Dordrecht but on December 21, 1650, John, his younger son,
+at the age of 25 years was appointed pensionary of that town. In this
+capacity he was _ex officio_ spokesman of the deputation sent to
+represent Dordrecht in the Great Assembly. His knowledge, his readiness
+and persuasiveness of speech, his industry and his gifts at once of
+swift insight and orderly thoroughness, quickly secured for him a
+foremost place both in the deliberations of the Assembly and in the
+conduct of the negotiations with the English Parliament, which at this
+time required very delicate handling.
+
+The many disputes, which had arisen between England and the United
+Provinces during the period between the accession of James I and the
+battle of the Downs in 1639, had never been settled. The minds of
+Englishmen were occupied with other and more pressing matters while the
+Civil War lasted. But the old sores remained open. Moreover the refusal
+of the States-General to receive the Parliamentary envoys, the murder of
+Doreslaer, and the protection afforded to royalist refugees, had been
+additional causes of resentment; but the English Council had not felt
+strong enough to take action. The death of the Prince of Orange,
+following so quickly upon the complete overthrow of Charles II at
+Worcester, appeared at first to open out a prospect of friendlier
+relations between the two neighbouring republics. In January, 1651, the
+Great Assembly formally recognised the Commonwealth and determined to
+send back to his old post in London the veteran ambassador, Joachimi,
+who had been recalled. The English government on their part anticipated
+his return by despatching, in March, Oliver St John and Walter
+Strickland on a special embassy to the Hague. They reached that city
+on March 27, 1651, and presented their credentials to the Great Assembly
+two days later. Their reception in the streets was anything but
+favourable. The feeling among the populace was predominantly Orangist
+and Stewart; and St John and Strickland, greeted with loud cries of
+"regicides" and many abusive epithets, remembering the fate of
+Doreslaer, were in fear of their lives.
+
+On April 4 a conference was opened between the envoys and six
+commissioners appointed by the States to consider the proposals of the
+English Government for "a more strict and intimate alliance and union"
+between the two states. The Dutch quickly perceived that what the
+English really wanted was nothing less than such a binding alliance or
+rather coalition as would practically merge the lesser state in the
+greater. But the very idea of such a loss of the independence that they
+had only just won was to the Netherlanders unthinkable. The negotiations
+came to a deadlock. Meanwhile St John and Strickland continued to have
+insults hurled at them by Orangists and royalist refugees, foremost
+amongst them Prince Edward, son of the Queen of Bohemia. The Parliament
+threatened to recall the envoys, but consented that they should remain,
+on the undertaking of the Estates of Holland to protect them from
+further attacks, and to punish the offenders. New proposals were
+accordingly made for an offensive and defensive alliance (without any
+suggestion of a union), coupled with the condition that both States
+should bind themselves not to allow the presence within their boundaries
+of avowed enemies of the other--in other words the expulsion of the
+members and adherents of the house of Stewart, including the princess
+royal and the Queen of Bohemia with their children. In the face of the
+strong popular affection for the infant Prince of Orange and his mother,
+even the Estates of Holland dared not consider such terms, and the
+States-General would have angrily rejected them. After some further
+parleying therefore about fisheries and trade restrictions, it was felt
+that no agreement could be reached; and St John and Strickland returned
+to England on July 31, 1651.
+
+Their failure created a very bad impression upon the Parliament. All the
+old complaints against the Dutch were revived; and, as they had refused
+the offer of friendship that had been made to them, it was resolved that
+strong measures should be taken to obtain redress for past grievances
+and for the protection of English trade interests.
+
+At the instance of St John, the famous Navigation Act was passed by the
+Parliament, October 9, 1651. This Act struck a mortal blow at the Dutch
+carrying trade by forbidding the importation of foreign goods into
+English ports except in English bottoms, or in those of the countries
+which had produced the goods. Scarcely less injurious was the
+prohibition to aliens to fish in British waters, and the withdrawal of
+the rights based on the _Magnus Intercursus_, for the maintenance of
+which Dutch statesmen had so long and strenuously fought. There was
+consternation in Holland, and the States-General determined to send a
+special embassy to London. At the same time the Estates of Holland
+replaced Jacob Cats by appointing the aged Adrian Pauw, a man in whose
+ripe judgment they had confidence, to the office of council-pensionary.
+The chosen envoys were Jacob Cats and Gerard Schaep from Holland, Paulus
+van der Perre from Zeeland, all three representative of the two maritime
+and trading provinces. They arrived in England on December 27, 1651.
+Their instructions were to secure the withdrawal of the Navigation Act
+and to try to negotiate a new treaty of commerce on the basis of the
+_Magnus Intercursus_. They were also to protest strongly against the
+action of English privateers, who, having been given letters of marque
+to prey upon French commerce, had been stopping and searching Dutch
+merchantmen on the ground that they might be carrying French goods. The
+English government, however, met the Dutch complaints by raking up the
+long list of grievances that had stirred up a bitter feeling of popular
+hatred against the United Provinces in England, and by demanding
+reparation. They further demanded that Dutch commanders should
+acknowledge England's sovereignty by striking flag and sail and by
+firing a salute, whenever any of their squadrons met English ships "in
+the narrow seas."
+
+It was these last two questions, the right of search and the striking of
+the flag, that were to be the real causes of the outbreak of a war that
+was desired by neither of the two governments. But popular feeling and
+the course of events was too strong for them. The news of the seizure of
+their vessels, not merely by privateers, but by an English squadron
+under Ayscue in the West Indies, had caused intense indignation and
+alarm in Holland, and especially in Amsterdam. Pressure was brought to
+bear on the States-General and the Admiralties, who in pursuance of
+economy had reduced the fleet to seventy-five ships. It was resolved
+therefore, on February 22, to fit out an additional 150 vessels. The
+Council of State, on hearing of this, began also to make ready for
+eventualities. Negotiations were still proceeding between the two
+countries, when Martin Tromp, the victor of the battle of the Downs, now
+lieutenant-admiral of Holland, was sent to sea with fifty ships and
+instructions to protect Dutch merchantmen from interference, and to see
+that the States suffered no affront. Nothing was actually said about the
+striking of the flag.
+
+The situation was such that an armed collision was almost certain to
+happen with such an admiral as Tromp in command. It came suddenly
+through a misunderstanding. The Dutch admiral while cruising past Dover
+met, on May 29, fifteen English ships under Blake. The latter fired a
+warning shot across the bows of Tromp's ship to signify that the flag
+should be struck. Tromp declared that he had given orders to strike the
+flag, but that Blake again fired before there was time to carry them
+out. Be this as it may, the two fleets were soon engaged in a regular
+fight, and, the English being reinforced, Tromp withdrew at nightfall to
+the French coast, having lost two ships. Great was the anger aroused in
+England, where the Dutch were universally regarded as the aggressors. In
+the Netherlands, where the peace party was strong, many were disposed to
+blame Tromp despite his protests. Adrian Pauw himself left hastily for
+London, John de Witt being appointed to act as his deputy during his
+absence. Pauw's strenuous efforts however to maintain peace were all in
+vain, despite the strong leanings of Cromwell towards a peaceful
+solution. But popular feeling on both sides was now aroused. The
+States-General, fearing that the Orangists would stir up a revolt, if
+humiliating terms were submitted to, stiffened their attitude. The
+result was that the envoys left London on June 30, 1652; and war was
+declared.
+
+The Dutch statesmen who sought to avoid hostilities were right. All the
+advantages were on the side of their enemies. The Dutch merchant-fleets
+covered the seas, and the welfare of the land depended on commerce. The
+English had little to lose commercially. Their war-fleet too, though
+inferior in the number of ships, was superior in almost all other
+respects. The Stuarts had devoted great attention to the fleet and would
+have done more but for lack of means. Charles' much abused ship-money
+was employed by him for the creation of the first English professional
+navy. It had been largely increased by the Parliament after 1648; and
+its "generals," Blake, Penn and Ayscue, had already acquired much
+valuable experience in their encounters with the royalist squadron under
+Prince Rupert, and in long cruises to the West Indies for the purpose of
+forcing the English colonies to acknowledge parliamentary rule. The
+crews therefore were well trained, and the ships were larger, stronger
+and better armed than those of the Dutch. The position of England, lying
+as it did athwart the routes by which the Dutch merchant-fleets must
+sail, was a great advantage. Even more important was the advantage of
+having a central control, whereas in the Netherlands there were five
+distinct Boards of Admiralty, to some extent jealous of each other, and
+now lacking the supreme direction of an admiral-general.
+
+The war began by a series of English successes and of Dutch misfortunes.
+Early in July, 1652, Blake at the head of sixty ships set sail for the
+north to intercept the Dutch Baltic commerce, and to destroy their
+fishing fleet off the north of Scotland. He left Ayscue with a small
+squadron to guard the mouth of the Thames. Tromp meanwhile had put to
+sea at the head of nearly a hundred ships. Ayscue succeeded in
+intercepting a fleet of Dutch merchantmen near Calais, all of them being
+captured or burnt, while Blake with the main force off the north coast
+of Scotland destroyed the Dutch fishing fleet and their convoy. After
+these first blows against the enemy's commerce good fortune continued to
+attend the English. Tromp was prevented from following Blake by strong
+northerly winds. He then turned upon Ayscue, whose small force he must
+have overwhelmed, but for a sudden change to a southerly gale. The Dutch
+admiral now sailed northwards and (July 25) found the English fleet off
+the Shetlands. A violent storm arose, from the force of which Blake was
+protected, while the Dutch vessels were scattered far and wide. On the
+following day, out of ninety-nine ships Tromp could only collect
+thirty-five, and had no alternative but to return home to refit.
+
+Before Tromp's return another Dutch fleet under Michael de Ruyter had
+put to sea to escort a number of outward-bound merchantmen through the
+Channel, and to meet and convoy back the home-coming ships. He had
+twenty-three warships and three fireships under his command. Ayscue had
+previously sailed up Channel with forty men-of-war and five fireships
+for a similar purpose. The two fleets met on August 16, and despite his
+inferiority of force De Ruyter forced Ayscue to withdraw into Plymouth,
+and was able to bring his convoy home to safety.
+
+The ill-success of Tromp, though he was in no way to blame for it,
+caused considerable alarm and discontent in Holland. His enemies of the
+States party in that province took advantage of it to suspend the
+gallant old seaman from his command. He was an Orangist; and, as the
+Orange partisans were everywhere clamorously active, the admiral was
+suspect. In his place Cornelisz Witte de With was appointed, a capable
+sailor, but disliked in the fleet as much as Tromp was beloved. De With
+effected a junction with De Ruyter and with joint forces they attacked
+Blake on October 8, near the shoal known as the Kentish Knock. The
+English fleet was considerably more powerful than the Dutch, and the
+desertion of De With by some twenty ships decided the issue. The Dutch
+had to return home with some loss. The English were elated with their
+victory and thought that they would be safe from further attack until
+the spring. Blake accordingly was ordered to send a squadron of twenty
+sail to the Mediterranean, where the Dutch admiral Jan van Galen held
+the command of the sea. But they were deceived in thinking that the
+struggle in the Channel was over for the winter. The deserters at the
+Kentish Knock were punished, but the unpopularity of De With left the
+authorities with no alternative but to offer the command-in-chief once
+more to Martin Tromp. Full of resentment though he was at the bad
+treatment he had received, Tromp was too good a patriot to refuse. At
+the end of November the old admiral at the head of 100 warships put to
+sea for the purpose of convoying some 450 merchantmen through the
+Straits. Stormy weather compelled him to send the convoy with an escort
+into shelter, but he himself with sixty ships set out to seek the
+English fleet, which lay in the Downs. After some manoeuvring the two
+fleets met on December 10, off Dungeness. A stubborn fight took place,
+but this time it was some of the English ships that were defaulters.
+The result was the complete victory of the Dutch; and Blake's fleet,
+severely damaged, retreated under cover of the night into Dover roads.
+Tromp was now for a time master of the Channel and commerce to and from
+the ports of Holland and Zeeland went on unimpeded, while many English
+prizes were captured.
+
+This state of things was however not to last long. Towards the end of
+February, 1653, Blake put to sea with nearly eighty ships, and on the
+25th off Portland met Tromp at the head of a force nearly equal to his
+own in number. But the Dutch admiral was convoying more than 150
+merchantmen and he had moreover been at sea without replenishment of
+stores ever since the fight at Dungeness, while the English had come
+straight from port. The fight, which on the part of the Dutch consisted
+of strong rear-guard actions, had lasted for two whole days, when Tromp
+found that his powder had run out and that on the third day more than
+half his fleet were unable to continue the struggle. But, inspiring his
+subordinates De Ruyter, Evertsen and Floriszoon with his own indomitable
+courage, Tromp succeeded by expert seamanship in holding off the enemy
+and conducting his convoy with small loss into safety. Four Dutch
+men-of-war were taken and five sunk; the English only lost two ships.
+
+Meanwhile both nations had been getting sick of the war. The Dutch were
+suffering terribly from the serious interference with their commerce and
+carrying trade and from the destruction of the important fisheries
+industry, while the English on their side were shut out from the Baltic,
+where the King of Denmark, as the ally of the United Provinces, had
+closed the Sound, and from the Mediterranean, where Admiral van Galen,
+who lost his life in the fight, destroyed a British squadron off Leghorn
+(March 23). In both countries there was a peace party. Cromwell had
+always wished for a closer union with the United Provinces and was
+averse to war. In the Dutch republic the States party, especially in
+Holland the chief sufferer by the war, was anxious for a cessation of
+hostilities; and it found its leader in the youthful John de Witt, who
+on the death of Adrian Pauw on February 21, 1653, had been appointed
+council-pensionary. Cromwell took pains to let the Estates of Holland
+know his favourable feelings towards them by sending over, in February,
+a private emissary, Colonel Dolman, a soldier who had served in the
+Netherland wars. On his part John de Witt succeeded in persuading the
+Estates of Holland to send secretly, without the knowledge of the
+States-General, letters to the English Council of State and the
+Parliament expressing their desire to open negotiations. Thus early did
+the new council-pensionary initiate a form of diplomacy in which he was
+to prove himself an adept. This first effort was not a success. The
+Parliament published the letter with the title "Humble Supplication of
+the States of Holland." The indignation of the Orange partisans was
+great, and they threatened internal disturbances throughout the country.
+Such however was the skill of De Witt that, on Parliament showing a
+willingness to resume the negotiations that had been broken off in the
+previous summer, he induced the States-General by a bare majority (four
+provinces to three) to send a conciliatory letter, the date of which
+(April 30, 1653) coincided with Cromwell's forcible dissolution of the
+Rump Parliament and the assumption by him, with the support of the army,
+of dictatorial powers. The English Council of State, however, was well
+informed of the serious economical pressure of the war upon Holland; and
+their insistence now on the full satisfaction of all the English demands
+made a continuation of hostilities inevitable.
+
+Tromp, after successfully bringing in two large convoys of merchantmen,
+encountered (June 12), near the Gabbard, the English fleet under Monk
+and Deane. Each fleet numbered about 100 sail, but the Dutch ships were
+inferior in size, solidity and weight of metal. For two days the fight
+was obstinately and fiercely contested, but on Blake coming up with a
+reinforcement of thirteen fresh ships, Tromp was obliged to retreat,
+having lost twenty ships. He complained bitterly, as did his
+vice-admirals De Ruyter and De With, to the Board of Admiralty of the
+inferiority of the vessels of his fleet, as compared with those of the
+adversary.
+
+The English now instituted a blockade of the Dutch coast, which had the
+effect of reducing to desperate straits a land whose welfare and
+prosperity depended wholly on commerce. Amsterdam was ruined. In these
+circumstances direct negotiation was perforce attempted. Four envoys
+were sent representing the three maritime provinces. At first it seemed
+impossible that any common ground of agreement could be found. Cromwell
+was obsessed with the idea of a politico-religious union between the two
+republics, which would have meant the extinction of Dutch independence.
+The Council of State met the Dutch envoys with the proposal _una gens,
+una respublica,_ which nothing but sheer conquest and dire necessity
+would ever induce the Dutch people to accept. Accordingly the war went
+on, though the envoys did not leave London, hoping still that some
+better terms might be offered. But in order to gain breathing space for
+the efforts of the negotiators, one thing was essential--the breaking
+of the blockade. The Admiralties made a supreme effort to refit and
+reinforce their fleet, but it lay in two portions; eighty-five sail
+under Tromp in the Maas, thirty-one under De With in the Texel. Monk
+with about 100 ships lay between them to prevent their junction. On
+August 4 Tromp sailed out and, after a rearguard action off Katwijk,
+out-manoeuvred the English commander and joined De With. He now turned
+and with superior numbers attacked Monk off Scheveningen. The old hero
+fell mortally wounded at the very beginning of what proved to be an
+unequal fight. After a desperate struggle the Dutch retired with very
+heavy loss. Monk's fleet also was so crippled that he returned home to
+refit. The action in which Tromp fell thus achieved the main object for
+which it was fought, for it freed the Dutch coast from blockade. It was,
+moreover, the last important battle in the war. The States, though much
+perplexed to find a successor to Martin Tromp, were so far from being
+discouraged that great energy was shown in reorganising the fleet. Jacob
+van Wassenaer, lord of Obdam, was appointed lieutenant-admiral of
+Holland, with De Ruyter and Evertsen under him as vice-admirals. De With
+retained his old command of a detached squadron, with which he safely
+convoyed a large fleet of East Indiamen round the north of Scotland into
+harbour. After this there were only desultory operations on both sides
+and no naval engagement.
+
+Meanwhile negotiations had been slowly dragging on. The accession of
+Cromwell to supreme power in December, 1653, with the title of Lord
+Protector seemed to make the prospects of the negotiations brighter, for
+the new ruler of England had always professed himself an opponent of the
+war, which had shattered his fantastic dream of a union between the two
+republics. Many conferences took place, but the Protector's attitude and
+intentions were ambiguous and difficult to divine. The fear of an Orange
+restoration appears to have had a strange hold on his imagination and to
+have warped at this time the broad outlook of the statesman. At last
+Cromwell formulated his proposals in twenty-seven articles. The demands
+were those of the victor, and were severe. All the old disputes were to
+be settled in favour of England. An annual sum was to be paid for the
+right of fishing; compensation to be made for "the massacre of Amboina"
+and the officials responsible for it punished; the number of warships in
+English waters was to be limited; the flag had to be struck when
+English ships were met and the right of search to be permitted. These
+demands, unpalatable as they were, might at least have furnished a basis
+of settlement, but there was one demand besides these which was
+impossible. Article 12 stipulated that the Prince of Orange should not
+at any time hold any of the offices or dignities which had been held by
+his ancestors, or be appointed to any military command. De Witt, in
+whose hands were all the threads of the negotiations, was perfectly
+aware that it would be useless to present such proposals to the
+States-General. Not only would they indignantly reject them, but he had
+not the slightest hope of getting any single province, even Holland, to
+allow a foreign power to interfere with their internal affairs and to
+bid them to treat with harsh ingratitude the infant-heir of a family to
+which the Dutch people owed so deep a debt. There was nothing for it but
+to prepare for a vigorous resumption of the war. Strong efforts were
+therefore made at De Witt's instigation to increase the fleet and secure
+the active co-operation of Denmark and France, both friendly to the
+States. But Cromwell really wanted peace and showed himself ready to
+yield on certain minor points, but he continued to insist on the
+exclusion of the Prince of Orange. Not till the Dutch envoys had
+demanded their passports did the Protector give way so far as to say he
+would be content to have the exclusion guaranteed by a secret article.
+
+What followed forms one of the strangest chapters in the history of
+diplomacy. De Witt had all this time been keeping up, in complete
+secrecy, a private correspondence with the leading envoy, his confidant
+Van Beverningh. Through Van Beverningh he was able to reach the private
+ear of Cromwell, and to enter into clandestine negotiations with him.
+The council-pensionary knew well the hopelessness of any attempt to get
+the assent of the States-General to the proposed exclusion, even in a
+secret article. Van Beverningh was instructed to inform Cromwell of the
+state of public feeling on this point, with the result that the
+Protector gave the envoy to understand that he would be satisfied if the
+Estates of Holland alone would affirm a declaration that the Prince
+should never be appointed stadholder or captain-general. Whether this
+concession was offered by Cromwell _proprio motu_ or whether it was in
+the first instance suggested to him by De Witt through Van Beverningh is
+unknown. In any case the council-pensionary, being convinced of the
+necessity of peace, resolved to secure it by playing a very deep and
+dangerous game. Not only must the whole affair be kept absolutely from
+the cognisance of the States-General, but also De Witt was fully aware
+that the assent of the Estates of Holland to the proposed exclusion
+article could only be obtained with the greatest difficulty. He was to
+prove himself a very past master in the art of diplomatic chicanery and
+intrigue.
+
+The council-pensionary first set to work to have the treaty, from which
+the exclusion article had been cut out, ratified rapidly by the
+States-General, before bringing the secret article to the knowledge of
+the Estates of Holland. The Estates adjourned for a recess on April 21,
+1654. On the following day he presented the treaty to the
+States-General, and such was his persuasive skill that he accomplished
+the unprecedented feat of getting this dilatory body to accept the
+conditions of peace almost without discussion. On April 23 the treaty
+ratified and signed was sent back to London. Only one article aroused
+opposition (Art. 32), the so-called "temperament clause"; but Cromwell
+had insisted upon it. By this article the States-General and the
+Provincial Estates separately undertook that every stadholder,
+captain-general or commander of military or naval forces should be
+required to take an oath to observe the treaty. Meanwhile De Witt had
+received a letter from Van Beverningh and his colleague Nieuwpoort
+addressed to the Estates of Holland (not at the moment in session)
+stating that Cromwell refused on his part to ratify the treaty until he
+received the Act of Exclusion[8] from the Estates, who were until now
+wholly ignorant that any such proposal would be made to them.
+
+The cleverness and skill now shown by the council-pensionary were truly
+extraordinary. A summons was sent out to the Estates to meet on April 28
+without any reason being assigned. The members on assembly were sworn to
+secrecy, and then the official letter from London was read to them. The
+news that Cromwell refused to sign the treaty until he received the
+assent of the Province of Holland to the Act of Exclusion came upon the
+Estates like a thunder-bolt. The sudden demand caused something like
+consternation, and the members asked to be allowed to consider the
+matter with their principals before taking so momentous a decision.
+Three days were granted but, as it was essential to prevent publicity,
+it was settled that only the burgomasters should be consulted, again
+under oath of secrecy. At the meeting on May 1 another despatch from Van
+Beverningh was read in which the envoy stated that the demand of
+Cromwell--that the Act should be placed in his hands within two days
+after the ratification of the treaty--was peremptory and threatening.
+Unless he received the Act he would consider the treaty as not binding
+upon him. Using all his powers of advocacy, De Witt succeeded after an
+angry debate in securing a majority for the Act. Five towns however
+obstinately refused their assent, and claimed that it could not be
+passed without it. But De Witt had made up his mind to risk illegality,
+and overruled their protest. The Act was declared to have been passed
+and was on May 5 sent to Van Beverningh and Nieuwpoort with instructions
+not to deliver it until circumstances compelled them to do so. The
+proclamation of peace followed amidst general rejoicing both in England
+and the Netherlands; but for some five weeks the existence of the Act
+was unknown to the States-General, and during that period, as a fact, it
+remained in Van Beverningh's possession still undelivered.
+
+Early in June a bribe induced one of De Witt's clerks to betray the
+secret to Count William Frederick. The news soon spread, and loud was
+the outcry of the Orange partisans and of the two princesses, who at
+once addressed a remonstrance to the States-General. All the other
+provinces strongly protested against the action of the Estates of
+Holland and of the council-pensionary. De Witt attempted to defend
+himself and the Estates, by vague statements, avoiding the main issue,
+but insisting that nothing illegal had been done. His efforts were in
+vain. On June 6 the States-General passed a resolution that the envoys
+in England should be ordered to send back at once all the secret
+instructions they had received from Holland, and the Act of Exclusion.
+Meanwhile the Estates of Holland themselves, frightened at the clamour
+which had been aroused, began to show signs of defection. They went so
+far as to pass a vote of thanks to the envoys for not having delivered
+the Act to Cromwell. De Witt's position appeared hopeless. He extricated
+himself and outwitted his opponents by the sheer audacity and cleverness
+of the steps that he took. His efforts to prevent the resolution of the
+States-General from taking immediate effect proving unavailing, he put
+forward the suggestion that on account of its importance the despatch
+should be sent to the envoys in cipher. This was agreed to, and on June
+7 the document was duly forwarded to London by the council-pensionary;
+but he enclosed a letter from himself to Van Beverningh and Nieuwpoort
+informing them that the Estates of Holland assented to the request made
+by the States-General, and that they were to send back the secret
+correspondence and also the Act, _if it were still undelivered_. The
+result answered to his expectations. While the clerk was laboriously
+deciphering the despatch, the envoys read between the lines of De Witt's
+letter, and without a moment's delay went to Whitehall and placed the
+Act in Cromwell's hands. The States-General had thus no alternative
+between acceptance of the _fait accompli_ and the risk of a renewal of
+the war. No further action was taken, and the Protector professed
+himself satisfied with a guarantee of such doubtful validity.
+
+It is impossible to withhold admiration from De Witt's marvellous
+diplomatic dexterity, and from the skill and courage with which he
+achieved his end in the face of obstacles and difficulties that seemed
+insurmountable; but for the course of double-dealing and chicanery by
+which he triumphed, the only defence that can be offered is that the
+council-pensionary really believed that peace was an absolute necessity
+for his country, and that peace could only be maintained at the cost of
+the Act of Exclusion. Whether or no Cromwell would have renewed the war,
+had the Act been withdrawn, it is impossible to say. There is, however,
+every reason to believe that De Witt was prompted to take the risks he
+did by purely patriotic motives, and not through spite against the house
+of Orange. Be this as it may, the part that he now played was bitterly
+resented, not merely by the Orange partisans, but by popular opinion
+generally in the United Provinces, and it was never forgiven.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN DE WITT 1654-1665
+
+FROM THE PEACE OF WESTMINSTER TO THE OUT-BREAK OF THE SECOND ENGLISH WAR
+
+
+The position of John de Witt in July, 1654, was a difficult one. The
+conduct of the council-pensionary in the matter of the Act of Exclusion
+was openly attacked in the States-General. Had the leaders of the Orange
+party been united, the attack might have had serious consequences; but
+notoriously the princess royal, the princess dowager and William
+Frederick were on bad terms, and De Witt, with his usual adroitness,
+knew well how to play off one against another. To meet the accusations
+of his assailants in the States-General he drew up however an elaborate
+defence of the action taken by the Estates of Holland and by himself.
+The document bore the title "Deduction of the Estates of Holland." It
+was laborious rather than convincing, and it did not convince opponents.
+Nevertheless, though resentment continued to smoulder, the fact that
+peace had been assured soon reconciled the majority to allow the
+doubtful means by which it had been obtained to be overlooked. The tact,
+the persuasiveness, the great administrative powers of the
+council-pensionary effected the rest; and his influence from this time
+forward continued to grow, until he attained to such a control over
+every department of government, as not even Oldenbarneveldt had
+possessed in the height of his power.
+
+John de Witt was possibly not the equal of the famous Advocate in sheer
+capacity for great affairs, but he had practical abilities of the
+highest order as a financier and organiser, and he combined with these
+more solid qualifications a swiftness of courageous decision in moments
+of emergency which his almost infinite resourcefulness in extricating
+himself from difficult and perilous situations, enabled him to carry to
+a successful issue. His marriage in February, 1655, to Wendela Bicker,
+who belonged to one of the most important among the ruling
+burgher-families of Amsterdam, brought to him enduring domestic
+happiness. It was likewise of no slight political value. Andries and
+Cornelis Bicker, who had headed the opposition to William II and had
+been declared by him in 1650 incapable of holding henceforth any
+municipal office, were her uncles; while her maternal uncle, Cornelis de
+Graeff, was a man of weight and influence both in his native town and in
+the Provincial Estates. By this close relationship with such leading
+members of the regent-aristocracy of Amsterdam the council-pensionary
+became almost as secure of the support of the commercial capital in the
+north of Holland, as he was already of Dordrecht in the south. Two of
+his cousins, Slingelandt and Vivien, were in turn his successors, as
+pensionaries of Dordrecht, while for his predecessor in that post,
+Nicolas Ruysch, he obtained the extremely influential office of
+_griffier_ or secretary to the States-General. Nor did he scruple to
+exercise his powers of patronage for other members of his family. His
+father, Jacob de Witt, was made a member of the Chamber of Finance; his
+elder brother, Cornelis, Ruwaard of Putten. By these and other
+appointments of men who were his friends and supporters, to important
+positions diplomatic, military and naval, De Witt contrived to
+strengthen more and more his personal authority and influence. And yet
+in thus favouring his relatives and friends, let us not accuse De Witt
+of base motives or of venality. He firmly believed in his own ability to
+serve the State, and, without doubt, he was convinced that it was for
+the best interest of his country for him to create for himself, as far
+as was possible amidst the restrictions by which he was hemmed in on
+every side, a free field of diplomatic and administrative action. No
+one, not even his bitterest enemies, ever charged John de Witt with
+personal corruption. Throughout his whole career he lived quietly and
+unostentatiously, as a simple citizen, on a very moderate income, and he
+died a poor man.
+
+One of the first cares of the council-pensionary after the peace with
+England was to deal with the internal troubles which were disturbing
+certain parts of the land, notably Groningen, Zeeland and Overyssel. In
+the last-named province a serious party struggle arose out of the
+appointment of a strong Orangist, named Haersolte, to the post of Drost
+or governor of Twente. The Estates were split up, the Orange partisans
+meeting at Zwolle, the anti-Orange at Deventer. Both enlisted troops,
+but those of Zwolle were the stronger and laid siege to Deventer. The
+victorious Orangists then nominated William III as stadholder with
+William Frederick as his lieutenant. At last, after three years' strife,
+the parties called in De Witt and William Frederick as mediators. But De
+Witt was far too clever for the Friesland stadholder. It happened that
+the post of field-marshal had just fallen vacant by the death of
+Brederode. Both William Frederick and his cousin Joan Maurice aspired to
+the office. The council-pensionary induced his co-mediator, with the
+hope of becoming Brederode's successor, to yield on all points.
+Haersolte was deprived of office; the prince's appointment as stadholder
+was suspended until his majority; and therefore William Frederick could
+not act as his lieutenant. Thus peace was restored to Overyssel, but
+William Frederick was not appointed field-marshal. In the other
+provinces the tact and skill of De Witt were equally successful in
+allaying discord. He would not have been so successful had the Orange
+party not been hopelessly divided and had it possessed capable leaders.
+
+As an administrator and organiser the council-pensionary at once applied
+himself to two most important tasks, financial reform and naval
+reconstruction. The burden of debt upon the province of Holland, which
+had borne so large a part of the charges of the war, was crushing. The
+rate of interest had been reduced in 1640 from 6 J to 5 per cent. But
+the cost of the English war, which was wholly a naval war, had caused
+the debt of Holland to mount to 153,000,000 guilders, the interest on
+which was 7,000,000 guilders per annum. De Witt first took in hand a
+thorough overhauling of the public accounts, by means of which he was
+enabled to check unnecessary outlay and to effect a number of economies.
+Finding however that, despite his efforts to reduce expenditure, he
+could not avoid an annual deficit, the council-pensionary took the bold
+step of proposing a further reduction of interest from 5 to 4 per cent.
+He had some difficulty in persuading the investors in government funds
+to consent, but he overcame opposition by undertaking to form a sinking
+fund by which the entire debt should be paid off in 41 years. Having
+thus placed the finances of the province on a sound basis, De Witt next
+brought a similar proposal before the States-General with the result
+that the interest on the Generality debt was likewise reduced to 4 per
+cent.
+
+The English war had conclusively proved to the Dutch their inferiority
+in the size and armament of their war-vessels, and of the need of a
+complete reorganisation of the fleet. De Witt lost no time in taking the
+necessary steps. The custom which had hitherto prevailed of converting
+merchantmen into ships of war at the outbreak of hostilities was
+abandoned. Steps were taken to build steadily year by year a number of
+large, strongly-constructed, powerfully armed men-of-war, mounting 60,70
+and 80 guns. These vessels were specially adapted for passing in and out
+of the shallow waters and were built for strength rather than for speed.
+Again, the part taken in the war by the light, swift-sailing English
+frigates led to a large flotilla of these vessels being built, so useful
+for scouting purposes and for preying upon the enemy's commerce. The
+supply and training of seamen was also dealt with, and the whole system
+of pay and of prize-money revised and reorganised. It was a great and
+vitally necessary task, and subsequent events were to show how admirably
+it had been carried out.
+
+No one knew better than John de Witt that peace was the chief interest
+of the United Provinces, but his lot was cast in troubled times, and he
+was one of those prescient statesmen who perceive that meekness in
+diplomacy and willingness to submit to injury do not promote the cause
+of peace or further the true interests of any country.
+
+The conquests of France in the southern Netherlands caused great anxiety
+to the Dutch; and the high-handed action of French pirates in searching
+and seizing Dutch merchantmen in the Mediterranean aroused much
+indignation. The States, acting on De Witt's advice, replied by sending
+a squadron under De Ruyter to put a stop to these proceedings. The Dutch
+admiral took vigorous action and captured some French freebooters. The
+French government thereupon forbade Dutch vessels to enter French
+harbours. The Dutch replied by a similar embargo and threatened to
+blockade the French coast. This threat had the desired effect, and an
+accommodation was reached. The peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, by which
+the French retained a large part of their conquests in Flanders,
+Hainault and Namur, while the English acquired possession of Dunkirk,
+was disquieting. For the relations with England, despite the goodwill
+of the Protector, were far from satisfactory. The trade interests of
+the two republics clashed at so many points that a resumption of
+hostilities was with difficulty prevented. More especially was this the
+case after the outbreak of war with Portugal in November, 1657.
+
+The Dutch accused the Portuguese government of active connivance with
+the successful revolt of the Brazilian colonists against Dutch rule.
+What was once Dutch Brazil was now claimed by the Lisbon government as a
+Portuguese possession, and De Witt demanded an indemnity. As this was
+not conceded, a squadron under Obdam, November, 1657, blockaded the
+Portuguese coast, while another under De Ruyter made many seizures of
+merchant vessels. Cromwell was disposed to intervene, but his death on
+September 3,1658, removed any fears of English action. Meanwhile the
+Dutch captured Ceylon and Macassar and practically cut off Portuguese
+intercourse with the East Indies. At last in August, 1661, a treaty was
+signed by which the Dutch abandoned all territorial claims in Brazil,
+but were granted freedom of trade and an indemnity of 8,000,000 fl. to
+be paid in sixteen years, and, what was more valuable, they retained
+possession of their conquests in the East.
+
+The protracted dispute with Portugal was however of quite subordinate
+importance to the interest of the Dutch in the complications of the
+so-called Northern War. On the abdication of Christina in 1654, Charles
+X Gustavus had succeeded to the Swedish throne. The new king was fired
+with the ambition of following in the footsteps of Gustavus Adolphus,
+and of rendering Sweden supreme in the Baltic by the subjection of
+Poland and Denmark. Charles was a man of great force of character and
+warlike energy, and he lost no time in attempting to put his schemes of
+conquest into execution. Having secured the alliance of the Great
+Elector, anxious also to aggrandise himself in Polish Prussia, the
+Swedish king declared war against Poland, and in the early summer of
+1656 laid siege to Danzig. But the importance of the Baltic trade to
+Holland was very great and Danzig was the corn emporium of the Baltic.
+Under pressure therefore of the Amsterdam merchants the States-General
+despatched (July) a fleet of forty-two ships under Obdam van Wassenaer
+through the Sound, which raised the siege of Danzig and with Polish
+consent left a garrison in the town. Thus checked, the Swedish king at
+Elbing (September, 1656) renewed amicable relations with the republic,
+and Danzig was declared a neutral port. At the same time a defensive
+alliance was concluded between the States and Denmark. It was obvious
+from, this that the Dutch were hostile to Swedish pretensions and
+determined to resist them. De Witt was anxious to preserve peace, but
+he had against him all the influence of Amsterdam, and that of the able
+diplomatist, Van Beuningen, who after being special envoy of the States
+at Stockholm had now been sent to Copenhagen. Van Beuningen held that,
+whatever the risks of intervention on the part of the States, the
+control of the Sound must not fall into the hands of Sweden. The
+emergency came sooner than was expected.
+
+Brandenburg having changed sides, the Swedes were expelled from Poland;
+and Frederick III of Denmark, despite the advice of De Witt, seized the
+opportunity to declare war on Sweden. Although it was the depth of
+winter Charles Gustavus lost no time in attacking Denmark. He quickly
+drove the Danes from Schonen and Funen and invaded Seeland. Frederick
+was compelled at Roeskilde (February, 1658) to accept the terms of the
+conqueror. Denmark became virtually a Swedish dependency, and undertook
+to close the Sound to all foreign ships. Involved as the republic was in
+disputes at this time with both France and England, and engaged in war
+with Portugal, De Witt would have been content to maintain a watchful
+attitude in regard to Scandinavian matters and to strive by diplomacy to
+secure from Sweden a recognition of Dutch rights. But his hand was
+forced by Van Beuningen, who went so far as to urge the Danish king to
+rely on his defensive alliance with the republic and to break the treaty
+of Roeskilde. Charles Gustavus promptly invaded Denmark, drove the
+Danish fleet from the sea, placed strong garrisons at Elsinore and
+Kronborg, and laid siege to Copenhagen. Van Beuningen had proudly
+asserted that "the oaken keys of the Sound lay in the docks of
+Amsterdam," and his boast was no empty one. At the beginning of October
+a force of thirty-five vessels under Obdam carrying 4000 troops sailed
+for the Sound with orders to destroy the Swedish fleet, and to raise the
+siege of Copenhagen. On November 8 Obdam encountered the Swedes in the
+entrance to the Baltic. The Swedish admiral Wrangel had forty-five ships
+under his command, and the battle was obstinate and bloody. Obdam
+carried out his instructions. Only a remnant of the Swedish fleet found
+refuge in the harbour of Landskrona, but the Dutch also suffered
+severely. The two vice-admirals, Witte de With and Floriszoon, were
+killed, and Obdam himself narrowly escaped capture, but Copenhagen was
+freed from naval blockade.
+
+Charles Gustavus however held military possession of a large part of
+Denmark, and in the spring began to press the attack on the capital
+from the land side. As both England and France showed a disposition to
+interfere in the conflict, the States-General now acted with unexpected
+vigour, recognising that this question to them was vital. An imposing
+force of seventy-five warships, carrying 12,000 troops and mounting 3000
+guns, was despatched in May, 1659, under De Ruyter to the Baltic.
+Negotiations for peace between the Scandinavian powers under the
+mediation of France, England and the United Provinces, were now set on
+foot and dragged on through the summer. But neither Charles Gustavus nor
+Frederick could be brought to agree to the terms proposed, and the
+former in the autumn again threatened Copenhagen. In these circumstances
+De Ruyter was ordered to expel the Swedes from Funen. On November 24 the
+town of Nyborg was taken by storm and the whole Swedish force compelled
+to surrender. De Ruyter was now supreme in the Baltic and closely
+blockaded the Swedish ports. The spirit of Charles Gustavus was broken
+by these disasters; he died on February 20, 1660. Peace was now
+concluded at Oliva on conditions favourable to Sweden, but securing for
+the Dutch the free passage of the Sound. The policy of De Witt was at
+once firm and conciliatory. Without arousing the active opposition of
+England and France, he by strong-handed action at the decisive moment
+succeeded in maintaining that balance of power in the Baltic which was
+essential in the interest of Dutch trade. The republic under his skilful
+leadership undoubtedly gained during the northern wars fresh weight and
+consideration in the Councils of Europe.
+
+The peace of the Pyrenees, followed by the peace of Oliva and the
+settlement with Portugal, seemed to open out to the United Provinces a
+period of rest and recuperation, but probably no one knew better than
+the council-pensionary that outward appearances were deceptive. In the
+spring of 1660 a bloodless revolution had been accomplished in England,
+and Charles II was restored to the throne. The hostility of De Witt and
+of the States party to the house of Stuart had been marked. It happened
+that Charles was at Breda when he received the invitation recalling him
+to England. The position was a difficult one, but the council-pensionary
+at once saw, with his usual perspicacity, that there was but one course
+to pursue. Acting under his advice, every possible step was taken by the
+States-General and the Estates of Holland to propitiate the prince,
+who from being a forlorn exile had suddenly become a powerful king.
+Immense sums were spent upon giving him a magnificent reception at the
+Hague; and, when he set sail from Scheveningen, deputations from the
+States-General and the Estates of Holland attended in state his
+embarkation and lavish promises of friendship were exchanged. It was
+significant, however, that Charles handed to the council-pensionary a
+declaration commending to the care of their High Mightinesses "the
+Princess my sister and the Prince of Orange my nephew, persons who are
+extremely dear to me." He had previously expressed the same wish to De
+Witt privately; and compliance with it, _i.e._ the annulling of the Act
+of Exclusion, was inevitable. But all the actors in this comedy were
+playing a part. Charles was not deceived by all this subservience, and,
+continuing to entertain a bitter grudge against De Witt and his party,
+only waited his time to repay their enmity in kind. De Witt on his side,
+though in his anxiety to conciliate the new royalist government he
+consented to deliver up three regicides who were refugees in Holland (an
+act justly blamed), refused to restore the Prince of Orange to any of
+the ancient dignities and offices of his forefathers. Acting however on
+his advice, the Estates of Holland passed a unanimous resolution
+declaring William a ward of the Estates and voting a sum of money for
+his maintenance and education.
+
+Very shortly after this momentous change in the government of England,
+Cardinal Mazarin died (March, 1661); and the youthful Louis XIV took the
+reins of power into his own hands. Outwardly all seemed well in the
+relations between France and the republic, and in point of fact an
+offensive and defensive alliance for twenty-five years was concluded
+between them on April 27,1662. Later in the same year Count D'Estrades,
+formerly ambassador in the time of Frederick Henry, resumed his old
+post. The relations between him and De Witt were personally of the
+friendliest character, but the conciliatory attitude of D'Estrades did
+not deceive the far-sighted council-pensionary, who was seriously
+disquieted as to the political aims of France in the southern
+Netherlands.
+
+By the treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, the French had already acquired a
+large slice of territory in Flanders and Artois. They had since obtained
+Dunkirk by purchase from Charles II. Moreover Louis XIV had married the
+eldest daughter of Philip IV, whose only son was a weakly boy. It is
+true that Maria Theresa, on her marriage, had renounced all claims to
+the Spanish succession. But a large dowry had been settled upon her, and
+by the treaty the renunciation was contingent upon its payment. The
+dowry had not been paid nor was there any prospect of the Spanish
+treasury being able to find the money. Besides it was no secret that
+Louis claimed the succession to Brabant for his wife and certain other
+portions of the Netherlands under what was called the Law of Devolution.
+By this law the female child of a first wife was the heir in preference
+to the male child of a later marriage. The Dutch dreaded the approach of
+the French military power to their frontiers, and yet the decrepitude of
+Spain seemed to render it inevitable. There appeared to De Witt to be
+only two solutions of the difficulty. Either what was styled "the
+cantonment" of the southern Netherlands, _i.e._ their being formed into
+a self-governing republic under Dutch protection guaranteed by a French
+alliance, or the division of the Belgic provinces between the two
+powers. The latter proposal, however, had two great disadvantages: in
+the first place it gave to France and the Republic the undesirable
+common frontier; in the second place Amsterdam was resolved that Antwerp
+should not be erected into a dangerous rival. The last objection proved
+insuperable; and, although De Witt had many confidential discussions
+with D'Estrades, in which the French envoy was careful not to commit
+himself to any disclosure of the real intentions of his government, no
+settlement of any kind had been arrived at, when the threatening state
+of relations with England threw all other questions into the background.
+
+The accession of Charles II placed upon the throne of England a man who
+had no goodwill to Holland and still less to the council-pensionary, and
+who, like all the Stewart kings, had a keen interest in naval and
+maritime matters. The Navigation Act, far from being repealed, was
+vigorously enforced, as were the English claims to the sovereignty of
+the narrow seas. The grievances of the English East India Company
+against its Dutch rival with regard to the seizure of certain ships and
+especially as to the possession of a small island named Poeloe-Rum in
+the Moluccas led to a growing feeling of bitterness and hostility. A
+special embassy, headed by De Witt's cousin, Beverweert, was sent to
+London in the autumn of 1660 to try to bring about a friendly
+understanding, but was fruitless. At the same time George Downing, a
+skilful intriguer and adventurer, who after serving Cromwell had
+succeeded in gaining the confidence of the royal government, had been
+sent as ambassador to the Hague, where he worked underhand to exacerbate
+the disputes and to prevent a settlement of the differences between the
+two peoples. The position and treatment of the Prince of Orange had
+likewise been a source of difficulty and even of danger to the supremacy
+of the States party. There arose a general movement among the provinces,
+headed by Gelderland and Zeeland, to nominate William captain-and
+admiral-general of the Union and stadholder. The lack of leadership in
+the Orangist party, and the hostility between the two princesses,
+rendered, however, any concentrated action impossible. De Witt, with his
+usual adroitness, gained the ear of the princess royal, who accepted the
+proposal that the Estates of Holland should undertake the education of
+the prince, and even consented that De Witt himself and his wife's
+uncle, De Graef, should superintend the prince's studies. This arranged,
+Mary, for the first time since her marriage, paid a visit to her native
+land, being desirous to consult her brother on various subjects.
+Unfortunately she died of small-pox in January, 1661, having nominated
+Charles as her son's guardian. This nomination did not tend to smooth
+matters between the two countries.
+
+There was a powerful war party in England, supported by the Duke of
+York. It was at his instigation that a strong-handed act took place
+which aroused intense indignation in Holland. A company called "The
+Royal African Company" had been formed in which the duke had a large
+interest. A fleet fitted out by this company under the command of
+Admiral Holmes seized, in February, 1664, a portion of the coast of
+Guinea on which the Dutch had settlements. Strong protests meeting with
+nothing but evasive replies, in all secrecy a squadron was got ready to
+sail under De Ruyter, nominally to the Mediterranean. Dilatory
+negotiations were in the meantime being conducted by Beverweert in
+London, and by Downing at the Hague in regard to this and other
+grievances, but without any approach to a settlement. Downing in fact
+was surreptitiously doing his best not to reconcile, but to aggravate
+differences. Matters were brought to a head by the news that an English
+fleet had crossed the Atlantic and had taken possession of the Dutch
+colony of New Netherland (September), and that Holmes had made himself
+master of Cabo Corso on the West African coast, and was threatening
+further conquests. This was too much. De Ruyter received orders to
+proceed to Guinea, where he speedily drove out the English intruders and
+reoccupied the lost settlements. During the winter both powers prepared
+for a struggle for maritime supremacy which had become inevitable; and
+at last war was declared by England (March 4, 1665).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE LAST YEARS OF DE WITT'S ADMINISTRATION, 1665-1672. THE SECOND
+ENGLISH WAR. THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. THE FRENCH INVASION
+
+
+THE declaration of war in March, 1665, found the Dutch navy, thanks to
+the prescience and personal care of the council-pensionary, far better
+prepared for a struggle with the superior resources of its English rival
+than was the case in 1654. John de Witt, aided by his brother Cornelis,
+had supplied the lack of an admiral-general by urging the various
+Admiralty Boards to push on the building of vessels in size,
+construction and armaments able to contend on equal terms with the
+English men-of-war. He had, moreover, with his usual industry taken
+great pains to study the details of admiralty-administration and naval
+science; and now, in company with the Commissioners of the
+States-General, he visited all the ports and dockyards and saw that
+every available ship was got ready for immediate service, provided with
+seasoned crews, and with ample stores and equipment. The English on
+their side were equally ready for the encounter. After the death of
+Cromwell the fleet had been neglected, but during the five years that
+had passed since the Restoration steps had been taken to bring it to an
+even greater strength and efficiency than before. Whatever may have
+been the faults of the Stewart kings, neglect of the navy could not be
+laid to their charge. One of the first steps of Charles II was to
+appoint his brother James, Duke of York, to the post of
+Lord-High-Admiral; and James was unremitting in his attention to his
+duties, and a most capable naval administrator and leader, while Charles
+himself never ceased during his reign to take a keen interest in naval
+matters. In his case, as previously in the case of his father, it was
+lack of the necessary financial means that alone prevented him from
+creating an English fleet that would be capable of asserting that
+"sovereignty in the narrow seas," which was the traditional claim of the
+English monarchy.
+
+The English were ready before the Dutch, who were hampered in their
+preparations by having five distinct Boards of Admiralty. The Duke of
+York put to sea with a fleet of 100 ships at the end of April and,
+cruising off the coast of Holland, cut off the main Dutch fleet in the
+Texel from the Zeeland contingent. It was unfortunate for Holland that
+Michael Adriansz de Ruyter, one of the greatest of seamen, was at this
+time still in the Mediterranean Obdam, to whom the chief command was
+given, waited until a storm drove the enemy to their harbours. He then
+united all the Dutch squadrons and crossing to Southwold Bay found the
+English fleet ready for battle. After some manoeuvring the action was
+joined on June 13, and after a bloody fight ended most disastrously for
+the Dutch. The flag-ships in the course of the struggle became closely
+engaged, with the result that Obdam's vessel suddenly blew up, while
+that of the English admiral was seriously damaged and he himself
+wounded. The Dutch line had already been broken, and the fate of their
+commander decided the issue. The Dutch in great confusion sought the
+shelter of their shoals, but their habit of firing at the masts and
+rigging had so crippled their opponents that a vigorous pursuit was
+impossible. Nevertheless the English had gained at the first encounter a
+decided victory. Sixteen Dutch ships were sunk or destroyed, nine
+captured, and at least 2000 men were killed, including three admirals,
+and as many more taken prisoners. The English had but one vessel sunk,
+and their casualties did not amount to more than a third of the Dutch
+losses. The consternation and anger in Holland was great. Jan Evertsen,
+the second-in-command, and a number of the captains were tried by
+court-martial; and the reorganisation of the fleet was entrusted to
+Cornells Tromp, who, encouraged and aided by the council-pensionary,
+set himself with great energy to the task.
+
+The English meanwhile were masters of the sea, though administrative
+shortcomings, defects of victualling and shortage of men prevented them
+from taking full advantage of their success. Early in August, however, a
+fleet under the Earl of Sandwich attempted to capture a number of Dutch
+East Indiamen, who had sailed round the north of Scotland. The East
+Indiamen took refuge in the neutral port of Bergen. Here Sandwich
+ventured to attack them but was driven off by the forts. While he was
+thus engaged in the north the Channel was left free; and De Ruyter with
+his squadron seized the opportunity to return to home-waters without
+opposition. His arrival was of the greatest value to the Dutch, and he
+was with universal approval appointed to succeed Obdam as
+lieutenant-admiral of Holland, and was given the supreme command on the
+sea. Tromp, angry at being superseded, was with difficulty induced to
+serve under the new chief, but he had to yield to the force of public
+opinion. De Ruyter at once gave proof of his skill by bringing back
+safely the East Indiamen from Bergen, though a severe storm caused some
+losses, both to the fleet and the convoy. The damage was however by the
+energy of De Witt and the admiral quickly repaired; and De Ruyter again
+sailed out at the beginning of October to seek the English fleet. He
+cruised in the Channel and off the mouth of the Thames, but no enemy
+vessels were to be seen; and at the end of the month fresh storms
+brought the naval campaign of 1665 to a close, on the whole to the
+advantage of the English.
+
+Nor were the misfortunes of the Dutch confined to maritime warfare.
+Between England and Holland indeed the war was entirely a sea affair,
+neither of them possessing an army strong enough to land on the enemy's
+coast with any hope of success; but the United Provinces were
+particularly vulnerable on their eastern frontier, and Charles II
+concluded an alliance with the Bishop of Muenster, who had a grievance
+against the States on account of a disputed border-territory, the
+lordship of Borkelo. Subsidised by England, the bishop accordingly at
+the head of 18,000 men (September, 1665) overran a considerable part of
+Drente and Overyssel and laid it waste. There was at first no organised
+force to oppose him. It had been the policy of Holland to cut down the
+army, and the other provinces were not unwilling to follow her example.
+No field-marshal had been appointed to succeed Brederode; there was no
+army of the Union under a captain-general, but seven small provincial
+armies without a military head. Some thousands of fresh troops were now
+raised and munitions of war collected, but to whom should the chief
+command be given? William Frederick was dead (October 31, 1664) and had
+been succeeded by his youthful son, Henry Casimir, in the Stadholderate
+of Friesland. Joan Maurice of Nassau had withdrawn from the Netherlands
+and was Governor of Cleves in the service of Brandenburg. He was however
+persuaded to place himself at the head of the army, though complaining
+bitterly of the inadequacy of the forces placed at his disposal. De
+Witt, however, had not been idle. He secured the assistance of
+Brunswick-Lueneburg, and an army of 12,000 Brunswickers under the command
+of George Frederick von Waldeck attacked Muenster; while a force of 6000
+French likewise, under the terms of the treaty of 1662, advanced to the
+help of the Dutch. Threatened also by Brandenburg, the bishop was
+compelled to withdraw his troops for home defence and in April, 1666,
+was glad to conclude peace with the States.
+
+French naval co-operation against England was also promised; and war was
+actually declared by Louis XIV in the early spring of 1666. The real
+cause of this strong action was due to other motives than enmity to
+England. The death of Philip IV of Spain in September, 1665, had brought
+nearer the prospect of there being no heir-male to the vast Spanish
+monarchy. The French Queen, Maria Theresa, was the eldest child of
+Philip; and, though on her marriage she had renounced her claim to the
+Spanish throne, it was well known that Louis intended to insist upon her
+rights, particularly in regard to the Spanish Netherlands. He was afraid
+that the States, always suspicious of his ambitious projects, might be
+tempted to come to terms with England on the basis of a defensive
+alliance against French aggression in Flanders and Brabant, for both
+powers were averse to seeing Antwerp in French hands. To avert this
+danger Louis determined to take part in the war on the side of the
+Dutch. The move however was diplomatic rather than serious, for the
+French admiral, de Beaufort, never sailed into the North Sea or effected
+a junction with the Dutch fleet. Nevertheless, as will be seen, his
+presence in the Atlantic exercised an important effect upon the naval
+campaign of 1666.
+
+The English fleet was not ready until the beginning of June. The ravages
+of the plague and financial difficulties had caused delay; and the fleet
+only numbered about eighty sail, including a squadron which had been
+recalled from the Mediterranean. The "Generals-at-Sea," as they were
+called, were Monk and Rupert. They began by committing the great blunder
+of dividing their force. Rupert was detached with twenty ships to keep
+watch over de Beaufort, a diversion which had serious consequences for
+the English. The Dutch fleet, consisting of seventy-two men-of-war with
+twelve frigates, was the most powerful that the Admiralties had ever
+sent to sea, not in numbers but in the quality of the ships. De Witt
+himself had supervised the preparations and had seen that the equipment
+was complete in every respect. De Ruyter was in supreme command and led
+the van, Cornelis Evertsen the centre, Cornelis Tromp the rear. On June
+11 the English fleet under Monk was sighted between the North Foreland
+and Dunkirk, and the famous Four Days' Battle was begun. The English had
+only fifty-four ships, but having the weather gauge Monk attacked
+Tromp's squadron with his whole force; nor was it till later in the day
+that De Ruyter and Evertsen were able to come to the relief of their
+colleague. Night put an end to an indecisive contest, in which both
+sides lost heavily. The next day Monk renewed the attack, at first with
+some success; but, De Ruyter having received a reinforcement of sixteen
+ships, the weight of numbers told and Monk was forced to retreat. On the
+third morning De Ruyter pursued his advantage, but the English admiral
+conducted his retirement in a most masterly manner, his rear squadron
+covering the main body and fighting stubbornly. Several ships, however,
+including the flag-ship of Vice-Admiral Ayscue, had to be abandoned and
+were either destroyed or captured by the Dutch. At the end of the day
+Monk had only twenty-eight ships left fit for service. Very opportunely
+he was now rejoined by Rupert's squadron and other reinforcements; and
+on the fourth morning the two fleets confronted one another in almost
+equal numbers, each having some sixty vessels. Once more therefore the
+desperate struggle was resumed and with initial advantage to the
+English. Rupert forced his way through the Dutch fleet, which was for
+awhile divided. But the English habit of firing at the hulls, though it
+did most damage, was not so effective as the Dutch system of aiming at
+the masts and rigging in crippling the freedom of tacking and
+manoeuvring; and Monk and Rupert were unable to prevent De Ruyter from
+re-uniting his whole force, and bearing down with it upon the enemy. The
+English were forced to retreat again, leaving several of their "lamed"
+vessels behind. They lost in all ten ships besides fireships, something
+like 3000 killed and wounded and 2500 prisoners. Vice-Admiral Berkeley
+was killed, Vice-Admiral Ayscue taken prisoner. Nor were the Dutch much
+better off. Four or five of their ships were sunk, a number severely
+damaged, and their casualty list was probably as large as that of their
+foes. Nevertheless the victory was undoubtedly theirs; and the fleet on
+its return was greeted with public rejoicings in Holland and Zeeland.
+The triumph was of short duration.
+
+By vigorous efforts on both sides the damaged fleets were rapidly
+repaired. De Ruyter was the first to put to sea (July 9) with some
+ninety ships; three weeks later Monk and Rupert left the Thames with an
+equal force. The encounter took place on August 4. It ended in a
+decisive English victory after some fierce and obstinate fighting. The
+Dutch van, after losing its two admirals, Evertsen and De Vries, gave
+way. Monk and Rupert then attacked with a superior force the centre
+under De Ruyter himself, who to save his fleet from destruction was
+compelled to take refuge behind the Dutch shoals. Meanwhile the squadron
+under Tromp, driving before it the rear squadron of the English, had
+become separated and unable to come to De Ruyter's assistance. For this
+abandonment he was bitterly reproached by De Ruyter and accused of
+desertion. The quarrel necessitated Tromp's being deprived of his
+command, as the States-General could not afford to lose the services of
+the admiral-in-chief.
+
+For a time the English were now masters of the narrow seas, and,
+cruising along the Dutch coast, destroyed a great number of Dutch
+merchantmen, made some rich prizes and even landed on the island of
+Terschelling, which was pillaged. Lack of supplies at length compelled
+them to withdraw for the purpose of revictualling. On this De Ruyter,
+accompanied by Cornelis de Witt as special commissioner, sailed out in
+the hopes of effecting a junction with De Beaufort. Rupert also put to
+sea again, but storms prevented a meeting between the fleets and
+sickness also seriously interfered with their efficiency. De Ruyter
+himself fell ill; and, though John de Witt was himself with the fleet,
+no further operations were attempted. Both sides had become weary and
+exhausted and anxious for peace.
+
+To De Witt the war had been from the outset distasteful; and he had been
+much disturbed by the constant intrigues of the Orangist party to
+undermine his position. He was aware that in this hour of the country's
+need the eyes of a considerable part of the people, even in Holland,
+were more and more directed to the young prince. There was a magic in
+his name, which invested the untried boy with the reflected glory of his
+ancestor's great deeds. The council-pensionary, a past-master in the
+arts of expediency, was driven to avert the danger which threatened
+the supremacy of the States party, by proposing to the Princess Amalia
+that the province of Holland should not only charge themselves with
+William's education, but should adopt him as "a Child of State." It was
+a short-sighted device for, as the princess shrewdly saw, this
+exceptional position assigned to her grandson must ensure, when he grew
+to man's estate, the reversion of his ancestral dignities. She willingly
+assented; and in April, 1666, the Estates of Holland appointed a
+Commission, of which John de Witt was himself the head, which was
+entrusted with the religious and political instruction of the prince. A
+few months later De Witt was to discover that Orangist intrigues were
+being still clandestinely carried on. An officer of French extraction,
+the lord of Buat, though an Orange partisan, had been employed by the
+pensionary to make tentative proposals of peace to the English court
+through Lord Arlington. In August a packet of intercepted letters showed
+that Buat had played him false and was seeking to compass his overthrow.
+Buat was brought to trial, condemned to death, and executed on October
+11.
+
+This strong action by the council-pensionary did not prevent, however,
+the preliminaries of a peaceful settlement being discussed both at the
+Hague and in London during the winter months, with the result that a
+conference of delegates representing Great Britain, the United Provinces
+and France, met at Breda in May, 1667, to discuss the terms of peace.
+But the negotiations did not progress. The English envoys raised afresh
+all the old questions, while the Dutch were not ready to concede
+anything unless the Navigation Act was largely modified. In these
+circumstances De Witt determined by bold action to try to expedite the
+negotiations in a sense favourable to Holland. He knew that the English
+were unprepared. Charles II, in opposition to the advice of Rupert, Monk
+and the Duke of York, had refused to spend money in preparation for a
+campaign at sea, which he felt confident would never take place. The
+ravages of the plague and of the Great Fire of London had made the year
+1666 one of the darkest in English history and had caused the heavy
+financial drain and losses of the war to be more severely felt. There
+was widespread discontent in the country; and the king in sore financial
+distress was immovable in his resolve that no steps should be taken for
+refitting the fleet. The ships remained laid up in port, although the
+Dutch despatched in April a squadron to the Firth of Forth and dominated
+the Channel.
+
+In deep secrecy De Witt now made preparations for the despatch of a
+great fleet with orders to sail up the estuary of the Thames and attack
+the English ships in harbour. De Ruyter, accompanied by Cornelis de
+Witt, left the Texel on June 14, at the head of a fleet numbering more
+than eighty vessels. A squadron under Admiral Van Ghent sailed up the
+Thames on June 19, followed by the main body. Sheerness was captured,
+and on the 22nd De Ruyter determined to force his way up the Medway. The
+river had been blocked by drawing up a line of ships behind a heavy
+chain. The Dutch fire-ships broke through the chain and burnt the
+vessels, and then proceeding upwards burnt, scuttled or captured some
+sixteen vessels, among the latter the flag-ship, _Royal Charles_. The
+sound of the Dutch guns was heard in London and for a time panic
+reigned. But the narrowness of the river and the prompt measures that
+were taken to call out the militia and man the forts prevented any
+further success. The Dutch fleet withdrew to the Nore and, beyond
+blocking the mouth of the river, were able to effect no further damage.
+The blow to English prestige was however irreparable, and the people
+felt deeply humiliated that short-sightedness and lack of preparation on
+the part of the government should have exposed them to an insult galling
+to the national pride. One of its consequences, as had been anticipated
+by De Witt, was a more conciliatory attitude on the part of the English
+envoys at Breda. Peace was concluded on July 26, on terms more
+favourable than the Dutch could have expected. The Navigation Act was
+modified, various commercial advantages were conceded and Poeloe-Rum
+was retained. On the other hand, the custom of the striking of the flag
+remained unchanged. It was agreed that the English colony of Surinam,
+which had been captured in March, 1667, by a Zeeland squadron should be
+kept in exchange for New York, an exchange advantageous to both parties.
+
+By the treaty of Breda the Dutch republic attained the summit of its
+greatness, and the supremacy of De Witt appeared to be not only secure
+but unassailable. Yet events were preparing which were destined to
+undermine the prosperity of Holland and the position of the statesman to
+whom in so large a measure that prosperity was due. France under the
+absolute rule of Louis XIV had become by far the most powerful State
+in Europe, and the king was bent upon ambitious and aggressive projects.
+It has already been explained that after the death of Philip IV of Spain
+he claimed for his queen, Maria Theresa, the succession, by the
+so-called "law of devolution," to a large part of the southern
+Netherlands. He now determined that the hour had come for enforcing his
+claim. In May, 1667, before the treaty of Breda had been signed, a
+French army of 50,000 men crossed the Belgic frontier. Castel-Rodrigo,
+the Spanish governor, had no force at his disposal for resisting so
+formidable an invasion; fortress after fortress fell into French hands;
+and Flanders, Brabant and Hainault were speedily overrun. This rapid
+advance towards their borders caused no small consternation in Holland,
+and De Witt's efforts to reach an understanding with King Louis proved
+unavailing. The States were not in a position to attempt an armed
+intervention, and the once formidable Spanish power was now feeble and
+decrepit. The only hope lay in the formation of a coalition. De Witt
+therefore turned to England and Sweden for help.
+
+The anti-French party in Sweden was then predominant; and Dohna, the
+Swedish ambassador at the Hague, was ordered to go to London, there to
+further the efforts of the newly appointed Dutch envoy, John Meerman,
+for the formation of a coalition to check French aggrandisement. They
+had difficulties to overcome. The English were sore at the results of
+the peace of Breda. Charles disliked the Dutch and was personally
+indebted to Louis XIV for many favours. But the feeling in England was
+strongly averse to French aggression towards Antwerp. The fall of
+Clarendon from power at this time and the accession of Arlington, who
+was son-in-law to Beverweert, turned the scale in favour of the
+proposals of De Witt; and Charles found himself obliged to yield. Sir
+William Temple, whose residence as English minister at Brussels had
+convinced him of the gravity of the French menace, was ordered to go to
+the Hague to confer personally with the council-pensionary and then to
+proceed to London. His mission was most promptly and skilfully carried
+out. His persuasiveness overcame all obstacles. After a brief stay in
+London he returned to the Hague, January 17, 1668. Even the proverbial
+slowness of the complicated machinery of the Dutch government did not
+hinder him from carrying out his mission with almost miraculous
+rapidity. Having first secured the full support of De Witt to his
+proposals, he next, with the aid of the council-pensionary, pressed
+the urgency of the case upon the States-General with such convincing
+arguments that the treaty between England and the United Provinces was
+signed on January 23. Three days afterwards Dohna was able to announce
+the adhesion of the Swedish government; and on January 26, the Triple
+Alliance was an accomplished fact. It was essentially a defensive
+alliance, and its main object was to offer mediation between France and
+Spain in order to moderate the French claims and to back up their
+mediation, if necessity should arise, by joint action. As a preliminary
+precaution, a strong force was promptly placed under the command of Joan
+Maurice of Nassau, and a fleet of forty-eight ships was fitted out.
+
+These steps had their effect. Louis, suddenly confronted by this
+formidable coalition, preferred to accept mediation, though it involved
+his waiving a portion of his pretensions. Knowing well that the alliance
+was a very unstable one, for the consent of Charles was given under
+duress and the aims of Sweden were mercenary, he foresaw that by biding
+his time, he could have ample revenge later upon the republic of traders
+who had ventured to thwart him. At a meeting at St Germain-en-Laye
+between the French Foreign Minister, Lionne, and the Dutch and English
+ambassadors, Van Beuningen and Trevor, preliminaries were settled on
+April 15. These were confirmed by a conference of representatives of all
+the interested States at Aix-la-Chapelle (May 2), in which Temple took
+an active part. Louis gave up Franche-Comte, which he had conquered, but
+retained Mons, Courtrai, Tournai, Lille, Charleroi and other frontier
+towns. This treaty, following on that of Breda, was the crowning
+triumph of De Witt's administration, for it had given to the Dutch
+Republic a decisive voice in the Councils of the Great Powers of Europe.
+
+But, though he had proved himself so successful in the fields of
+diplomacy and statesmanship, the position of the council-pensionary had,
+during the course of the English war, become distinctly weaker. De
+Witt's authoritative ways, his practical monopoly of power, and his
+bestowal of so many posts upon his relatives and friends, aroused
+considerable jealousy and irritation. Cabals began to be formed against
+him and old supporters to fall away. He lost the help of Van Beverningh,
+who resigned the office of Treasurer-General, and he managed to estrange
+Van Beuningen, who had much influence in Amsterdam. The Bickers and De
+Graeffs were no longer supreme in that city, where a new party under the
+leadership of Gillis Valckenier had acceded to power. This party, with
+which Van Beuningen now associated himself, was at present rather
+anti-De Witt than pro-Orange. Valckenier and Beuningen became in
+succession burgomasters; and De Witt's friend, Pieter de Groot, had to
+resign the office of pensionary. In the Estates of Holland, therefore,
+De Witt had to face opposition, one of the leaders being the able
+Pensionary of Haarlem, Caspar Fagel. And all this time he had ever
+before his eyes the fact that the Prince of Orange could not much longer
+remain "the Child of State"; and that, when he passed out of the
+tutelage of the Estates of Holland, his future position would have to be
+settled. De Witt had himself devoted much personal care to William's
+instruction; and the prince had submitted patiently and apparently with
+contentment to the restrictions with which he was surrounded. Physically
+weakly, his health was at all times delicate, but his intelligence was
+remarkable and his will-power extraordinary. Cold and impenetrable in
+manner and expression, unbending in his haughty aloofness, he knew how
+with perfect courtesy to keep his own counsel and to refrain from giving
+utterance to an unguarded word. But behind this chilling and sphinx-like
+exterior was a mind of singular precocity, already filled with deep-laid
+schemes and plans for the future, confident that his opportunity would
+come, and preparing when the hour struck to seize it. One can well
+imagine how anxiously in their many personal interviews the
+council-pensionary must have tried to read what was passing in his
+pupil's inmost thoughts, only to be baffled.
+
+So early as August, 1667, steps had been taken by the Estates of Holland
+to forestall the danger that threatened. On the proposal of Van
+Beuningen and Valckenier, who had not yet detached themselves from the
+States party, an edict was passed to which, somewhat infelicitously, the
+name of the "Eternal Edict" was given. It abolished in Holland the
+office of stadholder for ever and affirmed the right of the
+town-corporations (_vroedschappen_) to elect their own magistrates. It
+was further resolved to invite the other provinces to declare that no
+stadholder could hold either the captain-or admiral-generalship of the
+Union. This resolution was styled the "Concept of Harmony." Deputations
+were sent to urge the acceptation of the Concept; and De Witt himself
+used his utmost power of persuasion to bring about a general
+agreement. He was successful in Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel. But
+Zeeland, Friesland and Groningen, where the Orangists were strong,
+refused to give their assent; and the approval of the States-General was
+only carried by a bare majority. De Witt himself doubtless knew that the
+erection of this paper barrier against the inherited influence of one
+bearing the honoured title of Prince of Orange was of little real value.
+It is reported that Vivien, the Pensionary of Dordrecht, De Witt's
+cousin, stuck his pen-knife into a copy of the Eternal Edict as it lay
+on the table before him, and in reply to a remonstrance said: "I was
+only trying what steel can do against parchment."
+
+The second period of five years during which De Witt had held the post
+of council-pensionary was now drawing to an end. For a decade he had
+wielded a power which had given to him almost supreme authority in the
+republic, especially in the control of foreign affairs. But all the time
+he had lived the life of a simple burgher, plainly dressed, occupying
+the same modest dwelling-house, keeping only a single manservant. He was
+devotedly attached to his wife and children, and loved to spend the
+hours he could spare from public affairs in the domestic circle. The
+death of Wendela on July 1, 1668, was a great blow to him and damped the
+satisfaction which must have filled him at the manner in which he was
+reelected at the end of that month to enter upon his third period of
+office. In recognition of his great services his salary of 6000 guilders
+was doubled, and a gratuity of 45,000 guilders was voted to him, to
+which the nobles added a further sum of 15,000 guilders. De Witt again
+obtained an Act of Indemnity from the Estates of Holland and likewise
+the promise of a judicial post on his retirement.
+
+The Prince of Orange had received the announcement of the passing of the
+Eternal Edict without showing the slightest emotion, or making any
+protest. He now, two months after the re-election of the
+council-pensionary, took the first step towards self-assertion. Under
+cover of a visit to his ancestral town of Breda, William made his way to
+Middelburg, where the Estates of Zeeland were assembled. Being now
+eighteen years of age he claimed his inherited right to take his seat as
+"first noble," and after being duly installed he appointed his relative,
+Seigneur van Odijk, to act as his deputy. This done, he quietly
+returned to the Hague, having given a clear indication of the course he
+meant to pursue.
+
+The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had left a deep feeling of humiliation and
+rancour in the heart of Louis XIV; and he was resolved to leave no stone
+unturned to wreak his vengeance on Holland and its council-pensionary.
+The Triple Alliance was plainly an ill-assorted combination. Charles II
+cared nothing about the fate of the Spanish Netherlands, and there was a
+strong party in England which hated the Dutch and wished to wipe out
+the memory of Chatham and to upset the treaty of Breda. Grievances about
+the settlement of questions concerning the East Indies and Surinam were
+raked up. Both Van Beuningen in London and Pieter de Groot in Paris sent
+warnings that the States should be prepared for war and at an early
+date, but the council-pensionary pinned his faith on Temple and the
+Alliance, and kept his eyes shut to the imminent danger. Meanwhile Louis
+had been bribing freely both in England and Sweden, and he had no
+difficulty in detaching the latter power from the Alliance. To England
+he sent over the beautiful Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, Charles'
+favourite sister, on a secret mission to the king, and she was speedily
+successful. The offer of an annual payment of 3,000,000 francs and the
+possession of Walcheren, which commanded the entrance to the Scheldt,
+effected their purpose. A secret treaty was signed at Dover on December
+31, 1670, between Louis and Charles, by which the latter agreed, on
+being called upon to do so, to declare war upon Holland in conjunction
+with the French.
+
+Meanwhile De Witt was so absorbed in domestic politics and in the
+maintenance of the burgher-aristocratic party in power, that he seemed
+to have lost his usual statesmanlike acumen. He never ceased to work for
+the general acceptance of the Concept of Harmony. At last the three
+recalcitrant provinces (Friesland, Groningen and Zeeland), when William
+had reached his twenty-first year, agreed to accept it on condition that
+the prince were at once admitted to the Council of State. Even now De
+Witt tried to prevent the prince from having more than an advisory vote,
+but he was overruled through the opposition of Amsterdam to his views.
+All this time Louis was preparing his great plan for the crushing of the
+republic. He succeeded in gaining the promised assistance of England,
+Muenster and Cologne, and in detaching from the Dutch the Emperor and
+the Swedes. The finances under Colbert were in a flourishing state, and
+a splendid army had been equipped by the great war minister, Louvois. It
+was in vain that Pieter de Groot sent warnings of coming peril. The
+council-pensionary was deaf, and the States-General still deafer. Temple
+had left (August, 1670) for a visit to London, and he never returned.
+For some months there was no resident English ambassador at the Hague.
+Finally, at the end of the year, Downing arrived, the very man who had
+done his utmost to bring about the war of 1665. De Witt still placed
+his hopes in the anti-French views of the English Parliament; but in
+August, 1671, it was dissolved by the king and was not summoned to meet
+again for a year and a half. Charles had therefore a free-hand, and the
+secret treaty of Dover was the result. The reports of De Groot became
+more and more alarming; and De Witt found it necessary to urge the
+States to make preparations both by sea and land to resist attack. But
+he met with a luke-warm response. The fleet indeed was considerably
+strengthened, but the army was in a miserable state. At no time during
+the English wars had a powerful army been required, and the lesson
+taught by the invasion of the Bishop of Muenster had had little effect.
+The heavy charges of the naval war compelled the States and especially
+Holland, on whom the chief burden fell, to economise by cutting down the
+military expenses. Politically also the ruling burgher-regents in
+Holland had from past experience a wholesome fear lest the power of the
+sword wielded by another Maurice or William II should again overthrow
+the civil power. The consequence was that when Charles II declared war
+on March 28, 1672, and Louis on the following April 6, and a great
+French army of 120,000 men under Conde, Turenne and Luxemburg marched
+through Liege to invade the States, while another army of 30,000 men
+from Muenster and Cologne attacked farther north, all was confusion and
+panic, for it was felt that there was no possibility of effective
+resistance. The Bishop of Muenster was eager to take vengeance for his
+defeat in 1666, and the Elector-Archbishop of Cologne was a Bavarian
+prince friendly to France. His help was the more valuable, as he was
+likewise Bishop of Liege, and thus able to offer to the French armies a
+free passage through his territory.
+
+Not until the storm was actually bursting on them by sea and land at
+once were the various authorities in the threatened land induced to
+move in earnest. Confronted by the sudden crisis, De Witt however made
+the most strenuous efforts to meet it. A fleet of 150 ships was got
+ready and an army of some 50,000 men, mercenaries of many nationalities,
+hastily gathered together. It was a force without cohesion, discipline
+or competent officers. In the peril of the country all eyes were turned
+towards the Prince of Orange. William was now twenty-one years of age,
+but by the provisions of the Concept of Harmony his name was not to be
+proposed as captain-general until he had reached the age of twenty-two.
+But in the wave of feeling which swept over the country the paper
+barrier was dashed aside. In the Estates of Holland, which De Witt had
+so long controlled, and despite his strong opposition, the proposal to
+confer the post on William for one year was carried. All that the
+council-pensionary could effect was to surround the exercise of the
+office with so many restrictions as to deprive the prince of any real
+authority. These restrictions did not, however, meet the approval of the
+other provinces, and William himself refused to accept them. De Witt had
+to give way. William was appointed captain-general for one year
+(February 25, 1672). It appeared to be an absolutely hopeless task that
+this utterly inexperienced young man had to face. But the mere fact that
+once more a Prince of Orange was in command gave new hope. It was a name
+to conjure with; and the holder of it, young as he was and with no
+previous military training, faced his task with the calm confidence
+which comes from conscious power and an inherited aptitude for the
+leadership of men.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+WAR WITH FRANCE AND ENGLAND. WILLIAM III, STADHOLDER. MURDER OF THE
+BROTHERS DE WITT, 1672
+
+
+The advance of the French armies and those of Muenster and Cologne to
+attack the eastern frontier of the United Provinces met with little
+serious resistance. Fortress after fortress fell; the line of the Yssel
+was abandoned. Soon the whole of Gelderland, Overyssel, Drente and
+Utrecht were in the possession of the enemy. Even the castle of Muiden,
+but ten miles from Amsterdam, was only saved from capture at the last
+moment by Joan Maurice throwing himself with a small force within the
+walls. The Prince of Orange had no alternative but to fall back behind
+the famous waterline of Holland. He had at his disposal, after leaving
+garrisons in the fortresses, barely 4000 men as a field-force. With some
+difficulty the people were persuaded to allow the dykes to be cut, as in
+the height of the struggle against Spain, and the country to be
+submerged. Once more behind this expanse of flood, stretching like a
+gigantic moat from Muiden on the Zuyder Zee to Gorkum on the Maas,
+Holland alone remained as the last refuge of national resistance to an
+overwhelming foe. True the islands of Zeeland and Friesland were yet
+untouched by invasion, but had Holland succumbed to the French armies
+their resistance would have availed little. At the end of June the
+aspect of affairs looked very black, and despite the courageous attitude
+of the young captain-general, and the ceaseless energy with which the
+council-pensionary worked for the equipment of an adequate fleet, and
+the provision of ways and means and stores, there seemed to be no ray of
+hope. Men's hearts failed them for fear, and a panic of despair filled
+the land.
+
+Had the combined fleets of England and France been able at this moment
+to obtain a victory at sea and to land an army on the coast, it is
+indeed difficult to see how utter and complete disaster could have been
+avoided. Fortunately, however, this was averted. It had been De Witt's
+hope that De Ruyter might have been able to have struck a blow at the
+English ships in the Thames and the Medway before they had time to put
+to sea and effect a junction with the French. But the Zeeland contingent
+was late and it was the middle of May before the famous admiral,
+accompanied as in 1667 by Cornelis de Witt as the representative of the
+States-General, sailed at the head of seventy-five ships in search of
+the Anglo-French fleet. After delays through contrary winds the
+encounter took place in Southwold Bay on June 7. The Duke of York was
+the English admiral-in-chief, D'Estrees the French commander, and they
+had a united force of ninety ships. The Dutch, who had the wind-gauge,
+found the hostile squadrons separated from one another. De Ruyter at
+once took advantage of this. He ordered Vice-Admiral Banckers with the
+Zeeland squadron to contain the French, while he himself with the rest
+of his force bore down upon the Duke of York. The battle was contested
+with the utmost courage and obstinacy on both sides and the losses were
+heavy. The advantage, however, remained with the Dutch. The English
+flag-ship, the _Royal James_, was burnt; and the duke was afterwards
+three times compelled to shift his flag. Both fleets returned to the
+home ports to refit; and during the rest of the summer and early autumn
+no further attack was made on De Ruyter, who with some sixty vessels
+kept watch and ward along the coasts of Holland and Zeeland. The Dutch
+admiral had gained his object and no landing was ever attempted.
+
+But the battle of Southwold Bay, though it relieved the immediate naval
+danger, could do nothing to stay the advancing tide of invasion on land.
+The situation appeared absolutely desperate; trade was at a standstill;
+and the rapid fall in the State securities and in the East India
+Company's stock gave alarming evidence of the state of public opinion.
+In these circumstances De Witt persuaded the States-General and the
+Estates of Holland to consent to the sending of two special embassies to
+Louis, who was now at Doesburg, and to London, to sue for peace. They
+left the Hague on June 13, only to meet with a humiliating rebuff.
+Charles II refused to discuss the question apart from France. Pieter de
+Groot and his colleagues were received at Doesburg with scant courtesy
+and sent back to the Hague to seek for fuller powers. When they arrived
+they found the council-pensionary lying on a sick-bed. The country's
+disasters had been attributed to the De Witts, and the strong feeling
+against them led to a double attempt at assassination. John de Witt,
+while walking home at the close of a busy day's work was (June 21)
+attacked by four assailants and badly wounded. The leader, Jacob van der
+Graeff, was seized and executed; the others were allowed to escape, it
+was said by the prince's connivance. A few days later an attack upon
+Cornells de Witt at Dordrecht likewise failed to attain its object. That
+such dastardly acts could happen without an outburst of public
+indignation was ominous of worse things to come. It was a sign that the
+whole country had turned its back upon the States party and the whole
+system of government of which for nineteen years John de Witt had been
+the directing spirit, and had become Orangist. Revolutionary events
+followed one another with almost bewildering rapidity. On July 2 the
+Estates of Zeeland appointed William to the office of Stadholder. The
+Estates of Holland repealed the Eternal Edict on July 3; and on the next
+day it was resolved on the proposal of Amsterdam to revive the
+stadholdership with all its former powers and prerogatives in favour of
+the Prince of Orange. The other provinces followed the lead of Holland
+and Zeeland; and on July 8 the States-General appointed the young
+stadholder captain-and admiral-general of the Union. William thus found
+himself invested with all the offices and even more than the authority
+that had been possessed by his ancestors. Young and inexperienced as he
+was, he commanded unbounded confidence, and it was not misplaced.
+
+Meanwhile, despite the strong opposition of Amsterdam and some other
+towns, the fuller powers asked for by De Groot were granted, and he
+returned to the camp of Louis to endeavour to obtain more favourable
+terms of peace. He was unsuccessful. The demands of the French king
+included concessions of territory to Cologne, to Muenster and to England,
+and for himself the greater part of the Generality-lands with the great
+fortresses of Hertogenbosch and Maestricht, a war indemnity of
+16,000,000 francs, and complete freedom for Catholic worship. On July 1
+De Groot returned to the Hague to make his report. The humiliating terms
+were rejected unanimously, but it was still hoped that now that the
+Prince of Orange was at the head of affairs negotiations might be
+resumed through the mediation of England. William even went so far as to
+send a special envoy to Charles II, offering large concessions to
+England, if the king would withdraw from the French alliance. But it
+was in vain. On the contrary at this very time (July 16) the treaty
+between Louis and Charles was renewed; and the demands made on behalf of
+England were scarcely less exorbitant than those put forward by Louis
+himself--the cession of Sluis, Walcheren, Cadsand, Voorne and Goerce, an
+indemnity of 25,000,000 francs, the payment of an annual subsidy for the
+herring fishery, and the striking of the flag. If all the conditions
+made by the two kings were agreed to, the sovereignty of the remnants of
+the once powerful United Provinces, impoverished and despoiled, was
+offered to the prince. He rejected it with scorn. When the Estates of
+Holland on the return of De Groot asked his advice about the French
+terms, the stadholder replied, "all that stands in the proposal is
+unacceptable; rather let us be hacked in pieces, than accept such
+conditions"; and when an English envoy, after expressing King Charles'
+personal goodwill to his nephew, tried to persuade him to accept the
+inevitable, he met with an indignant refusal. "But don't you see that
+the Republic is lost," he is reported to have pleaded. "I know of one
+sure means of not seeing her downfall," was William's proud reply, "to
+die in defence of the last ditch."
+
+The firm attitude of the prince gave courage to all; and, whatever
+might be the case with the more exposed provinces on the eastern and
+south-eastern frontiers, the Hollanders and Zeelanders were resolved to
+sacrifice everything rather than yield without a desperate struggle. But
+the fact that they were reduced to these dire straits roused the popular
+resentment against the De Witts and the system of government which had
+for more than two decades been in possession of power. Their wrath was
+especially directed against the council-pensionary. Pamphlets were
+distributed broadcast in which he was charged amongst other misdoings
+with appropriating public funds for his private use. While yet suffering
+from the effects of his wounds De Witt appeared (July 23) before the
+Estates and vigorously defended himself. A unanimous vote declared him
+free from blame.
+
+Cornelis de Witt was, no less than his brother, an object of popular
+hatred. In the town of Dordrecht where the De Witt influence had been so
+long supreme his portrait in the Town-hall was torn to pieces by the mob
+and the head hung on a gallows. On July 24 he was arrested and
+imprisoned at the Hague on the charge brought against him by a barber
+named Tichelaer, of being implicated in a plot to assassinate the
+prince. Tichelaer was well known to be a bad and untrustworthy
+character. On the unsupported testimony of this man, the Ruwaard, though
+indignantly denying the accusation, was incarcerated in the
+Gevangenpoort, to be tried by a commission appointed by the Estates.
+Great efforts were made by his friends and by his brother to obtain his
+release; but, as the prince would not interfere, the proceedings had to
+take their course. John de Witt meanwhile, wishing to forestall a
+dismissal which he felt to be inevitable, appeared before the Estates on
+August 4, and in an impressive speech voluntarily tendered his
+resignation of the post of council-pensionary, asking only for the
+redemption of the promise made to him that at the close of his tenure of
+office he should receive a judicial appointment. The resignation was
+accepted, the request granted, but owing to opposition no vote of thanks
+was given. Caspar Fagel was appointed council-pensionary in his place.
+
+The enemies of John de Witt were not content with his fall from power. A
+committee of six judges were empanelled to try his brother Cornelis for
+his alleged crime. On August 17, to their eternal disgrace, they by a
+majority vote ordered the prisoner, who was suffering from gout, to be
+put to the torture. The illustrious victim of their malice endured the
+rack without flinching, insisting on his absolute innocence of any plot
+against the prince's life. Nevertheless, early on August 19, sentence
+was pronounced upon him of banishment and loss of all his offices.
+Later on the same day Cornelis sent a message to his brother that he
+should like to see him. John, in spite of strong warnings, came to the
+Gevangenpoort and was admitted to the room where the Ruwaard, as a
+result of the cruel treatment he had received, was lying in bed; and the
+two brothers had a long conversation. Meanwhile a great crowd had
+gathered round the prison clamouring for vengeance upon the De Witts.
+Three companies of soldiers were however drawn up under the command of
+Count Tilly with orders from the Commissioned-Councillors to maintain
+order. At the same time the _schutterij_--the civic guard--was called
+out. These latter, however, were not to be trusted and were rather
+inclined to fraternise with the mob. So long as Tilly's troops were at
+hand, the rioters were held in restraint and no acts of violence were
+attempted. It was at this critical moment that verbal orders came to
+Tilly to march his troops to the gates to disperse some bands of
+marauding peasants who were said to be approaching. Tilly refused to
+move without a written order. It came, signed by Van Asperen, the
+president of the Commissioned-Councillors, a strong Orange partisan. On
+receiving it Tilly is said to have exclaimed, "I will obey, but the De
+Witts are dead men." The soldiers were no sooner gone than the crowd,
+under the leadership of Verhoef, a goldsmith, and Van Bankhem, a banker,
+forced the door of the prison (the _schutterij_ either standing aloof,
+or actually assisting in the attack), and rushing upstairs found John de
+Witt sitting calmly at the foot of his brother's bed reading aloud to
+him a passage of Scripture. Hands were laid upon both with brutal
+violence; they were dragged into the street; and there with blows of
+clubs and repeated stabs done to death. It was 4 p.m. when Tilly
+departed, at 4.30 all was over, but the infuriated rabble were not
+content with mere murder. The bodies were shamefully mis-handled and
+were finally hung up by the feet to a lamppost, round which to a late
+hour in the evening a crowd shouted, sang and danced. It is impossible
+to conceive a fate more horrible or less deserved. The poor dishonoured
+remains were taken down when night fell by faithful hands and were at
+dawn in the presence of a few relatives and friends interred in the
+Nieuwe Kerk.
+
+That William III had any complicity in this _execrable faict_, as it
+was well styled by the new council-pensionary Fagel, there is not the
+slightest evidence. He was absent from the Hague at the time and wholly
+preoccupied with the sore necessities of the military position; and it
+is said that he was much affected at hearing the dreadful news. But his
+naturally cold and self-contained nature had been hardened in the school
+of adversity during the long years of humiliation which had been imposed
+upon him by John de Witt and his party. He had endured in proud patience
+awaiting the hour when he could throw off the yoke, and now that it had
+come he could not forgive. Under the plea that the number of those
+implicated in the deed was so large that it was impossible to punish
+them and thus stir up party passions at a time when the whole energies
+of the nation were needed for the war, he took no steps to bring the
+offenders to justice. Unfortunately for his reputation he was not
+content with a neutral attitude, but openly protected and rewarded the
+three chief offenders Tichelaer, Verhoef and Van Bankhem, all of them
+men of disreputable character.
+
+Thus two of the greatest statesmen and patriots that Holland has
+produced, John van Oldenbarneveldt and John de Witt, both perished
+miserably, victims of the basest national ingratitude; and it will ever
+remain a stain upon the national annals and upon the memory of two
+illustrious Princes of Orange, Maurice and William III, that these
+tragedies were not averted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM III, 1672-1688
+
+
+In the early summer of 1672, when William resolved to concentrate all
+his available forces for the defence of Holland covered by its
+water-line, the military situation was apparently hopeless. Had Turenne
+and Luxemburg made a united effort to force this line at the opening of
+the campaign the probability is that they would have succeeded. Instead
+of doing so they expended their energies in the capture of a number of
+fortified places in Gelderland, Overyssel and North Brabant; and in the
+meantime the stadholder was week by week strengthening the weak points
+in his defences, encouraging his men, personally supervising every
+detail and setting an example of unshaken courage and of ceaseless
+industry. He had at his side, as his field-marshal, George Frederick,
+Count of Waldeck, an officer of experience and skill who had entered the
+Republic's service, and Van Beverningh as Commissioner of the
+States-General. With their help and counsel he had before autumn an
+efficient army of 57,000 men on guard behind entrenchments at all
+assailable points, while armed vessels patrolled the waterways. Outside
+the line Nijmwegen, Grave, Coevorden, Steenwijk and other smaller places
+had fallen; but the Muenster-Cologne forces, after a siege lasting from
+July 9 to August 28, had to retire from Groningen. The French armies
+were all this time being constantly weakened by having to place
+garrisons in the conquered provinces; and neither Turenne nor Luxemburg
+felt strong enough to attack the strongly-protected Dutch frontiers
+behind the water-line.
+
+The prince, however, was not content with inaction. Assuming the
+offensive, he ventured on a series of attacks on Naarden and on Woerden,
+raised the siege of Maestricht, and finally made an attempt to cut the
+French communications by a march upon Charleroi. All these raids were
+more or less failures, since in each case William had to retreat without
+effecting anything of importance. Nevertheless the enterprise shown by
+the young general had the double effect of heartening his own troops and
+of undermining the overweening confidence of the enemy. A hard frost
+in December enabled Luxemburg to penetrate into Holland, but a rapid
+thaw compelled a hasty withdrawal. The only road open to him was blocked
+by a fortified post at Nieuwerbrug, but Colonel Vin et Pain, who was in
+command of the Dutch force, retired to Gouda and left the French a free
+passage, to the stadholder's great indignation. The colonel was tried on
+the charge of deserting his post, and shot.
+
+The year 1673 was marked by a decisive change for the better in the
+position of the States. Alarm at the rapid growth of the French power
+brought at last both Spanish and Austrian assistance to the hard-pressed
+Netherlands; and the courage and skill of De Ruyter held successfully
+at bay the united fleets of England and France, and effectually
+prevented the landing of an army on the Dutch coast. Never did De Ruyter
+exhibit higher qualities of leadership than in the naval campaign of
+1673. His fleet was greatly inferior in numbers to the combined
+Anglo-French fleet under Prince Rupert and D'Estrees. A stubborn action
+took place near the mouth of the Scheldt on June 7, in which the English
+had little assistance from the French squadron and finally retired to
+the estuary of the Thames. Another fierce fight at Kijkduin on August 21
+was still more to the advantage of the Dutch. Meanwhile on land the
+French had scored a real success by the capture of the great fortress of
+Maestricht with its garrison of 6000 men, after a siege which lasted
+from June 6 to July 1. All attempts, however, to pass the water-line and
+enter Holland met with failure; and, as the summer drew to its close,
+the advance of Imperial and Spanish forces began to render the position
+of the French precarious. William seized his opportunity in September to
+capture Naarden before Luxemburg could advance to its relief. He then
+took a bolder step. In October, at the head of an army of 25,000 men, of
+whom 15,000 were Spanish, he marched to Cologne and, after effecting a
+junction with the Imperial army, laid siege to Bonn, which surrendered
+on November 15. This brilliant stroke had great results. The French,
+fearing that their communications might be cut, withdrew from the Dutch
+frontier; and at the same time the Muenster-Cologne forces hastily
+evacuated the eastern provinces. The stadholder before the end of the
+year entirely freed the country from its invaders. Once more a Prince of
+Orange had saved the Dutch Republic in its extremity.
+
+The effect of this was to place almost supreme power in his hands. Had
+the prince at this moment set his heart upon obtaining the title of
+sovereign, he would have had but little difficulty in gratifying his
+ambition. Leading statesmen like the Council-Pensionary Fagel, the
+experienced Van Beverningh, and Valckenier, the most influential man in
+Amsterdam, would have supported him. But William was thoroughly
+practical. The freeing of the Provinces from the presence of the enemy
+was but the beginning of the task which he had already set before
+himself as his life-work, _i.e._ the overthrow of the menacing
+predominance of the French power under Louis XIV. His first care was the
+restoration of the well-nigh ruined land. The country outside the
+water-line had been cruelly devastated by the invaders, and then
+impoverished by having for a year and a half to maintain the armies of
+occupation. Large tracts on the borders of Holland, Utrecht and
+Friesland, submerged by the sea-waters through the cutting of the dams,
+had been rendered valueless for some years to come, while those parts of
+Holland and Zeeland on which the enemy had not set foot had been crushed
+beneath heavy taxes and the loss of commerce.
+
+The position of the three provinces, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel,
+which had been overrun by the French at the opening of hostilities and
+held by them ever since, had to be re-settled. They had, during this
+period, paid no taxes, and had no representation in the States-General.
+Holland was in favour of reducing them to the status of Generality-lands
+until they had paid their arrears. The prince was opposed to any
+harshness of treatment, and his will prevailed. The three provinces were
+re-admitted into the Union, but with shorn privileges; and William was
+elected stadholder by each of them with largely increased powers. The
+nomination, or the choice out of a certain number of nominees, of the
+members of the Town-Corporations, of the Courts of Justice and of the
+delegates to the States-General, was granted to him. The Dutch Republic
+was full of anomalies. In Utrecht, Gelderland and Overyssel we have the
+curious spectacle in the days of William III of the stadholder, who was
+nominally a servant of the Sovereign Estates, himself appointing his
+masters. As a matter of fact, the voice of these provinces was his
+voice; and, as he likewise controlled the Estates in Zeeland, he could
+always count upon a majority vote in the States-General in support of
+his foreign policy. Nor was this all.
+
+Holland itself, in gratitude for its deliverance, had become
+enthusiastically Orangist. It declared the stadholdership hereditary in
+the male-line, and its example was followed by Zeeland, Utrecht,
+Gelderland and Overyssel, while the States-General in their turn made
+the captain-and admiral-generalship of the Union hereditary offices. Nor
+was gratitude confined to the conferring of powers and dignities which
+gave the prince in all but name monarchical authority. At the proposal
+of Amsterdam, the city which so often had been and was yet to be the
+stubborn opponent of the Princes of Orange, William II's debt of
+2,000,000 fl. was taken over by the province of Holland; Zeeland
+presented him with 30,000 fl.; and the East India Company with a grant
+of 1/33 of its dividends.
+
+From the very first William had kept steadily in view a scheme of
+forming a great coalition to curb the ambitious designs of Louis XIV;
+and for effecting this object an alliance between England and the United
+Provinces was essential. The first step was to conclude peace. This was
+not a difficult task. The English Parliament, and still more the English
+people, had throughout been averse from fighting on the side of the
+French against the Dutch. Charles II, with the help of French money, had
+been carrying on the war in opposition to the wishes of his subjects,
+who saw their fleets but feebly supported by their French allies, their
+trade seriously injured, and but little chance of gaining any
+advantageous return for the heavy cost. Charles himself had a strong
+affection for his nephew, and began to turn a favourable ear to his
+proposals for negotiations, more especially as his heroic efforts to
+stem the tide of French invasion had met with so much success. In these
+circumstances everything was favourable to an understanding; and peace
+was concluded at Westminster on February 19,1674. The terms differed
+little from those of Breda, except that the Republic undertook to pay a
+war indemnity of 2,000,000 fl. within three years. The striking of the
+flag was conceded. Surinam remained in Dutch hands. New York, which had
+been retaken by a squadron under Cornelis Evertsen, August, 1673, was
+given back to the English crown. Negotiations were likewise opened with
+Muenster and Cologne; and peace was concluded with Muenster (April 22) and
+with Cologne (May 11) on the basis of the evacuation of all conquered
+territory. France was isolated and opposed now by a strong coalition,
+the Republic having secured the help of Austria, Spain, Brandenburg and
+Denmark. The campaign of the summer of 1674 thus opened under favouring
+circumstances, but nothing of importance occurred until August 11, when
+William at the head of an allied force of some 70,000 men encountered
+Conde at Seneff in Hainault. The battle was fought out with great
+obstinacy and there were heavy losses on both sides. The French,
+however, though inferior in numbers had the advantage in being a more
+compact force than that of the allies; and William, poorly supported by
+the Imperialist contingents, had to retire from the field. He was never
+a great strategist, but he now conducted a retreat which extracted
+admiration from his opponents. His talents for command always showed
+themselves most conspicuously in adverse circumstances. His coolness and
+courage in moments of peril and difficulty never deserted him, and,
+though a strict disciplinarian, he always retained the confidence and
+affection of his soldiers. On October 27 Grave was captured, leaving
+only one of the Dutch fortresses, Maestricht, in the hands of the
+French.
+
+The war on land dragged on without any decisive results during 1675. The
+stadholder was badly supported by his allies and reduced to the
+defensive; but, though tentative efforts were made by the English
+government to set on foot negotiations for peace, and a growing party in
+Holland were beginning to clamour for the cessation of a war which was
+crippling their trade and draining the resources of the country, the
+prince was resolutely opposed to the English offer of mediation, which
+he regarded as insincere and premature. He was well aware that there was
+in England a very strong and widespread opposition to the succession of
+James Duke of York, who made no secret of his devoted attachment to the
+Roman Catholic faith. So strong was the feeling that he had been
+compelled to resign his post of Lord-High-Admiral. The dislike and
+distrust he aroused had been accentuated by his second marriage to Mary
+of Modena, a zealous Catholic. William was the son of the eldest
+daughter of Charles I, and to him the eyes of a large party in England
+were turning. The prince was keenly alive to the political advantages of
+his position. He kept himself well informed of the intrigues of the
+court and of the state of public opinion by secret agents, and entered
+into clandestine correspondence with prominent statesmen. Charles II
+himself, though he had not the smallest sympathy with his nephew's
+political views, was as kindly disposed to him as his selfish and
+unprincipled nature would allow, and he even went so far as to encourage
+in 1674 an alliance between him and his cousin Mary, the elder daughter
+of the Duke of York. But William had at that time no inclination for
+marriage. He was preoccupied with other things, and the age of Mary--she
+was only twelve--rendered it easy for him to postpone his final
+decision.
+
+Events were to force his hand. In 1676 the French king, fearing the
+power of the coalition that was growing in strength, endeavoured to
+detach the republic by offering to make a separate peace on generous
+terms. Despite the opposition of the stadholder, Dutch and French
+representatives met at Nijmwegen; but William by his obdurate attitude
+rendered any settlement of the points in dispute impossible. In 1677,
+however, the capture of Valenciennes by the French and their decisive
+defeat of the allied army under William's command at Mont-Cassel (April
+11) made it more difficult for him to resist the growing impatience of
+the burgher-class in Holland and especially of the merchants of
+Amsterdam at his opposition to peace. He was accused of wishing to
+continue the war from motives of personal ambition and the desire of
+military glory. In February of this year, however, Charles II after a
+period of personal rule was through lack of resources compelled to
+summon parliament. It no sooner met than it showed its strong sympathy
+with the Netherlands; and the king speedily saw that he could no longer
+pursue a policy opposed to the wishes of his people. When, therefore,
+William sent over his most trusted friend and counsellor, Bentinck, to
+London on a secret mission in the summer, he met with a most favourable
+reception; and the prince himself received an invitation to visit his
+uncle with the special object of renewing the proposal for his marriage
+with the Princess Mary. William accordingly arrived in London on October
+19; and, the assent of the king and the Duke of York being obtained, the
+wedding was celebrated with almost indecent haste. It was a purely
+political union; and when, early in December, the Prince and Princess of
+Orange set sail for Holland, the young girl wept bitterly at having to
+leave her home for a strange land at the side of a cold, unsympathetic
+husband. The weeks he spent in England had been utilised by the prince
+to good purpose. He persuaded Charles to promise his support by land
+and sea to the Netherlands in case the terms of peace offered by the
+allies were rejected by the French. A treaty between the States and
+Great Britain giving effect to this promise was actually signed on
+January 29, 1678. The results, however, did not answer William's
+expectations. The English Parliament and the States alike had no trust
+in King Charles, nor was the English match at first popular in Holland.
+A strong opposition arose against the prince's war policy. The
+commercial classes had been hard hit by the French invasion, and they
+were now suffering heavy losses at sea through the Dunkirk privateers
+led by the daring Jean Bart. The peace party included such tried and
+trusted statesmen as Van Beverningh, Van Beuningen and the
+Council-Pensionary Fagel, all of them loyal counsellors of the
+stadholder. So resolute was the attitude of Amsterdam that the leaders
+of both municipal parties, Valckenier and Hooft, were agreed in
+demanding that the French offers of a separate peace should be accepted.
+On the same side was found Henry Casimir, Stadholder of Friesland, who
+was jealous of his cousin's autocratic exercise of authority.
+
+The _pourparlers_ at Nijmwegen were still going on, but made no progress
+in face of William's refusal to treat except in concert with his allies.
+Louis XIV, however, fully informed of the state of public opinion and of
+the internal dissensions both in the United Provinces and in England,
+was not slow to take advantage of the situation. A powerful French army
+invaded Flanders and made themselves masters of Ypres and Ghent and
+proceeded to besiege Mons. William, despite the arrival of an English
+auxiliary force under Monmouth, could do little to check the enemy's
+superior forces. Meanwhile French diplomacy was busy at Amsterdam and
+elsewhere in the States, working against the war parties; and by the
+offer of favourable terms the States-General were induced to ask for a
+truce of six weeks. It was granted, and the Dutch and Spanish
+representatives at Nijmwegen (those of the emperor, of Brandenburg and
+of Denmark refusing to accede) speedily agreed to conclude peace on the
+following terms: the French to restore Maestricht and to evacuate all
+occupied Dutch territory, and to make a commercial treaty. Spain to
+surrender an important slice of southern Flanders, but to be left in
+possession of a belt of fortresses to cover their Netherland possessions
+against further French attack. But, though these conditions were
+accepted, the French raised various pretexts to delay the signature of
+the treaty, hoping that meanwhile Mons, which was closely beleaguered
+by Luxemburg, might fall into their hands, and thus become an asset
+which they could exchange for some other possession. The States and the
+Spanish Government were both anxious to avoid this; and the Prince of
+Orange, who steadily opposed the treaty, returned towards the end of
+July to his camp to watch the siege of Mons and prevent its falling into
+the hands of the enemy. At the same time (July 26) King Charles, who had
+been working through Sir William Temple for the conclusion of peace, now
+declared that, unless the treaty was signed before August 11, he would
+assist the allies to enforce it. The French diplomatists at Nijmwegen
+had hitherto declared that their troops would not evacuate Maestricht
+and the other places which they had agreed to restore to the States,
+until Brandenburg and Denmark had evacuated the territory they had
+conquered from Sweden. On August 10, just before time for resuming
+hostilities had been reached, they tactfully conceded this point and
+promised immediate evacuation, if the treaty were at once concluded. Van
+Beverningh and his colleagues accordingly, acting on their instructions,
+affixed their signatures just before midnight.
+
+They fell into the trap laid for them, for the treaty between France and
+Spain was not yet signed, and it was the intention of the French to make
+further pretexts for delay in the hope that Mons meanwhile would fall.
+The report of the conclusion of peace reached the stadholder in his camp
+on August 13, but unofficially. On the morning of August 14 D'Estrades
+came personally to bring the news to Luxemburg; and the French marshal
+was on the point of forwarding the message to the Dutch camp, when he
+heard that Orange was advancing with his army to attack him, and he felt
+that honour compelled him to accept the challenge. A sanguinary fight
+took place at St Denis, a short distance from Mons. William exposed his
+life freely, and though the result was nominally a drawn battle, he
+achieved his purpose. Luxemburg raised the siege of Mons, and the
+negotiations with Spain were pressed forward. The treaty was signed on
+September 17, 1678. The peace of Nijmwegen thus brought hostilities to
+an end, leaving the United Provinces in possession of all their
+territory. It lasted ten years, but it was only an armed truce. Louis
+XIV desired a breathing space in which to prepare for fresh aggressions;
+and his tireless opponent, the Prince of Orange, henceforth made it the
+one object of his life to form a Grand Alliance to curb French
+ambition and uphold in Europe what was henceforth known as "the Balance
+of Power."
+
+In setting about this task William was confronted with almost
+insuperable difficulties. The Dutch people generally had suffered
+terribly in the late invasions and were heartily sick of war. The
+interest of the Hollanders and especially of the Amsterdammers was
+absorbed in the peaceful pursuits of commerce. The far-reaching plans
+and international combinations, upon which William concentrated his
+whole mind and energies, had no attraction for them, even had they
+understood their purpose and motive. The consequence was that the prince
+encountered strong opposition, and this not merely in Holland and
+Amsterdam, but from his cousin Henry Casimir and the two provinces of
+which he was stadholder. In Amsterdam the old "States" party revived
+under the leadership of Valckenier and Hooft; and in his latter days Van
+Beuningen was ready to resist to the utmost any considerable outlay on
+the army or navy or any entangling alliances. They held that it was the
+business of the Republic to attend to its own affairs and to leave Louis
+to pursue his aggressive policy at the expense of other countries, so
+long as he left them alone. The ideal which William III had set before
+him was the exact reverse of this; and, unfortunately for his own
+country, throughout his life he often subordinated its particular
+interests to the wider European interests which occupied his attention.
+
+The work of building up afresh a coalition to withstand the ever-growing
+menace of the formidable French power could scarcely have been more
+unpromising than it now appeared. Spain was utterly exhausted and
+feeble. Brandenburg and Denmark had been alienated by the States
+concluding a separate peace at Nijmwegen and leaving them in the lurch.
+The attention of the emperor was fully occupied in defending Hungary and
+Vienna itself against the Turks. England under Charles II was
+untrustworthy and vacillating, almost a negligible quantity. A visit
+made by William to London convinced him that nothing was at present to
+be hoped for from that quarter. At the same time the very able French
+ambassador at the Hague, D'Avaux, did his utmost to foment the divisions
+and factions in the Provinces. He always insisted that he was accredited
+to the States-General and not to the Prince of Orange, and carried on
+correspondence and intrigues with the party in Amsterdam opposed to
+the stadholder's anti-French policy. The cumbrous and complicated system
+of government enabled him thus to do much to thwart the prince and to
+throw obstacles in his way. The curious thing is, that William was so
+intent on his larger projects that he was content to use the powers he
+had without making any serious attempt, as he might have done, to make
+the machine of government more workable by reforms in the direction of
+centralisation. Immersed in foreign affairs, he left the internal
+administration in the hands of subordinates chosen rather for their
+subservience than for their ability and probity; and against several of
+them, notably against his relative Odijk, serious charges were made.
+Odijk, representing the prince as first noble in Zeeland, had a large
+patronage; and he shamelessly enriched himself by his venal traffic in
+the disposal of offices without a word of rebuke from William, in whose
+name he acted. On the contrary, he continued to enjoy his favour.
+Corruption was scarcely less rife in Holland, though no one practised it
+quite on the same scale as Odijk in Zeeland. William indeed cared little
+about the domestic politics of the Republic, except in so far as they
+affected his diplomatic activities; and in this domain he knew how to
+employ able and devoted men. He had Waldeck at his side not merely as a
+military adviser, but as a skilful diplomatist well versed in the
+intricate politics of the smaller German states; Everhard van Weede,
+lord of Dijkveld, and Godard van Rheede, lord of Amerongen, proved
+worthy successors of Van Beverningh and Van Beuningen. Through the
+Council-Pensionary Fagel he was able to retain the support of the
+majority in the Estates of Holland, despite the strong opposition he
+encountered at Amsterdam and some other towns, where the interests of
+commerce reigned supreme. The death of Gillis Valckenier, the ablest of
+the leaders of the opposition in Amsterdam, in 1680 left the control of
+affairs in that city in the hands of Nicolaes Witsen and Johan Hudde,
+but these were men of less vigour and determination than Valckenier.
+
+Louis XIV meanwhile had been actively pushing forward his schemes of
+aggrandisement. Strasburg was seized in August, 1681; Luxemburg was
+occupied; claims were made under the treaty of Nijmwegen to certain
+portions of Flanders and Brabant, and troops were despatched to take
+possession of them. There was general alarm; and, with the help of
+Waldeck, William was able to secure the support of a number of the
+small German states in the Rhenish circle, most of them always ready to
+hire out their armed forces for a subsidy. Sweden also offered
+assistance. But both England and Brandenburg were in secret collusion
+with France, and the emperor would not move owing to the Turkish menace.
+
+In these circumstances Spain was compelled (1684) by the entry of the
+armies of Louis into the southern Netherlands to declare war upon
+France, and called upon the States for their military aid of 8000 men in
+accordance with the terms of the treaty of Nijmwegen. Orange at once
+referred the matter to the Council of State, and himself proposed that
+16,000 should be sent. As this, however, could only mean a renewal of
+the war with France, the proposal met with strong opposition in many
+quarters, and especially in Amsterdam. Prosperity was just beginning to
+revive, and a remembrance of past experiences filled the hearts of many
+with dread at the thought of the French armies once more invading their
+land. The Amsterdam regents even went so far as to enter into secret
+negotiations with D'Avaux; and they were supported by Henry Casimir, who
+was always ready to thwart his cousin's policy. William was checkmated
+and at first, in his anger, inclined to follow his father's example and
+crush the opposition of Amsterdam by force. He possessed however, which
+William II had not, the support of a majority in the Estates of Holland.
+He used this with effect. The raising of the troops was sanctioned by
+the Estates (January 31, 1684), an intercepted cipher-letter from
+D'Avaux being skilfully used to discredit the Amsterdam leaders, who
+were accused of traitorous correspondence with a foreign power.
+Nevertheless the prince, although he was able to override any active
+opposition at home, did not venture, so long as England and Brandenburg
+were on friendly relations with France, to put pressure upon the
+States-General. The French troops, to the prince's chagrin, overran
+Flanders; and he had no alternative but to concur in the truce for
+twenty years concluded at Ratisbon, August 15, 1684, which left the
+French king in possession of all his conquests.
+
+No more conclusive proof of the inflexible resolve of William III can be
+found than the patience he now exhibited. His faith in himself was never
+shaken, and his patience in awaiting the favourable moment was
+inexhaustible. To him far more appropriately than to his
+great-grandfather might the name of William the Silent have been
+given. He had no confidants, except Waldeck and William Bentinck; and
+few could even guess at the hidden workings of that scheming mind or at
+the burning fires of energy and will-power beneath the proud and frigid
+reserve of a man so frail in body and always ailing. Very rarely could a
+born leader of men have been more unamiable or less anxious to win
+popular applause, but his whole demeanour inspired confidence and,
+ignoring the many difficulties and oppositions which thwarted him, he
+steadfastly bided his time and opportunity. It now came quickly, for the
+year 1685 was marked by two events--the accession of James II to the
+throne of England, and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes--which were
+to have far-reaching consequences.
+
+The new King of England was not merely a strong but a bigoted Roman
+Catholic. Had he been a wise and patriotic prince, he would have tried
+by a studiously moderate policy to win the loyal allegiance of his
+subjects, but he was stubborn, wrong-headed and fanatical, and from the
+first he aimed at the impossible. His attempts to establish absolute
+rule, to bring back the English nation to the fold of the Catholic
+Church and, as a means to that end, to make himself independent of
+Parliament by accepting subsidies from the French king, were bound to
+end in catastrophe. This was more especially the case as Louis XIV had,
+at the very time of King James' accession, after having for a number of
+years persecuted the Huguenots in defiance of the Edict of Nantes, taken
+the step of revoking that great instrument of religious toleration on
+November 17, 1685. The exile of numerous families, who had already been
+driven out by the _dragonnades_, was now followed by the expulsion of
+the entire Huguenot body, of all at least who refused to conform to the
+Catholic faith. How many hundreds of thousands left their homes to find
+refuge in foreign lands it is impossible to say, but amongst them were
+great numbers of industrious and skilled artisans and handicraftsmen,
+who sought asylum in the Dutch Republic and there found a ready and
+sympathetic welcome. The arrival of these unhappy immigrants had the
+effect of arousing a strong feeling of indignation in Holland, and
+indeed throughout the provinces, against the government of Louis XIV.
+They began to see that the policy of the French king was not merely one
+of territorial aggression, but was a crusade against Protestantism. The
+governing classes in Holland, Zeeland, Friesland and Groningen were
+stirred up by the preachers to enforce more strictly the laws against
+the Catholics in those provinces, for genuine alarm was felt at the
+French menace to the religion for which their fathers had fought and
+suffered. The cause of Protestantism was one with which the Princes of
+Orange had identified themselves; but none of his ancestors was so keen
+an upholder of that cause as was William III. The presence in their
+midst of the Huguenot refugees had the effect of influencing public
+opinion powerfully in the States in favour of their stadholder's warlike
+policy. Nor was the Dutch Republic the only State which was deeply moved
+by the ruthless treatment of his Protestant subjects by the French king.
+The Elector of Brandenburg, as head of the principal Protestant State in
+Germany, had also offered an asylum to the French exiles and now
+reverted once more to his natural alliance with the United Provinces. He
+sent his trusted councillor, Paul Fuchs, in May, 1685, to offer to his
+nephew, the Prince of Orange, his friendly co-operation in the formation
+of a powerful coalition against France. Fuchs was a skilled diplomatist,
+and by his mediation an understanding was arrived at between the
+stadholder and his opponents in Amsterdam. At the same time strong
+family influence was brought to bear upon Henry Casimir of Friesland,
+and a reconciliation between the two stadholders was effected. William
+thus found himself, before the year 1685 came to an end, able to pursue
+his policy without serious let or hindrance. He was quite ready to seize
+his opportunity, and by tactful diplomacy he succeeded by August, 1686,
+in forming an alliance between the United Provinces, Brandenburg,
+Sweden, Austria, Spain and a number of the smaller Rhenish states, to
+uphold the treaties of Westphalia and Nijmwegen against the
+encroachments of French military aggression. But the design of William
+was still incomplete. The naval power and financial resources of England
+were needed to enable the coalition to grapple successfully with the
+mighty centralised power of Louis XIV.
+
+In England the attempt of James II to bring about a Catholic reaction
+by the arbitrary use of the royal prerogative was rapidly alienating the
+loyalty of all classes, including many men of high position, and even
+some of his own ministers. William watched keenly all that was going on
+and kept himself in close correspondence with several of the principal
+malcontents. He was well aware that all eyes were turning to him (and he
+accepted the position) as the natural defender, should the need
+arise, of England's civil and religious liberties. The need arose and
+the call came in the summer of 1688, and it found William prepared. The
+climax of the conflict between King James and his people was reached
+with the acquittal of the Seven Bishops in May, 1688, amidst public
+rejoicings, speedily followed on June 10 by the birth of a Prince of
+Wales. The report was spread that the child was supposititious and it
+was accepted as true by large numbers of persons, including the Princess
+Anne, and also, on the strength of her testimony, by the Prince and
+Princess of Orange.
+
+The secret relations of William with the leaders of opposition had for
+some time been carried on through his trusted confidants, Dijkveld, the
+State's envoy at the English Court, and William of Nassau, lord of
+Zuilestein. A bold step was now taken. Several Englishmen of note signed
+an invitation to the prince to land in England with an armed force in
+defence of the religion and liberties of the country; and it was brought
+to him by Admiral Russell, one of the signatories. After some hesitation
+William, with the consent and approval of the princess, decided to
+accept it. No man ever had a more loyal and devoted wife than William
+III of Orange, and he did not deserve it. For some years after his
+marriage he treated Mary with coldness and neglect. He confessed on one
+occasion to Bishop Burnet that his churlishness was partly due to
+jealousy; he could not bear the thought that Mary might succeed to the
+English throne and he would in that country be inferior in rank to his
+wife. The bishop informed the princess, who at once warmly declared
+that she would never accept the crown unless her husband received not
+merely the title of king, but the prerogatives of a reigning sovereign.
+From that time forward a complete reconciliation took place between
+them, and the affection and respect of William for this loyal,
+warm-hearted and self-sacrificing woman deepened as the years went on.
+Mary's character, as it is revealed in her private diaries, which have
+been preserved, deserves those epithets. Profoundly religious and a
+convinced Protestant, Mary with prayers for guidance and not without
+many tears felt that the resolve of her husband to hazard all on armed
+intervention in England was fully justified; and at this critical
+juncture she had no hesitation in allowing her sense of duty to her
+husband and her country to override that of a daughter to her father.
+Already in July vigorous preparations in all secrecy began to be made
+for the expedition. The naval yards were working at full pressure with
+the ostensible object of sending out a fleet to suppress piracy in the
+Mediterranean. The stadholder felt that he was able to rely upon the
+willing co-operation of the States in his project. His difficulty now,
+as always, was to secure the assent of Amsterdam. But the opposition of
+that city proved less formidable than was anticipated. The peril to
+Protestantism should England under James II be leagued with France, was
+evident, and scarcely less the security of the commerce on which
+Amsterdam depended for its prosperity. The support of Amsterdam secured
+that of the Estates of Holland; and finally, after thus surmounting
+successfully the elements of opposition in the town and the province,
+where the anti-Orange party was most strongly represented, the prince
+had little difficulty in obtaining, on October 8, the unanimous approval
+of the States-General, assembled in secret session, to the proposed
+expedition. By that time an army of 14,000 men had been gathered
+together and was encamped at Mook. Of these the six English and Scottish
+regiments, who now, as throughout the War of Independence, were
+maintained in the Dutch service, formed the nucleus. The force also
+comprised the prince's Dutch guards and other picked Dutch troops, and
+also some German levies. Marshal Schomberg was in command. The pretext
+assigned was the necessity of protecting the eastern frontier of the
+Republic against an attack from Cologne, where Cardinal Fuerstenberg, the
+nominee and ally of Louis XIV, had been elected to the archiepiscopal
+throne.
+
+Meanwhile diplomacy was active. D'Avaux was far too clear-sighted not to
+have discerned the real object of the naval and military preparations,
+and he warned both Louis XIV and James II. James, however, was obdurate
+and took no heed, while Louis played his enemy's game by declaring war
+on the Emperor and the Pope, and by invading the Palatinate instead of
+the Republic. For William had been doing his utmost to win over to his
+side, by the agency of Waldeck and Bentinck, the Protestant Princes of
+Germany, with the result that Brandenburg, Hanover, Saxony, Brunswick
+and Hesse had undertaken to give him active support against a French
+attack; while the constant threat against her possessions in the Belgic
+Netherlands compelled Spain to join the anti-French league which the
+stadholder had so long been striving to bring into existence. To
+these were now added the Emperor and the Pope, who, being actually at
+war with France, were ready to look favourably upon an expedition which
+would weaken the common enemy. The Grand Alliance of William's dreams
+had thus (should his expedition to England prove successful) come within
+the range of practical politics; and with his base secured Orange now
+determined to delay no longer, but to stake everything upon the issue of
+the English venture.
+
+The prince bade farewell to the States-General on October 26, and four
+days later he set sail from Helvoetsluis, but was driven back by a heavy
+storm, which severely damaged the fleet. A fresh start was made on
+November 11. Admiral Herbert was in command of the naval force, which
+convoyed safely through the Channel without opposition the long lines of
+transports. Over the prince's vessel floated his flag with the words
+_Pro Religione et Libertate_ inscribed above the motto of the House of
+Orange, _Je maintiendray_. Without mishap a landing was effected at
+Torbay, November 14 (5 o.s.), which was William's birthday, and a rapid
+march was made to Exeter. He met with no armed resistance. James'
+troops, his courtiers, his younger daughter the Princess Anne, all
+deserted him; and finally, after sending away his wife and infant son to
+France, the king himself left his palace at Whitehall by night and fled
+down the river to Sheerness. Here he was recognised and brought back to
+London. It was thought, however, best to connive at his escape, and he
+landed on the coast of France at Christmas. The expedition had achieved
+its object and William, greeted as a deliverer, entered the capital at
+the head of his army.
+
+On February 13,1689, a convention, specially summoned for the
+purpose, declared that James by his flight had vacated the throne;
+and the crown was offered to William and Mary jointly, the
+executive power being placed in the hands of the prince.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE KING-STADHOLDER, 1688-1702
+
+
+The accession of William III to the throne of England was an event
+fraught with important consequences to European politics and to the
+United Provinces. The king was enabled at last to realise the formation
+of that Grand Alliance for which he had so long been working. The treaty
+of Vienna, signed on May 12, 1689, encircled France with a ring of
+enemies, and saw the Emperor and Spain united with the Protestant
+powers, England, the States and many of the German princes in a bond of
+alliance for the maintenance of the treaties of Westphalia and the
+Pyrenees. It was not without some difficulty that William succeeded in
+inducing the States to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance
+with England. A special embassy consisting of Witsen, Odijk, Dijkveld
+and others was sent to London early in 1689 to endeavour to bring about
+some mutually advantageous arrangement of the various conflicting
+maritime and commercial interests of the two countries. But they could
+effect nothing. The English government refused either to repeal or
+modify the Navigation Act or to reduce the toll for fishing privileges;
+and it required all the personal influence of William to secure the
+signing of a treaty (September 3), which many leading Hollanders
+considered to be a subordinating of Dutch to English interests. And
+they were right; from this time began that decline of Dutch commercial
+supremacy which was to become more and more marked as the 18th century
+progressed. The policy of William III, as Frederick the Great remarked
+most justly, placed Holland in the position of a sloop towed behind the
+English ship-of-the-line.
+
+The carrying trade of the world was still, however, in the reign of
+William III practically in the hands of the Dutch, despite the losses
+that had been sustained during the English wars and the French invasion.
+The only competitor was England under the shelter of the Navigation Act.
+The English had, under favourable conditions, their staple at Dordrecht,
+the Scots their staple at Veere; and the volume of trade under the
+new conditions of close alliance was very considerable. But the imports
+largely exceeded the exports; and both exports and imports had to be
+carried in English bottoms. The Baltic (or Eastern) trade remained a
+Dutch monopoly, as did the trade with Russia through Archangel. Almost
+all the ships that passed through the Sound were Dutch; and they
+frequented all the Baltic ports, whether Russian, Scandinavian or
+German, bringing the commodities of the South and returning laden with
+hemp, tallow, wood, copper, iron, corn, wax, hides and other raw
+products for distribution in other lands. The English had a small number
+of vessels in the Mediterranean and the Levant, and frequented the
+Spanish and Portuguese harbours, but as yet they hardly interfered with
+the Dutch carrying-trade in those waters. The whole trade of Spain with
+her vast American dominions was by law restricted to the one port of
+Cadiz; but no sooner did the galleons bringing the rich products of
+Mexico and Peru reach Cadiz than the bulk of their merchandise was
+quickly transhipped into Dutch vessels, which here, as elsewhere, were
+the medium through which the exchange of commodities between one country
+and another was effected. It was a profitable business, and the
+merchants of Amsterdam and of the other Dutch commercial centres grew
+rich and prospered.
+
+The position of the Dutch in the East Indies at the close of the 17th
+century is one of the marvels of history. The East India Company, with
+its flourishing capital at Batavia, outdistanced all competitors. It was
+supreme in the Indian archipelago and along all the shores washed by the
+Indian Ocean. The governor-general was invested with great powers and,
+owing to his distance from the home authority, was able to make
+unfettered use of them during his term of office. He made treaties and
+conducted wars and was looked upon by the princes and petty rulers of
+the Orient as a mighty potentate. The conquest of Macassar in 1669, the
+occupation of Japara and Cheribon in 1680, of Bantam in 1682, of
+Pondicherry in 1693, together with the possession of Malacca and of the
+entire coast of Ceylon, of the Moluccas, and of the Cape of Good Hope,
+gave to the Dutch the control of all the chief avenues of trade
+throughout those regions. By treaties of alliance and commerce with the
+Great Mogul and other smaller sovereigns and chieftains factories were
+established at Hooghly on the Ganges, at Coelim, Surat, Bender Abbas,
+Palembang and many other places. In the Moluccas they had the entire
+spice trade in their hands. Thus a very large part of the products of
+the Orient found its way to Europe by way of Amsterdam, which had become
+increasingly the commercial emporium and centre of exchange for the
+world.
+
+The West India Company, on the other hand, had been ruined by the loss
+of its Brazilian dominion followed by the English wars. Its charter came
+to an end in 1674, but it was replaced by a new Company on a more
+moderate scale. Its colonies on the Guiana coast, Surinam, Berbice and
+Essequibo were at the end of the 17th century in an impoverished
+condition, but already beginning to develop the sugar plantations which
+were shortly to become a lucrative industry; and the island of Curacoa
+had the unenviable distinction of being for some years one of the chief
+centres of the negro slave trade.
+
+In the United Provinces themselves one of the features of this period
+was the growth of many new industries and manufactures, largely due to
+the influx of Huguenot refugees, many of whom were skilled artisans. Not
+only did the manufacturers of cloth and silk employ a large number of
+hands, but also those of hats, gloves, ribbons, trimmings, laces, clocks
+and other articles, which had hitherto been chiefly produced in France.
+One of the consequences of the rapid increase of wealth was a change in
+the simple habits, manners and dress, which hitherto travellers had
+noted as one of the most remarkable characteristics of the Hollanders.
+Greater luxury began to be displayed, French fashions and ways of life
+to be imitated, and the French language to be used as the medium of
+intercourse among the well-to-do classes. Another sign of the times was
+the spread of the spirit of speculation and of gambling in stocks and
+shares, showing that men were no longer content to amass wealth by the
+slow process of ordinary trade and commerce. This state of prosperity,
+which was largely due to the security which the close alliance with
+England brought to the Republic, explains in no small measure the
+acquiescence of the Dutch in a state of things which made the smaller
+country almost a dependency of the larger. They were proud that their
+stadholder should reign as king in Britain; and his prolonged absences
+did not diminish their strong attachment to him or lessen his authority
+among them. So much greater indeed was the power exercised by William in
+the Republic than that which, as a strictly constitutional sovereign, he
+possessed in the kingdom, that it was wittily said that the Prince of
+Orange was stadholder in England and king in Holland.
+
+It must not be supposed, however, that William in his capacity as
+stadholder was free from worries and trials. He had many; and, as usual,
+Amsterdam was the chief centre of unrest. After the expedition set sail
+for Torbay, William was continuously absent for no less than two and a
+half years. It is no wonder therefore that during so long a period, when
+the attention of the king was absorbed by other pressing matters,
+difficulties should have arisen in his administration of the affairs of
+the Republic. It was very unfortunate that his most able and trusted
+friend and adviser, the Council-Pensionary Fagel, should have died, in
+December, 1688, just when William's enterprise in England had reached
+its most critical stage. Fagel was succeeded, after a brief interval, in
+his most important and influential office by Antony Heinsius. Heinsius,
+who had been for some years Pensionary of Delft, was a modest, quiet
+man, already forty-five years of age, capable, experienced and
+business-like. His tact and statesmanlike qualities were of the greatest
+service to William and scarcely less to his country, at a time when
+urgent duties in England made it so difficult for the stadholder to give
+personal attention to the internal affairs of the Republic. No other
+Prince of Orange had ever so favourable an opportunity as William III
+for effecting such changes in the system of government and
+administration in the Dutch Republic as would simplify and co-ordinate
+its many rival and conflicting authorities, and weld its seven
+sovereign provinces into a coherent State with himself (under whatever
+title) as its "eminent head." At the height of his power his will could
+have over-ridden local or partisan opposition, for he had behind him the
+prestige of his name and deeds and the overwhelming support of popular
+opinion. But William had little or no interest in these constitutional
+questions. Being childless, he had no dynastic ambitions. The nearest
+male representative of his house was Henry Casimir, the stadholder of
+Friesland, with whom his relations had been far from friendly. In his
+mind, everything else was subordinate to the one and overruling purpose
+of his life, the overthrow of the power of Louis XIV and of French
+ascendancy in Europe.
+
+The great coalition which had been formed in 1689 by the treaty of
+Vienna was, in the first years of the war which then broke out,
+attended with but mediocre success. The French armies laid waste the
+Palatinate with great barbarity, and then turned their attentions to the
+southern Netherlands. The attempted invasion was, however, checked by an
+allied force (August 25) in a sharp encounter near Charleroi. The next
+year, 1690, was particularly unfortunate for the allies. William was
+still absent, having been obliged to conduct an expedition to Ireland.
+He had placed the aged Marshal Waldeck in command of the Coalition
+forces. Waldeck had the redoubtable Luxemburg opposed to him and on July
+1 the two armies met at Fleurus, when, after a hard-fought contest, the
+allies suffered a bloody defeat. An even greater set-back was the
+victory gained by Admiral Tourville over the combined Anglo-Dutch fleet
+off Beachy Head (July 10). The Dutch squadron under Cornelis Evertsen
+bore the brunt of the fight and suffered heavily. They received little
+help from the English contingent; and the English Admiral Torrington was
+accused of having wilfully sacrificed his allies. The effect was
+serious, for the French enjoyed for a while the rare satisfaction of
+holding the command of the Channel. The complete triumph of King William
+at the battle of the Boyne (July 12) relieved somewhat the consternation
+felt at this naval disaster, and set him free to devote his whole
+attention to the Continental war. His return to the Hague early in 1691
+caused general rejoicing, and he was there able to concert with his
+allies the placing of a large force in the field for the ensuing
+campaign. The operations were, however, barren of any satisfactory
+results. Luxemburg advanced before the allies were ready, and burnt and
+plundered a large tract of country. William, acting on the defensive,
+contented himself with covering the capital and the rest of Flanders and
+Brabant from attack; and no pitched battle took place.
+
+Great preparations were made by Louis XIV in the spring of 1692 for the
+invasion of England. Troops were collected on the coast, and the
+squadron under D'Estrees at Toulon was ordered to join the main fleet of
+Tourville at Brest. Contrary winds delayed the junction; and Tourville
+rashly sailed out and engaged off La Hogue a greatly superior allied
+fleet on May 29. The conflict this time chiefly fell upon the English,
+and after a fierce fight the French were defeated and fled for refuge
+into the shoal waters. Here they were followed by the lighter vessels
+and fire-ships of the allies; and the greater part of the French
+fleet was either burnt or driven upon the rocks (June 1). The maritime
+power of France was for the time being destroyed, and all fears of
+invasion dissipated. On land ill-success continued to dog the footsteps
+of the allies. The strong fortress of Namur was taken by the French;
+and, after a hotly contested battle at Steinkirk, William was compelled
+by his old adversary Luxemburg to retreat. William, though he was rarely
+victorious on the field of battle, had great qualities as a leader. His
+courage and coolness won the confidence of his troops, and he was never
+greater than in the conduct of a retreat. This was shown conspicuously
+in the following year (1693), when, after a disastrous defeat at
+Neerwinden (July 29), again at the hands of Luxemburg, he succeeded at
+imminent personal risk in withdrawing his army in good order in face of
+the superior forces of the victorious enemy.
+
+In 1694 the allies confined themselves to defensive operations. Both
+sides were growing weary of war; and there were strong parties in favour
+of negotiating for peace both in the Netherlands and in England. Some of
+the burgher-regents of Amsterdam, Dordrecht and other towns even went so
+far as to make secret overtures to the French government, and they had
+the support of the Frisian Stadholder; but William was resolutely
+opposed to accepting such conditions as France was willing to offer,
+and his strong will prevailed.
+
+The position of the king in England was made more difficult by the
+lamented death of Queen Mary on January 2,1695. William had become
+deeply attached to his wife during these last years, and for a time he
+was prostrated by grief. But a strong sense of public duty roused him
+from his depression; and the campaign of 1695 was signalised by the most
+brilliant military exploit of his life, the recapture of Namur. That
+town, strong by its natural position, had been fortified by Vauban with
+all the resources of engineering skill, and was defended by a powerful
+garrison commanded by Marshal Boufflers. But William had with him the
+famous Coehoorn, in scientific siege-warfare the equal of Vauban
+himself. At the end of a month the town of Namur was taken, but
+Boufflers withdrew to the citadel. Villeroy, at the head of an army of
+90,000 men, did his utmost to compel the king to raise the siege by
+threatening Brussels; but a strong allied force watched his movements
+and successfully barred his approach to Namur. At last, on September 5,
+Boufflers capitulated after a gallant defence on the condition that
+he and his troops should march out with all the honours of war.
+
+The campaign of 1696 was marked by no event of importance; indeed both
+sides were thoroughly tired out by the protracted and inconclusive
+contest. Moreover the failing health of Charles II of Spain threatened
+to open out at any moment the vital question of the succession to the
+Spanish throne. Louis XIV, William III and the emperor were all keenly
+alive to the importance of the issue, and wished to have their hands
+free in order to prepare for a settlement, either by diplomatic means or
+by a fresh appeal to arms. But peace was the immediate need, and
+overtures were privately made by the French king to each of the allied
+powers in 1696. At last it was agreed that plenipotentiaries from all
+the belligerents should meet in congress at Ryswyck near the Hague with
+the Swedish Count Lilienrot as mediator. The congress was opened on May
+9, 1697, but many weeks elapsed before the representatives of the
+various powers settled down to business. Heinsius and Dijkveld were the
+two chief Dutch negotiators. The emperor, when the other powers had
+come to terms, refused to accede; and finally England, Spain and the
+United Provinces determined to conclude a separate peace. It was signed
+on September 20 and was based upon the treaties of Nijmwegen and
+Muenster. France, having ulterior motives, had been conciliatory.
+Strasburg was retained, but most of the French conquests were given up.
+William was recognised as King of England, and the Principality of
+Orange was restored to him. With the Dutch a commercial treaty was
+concluded for twenty-five years on favourable terms.
+
+It was well understood, however, by all the parties that the peace of
+Ryswyck was a truce during which the struggle concerning the Spanish
+Succession would be transferred from the field of battle to the field of
+diplomacy, in the hope that some solution might be found. The question
+was clearly of supreme importance to the States, for it involved the
+destiny of the Spanish Netherlands. England, too, had great interests at
+stake, and was determined to prevent the annexation of the Belgic
+provinces by France. With Charles II the male line of the Spanish
+Habsburgs became extinct; and there were three principal claimants in
+the female line of succession. The claim of the Dauphin was much the
+strongest, for he was the grandson of Anne of Austria, Philip III's
+eldest daughter, and the son of Maria Theresa of Austria, Charles
+II's eldest sister. But both these queens of France had on their
+marriage solemnly renounced their rights of succession. Louis XIV,
+however, asserted that his wife's renunciation was invalid, since the
+dowry, the payment of which was guaranteed by the marriage contract, had
+never been received. The younger sister of Maria Theresa had been
+married to the emperor; and two sons and a daughter had been the fruit
+of the union. This daughter in her turn had wedded the Elector of
+Bavaria, and had issue one boy of ten years. The Elector himself,
+Maximilian Emmanuel, had been for five years Governor of the Spanish
+Netherlands, where his rule had been exceedingly popular. William knew
+that one of the chief objects of the French king in concluding peace was
+to break up the Grand Alliance and so prepare the way for a masterful
+assertion of his rights as soon as the Spanish throne was vacant; and
+with patient diplomatic skill he set to work at once to arrange for such
+a partition of the Spanish monarchy among the claimants as should
+prevent the Belgic provinces from falling into the hands of a
+first-class power and preserve Spain itself with its overseas
+possessions from the rule of a Bourbon prince. He had no difficulty in
+persuading the States to increase their fleet and army in case diplomacy
+should fail, for the Dutch were only too well aware of the seriousness
+of the French menace to their independence. In England, where jealousy
+of a standing army had always been strong, he was less successful, and
+Parliament insisted on the disbanding of many thousands of seasoned
+troops. The object at which William aimed was a partition treaty; and a
+partition was actually arranged (October 11, 1698). This arrangement,
+according to the ideas of the time, paid no respect whatever to the
+wishes of the peoples, who were treated as mere pawns by these
+unscrupulous diplomatists. The Spanish people, as might be expected,
+were vehemently opposed to any partition of the empire of Charles V and
+Philip II; and, in consequence of the influences that were brought to
+bear upon him, Charles II left by will the young electoral prince,
+Joseph Ferdinand, heir to his whole inheritance. By the secret terms of
+the partition treaty the crown of Spain together with the Netherlands
+and the American colonies had been assigned to the Bavarian claimant,
+but the Spanish dominions in Italy were divided between the two other
+claimants, the second son of the Dauphin, Philip, Duke of Anjou,
+receiving Naples and Sicily; the second son of the emperor, the Archduke
+Charles, the Milanese. Unfortunately, Joseph Ferdinand fell sick of the
+small-pox and died (March, 1699). With William and Heinsius the main
+point now was to prevent the French prince from occupying the Spanish
+throne; and in all secrecy negotiations were again opened at the Hague
+for a second partition treaty. They found Louis XIV still willing to
+conclude a bargain. To the Duke of Anjou was now assigned, in addition
+to Naples and Sicily, the duchy of Lorraine (whose duke was to receive
+the Milanese in exchange); the rest of the Spanish possessions were to
+fall to the Archduke Charles (March, 1700). The terms of this
+arrangement between the French king and the maritime powers did not long
+remain a secret; and when they were known they displeased the emperor,
+who did not wish to see French influence predominant in Italy and his
+own excluded, and still more the Spanish people, who objected to any
+partition and to the Austrian ruler. The palace of Charles II became a
+very hot-bed of intrigues, and finally the dying king was persuaded to
+make a fresh will and nominate Anjou as his universal heir. Accordingly
+on Charles' death (November 1, 1700) Philip V was proclaimed king.
+
+For a brief time Louis was doubtful as to what course of action
+would be most advantageous to French interests, but not for long.
+On November 11 he publicly announced to his court at Versailles
+that his grandson had accepted the Spanish crown. This step was
+followed by the placing of French garrisons in some of the frontier
+fortresses of the Belgic Netherlands by consent of the governor,
+the Elector of Bavaria. The following months were spent in the vain
+efforts of diplomacy to obtain such guarantees from the French
+king as would give security to the States and satisfaction to England
+and the emperor, and so avoid the outbreak of war. In the States
+Heinsius, who was working heart and soul with the stadholder in this
+crisis, had no difficulty in obtaining the full support of all parties,
+even in Holland, to the necessity of making every effort to be ready
+for hostilities. William had a more difficult task in England, but he
+had the support of the Whig majority in Parliament and of the
+commercial classes; and he laboured hard, despite constant and
+increasing ill-health, to bring once more into existence the Grand
+Alliance of 1689. In July negotiations were opened between the
+maritime powers and the emperor at the Hague, which after lengthy
+discussions were brought to a conclusion in September, in no small
+degree through the tact and persuasiveness of Lord Marlborough,
+the English envoy, who had now begun that career which was shortly
+to make his name so famous. The chief provisions of the treaty of
+alliance, signed on September 7, 1701, were that Austria was to have
+the Italian possessions of Spain; the Belgic provinces were to
+remain as a barrier and protection for Holland against French
+aggression; and England and the States were to retain any conquests
+they might make in the Spanish West Indies. Nothing was said
+about the crown of Spain, a silence which implied a kind of
+recognition of Philip V. To this league were joined Prussia, Hanover,
+Lueneburg, Hesse-Cassel, while France, to whom Spain was now
+allied, could count upon the help of Bavaria. War was not yet
+declared, but at this very moment Louis XIV took a step which was
+wantonly provocative. James II died at St Germain on September 6;
+and his son was at once acknowledged by Louis as King of England,
+by the title of James III. This action aroused a storm of indignation
+among the English people, and William found himself supported
+by public opinion in raising troops and obtaining supplies for war.
+The preparations were on a vast scale. The emperor undertook to
+place 90,000 men in the field; England, 40,000; the German states,
+54,000; and the Republic no less than 100,000. William had
+succeeded at last in the object of his life; a mighty confederation
+had been called into being to maintain the balance of power in
+Europe, and overthrow the threatened French domination. This
+confederation in arms, of which he was the soul and the acknowledged
+head, was destined to accomplish the object for which it was formed,
+but not under his leadership. The king had spent the autumn in
+Holland in close consultation with Heinsius, visiting the camps, the
+arsenals and the dockyards, and giving instructions to the admirals
+and generals to have everything in readiness for the campaign of
+the following spring. Then in November he went to England to
+hurry on the preparations, which were in a more backward condition
+than in the States. But he had overtaxed his strength. Always
+frail and ailing, William had for years by sheer force of will-power
+conquered his bodily weakness and endured the fatigue of campaigns
+in which he was content to share all hardships with his
+soldiers. In his double capacity, too, of king and stadholder, the
+cares of government and the conduct of foreign affairs had left him
+no rest. Especially had this been the case in England during the
+years which had followed Queen Mary's death, when he found
+himself opposed and thwarted and humiliated by party intrigues
+and cabals, to such an extent that he more than once thought of
+abdicating. He was feeling very ill and tired when he returned, and
+he grew weaker, for the winter in England always tried him. His
+medical advisers warned him that his case was one for which
+medicine was of no avail, and that he was not fit to bear the strain
+of the work he was doing. But the indomitable spirit of the man
+would not give way, and he still hoped with the spring to be able
+to put himself at the head of his army. It was not to be; an accident
+was the immediate cause by which the end came quickly. He was
+riding in Bushey Park when his horse stumbled over a mole-hill
+and the king was thrown, breaking his collar-bone (March 14,1702).
+The shock proved fatal in his enfeebled state; and, after lingering
+for four days, during which, in full possession of his mental faculties,
+he continued to discuss affairs of state, he calmly took leave of his
+special friends, Bentinck, Earl of Portland and Keppel, Earl of
+Albemarle, and of the English statesmen who stood round his death-bed,
+and, after thanking them for their services, passed away.
+For four generations the House of Orange had produced great
+leaders of men, but it may be said without disparagement to his
+famous predecessors that the last heir-male of that House was the
+greatest of them all. He saved the Dutch Republic from destruction;
+and during the thirty years of what has well been called his reign
+he gave to it a weighty place in the Councils of Europe and raised
+it to a height of great material prosperity. But even such services
+as these were dwarfed by the part that he played in laying the
+foundation of constitutional monarchy in England, and of the
+balance of power in Europe. It is difficult to say whether Holland,
+England or Europe owed the deepest debt to the life-work of
+William III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION AND THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT, 1702-1715
+
+
+William III left no successor to take his place. The younger branch of
+the Nassau family, who had been, from the time of John of Nassau,
+stadholders of Friesland and, except for one short interval, of
+Groningen, and who by the marriage of William Frederick with Albertina
+Agnes, younger daughter of Frederick Henry, could claim descent in the
+female line from William the Silent, had rendered for several
+generations distinguished services to the Republic, but in 1702 had as
+its only representative a boy of 14 years of age, by name John William
+Friso. As already narrated, the relations between his father, Henry
+Casimir, and William III had for a time been far from friendly; but a
+reconciliation took place before Henry Casimir's untimely death, and the
+king became god-father to John William Friso, and by his will left him
+his heir. The boy had succeeded by hereditary right to the posts of
+stadholder and captain-general of Friesland and Groningen under the
+guardianship of his mother, but such claims as he had to succeed William
+III as stadholder in the other provinces were, on account of his youth,
+completely ignored. As in 1650, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland
+and Overyssel reverted once more to a stadholderless form of government.
+
+Fortunately this implied no change of external policy. The men who had
+for years been fellow-workers with King William and were in complete
+sympathy with his aims continued to hold the most important posts in the
+government of the Republic, and to control its policy. That policy
+consisted in the maintenance of a close alliance with England for the
+purpose of curbing the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. Foremost among
+these statesmen were Antony Heinsius, the council-pensionary of Holland,
+Simon van Slingelandt, secretary of the Council of State since 1690, and
+Jan Hop, the treasurer-general of the Union. In England the recognition
+by Louis of the Prince of Wales as King James III had thoroughly
+aroused the popular feeling against France; and Anne the new queen
+determined to carry out her predecessor's plans. The two maritime
+powers, closely bound together by common interests, and the ties which
+had arisen between them during the thirteen years of the reign of the
+king-stadholder, were to form the nucleus of a coalition with Austria
+and a number of the German states, including Prussia and Hanover (to
+which Savoy somewhat later adhered), pledged to support the claims of
+the Archduke Charles to the Spanish throne. For the Dutch it was an
+all-important question, for with Philip V reigning at Madrid the
+hegemony of France in Europe seemed to be assured. Already French troops
+were in possession of the chief fortresses of the so-called Spanish
+Netherlands. Face to face with such a menace it was not difficult for
+Heinsius to obtain not only the assent of the States-General, but of the
+Estates of Holland, practically without a dissenting voice, to declare
+war upon France and Spain (May 8, 1702); and this was quickly followed
+by similar declarations by England and Austria.
+
+The Grand Alliance had an outward appearance of great strength, but in
+reality it had all the weaknesses of a coalition, its armies being
+composed of contingents from a number of countries, whose governments
+had divergent aims and strategic objects, and it was opposed by a power
+under absolute rule with numerous and veteran armies inspired by a long
+tradition of victory under brilliant leaders. In 1702, however, the
+successors of Turenne and Luxemburg were by no means of the same calibre
+as those great generals. On the other hand, the allies were doubly
+fortunate in being led by a man of exceptional gifts. John Churchill,
+Earl (and shortly afterwards Duke) of Marlborough, was placed in supreme
+command of the Anglo-Dutch armies. Through the influence of his wife
+with the weak Queen Anne, the Whig party, of which Marlborough and his'
+friend Godolphin the lord-treasurer were the heads, was maintained in
+secure possession of power; and Marlborough thus entered upon his
+command in the full confidence of having the unwavering support of the
+home government behind him. Still this would have availed little but for
+the consummate abilities of this extraordinary man. As a general he
+displayed a military genius, both as a strategist and a tactician, which
+has been rarely surpassed. For ten years he pursued a career of victory
+not marred by a single defeat, and this in spite of the fact that his
+army was always composed of heterogeneous elements, that his
+subordinates of different nationalities were jealous of his authority
+and of one another, and above all, as will be seen, that his bold and
+well-laid plans were again and again hindered and thwarted by the
+timidity and obstinacy of the civilian deputies who were placed by the
+States-General at his side. Had Marlborough been unhampered, the war
+would probably have ended some years before it did; as it was, the
+wonderful successes of the general were made possible by his skill and
+tact as a diplomatist. He had, moreover, the good fortune to have at his
+side in the Imperialist general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, a commander
+second only to himself in brilliance and leadership. In almost all wars
+the Austrian alliance has proved a weak support on which to trust; but
+now, thanks to the outstanding capacity of Eugene, the armies of Austria
+were able to achieve many triumphs. The vigorous participation of the
+emperor in this war, in support of the claims of his second son, was
+only made possible by the victories of the Italian general over the
+Turks, who had overrun Hungary and threatened Vienna. And now, in the
+still more important sphere of operations in the West in which for a
+series of years he had to co-operate with Marlborough, it is to the
+infinite credit of both these great men that they worked harmoniously
+and smoothly together, so that at no time was there even a hint of any
+jealousy between them. In any estimate of the great achievements of
+Marlborough it must never be forgotten that he not only had Eugene at
+his right hand in the field, but Heinsius in the council chamber.
+Heinsius had always worked loyally and sympathetically with William III;
+and it was in the same spirit that he worked with the English duke, who
+brought William's life-task to its triumphant accomplishment. Between
+Marlborough and Heinsius, as between Marlborough and Eugene, there was
+no friction--surely a convincing tribute to the adroit and tactful
+persuasiveness of a commanding personality.
+
+In July, 1702, Marlborough at the head of 65,000 men faced Marshal
+Boufflers with a French army almost as strong numerically, the one in
+front of Nijmwegen, the other in the neighbourhood of Liege. Leaving a
+force of 25,000 Dutch and Brandenburgers to besiege Kaiserswerth,
+Marlborough by skilful manoeuvring prevented Boufflers from attempting a
+relief, and would on two occasions have been able to inflict a severe
+defeat upon him had he not been each time thwarted by the cautious
+timidity of the Dutch deputies. Kaiserswerth, however, fell, and in turn
+Rheinberg, Venloo, Roeremonde and Liege; and the campaign ended
+successfully, leaving the allies in command of the lower Rhine and lower
+Meuse.
+
+That of 1703 was marred even more effectually than that of the previous
+year by the interference of the deputies, and the ill-concealed
+opposition to Marlborough of certain Dutch generals, notably of
+Slangenburg. The duke was very angry, and bitter recriminations ensued.
+In the end Slangenburg was removed from his command; and the appointment
+of Ouwerkerk, as field-marshal of the Dutch forces, relieved the
+tension, though the deputies were still present at headquarters, much to
+Marlborough's annoyance. The campaign resulted in the capture of Bonn,
+Huy and Limburg, but there was no general action.
+
+The year 1704 saw the genius of Marlborough at length assert itself. The
+French had placed great armies in the field, Villeroy in the
+Netherlands, Tallard in Bavaria, where in conjunction with the Bavarian
+forces he threatened to descend the Danube into the heart of Austria.
+Vienna itself was in the greatest danger. The troops under Lewis of
+Baden and under Eugene were, even when united, far weaker than their
+adversaries. In these circumstances Marlborough determined by a bold
+strategical stroke to execute a flank march from the Netherlands right
+across the front of the Franco-Bavarian army and effect a junction with
+the Imperialists. He had to deceive the timid Dutch deputies by feigning
+to descend the Meuse with the intention of working round Villeroy's
+flank; then, leaving Ouwerkerk to contain that marshal, he set out on
+his daring adventure early in May and carried it out with complete
+success. His departure had actually relieved the Netherlands, for
+Villeroy had felt it necessary with a large part of his forces to follow
+Marlborough and reinforce the Franco-Bavarians under Marshal Tallard and
+the Elector. The two armies met at Blenheim (Hochstaedt) on August 13.
+The battle resulted in the crushing victory of the allies under
+Marlborough and Eugene. Eleven thousand prisoners were taken, among them
+Tallard himself. The remnant of the French army retired across the
+Rhine. Vienna was saved, and all Bavaria was overrun by the
+Imperialists.
+
+Meanwhile at sea the Anglo-Dutch fleet was incontestably superior to the
+enemy; and the operations were confined to the immediate
+neighbourhood of the Peninsula. William III had before his death been
+preparing an expedition for the capture of Cadiz. His plan was actually
+carried out in 1702, when a powerful fleet under the supreme command of
+Admiral Sir George Rooke sailed for Cadiz; but the attack failed owing
+to the incompetence of the Duke of Ormonde, who commanded the military
+forces. In this expedition a strong Dutch squadron under Philip van
+Almonde participated. Almonde was a capable seaman trained in the
+school of Tromp and De Ruyter; and he took a most creditable part in the
+action off Vigo, October 23, in which a large portion of the silver
+fleet was captured, and the Franco-Spanish fleet, which formed its
+escort, destroyed. The maritime operations of 1703 were uneventful, the
+French fleet being successfully blockaded in Toulon harbour.
+
+The accession of Portugal in the course of this year to the Grand
+Alliance was important in that it opened the estuary of the Tagus as a
+naval base, and enabled the Archduke Charles to land with a body of
+troops escorted by an Anglo-Dutch fleet under Rooke and Callenberg. This
+fleet later in the year (August 4) was fortunate in capturing Gibraltar
+without much loss, the defences having been neglected and inadequately
+garrisoned. In this feat of arms, which gave to the English the
+possession of the rock fortress that commands the entrance into the
+Mediterranean, the Dutch under Callenberg had a worthy share, as also in
+the great sea-fight off Malaga on August 24, against the French fleet
+under the Count of Toulouse. The French had slightly superior numbers,
+and the allies, who had not replenished their stores after the siege of
+Gibraltar, were short of ammunition. Though a drawn battle, so far as
+actual losses were concerned, it was decisive in its results. The French
+fleet withdrew to the shelter of Toulon harbour; and the allies'
+supremacy in the midland sea was never again throughout the war
+seriously challenged. The Dutch ships at the battle of Malaga were
+twelve in number and fought gallantly, but it was the last action of any
+importance in which the navy of Holland took part. There had been
+dissensions between the English and Dutch commanders, and from this time
+forward the admiralties made no effort to maintain their fleet in the
+state of efficiency in which it had been left by William III. The cost
+of the army fell heavily upon Holland, and money was grudged for the
+maintenance of the navy, whose services, owing to the weakness of the
+enemy, were not required.
+
+The military campaign of 1705 produced small results, the plans of
+Marlborough for an active offensive being thwarted by the Dutch
+deputies. The duke's complaints only resulted in one set of deputies
+being replaced by another set of civilians equally impracticable. There
+was also another reason for a slackening of vigour. The Emperor Leopold
+I died on May 5. His successor Joseph I had no children, so that the
+Archduke Charles became the heir-apparent to all the possessions of the
+Austrian Habsburgs. Louis XIV therefore seized the opportunity to make
+secret overtures of peace to some of the more influential Dutch
+statesmen through the Marquis D'Allegne, at that time a prisoner in the
+hands of the Dutch. The French were willing to make many concessions in
+return for the recognition of Philip V as King of Spain. In the autumn
+conversations took place between Heinsius, Buys the pensionary of
+Amsterdam, and others, with D'Allegne and Rouille, an accredited agent
+of the French government. Matters went so far that Buys went to London
+on a secret mission to discuss the matter with the English minister. The
+English cabinet, however, refused to recognise Philip V; and, as the
+Dutch demand for a strong barrier of fortresses along the southern
+frontier of the Netherlands was deemed inadmissible at Versailles, the
+negotiations came to an end.
+
+In 1706 Marlborough's bold proposal to join Eugene in Italy, and with
+their united forces to drive the French out of that country and to march
+upon Toulon, failed to gain the assent of the Dutch deputies. The duke,
+after much controversy and consequent delay, had to content himself with
+a campaign in Belgium. It was brilliantly carried out. On Whit Sunday,
+May 23, at Ramillies the allies encountered the enemy under the command
+of Marshal Villeroi and the Elector of Bavaria. The French were utterly
+defeated with very heavy loss; and such was the vigour of the pursuit
+that the shattered army was obliged to retire to Courtrai, leaving
+Brabant and Flanders undefended. In rapid succession Louvain, Antwerp,
+Ghent, Bruges and other towns surrendered to Marlborough, and a little
+later Ostend, Dendermonde, Menin and Ath; and the Archduke Charles was
+acknowledged as sovereign by the greater part of the southern
+Netherlands. In Italy and Spain also things had gone well with the
+allies. This series of successes led Louis XIV to make fresh
+overtures of peace to the States-General, whom the French king hoped to
+seduce from the Grand Alliance by the bait of commercial advantages both
+with Spain and France and a good "barrier." He was even ready to yield
+the crown of Spain to the Archduke Charles on condition that Philip of
+Anjou were acknowledged as sovereign of the Spanish possessions in
+Italy. Heinsius however was loyal to the English alliance; and, in face
+of the determination of the English government not to consent to any
+division of the Spanish inheritance, the negotiations again came to
+nothing.
+
+The year 1707 saw a change of fortune. Austria was threatened by the
+victorious advance of Charles XII of Sweden through Poland into Saxony.
+A French army under Villars crossed the Rhine (May 27) and advanced far
+into south-eastern Germany. The defence of their own territories caused
+several of the German princes to retain their troops at home instead of
+sending them as mercenaries to serve in the Netherlands under
+Marlborough. The duke therefore found himself unable to attack the
+superior French army under Vendome, and acted steadfastly on the
+defensive. An attempt by Eugene, supported by the English fleet, to
+capture Toulon ended in dismal failure and the retreat of the
+Imperialists with heavy loss into Italy. In Spain the victory of Berwick
+at Almanza (April 27) made Philip V the master of all Spain, except a
+part of Catalonia.
+
+But, though Marlborough had been reduced to immobility in 1707, the
+following campaign was to witness another of his wonderful victories. At
+the head of a mixed force of 80,000 men he was awaiting the arrival of
+Eugene with an Imperialist army of 35,000, when Vendome unexpectedly
+took the offensive while he still had superiority in numbers over his
+English opponent. Rapidly overrunning western Flanders he made himself
+master of Bruges and Ghent and laid siege to Oudenarde. By a series of
+brilliant movements Marlborough out-marched and out-manoeuvred his
+adversary and, interposing his army between him and the French frontier,
+compelled him to risk a general engagement. It took place on July 11,
+1708, and ended in the complete defeat of the French, who were only
+saved by the darkness from utter destruction. Had the bold project of
+Marlborough to march into France forthwith been carried out, a deadly
+blow would have been delivered against the very vitals of the enemy's
+power and Louis XIV probably compelled to sue for peace on the allies'
+terms. But this time not only the Dutch deputies, but also Eugene, were
+opposed to the daring venture, and it was decided that Eugene should
+besiege Lille, while Marlborough with the field army covered the
+operations. Lille was strongly fortified, and Marshal Boufflers made a
+gallant defence. The siege began in mid-August; the town surrendered on
+October 22, but the citadel did not fall until December 9. Vendome did
+his best to cut off Eugene's supplies of munitions and stores, and at
+one time the besiegers were reduced to straits. The French marshal did
+not, however, venture to force an engagement with Marlborough's covering
+army, a portion of which under General Webb, after gaining a striking
+victory over a French force at Wynendael, (September 30), conducted at a
+critical moment a large train of supplies from Ostend into Eugene's
+camp. As a consequence of the capture of Lille, the French withdrew from
+Flanders into their own territory, Ghent and Bruges being re-occupied by
+the allies with a mere show of resistance.
+
+The reverses of 1708 induced the French king to be ready to yield much
+for the sake of peace. He offered the Dutch a strong barrier, a
+favourable treaty of commerce and the demolition of the defences of
+Dunkirk; and there were many in Holland who would have accepted his
+terms. But their English and Austrian allies insisted on the restoration
+of Louis' German conquests, and that the king should, by force if
+necessary, compel his grandson to leave Spain. Such was the exhaustion
+of France that Louis would have consented to almost any terms however
+harsh, but he refused absolutely to use coercion against Philip V. The
+negotiations went on through the spring nor did they break down until
+June, 1709, when the exorbitant demands of the allies made further
+progress impossible. Louis issued a manifesto calling upon his subjects
+to support him in resisting terms which were dishonouring to France.
+
+He met with a splendid response from all classes, and a fine army of
+90,000 men was equipped and placed in the field under the command of
+Marshal Villars. The long delay over the negotiations prevented
+Marlborough and Eugene from taking the field until June. They found
+Villars had meanwhile entrenched himself in Artois in a very strong
+position. Marlborough's proposal to advance by the sea-coast and
+outflank the enemy being opposed both by Eugene and the Dutch
+deputies as too daring, siege was laid to Tournay. Campaigns in those
+days were dilatory affairs. Tournay was not captured until September 3;
+and the allies, having overcome this obstacle without any active
+interference, moved forward to besiege Mons. They found Villars posted
+at Malplaquet on a narrow front, skilfully fortified and protected on
+both flanks by woods. A terrible struggle ensued (September 11, 1709),
+the bloodiest in the war. The Dutch troops gallantly led by the Prince
+of Orange attacked the French right, but were repulsed with very heavy
+losses. For some time the fight on the left and centre of the French
+line was undecided, the attacking columns being driven back many times,
+but at length the allies succeeded in turning the extreme left and also
+after fearful slaughter in piercing the centre; and the French were
+compelled to retreat. They had lost 12,000 men, but 23,000 of the allies
+had fallen; the Dutch divisions had suffered the most severely, losing
+almost half their strength. The immediate result of this hard-won
+victory was the taking of Mons, October 9. The lateness of the season
+prevented any further operations. Nothing decisive had been achieved,
+for on all the other fields of action, on the Rhine, on the Piedmont
+frontier and in Spain, the advantage had on the whole been with the
+French and Spaniards. Negotiations proceeded during the winter
+(1709-10), Dutch and French representatives meeting both at the Hague
+and at Geertruidenberg. The States were anxious for peace and Louis was
+willing to make the concessions required of him, but Philip V refused to
+relinquish a crown which he held by the practically unanimous approval
+of the Spanish people. The emperor on the other hand was obstinate in
+claiming the undivided Spanish inheritance for the Archduke Charles. The
+maritime powers, however, would not support him in this claim; and the
+maritime powers meant England, for Holland followed her lead, being
+perfectly satisfied with the conditions of the First Barrier Treaty,
+which had been drawn up and agreed upon between the States-General and
+the English government on October 29, 1709. By this secret treaty the
+Dutch obtained the right to hold and to garrison a number of towns along
+the French frontier, the possession of which would render them the real
+masters of Belgium. Indeed it was manifest that, although the Dutch did
+not dispute the sovereign rights of the Archduke Charles, they intended
+to make the southern Netherlands an economic dependency of the
+Republic, which provided for its defence.
+
+The negotiations at Geertruidenberg dragged on until July, 1710, and
+were finally broken off owing to the insistence of the Dutch envoys,
+Buys and Van Dussen, upon conditions which, even in her exhausted state,
+France was too proud to concede. Meanwhile Marlborough and Eugene,
+unable to tempt Villars to risk a battle, contented themselves with a
+succession of sieges. Douay, Bethune, St Venant and Aine fell, one after
+the other, the French army keeping watch behind its strongly fortified
+lines. This was a very meagre result, but Marlborough now felt his
+position to be so insecure that he dared not take any risks. His wife,
+so long omnipotent at court, had been supplanted in the queen's favour;
+Godolphin and the Whig party had been swept from power; and a Tory
+ministry bent upon peace had taken their place. Marlborough knew that
+his period of dictatorship was at an end, and he would have resigned his
+command but for the pressing instances of Eugene, Heinsius and other
+leaders of the allies.
+
+The desire of the Tory ministry to bring the long drawn-out hostilities
+to an end was accentuated by the death, on April 17, 1711, of the
+Emperor Joseph, an event which left his brother Charles heir to all the
+possessions of the Austrian Habsburgs. The Grand Alliance had been
+formed and the war waged to maintain the balance of power in Europe. But
+such a result would not be achieved by a revival of the empire of
+Charles V in the person of the man who had now become the head of the
+House of Austria. Even had the Whigs remained in office, they could
+hardly have continued to give active support to the cause of the
+Habsburg claimant in Spain.
+
+One of the consequences of the death of Joseph I, then, was to render
+the Tory minister, Henry St John, more anxious to enter into
+negotiations for peace; another was the paralysing of active operations
+in the field. Eugene had been summoned to Germany to watch over the
+meeting of the Imperial Diet at Frankfort, and Marlborough was left with
+an army considerably inferior in numbers to that of his opponent
+Villars. Thus the only fruit of the campaign was the capture of
+Bouchain. Meanwhile the French minister Torcy entered into secret
+communications with St John, intimating that France was ready to
+negotiate directly with England, but at first without the cognisance
+of the States. The English ministry on their part, under the influence
+of St John, showed themselves to be ready to throw over their allies, to
+abandon the Habsburg cause in Spain, and to come to an agreement with
+France on terms advantageous to England. For French diplomacy, always
+alert and skilful, these proceedings were quite legitimate; but it was
+scarcely honourable for the English government, while the Grand Alliance
+was still in existence, to carry on these negotiations in profound
+secrecy.
+
+In August matters had so far advanced that Mesnager was sent over from
+Paris to London entrusted with definite proposals. In October the
+preliminaries of peace were virtually settled between the two powers.
+Meanwhile the Dutch had been informed through Lord Strafford, the
+English envoy at the Hague, of what was going on; and the news aroused
+no small indignation and alarm. But great pressure was brought to bear
+upon them; and, knowing that without England they could not continue the
+war, the States-General at last, in fear for their barrier, consented,
+on November 21, to send envoys to a peace congress to be held at Utrecht
+on the basis of the Anglo-French preliminaries. It was in vain that the
+Emperor Charles VI protested both at London and the Hague, or that
+Eugene was despatched on a special mission to England in January, 1712.
+The English ministry had made up their minds to conclude peace with or
+without the emperor's assent; and the congress opened at the beginning
+of the year 1712 without the presence of any Austrian plenipotentiaries,
+though they appeared later. The Dutch provinces sent two envoys each.
+The conferences at Utrecht were, however, little more than futile
+debates; and the congress was held there rather as a concession to save
+the _amour propre_ of the States than to settle the terms of peace. The
+real negotiations were carried on secretly between England and France;
+and after a visit by St John, now Viscount Bolingbroke, in person to
+Paris in August, all points of difference between the two governments
+were amicably arranged. Spain followed the lead of France; and the
+States, knowing that they could not go on with the war without England,
+were reluctantly obliged to accept the Anglo-French proposals. Their
+concurrence might not have been so easily obtained, but for the
+unfortunate course of the campaign of 1712. Marlborough had now been
+replaced in the chief command by the Duke of Ormonde. Eugene, counting
+upon English support, had taken Quesnoy on July 4, and was about to
+invest Landrecies, when Ormonde informed him that an armistice had been
+concluded between the French and English governments. On July 16 the
+English contingent withdrew to Dunkirk, which had been surrendered by
+the French as a pledge of good faith. Villars seized the opportunity to
+make a surprise attack on the isolated Dutch at the bridge of Denain
+(July 24) and, a panic taking place, completely annihilated their whole
+force of 12,000 men with slight loss to himself. Eugene had to retreat,
+abandoning his magazines; and Douay, Quesnoy and Bouchain fell into the
+hands of the French marshal.
+
+These disasters convinced the Dutch of their helplessness when deprived
+of English help; and instructions were given to their envoys at Utrecht,
+on December 29, to give their assent to the terms agreed upon and indeed
+dictated by the governments of England and France. Making the best of
+the situation, the Dutch statesmen, confronted with the growing
+self-assertion of the French plenipotentiaries, concluded, on January
+30, 1713, a new offensive and defensive alliance with England. This
+treaty of alliance is commonly called the Second Barrier Treaty, because
+it abrogated the Barrier Treaty of 1709, and was much more favourable to
+France. It was not until all these more or less secret negotiations were
+over that the Congress, after being suspended for some months, resumed
+its sittings at Utrecht. The Peace of Utrecht which ensued is really a
+misnomer. No general treaty was agreed upon and signed, but a series of
+separate treaties between the belligerent powers. This was what France
+had been wishing for some time and, by the connivance of England, she
+achieved it. The treaty between these two countries was signed on April
+11, 1713; and such was the dominant position of England that her allies,
+with the single exception of the emperor, had to follow her lead.
+Treaties with the States-General, with Savoy, Brandenburg and Portugal,
+were all signed on this same day.
+
+Louis XIV had good right to congratulate himself upon obtaining far more
+favourable terms than he could have dared to hope in 1710 or 1711.
+Philip V was recognised as King of Spain and the Indies, but had
+solemnly to renounce his right of succession to the French throne and
+his claim to the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy.
+The treaty between England and Spain was signed on July 13, 1713; that
+between the States-General and Spain was delayed until June 26, 1714,
+owing to the difficulties raised by the emperor, who, though deserted
+by his allies, continued the war single-handed, but with signal lack of
+success. He was forced to yield and make peace at Rastatt in a treaty,
+which was confirmed by the Imperial Diet at Baden in Switzerland on
+September 7, 1714. By this treaty the French king retained practically
+all his conquests, while Charles VI, though he did not recognise the
+title of Philip V, contented himself with the acquisition of the
+"Spanish" Netherlands, and of the Milanese and Naples. Into the details
+of these several treaties it is unnecessary here to enter, except in so
+far as they affected the United Provinces. The power that benefited more
+than any other was Great Britain, for the Peace of Utrecht laid the
+foundation of her colonial empire and left her, from this time forward,
+the first naval and maritime power in the world. Holland, though her
+commerce was still great and her colonial possessions both rich and
+extensive, had henceforth to see herself more and more overshadowed and
+dominated by her former rival. Nevertheless the treaties concluded by
+the States-General at this time were decidedly advantageous to the
+Republic.
+
+That with France, signed on April 11, 1713, placed the Spanish
+Netherlands in the possession of the States-General, to be held by
+them in trust for Charles VI until such time as the emperor came to
+an agreement with them about a "Barrier." France in this matter
+acted in the name of Spain, and was the intermediary through whose
+good offices Spanish or Upper Gelderland was surrendered to
+Prussia. Most important of all to the Dutch was the treaty with
+the emperor concluded at Antwerp, November 15, 1715. This is
+generally styled the Third Barrier Treaty, the First being that of
+1709, the Second that of 1713 at Utrecht. The States-General
+finally obtained what was for their interest a thoroughly satisfactory
+settlement. They obtained the right to place garrisons amounting
+in all to 35,000 men in Furnes, Warneton, Ypres, Knocke, Tournay,
+Menin and Namur; and three-fifths of the cost were to be borne by
+the Austrian government, who pledged certain revenues of their
+newly-acquired Belgic provinces to the Dutch for the purpose. The
+strong position in which such a treaty placed the Republic against
+aggression, either from the side of France or Austria, was made
+stronger by being guaranteed by the British government.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE STADHOLDERLESS REPUBLIC, 1715-1740
+
+
+The thirty-four years which followed the Peace of Utrecht are a period
+of decadence and decay; a depressing period exhibiting the spectacle of
+a State, which had played a heroic part in history, sinking, through its
+lack of inspiring leadership and the crying defects inherent in its
+system of government, to the position of a third-rate power. The
+commanding abilities of the great stadholders of the house of
+Orange-Nassau, and during the stadholderless period which followed the
+untimely death of William II, those of the Council-Pensionary, John de
+Witt, had given an appearance of solidarity to what was really a loose
+confederation of sovereign provinces. Throughout the 17th century
+maritime enterprise, naval prowess and world-wide trade had, by the help
+of skilled diplomacy and wise statesmanship, combined to give to the
+Dutch Republic a weight in the council of nations altogether
+disproportionate to its size and the number of its population. In the
+memorable period of Frederick Henry the foundations were laid of an
+empire overseas; Dutch seamen and traders had penetrated into every
+ocean and had almost monopolised the carrying-trade of Europe; and at
+the same time Holland had become the chosen home of scholarship,
+science, literature and art. In the great days of John de Witt she
+contended on equal terms with England for the dominion of the seas; and
+Amsterdam was the financial clearing-house of the world. To William III
+the Republic owed its escape from destruction in the critical times of
+overwhelming French invasion in 1672, when by resolute and heroic
+leadership he not only rescued the United Provinces from French
+domination, but before his death had raised them to the rank of a great
+power. Never did the prestige of the States stand higher in Europe than
+at the opening of the 18th century. But, as has already been pointed
+out, the elevation of the great stadholder to the throne of England had
+been far from an unmixed blessing to his native land. It brought the two
+maritime and commercial rivals into a close alliance, which placed the
+smaller and less favoured country at a disadvantage, and ended in the
+weaker member of the alliance becoming more and more the dependent of
+the stronger. What would have been the trend of events had William
+survived for another ten or fifteen years or had he left an heir to
+succeed him in his high dignities, one can only surmise. It may at least
+be safely said, that the treaty which ended the war of the Spanish
+succession would not have been the treaty of Utrecht.
+
+William III by his will made his cousin, John William Friso of
+Nassau-Siegen, his heir. Friso (despite the opposition of the Prussian
+king, who was the son of Frederick Henry's eldest daughter) assumed the
+title of Prince of Orange; and, as he was a real Netherlander, his
+branch of the house of Nassau having been continuously stadholders of
+Friesland since the first days of the existence of the Republic, he soon
+attracted to himself the affection of the Orangist party. But at the
+time of William III's death Friso was but fourteen years of age; and the
+old "States" or "Republican" party, which had for so many years been
+afraid to attempt any serious opposition to the imperious will of King
+William, now saw their opportunity for a return once more to the state
+of things established by the Great Assembly in 1651. Under the
+leadership of Holland five provinces now declared for a stadholderless
+government. The appointment of town-councillors passed into the hands of
+the corporations or of the Provincial Estates, not, however, without
+serious disturbances in Gelderland, Utrecht, Overyssel and also in
+Zeeland, stirred up partly by the old regent-families, who had been
+excluded from office under William, partly by the gilds and working
+folk, who vainly hoped that they would be able to exercise a larger
+share in the government. In many places faction-fights ensued. In
+Amersfoort two burghers were tried and beheaded; in Nijmwegen the
+burgomaster, Ronkens, met the same fate. But after a short while the
+aristocratic States party everywhere gained control in the
+town-corporations and through them in the Provincial Estates. In
+Zeeland the dignity of "first noble" was abolished.
+
+The effect of all this was that decentralisation reached its extreme
+point. Not only were there seven republics, but each town asserted
+sovereign rights, defying at times the authority of the majority in the
+Provincial Estates. This was especially seen in the predominant
+province of Holland, where the city of Amsterdam by its wealth and
+importance was able to dictate its will to the Estates, and through the
+Estates to the States-General. Money-making and trade profits were the
+matters which engrossed everybody's interest. War interfered with trade;
+it was costly, and was to be avoided at any price. During this time the
+policy of the Republic was neutrality; and the States-General, with
+their army and navy reduced more and more in numbers and efficiency,
+scarcely counted in the calculations of the cabinets of Europe.
+
+But this very time that was marked by the decline and fall of the
+Republic from the high position which it occupied during the greater
+part of the 17th century, was the golden age of the burgher-oligarchies.
+A haughty "patrician" class, consisting in each place of a very limited
+number of families, closely inter-related, had little by little
+possessed themselves, as a matter of hereditary right, of all the
+offices and dignities in the town, in the province and in the state.
+Within their own town they reigned supreme, filling up vacancies in the
+_vroedschap_ by co-option, exercising all authority, occupying or
+distributing among their relatives all posts of profit, and acquiring
+great wealth. Their fellow-citizens were excluded from all share in
+affairs, and were looked down upon as belonging to an inferior caste.
+The old simple habits of their forefathers were abandoned. French
+fashions and manners were the vogue amongst them, and English clothes,
+furniture and food. In the country--_platteland_--people had no voice
+whatever in public affairs; they were not even represented, as the
+ordinary townspeople were by their regents. Thus the United Netherlands
+had not only ceased to be a unified state in any real sense of the word,
+but had ceased likewise to be a free state. It consisted of a large
+number of semi-independent oligarchies of the narrowest description;
+and the great mass of its population was deprived of every vestige of
+civic rights.
+
+That such a State should have survived at all is to be explained by the
+fact that the real control over the foreign policy of the Republic and
+over its general government continued to be exercised by the band of
+experienced statesmen who had served under William III and inherited his
+traditions. Heinsius, the wise and prudent council-pensionary, continued
+in office until his death cm August 3, 1720, when he was succeeded by
+Isaac van Hoornbeck, pensionary of Rotterdam. Hoornbeck was not a man of
+great parts, but he was sound and safe and he had at his side Simon
+van Slingelandt, secretary of the Council of State since 1690, and
+others whose experience in public office dated from the preceding
+century. In their hands the external policy of the Republic, conducted
+with no lack of skill, was of necessity non-interventionist. In internal
+matters they could effect little. The finances after the war were in an
+almost hopeless condition, and again and again the State was threatened
+with bankruptcy. To make things worse an epidemic of wild speculation
+spread far and wide during the period 1716-1720 in the bubble companies,
+the Mississippi Company and the South Sea Company, associated with the
+name of Edward Law, which proved so ruinous to many in England and
+France, as well as in Holland. In 1716 such was the miserable condition
+of the country that the Estates of Overyssel, under the leadership of
+Count van Rechteren, proposed the summoning of a Great Assembly on the
+model of that of 1651 to consider the whole question of government and
+finance. The proposal was ultimately accepted, and the Assembly met at
+the Hague on November 28. After nine months of ineffectual debate and
+wrangling it finally came to an end on September 14, 1717, without
+effecting anything, leaving all who had the best interests of the State
+at heart in despair.
+
+In the years immediately succeeding the Peace of Utrecht difficulties
+arose with Charles XII of Sweden; whose privateers had been seizing
+Dutch and English merchantmen in the Baltic. Under De Witt or William
+III the fleet of the Republic would speedily have brought the Swedish
+king to reason. But now other counsels prevailed. Dutch squadrons sailed
+into the Baltic with instructions to convoy the merchant vessels, but to
+avoid hostilities. With some difficulty this purpose was achieved; and
+the death of Charles at the siege of Frederikshald brought all danger of
+war to an end. And yet in the very interests of trade it would have been
+good policy for the States to act strongly in this matter of Swedish
+piracy in the Baltic. Russia was the rising power in those regions. The
+Dutch had really nothing to fear from Sweden, whose great days came to
+an end with the crushing defeat of Charles XII at Pultova in 1709. Trade
+relations had been opened between Holland and Muscovy so early as the
+end of the 16th century; and, despite English rivalry, the opening out
+of Russia and of Russian trade had been almost entirely in Dutch hands
+during the 17th century. The relations between the two countries
+became much closer and more important after the accession of the
+enterprising and reforming Tsar, Peter the Great. It is well known how
+Peter in 1696 visited Holland to learn the art of ship-building and
+himself toiled as a workman at Zaandam. As a result of this visit he
+carried back with him to Russia an admiration for all things Dutch. He
+not only favoured Dutch commerce, but he employed numbers of Hollanders
+in the building and training of his fleet and in the construction of
+waterways and roads. In 1716-17 Peter again spent a considerable time in
+Holland. Nevertheless Dutch policy was again timid and cautious; and no
+actual alliance was made with Russia, from dread of entanglements,
+although the opportunity seemed so favourable.
+
+It was the same when in this year 1717 Cardinal Alberoni, at the
+instigation of Elizabeth of Parma the ambitious second wife of Philip V,
+attempted to regain Spain's lost possessions in Italy by an aggressive
+policy which threatened to involve Europe in war. Elizabeth's object was
+to obtain an independent sovereignty for her sons in her native country.
+Austria, France and England united to resist this attempt to reverse the
+settlement of Utrecht, and the States were induced to join with them in
+a quadruple alliance. It was not, however, their intention to take any
+active part in the hostilities which speedily brought Spain to reason,
+and led to the fall of Alberoni. But the Spanish queen had not given up
+her designs, and she found another instrument for carrying them out in
+Ripperda, a Groningen nobleman, who had originally gone to Spain as
+ambassador of the States. This able and scheming statesman persuaded
+Elizabeth that she might best attain her ends by an alliance with
+Austria, which was actually concluded at Vienna on April 1, 1725. This
+alliance alarmed France, England and Prussia, but was especially
+obnoxious to the Republic, for the emperor had in 1722 erected an East
+India Company at Ostend in spite of the prohibition placed by Holland
+and Spain in the treaties of 1714-15 upon Belgian overseas commerce. By
+the Treaty of Alliance in 1725 the Spanish crown recognised the Ostend
+Company and thus gave it a legal sanction. The States therefore, after
+some hesitation, became parties to a defensive alliance against Austria
+and Spain that had been signed by France, England and Prussia at Hanover
+in September, 1728. These groupings of the powers were of no long
+duration. The emperor, fearing an invasion of the Belgian provinces,
+first agreed to suspend the Ostend Company for seven years, and then, in
+order to secure the assent of the maritime powers to the Pragmatic
+Sanction, which guaranteed to his daughter, Maria Theresa, the
+succession to the Austrian hereditary domains, he broke with Spain and
+consented to suppress the Ostend Company altogether. The negotiations
+which took place at this time are very involved and complicated, but
+they ended in a revival of the old alliance between Austria and the
+maritime powers against the two Bourbon monarchies of France and Spain.
+This return to the old policy of William III was largely the work of
+Slingelandt, who had become council-pensionary on July 27, 1727.
+
+Simon van Slingelandt, with the able assistance of his brother-in-law
+Francis Fagel, clerk of the States-General, was during the nine years in
+which he directed the foreign policy of the Republic regarded as one of
+the wisest and most trustworthy, as he was the most experienced
+statesman of his time. His aim was, in co-operation with England, to
+maintain by conciliatory and peaceful methods the balance of power. Lord
+Chesterfield, at that time the British envoy at the Hague, had the
+highest opinion of Slingelandt's powers; and the council-pensionary's
+writings, more especially his _Pensees impartiales_, published in 1729,
+show what a thorough grasp he had of the political situation.
+Fortunately the most influential ministers in England and France, Robert
+Walpole and Cardinal Fleury, were like-minded with him in being sincere
+seekers after peace. The Treaty of Vienna (March 18,1731), which secured
+the recognition by the powers of the Pragmatic Sanction, was largely his
+work; and he was also successful in preventing the question of the
+Polish succession, after the death of Augustus of Saxony in 1733, being
+the cause of the outbreak of a European war. In domestic policy
+Slingelandt, though profoundly dissatisfied with the condition of the
+Republic, took no steps to interfere with the form of government. He saw
+the defects of the stadholderless system plainly enough, but he had not,
+like Fagel, strong Orangist sympathies; and on his appointment as
+council-pensionary he pledged himself to support during his tenure of
+office the existing state of things. This undertaking he loyally kept,
+and his strong personality during his life-time alone saved Holland, and
+through Holland the entire Republic, from falling into utter ruin and
+disaster. At his death Antony van der Heim became council-pensionary
+under the same conditions as his predecessor. But Van der Heim,
+though a capable and hard-working official, was not of the same calibre
+as Slingelandt. The narrow and grasping burgher-regents had got a firm
+grip of power, and they used it to suppress the rights of their
+fellow-citizens and to keep in their own hands the control of municipal
+and provincial affairs. Corruption reigned everywhere; and the patrician
+oligarchy, by keeping for themselves and their relations all offices of
+profit, grew rich at the same time that the finances of the State fell
+into greater confusion. It was not a condition of things that could
+endure, should any serious crisis arise.
+
+John William Friso, on whom great hopes had been fixed, met with an
+untimely death in 1711, leaving a posthumous child who became William
+IV, Prince of Orange. Faithful Friesland immediately elected William
+stadholder under the regency of his mother, Maria Louisa of
+Hesse-Cassel. By her fostering care the boy received an education to fit
+him for service to the State. Though of weakly bodily frame and slightly
+deformed, William had marked intelligence, and a very gentle and kindly
+disposition. Though brave like all his family, he had little inclination
+for military things. The Republican party had little to fear from a man
+of such character and disposition. The burgher-regents, secure in the
+possession of power, knew that the Frisian stadholder was not likely to
+resort either to violence or intrigue to force on a revolution.
+Nevertheless the prestige of the name in the prevailing discontent
+counted for much. William was elected stadholder of Groningen in 1718,
+of Drente and of Gelderland in 1722, though in each case with certain
+restrictions. But the other provinces remained obstinate in their
+refusal to admit him to any place in their councils or to any military
+post. The Estates of Zeeland went so far as to abolish the marquisate of
+Flushing and Veere, which carried with it the dignity of first noble and
+presidency in the meetings of the Estates, and offered to pay 100,000
+fl. in compensation to the heir of the Nassaus. William refused to
+receive it, saying that either the marquisate did not belong to him, in
+which case he could not accept money for it, or it did belong to him and
+was not for sale. William's position was advanced by his marriage in
+1734 to Anne, eldest daughter of George II. Thus for the third time a
+Princess Royal of England became Princess of Orange. The reception of
+the newly married pair at Amsterdam and the Hague was, however, cool
+though polite; and despite the representatives of Gelderland, who
+urged that the falling credit and bad state of the Republic required the
+appointment of an "eminent head," Holland, Utrecht, Zeeland and
+Overyssel remained obdurate in their refusal to change the form of
+government. William had to content himself with the measure of power he
+had obtained and to await events. He showed much patience, for he had
+many slights and rebuffs to put up with. His partisans would have urged
+him to more vigorous action, but this he steadily refused to take.
+
+The Republic kept drifting meanwhile on the downward path. Its
+foreign policy was in nerveless hands; jobbery was rampant; trade
+and industry declined; the dividends of the East India Company
+fell year by year through the incompetence and greed of officials
+appointed by family influence; the West India Company was
+practically bankrupt. Such was the state of the country in 1740,
+when the outbreak of the Austrian Succession War found the
+Republic without leadership, hopelessly undecided what course of
+action it should take, and only seeking to evade its responsibilities.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION WAR. WILLIAM IV, 1740-1751
+
+
+The death of the Emperor Charles VI in October, 1740, was the signal for
+the outbreak of another European war. All Charles' efforts on behalf of
+the Pragmatic Sanction proved to have been labour spent in vain. Great
+Britain, the United Provinces, Spain, Saxony, Poland, Russia, Sardinia,
+Prussia, most of the smaller German States, and finally France, had
+agreed to support (1738) the Pragmatic Sanction. The assent of Spain had
+been bought by the cession of the two Sicilies; of France by that of
+Lorraine, whose Duke Francis Stephen had married Maria Theresa and was
+compensated by the Grand Duchy of Tuscany for the loss of his ancestral
+domain. The only important dissentient was Charles Albert, Elector of
+Bavaria, who had married the younger daughter of Joseph I and who
+claimed the succession not only through his wife, but as the nearest
+male descendant of Ferdinand I. On the death of Charles VI, then, it
+might have been supposed that Maria Theresa would have succeeded to her
+inheritance without opposition. This was far from being the case. The
+Elector of Bavaria put forward his claims and he found unexpected
+support in Frederick II of Prussia. Frederick had just succeeded his
+father Frederick William I, and being at once ambitious and without
+scruples he determined to seize the opportunity for the purpose of
+territorial aggression. While lulling the suspicions of Vienna by
+friendly professions, he suddenly, in December, 1740, invaded Silesia.
+Maria Theresa appealed to the guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction. She
+met no active response, but on the part of Spain, Sardinia and France
+veiled hostility. Great Britain, at war with Spain since 1739, and
+fearing the intervention of France, confined her efforts to diplomacy;
+and the only anxiety of the United Provinces was to avoid being drawn
+into war. An addition was made to the army of 11,000 men and afterwards
+in 1741, through dread of an attack on the Austrian Netherlands, a
+further increase of 20,000 was voted. The garrisons and
+fortifications of the barrier towns were strengthened and some addition
+was made to the navy. But the policy of the States continued to be
+vacillating and pusillanimous. The Republican party, who held the reins
+of power, desiring peace at any price, were above all anxious to be on
+good terms with France. The Orangist opposition were in favour of
+joining with England in support of Maria Theresa; but the prince would
+not take any steps to assert himself, and his partisans, deprived of
+leadership, could exert little influence. Nor did they obtain much
+encouragement from England, where Walpole was still intent upon a
+pacific policy.
+
+The events of 1741, however, were such as to compel a change of
+attitude. The Prussians were in possession of Silesia; and spoliation,
+having begun so successfully, became infectious. The aged Fleury was no
+longer able to restrain the war party in France. In May at Nymphenburg a
+league was formed by France, Spain, Sardinia, Saxony and Poland, in
+conjunction with Prussia and Bavaria, to effect the overthrow of Maria
+Theresa and share her inheritance between them. Resistance seemed
+hopeless. A Franco-Bavarian army penetrated within a few miles of
+Vienna, and then overran Bohemia. Charles Albert was crowned King of
+Bohemia at Prague and then (January, 1742) was elected Emperor under the
+title of Charles VII.
+
+Before this election took place, however, English mediation had
+succeeded by the convention of Klein-Schnellendorf in securing a
+suspension of hostilities (October 9) between Austria and Prussia. This
+left Frederick in possession of Silesia, but enabled the Queen of
+Hungary, supported by English and Dutch subsidies, not only to clear
+Bohemia from its invaders, but to conquer Bavaria. At the very time when
+Charles Albert was elected Emperor, his own capital was occupied by his
+enemies. In February, 1742, the long ministry of Walpole came to an end;
+and the party in favour of a more active participation in the war
+succeeded to office. George II was now thoroughly alarmed for the safety
+of his Hanoverian dominions; and Lord Stair was sent to the Hague on a
+special mission to urge the States to range themselves definitely on the
+side of Maria Theresa. But fears of a French onslaught on the southern
+Netherlands still caused timorous counsels to prevail. The French
+ambassador, De Fenelon, on his part was lavish in vague promises not
+unmingled with veiled threats, so that the feeble directors of Dutch
+policy, torn between their duty to treaty obligations urged upon them by
+England, and their dread of the military power of France, helplessly
+resolved to cling to neutrality as long as possible. But events proved
+too strong for them. Without asking their permission, an English force
+of 16,000 men landed at Ostend and was sent to strengthen the garrison
+of the barrier fortresses (May, 1742). The warlike operations of this
+year were on the whole favourable to Maria Theresa, who through English
+mediation, much against her will, secured peace with Prussia by the
+cession of Silesia. The treaty between the two powers was signed at
+Berlin on July 28. Hostilities with France continued; but, though both
+the Maritime Powers helped Austria with subsidies, neither Great Britain
+nor the States were at the close of the year officially at war with the
+French king.
+
+Such a state of precarious make-believe could not last much longer. The
+Austrians were anxious that the English force in the Netherlands, which
+had been reinforced and was known as the _Pragmatic Army_, should
+advance into Bavaria to co-operate with the Imperial forces.
+Accordingly the army, commanded by George II in person, advanced across
+the Main to Dettingen. Here the king, shut in by French forces and cut
+off from his supplies, was rescued from a very difficult position by the
+valour of his troops, who on June 27, 1743 attacked and completely
+routed their opponents. The States-General had already, on June 22,
+recognised their responsibilities; and by a majority vote it was
+determined that a force of 20,000 men under the command of Count Maurice
+of Nassau-Ouwerkerk should join the _Pragmatic Army_.
+
+The fiction that the Maritime Powers were not at war with France was
+kept up until the spring of 1744, when the French king in alliance with
+Spain declared war on England. One of the projects of the war party at
+Versailles was the despatch of a powerful expedition to invade England
+and restore the Stewarts. As soon as news of the preparations reached
+England, a demand was at once made, in accordance with treaty, for naval
+aid from the States. Twenty ships were asked for, but only eight were in
+a condition to sail; and the admiral in command, Grave, was 73 years of
+age and had been for fifteen years in retirement. What an object lesson
+of the utter decay of the Dutch naval power! Fortunately a storm
+dispersed the French fleet, and the services of the auxiliary squadron
+were not required.
+
+The news that Marshal Maurice de Saxe was about to invade the Austrian
+Netherlands with a French army of 80,000 men came like a shock upon the
+peace party in the States. The memory of 1672 filled them with terror.
+The pretence of neutrality could no longer be maintained. The choice lay
+between peace at any price or war with all its risks; and it was
+doubtful which of the two alternatives was the worse. Was there indeed
+any choice? It did not seem so, when De Fenelon, who had represented
+France at the Hague for nineteen years, came to take leave of the
+States-General on his appointment to a command in the invading army
+(April 26). But a last effort was made. An envoy-extraordinary, the
+Count of Wassenaer-Twickel, was sent to Paris, but found that the king
+was already with his army encamped between Lille and Tournay. Wassenaer
+was amused with negotiations for awhile, but there was no pause in the
+rapid advance of Marshal Saxe. The barrier fortresses, whose defences
+had been neglected, fell rapidly one after another. All west Flanders
+was overrun. The allied forces, gathered at Oudenarde, were at first too
+weak to offer resistance, and were divided in counsels. Gradually
+reinforcements came in, but still the Pragmatic army remained inactive
+and was only saved from inevitable defeat by the invasion of Alsace by
+the Imperialists. Marshal Saxe was compelled to despatch a considerable
+part of the invading army to meet this attack on the eastern frontier,
+and to act on the defensive in Flanders. Menin, Courtrai, Ypres, Knocke
+and other places remained, however, in French hands.
+
+All this time the Dutch had maintained the fiction that the States were
+not at war with France; but in January, 1745, the pressure of
+circumstances was too strong even for the weak-kneed Van der Heim and
+his fellow-statesmen, and a quadruple alliance was formed between
+England, Austria, Saxony and the United Provinces to maintain the
+Pragmatic Sanction. This was followed in March by the declaration of war
+between France and the States. Meanwhile the position of Austria had
+improved. The Emperor Charles VII died on January 20; and his youthful
+successor Maximilian Joseph, in return for the restoration of his
+electorate, made peace with Maria Theresa and withdrew all Bavarian
+claims to the Austrian succession. Affairs in Flanders however did not
+prosper. The command-in-chief of the allied army had been given to the
+Duke of Cumberland, who was no match for such an opponent as Maurice de
+ Saxe. The Prince of Waldeck was in command of the Dutch contingent.
+
+The provinces of Friesland, Groningen, Overyssel and Gelderland had
+repeatedly urged that this post should be bestowed upon the Prince of
+Orange; and the States-General had in 1742 offered to give William the
+rank of lieutenant-general in the army, but Holland and Zeeland steadily
+refused. The campaign of 1745 was disastrous. The battle of Fontenoy
+(May 11) resulted in a victory for Marshal Saxe over the allied forces,
+a victory snatched out of the fire through the pusillanimous withdrawal
+from the fight of the Dutch troops on the left wing. The British
+infantry with magnificent valour on the right centre had pierced through
+the French lines, only to find themselves deserted and overwhelmed by
+superior forces. This victory was vigorously followed up. The Jacobite
+rising under Charles Edward, the young Pretender, had necessitated the
+recalling not only of the greater part of the English expeditionary
+force, but also, under the terms of the treaties between Great Britain
+and the United Provinces, of a body of 6000 Dutch. Before the year 1745
+had ended, Tournay, Ghent, Bruges, Oudenarde, Dendermonde, Ostend,
+Nieuport, Ath fell in succession into the hands of Marshal Saxe, and
+after a brave defence Brussels itself was forced to capitulate on
+February 19, 1746.
+
+Van der Heim and the Republican conclave in whose hands was the
+direction of foreign affairs, dreading the approach of the French armies
+to the Dutch frontier, sent the Count de Larrey on a private mission to
+Paris in November, 1745, to endeavour to negotiate terms of peace. He
+was unsuccessful; and in February, 1746 another fruitless effort was
+made, Wassenaer and Jacob Gilles being the envoys. The French minister,
+D'Argenson, was not unwilling to discuss matters with them; and
+negotiations went on for some time in a more or less desultory way, but
+without in any way checking the alarming progress of hostilities. An
+army 120,000 strong under Marshal Saxe found for some months no force
+strong enough to resist it. Antwerp, Louvain, Mechlin, Mons, Charleroi,
+Huy and finally Namur (September 21) surrendered to the French. At last
+(October 11) a powerful allied army under the command of Charles of
+Lorraine made a stand at Roucoux. A hardly-fought battle, in which both
+sides lost heavily, ended in the victory of the French. Liege was taken,
+and the French were now masters of Belgium.
+
+These successes made the Dutch statesmen at the Hague the more anxious
+to conclude peace. D'Argenson had always been averse to an actual
+invasion of Dutch territory; and it was arranged between him and the
+Dutch envoys, Wassenaer and Gilles, at Paris, and between the
+council-pensionary Van der Heim and the Abbe de la Ville at the Hague,
+that a congress should meet at Breda in August, in which England
+consented to take part. Before it met, however, Van der Heim had died
+(August 15). He was succeeded by Jacob Gilles. The congress was destined
+to make little progress, for several of the provinces resented the way
+in which a small handful of men had secretly been committing the
+Republic to the acceptance of disadvantageous and humiliating terms of
+peace, without obtaining the consent of the States-General to their
+proposals. The congress did not actually assemble till October, and
+never got further than the discussion of preliminaries, for the war
+party won possession of power at Paris, and Louis XV dismissed
+D'Argenson. Moderate counsels were thrown to the winds; and it was
+determined in the coming campaign to carry the war into Dutch territory.
+
+Alarm at the threatening attitude of the French roused the allies to
+collect an army of 90,000 men, of whom more than half were Austrian;
+but, instead of Charles of Lorraine, the Duke of Cumberland was placed
+in command. Marshal Saxe, at the head of the main French force, held
+Cumberland in check, while he despatched Count Loewenthal with 20,000 to
+enter Dutch Flanders. His advance was a triumphal progress. Sluis,
+Cadsand and Axel surrendered almost without opposition. Only the timely
+arrival of an English squadron in the Scheldt saved Zeeland from
+invasion.
+
+The news of these events caused an immense sensation. For some time
+popular resentment against the feebleness and jobbery of the
+stadholderless government had been deep and strong. Indignation knew no
+bounds; and the revolutionary movement to which it gave rise was as
+sudden and complete in 1747 as in 1672. All eyes were speedily turned to
+the Prince of Orange as the saviour of the country. The movement began
+on April 25 at Veere and Middelburg in the island of Walcheren. Three
+days later the Estates of the Province proclaimed the prince stadholder
+and captain-and admiral-general of Zeeland. The province of Holland,
+where the stadholderless form of government was so deeply rooted and had
+its most stubborn and determined supporters, followed the example of
+Zeeland on May 3, Utrecht on May 5, and Overyssel on May 10. The
+States-General appointed him captain-and admiral-general of the Union.
+Thus without bloodshed or disturbance of any kind or any personal effort
+on the part of the prince, he found himself by general consent invested
+with all the posts of dignity and authority which had been held by
+Frederick Henry and William III. It was amidst scenes of general popular
+rejoicing that William visited Amsterdam, the Hague and Middelburg, and
+prepared to set about the difficult task to which he had been called.
+
+One of the first results of the change of government was the closing of
+the Congress of Breda. There was no improvement, however, in the
+military position. The allied army advancing under Cumberland and
+Waldeck, to prevent Marshal Saxe from laying siege to Maestricht, was
+attacked by him at Lauffeldt on July 2. The fight was desperately
+contested, and the issue was on the whole in favour of the allies, when
+at a critical moment the Dutch gave way; and the French were able to
+claim, though at very heavy cost, a doubtful victory. It enabled Saxe
+nevertheless to despatch a force under Loewenthal to besiege the
+important fortress of Bergen-op-Zoom. It was carried by assault on
+September 16, and with it the whole of Dutch Brabant fell into the
+enemy's hands.
+
+Indignation against the rule of the burgher-regents, which had been
+instrumental in bringing so many disasters upon the Republic, was very
+general; and there was a loudly expressed desire that the prince should
+be invested with greater powers, as the "eminent head" of the State.
+With this object in view, on the proposal of the nobles of Holland, the
+Estates of that province made the dignity of stadholder and of
+captain-and admiral-general hereditary in both the male and female
+lines. All the other provinces passed resolutions to the same effect;
+and the States-General made the offices of captain-and admiral-general
+of the Union also hereditary. In the case of a minority, the
+Princess-Mother was to be regent; in that of a female succession the
+heiress could only marry with the consent of the States, it being
+provided that the husband must be of the Reformed religion, and not a
+king or an elector.
+
+Strong measures were taken to prevent the selling of offices and to do
+away with the system of farming out the taxes. The post-masterships in
+Holland, which produced a large revenue, were offered to the prince;
+but, while undertaking the charge, he desired that the profits should
+be applied to the use of the State. Indeed they were sorely needed, for
+though William would not hear of peace and sent Count Bentinck to
+England to urge a vigorous prosecution of the war in conjunction with
+Austria and Russia in 1748, promising a States contingent of 70,000 men,
+it was found that, when the time for translating promises into action
+came, funds were wanting. Holland was burdened with a heavy debt; and
+the contributions of most of the provinces to the Generality were
+hopelessly in arrears. In Holland a "voluntary loan" was raised, which
+afterwards extended to the other provinces and also to the Indies, at
+the rate of 1 per cent. on properties between 1000 fl. and 2000 fl.; of
+2 per cent. on those above 2000 fl. The loan (_mildegift_) produced a
+considerable sum, about 50,000,000 fl.; but this was not enough, and the
+prince had the humiliation of writing and placing before the English
+government the hopeless financial state of the Republic, and their need
+of a very large loan, if they were to take any further part in the war.
+This pitiful revelation of the condition of their ally decided Great
+Britain to respond to the overtures for peace on the part of France. The
+representatives of the powers met at Aix-la-Chapelle; and, as the
+English and French were both thoroughly tired of the war, they soon came
+to terms. The preliminaries of peace between them were signed on April
+30, 1748, on the principle of a restoration of conquests. In this treaty
+of Aix-la-Chapelle the United Provinces were included, but no better
+proof could be afforded of the low estate to which the Dutch Republic
+had now fallen than the fact that its representatives at
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Bentinck and Van Haren, were scarcely consulted and
+exercised practically no influence upon the decisions. The French
+evacuated the southern Netherlands in return for the restoration to them
+of the colony of Cape Breton, which had fallen into the hands of the
+English; and the barrier towns were again allowed to receive Dutch
+garrisons. It was a useless concession, for their fortifications had
+been destroyed, and the States could no longer spare the money to make
+them capable of serious defence.
+
+The position of William IV all this time was exceptionally responsible,
+and therefore the more trying. Never before had any Prince of Orange
+been invested with so much power. The glamour attaching to the name of
+Orange was perhaps the chief asset of the new stadholder in facing the
+serious difficulties into which years of misgovernment had plunged
+the country. He had undoubtedly the people at his back, but
+unfortunately they expected an almost magical change would take place in
+the situation with his elevation to the stadholderate. Naturally they
+were disappointed. The revolution of 1747 was not carried out in the
+spirit of "thorough," which marked those of 1618, 1650 and 1672. William
+IV was cast in a mould different from that of Maurice or William II,
+still more from that of his immediate predecessor William III. He was a
+man of wide knowledge, kindly, conciliatory, and deeply religious, but
+only a mediocre statesman. He was too undecided in his opinions, too
+irresolute in action, to be a real leader in a crisis.
+
+The first business was to bring back peace to the country; and this was
+achieved, not by any influence that the Netherlands government was able
+to exercise upon the course of the negotiations at Aix-la-Chapelle, but
+simply as a part of the understanding arrived at by Great Britain and
+France. It was for the sake of their own security that the English
+plenipotentiaries were willing to give up their conquests in North
+America as compensation for the evacuation of those portions of Belgium
+and of the Republic that the French forces occupied, and the restoration
+of the barrier fortresses.
+
+After peace was concluded, not only the Orange partisans but the great
+mass of the people, who had so long been excluded from all share of
+political power, desired a drastic reform of the government. They had
+conferred sovereign authority upon William, and would have willingly
+increased it, in the hope that he would in his person be a centre of
+unity to the State, and would use his power for the sweeping away of
+abuses. It was a vain hope. He never attempted to do away, root and
+branch, with the corrupt municipal oligarchies, but only to make them
+more tolerable by the infusion of a certain amount of new blood.
+
+The birth of an heir on March 8,1748, caused great rejoicings, for it
+promised permanence to the new order of things. Whatever the prince had
+firmly taken in hand would have met with popular approval, but William
+had little power of initiative or firmness of principle. He allowed his
+course of action to be swayed now by one set of advisers, now by their
+opponents. Even in the matter of the farmers of the revenue, the
+best-hated men throughout the Republic and especially in Holland, it
+required popular tumults and riots at Haarlem, Leyden, the Hague and
+Amsterdam, in which the houses of the obnoxious officials were
+attacked and sacked, to secure the abolition of a system by which the
+proceeds of taxation were diverted from the service of the State to fill
+the pockets of venal and corrupt officials. In Amsterdam the spirit of
+revolt against the domination of the Town Council by a few patrician
+families led to serious disorders and armed conflicts in which blood
+was shed; and in September, 1748, the prince, at the request of the
+Estates, visited the turbulent city. As the Town Council proved
+obstinate in refusing to make concessions, the stadholder was compelled
+to take strong action. The Council was dismissed from office, but here,
+as elsewhere, the prince was averse from making a drastic purge; out of
+the thirty-six members, more than half, nineteen, were restored. The new
+men, who thus took their seats in the Town Council, obtained the
+_sobriquet_ of "Forty-Eighters."
+
+The state of both the army and navy was deplorable at the end of the
+war in which the States had played so inglorious a part. William
+had neither the training nor the knowledge to undertake their
+reorganisation. He therefore sought the help of Lewis Ernest, Duke of
+Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel (1718-86), who, as an Austrian field-marshal,
+had distinguished himself in the war. Brunswick was with difficulty
+persuaded, in October, 1749, to accept the post of Dutch field-marshal,
+a salary of 60,000 fl. being guaranteed to him, the governorship of
+Hertogenbosch, and the right to retain his rank in the Austrian army.
+The duke did not actually arrive in Holland and take up his duties until
+December, 1750.
+
+The prince's efforts to bring about a reform of the Admiralties, to make
+the Dutch navy an efficient force and to restore the commerce and
+industries of the country were well meant, but were marred by the
+feebleness of his health. All through the year 1750 he had recurring
+attacks of illness and grew weaker. On October 22, 1751, he died. It is
+unfair to condemn William IV because he did not rise to the height of
+his opportunities. When in 1747 power was thrust upon him so suddenly,
+no man could have been more earnest in his wish to serve his country.
+But he was not gifted with the great abilities and high resolve of
+William III; and there can be no doubt that the difficulties with which
+he had to contend were manifold, complex and deep-rooted. A
+valetudinarian like William IV was not fitted to be the physician of a
+body-politic suffering from so many diseases as that of the United
+Provinces in 1747.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE REGENCY OF ANNE AND OF BRUNSWICK.
+
+1751-1766
+
+
+On the death of William IV, his widow, Anne of England, was at once
+recognised as regent and guardian of her son William V. Bentinck and
+other leaders of the Orangist party took prompt measures to secure that
+the hereditary rights of the young prince did not suffer by his father's
+early death. During the minority Brunswick was deputed to perform the
+duties of captain-general. The new regent was a woman of by no means
+ordinary parts. In her domestic life she possessed all the virtues of
+her mother, Queen Caroline; and in public affairs she had been of much
+help to her husband and was deeply interested in them. She was therefore
+in many ways well-fitted to undertake the serious responsibilities that
+devolved upon her, but her good qualities were marred by a self-willed
+and autocratic temperament, which made her resent any interference with
+her authority. William Bentinck, who was wont to be insistent with his
+advice, presuming on the many services he had rendered, the Duke of
+Brunswick, and the council-pensionary Steyn were all alike distrusted
+and disliked by her. Her professed policy was not to lean on any party,
+but to try and hold the balance between them. Unfortunately William IV,
+after the revolution of 1747, had allowed his old Frisian counsellors
+(with Otto Zwier van Haren at their head) to have his ear and to
+exercise an undue influence upon his decisions. This Frisian court-cabal
+continued to exercise the same influence with Princess Anne; and the
+Hollanders not unnaturally resented it. For Holland, as usual, in the
+late war had borne the brunt of the cost and had a debt of 70,000,000
+fl. and an annual deficit of 28,000,000 fl. The council-pensionary Steyn
+was a most competent financier, and he with Jan Hop, the
+treasurer-general of the Union, and with William Bentinck, head and
+spokesman of the nobles in the Estates of Holland, were urgent in
+impressing upon the Regent the crying need of retrenchment. Anne
+accepted their advice as to the means by which economies might be
+effected and a reduction of expenses be brought about. Among these was
+the disbanding of some of the military forces, including a part of the
+body-guard. To this the regent consented, though characteristically
+without consulting Brunswick. The captain-general felt aggrieved, but
+allowed the reduction to be made without any formal opposition. No
+measure, however, of a bold and comprehensive financial reform, like
+that of John de Witt a century earlier, was attempted.
+
+The navy had at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle been in an even worse
+condition than the army; and the stadholder, as admiral-general, had
+been urging the Admiralties to bestir themselves and to make the fleet
+more worthy of a maritime power. But William's premature death brought
+progress to a standstill; and it is noteworthy that such was the
+supineness of the States-General in 1752 that, while Brunswick was given
+the powers of captain-general, no admiral-general was appointed. The
+losses sustained by the merchants and ship-owners through the audacity
+of the Algerian pirates roused public opinion, however; and in
+successive years squadrons were despatched to the Mediterranean to bring
+the sea-robbers to reason. Admiral Boudaen in 1755 contented himself
+with the protection of the merchantmen, but Wassenaer in 1756 and 1757
+was more aggressive and compelled the Dey of Algiers to make terms.
+
+Meanwhile the rivalry between France and England on the one hand, and
+between Austria and Prussia on the other, led to the formation of new
+alliances, and placed the Dutch Republic in a difficult position. The
+peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was but an armed truce. The French lost no time
+in pushing forward ambitious schemes of colonial enterprise in North
+America and in India. Their progress was watched with jealous eyes by
+the English; and in 1755 war broke out between the two powers. The
+Republic was bound to Great Britain by ancient treaties; but the
+activities of the French ambassador, D'Affry, had been successful in
+winning over a number of influential Hollanders and also the court-cabal
+to be inclined to France and to favour strict neutrality. The situation
+was immensely complicated by the alliance concluded between Austria and
+France on May 1, 1756.
+
+This complete reversal of the policy, which from the early years of
+William III had grouped England, Austria and the States in alliance
+against French aggression, caused immense perturbation amongst the Dutch
+statesmen. By a stroke of the pen the Barrier Treaty had ceased to
+exist, for the barrier fortresses were henceforth useless. The English
+ambassador, Yorke, urged upon the Dutch government the treaty right of
+Great Britain to claim the assistance of 6000 men and twenty ships;
+Austria had the able advocacy of D'Affry in seeking to induce the States
+to become parties to the Franco-Austrian alliance. The regent, though an
+English princess, was scarcely less zealous than were the
+council-pensionary Steyn, Brunswick and most of the leading
+burgher-regents in desiring to preserve strict neutrality. To England
+the answer was made that naval and military help were not due except in
+case of invasion. The French had meanwhile been offering the Dutch
+considerable commercial privileges in exchange for their neutrality,
+with the result that Dutch merchantmen were seized by the English
+cruisers and carried into English ports to be searched for contraband.
+
+The princess had a very difficult part to play. Delegations of merchants
+waited upon her urging her to exert her influence with the English
+government not to use their naval supremacy for the injury of Dutch
+trade. Anne did her best, but without avail. England was determined to
+stop all commercial intercourse between France and the West Indies.
+Dutch merchantmen who attempted to supply the French with goods did so
+at their own risk. Four deputations from Amsterdam and the maritime
+towns waited upon the princess, urging an increase of the fleet as a
+protection against England. Other deputations came from the inland
+provinces, asking for an increase of the army against the danger of a
+French invasion. The French were already in occupation of Ostend and
+Nieuport, and had threatening masses of troops on the Belgian frontier.
+The regent, knowing on which side the peril to the security of the
+country was greatest, absolutely refused her consent to an increase of
+the fleet without an increase of the army. The Estates of Holland
+refused to vote money for the army; and, having the power of the purse,
+matters were at a deadlock. The Republic lay helpless and without
+defence should its enemies determine to attack it. In the midst of all
+these difficulties and anxieties, surrounded by intrigues and
+counter-intrigues, sincerely patriotic and desirous to do her utmost for
+the country, but thwarted and distrusted on every side, the health of
+the regent, which had never been strong, gradually gave way. On
+December 11, 1758, she went in person to the States-General, "with
+tottering steps and death in her face," to endeavour to secure unity of
+action in the presence of the national danger, but without achieving her
+object. The maritime provinces were obdurate. Seeing death approaching,
+with the opening of the new year she made arrangements for the marriage
+of her daughter Caroline with Charles Christian, Prince of
+Nassau-Weilburg, and after committing her two children to the care of
+the Duke of Brunswick (with whom she had effected a reconciliation) and
+making him guardian of the young Prince of Orange, Anne expired on
+January 12, 1759, at the early age of forty-nine.
+
+The task Brunswick had to fulfil was an anxious one, but by the exercise
+of great tact, during the seven years of William's minority, he managed
+to gather into his hands a great deal of the powers of a stadholder, and
+at the same time to ingratiate himself with the anti-Orange States
+party, whose power especially in Holland had been growing in strength
+and was in fact predominant. By politic concessions to the regents, and
+by the interest he displayed in the commercial and financial prosperity
+of the city of Amsterdam, that chief centre of opposition gave its
+support to his authority; and he was able to do this while keeping at
+the same time on good terms with Bentinck, Steyn, Fagel and the Orange
+party.
+
+The political position of the United Provinces during the early part of
+the Brunswick guardianship was impotent and ignominious in the extreme.
+Despite continued protests and complaints, Dutch merchantmen were
+constantly being searched for contraband and brought as prizes into
+English ports; and the lucrative trade that had been carried on between
+the West Indies and France in Dutch bottoms was completely stopped. Even
+the fitting out of twenty-one ships of the line, as a convoy, effected
+nothing, for such a force could not face the enormous superiority of the
+English fleet, which at that time swept the seas. The French ambassador,
+D'Affry, made most skilful use of his opportunities to create a
+pro-French party in Holland and especially in Amsterdam, and he was not
+unsuccessful in his intrigues. But the Dutch resolve to remain neutral
+at any cost remained as strong as ever, for, whatever might be the case
+with maritime Holland, the inland provinces shrank from running any
+risks of foreign invasion. When at last the Peace of Paris came in 1763,
+the representatives of the United Provinces, though they essayed to
+play the part of mediators between the warring powers, no longer
+occupied a position of any weight in the councils of the European
+nations. The proud Republic, which had treated on equal terms with
+France and with Great Britain in the days of John de Witt and of William
+III, had become in the eyes of the statesmen of 1763 a negligible
+quantity.
+
+One of the effects of the falling-off in the overseas trade of Amsterdam
+was to transform this great commercial city into the central exchange of
+Europe. The insecurity of sea-borne trade caused many of the younger
+merchants to deal in money securities and bills of exchange rather than
+in goods. Banking houses sprang up apace, and large fortunes were made
+by speculative investments in stocks and shares; and loans for foreign
+governments, large and small, were readily negotiated. This state of
+things reached its height during the Seven Years' War, but with the
+settlement which followed the peace of 1763 disaster came. On July 25
+the chief financial house in Amsterdam, that of De Neufville, failed to
+meet its liabilities and brought down in its crash a very large number
+of other firms, not merely in Holland, but also in Hamburg and other
+places; for a veritable panic was caused, and it was some time before
+stability could be restored.
+
+The remaining three years of the Brunswick _regime_ were uneventful in
+the home country. Differences with the English East India Company
+however led to the expulsion of the Dutch from their trading settlements
+on the Hooghley and Coromandel; and in Berbice there was a serious
+revolt of the negro slaves, which, after hard fighting in the bush, was
+put down with much cruelty. The young Prince of Orange on the attainment
+of his eighteenth year, March 8,1766, succeeded to his hereditary
+rights. His grandmother, Maria Louisa, to whose care he had owed much,
+had died on April 9, in the previous year. During the interval the
+Princess Caroline had taken her place as regent in Friesland.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+WILLIAM V. FIRST PERIOD, 1766-1780
+
+
+Of all the stadholders of his line William V was the least
+distinguished. Neither in appearance, character nor manner was he fitted
+for the position which he had to fill. He had been most carefully
+educated, and was not wanting in ability, but he lacked energy and
+thoroughness, and was vacillating and undecided at moments when resolute
+action was called for. Like his contemporary Louis XVI, had he been born
+in a private station, he would have adorned it, but like that unhappy
+monarch he had none of the qualities of a leader of men in critical and
+difficult times. It was characteristic of him that he asked for
+confirmation from the Provincial Estates of the dignities and offices
+which were his by hereditary right. In every thing he relied upon the
+advice of the Duke of Brunswick, whose methods of government he
+implicitly followed. To such an extent was this the case that, soon
+after his accession to power, a secret Act was drawn up (May 3, 1766),
+known as the Act of Consultation, by which the duke bound himself to
+remain at the side of the stadholder and to assist him by word and deed
+in all affairs of State. During the earlier years therefore of William
+V's stadholderate he consulted Brunswick in every matter, and was thus
+encouraged to distrust his own judgment and to be fitful and desultory
+in his attention to affairs of State.
+
+One of the first of Brunswick's cares was to provide for the prince a
+suitable wife. William II, William III and William IV had all married
+English princesses, but the feeling of hostility to England was strong
+in Holland, and it was not thought advisable for the young stadholder to
+seek for a wife in his mother's family. The choice of the duke was the
+Prussian Princess Wilhelmina. The new Princess of Orange was niece on
+the paternal side of Frederick the Great and on the maternal side of the
+Duke of Brunswick himself. The marriage took place at Berlin on October,
+4 1767. The bride was but sixteen years of age, but her attractive
+manners and vivacious cleverness caused her to win the popular
+favour on her first entry into her adopted country.
+
+The first eight years of William's stadholdership passed by quietly.
+There is little to record. Commerce prospered, but the Hollanders were
+no longer content with commerce and aimed rather at the rapid
+accumulation of wealth by successful financial transactions.
+Stock-dealing had become a national pursuit. Foreign powers came to
+Amsterdam for loans; and vast amounts of Dutch capital were invested in
+British and French funds and in the various German states. And yet all
+the time this rich and prosperous country was surrounded by powerful
+military and naval powers, and, having no strong natural frontiers, lay
+exposed defenceless to aggressive attack whether by sea or land. It was
+in vain that the stadholder, year by year, sent pressing memorials to
+the States-General urging them to strengthen the navy and the army and
+to put them on a war footing. The maritime provinces were eager for an
+increase of the navy, but the inland provinces refused to contribute
+their quota of the charges. Utrecht, Gelderland, Overyssel and Groningen
+on the other hand, liable as they were to suffer from military invasion,
+were ready to sanction a considerable addition to the land forces, but
+were thwarted by the opposition of Holland, Zeeland and Friesland. So
+nothing was done, and the Republic, torn by divided interests and with
+its ruling classes lapped in self-contented comfort and luxury, was a
+helpless prey that seemed to invite spoliation.
+
+This was the state of things when the British North American colonies
+rose in revolt against the mother-country. The sympathies of France were
+from the first with the colonials; and a body of volunteers raised by
+Lafayette with the connivance of the French overnment crossed the
+Atlantic to give armed assistance to the rebels. Scarcely less warm was
+the feeling in the Netherlands. The motives which prompted it were
+partly sentimental, partly practical. There was a certain similarity
+between the struggle for independence on the part of the American
+colonists against a mighty state like Great Britain, and their own
+struggle with the world-power of Spain. There was also the hope that the
+rebellion would have the practical result of opening out to the Dutch
+merchants a lucrative trade with the Americans, one of whose chief
+grievances against the mother-country had been the severity of the
+restrictions forbidding all trading with foreign lands. At the same
+time the whole air was full of revolutionary ideas, which were
+unsettling men's minds. This was no less the case in the Netherlands
+than elsewhere; and the American revolt was regarded as a realisation
+and vindication in practical politics of the teaching of Montesquieu,
+Voltaire and Rousseau, whose works were widely read, and of the
+Englishmen Hume, Priestley and Richard Price. Foremost among the
+propagandists of these ideas were Jan Dirk van der Capellen tot de Pol,
+a nobleman of Overyssel, and the three burgomasters of Amsterdam, Van
+Berckel, De Vrij Temminck and Hooft, all anti-Orange partisans and
+pro-French in sentiment. Amidst all these contending factions and
+opinions, the State remained virtually without a head, William V
+drifting along incapable of forming an independent decision, or of
+making a firm and resolute use of the great powers with which he was
+entrusted.
+
+Torn by internal dissensions, the maintenance of neutrality by the
+Republic became even more difficult than in the Seven Years' War. The
+old questions of illicit trade with the enemy and the carrying of
+contraband arose. The Dutch islands of St Eustatius and Curacoa became
+centres of smuggling enterprise; and Dutch merchant vessels were
+constantly being searched by the British cruisers and often carried off
+as prizes into English ports. Strong protests were made and great
+irritation aroused. Amsterdam was the chief sufferer. Naturally in this
+hot-bed of Republican opinion and French sympathies, the prince was
+blamed and was accused of preferring English interests to those of his
+own country. The arrival of the Duke de la Vauguyon, as French
+ambassador, did much to fan the flame. Vauguyon entered into close
+relations with the Amsterdam regents and did all in his power to
+exacerbate the growing feeling of hostility to England, and to persuade
+the Republic to abandon the ancient alliance with that country in favour
+of one with France.
+
+The British ambassador, Yorke, lacked his ingratiating manners; and his
+language now became imperative and menacing in face of the flourishing
+contraband trade that was carried on at St Eustatius. In consequence of
+his strong protest the governor of the island, Van Heyliger, was
+replaced by De Graeff, but it was soon discovered that the new governor
+was no improvement upon his predecessor. He caused additional offence to
+the British government by saluting the American flag on November 16,
+1776. The threats of Yorke grew stronger, but with small result. The
+Americans continued to draw supplies from the Dutch islands. The entry
+of France into the war on February 6, 1778, followed by that of Spain,
+complicated matters. England was now fighting with her back to the wall;
+and her sea-power had to be exerted to its utmost to make head against
+so many foes. She waged relentless war on merchant ships carrying
+contraband or suspected contraband, whether enemy or neutral. At last
+money was voted under pressure from Amsterdam, supported by the prince,
+for the building of a fleet for protection against privateers and for
+purposes of convoy. But a fleet cannot be built in a day; and, when
+Admiral van Bylandt was sent out in 1777, his squadron consisted of five
+ships only. Meanwhile negotiations with England were proceeding and
+resulted in certain concessions, consent being given to allow what was
+called "limited convoy." The States-General, despite the opposition of
+Amsterdam, accepted on November 13, 1778, the proffered compromise. But
+the French ambassador Vauguyon supported the protest of Amsterdam by
+threatening, unless the States-General insisted upon complete freedom of
+trade, to withdraw the commercial privileges granted to the Republic by
+France. Finding that the States-General upheld their resolution of
+November 13, he carried his threat into execution. This action brought
+the majority of the Estates of Holland to side with Amsterdam and to
+call for a repeal of the "limited convoy" resolution. The English on
+their part, well aware of all this, continued to do their utmost to stop
+all supplies reaching their enemies in Dutch bottoms, convoy or no
+convoy. The British government, though confronted by so many foes, now
+took strong measures. Admiral van Bylandt, convoying a fleet of
+merchantmen through the Channel, was compelled by a British squadron to
+strike his flag; and all the Dutch vessels were taken into Portsmouth.
+This was followed by a demand under the treaty of 1678 for Dutch aid in
+ships and men, or the abrogation of the treaty of alliance and of the
+commercial privileges it carried with it. Yorke gave the States-General
+three weeks for their decision; and on April 17, 1779, the long-standing
+alliance, which William III had made the keystone of his policy, ceased
+to exist. War was not declared, but the States-General voted for
+"unlimited convoy" on April 24; and every effort was made by the
+Admiralties to build and equip a considerable fleet. The reception
+given to the American privateer, Paul Jones, who, despite English
+protests, was not only allowed to remain in Holland for three months,
+but was feted as a hero (October-December, 1779), accentuated the
+increasing alienation of the two countries.
+
+At this critical stage the difficult position of England was increased
+by the formation under the leadership of Russia of a League of Armed
+Neutrality. Its object was to maintain the principle of the freedom of
+the seas for the vessels of neutral countries, unless they were carrying
+contraband of war, _i.e._military or naval munitions. Further a blockade
+would not be recognised if not effective. Sweden and Denmark joined the
+league; and the Empress Catherine invited the United Provinces and
+several other neutral powers to do likewise. Her object was to put a
+curb upon what was described by Britain's enemies as the tyranny of the
+Mistress of the Seas. The Republic for some time hesitated. Conscious of
+their weakness at sea, the majority in the States-General were unwilling
+to take any overt steps to provoke hostilities, when an event occurred
+which forced their hands.
+
+In 1778 certain secret negotiations had taken place between the
+Amsterdam regents and the American representatives at Paris,
+Franklin and Lee. It chanced that Henry Lawrence, a former
+President of the Congress, was on his way from New York to
+Amsterdam in September, 1780, for the purpose of raising a loan.
+Pursued by an English frigate, the ship on which he was sailing
+was captured off Newfoundland; and among his papers were found
+copies of the negotiations of 1778 and of the correspondence which
+then took place. Great was the indignation of the British government,
+and it was increased when the Estates of Holland, under the
+influence of Amsterdam, succeeded in bringing the States-General
+(by a majority of four provinces to three) to join the League of
+Armed Neutrality. Better open war than a sham peace. Instructions
+were therefore sent to the ambassador Yorke to demand the
+punishment of the Amsterdam regents for their clandestine transactions
+with the enemies of England. The reply was that the matter
+should be brought before the Court of Holland; and Van Welderen,
+the Dutch ambassador in London, in vain endeavoured to give
+assurances that the States were anxious to maintain a strict neutrality.
+Yorke demanded immediate satisfaction and once more called
+upon the Republic to furnish the aid in men and ships in accordance
+with the treaty. Further instructions were therefore sent
+to Van Welderen, but they were delayed by tempestuous weather.
+In any case they would have been of no avail. The British
+government was in no mood for temporising. On December 20,
+1780 war was declared against the United Provinces; and three
+days later Yorke left the Hague.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+STADHOLDERATE OF WILLIAM V, _continued_, 1780-1788
+
+
+The outbreak of war meant the final ruin of the Dutch Republic. Its
+internal condition at the close of 1780 made it hopelessly unfitted to
+enter upon a struggle with the overwhelming sea-power of England. Even
+had William V possessed the qualities of leadership, he would have had
+to contend against the bitter opposition and enmity of the anti-Orange
+party among the burgher-regents, of which Van der Capellen was one of
+the most moving spirits, and which had its chief centre in Amsterdam.
+But the prince, weak and incompetent, was apparently intent only on
+evading his responsibilities, and so laid himself open to the charges of
+neglect and mal-administration that were brought against him by his
+enemies.
+
+Against an English fleet of more than 300 vessels manned by a force of
+something like 100,000 seamen, the Dutch had but twenty ships of the
+line, most of them old and of little value. Large sums of money were now
+voted for the equipment of a fleet; and the Admiralties were urged to
+press forward the work with all possible vigour. But progress was
+necessarily slow. Everything was lacking--material, munitions,
+equipment, skilled labour--and these could not be supplied in time to
+prevent Dutch commerce being swept from the seas and the Dutch colonies
+captured. The Republicans, or Patriots, as they began to name
+themselves, were at first delighted that the Orange stadholder and his
+party had been compelled to break with England and to seek the alliance
+of France; but their joy was but short-lived. Bad tidings followed
+rapidly one upon another. In the first month of the war 200 merchantmen
+were captured, of the value of 15,000,000 florins. The fishing fleets
+dared not put out to sea. In 1780 more than 2000 vessels passed through
+the Sound, in 1781 only eleven. On February 3 St Eustatius surrendered
+to Admiral Rodney, when one hundred and thirty merchantmen together with
+immense stores fell into the hands of the captors. Surinam and Curacoa
+received warning and were able to put themselves into a state of
+defence, but the colonies of Demerara, Berbice and Essequibo were taken,
+also St Martin, Saba and the Dutch establishments on the coast of
+Guinea. In the East Indies Negapatam and the factories in Bengal passed
+into English possession; and the Cape, Java and Ceylon would have shared
+the same fate, but for the timely protection of a French squadron under
+the command of Suffren, one of the ablest and bravest of French seamen.
+
+The losses were enormous, and loud was the outcry raised in Amsterdam
+and elsewhere against the prince of being the cause of his country's
+misfortunes. "Orange," so his enemies said, "is to blame for everything.
+He possessed the power to do whatsoever he would, and he neglected to
+use it in providing for the navy and the land's defences." This was to a
+considerable extent unjust, for William from 1767 onwards had repeatedly
+urged an increase of the sea and land forces, but his proposals had been
+thwarted by bitter opposition, especially in Amsterdam itself. The
+accusations were to this extent correct that he was undoubtedly invested
+with large executive power which he had not the strength of will to use.
+It was at this period that Van der Capellen and others started a most
+violent press campaign not only against the stadholder, but against the
+hereditary stadholdership and all that the house of Orange-Nassau stood
+for in the history of the Dutch Republic. Brunswick was attacked with
+especial virulence. The "Act of Consultation" had become known; and, had
+the prince been willing to throw responsibility upon the duke for bad
+advice he might have gained some fleeting popularity by separating
+himself from the hated "foreigner." But William, weak though he was,
+would not abandon the man who in his youth had been to him and to his
+house a wise and staunch protector and friend; and he knew, moreover,
+that the accusations against Brunswick were really aimed at himself. The
+duke, however, after appealing to the States-General, and being by them
+declared free from blame, found the spirit of hostility so strong at
+Amsterdam and in several of the Provincial Estates that he withdrew
+first (1782) to Hertogenbosch, of which place he was governor, and
+finally left the country in 1784.
+
+The war meanwhile, which had been the cause, or rather the pretext, for
+this outburst of popular feeling against Brunswick, was pursuing its
+course. In the summer of 1781 Rear-Admiral Zoutman, at the head of a
+squadron of fifteen war-ships, was ordered to convoy seventy-two
+merchantmen into the Baltic. He met an English force of twelve vessels,
+which were larger and better armed than the Dutch, under Vice-Admiral
+Hyde Parker. A fierce encounter took place at the Doggerbank on August
+5, which lasted all day without either side being able to claim the
+victory. Parker was the first to retreat, but Zoutman had likewise to
+return to the Texel to repair his disabled ships, and his convoy never
+reached the Baltic. The Dutch however were greatly elated at the result
+of the fight, and Zoutman and his captains were feted as heroes.
+
+Doggerbank battle was but, at the most, an indecisive engagement on a
+very small scale, and it brought no relaxation in the English blockade.
+No Dutch admiral throughout all the rest of the war ventured to face the
+English squadrons in the North Sea and in the Channel; and the Dutch
+mercantile marine disappeared from the ocean. England was strong enough
+to defy the Armed Neutrality, which indeed proved, as its authoress
+Catherine II is reported to have said, "an armed nullity." There was
+deep dissatisfaction throughout the country, and mutual recriminations
+between the various responsible authorities, but there was some justice
+in making the stadholder the chief scapegoat, for, whatever may have
+been the faults of others, a vigorous initiative in the earlier years of
+his stadholdership might have effected much, and would have certainly
+gained for him increased influence and respect.
+
+The war lasted for two years, if war that could be called in which there
+was practically no fighting. There were changes of government in
+England during that time, and the party of which Fox was the leader had
+no desire to press hardly upon the Dutch. Several efforts were made to
+induce them to negotiate in London a separate peace on favourable terms,
+but the partisans of France in Amsterdam and elsewhere rendered these
+tentative negotiations fruitless. Being weak, the Republic suffered
+accordingly by having to accept finally whatever terms its mightier
+neighbour thought fit to dictate. On November 30, 1782, the preliminary
+treaty by which Great Britain conceded to the United States of America
+their independence was concluded. A truce between Great Britain and
+France followed in January, 1783, in which the United Provinces, as a
+satellite of France, were included. No further hostilities took place,
+but the negotiations for a definitive peace dragged on, the protests of
+the Dutch plenipotentiaries at Paris against the terms arranged
+between England and France being of no avail. Finally the French
+government concluded a separate peace on September 3; but it was not
+till May 20, 1784, that the Dutch could be induced to surrender
+Negapatam and to grant to the English the right of free entry into the
+Moluccas. Nor was this the only humiliation the Republic had at this
+time to suffer, for during the course of the English war serious
+troubles with the Emperor Joseph II had arisen.
+
+Joseph had in 1780 paid a visit to his Belgian provinces, and he had
+seen with his own eyes the ruinous condition of the barrier fortresses.
+On the pretext that the fortresses were now useless, since France and
+the Republic were allies, Joseph informed the States-General of his
+intention to dismantle them all with the exception of Antwerp and
+Luxemburg. This meant of course the withdrawal of the Dutch garrisons.
+The States-General, being unable to resist, deemed it the wiser course
+to submit. The troops accordingly left the barrier towns in January,
+1782. Such submission, as was to be expected, inevitably led to further
+demands.
+
+The Treaty of Muenster (1648) had left the Dutch in possession of
+territory on both banks of the Scheldt, and had given them the right to
+close all access by river to Antwerp, which had for a century and a
+quarter ceased to be a sea-port. In 1781, during his visit to Belgium,
+Joseph had received a number of petitions in favour of the liberation
+of the Scheldt. At the moment he did not see his way to taking action,
+but in 1783 he took advantage of the embarrassments of the Dutch
+government to raise the question of a disputed boundary in Dutch
+Flanders; and in the autumn of that year a body of Imperial troops took
+forcible possession of some frontier forts near Sluis. Matters were
+brought to a head in May, 1784, by the emperor sending to the
+States-General a detailed summary of all his grievances, _Tableau
+sommaire des pretentions_. In this he claimed, besides cessions of
+territory at Maestricht and in Dutch Flanders, the right of free
+navigation on the Scheldt, the demolition of the Dutch forts closing the
+river, and freedom of trading from the Belgian ports to the Indies. This
+document was in fact an ultimatum, the rejection of which meant war. For
+once all parties in the Republic were united in resistance to the
+emperor's demands; and when in October, 1784, two ships attempted to
+navigate the Scheldt, the one starting from Antwerp, the other from
+Ostend, they were both stopped; the first at Saftingen on the
+frontier, the second at Flushing. War seemed imminent. An Austrian army
+corps was sent to the Netherlands; and the Dutch bestirred themselves
+with a vigour unknown in the States for many years to equip a strong
+fleet and raise troops to repel invasion. It is, however, almost certain
+that, had Joseph carried out his threat of sending a force of 80,000 men
+to avenge the insult offered to his ships, the hastily enlisted Dutch
+troops would not have been able to offer effectual resistance. But the
+question the emperor was raising was no mere local question. He was
+really seeking to violate important clauses of two international
+treaties, to which all the great powers were parties, the Treaty of
+Muenster and the Treaty of Utrecht. His own possession of the Belgian
+Netherlands and the independence and sovereign rights of the Dutch
+Republic rested on the same title. Joseph had counted upon the help or
+at least the friendly neutrality of his brother-in-law, Louis XVI, but
+France had just concluded an exhausting war in which the United
+Provinces had been her allies. The French, moreover, had no desire to
+see the Republic over-powered by an act of aggression that might give
+rise to European complications. Louis XVI offered mediation, and it was
+accepted.
+
+It is doubtful indeed whether the emperor, whose restless brain was
+always full of new schemes, really meant to carry his threats into
+execution. In the autumn of 1784 a plan for exchanging the distant
+Belgian Netherlands for the contiguous Electorate of Bavaria was
+beginning to exercise his thoughts and diplomacy. He showed himself
+therefore ready to make concessions; and by the firmness of the attitude
+of France both the disputants were after lengthy negotiations brought to
+terms, which were embodied in a treaty signed at Fontainebleau on
+November 8,1785. The Dutch retained the right to close the Scheldt, but
+had to dismantle some of the forts; the frontier of Dutch Flanders was
+to be that of 1664; and Joseph gave up all claim to Maestricht in
+consideration of a payment of 9,500,000 florins. A few days later an
+alliance between France and the Republic, known as "the Defensive
+Confederacy" of Fontainebleau, was concluded, the French government
+advancing 4,500,000 florins towards the ransom of Maestricht. The return
+of peace, however, far from allaying the spirit of faction in the
+Republic, was to lead to civil strife.
+
+The situation with which William V now had to deal was in some ways
+more difficult and dangerous than in the days of his greater
+predecessors. It was no longer a mere struggle for supremacy between the
+Orange-Stadholder party (_prins-gezinderi_) and the patrician-regents of
+the town corporations (_staats-gezinderi_); a third party had come into
+existence, the democratic or "patriot" party, which had imbibed the
+revolutionary ideas of Rousseau and others about the Rights of Man and
+the Social Contract. These new ideas, spread about with fiery zeal by
+the two nobles, Van der Capellen tot de Pol and his cousin Van der
+Capellen van den Marsch, had found a fertile soil in the northern
+Netherlands, and among all classes, including other nobles and many
+leading burgomasters. Their aim was to abolish all privileges whether in
+Church or State, and to establish the principle of the sovereignty of
+the people. These were the days, be it remembered, which immediately
+succeeded the American Revolution and preceded the summoning of the
+States-General in France with its fateful consequences. The atmosphere
+was full of revolution; and the men of the new ideas had no more
+sympathy with the pretensions of an aristocratic caste of
+burgher-regents to exclude their fellow-citizens from a voice in the
+management of their own affairs, than they had with the quasi-sovereign
+position of an hereditary stadholder. Among the Orange party were few
+men of mark. The council-pensionary Bleiswijk was without character,
+ready to change sides with the shifting wind; and Count Bentinck van
+Rhoon had little ability. They were, however, to discover in burgomaster
+Van de Spiegel of Goes a statesman destined soon to play a great part in
+the history of the country. During this period of acute party strife
+Patriot and Orangeman were not merely divided from one another on
+questions of domestic policy. The one party were strong adherents of the
+French alliance and leant upon its support; the other sought to renew
+the bonds which had so long united the Republic with England. Indeed the
+able representatives of France and England at the Hague at this time,
+the Count de Verac and Sir James Harris (afterwards Lord Malmesbury),
+were the real leaders and advisers, behind the scenes, of the opposing
+factions.
+
+The strength of parties varied in the different provinces. Holland,
+always more or less anti-stadholder, was the chief centre of the
+patriots. With Holland were the majority of the Estates of Friesland,
+Groningen and Overyssel. In Utrecht the nobles and the regents were
+for the stadholder, but the townsmen were strong patriots. Zeeland
+supported the prince, who had with him the army, the preachers and the
+great mass of small _bourgeoisie_ and the country folk. Nothing could
+exceed the violence and unscrupulousness of the attacks that were
+directed against the stadholder in the press; and no efforts were spared
+by his opponents to curtail his rights and to insult him personally.
+Corps of patriot volunteers were enrolled in different places with
+self-elected officers. The wearing of the Orange colours and the singing
+of the _Wilhelmus_ was forbidden, and punished by fine and imprisonment.
+In September, 1785, a riot at the Hague led to the Estates of Holland
+taking from the stadholder the command of the troops in that city. They
+likewise ordered the foot-guards henceforth to salute the members of the
+Estates, and removed the arms of the prince from the standards and the
+facings of the troops. As a further slight, the privilege was given to
+the deputies, while the Estates were in session, to pass through the
+gate into the Binnenhof, which had hitherto been reserved for the use of
+the stadholder alone. Filled with indignation and resentment, William
+left the Hague with his family and withdrew to his country residence at
+Het Loo. Such a step only increased the confusion and disorder that was
+filling every part of the country, for it showed that William had
+neither the spirit nor the energy to make a firm stand against those who
+were resolved to overthrow his authority.
+
+In Utrecht the strife between the parties led to scenes of violence. The
+"patriots" found an eloquent leader in the person of a young student
+named Ondaatje. The Estates of the province were as conservative as the
+city of Utrecht itself was ultra-democratic; and a long series of
+disturbances were caused by the burgher-regents of the Town Council
+refusing to accede to the popular demand for a drastic change in their
+constitution. Finally they were besieged in the town hall by a numerous
+gathering of the "free corps" headed by Ondaatje, and were compelled to
+accede to the people's demands. A portion of the Estates thereupon
+assembled at Amersfoort; and at their request a body of 400 troops were
+sent there from Nijmwegen. Civil war seemed imminent, but it was averted
+by the timely mediation of the Estates of Holland.
+
+Scarcely less dangerous was the state of affairs in Gelderland. Here the
+Estates of the Gelderland had an Orange majority, but the patriots had
+an influential leader in Van der Capellen van den Marsch. Petitions
+and requests were sent to the Estates demanding popular reforms. The
+Estates not only refused to receive them but issued a proclamation
+forbidding the dissemination of revolutionary literature in the
+province. The small towns of Elburg and Hattem not only refused to obey,
+but the inhabitants proceeded by force to compel their Councils to yield
+to their demands. The Estates thereupon called upon the stadholder to
+send troops to restore order. This was done, and garrisons were placed
+in Elburg and Hattem. This step caused a very great commotion in Holland
+and especially at Amsterdam; and the patriot leaders felt that the time
+had come to take measures by which to unite all their forces in the
+different parts of the country for common defence and common action. The
+result of all this was that the movement became more and more
+revolutionary in its aims. To such an extent was this the case that many
+of the old aristocratic anti-stadholder regents began to perceive that
+the carrying out of the patriots' programme of popular reform would mean
+the overthrow of the system of government which they upheld, at the same
+time as that of the stadholderate.
+
+The reply of the Estates of Holland to the strong measures taken against
+Elburg and Hattem was the "provisional" removal of the prince from the
+post of captain-general, and the recalling, on their own authority, of
+all troops in the pay of the province serving in the frontier fortresses
+(August, 1786). As the year went on the agitation grew in volume;
+increasing numbers were enrolled in the free corps. The complete
+ascendancy of the ultra-democratic patriots was proved and assured by
+tumultuous gatherings at Amsterdam (April 21, 1787), and a few days
+later at Rotterdam, compelling the Town Councils to dismiss at Amsterdam
+nine regents and at Rotterdam seven, suspected of Orange leanings.
+Holland was now entirely under patriot control; and the democrats in
+other districts were eagerly looking to the forces which Holland could
+bring into the field to protect the patriot cause from tyrannous acts of
+oppression by the stadholder's troops. In the summer of 1787 the forces
+on both sides were being mustered on the borders of the province of
+Utrecht, and frequent collisions had already taken place. Nothing but
+the prince's indecision had prevented the actual outbreak of a general
+civil war. At the critical moment of suspense an incident occurred,
+however, which was to effect a dramatic change in the situation.
+
+William's pusillanimous attitude (he was actually talking of withdrawing
+from the country to Nassau) was by no means acceptable to his
+high-spirited wife. The princess was all for vigorous action, and she
+wrung from William a reluctant consent to her returning from Nijmwegen,
+where for security she had been residing with her family, to the Hague.
+In that political centre she would be in close communication with Sir J.
+Harris and Van de Spiegel, and would be able to organise a powerful
+opposition in Holland to patriot ascendancy. It was a bold move, the
+success of which largely depended on the secrecy with which it was
+carried out. On June 28 Wilhelmina started from Nijmwegen, but the
+commandant of the free corps at Gouda, hearing that horses were being
+ordered at Schoonhoven and Haasrecht for a considerable party,
+immediately sent to headquarters for instructions. He was told not to
+allow any suspicious body of persons to pass. He accordingly stopped the
+princess and detained her at a farm until the arrival at Woerden of the
+members of the Committee of Defence. By these Her Highness was treated
+(on learning her quality) with all respect, but she was informed that
+she could not proceed without the permit of the Estates of Holland. The
+indignant princess did not wait for the permit to arrive, but returned
+to Nijmwegen.
+
+The British ambassador, Harris, at once brought the action of the
+Estates of Holland before the States-General and demanded satisfaction;
+and on July 10 a still more peremptory demand was made by the Prussian
+ambassador, von Thulemeyer. Frederick William II was incensed at the
+treatment his sister had received; and, when the Estates of Holland
+refused to punish the offending officials, on the ground that no insult
+had been intended, orders were immediately given for an army of 20,000
+men under Charles, Duke of Brunswick, to cross the frontier and exact
+reparation. The Prussians entered in three columns and met with little
+opposition. Utrecht, where 7000 "patriot" volunteers were encamped, was
+evacuated, the whole force taking flight and retreating in disorder to
+Holland. Gorkum, Dordrecht, Kampen and other towns surrendered without a
+blow; and on September 17 Brunswick's troops entered the Hague amidst
+general rejoicings. The populace wore Orange favours, and the streets
+rang with the cry of _Oranje boven_. Amsterdam still held out and
+prepared for defence, hoping for French succour; and thither the leaders
+of the patriot party had fled, together with the representatives of
+six cities. The nobility, the representatives of eight cities, and the
+council-pensionary remained at the Hague, met as the Estates of Holland,
+repealed all the anti-Orange edicts, and invited the prince to return.
+Amidst scenes of great enthusiasm the stadholder made his entry into the
+Binnenhof on September 20. The hopes held by the patriot refugees at
+Amsterdam of French aid were vain, for the French government was in no
+position to help anyone. As soon as the Prussian army appeared before
+the gates, the Town Council, as in 1650, was unwilling to jeopardise the
+welfare of the city by armed resistance, and negotiations were opened
+with Brunswick. On October 3 Amsterdam capitulated, and the campaign was
+over.
+
+The princess was now in a position to demand reparation for the insult
+she had received; and, though her terms were severe, the Estates of
+Holland obsequiously agreed to carry them out (October 6). She demanded
+the punishment of all who had taken part in her arrest, the disbanding
+of the free corps, and the purging of the various Town Councils of
+obnoxious persons. All this was done. In the middle of November the main
+body of the Prussians departed, but a force of 4000 men remained to
+assist the Dutch troops in keeping order. The English ambassador,
+Harris, and Van de Spiegel were the chief advisers of the now dominant
+Orange government; and drastic steps were taken to establish the
+hereditary stadholderate henceforth on a firm basis. All persons filling
+any office were required to swear to maintain the settlement of 1766,
+and to declare that "the high and hereditary dignities" conferred upon
+the Princes of Orange were "an essential part not only of the
+constitution of each province but of the whole State." An amnesty was
+proclaimed by the prince on November 21, but it contained so many
+exceptions that it led to a large number of the patriots seeking a place
+of refuge in foreign countries, as indeed many of the leaders had
+already done, chiefly in France and the Belgian Netherlands. It has been
+said that the exiles numbered as many as 40,000, but this is possibly an
+exaggeration. The victory of the Orange party was complete; but a
+triumph achieved by the aid of a foreign invader was dearly purchased.
+The Prussian troops, as they retired laden with booty after committing
+many excesses, left behind them a legacy of hatred.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+THE ORANGE RESTORATION. DOWNFALL OF THE REPUBLIC, 1788-1795
+
+
+One of the first steps taken, after the restoration of the stadholder's
+power had been firmly established, was the appointment of Laurens Pieter
+van de Spiegel to the post of council-pensionary of Holland in place of
+the trimmer Bleiswijk. It was quite contrary to usage that a Zeelander
+should hold this the most important post in the Estates of Holland, but
+the influence of the princess and of Harris secured his unanimous
+election on December 3, 1787. Van de Spiegel proved himself to be a
+statesman of high capacity, sound judgment and great moderation, not
+unworthy to be ranked among the more illustrious occupants of his great
+office. He saw plainly the hopeless deadlock and confusion of the
+machinery of government and its need of root-and-branch revision, but he
+was no more able to achieve it than his predecessors. The feebleness of
+the stadholder, the high-handedness of the princess, and the selfish
+clinging of the patrician-regents to their privileged monopoly of civic
+power were insuperable hindrances to any attempts to interfere with the
+existing state of things. Such was the inherent weakness of the Republic
+that it was an independent State in little more than name; its form of
+government was guaranteed by foreign powers on whom it had to rely for
+its defence against external foes.
+
+Prussia by armed force, England by diplomatic support, had succeeded in
+restoring the hereditary stadholderate to a predominant position in the
+State. It was the first care of the triumvirate, Harris, Van de Spiegel
+and the princess, to secure what had been achieved by bringing about a
+defensive alliance between the Republic, Great Britain and Prussia.
+After what had taken place this was not a difficult task; and two
+separate treaties were signed between the States-General and the two
+protecting powers on the same day, April 15, 1788, each of the three
+states undertaking to furnish a definite quota of troops, ships or
+money, if called upon to do so. Both Prussia and England gave a strong
+guarantee for the upholding of the hereditary stadholderate. This was
+followed by the conclusion of an Anglo-Prussian alliance directed
+against France and Austria (August 13). The marriage of the hereditary
+prince with Frederika Louise Wilhelmina of Prussia added yet another to
+the many royal alliances of the House of Orange; but, though it raised
+the prestige of the stadholder's position, it only served to make that
+position more dependent on the support of the foreigner.
+
+The council-pensionary, Van de Spiegel, did all that statesman could do
+in these difficult times to effect reforms and bring order out of chaos.
+It was fortunate for the Republic that the stadholder should have
+discerned the merits of this eminent servant of the state and entrusted
+to him so largely the direction of affairs. Internally the spirit of
+faction had, superficially at least, been crushed by Prussian military
+intervention, but externally there was serious cause for alarm. Van de
+Spiegel watched with growing disquietude the threatening aspect of
+things in France, preluding the great Revolution; and still more serious
+was the insurrection, which the reforming zeal of Joseph II had caused
+to break out in the Austrian Netherlands. Joseph's personal visit to his
+Belgian dominions had filled him with a burning desire to sweep away the
+various provincial privileges and customs and to replace them by
+administrative uniformity. Not less was his eagerness to free education
+from clerical influence. He stirred up thereby the fierce opposition of
+clericals and democrats alike, ending in armed revolt in Brabant and
+elsewhere. A desultory struggle went on during the years 1787, '88 and
+'89, ending in January, 1790, in a meeting of the States-General at
+Brussels and the formation of a federal republic under the name of "the
+United States of Belgium." All this was very perturbing to the Dutch
+government, who were most anxious lest an Austrian attempt at reconquest
+might lead to a European conflict close to their borders. The death of
+Joseph on February 24, 1790, caused the danger to disappear. His
+brother, Leopold II, at once offered to re-establish ancient privileges,
+and succeeded by tact and moderation in restoring Austrian rule under
+the old conditions. That this result was brought about without any
+intervention of foreign powers was in no small measure due to a
+conference at the Hague, in which Van de Spiegel conducted negotiations
+with the representatives of Prussia, England and Austria for a
+settlement of the Belgian question without disturbance of the peace.
+
+The council-pensionary found the finances of the country in a state of
+great confusion. One of his first cares was a re-assessment of the
+provincial quotas, some of which were greatly in arrears and inadequate
+in amount, thus throwing a disproportionate burden upon Holland. It was
+a difficult task, but successfully carried out. The affairs of the East
+and West India Companies next demanded his serious attention. Both of
+them were practically bankrupt.
+
+The East India Company had, during the 18th century, been gradually on
+the decline. Its object was to extract wealth from Java and its other
+eastern possessions; and, by holding the monopoly of trade and
+compelling the natives to hand over to the Company's officials a
+proportion of the produce of the land at a price fixed by the Company
+far below its real value (_contingent-en leverantie-stelsel_), the
+country was drained of its resources and the inhabitants impoverished
+simply to increase the shareholder's dividends. This was bad enough, but
+it was made worse by the type of men whom the directors, all of whom
+belonged to the patrician regent-families, sent out to fill the posts of
+governor-general and the subordinate governorships. For many decades
+these officials had been chosen, not for their proved experience or for
+their knowledge of the East or of the Indian trade, but because of
+family connection; and the nominees went forth with the intention of
+enriching themselves as quickly as possible. This led to all sorts of
+abuses, and the profits of the Company from all these causes kept
+diminishing. But, in order to keep up their credit, the Board of XVII
+continued to pay large dividends out of capital, with the inevitable
+result that the Company got into debt and had to apply for help to the
+State. The English war completed its ruin. In June, 1783, the Estates of
+Holland appointed a Commission to examine into the affairs of the
+Company. Too many people in Holland had invested their money in it, and
+the Indian trade was too important, for an actual collapse of the
+Company to be permitted. Accordingly an advance of 8,000,000 florins was
+made to the directors, with a guarantee for 38,000,000 of debt. But
+things went from bad to worse. In 1790 the indebtedness of the Company
+amounted to 85,000,000 florins. Van de Spiegel and others were convinced
+that the only satisfactory solution would be for the State to dissolve
+the Company and take over the Indian possessions in full sovereignty at
+the cost of liquidating the debt, A commission was appointed in 1791 to
+proceed to the East and make a report upon the condition of the
+colonies. Before their mission was accomplished the French armies were
+overrunning the Republic. It was not till 1798 that the existence of the
+Company actually came to an end. To the West India Company the effect of
+the English war was likewise disastrous. The Guiana colonies, whose
+sugar plantations had been a source of great profit, had been conquered
+first by the English, then by the French; and, though they were restored
+after the war, the damage inflicted had brought the Company into heavy
+difficulties. Its charter expired in 1791, and it was not renewed. The
+colonies became colonies of the State, the shareholders being
+compensated by exchanging their depreciated shares for Government bonds.
+
+The Orange restoration, however, and the efforts of Van de Spiegel to
+strengthen its bases by salutary reforms were doomed to be short-lived.
+The council-pensionary, in spite of his desire to relinquish office at
+the end of his quinquennial term, was reelected by the Estates of
+Holland on December 6, 1792, and yielded to the pressure put upon him to
+continue his task. A form of government, which had been imposed against
+their will on the patriot party by the aid of foreign bayonets, was
+certain to have many enemies; and such prospect of permanence as it had
+lay in the goodwill and confidence inspired by the statesmanlike and
+conciliatory policy of Van de Spiegel. But it was soon to be swept away
+in the cataclysm of the French Revolution now at the height of its
+devastating course.
+
+In France extreme revolutionary ideas had made rapid headway, ending in
+the dethronement and imprisonment of the king on August 10, 1792. The
+invasion of France by the Prussian and Austrian armies only served to
+inflame the French people, intoxicated by their new-found liberty, to a
+frenzy of patriotism. Hastily raised armies succeeded in checking the
+invasion at Valmy on September 20, 1792; and in their turn invading
+Belgium under the leadership of Dumouriez, they completely defeated the
+Austrians at Jemappes on November 6. The whole of Belgium was overrun
+and by a decree of the French Convention was annexed. The fiery
+enthusiasts, into whose hands the government of the French Republic had
+fallen, were eager to carry by force of arms the principles of liberty,
+fraternity and equality to all Europe, declaring that "all governments
+are our enemies, all peoples are our friends." The southern
+Netherlands having been conquered, it was evident that the northern
+Republic would speedily invite attack. The Dutch government, anxious to
+avoid giving any cause for hostilities, had carefully abstained from
+offering any encouragement to the emigrants or support to the enemies of
+the French Republic. Van de Spiegel had even expressed to De Maulde, the
+French ambassador, a desire to establish friendly relations with the
+Republican government. But the Jacobins looked upon the United Provinces
+as the dependent of their enemies England and Prussia; and, when after
+the execution of the king the English ambassador was recalled from
+Paris, the National Convention immediately declared war against England
+and at the same time against the stadholder of Holland "because of his
+slavish bondage to the courts of St James and Berlin."
+
+Dumouriez at the head of the French army prepared to enter the United
+Provinces at two points. The main body under his own command was to
+cross the Moerdijk to Dordrecht and then advance on Rotterdam, the
+Hague, Leyden and Haarlem. He was accompanied by the so-called _Batavian
+legion_, enlisted from the patriot exiles under Colonel Daendels, once
+the fiery anti-Orange advocate of Hattem. General Miranda, who was
+besieging Maestricht, was to march by Nijmwegen and Venloo to Utrecht.
+The two forces would then unite and make themselves masters of
+Amsterdam. The ambitious scheme miscarried. At first success attended
+Dumouriez. Breda fell after a feeble resistance, also De Klundert and
+Geertruidenberg. Meanwhile the advance of an Austrian army under Coburg
+relieved Maestricht and inflicted a defeat upon the French at Aldenhoven
+on March 1, 1793. Dumouriez, compelled to retreat, was himself beaten at
+Neerwinden on March 18, and withdrew to Antwerp. For the moment danger
+was averted. Revolutionary movements at Amsterdam and elsewhere failed
+to realise the hopes of the patriots, and the Dutch government was able
+to breathe again.
+
+It indeed appeared that the French menace need no longer be feared.
+Dumouriez changed sides and, failing to induce his troops to follow him,
+took refuge in the enemy's camp. A powerful coalition had now been
+formed by the energy of Pitt against revolutionary France; and, in
+April, 1794, a strong English army under the Duke of York had joined
+Coburg. They were supported by 22,000 Dutch troops commanded by the two
+sons of the Prince of Orange.
+
+New French armies, however, organised by the genius of Carnot, proved
+more than a match for the allied forces acting without any unity of
+place under slow-moving and incompetent leaders. Coburg and the
+Austrians were heavily defeated at Fleurus by Jourdan on June 26. York
+and Prince William thereupon retreated across the frontier, followed by
+the French under Pichegru, while another French general, Moreau, took
+Sluis and overran Dutch Flanders. This gave fresh encouragement to the
+patriot party, who in Amsterdam formed a revolutionary committee, of
+which the leaders were Gogel, Van Dam and Kraijenhoff. Nothing overt was
+done, but by means of a large number of so-called reading-societies
+(_leesgezelschappen_) secret preparations were made for a general
+uprising so soon as circumstances permitted, and communications were
+meanwhile kept up with the exiled patriots. But Pichegru, though he
+captured Maestricht and other towns, was very cautious in his movements
+and distrustful of the promises of the Amsterdam Convention that a
+general revolt would follow upon his entry into Holland.
+
+In this way the year 1794 drew to its end; and, as no further help from
+England or Prussia could be obtained, the States-General thought it
+might be possible to save the Republic from the fate of Belgium by
+opening negotiations for peace with the enemy. Accordingly two envoys,
+Brantsen and Repelaer, were sent on December 16 to the French
+headquarters, whence they proceeded to Paris. Fearing lest their plans
+for an uprising should be foiled, the Amsterdam committee also
+despatched two representatives, Blauw and Van Dam, to Paris to
+counteract the envoys of Van de Spiegel, and to urge upon the French
+commanders an immediate offensive against Holland. The withdrawal of the
+remains of the English army under the Duke of York, and the setting in
+of a strong frost, lent force to their representations. The army of
+Pichegru, accompanied by Daendels and his Batavian legion, were able to
+cross the rivers; and Holland lay open before them. It was in vain that
+the two young Orange princes did their utmost to organise resistance. In
+January, 1795 one town after another surrendered; and on the 19th
+Daendels without opposition entered Amsterdam.
+
+The revolution was completely triumphant, for on this very day the
+stadholder, despite the protests of his sons and the efforts of the
+council-pensionary, had left the country. The English government had
+offered to receive William V and his family; and arrangements had been
+quietly made for the passage across the North Sea. The princess with her
+daughter-in-law and grandson were the first to leave; and on January 17,
+1795, William himself, on the ground that the French would never
+negotiate so long as he was in the country, bade farewell to the
+States-General and the foreign ambassadors. On the following day he
+embarked with his sons and household on a number of fishing-pinks at
+Scheveningen and put to sea. With his departure the stadholderate and
+the Republic of the United Netherlands came to an end.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+THE BATAVIAN REPUBLIC, 1795-1806
+
+
+On January 19, 1795, Amsterdam fell into the hands of the advancing
+French troops. Daendels had previously caused a proclamation to be
+distributed which declared "that the representatives of the French
+people wished the Dutch nation to make themselves free; that they do not
+desire to oppress them as conquerors, but to ally themselves with them
+as with a free people." A complete change of the city government took
+place without any disturbance or shedding of blood. At the summons of
+the Revolutionary Committee the members of the Town Council left the
+Council Hall and were replaced by twenty-one citizens "as provisional
+representatives of the people of Amsterdam." Of this body Rutger Jan
+Schimmelpenninck, a former advocate of the Council, was appointed
+president. The other towns, one after the other, followed in the steps
+of the capital. The patrician corporations were abolished and replaced
+by provisional municipal assemblies. Everywhere the downfall of the old
+_regime_ was greeted with tumultuous joy by those large sections of the
+Dutch population which had imbibed revolutionary principles; and the
+French troops were welcomed by the "patriots" as brothers and
+deliverers. "Trees of Liberty," painted in the national colours, were
+erected in the principal squares; and the citizens, wearing "caps of
+liberty" danced round them hand in hand with the foreign soldiers.
+Feast-making, illuminations and passionate orations, telling that a new
+era of "liberty, fraternity and equality" had dawned for the Batavian
+people, were the order of the day. The Revolution was not confined to
+the town-corporations. At the invitation of the Amsterdam Committee and
+under the protection of the French representatives, deputations from
+fourteen towns met at the Hague on January 26. Taking possession of the
+Assembly Hall of the Estates of Holland and choosing as their president
+Pieter Paulus, a man generally respected, this Provisional Assembly
+proceeded to issue a series of decrees subverting all the ancient
+institutions of the land. The representation by Estates and the
+offices of stadholder and of council-pensionary were abolished. The old
+colleges such as the Commissioned Councillors, the Admiralties, the
+Chamber of Accounts, were changed into Committees for General Welfare,
+for War, for Marine, for Finance, etc. The other provinces in turn
+followed Holland's example; and the changes in the provincial
+administrations were then quickly extended to the States-General. These
+retained their name, but were now to be representative of the citizens
+of the whole land. The Council of State was transformed into a Committee
+for General Affairs; and a Colonial Council replaced the East and West
+India Companies and the Society of Surinam. To the Committee for General
+Affairs was entrusted the task of drawing up a plan for the summoning of
+a National Convention on March 4.
+
+So far all had gone smoothly with the course of the revolutionary
+movement, so much so that its leaders seem almost to have forgotten that
+the land was in the occupation of a foreign conqueror. The unqualified
+recognition of Batavian independence, however, in the proclamation by
+Daendels had caused dissatisfaction in Paris. The Committee of Public
+Safety had no intention of throwing away the fruits of victory; and two
+members of the Convention, Cochon and Ramel, were despatched to Holland
+to report upon the condition of affairs. They arrived at the Hague on
+February 7. Both reports recommended that a war-indemnity should be
+levied on the Republic, but counselled moderation, for, though the
+private wealth of the Dutch was potentially large, the State was
+practically insolvent. These proposals were too mild to please the
+Committee of Public Safety. The new States-General had sent (March 3)
+two envoys, Van Blauw and Meyer, to Paris with instructions to propose a
+treaty of alliance and of commerce with France, to ask for the
+withdrawal of the French troops and that the land should not be flooded
+with _assignats_. The independence of the Batavian Republic was taken
+for granted. Very different were the conditions laid before them by
+Merlin de Douat, Rewbell and Sieyes. A war contribution of 100,000,000
+florins was demanded, to be paid in ready money within three months, a
+loan of like amount at 3 per cent, and the surrender of all territory
+south of the Waal together with Dutch Flanders, Walcheren and South
+Beveland. Moreover there was to be no recognition of Batavian
+independence until a satisfactory treaty on the above lines was drawn
+up.
+
+These hard conditions were on March 23 rejected by the States-General.
+Wiser counsels however prevented this point-blank refusal being sent to
+Paris, and it was hoped that a policy of delay might secure better
+terms. The negotiations went on slowly through March and April; and, as
+Blauw and Meyer had no powers as accredited plenipotentiaries, the
+Committee determined to send Rewbell and Sieyes to the Hague, armed with
+full authority to push matters through.
+
+The envoys reached the Hague on May 8, and found the States-General in a
+more yielding mood than might have been expected from their previous
+attitude. Rewbell and Sieyes knew how to play upon the fears of the
+Provisional Government by representing to them that, if the terms they
+offered were rejected, their choice lay between French annexation or an
+Orange restoration. Four members were appointed by the States-General
+with full powers to negotiate. The conferences began on May 11; and in
+five days an agreement was reached. The Batavian Republic, recognised as
+a free and independent State, entered into an offensive and defensive
+alliance with the French Republic. But the Dutch had to cede Maestricht,
+Venloo and Dutch Flanders and to pay an indemnity of 100,000,000
+florins. Flushing was to receive a French garrison, and its harbour was
+to be used in common by the two powers; 25,000 French troops were to be
+quartered in the Republic and were to be fed, clothed and paid. The
+Dutch were compelled to permit the free circulation of the worthless
+_assignats_ in their country.
+
+One of the first results of this treaty was a breach with Great Britain.
+The Dutch coast was blockaded; British fleets stopped all sea-borne
+commerce; and the Dutch colonies in the East and West Indies were one
+after the other captured. The action of the Prince of Orange made this
+an easy task. William placed in the hands of the British commanders
+letters addressed to the governors of the Dutch colonies ordering them
+"to admit the troops sent out on behalf of his Britannic Majesty and to
+offer no resistance to the British warships, but to regard them as
+vessels of a friendly Power." The Cape of Good Hope surrendered to
+Admiral Rodney; and in quick succession followed Malacca, Ceylon and the
+Moluccas. A squadron of nine ships under Rear-Admiral Lucas, sent out to
+recover the Cape and the other East Indian possessions, was compelled to
+surrender to the English in Saldanha Bay on August 17, 1796, almost
+without resistance, owing to the Orange sympathies of the crews. The
+West Indian Colonies fared no better. Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice
+capitulated in the spring of 1796; Surinam remained in Dutch hands until
+1799; Java until 1801. The occupation by the English of this island, the
+most important of all the Dutch overseas possessions, made the tale of
+their colonial losses complete. The offensive and defensive alliance
+with France had thus brought upon the Republic, as a trading and
+colonial power, a ruin which the efforts of the provisional government
+under French pressure to re-organise and strengthen their naval and
+military forces had been unable to prevent. The erstwhile exiles,
+Daendels and Dumonceau, who had attained the rank of generals in the
+French service, were on their return entrusted with the task of raising
+an army of 36,000 men, disciplined and equipped on the French system.
+The navy was dealt with by a special Committee, of which Pieter Paulus
+was the energetic president. Unfortunately for the Committee, a large
+proportion of the officers and crews were strongly Orangist. Most of the
+officers resigned, and it was necessary to purge the crews. Their places
+had to be supplied by less experienced and trustworthy material; but
+Vice-Admiral Jan de Winter did his utmost to create a fleet in fit
+condition to join the French and Spanish fleets in convoying an
+expeditionary force to make a descent upon the coast of Ireland. In
+July, 1797, eighty ships were concentrated at the Texel with troops on
+board, ready to join the Franco-Spanish squadrons, which were to sail
+from Brest. But the junction was never effected. Week after week the
+Dutch admiral was prevented from leaving the Texel by contrary winds.
+The idea of an invasion of Ireland was given up, but so great was the
+disappointment in Holland and such the pressure exerted on De Winter by
+the Commission of Foreign Affairs, that he was obliged against his will
+to put to sea on October 7, and attack the English fleet under the
+command of Admiral Duncan, who was blockading the Dutch coast. The
+number of vessels on the two sides was not unequal, but neither officers
+nor crews under De Winter could compare in seamanship and experience
+with their opponents. The fleets met off Camperdown and the Dutch fought
+with their traditional bravery, but the defeat was complete. Out of
+sixteen ships of the line nine were taken, including the flag-ship of De
+Winter himself.
+
+Meanwhile there had arisen strong differences of opinion in the Republic
+as to the form of government which was to replace the old confederacy of
+seven sovereign provinces. No one probably wished to continue a system
+which had long proved itself obsolete and unworkable. But particularism
+was still strong, especially in the smaller provinces. The country found
+itself divided into two sharply opposed parties of Unitarians and
+federalists. The Unitarians were the most active, and meetings were held
+all over the country by the local Jacobin clubs. Finally it was
+determined to hold a central meeting of delegates from all the clubs at
+the Hague. The meeting took place on Jan. 26, 1796, and resolutions were
+passed in favour of summoning a National Convention to draw up a new
+constitution on Unitarian lines. Holland and Utrecht pressed the matter
+forward in the States-General, and they had the support of Gelderland
+and Overyssel, but Zeeland, Friesland and Groningen refused their
+assent. Their action was very largely financial, as provinces whose
+indebtedness was small dreaded lest unification should increase their
+burden. But even in the recalcitrant provinces there were a large number
+of moderate men; and through the intervention of the French ambassador,
+Noeel, who gave strong support to the Unitarians, the proposal of Holland
+for a National Assembly to meet on March 1 was carried (February 18) by
+a unanimous vote. The following Provisional Regulation was then rapidly
+drawn up by a special committee. The land was divided into districts
+each containing 15,000 inhabitants; these again into fundamental
+assemblies (_grondvergaderingen_) of 500 persons; each of these
+assemblies chose an "elector" (_kiezer_); and then the group of thirty
+electors chose a deputy to represent the district. The National Assembly
+was in this way to consist of one hundred and twenty-six members; its
+deliberations were to be public, the voting individualistic and the
+majority to prevail. A Commission of twenty-one deputies was to be
+appointed, who were to frame a draft-Constitution, which after approval
+by the Assembly was to be submitted to the whole body of the people for
+acceptance or rejection.
+
+The Assembly, having duly met on March 1, 1796, in the Binnenhof at the
+Hague, elected Pieter Paulus as their president, but had the misfortune
+to lose his experienced direction very speedily. He had for some time
+been in bad health, and on March 17 he died. It fell to his lot to
+assist at the ceremonial closing of the last meeting of the
+States-General, which had governed the Republic of the United
+Netherlands for more than two centuries.
+
+The National Assembly reflected the pronounced differences of opinion in
+the land. Orangist opinion had no representatives, although possibly
+more than half the population had Orange sympathies. All the deputies
+had accepted in principle French revolutionary ideas, but there were
+three distinct parties, the unitarians, the moderates and the
+federalists. The moderates, who were in a majority, occupied, as their
+name implied, an intermediate position between the unitarians or
+revolutionary party, who wished for a centralised republic after the
+French model, and the federalists or conservatives, who aimed at
+retaining so far as possible the rights of the several provinces and
+towns to manage their own affairs. The leaders of the unitarians were
+Vreede, Midderigh, Valckenier and Gogel; of the moderates
+Schimmelpenninck, Hahn and Kantelaur; of the federalists, Vitringa, Van
+Marle and De Mist. After the death of Pieter Paulus the most influential
+man in an Assembly composed of politicians mostly without any
+parliamentary experience was the eloquent and astute Schimmelpenninck,
+whose opportunist moderation sprang from a natural dislike of extreme
+courses.
+
+One of the first cares of the Assembly was the appointment of the
+Commission of twenty-one members to draw up a draft Constitution. The
+(so-styled) Regulation, representing the views of the moderate majority,
+was presented to the Assembly on November 10. The Republic was
+henceforth to be a unified state governed by the Sovereign People; but
+the old provinces, though now named departments, were to retain large
+administrative rights and their separate financial quotas. The draft met
+fierce opposition from the unitarians, but after much discussion and
+many amendments it was at length accepted by the majority. It had,
+however, before becoming law, to be submitted to the people; and the
+network of Jacobin clubs throughout the country, under the leadership of
+the central club at Amsterdam, carried on a widespread and secret
+revolutionary propaganda against the Regulation. They tried to enlist
+the open co-operation of the French ambassador, Noel, but he, acting
+under the instruction of the cautious Talleyrand, was not disposed to
+commit himself.
+
+The unitarian campaign was so successful that the Regulation, on being
+submitted to the Fundamental Assemblies, was rejected by 136,716 votes
+to 27,955. In these circumstances, as had been previously arranged by
+the Provisional Government, it was necessary to summon another National
+Assembly to draw up another draft Constitution. It met on September 1,
+1797. The moderates, though they lost some seats, were still in a
+majority; and the new Commission of Twenty-One had, as before,
+federalistic leanings. The Unitarians, therefore, without awaiting their
+proposals, under the leadership of the stalwart revolutionary, Vreede,
+determined to take strong action. The _coup d'etat_ they planned was
+helped forward by two events. The first was the revolution in Paris of
+September 4, 1797, which led to the replacing of ambassador Noel by the
+pronounced Jacobin, Charles Delacroix. The other event was the disaster
+which befell the Dutch fleet at Camperdown, the blame for which was laid
+upon the Provisional Government.
+
+Vreede and his confederates being assured by Delacroix of the supportof
+the new French Directory, and of the co-operation of the French General
+Joubert and of Daendels, the commander of the Batavian army, chose for
+the execution of their plan the week in which Midderigh, one of the
+confederates, took his turn as president of the Assembly. Midderigh, by
+virtue of his office, being in command of the Hague civic force, on
+January 22, 1798, seized and imprisoned the members of the Committee for
+Foreign Affairs and twenty-two members of the Assembly. The "Rump" then
+met, protected by a strong body of troops, and declared itself a
+Constituent Assembly representing the Batavian people. After the French
+model, an Executive Council was nominated, consisting of five members,
+Vreede, Fijnje, Fokker, Wildrik and Van Langen, and a new Commission of
+Seven to frame a Constitution. The "Regulation" was rejected; and the
+Assembly solemnly proclaimed its "unalterable aversion" to the
+stadholderate, federalism, aristocracy and governmental
+decentralisation.
+
+French influence was henceforth paramount; and the draft of the new
+Constitution, in the framing of which Delacroix took a leading part, was
+ready on March 6. Eleven days later it was approved by the Assembly. The
+Fundamental Assemblies in their turn assented to it by 165,520 votes to
+11,597, considerable official pressure being exerted to secure this
+result; and the Constitution came thus into legal existence. Its
+principal provisions were directed to the complete obliteration of the
+old provincial particularism. The land was divided into eight
+departments, whose boundaries in no case coincided with those of the
+provinces. Holland was split up among five departments; that of the
+Amstel, with Amsterdam as its capital, being the only one that did not
+contain portions of two or more provinces. Each department was divided
+into seven circles; each of these returned one member; and the body of
+seven formed the departmental government. The circles in their turn were
+divided into communes, each department containing sixty or seventy. All
+these local administrations were, however, quite subordinate to the
+authority exercised by the central Representative Body. For the purpose
+of electing this body the land was divided into ninety-four districts;
+each district into forty "Fundamental Assemblies," each of 500 persons.
+The forty "electors" chosen by these units in their turn elected the
+deputy for the department. The ninety-four deputies formed the
+Representative Body, which was divided into two Chambers. The Second
+Chamber of thirty members was annually chosen by lot from the
+ninety-four, the other sixty-four forming the First Chamber. The framing
+and proposing of all laws was the prerogative of the First Chamber. The
+Second Chamber accepted or rejected these proposed laws, but for a
+second rejection a two-thirds majority was required. The Executive Power
+was vested in a Directorate of five persons, one of whom was to retire
+every year. To supply his place the Second Chamber chose one out of
+three persons selected by the First Chamber. The Directorate had the
+assistance of eight agents or ministers: Foreign Affairs, War, Marine,
+Finance, Justice, Police, Education, and Economy. Finance was
+nationalised, all charges and debts being borne in common. Church and
+State were separated, payments to the Reformed ministers from the State
+ceasing in three years.
+
+Such was the project, but it was not to be carried into effect without
+another _coup d'etat_. It was now the duty of the Constituent Assembly
+to proceed to the election of a Representative Body. Instead of this, on
+May 4, 1798, the Assembly declared itself to be Representative, so that
+power remained in the hands of the Executive Council, who were afraid of
+an election returning a majority of "moderates." But this autocratic act
+aroused considerable discontent amongst all except the extreme Jacobin
+faction. The opponents of the Executive Council found a leader in
+Daendels, who, strong "unionist" though he was, was dissatisfied with
+the arbitrary conduct of this self-constituted government, and more
+especially in matters connected with the army. Daendels betook himself
+to Paris, where he was favourably received by the Foreign Secretary,
+Talleyrand, and with his help was able to persuade the French Directory
+that it was not in their interest to support the Jacobin Council in
+their illegal retention of office. Daendels accordingly returned to
+Holland, where he found the French commander, Joubert, friendly to his
+project, and three of the "agents," including Pijman, the Minister of
+War, ready to help him. Placed in command of the troops at the Hague,
+Daendels (June 12, 1798) arrested the directors and the presidents of
+the two Chambers. The Constituent Assembly was dissolved and a new
+Representative Body was (July 31) elected. The moderates, as was
+expected, were in a considerable majority; and five members of that
+party, Van Hasselt, Hoeth, Van Haersolte, Van Hoeft and Ermerius were
+appointed Directors.
+
+The country was now at length in the enjoyment of a settled constitution
+based upon liberal principles and popular representation. Daendels,
+though his influence was great, never attempted to play the part of a
+military dictator; and, though party passions were strong, no political
+persecutions followed. Nevertheless troubled times awaited the Batavian
+Republic, and the Constitution of 1798 was not to have a long life.
+
+The Emperor Paul of Russia had taken up arms with Great Britain and
+Austria against revolutionary France, and the hopes of the Orange party
+began to rise. The hereditary prince was very active and, though he was
+unable to move his brother-in-law, the King of Prussia, to take active
+steps in his favour, he succeeded in securing the intervention of an
+Anglo-Russian force on his behalf. In August, 1798, a strong English
+fleet under Admiral Duncan appeared off Texel and in the name of the
+Prince of Orange demanded the surrender of the Batavian fleet which lay
+there under Rear-Admiral Story. Story refused. A storm prevented the
+English from taking immediate action; but on the 26th a landing of
+troops was effected near Callantroog and the Batavian forces abandoned
+the Helder. Story had withdrawn his fleet to Vlieter, but Orangist
+sympathies were strong among his officers and crews, and he was
+compelled to surrender. The ships, hoisting the Orange flag, became
+henceforth a squadron attached to the English fleet. Such was the
+humiliating end of the Batavian navy. The efforts of the hereditary
+prince to stir up an insurrection in Overyssel and Gelderland failed;
+and he thereupon joined the Anglo-Russian army, which, about 50,000
+strong, was advancing under the command of the Duke of York to invade
+Holland. But York was an incompetent commander; there was little harmony
+between the British and Russian contingents; and the French and
+Batavians under Generals Brune and Daendels inflicted defeats upon them
+at Bergen (September 19), and at Castricum (October 6). York thereupon
+entered upon negotiations with Brune and was allowed to re-embark his
+troops for England, after restoration of the captured guns and
+prisoners. The expedition was a miserable fiasco.
+
+At the very time when the evacuation of North Holland by invading armies
+was taking place, the Directory in Paris had been overthrown by
+Bonaparte (18 Brumaire, or Nov. 20), who now, with the title of First
+Consul, ruled France with dictatorial powers. The conduct of the
+Batavian government during these transactions had not been above
+suspicion; and Bonaparte at once replaced Brune by Augereau, and sent
+Semonville as ambassador in place of Deforgues. He was determined to
+compel the Batavian Republic to comply strictly with the terms imposed
+by the treaty of 1795, and demanded more troops and more money. In vain
+the Executive Council, by the mouth of its ambassador, Schimmelpenninck,
+protested its inability to satisfy those demands. Augereau was
+inexorable, and there was no alternative but to obey. But the very
+feebleness of the central government made Bonaparte resolve on a
+revision of the constitution in an anti-democratic direction. Augereau
+acted as an intermediary between him and the Executive Council. Three of
+the directors favoured his views, the other two opposed them. The
+Representative Body, however, rejected all proposals for a revision. On
+this the three called in the aid of Augereau, who suspended the
+Representative Body and closed the doors of its hall of meeting. The
+question was now referred to the Fundamental Assemblies. On October 1,
+1801, the voting resulted in 52,279 noes against 16,771 yeas. About
+350,000 voters abstained, but these were declared to be "yeas"; and the
+new constitution became on October 16 the law of the land.
+
+The Constitution of 1801 placed the executive power in the hands of a
+State-Government of twelve persons. The three directors chose seven
+others, who in their turn chose five more, amongst these the above-named
+three, to whom they owed their existence. With this State-Government was
+associated a Legislative Body of 35 members, who met twice in the year
+and whose only function was to accept without amendment, or to reject,
+the proposals of the Executive Body. The "agents" were abolished and
+replaced by small councils, who administered the various departments of
+State. Considerable administrative powers were given to the local
+governments, and the boundaries of the eight departments, Holland,
+Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel (in which Drente was included), Gelderland,
+Groningen, Friesland, and Brabant, were made to coincide largely with
+those of the old provinces. The aim of the new Constitution was
+efficiency, the reconciliation of the moderate elements both of the
+federalist and unitarian parties, and the restraint alike of
+revolutionary and Orangist intrigues.
+
+It began its course in fortunate circumstances. The long-wished-for
+peace was concluded at Amiens on March 27, 1802. It was signed by
+Schimmelpenninck, as the representative of the Batavian Republic, but he
+had not been allowed to have any influence upon the decisions. Great
+Britain restored all the captured colonies, except Ceylon; and the house
+of Orange was indemnified by the grant of the secularised Bishopric of
+Fulda, the abbeys of Korvey and Weingarten, together with the towns of
+Dortmund, Isny and Buchhorn. The hereditary prince, as his father
+refused to reside in this new domain, undertook the duties of
+government. William V preferred to live on his Nassau Estates. He died
+at Brunswick in 1806.
+
+The peace was joyfully welcomed in Holland, for it removed the British
+blockade and gave a promise of the revival of trade. But all the hopes
+of better times were blighted with the fresh outbreak of war in 1803.
+All the colonial possessions were again lost; and a new treaty of
+alliance, which the State-Government was compelled to conclude
+with France, led to heavy demands. The Republic was required to
+provide for the quartering and support of 18,000 French troops and
+16,000 Batavians under a French general. Further, a fleet of ten ships
+of war was to be maintained, and 350 flat-bottomed transports built for
+the conveyance of an invading army to England. These demands were
+perforce complied with. Nevertheless Napoleon was far from satisfied
+with the State-Government, which he regarded as inefficient and
+secretly hostile.
+
+In Holland itself it was hated, because of the heavy charges it was
+obliged to impose. Bonaparte accordingly determined to replace it and to
+concentrate the executive power in a single person. The Legislative Body
+was to remain, but the head of the State was to bear the title of
+council-pensionary, and was to be elected for a period of five years.
+Schimmelpenninck was designated for this post. Referred to a popular
+vote, the new Constitution was approved by 14,230 against 136; about
+340,000 abstained from voting. On April 29, 1805, Schimmelpenninck
+entered into office as council-pensionary. He was invested with
+monarchical authority. The executive power, finance, the army and navy,
+the naming of ambassadors, the proposing of legislation, were placed in
+his hands. He was assisted by a Council of State, nominated by himself,
+of five members, and by six Secretaries of State. The Legislative Body
+was reduced to nineteen members, appointed by the Departmental
+Governments. They met twice in the year and could accept or reject the
+proposals of the council-pensionary, but not amend them.
+
+Schimmelpenninck was honest and able, and during the brief period of his
+administration did admirable work. With the aid of the accomplished
+financier Gogel, who had already done much good service to his country
+in difficult circumstances, he, by spreading the burdens of taxation
+equally over all parts of the land and by removing restrictive customs
+and duties, succeeded in reducing largely the deficits in the annual
+balance-sheet. He also was the first to undertake seriously the
+improvement of primary education. But it was not Napoleon's intention to
+allow the council-pensionary to go on with the good work he had begun.
+The weakening of Schimmelpenninck's eyesight, through cataract, gave the
+emperor the excuse for putting an end to what he regarded as a
+provisional system of government, and for converting Holland into a
+dependent kingdom under the rule of his brother Louis. Admiral Verhuell,
+sent to Paris at Napoleon's request on a special mission, was bluntly
+informed that Holland must choose between the acceptance of Louis as
+their king, or annexation. On Verhuell's return with the report of the
+emperor's ultimatum, the council-pensionary (April 10, 1806) summoned
+the Council of State, the Secretaries and the Legislative Body to meet
+together as an Extraordinary Committee and deliberate on what were best
+to be done. It was resolved to send a deputation to Paris to try to
+obtain from Napoleon the relinquishment, or at least a modification, of
+his demand. Their efforts were in vain; Napoleon's attitude was
+peremptory. The Hague Committee must within a week petition that Louis
+Bonaparte might be their king, or he would take the matter into his own
+hands. The Committee, despite the opposition of Schimmelpenninck,
+finding resistance hopeless, determined to yield. The deputation at
+Paris was instructed accordingly to co-operate with the emperor in the
+framing of a new monarchical constitution. It was drawn up and signed on
+May 23; and a few days later it was accepted by the Hague Committee.
+Schimmelpenninck, however, refused to sign it and resigned his office on
+June 4, explaining in a dignified letter his reasons for doing so.
+Verhuell, at the head of a deputation (June 5), now went through the
+farce of begging the emperor in the name of the Dutch people to allow
+his brother, Louis, to be their king. Louis accepted the proffered
+sovereignty "since the people desires and Your Majesty commands it." On
+June 15 the new king left Paris and a week later arrived at the Hague,
+accompanied by his wife, Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's
+step-daughter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THE KINGDOM OF HOLLAND AND THE FRENCH ANNEXATION, 1806-1814
+
+
+Louis Bonaparte was but 28 years old, and of a kindly, gentle character
+very unlike his self-willed, domineering brother. He was weakly, and his
+ill-health made him at times restless and moody. He had given great
+satisfaction by his declaration that "as soon as he set foot on the soil
+of his kingdom he became a Hollander," and he was well received. The
+constitution of the new kingdom differed little from that it superseded.
+The Secretaries of State became Ministers, and the number of members of
+the Legislative Body was raised to thirty-nine. The king had power to
+conclude treaties with foreign States without consulting the Legislative
+Body. The partition of the country was somewhat changed, Holland being
+divided into two departments, Amstelland and Maasland. Drente became a
+separate department; and in 1807 East Friesland with Jever was made into
+an eleventh department, as compensation for Flushing, which was annexed
+to France.
+
+Louis came to the Hague with the best intentions of doing his utmost to
+promote the welfare of his kingdom, but from the first he was thwarted
+by the deplorable condition of the national finances. Out of a total
+income of fifty million florins the interest on the national debt
+absorbed thirty-five millions. The balance was not nearly sufficient to
+defray the costs of administration, much less to meet the heavy demands
+of Napoleon for contributions to war expenditure. All the efforts of the
+finance minister Gogel to reduce the charges and increase the income
+were of small avail. The king was naturally lavish, and he spent
+considerable sums in the maintenance of a brilliant court, and in adding
+to the number of royal residences. Dissatisfied with the Hague, he moved
+first to Utrecht, then to Amsterdam, where the Stadhuis was converted
+into a palace; and he bought the Pavilion at Haarlem as a summer abode.
+All this meant great expenditure. 'Louis was vain, and was only
+prevented from creating marshals of his army and orders of chivalry by
+Napoleon's stern refusal to permit it. He had to be reminded that by the
+Bonaparte family-law he was but a vassal king, owning allegiance to the
+emperor.
+
+Despite these weaknesses Louis did much for the land of his adoption.
+The old Rhine at Leyden, which lost itself in the dunes, was connected
+by a canal with Katwijk on the sea, where a harbour was created. The
+dykes and waterways were repaired and improved, and high-roads
+constructed from the Hague to Leyden, and from Utrecht to Het Loo. Dutch
+literature found in Louis a generous patron. He took pains to learn the
+language from the instruction of Bilderdijk, the foremost writer of his
+day. The foundation in 1808 of the "Royal Netherland Institute for
+Science, Letters and the Fine Arts" was a signal mark of his desire to
+raise the standard of culture in Holland on a national basis. The
+introduction of the _Code Napoleon,_ with some necessary modifications,
+replaced a confused medley of local laws and customs, varying from
+province to province, by a general unified legal system. As a statesman
+and administrator Louis had no marked ability, but the ministers to whom
+he entrusted the conduct of affairs, Verhuell, minister of marine,
+Roell, of foreign affairs, Kragenhoff, of war, Van Maanen, of justice,
+and more especially the experienced Gogel, in control of the embarrassed
+finances, were capable men.
+
+The state of the finances indeed was the despair of the Dutch
+government. The imperious demands of Napoleon for the maintenance of an
+army of 40,000 men, to be employed by him on foreign campaigns, and also
+of a considerable navy, made all attempts at economy and re-organisation
+of the finances almost hopeless. By the war with England the Dutch had
+lost their colonies and most of their great sea-borne trade; and the
+situation was rendered more difficult by the Decree of Berlin in 1806
+and the establishment of the "Continental System" by the emperor, as a
+reply to the British blockade. All trade and even correspondence with
+England were forbidden. He hoped thus to bring England to her knees;
+but, though the decree did not achieve this object, it did succeed in
+bringing utter ruin upon the Dutch commercial classes. In vain Louis
+protested; he was not heard and only met with angry rebukes from his
+brother for not taking more vigorous steps to stop smuggling, which the
+character of the Dutch coast rendered a comparatively easy and, at the
+same time, lucrative pursuit.
+
+The overthrow of Austria and Prussia by Napoleon in 1805 and 1806,
+followed in 1807 by the Peace of Tilsit with Russia, made the emperor
+once more turn his attention to the project of an invasion of his hated
+enemy, England. A great French fleet was to be concentrated on the
+Scheldt, with Antwerp and Flushing for its bases. For this purpose large
+sums of money were expended in converting Antwerp into a formidable
+naval arsenal. But the British government were well aware of "the pistol
+that was being aimed at England's breast"; and in 1809 a powerful
+expedition under the command of Lord Chatham was despatched, consisting
+of more than 100 warships and transports, with the object of destroying
+these growing dockyards and arsenals, and with them the threat of
+invasion. The attack was planned at a favourable moment, for the
+defensive force was very small, the bulk of the Dutch army having been
+sent to fight in the Austrian and Spanish campaigns, and the French
+garrisons greatly reduced. Chatham landed on the island of Walcheren,
+captured Middelburg and Veere and on August 15 compelled Flushing to
+surrender after such a furious bombardment that scarcely any houses
+remained standing. The islands of Schouwen, Duiveland and Zuid-Beveland
+were overrun; and, had the British general pushed on without delay,
+Antwerp might have fallen. But this he failed to do; and meanwhile Louis
+had collected, for the defence of the town, a force of 20,000 men,
+which, to his deep chagrin, Napoleon did not allow him to command. No
+attack however was made on Antwerp by the British, who had suffered
+severely from the fevers of Walcheren; and on the news of Wagram and the
+Treaty of Schoenbrunn they slowly evacuated their conquests. Before the
+end of the year the whole force had returned to England.
+
+This invasion, though successfully repelled, only accentuated the
+dissensions between the two brothers. French troops remained in
+occupation of Zeeland; and the French army of the north at Antwerp, now
+placed under the command of Marshal Oudinot, lay ready to enforce the
+demands of the emperor should the Dutch government prove recalcitrant.
+Those demands included the absolute suppression of smuggling, the
+strictest enforcement of the decrees against trading with England,
+conscription, and a repudiation of a portion of the State debt. Napoleon
+overwhelmed his brother with bitter gibes and angry threats, declaring
+that he wished to make Holland an English colony, and that the whole
+land, even his own palace, was full of smuggled goods. At last, though
+unwillingly, Louis consented to go in person to Paris and try to bring
+about an amicable settlement of the questions at issue. He arrived on
+December 26, intending to return at the New Year, meanwhile leaving the
+Council of Ministers in charge of the affairs of the kingdom. He soon
+found not only that his mission was in vain, but that he was regarded
+virtually as a prisoner. For three months he remained in Paris under
+police _surveillance_; and his interviews with his brother were of the
+most stormy description. The Dutch Council, alarmed by the constant
+threat of French invasion, at first thought of putting Amsterdam into a
+state of defence, but finally abandoned the idea as hopeless. The king
+did his utmost to appease Napoleon by the offer of concessions, but his
+efforts were scornfully rejected, and at last he was compelled (March
+16, 1810) to sign a treaty embodying the terms dictated by the emperor.
+"I must," he said, "at any price get out of this den of murderers." By
+this treaty Brabant and Zeeland and the land between the Maas and the
+Waal, with Nijmwegen, were ceded to France. All commerce with England
+was forbidden. French custom-house officers were placed at the mouths of
+the rivers and at every port. Further, the Dutch were required to
+deliver up fifteen men-of-war and one hundred gunboats.
+
+Louis was compelled to remain at Paris for the marriage of Napoleon with
+Marie Louise, but was then allowed to depart. Discouraged and
+humiliated, he found himself, with the title of king, practically
+reduced to the position of administrative governor of some French
+departments. Oudinot's troops were in occupation of the Hague, Utrecht
+and Leyden; and, when the emperor and his bride paid a state visit to
+Antwerp, Louis had to do him homage. The relations between the two
+brothers had for some time been strained, Napoleon having taken the part
+of his step-daughter Hortense, who preferred the gaiety of Paris to the
+dull court of her husband, reproached the injured man for not treating
+better the best of wives. Matters were now to reach their climax. The
+coachman of the French ambassador, Rochefoucault, having met with
+maltreatment in the streets of Amsterdam, the emperor angrily ordered
+Rochefoucault to quit the Dutch capital (May 29), leaving only a charge
+d'affaires, and at the same time dismissed Verhuell, the Dutch envoy,
+from Paris. This was practically a declaration of war. The Council of
+Ministers, on being consulted, determined that it was useless to attempt
+the defence of Amsterdam; and, when the king learned towards the end of
+June that Oudinot had orders to occupy the city, he resolved to
+forestall this final humiliation by abdication. On July 1, 1810, he
+signed the deed by which he laid down his crown in favour of his elder
+son, Napoleon Louis, under the guardianship of Queen Hortense. He then
+left the country, and retired into Bohemia.
+
+To this disposition of the kingdom Napoleon, who had already made up his
+mind, paid not the slightest heed. On July 9 an Imperial Decree
+incorporated Holland in the French empire. "Holland," said the emperor,
+"being formed by the deposits of three French rivers, the Rhine, the
+Meuse and the Scheldt, was by nature a part of France." Not till January
+1, 1811, was the complete incorporation to take place; meanwhile Le
+Brun, Duke of Piacenza, a man of 72 years of age, was sent to Amsterdam
+to be governor-general during the period of transition. It was a wise
+appointment, as Le Brun was a man of kindly disposition, ready to listen
+to grievances and with an earnest desire to carry out the transformation
+of the government in a conciliatory spirit. With him was associated, as
+Intendant of Home Affairs, Baron D'Alphonse, like himself of moderate
+views, and a Council of Ministers. A deputation of twenty-two persons
+from the Legislative Assembly was summoned to Paris for consultation
+with the Imperial Government. To Amsterdam was given the position of the
+third city in the empire, Paris being the first and Rome the second. The
+country was divided into nine departments--Bouches de l'Escaut, Bouches
+de la Meuse, Bouches du Rhin, Zuiderzee, Issel superieur, Bouches de
+Issel, Frise, Ems Occidental and Ems Oriental. Over the departments, as
+in France, were placed _prefets_ and under them _sous-prefets_ and
+_maires_. All the _prefets_ now appointed were native Dutchmen with the
+exception of two, De Celles at Amsterdam and De Standaart at the Hague;
+both were Belgians and both rendered themselves unpopular by their
+efforts to gain Napoleon's favour by a stringent enforcement of his
+orders. The Dutch representation in the Legislative Assembly at Paris
+was fixed at twenty-five members; in the Senate at six members. When
+these took their seats, the Council of Affairs at Amsterdam was
+dissolved and at the same time the _Code Napoleon_ unmodified became
+the law of the land.
+
+Napoleon's demands upon Holland had always been met with the reply that
+the land's finances were unequal to the strain. The debt amounted to
+40,000,000 fl.; and, despite heavy taxation, there was a large annual
+deficit in the budget. The emperor at once took action to remedy this
+state of things by a decree reducing the interest on the debt to
+one-third. This was a heavy blow to those persons whose limited incomes
+were mainly or entirely derived from investments in the State
+Funds--including many widows, and also hospitals, orphanages and other
+charitable institutions. At the same time this step should not be
+regarded as a mere arbitrary and dishonest repudiation of debt. The
+State was practically bankrupt. For some years only a portion of the
+interest or nothing at all had been paid; and the reduction in 1810 was
+intended to be but a temporary measure. The capital amount was left
+untouched, and the arrears of 1808 and 1809 were paid up at the new
+rate. That financial opinion was favourably impressed by this drastic
+action was shown by a considerable rise in the quotation of the Stock on
+the Bourse.
+
+A far more unpopular measure was the introduction of military and naval
+conscription in 1811. There never had been any but voluntary service in
+Holland. Indeed during the whole period of the Republic, though the
+fleet was wholly manned by Dutch seamen, the army always included a
+large proportion of foreign mercenaries. By the law of 1811 all youths
+of twenty were liable to serve for five years either on land or sea; and
+the contingent required was filled by the drawing of lots. Deep and
+strong resentment was felt throughout the country, the more so that the
+law was made retrospective to all who had reached the age of twenty in
+the three preceding years. The battalions thus raised were treated as
+French troops, and were sent to take part in distant campaigns--in Spain
+and in Russia. Of the 15,000 men who marched with Napoleon into Russia
+in 1812 only a few hundreds returned.
+
+The strict enforcement of the Continental System entailed great
+hardships upon the population. To such an extent was the embargo carried
+that all English manufactured goods found in Holland were condemned to
+be burnt; and the value of what was actually consumed amounted to
+millions of florins. A whole army of custom-house officers watched
+the coast, and every fishing smack that put to sea had one on board. At
+the same time not till 1812 was the customs barrier with France removed.
+In consequence of this prices rose enormously, industries were ruined,
+houses were given up and remained unoccupied, and thousands upon
+thousands were reduced to abject poverty. Such was the state of the
+treasury that in 1812 the reformed preachers received no stipends, and
+officials of all kinds had to be content with reduced salaries.
+
+Nor were these the only causes of discontent. The police regulations and
+the censorship of the press were of the severest description, and the
+land swarmed with spies. No newspaper was permitted to publish any
+article upon matters of State or any political news except such as was
+sanctioned by the government, and with a French translation of the Dutch
+original. This applied even to advertisements. All books had to be
+submitted for the censor's _imprimatur_. Every household was subject to
+the regular visitation of the police, who made the most minute
+inquisition into the character, the opinions, the occupations and means
+of subsistence of every member of the household.
+
+Nevertheless the French domination, however oppressive, had good results
+in that for the first time in their history the Dutch provinces acquired
+a real unity. All the old particularism disappeared with the
+burgher-aristocracies, and the party feuds of Orangists and patriots. A
+true sense of nationality was developed. All classes of the population
+enjoyed the same political rights and equality before the law. Napoleon
+himself was not unpopular. In the autumn of 1811 he, accompanied by
+Marie Louise, made a state-progress through this latest addition to his
+empire. Almost every important place was visited, and in all parts of
+the country he was received with outward demonstrations of enthusiasm
+and almost servile obsequiency. It is perhaps not surprising, as the
+great emperor was now at the very topmost height of his dazzling
+fortunes.
+
+But for Holland Napoleon's triumphs had their dark side, for his chief
+and most determined enemy, England, was mistress of the seas; and the
+last and the richest of the Dutch colonies, Java, surrendered to the
+English almost on the very day that the Imperial progress began. Hearing
+of the activity of the British squadron in the Eastern seas, King Louis
+had, shortly after his acceptance of the crown, taken steps for the
+defence of Java by appointing Daendels, a man of proved vigour and
+initiative, governor-general. The difficulties of reaching Java in face
+of British vigilance were however well-nigh insurmountable, and it was
+not until a year after his nomination to the governorship that Daendels
+reached Batavia, on January 1, 1808. His measures for the defence of the
+island, including the construction of important highways, were most
+energetic, but so oppressive and high-handed as to arouse hostility and
+alienate the native chiefs. Napoleon, informed of Daendels' harsh rule,
+sent out Janssens with a body of troops to replace him. The new
+governor-general landed on April 27, 1811, but he could make no
+effective resistance to a powerful British expedition under General
+Auchmuty, which took possession of Batavia on August 4, and after some
+severe fighting compelled (September 17) the whole of the Dutch forces
+to capitulate.
+
+The year of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812, was a year of passive
+endurance. The safety of the remnant of the Grand Army was secured
+(November 28) by the courage and staunchness of the Dutch
+pontoon-engineers, who, standing in the ice-cold water of the Beresina,
+completed the bridge over which, after a desperate battle, the French
+troops effected their escape. The Moscow catastrophe was followed in
+1813 by a general uprising of the oppressed peoples of Europe against
+the Napoleonic tyranny. In this uprising the Dutch people, although
+hopes of freedom were beginning to dawn upon them, did not for some time
+venture to take any part. The Prince of Orange however had been in
+London since April, trying to secure a promise of assistance from the
+British government in case of a rising; and he was working in
+collaboration with a number of patriotic men in Holland, who saw in an
+Orange restoration the best hopes for their country's independence. The
+news of Leipzig (October 14-16) roused them to action.
+
+Foremost among these leaders was Gijsbert Karel van Hogendorp. He had
+been one of the Orangist leaders at the time of the restoration of 1787
+and had filled the post of pensionary of Rotterdam. After the French
+conquest he had withdrawn from public life. With him were associated
+Count Van Limburg-Stirum and Baron Van der Duyn van Maasdam, like
+himself residents at the Hague. Van Hogendorp could also count on a
+number of active helpers outside the Hague, prominent among whom were
+Falck, Captain of the National Guard at Amsterdam, and Kemper, a
+professor at Leyden. Plans were made for restoring the independence of
+the country under the rule of the Prince of Orange; but, in order to
+escape the vigilance of the French police, great care was taken to
+maintain secrecy, and nothing was committed to writing. The rapid march
+of allied troops, Russians and Prussians, towards the Dutch frontiers
+after Leipzig necessitated rapid action.
+
+Van Hogendorp and his friends wished that Holland should free herself by
+her own exertions, for they were aware that reconquest by the allied
+forces might imperil their claims to independence. Their opportunity
+came when General Melliton, by order of the governor-general Le Brun,
+withdrew on November 14 from Amsterdam to Utrecht. One of the Orangist
+confederates, a sea-captain, named Job May, on the following day stirred
+up a popular rising in the city; and some custom-houses were burnt. Le
+Brun himself on this retreated to Utrecht and, on the 16th, after
+transferring the government of the country to Melliton, returned to
+France. Falck at the head of the National Guard had meanwhile
+re-established order at Amsterdam, and placed the town in charge of a
+provisional government. No sooner did this news reach the Hague than Van
+Hogendorp and Van Limburg-Stirum determined upon instant action
+(November 17). With a proclamation drawn up by Van Hogendorp, and at the
+head of a body of the National Guard wearing Orange colours, Van
+Limburg-Stirum marched through the streets to the Town Hall, where he
+read the proclamation declaring the Prince of Orange "eminent head of
+the State." No opposition being offered, after discussion with their
+chief supporters, the triumvirate, Van Hogendorp, Van Limburg-Stirum and
+Van der Duyn van Maasdam, took upon themselves provisionally the
+government of the country, until the arrival of the Prince. Emissaries
+were at once sent to Amsterdam to announce what had taken place at the
+Hague. At first the Amsterdammers showed some hesitation; and it was not
+until the arrival of a body of Cossacks at their gates (November 24),
+that the city openly threw in its lot with the Orangist movement, which
+now rapidly spread throughout the country. Without delay the provisional
+government despatched two envoys, Fagel and De Perponcher, to London, to
+inform the Prince of Orange of what had occurred and to invite him to
+Holland.
+
+William had been in England since April and had met with a
+favourable reception. In an interview with the British Foreign
+Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, support had been promised him
+(April 27, 1813) on the following conditions: (1) the frontiers of
+Holland should be extended "either by a sort of new Barrier, more
+effective than the old one, or by the union of some portions of
+territory adjacent to the ancient Republic; (2) Holland must wait
+until such time as Great Britain should deem convenient in her
+own interests for the restoration of the Dutch colonies, which she
+had conquered during the war; (3) a system of government must
+be set up which would reconcile the wishes of Holland with those
+of the Powers called to exercise so powerful an influence upon her
+future." William had gone to London knowing that he could rely
+on the active assistance of his brother-in-law, Frederick William
+of Prussia, and of the Emperor Alexander I, and that the goodwill
+of England was assured by the projected marriage of his son (now
+serving under Wellington in Spain) with the Princess Charlotte,
+heiress-presumptive to the British throne. He now therefore
+without hesitation accepted the invitation, and landed at
+Scheveningen, November 30. He was received with unspeakable
+enthusiasm. At first there was some doubt as to what title William
+should bear and as to what should be the form of the new government.
+Van Hogendorp had drawn up a draft of a constitution on
+the old lines with an hereditary stadholder, a council-pensionary
+and a privileged aristocracy, but with large and necessary amendments,
+and the prince was himself inclined to a restoration of the
+stadholdership with enlarged powers. To the arguments of Kemper
+is the credit due of having persuaded him that a return to the old
+system, however amended, had now become impossible. The prince
+visited Amsterdam, December 2, and was there proclaimed by the
+title and quality of William I, Sovereign-Prince of the Netherlands.
+He refused the title of king, but the position he thus accepted with
+general approval was that of a constitutional monarch, and the
+promise was given that as soon as possible a Commission should
+be appointed to draw up a Fundamental Law _(Grondwet)_ for the
+Dutch State.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE FORMATION OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, 1814-1815
+
+
+When the Prince of Orange assumed the title of William I,
+Sovereign-Prince of the Netherlands, at Amsterdam, on December 2, 1813,
+the principal towns were still occupied by French garrisons; but with
+the help of the allied forces, Russians and Prussians, these were, in
+the opening months of 1814, one by one conquered. The Helder garrison,
+under the command of Admiral Verhuell, did not surrender till May. By
+the end of that month the whole land was freed.
+
+The first step taken by the Sovereign-Prince (December 21) was to
+appoint a Commission to draw up a Fundamental Law according to his
+promise. The Commission consisted of fifteen members, with Van Hogendorp
+as president. Their labours were concluded early in March. The concept
+was on March 29 submitted to an Assembly of six hundred notables,
+summoned for the purpose, the voting to be 'for' or 'against' without
+discussion. The gathering took place in the Nieuwe Kerk at Amsterdam, Of
+the 474 who were present, 448 voted in favour of the new Constitution.
+On the following day the Prince of Orange took the oath in the Nieuwe
+Kerk and was solemnly inaugurated as Sovereign-Prince of the
+Netherlands.
+
+The principal provisions of the Fundamental Law of March, 1814, were as
+follows:
+
+The Sovereign shares the Legislative Power with the States-General, but
+alone exercises the Executive Power. All the sovereign prerogatives
+formerly possessed by provinces, districts or towns are now transferred
+to the Sovereign. He is assisted by a Council of State of twelve
+members, appoints and dismisses ministers, declares war and makes peace,
+has the control of finance and governs the overseas-possessions. The
+States-General consist of fifty-five members, elected by the nine
+provinces, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overyssel, Gelderland, Groningen,
+Friesland, Brabant and Drente on the basis of population. The members
+are elected for three years, but one-third vacate their seats every
+year. They have the right of legislative initiative, and of veto. The
+finances are divided into ordinary and extraordinary expenditure, over
+the former the States-General exercise no control, but a general Chamber
+of Accounts _(Algemeene Rekenkamer)_ has the supervision over ways and
+means. The Sovereign must be a member of the Reformed Church, but equal
+protection is given by the State to all religious beliefs.
+
+It was essentially an aristocratic constitution. At least one quarter of
+the States-General must belong to the nobility. The Provincial Estates
+had the control of local affairs only, but had the privilege of electing
+the members of the States-General. They were themselves far from being
+representative. For the country districts the members were chosen from
+the nobility and the land-owners; in the towns by colleges of electors
+_(kiezers)_, consisting of those who paid the highest contributions in
+taxes. Except for the strengthening of the central executive power and
+the abolition of all provincial sovereign rights, the new Constitution
+differed little from the old in its oligarchic character.
+
+It was, however, to be but a temporary arrangement. It has already been
+pointed out that, months before his actual return to Holland, the prince
+had received assurances from the British government that a strong
+Netherland State should be created, capable of being a barrier to French
+aggression. The time had now arrived for the practical carrying-out of
+this assurance. Accordingly Lord Castlereagh in January, 1814, when on
+his way, as British plenipotentiary, to confer with the Allied
+Sovereigns at Basel, visited the Sovereign-Prince at the Hague. The
+conversations issued in a proposal to unite (with the assent of Austria)
+the Belgic provinces as far as the Meuse to Holland together with the
+territory between the Meuse and the Rhine as far as the line
+Maestricht-Dueren-Cologne. Castlereagh submitted this project to the
+allies at Basel; and it was discussed and adopted in principle at the
+Conference of Chatillon (February 3 to March 15), the Austrian Emperor
+having renounced all claim to his Belgian dominions in favour of an
+equivalent in Venetia. This was done without any attempt to ascertain
+the wishes of the Belgian people on the proposed transference of their
+allegiance, and a protest was made. An assembly of notables, which had
+been summoned to Brussels by the military governor, the Duke of
+Saxe-Weimar, sent a deputation to the allied headquarters at Chaumont to
+express their continued loyalty to their Habsburg sovereign and to ask
+that, if the Emperor Francis relinquished his claim, they might be
+erected into an independent State under the rule of an Austrian
+archduke. A written reply (March 14) informed them that the question of
+union with Holland was settled, but assurances were given that in
+matters of religion, representation, commerce and the public debt their
+interests would be carefully guarded. Meanwhile General Baron Vincent, a
+Belgian in the Austrian service, was made governor-general.
+
+The idea, however, of giving to Holland a slice of cis-Rhenan territory
+had perforce to be abandoned in the face of Prussian objections. The
+preliminary Treaty of Peace signed at Paris on May 30, 1814, was
+purposely vague, Art. VI merely declaring that "Holland placed under the
+sovereignty of the House of Orange shall receive an increase of
+territory--_un accroissement de territoire";_ but a secret article
+defined this increase as "the countries comprised between the sea, the
+frontiers of France, as defined by the present treaty; and the Meuse
+shall be united in perpetuity to Holland. The frontiers on the right
+bank of the Meuse shall be regulated in accordance with the military
+requirements of Holland and her neighbours." In other words the whole of
+Belgium as far as the Meuse was to be annexed to Holland; beyond the
+Meuse the military requirements of Prussia were to be consulted.
+
+Previously to this, Castlereagh had written to the British Minister at
+the Hague, Lord Clancarty, suggesting that the Sovereign-Prince should
+summon a meeting of an equal number of Dutch and Belgian notables to
+draw up a project of union to be presented to the Allied Sovereigns at
+Paris for their approbation. But William had already himself, with the
+assistance of his minister Van Nagell, drawn up in eight articles the
+fundamental conditions for the constitution of the new State; and, after
+revision by Falck and Lord Clancarty, he in person took them to Paris.
+They were laid by Clancarty before the plenipotentiaries, and were
+adopted by the Allied Sovereigns assembled in London on June 21, 1814.
+The principles which animated them were set forth in a protocol which
+breathes throughout a spirit of fairness and conciliation--but all was
+marred by the final clause--_Elles mettent ces principes en execution en
+vertu de leur droit de conquete de la Belgique._ To unite Belgium to
+Holland, as a conquered dependency, could not fail to arouse bad
+feelings; and thus to proclaim it openly was a very grave mistake. It
+was not thus that that "perfect amalgamation" of the two countries, at
+which, according to the protocol, the Great Powers aimed, was likely to
+be effected.
+
+At the same time, as a standing proof of William's own excellent
+intentions, the text of the Eight Articles is given in full:
+
+(1) _The union shall be intimate and complete, so that the two countries
+shall form but one State, to be governed by the Fundamental Law already
+established in Holland, which by mutual consent shall be modified
+according to the circumstances._
+
+(2) _There shall be no change in those Articles of the Fundamental Law
+which secure to all religious cults equal protection and privileges, and
+guarantee the admissibility of all citizens, whatever be their religious
+creed, to public offices and dignities._
+
+(3) _The Belgian provinces shall be in a fitting manner represented in
+the States-General, whose sittings in time of peace shall be held by
+turns in a Dutch and a Belgian town._
+
+(4) _All the inhabitants of the Netherlands thus having equal
+constitutional rights, they shall have equal claim to all commercial and
+other rights, of which their circumstances allow, without any hindrance
+or obstruction being imposed on any to the profit of others._
+
+(5) _Immediately after the union the provinces and towns of Belgium
+shall be admitted to the commerce and navigation of the colonies of
+Holland upon the same footing as the Dutch provinces and towns._
+
+(6) _The debts contracted on the one side by the Dutch, and on the other
+side by the Belgian provinces, shall be charged to the public chest of
+the Netherlands._
+
+(7) _The expenses required for the building and maintenance of the
+frontier fortresses of the new State shall be borne by the public chest
+as serving the security and independence of the whole nation._
+
+(8) _The cost of the making and upkeep of the dykes shall be at the
+charge of the districts more directly interested, except in the case of
+an extraordinary disaster._
+
+It is not too much to say that, if the provisions of these Articles had
+been carried out fully and generously, there might have been at the
+present moment a strong and united Netherland State.
+
+On July 21 the Articles, as approved by the Powers, were returned to the
+Sovereign-Prince, who officially accepted them, and on August 1 took
+over at Brussels the government of the Belgic provinces, while awaiting
+the decisions of the Congress, which was shortly to meet at Vienna, as
+to the boundaries and political status of the territories over which he
+ruled. The work of the Congress, however, which met in October, was much
+delayed by differences between the Powers. Prussia wished to annex the
+entire kingdom of Saxony; and, when it was found that such a claim, if
+persisted in, would be opposed by Great Britain, Austria and France,
+compensation was sought in the Rhenish provinces. Thus the idea of
+strengthening the new Netherland buffer-state by an addition of
+territory in the direction of the Rhine had to be abandoned. It must be
+remembered that the Sovereign-Prince on his part was not likely to raise
+any objection to having an enlarged and strengthened Prussia as his
+immediate neighbour on the east. William was both brother-in-law and
+first cousin of the King of Prussia, and had spent much of his exile at
+Berlin; and he no doubt regarded the presence of this strong military
+power on his frontier as the surest guarantee against French aggression.
+His relations with Prussia were indeed of the friendliest character, as
+is shown by the fact that secret negotiations were at this very time
+taking place for the cession to Prussia of his hereditary Nassau
+principalities of Dillenburg, Siegen, Dietz and Hadamar in exchange for
+the Duchy of Luxemburg.
+
+The proceedings of the inharmonious Congress of Vienna were, however,
+rudely interrupted by the sudden return of Napoleon from Elba. Weary of
+waiting for a formal recognition of his position, William now (March 15,
+1815) issued a proclamation in which he assumed the title of King of the
+Netherlands and Duke of Luxemburg. No protest was made; and the _fait
+accompli_ was duly accepted by the Powers (May 23). The first act of the
+king was to call upon all his subjects, Dutch and Belgians alike, to
+unite in opposing the common foe. This call to arms led to a
+considerable force under the command of the hereditary prince being able
+to join the small British army, which Wellington had hurriedly collected
+for the defence of Brussels. The sudden invasion of Belgium by Napoleon
+(June 14) took his adversaries by surprise, for the Anglo-Netherland
+forces were distributed in different cantonments and were separated from
+the Prussian army under Bluecher, which had entered Belgium from the
+east. Napoleon in person attacked and defeated Bluecher at Ligny on June
+16; and on the same day a French force under Ney was, after a desperate
+encounter, held in check by the British and Dutch regiments, which had
+been pushed forward to Quatre Bras. Bluecher retreated to Wavre and
+Wellington to Waterloo on the following day. The issue of the battle of
+Waterloo, which took place on June 18, is well known. The Belgian
+contingent did not play a distinguished part at Waterloo, but it would
+be unfair to place to their discredit any lack of steadiness that was
+shown. These Belgian troops were all old soldiers of Napoleon, to whom
+they were attached, and in whose invincibility they believed. The Prince
+of Orange distinguished himself by great courage both at Quatre Bras and
+Waterloo.
+
+William, after his assumption of the regal title, at once proceeded to
+regularise his position by carrying out that necessary modification of
+the Dutch Fundamental Law to which he was pledged by the Eight Articles.
+He accordingly summoned a Commission of twenty-four members, half Dutch
+and half Belgian, Catholics and Protestants being equally represented,
+which on April 22 met under the presidency of Van Hogendorp. Their
+activity was sharpened by the threat of French invasion, and in three
+months (July 18) their difficult task was accomplished. The new
+Fundamental Law made no change in the autocratic powers conferred on the
+king. The executive authority remained wholly in his hands. The
+States-General were now to consist of two Chambers, but the First
+Chamber was a nominated Chamber. It contained forty to sixty members
+appointed by the king for life. The Second Chamber of 110 members,
+equally divided between north and south, _i.e._ fifty-five Dutch and
+fifty-five Belgian representatives, was elected under a very restricted
+franchise by the seventeen provinces into which the whole kingdom was
+divided. The ordinary budget was voted for ten years, and it was only
+extraordinary expenses which had to be considered annually. The other
+provisions strictly followed the principles and the liberties guaranteed
+in advance by the Eight Articles.
+
+The new Fundamental Law was presented to the Dutch States-General on
+August 8, and was approved by a unanimous vote. Very different was its
+reception in Belgium. The king had summoned a meeting of 1603 notables
+to Brussels, of these 1323 were present. The majority were hostile. It
+had been strongly urged by the Belgian delegates on the Commission that
+the Belgic provinces, with three and a half millions of inhabitants,
+ought to return to the Second Chamber of the States-General a number of
+members proportionately greater than the Dutch provinces, which had
+barely two millions. The Dutch on their part argued that their country
+had been an independent State for two centuries and possessed a large
+colonial empire, while Belgium had always been under foreign rule, and
+had now been added to Holland "as an increase of territory." It was
+finally arranged, however, that the representation of the northern and
+southern portions of the new kingdom should be equal, 55 each. Belgian
+public opinion loudly protested, especially as the 55 Belgian deputies
+included four representatives of Luxemburg, which had been created a
+separate State under the personal rule of King William. Still more
+bitter and determined was the opposition of the powerful clerical party
+to the principle of religious equality. About 99 per cent, of the
+Belgian population was Catholic; and the bishops were very suspicious of
+what might be the effect of this principle in the hands of an autocratic
+Calvinist king, supported by the predominant Protestant majority in
+Holland. A further grievance was that the heavy public debt incurred by
+Holland should be made a common burden.
+
+Considerable pressure was brought to bear upon the notables, but without
+avail. The Fundamental Law was rejected by 796 votes to 527. Confronted
+with this large hostile majority, the king took upon himself to reverse
+the decision by an arbitrary and dishonest manipulation of the return.
+He chose to assume that the 280 notables who had not voted were in
+favour of the Law, and added their votes to the minority. He then
+declared that 126 votes had been wrongly given in opposition to the
+principle of religious equality, which, by the Second of the Eight
+Articles approved by the Powers was binding and fundamental to the
+Union, and he then not only deducted them from the majority, but added
+them also to the minority. He then announced that the Fundamental Law
+had been accepted by a majority of 263 votes. Such an act of chicanery
+was not calculated to make the relations between north and south work
+smoothly. Having thus for reasons of state summarily dealt with the
+decision of the Belgian notables, William (September 26), made his state
+entry into Brussels and took his oath to the Constitution.
+
+Already the Congress of Vienna had given the official sanction of
+the Powers to the creation of the kingdom of the Netherlands by a
+treaty signed at Paris on May 31, 1815. By this treaty the whole
+of the former Austrian Netherlands (except the province of Luxemburg)
+together with the territory which before 1795 had been ruled by
+the prince-bishops of Liege, the Duchy of Bouillon and several small
+pieces of territory were added to Holland; and the new State thus
+created was placed under the sovereignty of the head of the House
+of Orange-Nassau. As stated above, however, it had been necessary
+in making these arrangements to conciliate Prussian claims for
+aggrandisement in the cis-Rhenan provinces. This led to a number of
+complicated transactions. William ceded to Prussia his ancient
+hereditary Nassau principalities--Dillenburg, Dietz, Siegen and
+Hadamar. The equivalent which William received was the sovereignty of
+Luxemburg, which for this purpose was severed from the Belgian
+Netherlands, of which it had been one of the provinces since the time
+of the Burgundian dukes, and was erected into a Grand-Duchy. Further
+than this, the Grand-Duchy was made one of the states of the Germanic
+Confederation; and the town of Luxemburg was declared to be a federal
+fortress, the garrison to consist of Prussian and Dutch detachments
+under a Prussian commandant. There was a double object in this
+transaction: (1) to preserve to the Grand-Duke his rights and
+privileges as a German prince, (2) to secure the defence of this
+important borderland against French attack. Another complication
+arose from the fact that in the 14th century the House of Nassau had
+been divided into two branches, Walram and Otto, the younger branch
+being that of which the Prince of Orange was the head. But by a
+family-pact[9], agreed upon in 1735 and renewed in 1783, the
+territorial possessions of either line in default of male-heirs had to
+pass to the next male-agnate of the other branch. This pact therefore,
+by virtue of the exchange that had taken place, applied to the new
+Grand-Duchy. It is necessary here to explain what took place in some
+detail, for this arbitrary wrenching of Luxemburg from its historical
+position as an integral part of the Netherlands was to have serious
+and disconcerting consequences in the near future.
+
+The new kingdom of the Netherlands naturally included Luxemburg, so that
+William was a loser rather than a gainer by the cession of his Nassau
+possessions; but his close relation by descent and marriage with the
+Prussian Royal House made him anxious to meet the wishes of a power on
+whose friendship he relied. All evidence also points to the conclusion
+that in accepting the personal sovereignty of the Grand-Duchy he had
+no intention of treating Luxemburg otherwise than as part of his
+kingdom. The Fundamental Law was made to apply to Luxemburg, in the same
+way as to Brabant or Flanders; and of the 55 members allotted to the
+Belgic provinces, four were representatives of the Grand-Duchy, which
+was subject to the same legislation and taxes as the kingdom. At first
+the king had thought of nominating his second son Frederick as his
+successor in Luxemburg, but he changed his mind and gave him an
+indemnity elsewhere; and he himself states the reason, "since we have
+judged it advisable _(convenable)_ in the general interest of the
+kingdom to unite the Grand-Duchy to it and to place it under the same
+constitutional laws."
+
+The boundaries of the new kingdom and of the Grand-Duchy
+were fixed by the treaty of May 31, 1815, and confirmed by the
+General Act of the Congress of Vienna. By this treaty Prussia
+received a considerable part of the old province of Luxemburg as
+well as slices of territory taken from the bishopric of Liege. A
+separate boundary treaty a year later (June 26, 1816) between the
+Netherlands and Prussia filled in the details of that of 1815; and
+that Prussia herself acquiesced in the fusion of the kingdom and
+the Grand-Duchy is shown by the fact that the boundary between
+Prussia and Luxemburg is three times referred to in the later treaty
+as the boundary between Prussia and the kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS--UNION OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM, 1815-1830
+
+
+The autocratic powers that were conferred upon King William by the
+Fundamental Law rendered his personality a factor of the utmost
+importance in the difficult task which lay before him. William's
+character was strong and self-confident, and he did not shrink from
+responsibility. His intentions were of the best; he was capable,
+industrious, a good financier, sparing himself no trouble in mastering
+the details of State business. But he had the defects of his qualities,
+being self-opinionated, stubborn and inclined, as in the matter of the
+vote of the Belgian notables, to override opposition with a high hand.
+He had at the beginning of his reign the good fortune of being on the
+best of terms with Castlereagh, the British Foreign Minister. To
+Castlereagh more than to any other statesman the kingdom of the
+Netherlands owed its existence. The Peace of Paris saw Great Britain in
+possession by conquest of all the Dutch colonies. By the Convention of
+London (August 13, 1814), which was Castlereagh's work, it was arranged
+that all the captured colonies, including Java, the richest and most
+valuable of all, should be restored, with the exception of the Cape of
+Good Hope and the Guiana colonies--Demerara, Berbice and Essequibo. In
+the latter the plantations had almost all passed into British hands
+during the eighteen years since their conquest; and Cape Colony was
+retained as essential for the security of the sea-route to India. But
+these surrenders were not made without ample compensation. Great Britain
+contributed L2,000,000 towards erecting fortresses along the French
+frontier; L1,000,000 to satisfy a claim of Sweden with regard to the
+island of Guadeloupe; and L3,000,000 or one-half of a debt from Holland
+to Russia, _i.e._ a sum of L6,000,000 in all.
+
+One of the most urgent problems with which the Sovereign-Prince had to
+deal on his accession to power was the state of the finances. Napoleon
+by a stroke of the pen had reduced the public debt to one-third of its
+amount. William, however, was too honest a man to avail himself of the
+opportunity for partial repudiation that was offered him. He recalled
+into existence the two-thirds on which no interest had been paid and
+called it "deferred debt" (_uitgestelde schuld_); the other third
+received the name of "working debt" (_werkelijke schuld_). The figures
+stood at 1200 million florins and 600 million florins respectively.
+Every year four millions of the "working debt" were to be paid off, and
+a similar amount from the "deferred" added to it. Other measures taken
+in 1814 for effecting economies were of little avail, as the campaign of
+Waterloo in the following year added 40 million florins to the debt.
+Heavier taxation had to be imposed, but even then the charges for the
+debt made it almost impossible to avoid an annual deficit in the budget.
+It was one of the chief grievances of the Belgians that they were called
+upon to share the burden of a crushing debt which they had not incurred.
+The voting of ways and means for ten years gave the king the control
+over all ordinary finance; it was only extraordinary expenditure that
+had to be submitted annually to the representatives of the people.
+
+The dislike of the Catholic hierarchy in Belgium to Dutch rule had been
+intensified by the manner in which the king had dealt with the vote of
+the notables. Their leader was Maurice de Broglie, Bishop of Ghent, a
+Frenchman by birth. His efforts by speech and by pen to stir up active
+enmity in Belgium to the union aroused William's anger, and he resolved
+to prosecute him. It was an act of courage rather than of statesmanship,
+but the king could not brook opposition. Broglie refused to appear
+before the court and fled to France. In his absence he was condemned to
+banishment and the payment of costs. The powerful clerical party
+regarded him as a martyr and continued to criticise the policy of the
+Protestant king with watchful and hostile suspicion. Nor were the
+Belgian liberal party more friendly. They did not indeed support the
+clerical claim to practical predominance in the State, but they were
+patriotic Belgians who had no love for Holland and resented the thought
+that they were being treated as a dependency of their northern
+neighbours. They were at one with the clericals in claiming that the
+Belgian representation in the Second Chamber of the States-General
+should be proportional to their population. But this grievance might
+have been tolerated had the king shown any inclination to treat his
+Belgian subjects on a footing of equality with the Dutch. He was, as
+will be seen, keenly interested in the welfare and progress of the
+south, but in spirit and in his conduct of affairs he proved himself to
+be an out-and-out Hollander. The provision of the Fundamental Law that
+the seat of government and the meetings of the States-General should be
+alternately from year to year at the Hague and at Brussels was never
+carried out. All the ministries were permanently located at the Hague;
+and of the seven ministers who held office in 1816 only one, the Duke
+d'Ursel, was a Belgian, and he held the post of Minister of Public Works
+and Waterways. Fourteen years later (at the time of the revolt) six out
+of seven were still northerners. The military establishments were all in
+Holland, and nearly all the diplomatic and civil posts were given to
+Dutchmen. Nor was this merely due to the fact that, when the union took
+place, Holland already possessed an organised government and a supply of
+experienced officials, while Belgium lacked both. On the contrary, the
+policy of the king remained fixed and unwavering. In 1830 out of 39
+diplomatists 30 were Dutch. All the chief military posts were filled by
+Dutchmen. Nor was it different in the civil service. In the home
+department there were 117 Dutch, 11 Belgians; in the war department 102
+Dutch, 3 Belgians; in finance 59 Dutch, 5 Belgians. Such a state of
+things was bound to cause resentment. Parties in the Belgic provinces
+were in the early days of the Union divided very much as they have been
+in recent years. The Catholic or Clerical party had its stronghold in
+the two Flanders and Antwerp, _i.e._ in the Flemish-speaking districts.
+In Walloon Belgium the Liberals had a considerable majority. The
+opposition to the Fundamental Law came overwhelmingly from Flemish
+Belgium; the support from Liege, Namur, Luxemburg and other Walloon
+districts. But the sense of injustice brought both parties together, so
+that in the representative Chamber the Belgian members were soon found
+voting solidly together, as a permanent opposition, while the Dutch
+voted _en bloc_ for the government. As the representation of north and
+south was equal, 55 members each, the result would have been a deadlock,
+but there were always two or three Belgians who held government offices;
+and these were compelled, on pain of instant dismissal, to vote for a
+government measure or at least to abstain. Thus the king could always
+rely on a small but constant majority, and by its aid he did not
+hesitate to force through financial and legislative proposals in the
+teeth of Belgian opposition. It is only fair, however, to the
+arbitrary king to point out how earnestly he endeavoured to promote the
+material and industrial welfare of the whole land, and to encourage to
+the best of his power literary, scientific and educational progress. In
+Holland the carrying-trade, which had so long been the chief source of
+the country's wealth, had been utterly ruined by Napoleon's Continental
+System. On the other hand, Belgian industries, which had been
+flourishing through the strict embargo placed upon the import of British
+goods, were now threatened with British competition. The steps taken by
+the energy and initiative of the king were, considering the state of the
+national finances, remarkable in the variety of their aims and the
+results that they achieved. The old Amsterdam Bank was transformed into
+a Bank of the Netherlands. A number of canals were planned and
+constructed. Chief among these was the North Holland Canal, connecting
+Amsterdam with the Helder. The approaches to Rotterdam were improved, so
+that this port became the meeting-point of sea-traffic from England and
+river-traffic by the Rhine from Germany. But both these ports were
+quickly overshadowed by the rapid recovery of Antwerp, now that the
+Scheldt was free and open to commerce. Other important canals, begun and
+wholly or in part constructed, during this period were the
+Zuid-Willemsvaart, the Zederik, the Appeldoorn and the Voorne canals.
+Water communication was not so necessary in the south as in the north,
+but care was there also bestowed upon the canals, especially upon the
+canal of Terneuzen connecting Ghent with the western Scheldt, and many
+highways were constructed. To restore the prosperity of the Dutch
+carrying-trade, especially that with their East Indies, in 1824 a
+Company--_de Nederlandsche Handekmaatschappij_--was founded; and at the
+same time a commercial treaty was concluded with Great Britain, by which
+both nations were to enjoy free trade with each other's East Indian
+possessions. The _Handekmaatschappij_ had a capital of 37 million
+florins; to this the king contributed four millions and guaranteed to
+the shareholders for 20 years a dividend of 4 1/2 per cent. The Company
+at first worked at a loss, and in 1831 William had to pay four million
+florins out of his privy purse to meet his guarantee. This was partly
+due to the set-back of a revolt in Java which lasted some years.
+
+Agriculture received equal attention. Marshy districts were impoldered
+or turned into pasture-land. More especially did the _Maatschappij van
+Weldadigheid_, a society founded in 1818 by General van den Bosch with
+the king's strong support, undertake the task of reclaiming land with
+the special aim of relieving poverty. No less zealous was the king for
+the prosperity of Belgian industries; Ghent with its cotton factories
+and sugar refineries, Tournai with its porcelain industry, and Liege
+with its hardware, all were the objects of royal interest. The great
+machine factory at Seraing near Liege under the management of an
+Englishman, Cockerill, owed its existence to the king. Nor was William's
+care only directed to the material interests of his people. In 1815 the
+University at Utrecht was restored; and in Belgium, besides Louvain, two
+new foundations for higher education were in 1816 created at Ghent and
+Liege. Royal Academies of the Arts were placed at Amsterdam and Antwerp,
+which were to bear good fruit. His attention was also given to the
+much-needed improvement of primary education, which in the south was
+almost non-existent in large parts of the country. Here the presence of
+a number of illiterate dialects was a great obstacle and was the cause
+of the unfortunate effort to make literary Dutch into a national
+language for his whole realm.
+
+Nevertheless the king's political mistakes (of which the attempted
+compulsory use of Dutch was one) rendered all his thoughtful
+watchfulness over his people's welfare unavailing. Great as were the
+autocratic powers conferred upon the sovereign, he overstepped them.
+Plans, in which he was interested, he carried out without consulting the
+States-General. His ministers he regarded as bound to execute his
+orders. If their views differed from his, they were dismissed. This was
+the fate even of Van Hogendorp, to whom he owed so much; Roell and Falck
+also had to make way for less competent but more obsequious ministers.
+
+The chief difficulty with which the king had to contend throughout this
+period was the ceaseless and irreconcilable opposition of the Catholic
+hierarchy and clergy to the principle of absolute religious equality
+established by the Fundamental Law (Articles CXC-CXCIII). Their leader,
+Maurice de Broglie, Bishop of Ghent, actually published a _jugement
+doctrinal_ in which he declared that the taking of the oath to the
+Constitution was an act of treason to the Catholic Church. In this
+defiance to the government he had the support of the Pope, who only
+permitted the Count de Mean to take the oath on his appointment to the
+Archbishopric of Malines on the understanding that he held Articles
+CXC-CXCIII to refer only to civil matters. From this time to take the
+oath "dans le sens de M. Mean" became with the ultra-clerical party a
+common practice.
+
+Other measures of the government aroused Catholic hostility. In this
+year, 1819, a decree forbade the holding of more than two religious
+processions in a year. In such a country as Belgium this restriction was
+strongly resented. But the establishment in 1825 by the king of a
+_Collegium Philosophicum_ at Louvain, at which all candidates for the
+priesthood were by royal decree required (after 1826) to have a
+two-years' course before proceeding to an episcopal seminary, met with
+strenuous resistance. The instruction was in ancient languages, history,
+ethics and canon-law; and the teachers were nominated by the king. The
+first effect of this decree was that young men began to seek education
+in foreign seminaries. Another royal decree at once forbade this, and
+all youths were ordered to proceed either to the _Collegium_ or to one
+of the High Schools of the land; unless they did so, access to the
+priesthood or to any public office was barred to them. This was perhaps
+the most serious of all the king's mistakes. He miscalculated both the
+strength and the sincerity of the opposition he thus deliberately
+courted. His decrees were doomed to failure. The bishops on their part
+refused to admit to their seminaries or to ordination anyone who
+attended the _Collegium Philosophicum_. The king, in the face of the
+irrevocable decision of the Belgian hierarchy, found himself in an
+untenable position. He could not compel the bishops to ordain candidates
+for Holy Orders, and his decrees were therefore a dead letter; nor on
+the other hand could he trample upon the convictions of the vast
+majority of his Belgian subjects by making admission to the priesthood
+impossible. He had to give way and to send a special envoy--De
+Celles--to the Pope in 1827 to endeavour to negotiate a Concordat. It
+was accomplished. By Article III of the Concordat, there were to be
+eight bishops in the Netherlands instead of five. They were to be chosen
+by the Pope, but the king was to have the right of objection, and they
+were required to take the oath of allegiance. The course at the
+_Collegium Philosophicum_ was made optional. William thus yielded on
+practically all the points at issue, but prided himself on having
+obtained the right of rejecting a papal nominee. The Pope, however, in
+an allocution made no mention of this right, and declared that the
+decree about the _Collegium_ was annulled, and that in matters of
+education the bishops would act in accordance with instructions from
+Rome. The government immediately issued a confidential notice to the
+governors of provinces, that the carrying-out of the Concordat was
+indefinitely postponed. Thus the effort at conciliation ended in the
+humiliation of the king, and the triumph of the astute diplomacy of the
+Vatican.
+
+The financial situation, as we have seen, was from the outset full of
+difficulty. The king was personally parsimonious, but his many projects
+for the general welfare of the land involved large outlay, and the
+consequence was an annual average deficit of seven million florins. At
+first the revenue was raised by the increase of customs and excise,
+including colonial imports. This caused much dissatisfaction in Holland,
+especially when duties were placed on coffee and sugar. The complaint
+was that thus an undue share of taxation fell on the maritime north. In
+order to lighten these duties on colonial wares, other taxes had to be
+imposed. In 1821 accordingly it was proposed to meet the deficit by two
+most unwise and obnoxious taxes, known as _mouture_ and _abbatage_. The
+first was on ground corn, the second on the carcases of beasts, exacted
+at the mill or the slaughter-house--in other words on bread and on
+butcher's meat. Both were intensely unpopular, and the _mouture_ in
+particular fell with especial severity on the Belgian working classes
+and peasantry, who consumed much more bread per head than the Dutch.
+Nevertheless by ministerial pressure the bill was passed (July 21, 1821)
+by a narrow majority of four--55 to 51. All the minority were Belgians,
+only two Belgians voted with the majority. It is inconceivable how the
+government could have been so impolitic as to impose these taxes in face
+of such a display of national animosity. The _mouture_ only produced a
+revenue of 5,500,000 fl.; the _abbatage_ 2,500,000 fl.
+
+This amount, though its exaction pressed heavily on the very poor,
+afforded little relief; and to meet recurring deficits the only resource
+was borrowing. To extricate the national finances from ever-increasing
+difficulties the _Amortisatie-Syndikaat_ was created in December, 1822.
+Considerable sources of income from various public domains and from
+tolls passed into the hands of the seven members of the Syndicate, all
+of whom were bound to secrecy, both as to its public and private
+transactions. Its effect was to diminish still further the control of
+the Representative Chamber over the national finances. The Syndicate
+did indeed assist the State, for between 1823 and 1829 it advanced no
+less than 58,885,443 fl. to meet the deficits in the budget, but the
+means by which it achieved this result were not revealed.
+
+Yet another device to help the government in its undertakings was the
+_million de l'industrie_, which was voted every year, as an
+extraordinary charge, but of which no account was ever given. That this
+sum was beneficially used for the assistance of manufacturing and
+industrial enterprise, as at Seraing and elsewhere, and that it
+contributed to the growing prosperity of the southern provinces, is
+certain. But the needless mystery which surrounded its expenditure led
+to the suspicion that it was used as a fund for secret service and
+political jobbery.
+
+The autocratic temper of the king showed itself not merely in keeping
+the control of finance largely in his own hands, but also in carrying
+out a series of measures arousing popular discontent by simple _arretes_
+or decrees of the Council of State without consultation with the
+representative Chamber. Such were the decree of November 6,1814,
+abolishing trial by jury and making certain other changes in judicial
+proceedings; that of April 15, 1815, imposing great restrictions on the
+liberty of the press; that of September 15, 1819, making Dutch the
+official language of the country; that of June 25,1825, establishing the
+_Collegium Philosophicum_; and finally that of June 21, 1830, making the
+Hague the seat of the supreme court of justice. All these produced
+profound discontent and had a cumulative effect.
+
+The language decree of 1819 was tentative, declaring a knowledge of
+Dutch obligatory for admission to all public offices, but it was
+followed by a much more stringent decree in 1822 by which, in the two
+Flanders, South Brabant and Limburg, Dutch was to be used in the
+law-courts and in all public acts and notices. Although the operation of
+this decree was confined to the Flemish-speaking districts, it must be
+remembered that, from the time of the Burgundian dukes right through the
+Spanish and Austrian periods, French had always been the official
+language of the country, the upper classes only spoke French, and with
+few exceptions the advocates could only plead in that language. This was
+a great hardship upon the Belgian bar, which would have been greatly
+increased had the royal decree (June 21,1830), placing the court of
+appeal for the whole kingdom at the Hague, been carried into effect.
+
+More serious in its results was the infringement of Art. CCXXVII of the
+Fundamental Law guaranteeing liberty of the press. The return of
+Napoleon from Elba, and the imminent danger to which the, as yet,
+unorganised kingdom of the Netherlands was exposed, led to the issue of
+an _arrete_ of the severest character. By it all persons publishing news
+of any kind, or giving information injurious to the State, or writing or
+distributing political pamphlets, were to be brought before a special
+tribunal of nine judges holding office at the king's pleasure; and, if
+condemned, were liable to be sentenced to exposure in the pillory,
+deprivation of civic rights, branding, imprisonment, and fines varying
+from 100 to 10,000 francs. This harsh measure was possibly justifiable
+in an extreme emergency upon the plea that it was necessary for the
+safety of the State. When the danger was over, and the Fundamental Law
+was passed, there was no excuse for its further maintenance on the
+Statute-book. Yet before this court Abbe de Foere was summoned for
+having defended in the _Spectateur Beige_ the _jugement doctrinal_ of
+Bishop de Broglie, and he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. In
+the following year, 1818, the government obtained the approval of the
+States-General (with slight modification) for the continuance of this
+war-time censorship of the press. The penalties remained, but the court
+consisted of a judge and four assessors, all government nominees. Under
+this law a Brussels advocate, Van der Straeten, was fined 3000 fl. for a
+brochure attacking the ministers; and several other advocates were
+disbarred for protesting that this sentence was in conflict with the
+Fundamental Law. Prosecutions henceforth followed prosecutions, and the
+press was gagged.
+
+As a result of these press persecutions, the two Belgian political
+parties, the clericals and the liberals, poles apart as they were in
+their principles, drew closer together. All differences of religious and
+political creed were fused in a common sense of national grievances
+under what was regarded as a foreign tyranny. This brought about in 1828
+the formation of the _Union_, an association for the co-operation of
+Belgians of all parties in defence of liberty of worship, liberty of
+instruction and liberty of the press. The ultra-clericals, who looked to
+the Vatican for their guidance, and the advanced liberals who professed
+the principles of the French Revolution were thus by the force of
+events led on step by step to convert an informal into a formal
+alliance. The Abbe de Foere in the _Spectateur_ and MM. D'Ellougue and
+Donker in the _Observateur_ had been for some years advocating united
+action; and it was their success in winning over to their side the
+support and powerful pen of Louis de Potter, a young advocate and
+journalist of Franco-radical sympathies, that the _Union_, as a party,
+was actually effected. From this time the onslaughts in the press became
+more and more violent and embittered, and stirred up a spirit of unrest
+throughout the country. Petitions began to pour in against the _mouture_
+and _abbatage_ taxes and other unpopular measures, especially from the
+Walloon provinces. These were followed by a National Petition, signed by
+representatives of every class of the community asking for redress of
+grievances, but it met with no response from the unyielding king. He had
+in the early summer of this year, 1828, made a tour in Belgium and had
+in several towns, especially in Antwerp and Ghent, met with a warm
+reception, which led him to underestimate the extent and seriousness of
+the existing discontent. At Liege, a centre of Walloon liberalism, he
+was annoyed by a number of petitions being presented to him; and, in a
+moment of irritation, he described the conduct of those who there
+protested against "pretended grievances" as infamous, "une conduite
+in-fame." The words gave deep offence; and the incident called forth a
+parody of the League of the Beggars in 1566, an Order of Infamy being
+started with a medal bearing the motto _fideles jusqu' a l'infamie._ The
+movement spread rapidly, but it remains a curious fact that the
+animosity of the Belgians, as yet, was directed against the Dutch
+ministers (especially Van Maanen the Minister of Justice) and the Dutch
+people, whose overbearing attitude was bitterly resented, rather than
+against the king or the House of Orange. William's good deeds for the
+benefit of the country were appreciated; his arbitrary measures in
+contravention to the Fundamental Law were attributed chiefly to his bad
+advisers.
+
+The month of December, 1829, was however to bring the king and his
+Belgian subjects into violent collision. A motion was brought forward in
+the Second Chamber (December 8) by M. Charles de Broukere, an eminent
+Belgian liberal supported by the Catholics under the leadership of M. de
+Gerlache, for the abolition of the hated Press Law of 1815. The motion
+was defeated by the solid Dutch vote, supplemented by the support of
+seven Belgians. The decennial budget was due, and opposition to it was
+threatened unless grievances were remedied--the cry was "point de
+redressements de griefs, point d'argent." On December 11 came a royal
+message to the States-General which, while promising certain concessions
+regarding the taxes, the _Collegium Philosophicum_ and the language
+decree, stated in unequivocal terms the principle of royal absolutism.
+To quote the words of a competent observer of these events:
+
+The message declared in substance that the constitution was an act of
+condescension on the part of the throne; that the king had restrained
+rather than carried to excess the rights of his house; that the press
+had been guilty of sowing discord and confusion throughout the State;
+and that the opposition was but the fanatic working of a few misguided
+men, who, forgetting the benefits they enjoyed, had risen up in an
+alarming and scandalous manner against a paternal government[10].
+
+The Minister of Justice, Van Maanen, on the next day issued a circular
+calling upon all civil officials to signify their adherence to the
+principles of the message within 24 hours. Several functionaries, who
+had taken part in the petition-agitation, were summarily dismissed; and
+prosecutions against the press were instituted with renewed energy. From
+this time Van Maanen became the special object of Belgian hatred.
+
+The threat of the Belgian deputies to oppose the decennial budget was
+now carried out. At the end of December the ministerial proposals were
+brought before the States-General. The expenditure was sanctioned, the
+ways and means to meet it were rejected by 55 votes to 52. The Finance
+Minister in this emergency was obliged to introduce fresh estimates for
+one year only, from which the _mouture_ and _abbatage_ taxes were
+omitted. This was passed without opposition, but in his vexation at this
+rebuff the king acted unworthily of his position by issuing an _arrete_
+(January 8, 1830) depriving six deputies, who had voted in the majority,
+of their official posts. Meanwhile the virulence of the attacks in the
+press against the king and his ministers from the pens of a number of
+able and unscrupulous journalists were too daring and offensive to be
+overlooked by any government. Foremost in the bitterness of his
+onslaught was Louis de Potter, whose _Lettre de Demophile au Roi_ was
+throughout a direct challenge to the autocratic claims advanced by the
+royal message. Nor was De Potter content only with words. An appeal
+dated December 11, of which he and his friend Tielemans were
+originators, appeared (January 31,1830) in seventeen news-papers, for
+raising a national subscription to indemnify the deputies who had been
+ejected from their posts and salaries for voting against the budget.
+Proceedings were taken against De Potter and Tielemans, and also against
+Barthels, editor of the _Catholique_, and the printer, De Neve, and all
+were sentenced by the court to banishment--De Potter for eight years,
+Tielemans and Barthels for seven years, DeNeve for five years. These men
+had all committed offences which the government were fully justified in
+punishing, for their language had passed the limits not only of good
+order but of decency, and was subversive of all authority. Nevertheless
+they were regarded by their Belgian compatriots as political martyrs
+suffering for the cause of their country's liberties. Their condemnation
+was attributed to Van Maanen, already the object of general detestation.
+
+The ministry had meanwhile taken the wise step of starting an organ, the
+_National_, at Brussels to take their part in the field of controversy.
+But in the circumstances it was an act of almost inconceivable folly to
+select as the editor a certain Libri-Bagnano, a man of Italian
+extraction, who, as it was soon discovered by his opponents, had twice
+suffered heavy sentences in France as a forger. He was a brilliant and
+caustic writer, well able to carry the polemical war into his
+adversaries' camp. But his antecedents were against him, and he aroused
+a hatred second only to the aversion felt for Van Maanen.
+
+We have now arrived at the eve of the Belgian Revolt, which had its
+actual origin in a riot. But the riot was not the cause of the revolt;
+it was but the spark which brought about an explosion, the materials for
+which had been for years preparing. The French secret agent, Julian,
+reports a conversation which took place between the king and Count
+Bylandt on July 20,1823[11]. The following extract proves that, so early
+as this date, William had begun to perceive the impossibility of the
+situation:
+
+    I say it and I repeat it often to Clancarty (the British Minister)
+    that I should love much better to have my Holland quite alone. I
+    should be then a hundred times happier.... When I am exerting
+    myself to make a whole of this country, a party, which in
+    collusion with the foreigner never ceases to gain ground, is
+    working to disunite it. Besides the allies have not given me this
+    kingdom to submit it to every kind of influence. This situation
+    cannot last.
+
+Another extract from a despatch of the French Minister at the Hague,
+Lamoussaye, dated December 26, 1828, depicts a state of things in the
+relations between the two peoples, tending sooner or later to make a
+political separation of some kind inevitable:
+
+    The Belgian hates the Hollander and he (the Hollander) despises
+    the Belgian, besides which he assumes an infinite _hauteur_, both
+    from his national character, by the creations of his industry and
+    by the memories of his history. Disdained by their neighbour of
+    the North, governed by a prince whose confidence they do not
+    possess, hindered in the exercise of their worship, and, as they
+    say, in the enjoyment of their liberties, overburdened with taxes,
+    having but a share in the National Representation disproportionate
+    to the population of the South, the Belgians ask themselves
+    whether they have a country, and are restless in a painful
+    situation, the outcome of which they seek vainly to discover[12].
+
+From an intercepted letter from Louvain, dated July 30, 1829:
+
+    What does one see? Hesitation uncertainty, embarrassment and fear
+    in the march of the government; organisation, re-organisation and
+    finally disorganisation of all and every administration. Again a
+    rude shock and the machine crumbles.
+
+A true forecast of coming events.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION, 1830-1842
+
+
+During the last days of July, 1830, came the revolution at Paris that
+overthrew Charles X and placed the Duke of Orleans at the head of a
+constitutional monarchy with the title of Louis Philippe, King of the
+French. The Belgian liberals had always felt drawn towards France rather
+than Holland, and several of the more influential among them were in
+Paris during the days of July. Through their close intercourse with
+their friends in Brussels the news of all that had occurred spread
+rapidly, and was eagerly discussed. Probably at this time few
+contemplated the complete separation of Belgium from Holland, but rather
+looked to the northern and southern provinces becoming administratively
+autonomous under the same crown. This indeed appeared to be the only
+practical solution of the _impasse_ which had been reached. Even had the
+king met the complaints of the Belgians by large concessions, had he
+dismissed Van Maanen, removed Libri-Bagnano from the editorship of the
+_National_, and created a responsible ministry--which he had no
+intention of doing--he could not have granted the demand for a
+representation of the south in the Second Chamber proportionate to the
+population. For this would have meant that the position of Holland would
+have henceforth been subordinate to that of Belgium; and to this the
+Dutch, proud of their history and achievements, would never have
+submitted. It had been proved that amalgamation was impossible, but the
+king personally was popular with those large sections of the Belgian
+mercantile and industrial population whose prosperity was so largely due
+to the royal care and paternal interest; and, had he consented to the
+setting-up of a separate administration at Brussels, he might by a
+conciliatory attitude have retained the loyalty of his Belgian subjects.
+
+He did none of these things; but, when in August, he and his two sons
+paid a visit to Brussels at a time when the town was celebrating with
+festivities the holding of an exhibition of national industry, he was
+well received and was probably quite unaware of the imminence of the
+storm that was brewing. It had been intended to close the exhibition by
+a grand display of fireworks on the evening of August 23, and to have a
+general illumination on the king's birthday (August 24). But the king
+had hurried back to the Hague to keep his birthday, and during the
+preceding days there were abundant signs of a spirit of revolutionary
+ferment. Inscriptions were found on blank walls--_Down with Van Maanen;
+Death to the Dutch; Down with Libri-Bagnano and the National_; and, more
+ominous still, leaflets were distributed containing the words _le 23
+Aout, feu d'artifice; le 24 Aout, anniversaire du Roi; le 25 Aout,
+revolution._
+
+In consequence of these indications of subterranean unrest, which were
+well known to Baron van der Fosse, the civil governor of Brabant, and to
+M. Kuyff, the head of the city police, the municipal authorities weakly
+decided on the ground of unfavourable weather to postpone the fireworks
+and the illumination. The evening of the 23rd, as it turned out, was
+exceedingly fine. At the same time the authorities permitted, on the
+evening of the 25th, the first performance of an opera by Scribe and
+Auber, entitled _La Muette de Portici_, which had been previously
+proscribed. The hero, Masaniello, headed a revolt at Naples in 1648
+against foreign (Spanish) rule. The piece was full of patriotic,
+revolutionary songs likely to arouse popular passion.
+
+The evening of the performance arrived, and the theatre was crowded. The
+excitement of the audience grew as the play proceeded; and the thunders
+of applause were taken up by the throng which had gathered outside.
+Finally the spectators rushed out with loud cries of vengeance against
+Libri-Bagnano and Van Maanen, in which the mob eagerly joined. Brussels
+was at that time a chosen shelter of political refugees, ready for any
+excesses; and a terrible riot ensued. The house of Van Maanen and the
+offices of the _National_ were attacked, pillaged and burnt. The city
+was given over to wild confusion and anarchy; and many of the mob
+secured arms by the plunder of the gun-smiths' shops. Meanwhile the
+military authorities delayed action. Several small patrols were
+surrounded and compelled to surrender, while the main body of troops,
+instead of attacking and dispersing the rioters, was withdrawn and
+stationed in front of the royal palace. Thus by the extraordinary
+passiveness of Lieut.-General Bylandt, the military governor of the
+province, and of Major-General Wauthier, commandant of the city, who
+must have been acting under secret orders, the wild outbreak of the
+night began, as the next day progressed and the troops were still
+inactive, to assume more of the character of a revolution.
+
+This was checked by the action of the municipal authorities and certain
+of the principal inhabitants, who called together the civic-guard to
+protect any further tumultuary attacks by marauders and ne'er-do-wells
+on private property. The guard were joined by numbers of volunteers of
+the better classes and, under the command of Baron D'Hoogvoort, were
+distributed in different quarters of the town, and restored order. The
+French flags, which at first were in evidence, were replaced at the Town
+Hall by the Brabant tricolor--red, yellow and black. The royal insignia
+had in many places been torn down, and the Orange cockades had
+disappeared; nevertheless there was at this time no symptom of an
+uprising to overthrow the dynasty, only a national demand for redress of
+grievances. Meanwhile news arrived that reinforcements from Ghent were
+marching upon the city. The notables however informed General Bylandt
+that no troops would be allowed to enter the city without resistance;
+and he agreed to stop the advance and to keep his own troops in their
+encampment until he received further orders from the Hague. For this
+abandonment of any attempt to re-assert the royal authority he has been
+generally blamed.
+
+There is no lack of evidence to show that the riot of August 25 and its
+consequences were not the work of the popular leaders. The
+correspondence of Gendebien with De Potter at this time, and the tone of
+the Belgian press before and after the outbreak, are proofs of this. The
+_Catholique_ of Ghent (the former organ of Barthels) for instance
+declared:
+
+    There is no salvation for the throne, but in an ample concession
+    of our rights. The essential points to be accorded are royal
+    inviolability and ministerial responsibility; the dismissal of Van
+    Maanen; liberty of education and the press; a diminution of
+    taxation ... in short, justice and liberty in all and for all, in
+    strict conformity with the fundamental law.
+
+The _Coursier des Pays Bos_ (the former organ of De Potter), after
+demanding the dismissal of Van Maanen as the absolute condition of
+pacification, adds:
+
+    We repeat that we are neither in a state of insurrection nor
+    revolution; all we want is a mitigation of the grievances we have
+    so long endured, and some guarantees for a better future.
+
+In accordance with such sentiments an infuencial meeting on the on
+the 28th at the townhall appointed a deputation of five, headed by
+Alexandre de Gendebien and Felix, count de Merode, to bear to the
+king a loyal address setting forth the just grievances which had led
+to the Brussels disturbances, and asking respectfully for their removal.
+
+The news of the uprising reached the king on the 27th, and he was much
+affected. At a Council held at the Hague the Prince of Orange earnestly
+besought his father to accept the proffered resignation of Van Maanen,
+and to consider in a conciliatory spirit the grievances of the Belgians.
+But William refused flatly to dismiss the minister or to treat with
+rebels. He gave the prince, however, permission to visit Brussels, not
+armed with powers to act, but merely with a mission of enquiry. He also
+consented to receive the deputation from Brussels, and summoned an
+extraordinary meeting of the States-General at the Hague for September
+13. Troops were at once ordered to move south and to join the camp at
+Vilvoorde, where the regiments sent to reinforce the Brussels garrison
+had been halted. The Prince of Orange and his brother Frederick
+meanwhile had left the Hague and reached Vilvoorde on August 31. Here
+Frederick assumed command of the troops; and Orange sent his
+_aide-de-camp_ to Baron D'Hoogvoort to invite him to a conference at
+headquarters. The news of the gathering troops had aroused immense
+excitement in the capital; and it was resolved that Hoogvoort, at the
+head of a representative deputation, should go to Vilvoorde to urge the
+prince to stop any advance of the troops on Brussels, as their entrance
+into the town would be resisted, unless the citizens were assured that
+Van Maanen was dismissed, and that the other grievances were removed.
+They invited Orange to come to Brussels attended only by his personal
+suite, and offered to be sureties for his safety.
+
+The prince made his entry on September 1, the streets being lined with
+the civic guard. He was personally popular, but, possessing no powers,
+he could effect nothing. After three days of parleying he returned to
+the camp, and his mission was a failure. On the same day when Orange
+entered Brussels the deputation of five was received by King William at
+the Hague. His reply to their representations was that by the
+Fundamental Law he had the right to choose his ministers, that the
+principle of ministerial responsibility was contrary to the
+Constitution, and that he would not dismiss Van Maanen or deal with any
+alleged grievances with a pistol at his head.
+
+William, however, despite his uncompromising words, did actually accept
+the resignation of Van Maanen (September 3); but when the Prince of
+Orange, returning from his experiences at Brussels, urged the necessity
+of an administrative separation of north and south, and offered to
+return to the Belgian capital if armed with full authority to carry it
+out, his offer was declined. The king would only consent to bring the
+matter to the consideration of the States-General, which was to meet on
+the 13th. Instead of taking any immediate action he issued a
+proclamation, which in no way faced the exigencies of the situation, and
+was no sooner posted on the walls at Brussels than it was torn down and
+trampled underfoot. It is only just to say that the king had behind him
+the unanimous support of the Dutch people, especially the commercial
+classes. To them separation was far preferable to admitting the Belgians
+to that predominant share of the representation which they claimed on
+the ground of their larger population.
+
+Meanwhile at Brussels, owing to the inaction of the government, matters
+were moving fast. The spirit of revolt had spread to other towns,
+principally in the Walloon provinces. Liege and Louvain were the first
+to move. Charles Rogier, an advocate by profession and a Frenchman by
+birth, was the leader of the revolt at Liege; and such was his fiery
+ardour that at the head of some 400 men, whom he had supplied with arms
+from the armourer's warehouses, he marched to Brussels, and arrived in
+that disturbed city without encountering any Dutch force. The example of
+Liege was followed by Jemappes, Wavre, and by the miners of the
+Borinage; and Brussels was filled with a growing crowd of men filled
+with a revolutionary spirit. Their aim was to proclaim the independence
+of Belgium, and set up a provisional government.
+
+For such a step even pronounced liberals like Gendebien, Van de Weyer
+and Rouppe, the veteran burgomaster of the city, were not yet prepared;
+and they combined with the moderates, Count Felix de Merode and
+Ferdinand Meeus, to form a Committee of Public Safety. They were aided,
+in the maintenance of order, by the two Barons D'Hoogvoort (Emmanuel and
+Joseph), the first the commander of the civic guard, and both popular
+and influential, and by the municipality. While these were still
+struggling to maintain their authority, the States-General had met at
+the Hague on September 13. It was opened by a speech from the king which
+announced his firm determination to maintain law and order in the face
+of revolutionary violence. He had submitted two questions to the
+consideration of the States-General: (1) whether experience had shown
+the necessity for a modification of the Fundamental Law; (2) whether any
+change should be made in the relations between the two parts of the
+kingdom. Both questions were, after long debate (September 29) answered
+in the affirmative; but, before this took place, events at Brussels had
+already rendered deliberations at the Hague futile and useless.
+
+The contents of the king's speech were no sooner known in Brussels than
+they were used by the revolutionary leaders to stir up the passions of
+the mob by inflammatory harangues. Rogier and Ducpetiaux, at the head of
+the Liegeois and the contingents from the other Walloon towns, with the
+support of the lowest elements of the Brussels population, demanded the
+dissolution of the Committee of Public Safety and the establishment of a
+Provisional Government. The members of the Committee and of the
+Municipality, sitting in permanence at the Hotel de Ville, did their
+utmost to maintain order with the strong support of Baron D'Hoogvoort
+and the Civic Guard. But it was in vain. On the evening of September 20
+an immense mob rushed the Hotel de Ville, after disarming the Civic
+Guard; and Rogier and Ducpetiaux were henceforth masters of the city.
+The Committee of Public Safety disappeared and is heard of no more.
+Hoogvoort resigned his command. On receipt of this news Prince Frederick
+at Vilvoorde was ordered to advance upon the city and compel submission.
+But the passions of the crowd had been aroused, and the mere rumour that
+the Dutch troops were moving caused the most vigorous steps to be taken
+to resist _a outrance_ their penetrating into the town.
+
+The royal forces, on the morning of September 23, entered the city at
+three gates and advanced as far as the Park. But beyond that point they
+were unable to proceed, so desperate was the resistance, and such the
+hail of bullets that met them from barricades and from the windows and
+roofs of the houses. For three days almost without cessation the fierce
+contest went on, the troops losing ground rather than gaining it. On
+the evening of the 26th the prince gave orders to retreat, his troops
+having suffered severely.
+
+The effect of this withdrawal was to convert a street insurrection into
+a national revolt. The moderates now united with the liberals, and a
+Provisional Government was formed, having amongst its members Rogier,
+Van de Weyer, Gendebien, Emmanuel D'Hoogvoort, Felix de Merode and
+Louis de Potter, who a few days later returned triumphantly from
+banishment. The Provisional Government issued a series of decrees
+declaring Belgium independent, releasing the Belgian soldiers from their
+allegiance, and calling upon them to abandon the Dutch standard. They
+were obeyed. The revolt, which had been confined mainly to the Walloon
+districts, now spread rapidly over Flanders. Garrison after garrison
+surrendered; and the remnants of the disorganised Dutch forces retired
+upon Antwerp (October 2). Two days later the Provisional Government
+summoned a National Congress to be elected by all Belgian citizens of 25
+years of age. The news of these events caused great perturbation at the
+Hague. The Prince of Orange, who had throughout advocated conciliation,
+was now permitted by his father to go to Antwerp (October 4) and
+endeavour to place himself at the head of the Belgian movement on the
+basis of a grant of administrative separation, but without severance of
+the dynastic bond with Holland.
+
+King William meanwhile had already (October 2) appealed to the Great
+Powers, signatories of the Articles of London in 1814, to intervene and
+to restore order in the Belgic provinces. The difficulties of the prince
+at Antwerp were very great, for he was hampered throughout by his
+father's unwillingness to grant him full liberty of action. He issued a
+proclamation, but it was coldly received; and his attempts to negotiate
+with the Provisional Government at Brussels met with no success. Things
+had now gone too far, and any proposal to make Belgium connected with
+Holland by any ties, dynastic or otherwise, was unacceptable. The
+well-meaning prince returned disappointed to the Hague on October 24. A
+most unfortunate occurrence now took place. As General Chasse, the Dutch
+commander at Antwerp, was withdrawing his troops from the town to the
+citadel, attacks were made upon them by the mob, and some lives were
+lost. Chasse in reprisal (October 27) ordered the town to be bombarded
+from the citadel and the gunboats upon the river. This impolitic act
+increased throughout Belgium the feeling of hatred against the Dutch,
+and made the demand for absolute independence deeper and stronger.
+
+The appeal of William to the signatory Powers had immediate effect; and
+representatives of Austria, Prussia, Russia and Great Britain, to whom a
+representative of France was now added, met at London on November 4.
+This course of action was far from what the king expected or wished.
+Their first step was to impose an armistice; their next to make it clear
+that their intervention would be confined to negotiating a settlement on
+the basis of separation. A Whig ministry in England had (November 16)
+taken the place of that of Wellington; and Lord Palmerston, the new
+Foreign Secretary, was well-disposed to Belgium and found himself able
+to work in accord with Talleyrand, the French plenipotentiary. Austria
+and Russia were too much occupied with their own internal difficulties
+to think of supporting the Dutch king by force of arms; and Prussia,
+despite the close family connection, did not venture to oppose the
+determination of the two western Powers to work for a peaceful
+settlement. While they were deliberating, the National Congress had met
+at Brussels, and important decisions had been taken. By overwhelming
+majorities (November 18) Belgium was declared to be an independent
+State; and four days later, after vigorous debates, the Congress (by 174
+votes to 13) resolved that the new State should be a constitutional
+monarchy and (by 161 votes to 28) that the house of Orange-Nassau be for
+ever excluded from the throne. A committee was appointed to draw up a
+constitution.
+
+William had appealed to the Powers to maintain the Treaties of Paris and
+Vienna and to support him in what he regarded, on the basis of those
+treaties, as his undoubted rights; and it was with indignation that he
+saw the Conference decline to admit his envoy, Falck, except as a
+witness and on precisely the same terms as the representatives of the
+Brussels Congress. On December 20 a protocol was issued by the Powers
+which defined their attitude. They accepted the principle of separation
+and independence, subject to arrangements being made for assuring
+European peace. The Conference, however, declared that such arrangements
+would not affect the rights of King William and of the German
+Confederation in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. This part of the protocol
+was as objectionable to the Belgians as the former part was to the
+Dutch king. The London Plenipotentiaries had in fact no choice, for they
+were bound by the unfortunate clauses of the treaties of 1815, which, to
+gratify Prussian ambition for cis-Rhenan territory, converted this
+ancient Belgian province into a German state. This ill-advised step was
+now to be the chief obstacle to a settlement in 1831. The mere fact that
+William had throughout the period of union always treated Luxemburg as
+an integral part of the southern portion of his kingdom made its
+threatened severance from the Belgic provinces a burning question. For
+Luxemburgers had taken a considerable part in the revolt, and Luxemburg
+representatives sat in the National Congress. Of these eleven voted for
+the perpetual exclusion of the Orange-Nassau dynasty, one only in its
+favour. It is not surprising, therefore, that a strong protest was made
+against the decision of the London Conference to treat the status of
+Luxemburg as outside the subject of their deliberations. The Conference,
+however, unmoved by this protest, proceeded in a protocol of January
+20,1831, to define the conditions of separation. Holland was to retain
+her old boundaries of the year 1790, and Belgium to have the remainder
+of the territory assigned to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815.
+Luxemburg was again excluded. The Five Powers, moreover, declared that
+within these limits the new Belgian State was to be perpetually neutral,
+its integrity and inviolability being guaranteed by all and each of the
+Powers. A second protocol (January 27) fixed the proportion of the
+national debt to be borne by Belgium at sixteen parts out of thirty-one.
+The sovereign of Belgium was required to give his assent to these
+protocols, as a condition to being recognised by the Powers. But the
+Congress of Brussels was in no submissive mood. They had already
+(January 19) resolved to proceed to the election of a king without
+consulting anyone. The territorial boundaries assigned to Belgium met
+with almost unanimous reprobation, a claim being made to the
+incorporation not merely of Luxemburg, but also of Maestrieht, Limburg
+and Dutch Flanders, in the new State. Nor were they more contented with
+the proportion of the debt Belgium was asked to bear. On February 1 the
+Five Powers had agreed that they would not assent to a member of any of
+the reigning dynasties being elected to the throne of Belgium.
+Nevertheless (February 3) the Duc de Nemours, son of Louis Philippe, was
+elected by 94 votes, as against 67 recorded for the Duke of
+Leuchtenberg, son of Eugene Beauharnais. The Conference took immediate
+action by refusing to permit either Nemours or Leuchtenberg to accept
+the proffered crown.
+
+These acute differences between the Conference and the Belgian Congress
+were a cause of much satisfaction to the Dutch king, who was closely
+watching the course of events; and he thought it good policy (February
+18) to signify his assent to the conditions set forth in the protocols
+of January 20 and 27. He had still some hopes of the candidature of the
+Prince of Orange (who was in London) being supported by the Powers, but
+for this the time was past.
+
+At this juncture the name of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who had resided in
+England since the death of his wife the Princess Charlotte, was put
+forward. This candidature was supported by Great Britain; France raised
+no objection; and in Belgium it met with official support. Early in
+April a deputation of five commissioners was sent to offer the crown
+provisionally to the prince, subject to his endeavouring to obtain some
+modification of the protocols of January 20 and 27. The Five Powers,
+however, in a protocol, dated April 15, announced to the Belgian
+Government that the conditions of separation as laid down in the January
+protocols were final and irrevocable, and, if not accepted, relations
+would be broken off. Leopold was not discouraged, however; and such was
+his influence that he did succeed in obtaining from the Conference an
+undertaking that they would enter into negotiations with King William in
+regard both to the territorial and financial disputes with a view to a
+settlement, _moyennant de justes compensations_.
+
+The Saxe-Coburg prince was elected king by the Congress (June 4); and in
+redemption of their undertaking the Conference promulgated (June 26) the
+preliminary treaty, generally known as the Treaty of the XVIII Articles.
+By this treaty the question of Luxemburg was reserved for a separate
+negotiation, the _status quo_ being meanwhile maintained. Other boundary
+disputes (Maestricht, Limburg and various _enclaves_) were to be
+amicably arranged, and the share of Belgium in the public debt was
+reduced. Leopold had made his acceptance of the crown depend upon the
+assent of the Congress being given to the Treaty. This assent was given,
+but in the face of strong opposition (July 9); and the new king made his
+public entry into Brussels and took the oath to the Constitution twelve
+days later. On the same day (July 21) the Dutch king refused to accept
+the XVIII Articles, declaring that he adhered to the protocols of
+January 20 and 27, which the plenipotentiaries had themselves declared
+(April 15) to be fundamental and irrevocable. Nor did he confine himself
+to a refusal. He declared that if any prince should accept the
+sovereignty of Belgium or take possession of it without having assented
+to the protocols as the basis of separation he could only regard such
+prince as his enemy. He followed this up (August 2) by a despatch
+addressed to the Foreign Ministers of the Five Powers, announcing his
+intention "to throw his army into the balance with a view to obtaining
+more equitable terms of separation."
+
+These were no empty words. The facile success of the Belgian revolution
+had led to the Dutch army being branded as a set of cowards. The king,
+therefore, despite a solemn warning from the Conference, was determined
+to show the world that Holland was perfectly able to assert her rights
+by armed force if she chose to do so. In this course he had the
+whole-hearted support of his people. It was a bold act politically
+justified by events. Unexpectedly, on August 2, the Prince of Orange at
+the head of an army of 30,000 picked men with 72 guns crossed the
+frontier. The Belgians were quite taken by surprise. Their army, though
+not perhaps inferior in numbers to the invaders, was badly organised,
+and was divided into two parts--the army of the Scheldt and the army of
+the Meuse. The prince knew that he must act with promptness and
+decision, and he thrust his army by rapid movements between the two
+Belgian corps. That of the Meuse fell back in great disorder upon Liege;
+that of the Scheldt was also forced to beat a rapid retreat. Leopold,
+whose reign was not yet a fortnight old, joined the western corps and
+did all that man could do to organise and stiffen resistance. At Louvain
+(August 12) he made a last effort to save the capital and repeatedly
+exposed his life, but the Belgians were completely routed and Brussels
+lay at the victor's mercy. It was a terrible humiliation for the new
+Belgian state. But the prince had accomplished his task and did not
+advance beyond Louvain. On hearing that a French army, at the invitation
+of King Leopold, had entered Belgium with the sanction of the Powers, he
+concluded an armistice, by the mediation of the British Minister, Sir
+Robert Adair, and undertook to evacuate Belgian territory. His army
+recrossed the Dutch frontier (August 20), and the French thereupon
+withdrew.
+
+The Ten Days' Campaign had effected its purpose; and, when the
+Conference met to consider the new situation, it was felt that the XVIII
+Articles must be revised. Belgium, saved only from conquest by French
+intervention, had to pay the penalty of defeat. A new treaty in XXIV
+Articles was drawn up, and was (October 14) again declared to be final
+and irrevocable. By this treaty the northwestern (Walloon) portion of
+Luxemburg was assigned to Belgium, but at the cost of ceding to Holland
+a considerable piece of Belgian Limburg giving the Dutch the command of
+both banks of the river Meuse from Maestricht to the Gelderland
+frontier. The proportion of the debt was likewise altered in favour of
+Holland. King William was informed that he must obtain the assent of the
+Germanic Confederation and of the Nassau agnates to the territorial
+adjustments.
+
+These conditions created profound dissatisfaction both in Belgium and
+Holland. It was again the unhappy Luxemburg question which caused so
+much heart-burning. The Conference however felt itself bound by the
+territorial arrangements of the Congress of Vienna; and Palmerston and
+Talleyrand, acting in concert throughout, could not on this matter
+overrule the opposition of Prussia and Austria supported by Russia. All
+they could do was to secure the compromise by which Walloon Luxemburg
+was given to Belgium in exchange for territorial compensation in
+Limburg. Belgian feeling was strong against surrendering any part either
+of Luxemburg or Limburg; but King Leopold saw that surrender was
+inevitable and by a threat of abdication he managed to secure, though
+against vehement opposition, the acceptance of the Treaty of the XXIV
+Articles by the Belgian Chambers (November 1). The treaty was signed at
+London by the plenipotentiaries of the Five Great Powers and by the
+Belgian envoy, Van de Weyer, on November 15, 1831; and Belgium was
+solemnly recognised as an independent State, whose perpetual neutrality
+and inviolability was guaranteed by each of the signatories
+severally[13].
+
+Once more the obstinacy of King William proved an insuperable obstacle
+to a settlement. He had expected better results from the Ten Days'
+Campaign, and he emphatically denied the right of the Conference to
+interfere with the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, as this was not a Belgian
+question, but concerned only the House of Nassau and the Germanic
+Confederation. He also objected to the proposed regulations regarding
+the navigation of the river Scheldt, and refused to evacuate Antwerp or
+other places occupied by Dutch troops. He was aware that Great Britain
+and France had taken the leading part in drawing up the treaty, but he
+relied for support upon his close family relations with Prussia and
+Russia[14], with whom Austria acted. But, although these Powers bore him
+good will, they had no intention of encouraging his resistance. Their
+object in delaying their ratification of the treaty was to afford time
+to bring good advice to bear upon the unbending temper of the Dutch
+king. The Tsar even sent Count Alexis Orloff on a special mission to the
+Hague, with instructions to act with the Prussian and Austrian envoys in
+urging William to take a reasonable course. All their efforts ended in
+failure.
+
+During the first nine months of the year 1832 a vigorous exchange of
+notes took place between London and the Hague; and the Conference did
+its utmost to effect an accommodation. At last patience was exhausted,
+and the Powers had to threaten coercion. The three eastern Powers
+declined indeed to take any active share in coercive measures, but were
+willing that Great Britain and France should be their delegates.
+Palmerston and Talleyrand, however, were determined that the King of
+Holland should no longer continue to defy the will of the European Great
+Powers; and on October 22 the English and French governments concluded a
+Convention for joint action. Notice was given to King William (November
+2) that he must withdraw his troops before November 13 from all places
+assigned to Belgium by the Treaty of the XXIV Articles. If he refused,
+the Dutch ports would be blockaded and an embargo placed upon Dutch
+ships in the allies' harbours. Further, if on November 13 any Dutch
+garrisons remained on Belgian soil, they would be expelled by armed
+force. William at once (November 2) replied to the notice by a flat
+refusal. In so acting he had behind him the practically unanimous
+support of Dutch public opinion. The allies took prompt measures. An
+Anglo-French squadron set sail (November 7) to blockade the Dutch ports
+and the mouth of the Scheldt; and in response to an appeal from the
+Belgian government (as was required by the terms of the Convention) a
+French army of 60,000 men under Marshal Gerard crossed the Belgian
+frontier (November 15) and laid siege to the Antwerp citadel, held by a
+garrison of 5000 men commanded by General Chasse. The siege began on
+November 20, and it was not until December 22 that Chasse, after a most
+gallant defence, was compelled to capitulate. Rear-Admiral Koopman
+preferred to burn his twelve gunboats rather than surrender them to the
+enemy. Marshal Gerard offered to release his prisoners if the Dutch
+would evacuate the forts of Lillo and Liefkenshoeck, lower down the
+river. His offer was refused; and the French army, having achieved its
+purpose, withdrew. For some time longer the blockade and embargo
+continued, to the great injury of Dutch trade. An interchange of notes
+between the Hague and London led to the drawing up of a convention,
+known as the Convention of London, on May 21, 1833. By this agreement
+King William undertook to commit no acts of hostility against Belgium
+until a definitive treaty of peace was signed, and to open the
+navigation of the Scheldt and the Meuse for commerce. The Convention was
+in fact a recognition of the _status quo_ and was highly advantageous to
+Belgium, as both Luxemburg and Limburg were _ad interim_ treated as if
+they were integral parts of the new kingdom.
+
+The cessation of hostilities, however, led to a fresh attempt to reach a
+settlement. In response to an invitation sent by the western Powers to
+Austria, Prussia and Russia, the Conference again met in London on July
+15. The thread of the negotiations was taken up; but the Belgian
+government insisted, with the full support of Palmerston, that as a
+preliminary to any further discussion the King of Holland must obtain
+the assent of the German Confederation and of the Nassau agnates to the
+proposed territorial rearrangements. William declined to ask for this
+assent. The Conference on this was indefinitely suspended. That the
+king's refusal in August was a part of his fixed policy of waiting upon
+events was shown by his actually approaching the Confederation and the
+agnates in the following November (1833). Neither of these would consent
+to any partition of Luxemburg, unless they received full territorial
+compensation elsewhere. So matters drifted on through the years
+1834-1837. Meanwhile in Holland a change of opinion had been gradually
+taking place. The heavy taxes consequent upon the maintenance of an army
+on a war footing pressed more and more upon a country whose income was
+insufficient to meet its expenses. People grew tired of waiting for a
+change in the political position that became every year more remote.
+Luxemburg was of little interest to the Dutch; they only saw that
+Belgium was prosperous, and that the maintenance of the _status quo_ was
+apparently all to her advantage. The dissatisfaction of the Dutch
+people, so long patient and loyal, made itself heard with increasing
+insistence in the States-General; and the king saw that the time had
+arrived for abandoning his obstinate _non-possumus_ attitude.
+Accordingly, in March, 1838, he suddenly instructed his minister in
+London (Dedel) to inform Palmerston that he (the king) was ready to sign
+the treaty of the XXIV Articles, and to agree _pleinement et
+entierement_ to the conditions it imposed.
+
+The unexpected news of this sudden step came upon the Belgians like a
+thunderclap. From every part of the kingdom arose a storm of protest
+against any surrender of territory. The people of Luxemburg and Limburg
+appealed to their fellow-citizens not to abandon them; and their appeal
+met with the strongest support from all classes and in both Chambers.
+They argued that Holland had refused to sign the treaty of 1831, which
+had been imposed on Belgium in her hour of defeat; and that now, after
+seven years, the treaty had ceased to be in force and required revision.
+The Belgians expected to receive support from Great Britain and France,
+and more especially from Palmerston, their consistent friend. But
+Palmerston was tired of the endless wrangling; and, acting on his
+initiative, the Five Powers determined that they would insist on the
+Treaty of the XXIV Articles being carried out as it stood. The
+Conference met again in October, 1838; and all the efforts of the
+Belgian government, and of King Leopold personally, to obtain more
+favoured terms proved unavailing. An offer to pay sixty million francs
+indemnity for Luxemburg and Limburg was rejected both by King William
+and the Germanic Confederation. Such was the passionate feeling in
+Belgium that there was actually much talk of resisting in the last
+resort by force of arms. Volunteers poured in; and in Holland also the
+government began to make military preparations. But it was an act of
+sheer madness for isolated Belgium to think of opposing the will of the
+Great Powers of Europe. The angry interchange of diplomatic notes
+resulted only in one modification in favour of Belgium. The annual
+charge of 8,400,000 francs placed upon Belgium on account of her share
+in the public debt of the Netherlands was reduced to a payment of
+5,000,000 francs. The Dutch king signed the treaty on February 1, 1839.
+Finally the proposal that the treaty should be signed, opposition being
+useless, met with a sullen assent from the two Belgian Chambers. On
+April 19, 1839, the Belgian envoy, Van de Weyer, affixed his signature
+at the Foreign Office in London and so brought to an end the long
+controversy, which had lasted for nine years. There were still many
+details to be settled between the two kingdoms, which from this time
+became two separate and distinct political entities; but these were
+finally arranged in an amicable spirit, and were embodied in a
+subsidiary treaty signed November 5, 1842.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+WILLIAM II. REVISION OF THE CONSTITUTION.
+
+1842-1849
+
+
+The Dutch nation welcomed the final separation from Belgium with
+profound relief. The national charges had risen from 15 million florins
+in 1815 to 38 million florins in 1838. Taxation was oppressive, trade
+stagnant, and the financial position growing more and more intolerable.
+The long-tried loyalty of the people, who had entrusted their sovereign
+with such wide and autocratic powers, had cooled. The king's Belgian
+policy had obviously been a complete failure; and the rotten state of
+public finance was naturally in large part attributed to the sovereign,
+who had so long been practically his own finance minister. Loud cries
+began to be raised for a revision of the constitution on liberal lines.
+To the old king any such revision was repugnant; but, unable to resist
+the trend of public opinion, he gave his assent to a measure of
+constitutional reform in the spring of 1840. Its limited concessions
+satisfied no one. Its principal modifications of the Fundamental Law
+were: (1) the division of the province of Holland into two parts; (2)
+the reduction of the Civil List; (3) the necessary alteration of the
+number of deputies in the Second Chamber due to the separation from
+Belgium; (4) abolition of the distinction between the ordinary and the
+extraordinary budget; (5) a statement of the receipts and expenditure of
+the colonies to be laid before the States-General. Finally the principle
+of ministerial responsibility was granted most reluctantly, the king
+yielding only after the Chambers had declined to consider the estimates
+without this concession. But William had already made up his mind to
+abdicate, rather than reign under the new conditions. He knew that he
+was unpopular and out-of-touch with the times; and his unpopularity had
+been increased by his announced intention of marrying the Countess
+Henriette D'Oultremont, a Belgian and a Catholic. On October 7 he issued
+a proclamation by which he handed over the government to his son William
+Frederick, Prince of Orange. He then retired quietly to his private
+estates in Silesia. He died at Berlin in 1843.
+
+William II was forty-eight years of age on his accession to the throne.
+He was a man of a character very different from that of his father.
+Amiable, accessible, easily influenced, liberal-handed even to
+extravagance, he was deservedly popular. He had shown himself in the
+Peninsula, at Quatre Bras and Waterloo and later in the Ten Days'
+Campaign, to be a capable and courageous soldier, but he possessed few
+of the qualities either of a statesman or a financier. He had married in
+1816 Anna Paulovna, sister of the Tsar Alexander I, after his proposed
+marriage with the Princess Charlotte of England had been broken off.
+
+He entered upon his reign in difficult times. There was a loud demand
+for a further sweeping revision of the constitution. Religious
+movements, which had been gathering force during the reign of William I,
+required careful handling. One minister after another had tried to
+grapple with the financial problem, but in vain. In 1840 the public debt
+amounted to 2200 million florins; and the burden of taxation, though it
+had become almost unendurable, failed to provide for the interest on the
+debt and the necessary expenses of administration. The State was in fact
+on the verge of bankruptcy. The appointment in 1842 of F.A. van Hall
+(formerly an Amsterdam advocate, who had held the post of minister of
+justice) to be finance minister opened out a means of salvation. The
+arrears to 1840 amounted to 35 million florins; the deficit for 1841-3
+had to be covered, and means provided for the expenditure for 1843-4.
+Van Hall's proposals gave the people the choice between providing the
+necessary money by an extraordinary tax of one and a half per cent, on
+property and income, and raising a voluntary loan of 150 million florins
+at 3 per cent. After long debates the States-General accepted the
+proposal for the voluntary loan, but the amount was reduced to 126
+millions. The success of the loan, though at first doubtful, was by
+March, 1844, complete. The Amsterdam Bourse gave its utmost support; and
+the royal family set a good example by a joint subscription of 11
+million florins. By this means, and by the capitalisation of the annual
+Belgian payment of five million francs, Van Hall was able to clear off
+the four years' arrears and to convert the 5 and 4-1/2 per cent. scrip
+into 4 per cent. He was helped by the large annual payments, which now
+began to come in from the Dutch East Indies; and at length an
+equilibrium was established in the budget between receipts and
+expenditure.
+
+In the years preceding the French Revolution the Reformed Church in the
+United Provinces had become honey-combed with rationalism. The official
+orthodoxy of the Dort synod had become "a fossilised skeleton." By the
+Constitution of 1798 Church and State were separated, and the property
+of the Church was taken by the State, which paid however stipends to the
+ministers. Under King Louis subsidies were paid from the public funds to
+teachers of every religious persuasion; and this system continued during
+the union of Holland and Belgium. A movement known as the _Reveil_ had
+meanwhile been stirring the dry-bones of Calvinistic orthodoxy
+in Holland. Its first leaders were Bilderdijk, De Costa and Capadose.
+Like most religious revivals, this movement gave rise to extravagancies
+and dissensions. In 1816 a new sect was founded by a sea-captain,
+Staffel Mulder, on communistic principles after the example of
+the first Jerusalem converts, which gathered a number of followers
+among the peasantry. The "New Lighters"--such was the name they
+assumed--established in 1823 their headquarters at Zwijndrecht. The
+first enthusiasm however died down, and the sect gradually disappeared.
+More serious was the liberal revolt against the cut-and-dried orthodoxy
+of Dort. Slowly it made headway, and it found leaders in Hofstede de
+Groot, professor at Groningen, and in two eloquent preachers, De Cocq at
+Ulrum and Scholte at Deventer. These men, finding that their views met
+with no sympathy or recognition by the synodal authorities, resolved
+(October 14,1834) on the serious step of separating from the Reformed
+Church and forming themselves and their adherents into a new church
+body. They were known as "the Separatists" (_de Afgescheidenen_). Though
+deprived of their pulpits, fined and persecuted, the Separatists grew in
+number. In 1836 the government refused to recognise them as a Church,
+but permitted local congregations to hold meetings in houses. In 1838
+more favourable conditions were offered, which De Cocq and Scholte
+finally agreed to accept, but no subsidies were paid to the sect by the
+State. William II, in 1842, made a further concession by allowing
+religious teaching to be given daily in the public schools (out of
+school hours) by the Separatist ministers, as well as by those of other
+denominations. All this while, however, certain congregations refused
+to accept the compromise of 1838; and a large number, headed by a
+preacher named Van Raalte, in order to obtain freedom of worship,
+emigrated to Michigan to form the nucleus of a flourishing Dutch colony.
+
+The accession of William II coincided with a period of political unrest,
+not only in Holland but throughout Europe. A strong reaction had set in
+against the system of autocratic rule, which had been the marked feature
+of the period which followed 1815. Liberal and progressive ideas had
+during the later years been making headway in Holland under the
+inspiring leadership of Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, at that time a professor
+of jurisprudence at Leyden. He had many followers; and the cause he
+championed had the support of the brilliant writers and publicists,
+Donker-Curtius, Luzac, Potgieter, Bakhuizen van der Brink and others. A
+strong demand arose for a thorough revision of the constitution. In 1844
+a body of nine members of the Second Chamber, chief amongst them
+Thorbecke, drew up a definite proposal for a revision; but the king
+expressed his dislike to it, and it was rejected. The Van Hall ministry
+had meanwhile been carrying out those excellent financial measures which
+had saved the credit of the State, and was now endeavouring to conduct
+the government on opportunist lines. But the potato famine in 1845-46
+caused great distress among the labouring classes, and gave added force
+to the spirit of discontent in the country. The king himself grew
+nervous in the presence of the revolutionary ferment spreading
+throughout Europe, and was more especially alarmed (February, 1848) by
+the sudden overthrow of the monarchy of Louis Philippe and the
+proclamation of a republic at Paris. He now resolved himself to take the
+initiative. He saw that the proposals hitherto made for revision did not
+satisfy public opinion; and on March 8, without consulting his
+ministers, he took the unusual step of sending for the President of the
+Second Chamber, Boreel van Hogelanden. He asked him to ascertain the
+opinions and wishes of the Chamber on the matter of revision and to
+report to him. The ministry on this resigned and a new liberal ministry
+was formed, at the head of which was Count Schimmelpenninck, formerly
+minister in London. On March 17 a special Commission was appointed to
+draw up a draft scheme of revision. It consisted of five members, four
+of whom, Thorbecke, Luzac, Donker-Curtius and Kempenaer, were prominent
+liberals and the fifth a Catholic from North Brabant. Their work was
+completed by April 11 and the report presented to the king.
+Schimmelpenninck, not agreeing with the proposals of the Commission,
+resigned; and on May 11 a new ministry under the leadership of
+Donker-Curtius was formed for the express purpose of carrying out the
+proposed revision. A periodical election of the Second Chamber took
+place in July, and difficulties at first confronted the new scheme.
+These were, however, overcome; and on October 14 the revised
+constitution received the king's assent. It was solemnly proclaimed on
+November 3.
+
+The Constitution of 1848 left in the hands of the king the executive
+power, i.e. the conduct of foreign affairs, the right of declaring war
+and making peace, the supreme command of the military and naval forces,
+the administration of the overseas possessions, and the right of
+dissolving the Chambers; but these prerogatives were modified by the
+introduction of the principle of ministerial responsibility. The
+ministers were responsible for all acts of the government, and the king
+could legally do no wrong. The king was president of the Council of
+State (15 members), whose duty it was to consider all proposals made to
+or by the States-General. The king shared the legislative power with the
+States-General, but the Second Chamber had the right of initiative,
+amendment and investigation; and annual budgets were henceforth to be
+presented for its approval. All members of the States-General were to be
+at least 30 years of age. The First Chamber of 39 members was elected by
+the Provincial Estates from those most highly assessed to direct
+taxation; the members sat for nine years, but one-third vacated their
+seats every third year. All citizens of full age paying a certain sum to
+direct taxation had the right of voting for members of the Second
+Chamber, the country for this purpose being divided into districts
+containing 45,000 inhabitants. The members held their seats for four
+years, but half the Chamber retired every second year. Freedom of
+worship to all denominations, liberty of the press and the right of
+public meeting were guaranteed. Primary education in public schools was
+placed under State control, but private schools were not interfered
+with. The provincial and communal administration was likewise reformed
+and made dependent on the direct popular vote.
+
+The ministry of Donker-Curtius at once took steps for holding
+fresh elections, as soon as the new constitution became the
+fundamental law of the country. A large majority of liberals was
+returned to the Second Chamber. The king in person opened the
+States-General on February 13, 1849, and expressed his intention of
+accepting loyally the changes to which he had given his assent. He
+was, however, suffering and weak from illness, and a month later
+(March 17) he died at Tilburg. His gracious and kindly personality
+had endeared him to his subjects, who deeply regretted that at this
+moment of constitutional change the States should lose his experienced
+guidance. He was succeeded by his son, William III.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIII
+
+REIGN OF WILLIAM III TO THE DEATH OF THORBECKE, 1849-1872
+
+
+William III succeeded to the throne at a moment of transition. He was
+thirty-two years of age, and his natural leanings were autocratic; but
+he accepted loyally the principle of ministerial responsibility, and
+throughout his long reign endeavoured honestly and impartially to fulfil
+his duties as a constitutional sovereign. There were at this time in
+Holland four political parties: (1) the old conservative party, which
+after 1849 gradually dwindled in numbers and soon ceased to be a power
+in the State; (2) the liberals, under the leadership of Thorbecke; (3)
+the anti-revolutionary or orthodox Protestant party, ably led by G.
+Groen van Prinsterer, better known perhaps as a distinguished historian,
+but at the same time a good debater and resourceful parliamentarian; (4)
+the Catholic party. The Catholics for the first time obtained in 1849
+the full privileges of citizenship. They owed this to the liberals, and
+for some years they gave their support to that party, though differing
+from them fundamentally on many points. The anti-revolutionaries placed
+in the foreground the upholding of the Reformed (orthodox Calvinistic)
+faith in the State, and of religious teaching in the schools. In this
+last article of their political creed they were at one with the
+Catholics, and in its defence the two parties were destined to become
+allies.
+
+The liberal majority in the newly elected States-General was
+considerable; and it was the general expectation that Thorbecke would
+become head of the government. The king however suspected the aims of
+the liberal leader, and personally disliked him. He therefore kept in
+office the Donker-Curtius-De Kempenaer cabinet; but, after a vain
+struggle against the hostile majority, it was compelled to resign, and
+Thorbecke was called upon to form a ministry.
+
+Thorbecke was thus the first constitutional prime-minister of Holland.
+His answer to his opponents, who asked for his programme, was
+contained in words which he was speedily to justify: "Wait for our
+deeds." A law was passed which added 55,000 votes to the electorate; and
+by two other laws the provincial and communal assemblies were placed
+upon a popular representative basis. The system of finance was reformed
+by the gradual substitution of direct for indirect taxation. By the
+Navigation Laws all differential and transit dues upon shipping were
+reduced; tolls on through-cargoes on the rivers were abolished, and the
+tariff on raw materials lowered. It was a considerable step forward in
+the direction of free-trade. Various changes were made to lighten the
+incidence of taxation on the poorer classes. Among the public works
+carried to completion at this time (1852) was the empoldering of the
+Haarlem lake, which converted a large expanse of water into good pasture
+land.
+
+It was not on political grounds that the Thorbecke ministry was to be
+wrecked, but by their action in matters which aroused religious passions
+and prejudices. The prime-minister wished to bring all charitable
+institutions and agencies under State supervision. Their number was more
+than 3500; and a large proportion of these were connected with and
+supported by religious bodies. It is needless to say the proposal
+aroused strong opposition. More serious was the introduction of a
+Catholic episcopate into Holland. By the Fundamental Law of 1848
+complete freedom of worship and of organisation had been guaranteed to
+every form of religious belief. It was the wish of the Catholics that
+the system which had endured ever since the 16th century of a "Dutch
+mission" under the direction of an Italian prelate (generally the
+internuncio) should come to an end, and that they should have bishops of
+their own. The proposal was quite constitutional and, far from giving
+the papal curia more power in the Netherlands, it decreased it. A
+petition to Pius IX in 1847 met with little favour at Rome; but in 1851
+another petition, much more widely signed, urged the Pope to seize the
+favourable opportunity for establishing a native hierarchy. Negotiations
+were accordingly opened by the papal see with the Dutch government,
+which ended (October, 1852) in a recognition of the right of the
+Catholic Church in Holland to have freedom of organisation. It was
+stipulated, however, that a previous communication should be made to the
+government of the papal intentions and plans, before they were carried
+out. The only communication that was made was not official, but
+confidential; and it merely stated that Utrecht was to be erected into
+an archbishopric with Haarlem, Breda, Hertogenbosch and Roeremonde, as
+suffragans. The ministry regarded the choice of such Protestant centres
+as Utrecht and Haarlem with resentment, but were faced with the _fait
+accompli_. This strong-handed action of the Roman authorities was made
+still more offensive by the issuing of a papal allocution, again without
+any consultation with the Dutch government, in which Pius IX described
+the establishment of the new hierarchy as a means of counteracting in
+the Netherlands the heresy of Calvin.
+
+A wave of fierce indignation swept over Protestant Holland, which united
+in one camp orthodox Calvinists (anti-revolutionaries), conservatives
+and anti-papal liberals. The preachers everywhere inveighed against a
+ministry which had permitted such an act of aggression on the part of a
+foreign potentate against the Protestantism of the nation. Utrecht took
+the lead in drawing up an address to the king and to the States-General
+(which obtained two hundred thousand signatures), asking them not to
+recognise the proposed hierarchy. At the meeting of the Second Chamber
+of the States-General on April 12, Thorbecke had little difficulty in
+convincing the majority that the Pope had proceeded without Consultation
+with the ministry, and that under the Constitution the Catholics had
+acted within their rights in re-modelling their Church organisation. But
+his arguments were far from satisfying outside public opinion. On the
+occasion of a visit of the king to Amsterdam the ministry took the step
+of advising him not to receive any address hostile to the establishment
+of the hierarchy, on the ground that this did not require the royal
+approval. William, who had never been friendly to Thorbecke, was annoyed
+at being thus instructed in the discharge of his duties; and he not only
+received an address containing 51,000 signatures but expressed his great
+pleasure in being thus approached (April 15). At the same time he
+summoned Van Hall, the leader of the opposition, to Amsterdam for a
+private consultation. The ministry, on hearing of what had taken place,
+sent its resignation, which was accepted on April 19. Thus fell the
+Thorbecke ministry, not by a parliamentary defeat, but because the king
+associated himself with the uprising of hostile public opinion, known as
+the "April Movement."
+
+A new ministry was formed under the joint leadership of Van Hall and
+Donker-Curtius; and an appeal to the electors resulted in the defeat of
+the liberals. The majority was a coalition of conservatives and
+anti-revolutionaries. The followers of Groen van Prinsterer were small
+in number, but of importance through the strong religious convictions
+and debating ability of the leader. The presence of Donker-Curtius was a
+guarantee for moderation; and, as Van Hall was an adept in political
+opportunism, the new ministry differed from its liberal predecessor
+chiefly in its more cautious attitude towards the reforms which both
+were ready to adopt. As it had been carried into office by the April
+Movement, a Church Association Bill was passed into law making it
+illegal for a foreigner to hold any Church office without the royal
+assent, and forbidding the wearing of a distinctive religious dress
+outside closed buildings. Various measures were introduced dealing with
+ministerial responsibility, poor-law administration and other matters,
+such as the abolition of the excise on meat and of barbarous punishments
+on the scaffold.
+
+The question of primary education was to prove for the next half-century
+a source of continuous political and religious strife, dividing the
+people of Holland into hostile camps. The question was whether the State
+schools should be "mixed" i.e. neutral schools, where only those simple
+truths which were common to all denominations should be taught; or
+should be "separate" i.e. denominational schools, in which religious
+instruction should be given in accordance with the wishes of the
+parents. A bill was brought in by the government (September, 1854) which
+was intended to be a compromise. It affirmed the general principle that
+the State schools should be "neutral," but allowed "separate" schools to
+be built and maintained. This proposal was fiercely opposed by Groen and
+gave rise to a violent agitation. The ministry struggled on, but its
+existence was precarious and internal dissensions at length led to its
+resignation (July, 1856). The elections of 1856 had effected but little
+change in the constitution of the Second Chamber, and the
+anti-revolutionary J.J.L. van der Brugghen was called upon to form a
+ministry. Groen himself declined office, Van der Brugghen made an effort
+to conciliate opposition; and a bill for primary education was
+introduced (1857) upholding the principle of the "mixed" schools, but
+with the proviso that the aim of the teaching was to be the instruction
+of the children "in Christian and social virtues"; at the same time
+"separate" schools were permitted and under certain conditions would be
+subsidised by the State. Groen again did his utmost to defeat this bill,
+but he was not successful; and after stormy debates it became law (July,
+1857). The liberals obtained a majority at the elections of 1858, and
+Van der Brugghen resigned. But the king would not send for Thorbecke;
+and J.J. Rochussen, a former governor-general of the Dutch East Indies,
+was asked to form a "fusion" ministry. During his tenure of office
+(1858-60) slavery was abolished in the East Indies, though not the
+cultivation-system, which was but a kind of disguised slavery. The way
+in which the Javanese suffered by this system of compulsory labour for
+the profit of the home country--the amount received by the Dutch
+treasury being not less than 250 million florins in thirty years--was
+now scathingly exposed by the brilliant writer Douwes Dekker. He had
+been an official in Java, and his novel _Max Havelaar_, published in
+1860 under the pseudonym "Multatuli," was widely read, and brought to
+the knowledge of the Dutch public the character of the system which was
+being enforced.
+
+Holland was at this time far behind Belgium in the construction of a
+system of railroads, to the great hindrance of trade. A bill, however,
+proposed by the ministry to remedy this want was rejected by the First
+Chamber, and Rochussen resigned. The king again declined to send for
+Thorbecke; and Van Hall was summoned for the third time to form a
+ministry. He succeeded in securing the passage of a proposal to spend
+not less than 10 million florins annually in the building of State
+railways. All Van Hall's parliamentary adroitness and practised
+opportunism could not, however, long maintain in office a ministry
+supported cordially by no party. Van Hall gave up the unthankful task
+(February, 1861), but still it was not Thorbecke, but Baron S. van
+Heemstra that was called upon to take his place. For a few months only
+was the ministry able to struggle on in the face of a liberal majority.
+There was now no alternative but to offer the post of first minister to
+Thorbecke, who accepted the office (January 31, 1862).
+
+The second ministry of Thorbecke lasted for four years, and was actively
+engaged during that period in domestic, trade and colonial reforms.
+Thorbecke, as a free-trader, at once took in hand the policy of lowering
+all duties except for revenue purposes. The communal dues were
+extinguished. A law for secondary and technical education was passed in
+1863; and in the same year slavery was abolished in Surinam and the West
+Indies. Other bills were passed for the canalising of the Hook of
+Holland, and the reclaiming of the estuary of the Y. This last project
+included the construction of a canal, the Canal of Holland, with the
+artificial harbour of Ymuiden at its entrance, deep enough for ocean
+liners to reach Amsterdam. With the advent of Fransen van de Putte, as
+colonial minister in 1863, began a series of far-reaching reforms in the
+East Indies, including the lowering of the differential duties. His
+views, however, concerning the scandal of the cultivation-system in Java
+did not meet with the approval of some of his colleagues; and Thorbecke
+himself supported the dissentients. The ministry resigned, and Van de
+Putte became head of the government. He held office for four months
+only. His bill for the abolition of the cultivation-system and the
+conversion of the native cultivators into possessors of their farms was
+thrown out by a small majority, Thorbecke with a few liberals and some
+Catholics voting with the conservatives against it. This was the
+beginning of a definite liberal split, which was to continue for years.
+
+A coalition-ministry followed under the presidency of J. van Heemskerk
+(Interior) and Baron van Zuylen van Nyevelt (Foreign Affairs). The
+colonial minister Mijer shortly afterwards resigned in order to take the
+post of governor-general of the East Indies. This appointment did not
+meet with the approval of the Second Chamber; and the government
+suffered a defeat. On this they persuaded the king not only to dissolve
+the Chamber, but to issue a proclamation impressing upon the electors
+the need of the country for a more stable administration. The result was
+the return of a majority for the Heemskerk-Van Zuylen combination. It is
+needless to say that Thorbecke and his followers protested strongly
+against the dragging of the king's name into a political contest, as
+gravely unconstitutional. The ministry had a troubled existence.
+
+The results of the victory of Prussia over Austria at Sadowa, and the
+formation of the North German Confederation under Prussian leadership,
+rendered the conduct of foreign relations a difficult and delicate task,
+especially as regards Luxemburg and Limburg, both of which were under
+the personal sovereignty of William III, and at the same time formed
+part of the old German Confederation. The rapid success of Prussia had
+seriously perturbed public opinion in France; and Napoleon III, anxious
+to obtain some territorial compensation which would satisfy French
+_amour-propre,_ entered into negotiations with William III for the sale
+of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. The king was himself alarmed at the
+Prussian annexations, and Queen Sophie and the Prince of Orange had
+decided French leanings; and, as Bismarck had given the king reason to
+believe that no objection would be raised, the negotiations for the sale
+were seriously undertaken. On March 26, 1867, the Prince of Orange
+actually left the Hague, bearing the document containing the Grand
+Duke's consent; and on April 1 the cession was to be finally completed.
+On that very day the Prussian ambassadors at Paris and the Hague were
+instructed to say that any cession of Luxemburg to France would mean war
+with Prussia. It was a difficult situation; and a conference of the
+Great Powers met at London on May 11 to deal with it. Its decision was
+that Luxemburg should remain as an independent state, whose neutrality
+was guaranteed collectively by the Powers, under the sovereignty of the
+House of Nassau; that the town of Luxemburg should be evacuated by its
+Prussian garrison; and that Limburg should henceforth be an integral
+part of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+Van Zuylen was assailed in the Second Chamber for his exposing the
+country to danger and humiliation in this matter; and the Foreign Office
+vote was rejected by a small majority. The ministry resigned; but,
+rather than address himself to Thorbecke, the king sanctioned a
+dissolution, with the result of a small gain of seats to the liberals.
+Heemskerk and Van Zuylen retained office for a short time in the face of
+adverse votes, but finally resigned; and the king had no alternative but
+to ask Thorbecke to form a ministry. He himself declined office, but he
+chose a cabinet of young liberals who had taken no part in the recent
+political struggles, P.P. van Bosse becoming first minister.
+
+From this time forward there was no further attempt on the part
+of the royal authority to interfere in the constitutional course of
+parliamentary government. Van Bosse's ministry, scoffingly called by
+their opponents "Thorbecke's marionettes," maintained themselves
+in office for two years(1868-70), passing several useful measures, but
+are chiefly remembered for the abolition of capital punishment. The
+outbreak of the Franco-German war in 1870 found, however, the
+Dutch army and fortresses ill-prepared for an emergency, when
+the maintenance of strict neutrality demanded an efficient defence
+of the frontiers. The ministry was not strong enough to resist the
+attacks made upon it; and at last the real leader of the liberal party,
+the veteran Thorbecke, formed his third ministry (January, 1871).
+But Thorbecke was now in ill-health, and the only noteworthy
+achievement of his last premiership was an agreement with Great
+Britain by which the Dutch possessions on the coast of Guinea
+were ceded to that country in exchange for a free hand being given
+to the Dutch in Surinam. The ministry, having suffered a defeat
+on the subject of the cost of the proposed army re-organisation, was
+on the point of resigning, when Thorbecke suddenly died (June 5,
+1872). His death brought forth striking expressions of sympathy
+and appreciation from men and journals representing all parties
+in the State. For five-and-twenty years, in or out of office, his had
+been the dominating influence in Dutch politics; and it was felt on
+all sides that the country was the poorer for the loss of a man of
+outstanding ability and genuine patriotism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXIV
+
+THE LATER REIGN OF WILLIAM III, AND THE REGENCY OF
+QUEEN EMMA, 1872-1898
+
+
+The death of Thorbecke was the signal for a growing cleavage between the
+old _doctrinaire_ school of liberals, who adhered to the principles of
+1848, and the advanced liberalism of many of the younger progressive
+type. To Gerrit de Vries was entrusted the duty of forming a ministry,
+and he had the assistance of the former first minister, F. van de Putte.
+His position was weakened by the opposition of the Catholic party, who
+became alienated from the liberals, partly on the religious education
+question, but more especially because their former allies refused to
+protest against the Italian occupation of Rome. The election of 1873 did
+not improve matters, for it left the divided liberals to face an
+opposition of equal strength, whenever the conservatives,
+anti-revolutionaries and Catholics acted together. This same year saw
+the first phase of the war with the piratical state of Achin. An
+expedition of 3600 men under General Koehler was sent out against the
+defiant sultan in April, 1873, but suffered disaster, the General
+himself dying of disease. A second stronger expedition under General van
+Swieten was then dispatched, which was successful; and the sultan was
+deposed in January, 1874. This involved heavy charges on the treasury;
+and the ministry, after suffering two reverses in the Second Chamber,
+resigned (June, 1874), being succeeded by a Heemskerk coalition
+ministry.
+
+Heemskerk in his former premiership had shown himself to be a clever
+tactician, and for three years he managed to maintain himself in office
+against the combined opposition of the advanced liberals, the
+anti-revolutionaries and the Catholics. Groen van Prinsterer died in
+May, 1876; and with his death the hitherto aristocratic and exclusive
+party, which he had so long led, became transformed. Under its new
+leader, Abraham Kuyper, it became democratised, and, by combining its
+support of the religious principle in education with that of progressive
+reform, was able to exercise a far wider influence in the political
+sphere. Kuyper, for many years a Calvinist pastor, undertook in 1872 the
+editorship of the anti-revolutionary paper, _De Standdard_. In 1874 he
+was elected member for Gouda, but resigned in order to give his whole
+time to journalism in the interest of the political principles to which
+he now devoted his great abilities.
+
+The Heemskerk ministry had the support of no party, but by the
+opportunist skill of its chief it continued in office for three years;
+no party was prepared to take its place, and "the government of the king
+must be carried on." The measures that were passed in this time were
+useful rather than important. An attempt to deal with primary
+instruction led to the downfall of the ministry. The elections of 1877
+strengthened the liberals; and, an amendment to the speech from the
+throne being carried, Heemskerk resigned. His place was taken by Joannes
+Kappeyne, leader of the progressive liberals. A new department of State
+was now created, that of Waterways and Commerce, whose duties in a
+country like Holland, covered with a net-work of dykes and canals, was
+of great importance. A measure which denied State support to the
+"private" schools was bitterly resisted by the anti-revolutionaries and
+the Catholics, whose union in defence of religious education was from
+this time forward to become closer. The outlay in connection with the
+costly Achin war, which had broken out afresh, led to a considerable
+deficit in the budget. In consequence of this a proposal for the
+construction of some new canals was rejected by a majority of one. The
+financial difficulties, which had necessitated the imposing of unpopular
+taxes, had once more led to divisions in the liberal ranks; and
+Kappeyne, finding that the king would not support his proposals for a
+revision of the Fundamental Law, saw no course open to him but
+resignation.
+
+In these circumstances the king decided to ask an anti-revolutionary,
+Count van Lynden van Sandenburg, to form a "Ministry of Affairs,"
+composed of moderate men of various parties. Van Lynden had a difficult
+task, but with the strong support of the king his policy of conciliation
+carried him safely through four disquieting and anxious years. The
+revolt of the Boers in the Transvaal against British rule caused great
+excitement in Holland, and aroused much sympathy. Van Lynden was careful
+to avoid any steps which might give umbrage to England, and he was
+successful in his efforts. The Achin trouble was, however, still a
+cause of much embarrassment. Worst of all was the series of bereavements
+which at this time befell the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1877 Queen
+Sophie died, affectionately remembered for her interest in art and
+science, and her exemplary life. The king's brother, Henry, for thirty
+years Stadholder of Luxemburg, died childless early in 1879; and shortly
+afterwards in June the Prince of Orange, who had never married, passed
+away suddenly at Paris. The two sons of William III's uncle Frederick
+predeceased their father, whose death took place in 1881. Alexander, the
+younger son of the king, was sickly and feeble-minded; and with his
+decease in 1884, the male line of the House of Orange-Nassau became
+extinct. Foreseeing such a possibility in January, 1879, the already
+aged king took in second wedlock the youthful Princess Emma of
+Waldeck-Pyrmont. Great was the joy of the Dutch people, when, on August
+31, 1880, she gave birth to a princess, Wilhelmina, who became from this
+time forth the hope of a dynasty, whose history for three centuries had
+been bound up with that of the nation.
+
+The Van Lynden administration, having steered its way through many
+parliamentary crises for four years, was at last beaten upon a proposal
+to enlarge the franchise, and resigned (February 26, 1883). To Heemskerk
+was confided the formation of a coalition ministry of a neutral
+character; and this experienced statesman became for the third time
+first minister of the crown. The dissensions in the liberal party
+converted the Second Chamber into a meeting-place of hostile factions;
+and Heemskerk was better fitted than any other politician to be the head
+of a government which, having no majority to support it, had to rely
+upon tactful management and expediency. The rise of a socialist party
+under the enthusiastic leadership of a former Lutheran pastor, Domela
+Nieuwenhuis, added to the perplexities of the position. It soon became
+evident that a revision of the Fundamental Law and an extension of the
+franchise, which the king no longer opposed, was inevitable. Meanwhile
+the death of Prince Alexander and the king's growing infirmities made it
+necessary to provide, by a bill passed on August 2,1884, that Queen Emma
+should become regent during her daughter's minority.
+
+Everything conspired to beset the path of the Heemskerk ministry with
+hindrances to administrative or legislative action. The bad state of the
+finances (chiefly owing to the calls for the Achin war) the subdivision
+of all parties into groups, the socialist agitation and the weak
+health of the king, created something like a parliamentary deadlock. A
+revision of the constitution became more and more pressing as the only
+remedy, though no party was keenly in its favour. Certain proposals for
+revision were made by the government (March, 1885), but the
+anti-revolutionaries, the Catholics and the conservatives were united in
+opposition, unless concessions were made in the matter of religious
+education. Such concessions as were finally offered were rejected
+(April, 1886), and Heemskerk offered his resignation. Baron Mackay
+(anti-revolutionary) declining office, a dissolution followed. The
+result of the elections, however, was inconclusive, the liberals of all
+shades having a bare majority of four; but there was no change of
+ministry. A more conciliatory spirit fortunately prevailed under stress
+of circumstances in the new Chamber; and at last, after many debates,
+the law revising the constitution was passed through both Chambers, and
+approved by the king (November 30, 1887). It was a compromise measure,
+and no violent changes were made. The First Chamber was to consist of 50
+members, appointed by the Provincial Councils; the Second Chamber of 100
+members, chosen by an electorate of male persons of not less than 25
+years of age with a residential qualification and possessing "signs of
+fitness and social well-being"--a vague phrase requiring future
+definition. The number of electors was increased from (in round numbers)
+100,000 to 350,000, but universal male suffrage, the demand of the
+socialists and more advanced liberals, was not conceded.
+
+The elections of 1888 were fought on the question of religious education
+in the primary schools. The two "Christian" parties, the Calvinist
+anti-revolutionaries under the leadership of Dr Kuyper, and the
+Catholics, who had found a leader of eloquence and power in Dr
+Schaepman, a Catholic priest, coalesced in a common programme for a
+revision of Kappeyne's Education Act of 1878. The coalition obtained a
+majority, 27 anti-revolutionaries and 25 Catholics being returned as
+against 46 liberals of various groups. For the first time a socialist,
+Domela Nieuwenhuis, was elected. The conservative party was reduced to
+one member. In the First Chamber the liberals still commanded a
+majority. In April, 1888, Baron Mackay, an anti-revolutionary of
+moderate views, became first minister. The coalition made the revision
+of the Education Act of 1878 their first business; and they obtained the
+support of some liberals who were anxious to see the school question
+out of the way. The so-called "Mackay Law" was passed in 1889. It
+provided that "private" schools should receive State support on
+condition that they conformed to the official regulations; that the
+number of scholars should be not less than twenty-five; and that they
+should be under the management of some body, religious or otherwise,
+recognised by the State. This settlement was a compromise, but it
+offered the solution of an acute controversy and was found to work
+satisfactorily.
+
+The death of King William on November 23, 1890, was much mourned by his
+people. He was a man of strong and somewhat narrow views, but during his
+reign of 41 years his sincere love for his country was never in doubt,
+nor did he lose popularity by his anti-liberal attitude on many
+occasions, for it was known to arise from honest conviction; and it was
+amidst general regret that the last male representative of the House of
+Orange-Nassau was laid in his grave.
+
+A proposal by the Catholic minister Borgesius for the introduction of
+universal personal military service was displeasing however to many of
+his own party, and it was defeated with the help of Catholic dissidents.
+An election followed, and the liberals regained a majority. A new
+government was formed of a moderate progressive character, the premier
+being Cornelis van Tienhoven. It was a ministry of talents, Tak van
+Poortvliet (interior) and N.G. Pierson (finance) being men of marked
+ability. Pierson had more success than any of his predecessors in
+bringing to an end the recurring deficits in the annual balance sheet.
+He imposed an income tax on all incomes above 650 florins derived from
+salaries or commerce. All other sources of income were capitalised
+(funds, investments, farming, etc.); and a tax was placed on all capital
+above 13,000 florins. Various duties and customs were lowered, to the
+advantage of trade. There was, however, a growing demand for a still
+further extension of the franchise, and for an official interpretation
+of that puzzling qualification of the Revision of 1889--"signs of
+fitness and social well-being." Tak van Poortvliet brought in a measure
+which would practically have introduced universal male suffrage, for he
+interpreted the words as including all who could write and did not
+receive doles from charity. This proposal, brought forward in 1893,
+again split up the liberal party. The moderates under the leadership of
+Samuel van Houten vigorously opposed such an increase of the electorate;
+and they had the support of the more conservative anti-revolutionaries
+and a large part of the Catholics. The more democratic followers of
+Kuyper and Schaepman and the progressive radicals ranged themselves on
+the side of Tak van Poortvliet. All parties were thus broken up into
+hostile groups. The election of 1894 was contested no longer on party
+lines, but between Takkians and anti-Takkians. The result was adverse to
+Tak, his following only mustering 46 votes against 54 for their
+opponents.
+
+A new administration therefore came into office (May, 1894) under the
+presidency of Jonkheer Johan Roell with Van Houten as minister of the
+interior. On Van Houten's shoulders fell the task of preparing a new
+electoral law. His proposals were finally approved in 1896. Before this
+took place the minister of finance, Spenger van Eyk, had succeeded in
+relieving the treasury by the conversion of the public debt from a 3-1/2
+to a 3 per cent, security. The Van Houten reform of the franchise was
+very complicated, as there were six different categories of persons
+entitled to exercise the suffrage: (1) payers of at least one guilder in
+direct taxation; (2) householders or lodgers paying a certain minimum
+rent and having a residential qualification; (3) proprietors or hirers
+of vessels of 24 tons at least; (4) earners of a certain specified wage
+or salary; (5) investors of 100 guilders in the public funds or of 50
+guilders in a savings bank; (6) persons holding certain educational
+diplomas. This very wide and comprehensive franchise raised the number
+of electors to about 700,000.
+
+The election of 1897, after first promising a victory to the more
+conservative groups, ended by giving a small majority to the liberals,
+the progressive section winning a number of seats, and the socialists
+increasing their representation in the Chamber. A liberal-concentration
+cabinet took the place of the Roell-Van Houten ministry, its leading
+members being Pierson (finance) and Goeman-Borgesius (interior). For a
+right understanding of the parliamentary situation at this time and
+during the years that follow, a brief account of the groups and sections
+of groups into which political parties in Holland were divided, must
+here interrupt the narrative of events.
+
+It has already been told that the deaths of Thorbecke and Groen
+van Prinsterer led to a breaking up of the old parties and the
+formation of new groups. The Education Act of 1878 brought about an
+alliance of the two parties, who made the question of religious
+education in the primary schools the first article of their political
+programme--the anti-revolutionaries led by the ex-Calvinist pastor
+Dr Abraham Kuyper and the Catholics by Dr Schaepman, a Catholic
+priest. Kuyper and Schaepman were alike able journalists, and used
+the press with conspicuous success for the propagation of their
+views, both being advocates of social reform on democratic lines. The
+anti-revolutionaries, however, did not, as a body, follow the lead of
+Kuyper. An aristocratic section, whose principles were those of Groen
+van Prinsterer, "orthodox" and "conservative," under the appellation of
+"Historical Christians," were opposed to the democratic ideas of Kuyper,
+and were by tradition anti-Catholic. Their leader was Jonkheer Savornin
+Lohman. For some years there was a separate Frisian group of "Historical
+Christians," but these finally amalgamated with the larger body. The
+liberals meanwhile had split up into three groups: (1) the Old
+Independent _(vrij)_ Liberals; (2) the Liberal Progressive Union
+_(Unie van vooruitstrevende Liberalen)_; (3) Liberal-Democrats
+_(vrijzinnig-democratischen Bond)_. The socialist party was a
+development of the _Algemeene Nederlandsche Werklieden Verbond_ founded
+in 1871. Ten years later, by the activities of the fiery agitator,
+Domela Nieuwenhuis, the Social-Democratic Bond was formed; and the
+socialists became a political party. The loss of Nieuwenhuis' seat in
+1891 had the effect of making him abandon constitutional methods for a
+revolutionary and anti-religious crusade. The result of this was a split
+in the socialist party and the formation, under the leadership of
+Troelstra, Van Kol and Van der Goes, of the "Social-Democratic Workmen's
+Party," which aimed at promoting the welfare of the proletariat on
+socialistic lines, but by parliamentary means. The followers of Domela
+Nieuwenhuis, whose openly avowed principles were "the destruction of
+actual social conditions by all means legal and illegal," were after
+1894 known as "the Socialist Bond." This anarchical party, who took as
+their motto "neither God nor master," rapidly decreased in number; their
+leader, discouraged by his lack of success in 1898, withdrew finally
+from the political arena; and the Socialist Bond was dissolved. This
+gave an accession of strength to the "Social-Democratic Workmen's
+Party," which has since the beginning of the present century gradually
+acquired an increasing hold upon the electorate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXV
+
+THE REIGN OF QUEEN WILHELMINA, 1898-1917
+
+
+THE Pierson-Borgesius ministry had not been long in office when Queen
+Wilhelmina attained her majority (August 31, 1898) amidst public
+enthusiasm. At the same time the Queen-Mother received many expressions
+of high appreciation for the admirable manner in which for eight years
+she had discharged her constitutional duties. The measures passed by
+this administration dealt with many subjects of importance. Personal
+military service was at last, after years of controversy, enforced by
+law, ecclesiastics and students alone being excepted. Attendance at
+school up to the age of 13 was made obligatory, and the subsidies for
+the upkeep of the schools and the payment of teachers were substantially
+increased. The year 1899 was memorable for the meeting of the first
+Peace Congress (on the initiative of the Tsar Nicholas II) at the _Huis
+in't Bosch_. The deliberations and discussions began on May 18 and
+lasted until June 29. By the irony of events, a few months later
+(October 10) a war broke out, in which the Dutch people felt a great and
+sympathetic interest, between the two Boer republics of South Africa and
+Great Britain. Bitter feelings were aroused, and the queen did but
+reflect the national sentiment when she personally received in the most
+friendly manner President Krueger, who arrived in Holland as a fugitive
+on board a Dutch man-of-war in the summer of 1900. The official attitude
+of the government was however perfectly correct, and there was never any
+breach in the relations between Great Britain and the Netherlands.
+
+The marriage of Queen Wilhelmina, on February 7, 1901, with Prince Henry
+of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was welcomed by the people, as affording hopes,
+for some years to be disappointed, of the birth of an heir to the
+throne.
+
+The elections of 1901 found the liberal ministry out of favour through
+the laws enforcing military service and obligatory attendance at school.
+Against them the indefatigable Dr Kuyper, who had returned to active
+politics in 1897, had succeeded in uniting the three "Church"
+groups--the democratic anti-revolutionaries, the aristocratic Historical
+Christians (both orthodox Calvinists) and the Catholics of all
+sections--into a "Christian Coalition" in support of religious teaching
+in the schools. The victory lay with the coalition, and Dr Kuyper became
+first minister. The new administration introduced a measure on Higher
+Education, which was rejected by the First Chamber. A dissolution of
+this Chamber led to the majority being reversed, and the measure was
+passed. Another measure revised the Mackay Law and conferred a larger
+subsidy on "private" schools. The socialist party under the able
+leadership of Troelstra had won several seats at the election; and in
+1903 a general strike was threatened unless the government conceded the
+demands of the socialist labour party. The threat was met with firmness;
+an anti-strike law was quickly passed; the military was called out; and
+the strike collapsed. The costly war in Achin, which had been
+smouldering for some years, burst out again with violence in the years
+1902-3, and led to sanguinary reprisals on the part of the Dutch
+soldiery, the report of which excited indignation against the
+responsible authorities. Various attempts had been made in 1895 and 1899
+to introduce protectionist duties, but unsuccessfully.
+
+The quadrennial elections of 1905 found all the liberal groups united in
+a combined assault upon the Christian Coalition. A severe electoral
+struggle ensued, with the result that 45 liberals and 7 socialists were
+returned against 48 coalitionists. Dr Kuyper resigned; and a new
+ministry, under the leadership of the moderate liberal, De Meester, took
+its place. The De Meester government was however dependent upon the
+socialist vote, and possessed no independent majority in either Chamber.
+For the first time a ministry of agriculture, industry and trade was
+created. Such an administration could only lead a precarious existence,
+and in 1907 an adverse vote upon the military estimates led to its
+resignation. Th. Heemskerk undertook the task of forming a new cabinet
+from the anti-revolutionary and Catholic groups, and at the next general
+election of 1909 he won a conclusive victory at the polls. This victory
+was obtained by wholesale promises of social reforms, including old age
+pensions and poor and sick relief. As so often happens, such a programme
+could not be carried into effect without heavy expenditure; and the
+means were not forthcoming. To meet the demand a bill was introduced
+in August, 1911, by the finance minister, Dr Kolkmar, to increase
+considerably the existing duties, and to extend largely the list of
+dutiable imports. This bill led to a widespread agitation in the
+country, and many petitions were presented against it, with the result
+that it was withdrawn. A proposal made by this ministry in 1910 to spend
+38,000,000 florins on the fortification of Flushing excited much adverse
+criticism in the press of Belgium, England and France, on the ground
+that it had been done at the suggestion of the German government, the
+object being to prevent the British fleet from seizing Flushing in the
+event of the outbreak of an Anglo-German war. The press agitation met,
+however, with no countenance on the part of responsible statesmen in any
+of the countries named; it led nevertheless to the abandonment of the
+original proposal and the passing of a bill in 1912 for the improvement
+of the defences of the Dutch sea-ports generally.
+
+The election of 1913 reversed the verdict of 1909. Probably in no
+country has the principle of the "swing of the pendulum" been so
+systematically verified as it has in Holland in recent times. The
+returns were in 1913: Church parties, 41; liberals of all groups, 39;
+socialists, 15. The most striking change was the increase in the
+socialist vote, their representation being more than doubled; and, as in
+1905, they held the balance of parties in their hands. With some
+difficulty Dr Cort van den Linden succeeded in forming a liberal
+ministry. The outbreak of the Great War in August, 1914, prevented them
+from turning their attention to any other matters than those arising
+from the maintenance of a strict neutrality in a conflict which placed
+them in a most difficult and dangerous position. One of the first
+questions on which they had to take a critical decision was the closing
+of the Scheldt. As soon as Great Britain declared war on Germany (August
+4), Holland refused to allow any belligerent vessels to pass over its
+territorial waters. The events of the six years that have since passed
+are too near for comment here. The liberal ministry at least deserves
+credit for having steered the country safely through perilous waters.
+Nevertheless, at the quadrennial election of 1917 there was the
+customary swing of the pendulum; and an anti-liberal ministry (September
+6) was formed, with a Catholic, M. Ruys de Beerenbronck, as first
+minister.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EPILOGUE
+
+
+The dynastic connection of Luxemburg with Holland ceased with the
+accession of Queen Wilhelmina. The conditions under which the Belgian
+province of Luxemburg was created, by the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, a
+grand-duchy under the sovereignty of the head of the House of
+Orange-Nassau with succession in default of heirs-male by the family
+compact, known as the _Nassauischer Erbverein_, to the nearest male
+agnate of the elder branch of the Nassau family, have already been
+related. With the death of William III the male line of the House of
+Orange-Nassau became extinct; and the succession passed to Adolphus,
+Duke of Nassau-Weilburg. How unfortunate and ill-advised was the action
+of the Congress of Vienna in the creation of the Grand-Duchy of
+Luxemburg was abundantly shown by the difficulties and passions which it
+aroused in the course of the negotiations for the erection of Belgium
+into an independent state (1830-39). By the treaty of April 19, 1839,
+the Walloon portion of Luxemburg became part of the kingdom of Belgium,
+but in exchange for this cession the grand-duke obtained the sovereignty
+of a strip of the Belgian province of Limburg. This caused a fresh
+complication.
+
+Luxemburg in 1815 was not merely severed from the Netherlands; it, as a
+sovereign grand-duchy, was made a state of the Germanic confederation.
+By virtue of the exchange sanctioned by the treaty of 1839, the ceded
+portion of Limburg became a state of the confederation. But with the
+revision of the Dutch constitution, which in 1840 followed the final
+separation of Holland and Belgium, by the wish of the king his duchy of
+Limburg was included in the new Fundamental Law, and thus became
+practically a Dutch province. The Limburgers had thus a strange and
+ambiguous position. They had to pay taxes, to furnish military
+contingents and to send deputies to two different sovereign authorities.
+This state of things continued with more or less friction, until the
+victory of Prussia over Austria in 1866 led to the dissolution of the
+Germanic confederation. At the conference of London, 1867, Luxemburg was
+declared to be an independent state, whose neutrality was guaranteed
+by the Great Powers, while Limburg became an integral portion of the
+kingdom of the Netherlands.
+
+Since the middle of the last century the financial position of Holland
+has been continuously improving. The heavy indebtedness of the country,
+in the period which followed the separation from Belgium, was gradually
+diminished. This was effected for a number of years by the doubtful
+expedient of the profits derived from the exploitation of the East
+Indian colonies through the "Cultivation System." With the passing of
+the revised Fundamental Law of 1848 the control of colonial affairs and
+of the colonial budget was placed in the hands of the States-General;
+and a considerable section of the Liberal party began henceforth to
+agitate for the abolition of a system which was very oppressive to the
+Javanese population. It was not, however, until 1871 that the reform was
+carried out. Meanwhile, chiefly by the efforts of Thorbecke, the methods
+of home finance had been greatly improved by the removal, so far as
+possible, of indirect imposts, and the introduction of a free trade
+policy, which since his days has been steadily maintained. Such a policy
+is admirably suitable to a country which possesses neither minerals nor
+coal[15], and whose wealth is mainly due to sea-or river-borne trade, to
+dairy farming and to horticulture. For its supply of corn and many other
+necessary commodities Holland has to look to other countries. The
+fisheries still form one of the staple industries of the land, and
+furnish a hardy sea-faring population for the considerable mercantile
+marine, which is needed for constant intercourse with a colonial empire
+(the third in importance at the present time) consisting chiefly of
+islands in a far-distant ocean.
+
+Between 1850 and 1914, 375,430,000 fl. have been devoted to the
+reduction of debt; and the Sinking Fund in 1915 was 6,346,000 fl. Since
+that date Holland has suffered from the consequences of the Great War,
+but, having successfully maintained her neutrality, she has suffered
+relatively far less than any of her neighbours. Taxation in Holland has
+always been high. It is to a large extent an artificial country; and
+vast sums have been expended and must always be expended in the upkeep
+of the elaborate system of dykes and canals, by which the waters of the
+ocean and the rivers are controlled and prevented from flooding large
+areas of land lying below sea level.
+
+Culture in Holland is widely diffused. The well-to-do classes usually
+read and speak two or three languages beside their own; and the Dutch
+language is a finished literary tongue of great flexibility and
+copiousness. The system of education is excellent. Since 1900 attendance
+at the primary schools between the ages of six and thirteen is
+compulsory. Between the primary schools intermediate education
+(_middelbaaronderwijs_) is represented by "burgher night-schools" and
+"higher burgher schools." The night-schools are intended for those
+engaged in agricultural or industrial work; the "higher schools" for
+technical instruction, and much attention is paid to the study of the
+_vier talen_--French, English, German and Dutch. In connection with
+these there is an admirable School of Agriculture, Horticulture and
+Forestry at Wageningen in Gelderland. To the teaching at Wageningen is
+largely due the acknowledged supremacy of Holland in scientific
+horticulture. There is a branch establishment at Groningen for
+agricultural training, and another at Deventer for instruction in
+subjects connected with colonial life. The _gymnasia_, which are to be
+found in every town, are preparatory to the universities. The course
+lasts six years; and the study of Latin and Greek in addition to modern
+languages is compulsory. There are four universities, Leyden, Utrecht,
+Groningen and Amsterdam. The possession of a doctor's degree at one of
+these universities is necessary for magistrates, physicians, advocates,
+and for teachers in the _gymnasia_ and higher burgher schools.
+
+In so small a country the literary output is remarkable, and, marked as
+it is by scientific and intellectual distinction, deserves to be more
+widely read. The Dutch are justly proud of the great part their
+forefathers played during the War of Independence, and in the days of
+John de Witt and William III. For scientific historical research in the
+national archives, and in the publication of documents bearing upon and
+illustrating the national annals, Dutch historians can compare
+favourably with those of any other country. Special mention should be
+made of the labours of Robert Fruin, who may be described as the founder
+of a school with many disciples, and whose collected works are a
+veritable treasure-house of brilliant historical studies, combining
+careful research with acute criticism. Among his many disciples the
+names of Dr P.J. Blok and Dr H.T. Colenbrander are perhaps the best
+known.
+
+In the department of Biblical criticism there have been in Holland
+several writers of European repute, foremost among whom stands the name
+of Abraham Kuenen.
+
+Dutch writers of fiction have been and are far more numerous than could
+have been expected from the limited number of those able to read their
+works. In the second half of the 19th century, J. van Lennep and Mevrouw
+Bosboom-Toussaint were the most prolific writers. Both of these were
+followers of the Walter Scott tradition, their novels being mainly
+patriotic romances based upon episodes illustrating the past history of
+the Dutch people. Van Lennep's contributions to literature were,
+however, by no means confined to the writing of fiction, as his great
+critical edition of Vondel's poetical works testifies. Mevrouw
+Bosboom-Toussaint's novels were not only excellent from the literary
+point of view, but as reproductions of historical events were most
+conscientiously written. Her pictures, for instance, of the difficult
+and involved period of Leicester's governor-generalship are admirable.
+The writings of Douwes Dekker (under the pseudonym Multatuli) are
+noteworthy from the fact that his novel _Max Havelaar_, dealing with
+life in Java and setting forth the sufferings of the natives through the
+"cultivation system," had a large share in bringing about its abolition.
+
+The 20th century school of Dutch novelists is of a different type from
+their predecessors and deals with life and life's problems in every
+form. Among the present-day authors of fiction, the foremost place
+belongs to Louis Conperus, an idealist and mystic, who as a stylist is
+unapproached by any of his contemporaries.
+
+No account of modern Holland would be complete without a notice of the
+great revival of Dutch painting, which has taken place in the past half
+century. Without exaggeration it may indeed be said that this modern
+renascence of painting in Holland is not unworthy to be compared with
+that of the days of Rembrandt. The names of Joseph Israels, Hendrik
+Mesdag, Vincent van Gogh, Anton Maure, and, not least, of the three
+talented brothers Maris, have attained a wide and well-deserved
+reputation. And to these must be added others of high merit: Bilders,
+Scheffer, Bosboom, Rochussen, Bakhuysen, Du Chattel, De Haas and
+Haverman. The traditional representation of the Dutchman as stolid,
+unemotional, wholly absorbed in trade and material interests, is a
+caricature. These latter-day artists, like those of the 17th century,
+conclusively prove that the Dutch race is singularly sensitive to the
+poetry of form and colour, and that it possesses an inherited capacity
+and power for excelling in the technical qualities of the painter's
+art.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+     FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [Footnote 1: Hollandais, Hollaender, Olandesi, Olandeses,
+     etc.]
+
+     [Footnote 2: In French books and documents, Jacqueline.]
+
+     [Footnote 3: Bois-le-duc.]
+
+     [Footnote 4: By English and French writers generally
+     translated Grand Pensionary.]
+
+     [Footnote 5: It must be remembered that the States-General
+     and the Holland Estates sat in the same building.]
+
+     [Footnote 6: Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, I, 101.]
+
+     [Footnote 7: Busken Huet, _Land van Rembrant_, III, 175.]
+
+     [Footnote 8: _Acte van Seclusie._]
+
+     [Footnote 9: Nassauischer Erbverein.]
+
+     [Footnote 10: Charles White, _The Belgic Revolution_, 1835,
+     vol. 1, p. 106.]
+
+     [Footnote 11: _Correspondence secrete des Pays-Bas_. Julian
+     received his report of the conversation direct from Count
+     Bylandt by permission of the king.]
+
+     [Footnote 12: From Van Maanen's private papers. See
+     Colenbrander's _Belgische Omwenteling_, p. 139.]
+
+     [Footnote 13: The ratification by the Powers took place on
+     the following dates:--France and Great Britain, January 31;
+     Austria and Prussia, April 18; Russia, May 4, 1832.]
+
+     [Footenote 14: The Prince of Orange had married Anna
+     Paulovna, sister of Alexander I, in 1816.]
+
+     [Footnote 15: The Belgian coal field extends into Dutch
+     Limburg.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+GENERAL
+
+(_a_) ARCHIVALIA. BOOKS OF REFERENCE
+
+AA, A.J. VAN DER. Biographisch woordenboek d. Nederlanden bevatt.
+  levensbeschrijvingen der personen, die zich in ons vaderland hebben
+  vermaard gemacht, voortgezet door K.J.R. v. Harderwijk en
+  G.D.J. Schotel. 27 vols. Haarlem. 1851-70.
+
+BERGH, L. PH.C. VAN DEN. Over MSS betr. onze geschiedenis in het
+  Britsch Museum bewaard. Arnhem. 1858.
+
+BLOK, P.J. Onze archieven. Amsterdam. 1891.
+  Verslag aangaande een onderzoek in Duitschland naar Archivalia,
+  belangrijk voor de geschiedenis van Nederland. 2 vols. The
+  Hague. 1888-9.
+  Verslag aangaande een voorloopig onderzoek in Engelandt naar
+  Archivalia, belangrijk voor de gesch. v.N. The Hague. 1891.
+  Verslag aangaande een voorloopig onderzoek in Parijs naar
+  Archivalia, belangrijk voor de gesch. v.N. The Hague. 1897.
+
+BRINK, R.C. BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN. Overzigt van het Nederl. Rijk's
+  Archief. The Hague. 1854.
+
+KNUTTEL, W.P.C. Nederlandsche bibliographic voor kerkgeschiedenis.
+  Amsterdam. 1889.
+  Catalogus van de pamfletten-verzameling berustende in de
+  koninklijke biblioteek. 6 vols. The Hague. 1899, 1900, 1902.
+
+KOK, J. Vaderlandsch Woordenboek. 35 vols. Amsterdam. 1735-99.
+
+PETIT, LOUIS D. Repertorium der verhandelingen en bijdragen betreff.
+  de geschied. des Vaterlands in tijdschriften en mengelwerken tot op
+  1900 verschenen. Leyden. 1905.
+
+RIEMSDIJK, TH.V. Het Rijk's Archief te's Gravenhage. The Hague.
+  1889.
+
+SCHELTEMA, P. Inventaris van het Amsterdamsch Archief. 3 vols.
+  Amsterdam. 1866-74.
+
+UHLENBEEK, C.C. Verslag aangaande een onderzoek in de archieven
+  van Rusland ten bate der Nederl. Geschiedenis. The Hague. 1891.
+
+
+(_b_) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS
+
+AREND, J.P. Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands van de vroegste
+  tijden tot op heden, voortgezet.... 13 vols. Amsterdam. 1840-83.
+
+BILDERDIJK, W. Geschiedenis des Vaderlands. 14 vols. Amsterdam.
+  1832-53.
+
+BLOK, P.J. Geschiedenis des Vaderlands. 9 vols. Groningen. 1892-1908.
+  English translation in five parts. London and New York.
+
+DAVIES, C.M. History of Holland and of the Dutch. 5 vols. London.
+  1851.
+
+FRUIN, R. Geschiedenis der Staat-Instellingen in Nederland tot den
+  Val der Republiek. The Hague. 1893.
+
+GROEN v. PRINSTERER, G. Handboek der Geschied. des Vaterlands.
+  2 vols. Leyden. 1846.
+
+JONGE, J.C. DE. Geschiedenis v. het Nederlandsche Zee-Wesen. 6 vols.
+  The Hague. 1833-45.
+
+NIJHOFF, I.A. Staatkundige Geschiedenis van Nederland. 2 vols.
+  Zutphen. 1891-3.
+
+RIJSENS, F. Geschiedenis van ons Vaderland. Groningen. 1904.
+
+ROGERS, J.E. THOROLD. History of Holland. London. 1888.
+
+VOS, J.M. Geschiedenis van ons Vaderland van oude tijden tot heden.
+  Groningen. 1915.
+
+VREEDE, G.W. Inleiding tot eene Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche
+  diplomatie. 6 vols. Utrecht. 1856-65.
+
+WAGENAAR, J. Vaderlandsche Historie. 21 vols. Amsterdam. 1749-59.
+
+WENZELBERGER, K. TH. Geschichte der Niederlande. 2 vols. Gotha.
+  1879-86.
+
+WIJNE, J.A. Geschiedenis van het Vaderland. Groningen. 1870.
+
+
+XVITH CENTURY
+
+(_a_) CONTEMPORARY WORKS AND COLLECTIONS
+    OF ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS
+
+BOR, P. Oorspronck, begin en ende aenvang der Nederlandsche oorlogen,
+  beroerten ende borgelijcke oneenicheyden. 6 vols. Amsterdam
+  and Leyden. 1621.
+
+BRUCE, J. Correspondence of Leicester during his Government in the
+  Low Countries. London. 1844.
+
+CARNERO, A. Historia de las guerras civiles que han avido en los
+  estados
+  de Flandes des del anno 1559 hasta el de 1609, y las causas de la
+  rebelion de dichos estados. Brussels. 1625.
+
+COLOMA, C. Las guerras de los Estados Baxos, desde el anno de 1588
+  hasta el de 1599. Antwerp. 1625.
+
+GACHARD, P.L. Correspondance de Philippe II sur les affaires
+  des Pays-Bas.
+  5 vols. Brussels. 1867-87.
+  --Correspondance de Guillaume le Taciturne. 6 vols. Brussels.
+  1847-57
+  --Correspondance d'Alexandre Farnese, Prince de Parma, gouv.-gen.
+  des Pays-Bas avec Philippe II, 1578-9. Brussels. 1850.
+
+GROEN v. PRINSTERER, G. Archives ou Correspondance inedite de la
+  Maison d'Orange-Nassau. I^e serie. 9 vols. Leyden. 2^e serie.
+  5 vols. Utrecht. 1841-61.
+
+GROTIUS, HUGO. Annales et historiae de rebus belgicis. Amsterdam. 1637.
+
+HOOFT, P.C. Nederlandsche Historien, 1555-87. Amsterdam. 1656.
+
+JUSTE, TH. Charles Quint et Marguerite d'Autriche. Brussels. 1858.
+
+LE GLAY, A. Maximilian I et Marguerite d'Autriche. Paris. 1855.
+
+LETTENHOVE, J.M. KERVYN DE. Relations politiques des Pays-Bas et de
+   l'Angleterre sous le regne de Philippe II. 5 vols. Brussels. 1882-6.
+
+METEREN, E. VAN. Belgische ofte Nederlandsche historien van onzen
+   tijden tot 1598. Delft. 1605.
+
+PETIT, J.F. LE. Grande Chronique de Hollande, Zelande, etc. jusqu'a
+  la fin de 1600. 2 vols. Dordrecht. 1601.
+
+REYD, E. VAN. Vornaemste gheschiedennissen in de Nederlanden,
+  1566-1601. Arnhem. 1626.
+
+WEISS, C. Papiers d'Etat de Cardinal Granvelle. 9 vols. Paris.
+  1841-52.
+
+
+(_b_) LATER WORKS
+
+BRINK, J. TEN. De eerste Jaren der Nederlandsche Revolutie, 1555-68.
+  Rotterdam. 1882.
+
+BRUGMANS, H. Engeland en de Nederlanden in de eerste jaren van
+  Elizabeth's regeering, 1558-67. Groningen. 1892.
+
+FRUIN, R. Tien jaren uit den tachtigjarigen oorlog, 1588-98.
+  Amsterdam. 1861.
+  Het voorspel van den tachtigjarigen oorlog. Amsterdam. 1866.
+
+JUSTE, TH. Histoire de la Revolution des Pays-Bas sous Philippe II,
+  1555-71. 2 vols. Brussels. 1855.
+
+  Continuation, 1572-7. 2 vols. The Hague. 1863-7.
+
+LETTENHOVE, J.M. KERVYN DE. Les Huguenots et les Gueux, 1560-85.
+  6 vols. Bruges. 1883-5.
+
+MOTLEY, J.L. Rise of the Dutch Republic, 1555-84. 3 vols. London.
+  1856.
+  History of the United Netherlands, 1584-1609. 4 vols. The
+  Hague, 1860-7.
+
+TREMAYNE, E.E. The first Governors of the Netherlands. London.
+  1908.
+
+
+(_c_) BIOGRAPHICAL
+
+BLOK, P.J. Lodewijk van Nassau, 1536-1674. The Hague. 1889.
+
+BURGON, J.W. Life and times of Thomas Gresham, compiled chiefly
+  from his correspondence. 2 vols. London. 1839.
+
+HARRISON, F. William the Silent. London. 1897.
+
+HUME, M. Philip II of Spain. London. 1902.
+
+MONTPLEINCHAMP, B. DE. L'histoire d'Alexandre Farnese, duc de
+  Parma, gouverneur de la Belgique. Amsterdam. 1692.
+
+PIETRO, FRA. Alessandro Farnese, duca di Parma. Rome. 1836.
+
+PUTNAM, R. William the Silent, prince of Orange. 2 vols.
+  New York. 1895.
+
+RACHFELD, F. Margaretha von Parma, Statthalterin der Niederlande,
+  1559-67. Munich. 1895.
+
+
+XVIITH CENTURY
+
+(_a_) CONTEMPORARY WORKS AND COLLECTIONS
+OF ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS
+
+AITZEMA, L. v. Saken van Staet en Oorlog in ende omtrent de Vereen.
+  Nederlanden, 1621-69. 7 vols. The Hague. 1669-71.
+
+  Verhael van de Nederlandsche Vredehandel, 1621-49. 2 vols.
+  The Hague. 1650.
+
+AITZEMA, L. v. Herstelde Leeuw of discours over 't gepassert in de
+  Vereen. Nederlanden, 1650-1. The Hague. 1652.
+
+ALBUQUERQUE, DUARTE DE. Memorias Diarias della guerra del Brasil per
+  discurso de nueve afios desde el de 1630. Madrid. 1654.
+
+Archief v. den Raadpensionaris Antonie Heinsius, 1683-97. 3 vols.
+  The Hague. 1867-80.
+
+AVAUX, COMTE D' (JEAN ANTOINE DE MESNIER). Negotiations en Hollande,
+  1679-88. 6 vols. Paris. 1750-4.
+
+BARLAEUS, C. Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum
+  sub praefectura Com. J. Mauritii Nassoviae historia. Amsterdam.
+  1647.
+  Epistolarum liber. 2 vols. Amsterdam. 1667.
+
+BURNET, G. (Bishop of Salisbury). History of my own times. 2 vols.
+  London. 1724-34.
+
+CAPELLEN, ALEX. VAN DER. Gedenkschriften, 1621-54, uitg. d. R.J. v.
+  d. Capellen. 2 vols. Utrecht. 1777-8.
+
+D'ESTRADES, COMTE G. Lettres, memoires, negotiations depuis 1637.
+  9 vols. London. 1743.
+
+GARDINER, S.R. Letters and Papers rel. to the First Dutch War,
+  1652-4. 2 vols. London. 1899-1900.
+
+GROEN v. PRINSTERER, G. Archives ou Correspondance de la Maison
+  d'Orange. 2e serie. 3 vols. Utrecht. 1841-61.
+
+GROTIUS, HUGO. Epistolae ad Gallos. Leyden. 1650.
+
+HOOFT, P.C. Brieven (1600-47) met toelichtingen door v. Vloten.
+  4 vols. Leyden. 1655-7.
+
+HUYGHENS, CONSTANTIJN. Dagboek, 1606-85. Ed. J.H. Unger.
+  Amsterdam. 1885.
+
+  Memoires. Ed. T. Jorissen. The Hague. 1873.
+
+HUYGHENS, CONSTANTIJN DE ZOON. Journael gedurende de veldtochten
+  der Jaren 1673, 1675, 1676, 1677 en 1678. Utrecht.
+  1831.
+
+LAET, J. DE. Historic ofte jaerlijck verhael van de verrichtingen der
+  West Indische Compagnie, sedert 1636. Leyden. 1644.
+
+Marie, Reine d'Angleterre, e'pouse de Guillaume III, Lettres et
+  Memoires
+  de Collection de doc. authent. inedits publ. par Mad.
+  Comtesse Bentinck. The Hague. 1880.
+
+Mary, Queen of England, Memoirs of. Ed. E. Doelmer. Leipzig.
+  1886.
+
+TEMPLE, SIR W. Letters written by W. Temple and other ministers of
+  State containing an account of the most important transactions
+  that
+  passed from 1665-72. 3 vols. London. 1702-3.
+
+  Letters written during his being ambassador at the Hague to the
+  Earl of Arlington and John Trevor, Secretaries of State, by
+  D. Jones.
+  London. 1699.
+
+THURLOE, J. Collection of State Papers, etc. 7 vols. London. 1702-3.
+
+WICQUEFORT, ABRAHAM DE. Histoire des Provinces Unies des Pays-Bas
+  depuis la paix de Munster, 1648-58. Edd. Lenting and Van Buren.
+  4 vols. Amsterdam. 1861-74.
+
+WITT, J. DE. Brieven ...gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johann De
+  Witt ... ende de gevolmagtigden v. d. Staet d. Vereen. Nederlanden,
+  so in Vrankryck, Engelandt, Zweden, Denemarken, Poolen enz.
+  1652-69.
+  6 vols. The Hague. 1723-5.
+
+
+( _b_)LATER WORKS
+
+BEINS, L. Jean de Witt en zijne buitenlandsche politick, 1653-60.
+  Groningen. 1871.
+
+BRILL, W.C. Cromwell's strijving naar eene coalitie tusschen de
+  Nederlanden
+  en de Britsche republiek. Amsterdam. 1891.
+
+EDMUNDSON, GEORGE. Anglo-Dutch Rivalry in the first half of the 17th
+  century. Oxford. 1911.
+
+FRUIN, R. De oorlogsplannen van Prins Willem II na zijn aanslag op
+  Amsterdam in 1650. The Hague. 1895.
+
+  Het process van Buat, 1666. The Hague. 1881.
+
+GEDDES, J. History of the administration of John De Witt. The Hague.
+  1879.
+
+JAPIKSE, N. De verwikkelingen tusschen de Republiek en Engeland,
+  1660-5. London. 1900.
+
+LEFEVRE-PONTALIS, A. Vingt annees de Republique parlementaire au
+  xvii^e siecle. Jean de Witt, Grand Pensionaris de Hollande. 2 vols.
+  Paris. 1884.
+
+MULLER, P.L. Wilhelm III von Oranien und Georg Friedrich van
+  Waldeck. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Kampfes um das
+Euro-paische Gleichgewicht, 1679-92. 2 vols. The Hague. 1872-80.
+  Nederland en de Groote Keurvorst. The Hague. 1879.
+
+MUTZUKURI, G. Englisch-Niederlaendische Unionsstrebungen im
+  Zeit-alter Cromwell's. Tubingen. 1891.
+
+SIRTEMA DE GROVESTINS. Guillaume III et Louis XIV. 8 vols. Paris.
+  1868.
+
+TREITSCHKE, H. VON. Die Republik der Vereinigten Niederlande.
+  Historische
+  und politische Aufsatze. 4 vols. Leipzig. 1870.
+
+
+(_c_) BIOGRAPHICAL
+
+BAUMGAeRTNER, ALEXANDER. Joost van den Vondel, zijn leven en zijne
+  werken. (Trs. from German.) Amsterdam. 1886.
+
+BRANDT, C. Leven en bedrijf van Michiel De Ruyter. Amsterdam.
+  1687.
+
+DALTON, C. Life and times of Sir Edward Cecil, Viscount Wimbledon,
+  Colonel of an English Regiment in the Dutch Service, 1605-31.
+  2 vols. London. 1885.
+
+EDMUNDSON, G. Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. (Eng. Hist. Rev.
+  41, 264--1890.)
+
+  Louis de Geer. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 685--1891.)
+
+  Pieter Cornelisz. Hooft. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 77--1894.)
+
+GEER, J.L.W. DE. Lodewijk de Geer van Finspong en Leufsta, 1593-1652.
+       Utrecht. 1882.
+
+KEMP, ... Maurits van Nassau, prins v. Oranje, in zijn leven
+  en verdiensten. 4 vols. Rotterdam. 1843.
+
+LE CLERCQ, P. Het leven van Frederick Hendrick. 2 vols. The Hague.
+  1737.
+
+MARKHAM, C.B. The fighting Veres. Lives of Sir Francis Vere and Sir
+  Horace Vere, successively generals of the Queen's forces in the Low
+  Countries. Boston. 1888.
+
+MICHEL, E. Rembrandt, sa vie, son oeuvre et son temps. Paris. 1893.
+
+MOTLEY, J.L. Life and death of John of Barneveldt. 2 vols. The
+  Hague. 1874.
+
+OOSTKAMP, J.A. Leven en daden van Marten Harpzn. Tromp en Jacob
+  van Wassenaar van Obdam. Deventer. 1825.
+
+SCHOTEL, G.D.J. Anna Maria van Schuurman. 'sHertogenbosch. 1853.
+
+SIMONS, P. Johan De Witt en zijn tijd. 3 vols. Amsterdam. 1832-48.
+
+TRAILL, H.D. William III. London. 1888.
+
+TREVOR, A. Life and times of William III, 1650-1702. 2 vols. London.
+  1835-6.
+
+VLOTEN, J. VAN. Tesselschade Roemers en hare vrienden, 1632-49.
+  Leyden. 1652.
+
+
+(_d_) COLONIZATION, COMMERCE, VOYAGES
+
+DEVENTER, M.L. v. Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java. 2 vols.
+  Haarlem. 1886-7.
+
+DIJK, ..D. Nederland's vroegste betrekkingen met Borneo, den
+  Solo Archipels, Cambodja, Siam en Cochin China. Amsterdam.
+  1862.
+
+EDMUNDSON, G. The Dutch Power in Brazil
+  (1) The struggle for Bahia, 1624-7. (2) The First Conquests.
+  (Eng. Hist. Rev. 261--1896;676--1899.)
+  --The Dutch in Western Guiana. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 640--1901.)
+  --The Dutch on the Amazon and Negro in the 17th century.
+  (Eng. Hist. Rev. 642--1903; 1--1904.)
+  --The Swedish Legend in Guiana. (Eng. Hist. Rev. 71--1899.)
+
+HUET, P.D. Memoires sur le commerce des Hollandais dans tous les
+  etats et empires du monde. Amsterdam. 1717.
+
+JONGE, J.K.J. DE. De Opkomst van het Nederl. gezag in Oost Indie.
+  13 vols. The Hague. 1862-89.
+
+KAMPEN, N.G. VAN. Geschiedenis der Nederlanders buiten Europa.
+  4 vols. Haarlem. 1831-3.
+
+LAUTS, G. Geschiedenis van de vestiging, uitbreiding ... van de
+  magt der
+  Nederlanders in Indie. 7 vols. Groningen and Amsterdam.
+  1853-66.
+
+LEUPE, P.A. Reisen der Nederlanders naar het Zuidland of Nieuw
+  Holland in de 17e en 18e eeuw. Amsterdam. 1868.
+
+LUZAC, E. Holland's Rijkdom, behoudende den oorsprong van der
+  koophandel en de magt van dezer Staat. 4 vols. Leyden. 1781.
+
+NETSCHER, P.M. Les Hollandais au Bresil. The Hague. 1853.
+
+NETSCHER, P.M. Geschiedenis van de Kolonien Essequibo, Demerary
+  en Berbice van de vestiging der Nederlanders tot op onzen tijd.
+  The Hague. 1888.
+
+REES, O. VAN. Geschiedenis der Nederl. Volkplantingen in Noord
+  America. Tiel. 1855.
+
+  ---- Geschiedenis der koloniale politiek. Utrecht. 1868.
+VALENTIJN, F. Oud-en Nieuw-Oost-Indien, vervatt. eene verhandelinge
+  v. Nederlands mogentheyd in die gewesten, also eene verhandelinge
+  over ...Kaap der Goede Hoop. 5 vols. Dort. 1724.
+
+
+(_e_) LITERATURE, CULTURE, FINE ARTS
+
+BRINK, J. TEN. Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde. Amsterdam.
+  1897.
+
+BUSKEN HUET, C. Het land van Rembrandt. Studien over de Noord
+  Nederlandsche beschaving in de VXII'e eeuw. 5 vols. Haarlem.
+  1890.
+
+COLLOT D'ESCURY, H. Holland's roem in kunsten en wetenschappen.
+  10 vols. The Hague. 1824-44.
+
+EDMUNDSON, G. Milton and Vondel. London. 1885.
+
+HAAR, B. TER. Holland's bloei in schoone kunsten en wetenschappen by
+  het sluiten van de Munstersche vrede. Leyden. 1849.
+
+HARTING, P. Leven en Werken van Christiaan Huyghens. Amsterdam.
+  1868.
+
+HAVARD, HENRI. L'art et les artistes hollandais. Paris. 1879.
+
+HELLWALD, F. VON. Geschichte des hollaendischen Theaters. Rotterdam.
+  1874.
+
+JONCKBLOET, W.J.A. Geschiedenis des Nederlandsche Letterkunde
+  in de zeventiende eeuw. 2 vols. Groningen. 1881.
+
+KONING, J. Geschiedenis van het Slot te Muiden en Hooft's leven op
+  hetselve. Amsterdam. 1827.
+
+KORTEWEG, D.J. Het bloeitijdperk der wiskundige wetenschappen in
+  Nederland. Amsterdam. 1893-4.
+
+MUeLLER, LUCIAN. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den
+  Niederlanden.
+  Leipzig. 1869.
+
+SIEGENBEEK, M. Geschiedenis van der Leidsche Hooge School. Leyden.
+  1829-32.
+
+STRAETEN, E. VAN DER. La musique aux Pays-Bas avant le 19'e siecle.
+  Brussels. 1872.
+
+VLOTEN, J. VAN. Het Nederlandsche Kluctspel van de 14'e tot de 18'e
+  eeuw. 3 vols. Haarlem. 1878-80.
+
+VONDEL, J. VAN DEN. Werken in verband gebracht met zijn leven en
+  voorzien van verldaring en aanteekeningen d. J. v. Lennep. 12 vols.
+  Amsterdam. 1855-68.
+
+WILLEMS, A. Les Elzevier. Histoire et annales typographiques. The
+  Hague. 1880.
+
+WITSEN GEYSBEEK, P.G. Biographisch, anthologisch, en critisch
+  woordenboek
+  der Nederlandsche dicters. 6 vols. Amsterdam. 1821-7.
+
+WYBRANTS, C.E. Het Amsterdamsch tooneel. Amsterdam. 1875.
+
+
+(_f_) RELIGIOUS AND ECCLESIASTICAL
+
+BRANDT, G. Historic der reformatie en andere kerkelijke
+  geschiedennissen
+  in en omtrent de Nederlanden tot 1600. 4 vols. Amsterdam.
+  1677-1704.
+
+CHATELAIN, N. Histoire du Synode de Dordrecht des 1609 a 1619.
+  Amsterdam. 1841.
+
+FRUIN, R. De wederopluiking van het Katholicisme in Noord-Nederland
+  omtrent den aanvang der 17'e eeuw. Amsterdam. 1894.
+
+KNUTTEL, W.P.C. De toestand der Nederl. Katholieken ten tijde der
+  Republiek. 2 vols. The Hague. 1892-4.
+
+MONTANUS, A. Kerkelijke historic van Nederland. Amsterdam. 1675.
+
+MONTIJN, G.G. Geschiedenis der Hervorming in de Nederlanden.
+  5 vols. Arnhem. 1858-64.
+
+NUIJENS, W.J.F. Geschiedenis der kerkelijke en politieke geschillen
+  in de Republiek der Zeven Vereen. Prov., 1598-1625. 2 vols.
+  Amsterdam. 1886.
+
+REGENBORG, J. Historic der Remonstranten. 2 vols. Amsterdam. 1774.
+
+VEEN, A.J.V.D. Remonstranten en Contra-Remonstranten. 2 vols.
+  Sneek. 1858.
+
+
+XVIIITH CENTURY
+
+(_a_) ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES AND COLLECTIONS
+OF DOCUMENTS
+
+  Actes, Memoires et autres pieces authentiques concernant la paix
+  d'Utrecht. 6 vols. Utrecht. 1714-15.
+
+BOWDLER, T. Letters written in Holland in the months of September
+  and October, 1787, to which is added a Collection of letters and
+  other papers relating to the journey of the Princess of Orange on
+  June 29, 1787. London. 1788.
+
+  Brieven en negotiatien van L.L. van de Spiegel. Amsterdam. 1803.
+
+  Brieven van Prins Willem V aan Baron v. Leynden. The Hague. 1893.
+
+DE JONGE, J.K.J. Documents politiques et diplomatiques sur les
+  revolutions de 1787 et 1795 dans la republique des Provinces Unies.
+  (Ned. Rijk's Archief.) The Hague. 1859.
+
+  Lettres et memoires sur la conduite de la presente guerre et sur les
+  negotiations de paix, jusqu'a la fin des conferences de
+  Geertruidenbergh.
+  2 vols. The Hague. 1711-12.
+
+LINGUET, S.N.H. Lettres au Comte de Trauttmansdorf, ministre
+  plenipotentiaire par Empereur [Joseph II] aux Pays-Bas, 1788 et
+  1789. Brussels. 1790.
+
+MAGUETTE, F. Joseph II et la liberte de l'Escaut. Memoires couronnes
+  et autres Memoires publies par l'Academie Royale des Sciences
+  de Belgique. Vol. xv. Brussels. 1898.
+
+  Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence of James Harris, Earl of.
+  4 vols. London. 1844.
+
+MANDRILLON, J.H. Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la Revolution
+  des Provinces Unies en 1787. Paris. 1791.
+
+  Marlborough, Despatches of John, Duke of. Ed. Sir G. Murray.
+  5 vols. London. 1845.
+
+TORCY, MARQUIS DE. Memoires pour servir a l'histoire des negotiations
+  depuis le traite de Rijswijck jusqu'a la paix d'Utrecht. Paris.
+  1850.
+
+VREEDE, C.G. Correspondance diplomatique et militaire du duc de
+  Marlborough, du grand-pensionaris Heinsius, et du tresorier-general
+  J. Hop. Amsterdam. 1850.
+
+
+(_b_) HISTORICAL NARRATIVES
+
+BOSSCHE, E. VAN DER. Le traite de la Barriere. Bruges. 1880.
+
+COLENBRANDER, H.T. De Patrioten Tijd, 1776-87. 3 vols. The
+  Hague. 1897-99.
+
+  ---- De Bataafsche Republiek. The Hague. 1908.
+
+ELLIS, GEORGE. History of the late Revolution in the Dutch Republic.
+  London. 1789.
+
+  History of the internal affairs of the United Provinces, from the year
+  1780 to the commencement of hostilities in June, 1787. London.
+  1787.
+
+JORISSEN, T. De Patriotten te Amsterdam in 1791. Amsterdam. 1793.
+
+KANE, RICHARD. Campaigns of King William and of the Duke of Marlborough.
+  2nd ed. London. 1747.
+
+KLUIT, A. Historic der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot 1795. 5 vols.
+  Amsterdam. 1802-5.
+
+LEGRAND, L. La revolution francaise en Hollande; la republique batave.
+  Paris. 1894.
+
+LOON, H.W.v. The Fall of the Dutch Republic. London. 1913.
+
+MEULEN, A.J.v.D. Studies over de ministrie van Van de Spiegel. Leyden.
+  1906.
+
+ONDAATJE, Q. Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis der omwenteling van 1787.
+  Dunkirk. 1791.
+
+SCHIMMELPENNICK, RUTGER. J.S. en eenige gebeurtenissen van zijn tijd.
+  Amsterdam. 1845.
+
+VERENET, G. Pierre le Grand en Hollande, 1697 et 1717. Utrecht. 1865.
+
+WEBER, O. Die Quadrupel-Allianz vom Jahre 1718. Vienna. 1887.
+
+WREEDE, G.W. Geschiedenis der diplomatic van de bataafsche republiek.
+  3 vols. Utrecht. 1863.
+
+
+(_c_) BIOGRAPHICAL
+
+ARNETH, A., RITTER VON. Prinz Eugen van Savoyen. 3 vols. Vienna.
+  1856.
+
+KOLLEWIJN, B. Bilderdijk. 2 vols. Amsterdam. 1891.
+
+MENDELS, M.H.W. Daendels, 1762-1818. 2 vols. The Hague.
+  1890.
+
+NIJHOFF, I.A. De Hertog van Brunswijk. The Hague. 1849.
+
+SCHENK, W.G.F. Wilhelm der Fuenfte. Stuttgart. 1884.
+
+SILLEM, J.A. Gogel. Amsterdam. 1864.
+
+  ---- Dirk van Hogendorp. Amsterdam. 1890.
+
+
+XIXTH CENTURY AND AFTER
+
+(_a_) ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES AND COLLECTIONS
+OF DOCUMENTS
+
+BARTHELS, A. Documents historiques sur la Revolution belge. Brussels.
+  1836.
+
+BONAPARTE, LOUIS (COMTE DE ST LEU). Documents historiques et
+  reflexions sur le gouvernement de la Hollande. 3 vols. London.
+  1820.
+
+FALCK, A.R. Brieven 1796-1845 met levensberigt d.O.W. Hora Siccama.
+  The Hague. 1860.
+  ---- Amtsbrieven, 1802-42. The Hague. 1878.
+
+  Handelingen van de Staten General (1'e en 2'e Kamer), 1815-47. 51 vols.
+  The Hague. 1863-97.
+
+  Histoire parlementaire du traite de paix du 19 Avril, 1839, entre la
+  Belgique et la Hollande, contenant tous les discours. 2 vols.
+  Brussels. 1839.
+
+KRAYENHOFF, C.R.T. Bijdragen tot de vaderlandsche geschiedenis van
+  de belangrijke jaren 1809-10. Nimwegen. 1844.
+
+LIPMAN, S.P. Nederlandsch constitutioneel archief van alle koninklijke
+  aanspraken en parlementaire addressen, 1813-63. 2 vols. Amsterdam.
+  1846--64.
+
+ROCQUAIS, F. Napoleon et le roi Louis d'apres les documents conserves
+  aux archives nationales. Paris. 1875.
+
+SOELEN, VERSTOLK VAN. Recueil de pieces diplomatiques relatives aux
+  affaires de la Hollande et de la Belgique, 1830-2. 3 vols. The
+  Hague. 1831-3.
+
+THORBECKE, J.R. Brieven aan Groen v. Prinsterer, 1830-2. Amsterdam.
+  1873.
+  ---- Parlementaire redevoeringen. 6 vols. Deventer. 1856-70.
+
+
+(_b_) HISTORICAL NARRATIVES
+
+BEAUFORT, W.H.DE. De eerste regierings jaren van Koning Willem I.
+  Amsterdam. 1886.
+
+BOSCH KEMPER, J. DE. Staatkundige geschiedenis van Nederland na
+  1830. 5 vols. Amsterdam. 1873-82.
+
+BRUYNE, J.A. Geschiedenis van Nederland in onzen tijd. 5 vols.
+  Schiedam. 1889-1906.
+
+COLENBRANDER, H.T. De Belgische Omwenteling. The Hague. 1905.
+
+GERLACHE, E.C.DE. Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas depuis 1814
+  jusqu'en 1830. 3 vols. Brussels. 1842.
+
+HOUTEN, S. VAN. Vijf en twintig jaar in de Kamer, 1869-94. Haarlem.
+  1905.
+
+KEPPERS, G.L. De regeering van Koning Willem III. Groningen.
+  1887.
+  ---- Het Regentschap van Koningin Emma. The Hague. 1895.
+
+LASTDRAGER, A.J. Nieuwste geschiedenis v. Nederland in jaarlijksche
+  overzigten (1815-30). 9 vols. Amsterdam. 1839-48.
+
+
+NOTHOMB, BARON J.B. Essai historique et politique sur la revolution
+  belge. 3 vols. 4th ed. Brussels. 1876.
+
+NUYENS, W.J.F. Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Volk van 1815
+  tot op onze dagen. 4 vols. Amsterdam. 1883-6.
+
+RENGERS, W.J. VAN WALDEREN. Schets eener parlementaire geschiedenis
+  van Nederland sedert 1849. 2 vols. The Hague. 1889.
+
+WITKAMP EN CRAANDIJK. Vereeniging en Scheiding. Geschiedenis van
+  Noord-Nederland en Belgie van 1813-80. Doesburgh. 1881.
+
+WOLF, N.H. De regeering van Koningin Wilhelmina. Rotterdam.
+  1901.
+
+WUePPERMAN, W.E.A. Geschiedenis van den Tiendagschen Veldtocht.
+  Amsterdam. 1880.
+
+
+(_c_) BIOGRAPHICAL
+
+ABBINK, J.J. Leven van Koning Willem II. Amsterdam. 1849.
+
+ARNOLDI, J. VAN. Leven en Karakter-Schets van Koning Willem I.
+  Zutphen. 1818.
+
+BOS, F. DE. Prins Frederik der Nederlanden. 4 vols. Schiedam. 1857-99.
+
+BOSSCHA, J. Het leven van Willem II, koning der Nederlanden, 1793-1849.
+  Amsterdam. 1852.
+
+BRINK, J. TEN. Prins Frederik der Nederlanden. The Hague. 1881.
+
+DESCHAMPS, P. La reine Wilhelmina. Paris. 1901.
+
+MEES Az, G. Levenschets van G.K. Hogendorp. Amsterdam. 1864.
+
+PIERSON, ALLARD. Onze tijdgenooten. Amsterdam. 1896.
+
+THIJM, J.A. Alberdingk, door A.J. Amsterdam. 1893.
+
+VOS, A.J. DE. Groen van Prinsterer en zijn tijd. Dordrecht. 1886.
+
+
+(_d_) COLONIAL
+
+BOYS, H. SCOTT. Some notes on Java and its administration by the Dutch.
+  Allahabad. 1892.
+
+DAY, C. The policy and administration of the Dutch in Java. New York.
+  1904.
+
+PERSELAER, M.T.H. Nederlandsche Indie. 4 vols. Leyden. 1891-3.
+
+PIERSON, N.G. Koloniale Politiek. Amsterdam. 1877.
+Staatsblad voor Nederl. Indie 1816-80. 46 vols. The Hague and
+  Batavia. 1839-81.
+
+Verslag van het beheer en der staat der Nederlandsche bezittingen in
+  Oost-en West-Indie en ter kust van Guinea. 44 vols. The Hague.
+  1840-96.
+
+
+(_e_) GENERAL
+
+BOISSEVAIN, J.H.G. De Limburgsche Questie. Tiel. 1848.
+
+BRINK, J. TEN. Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche letteren in de
+  XIX^e eeuw.
+
+EENDEGEEST, G. VAN. Over de droogmaking van het Haarlemmer meer.
+  Vol. I. Leyden. 1842. Vol. II. The Hague. 1853. Vol. III.
+  Amsterdam. 1860.
+
+FRUIN, J.A. De Nederlandsche Wetboeken tot 1876. Utrecht. 1881.
+
+HERINGA, DR A. Free Trade and Protection in Holland. London. 1914.
+
+LOHMAN, A.F. DE SAVORNIN. Onze Constitutie. Utrecht. 1907.
+
+MARIUS, G. HERMINE. Dutch painting in the 19th century. (Trans. by
+  De Mattos.) London. 1908.
+
+NIPPOLD, F. Die Roemische Katholische Kirche im Koenigreich der
+  Niederlaende. Leipzig. 1877.
+
+Painting, Modern Dutch. Edinburgh Review. July, 1909.
+
+ROBERTSON SCOTT, J.W. War-time and Peace in Holland. London.
+  1914.
+
+ROOT, E.W. DE. Geschiedenis van den Nederlandsche Handel. Amsterdam.
+  1856.
+
+SECKENGA, F.W. Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Belastingen sedert
+  1810. The Hague. 1883.
+
+VERSCHAVE, P. La Hollande politique. The Hague. 1910.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ [Illustration: The Netherlands _about_ 1550]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Aachen, 13, 19
+
+Aalst, 64
+
+_Abbatage_, 382, 385 f.
+
+Abel Tasman river, 164
+
+Abjuration, Act of (1581), 76
+
+_Academie des Sciences_ (Paris), 199
+
+Achin, 419 ff., 427
+
+Adair, Sir Robert, 399
+
+Admiralty colleges, 87, 117 f., 214, 236 f., 315, 317, 345
+
+Adolf, Duke of Gelderland, 8 ff.
+
+Adolphus, Duke of Nassau-Weilburg, 429
+
+Adolphus of Nassau, 45
+
+Advocate, Land's, or Council-Pensionary, powers and functions
+  of, 116 f.
+
+Aerschot, Duke of, 65, 67, 69
+
+Aerssens, Cornelis van, lord of Sommelsdijk, 203
+
+Aerssens, Francis van, lord of Sommelsdijk, 127, 131, 137, 142 f.,
+  148, 152 f., 203
+
+Agincourt, battle of, 2
+
+Agriculture, Horticulture and Forestry hool of, 431
+
+Aine, 294
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of (1668), 245, 248;
+  (1748), 313 f., 317
+
+Alberoni, Cardinal, 302
+
+Albert, Cardinal Archduke, 94, 96 f., 100 ff., 106, 140
+
+Albert of Saxe-Meissen, Duke, stadholder, 13 f.
+
+Albertina Agnes, wife of William Frederick, 153, 285
+
+Albuquerque, Duarte de, 171, 173
+
+Albuquerque, Matthias de, 171 ff., 174
+
+_Alcabala_, 48
+
+Aldenhoven, 341
+
+Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, 366, 401, 406
+
+Alexander, Prince, son of William III, 421
+
+Alexander of Parma, _see_ Farnese
+
+_Algemeene Nederlandsche Werklieden Verbond_, 425
+
+Algerian pirates, 317
+
+Algiers, Dey of, 317
+
+Alkmaar, 56, 112, 184, 207
+
+All Saints, Bay of (_Bahia de todos los Santos_), 167, 175
+
+Alliance, treaties of, 95 f., 283, 296, 302, 345 ff., 354
+
+Almanza, 291
+
+Almonde, Philip van, 289
+
+Alsace, 309
+
+Alva, Duke of, 34, 42-49, 51-54, 56, 67, 75, 186
+
+Amalia von Solms, Countess, 141, 154, 203, 210, 213, 242
+
+Amazon river, 177 f.
+
+Amboina, 105, 124 f., 160, 162 f., 220
+
+Amboise, 15
+
+American Revolution, 332
+
+Amerongen, 267
+
+Amersfoort, 144, 299, 333
+
+Amiens, peace of (1802), 354
+
+_Amortisatie-Syndikaat_, the, 382
+
+Amstel, the, 191, 351
+
+Amstelland, 357
+
+Amsterdam, _passim_; University of, 188, 431
+
+_Amsterdam_, ship, 169
+
+Anabaptists, 22 f.
+
+Anastro, Gaspar, 77
+
+Anglo-Prussian alliance, 338
+
+Anjou, Duke of, 70, 72, 74, 76-79, 83
+
+Anna Paulovna, 401, 406
+
+Anne, Princess Royal, wife of William IV, 304, 316-319
+
+Anne, Queen, 271, 273, 286
+
+Anne de Beaujeu, regent, 15
+
+Anne of Austria, wife of Philip II, 49
+
+Anne of Austria, regent of France, 154, 280
+
+Anne of Brittany, 15
+
+Anne of Egmont, 30
+
+Anne of Saxony, wife of William, Prince of Orange, 33,
+  49 f., 61
+
+Anthony, Duke of Brabant, husband of Duchess Elizabeth of
+  Goerlitz, 2
+
+Anthony of Burgundy, younger brother of John the
+  Fearless, 2
+
+Antonio Vaz, island, 172
+
+Antwerp, _passim_; treaty concluded at (1715), 297
+
+Appeldoorn canal, the, 379
+
+"April Movement," the, 413 f.
+
+Archangel, 98, 121, 275
+
+Architofsky, Colonel, 176
+
+Aremberg, Count of, stadholder, 40, 45
+
+Arlington, Lord, 242, 244
+
+Armada, 86, 89, 92
+
+Armed Neutrality, League of, 325, 329
+
+Armenteros (_Argenteros_), secretary of the Duchess of
+  Parma, 34 f.
+
+Arminius (Jacob Harmenz), 128, 188
+
+Arnhem, 113
+
+Arnhem cape, 164
+
+Arnold of Egmont, Duke, 7
+
+Arras, diocese of, 32 f.;
+  Union of (1579), 71 f.
+
+_Arreyal de Bom Jesus_, 172, 174
+
+Artois, 1, 5, 9, 21, 29, 45, 71, 232, 292
+
+Ath, 290, 310
+
+Auchmuty, General, 364
+
+Augereau, General, 353
+
+Augsburg, 22, 49
+
+Augustus of Saxony, 303
+
+Australia, 164
+
+Austrian Netherlands, insurrection in, 338
+
+Austrian Succession War, 305, 306-315
+
+Austruweel, 42
+
+Axel, 311
+
+Ayscue, Vice-Admiral, 214, 216 f., 240
+
+Aysma, agent of Leicester, 89
+
+
+Backhuizen, Ludolf, 200
+
+Baden, 8, 297
+
+Bahia, 167, 169 f., 173, 175
+
+Bakhuysen, artist, 432
+
+Balance of power in Europe, 266, 283 f., 294, 303
+
+Baltic trade, 6, 25, 98, 120, 180, 182, 216, 229, 275,
+  301, 329
+
+Banckers, Vice-Admiral, 252
+
+Banda islands, 124 f., 160, 162 f.
+
+Baner, 182
+
+Bank of the Netherlands, 379
+
+Banking houses, 320
+
+Bantam, 124, 161, 275
+
+Barendtsz, William, 99
+
+Barlaeus, Caspar, 188, 197
+
+Barlaymont, Baron de, 29, 31, 37 f., 44
+
+Barra, the, 171 f.
+
+Barrier treaties, 293, 296 f., 318
+
+Bart, Jean, 264
+
+Barthels, 387, 391
+
+Basel, 8, 368
+
+Batavia, Java, 161, 164 f., 275, 364
+
+Batavian legion, 341 f.
+
+Batavian Republic, the, 344-356
+
+Bavaria, 283, 288, 307 f., 331
+
+Beachy Head, 278
+
+Beauharnais, Eugene, 398
+
+Beerenbronck, Ruys de, 428
+
+"Beggars of the Sea," 50 f., 56, 58 ff., 82
+
+Belgian Limburg, 400
+
+Belgian Netherlands, 272, 331, 336
+
+Belgian Revolution, 387, 389-404
+
+Belgium, 310, 314, 338, 340, 369, 371 ff., 389, etc.;
+  union of, with Holland, 376-388
+
+Bender Abbas, 275
+
+Bengal, 328
+
+Bentinck, Count William, 313, 316, 319
+
+Bentinck, William, Earl of Portland, 263, 269, 272, 284
+
+Berbice, 276, 320, 328, 347, 376
+
+Berbice river, 177
+
+Berchem, Nicolas, 200
+
+Beresina, the, 364
+
+Bergen, 237 f., 353
+
+Bergen-op-Zoom, 140, 312
+
+Berghen, Marquis of, 31, 36, 38
+
+Berkeley, Vice-Admiral, 240
+
+Berlin, 308, 321, 341, 371, 406;
+  Decree of (1806), 358
+
+Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, 141
+
+Berwick, 291
+
+Bethune, 13, 294
+
+Beukelsz, William, of Biervliet, 6, 24
+
+Beverweert, 233 f., 244
+
+Biberibi river, 171
+
+Bicker, Andries, 207 f., 226
+
+Bicker, Cornelis, 207 f., 226
+
+Bicker, Wendela, 225, 247
+
+Bilderdijk, 358, 407
+
+Bilders, artist, 432
+
+Binnenhof, the (at the Hague), 107, 134 f., 210, 333,
+  336, 348
+
+Bishoprics, creation of, 31 f.
+
+Bismarck, 417
+
+Blaeu, Willem Jansz, 201
+
+Blake, naval commander, 215-219
+
+Bleiswijk, council-pensionary, 332, 337
+
+Blenheim, 288
+
+Blok, Dr P.J., 431
+
+Blood, Council of, 43, 47, 49
+
+Blood-placards, 23, 38 f.
+
+"Blossoming Eglantine," 191, 201
+
+Bluecher, 371
+
+Boer War, 426
+
+Boers, revolt of the, 420
+
+Bogerman of Leeuwarden, Johannes, 136 f., 188
+
+Bohemia, 126, 307, 361
+
+Bois-le-Duc, 32, 143 f.
+
+Boisot, commanding the Sea Beggars, 58 ff.
+
+Bol, Ferdinand, 200
+
+_Bolduc la pucelle_, 144
+
+Bolingbroke, Viscount, _see_ St John
+
+Bologna, 20
+
+Bonn, 259, 288
+
+Bontekoe, Willem, 164
+
+Bor, chronicler, 195
+
+Borgesius, Catholic minister, 423, 426
+
+Borinage, the, 393
+
+Borkelo, lordship of, 238
+
+Borneo, 124, 163
+
+Borselen, Wolferd van, lord of Veere, stadholder, 10
+
+
+Bosboom, artist, 432
+
+Bosboom-Toussaint, Mevrouw, 432
+
+Bosse, P.P. van, 417
+
+Bossu, stadholder, 52, 55 f.
+
+Both, Andreas, 200
+
+Both, Jan, 200
+
+Both, Pieter, governor-general, 161, 164
+
+Bouchain, 294, 296
+
+Bouches de Issel, 361
+
+Bouches de l'Escaut, 361
+
+Bouches de la Meuse, 361
+
+Bouches du Rhin, 361
+
+Boudaen, Admiral, 317
+
+Boufflers, Marshal, 279, 287, 292
+
+Bouillon, duchy of, 374
+
+Bourges, 90
+
+Boyne, battle of the, 278
+
+Brabant, _passim_
+
+Brandenburg, 108, 262, 264 ff., 268, 272, 296
+
+Brandenburg, Elector of, 119 f., 210, 230, 238 f.,
+  270
+
+Brandt, biographer, 196
+
+Brantsen, envoy, 342
+
+Brazil, 99, 157 f., 160, 166, 168 ff., 175 ff., 229,
+  276
+
+"Bread and Cheese Folk," 13
+
+Breda, 42, 61, 73, 92, 140, 150, 156, 231, 242 ff.,
+  247, 341, 413;
+  congress of, 311 f.;
+  treaty of, 243, 245, 248, 261
+
+Brederode, field-marshal, 210, 227, 238
+
+Brederode, Frans van, 12
+
+Brederode, Henry, Count of, 33, 36-39, 42
+
+Brederode, Lancelot, 55
+
+Brederoo, Gerbrand Adriansz, 192, 197
+
+Breedevoort, 95
+
+Brest, 278, 347
+
+Brill, 51 f., 62, 84, 112, 123
+
+Brink, Bakhuizen van der, 408
+
+Brittany, 15
+
+Broeck, Pieter van der, 161
+
+Broglie, Maurice de, Bishop of Ghent, 377, 380, 384
+
+Broemsebro, treaty of, 183
+
+Bronkhorst, Dirk van, 60
+
+Broodhuis, the (at Brussels), 46
+
+Broukere, Charles de, 385
+
+Brouwer, Adrian, 200
+
+Brouwershaven, 12
+
+Browne, Scottish official, 125
+
+Bruges, 6 f., 11, 13, 16, 23 f., 70, 73, 77, 79, 82,
+  97, 153,
+  290 ff., 310
+
+Brugghen, J.J.L. van der, 414 f.
+
+Brun, Spanish envoy, 157
+
+Brune, General, 353
+
+Brunswick, 121, 272, 354
+
+Brunswick, Charles, Duke of, 335 f.
+
+Brunswick-Lueneburg, 239
+
+Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel, Lewis Ernest, Duke of, 315, 316-320,
+  321, 328
+
+Brussels, _passim_;
+  congress of, 396 f.;
+  Union of, 67, 69
+
+Buat, the lord of, 242
+
+Bubble companies, 301
+
+Buchhorn, 354
+
+Bulbs, trade in, 184
+
+Burchgrave, Daniel de, 86
+
+Buren, Count of, 30
+
+Burgos, 15, 17
+
+Burgundian Netherlands, 1-11
+
+Burgundy, 1, 9, 12, 30, 42
+
+Burnet, Bishop, 271
+
+Bushey Park, 284
+
+Buys, Paul, Advocate, 50, 83 f., 87, 90
+
+Buys, pensionary, 290, 294
+
+Bylandt, Count, Lieut-General, 387, 390 f.
+
+
+Cabelliau, Abraham, 121
+
+Cabo Corso, 235
+
+Cadiz, 275, 289
+
+Cadsand, 254, 311
+
+Caerden, Paulus van, 106
+
+Calais, 16, 28, 94, 216
+
+Callantroog, 352
+
+Callenberg, 289
+
+Calmar, 182
+
+Calvin, Calvinism, Calvinists, 22, 38 ff., 42, 49 f., 128,
+  407, 413
+
+Cambray, 20;
+  League of, 18;
+  peace congress at (1508), 18
+
+Camisaders, 54
+
+Camperdown, 347, 350
+
+Canal of Holland, 416
+
+Canals, 379, 420, 430
+
+Canary islands, 171
+
+Capadose, Calvinistic leader, 407
+
+Cape Breton, 313
+
+Cape colony, 165, 376
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 98, 100, 166, 275, 328, 346, 376
+
+Capibaribi river, 171
+
+Carib tribes, 178
+
+Caribbean sea, 170
+
+Carleton, Sir Dudley, 123, 130, 143, 163
+
+Carnot, 342
+
+Caroline, Princess, regent, 319 f.
+
+Caroline, Queen, 316
+
+Carolingian empire, tripartite division of, 1
+
+Caron, Francis, 164
+
+Caron cape, 164
+
+Carpentaria, Gulf of, 163 f.
+
+Carpentier, Pieter, 163 f.
+
+Carrying-trade, 6, 25, 85, 97 f., 159, 214, 218, 274 f.,
+  298, 319, 379
+
+Cartagena, 42
+
+Cartesian system, the, 190
+
+Castel-Rodrigo, Spanish governor, 244
+
+Castlereagh, Lord, 366, 368 f., 376
+
+Castricum, 353
+
+Castro, Alphonso de, 105
+
+Catalonia, 291
+
+Cateau-Cambresis, treaty of (1559), 28, 30
+
+Catherine II, Empress, 325, 329
+
+Catholic episcopate, establishment of, 412 f.
+
+_Catholique_, the, 387, 391
+
+Cats, Jacob, council-pensionary, 148, 192, 194, 197, 205,
+  211, 214;
+  _Hofwijck, Cluijswerck, Voorhout_ and _Zeestraet_
+  of, 194
+
+Cautionary towns, 84, 96, 104, 121, 123
+
+Ceylon, 105, 124, 165, 229, 275, 328, 346, 354
+
+Chamber of Accounts, college of, 345, 368
+
+Chambers of Rhetoric, 201
+
+Champagney, governor of Antwerp, 66
+
+Charleroi, 245, 258, 278, 310
+
+Charles I of England, 142 f., 152, 154 f., 163, 203 f.,
+  215, 262
+
+Charles II of England, 203 f., 208, 212, 231-234, 236, 238,
+  242, 244 f., 248 f., 252 ff., 261-266
+
+Charles II of Spain, 280 ff.
+
+Charles V, Emperor, 16-23, 25, 27-30, 32, 67, 191, 196,
+  281, 294
+
+Charles V of France, 4
+
+Charles VI, Emperor, 295, 297, 306
+
+Charles VII (Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria), Emperor,
+  282, 290, 306 f., 309
+
+Charles VIII of France, 15
+
+Charles IX of France, 51, 57
+
+Charles IX of Sweden, 121
+
+Charles X Gustavus of Sweden, 141, 229 ff.
+
+Charles X of France, 389
+
+Charles XII of Sweden, 291, 301
+
+Charles, Archduke, 282, 286, 289 ff., 293 f.
+
+Charles Christian, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg, 319
+
+Charles Edward, the young Pretender, 310
+
+Charles of Egmont (Gelderland), 14, 18f., 21
+
+Charles of Lorraine, 310 f.
+
+Charles the Bold (_le Temeraire_), 3 ff., 7-10
+
+Charlotte, Princess of England, 366, 398, 406
+
+Charlotte de Bourbon, 61, 77
+
+Charnace, French ambassador, 149
+
+Chasse, General, 395, 402
+
+Chatham, 248
+
+Chatham, Lord, 359
+
+Chatillon, conference of (1814), 368
+
+Chatillon, French commander, 149
+
+Chatillon, French envoy, 135
+
+Chaumont, 368
+
+Cheribon, 275
+
+Chesapeake bay, 166
+
+Chesterfield, Lord, 303
+
+China, 105, 124
+
+Christian IV of Denmark, 120 f., 180-183
+
+"Christian Coalition," 427
+
+Christianopel, treaty of, 183
+
+Christina of Sweden, 229
+
+Christopher, Duke, son of the Elector Palatine, 59
+
+Church Association Act, 414
+
+Churchill, John, _see_ Marlborough
+
+Clancarty, Lord, 369, 387
+
+Clarendon, 244
+
+Claude, sister of Philibert, Prince of Orange-Chalons, 30
+
+Clement VII, Pope, 20
+
+Cleves, 120
+
+Cloppenburch, 201
+
+Coburg, Austrian commander, 341 f.
+
+Coccaeus, 188
+
+Cochon, member of National Convention, 345
+
+Cockayne, Alderman, 125
+
+Cockerill, of Seraing machine factory
+
+_Code Napoleon_, the, 358, 362
+
+Cods of Holland, 14
+
+Coehoorn, 279
+
+Coelim, 275
+
+Coevorden, 93, 258
+
+Colberg Heath, 181
+
+Colbert, 249
+
+Colenbrander, Dr H.T., 388, 431
+
+Coligny, Admiral, 47, 53, 78
+
+Coligny (Teligny), Louise de, 78 f., 83, 130, 135, 138
+
+_Collegium Philosophicum_, 381, 383, 386
+
+Cologne, 8, 32,   192, 248 f., 252 f., 258f., 261,
+  272, 368
+
+Cologne, Archbishop of, 8
+
+Cologne, Elector-Archbishop of, Bishop of Liege, 249
+
+Colombo, 165
+
+Colonies, 177, 276, 328, 347, 358, 376, 430, etc.
+
+Commercial and economic expansion, 159-185
+
+Commissioned Councillors, college of, 114, 345
+
+"Compromise," the, 37-40
+
+"Concept of Harmony," 246, 248, 250
+
+Conde, 249, 262
+
+Conde, Princess of, 120
+
+Conperus, Louis, 432
+
+Constance, _League of_ (1474), 8
+
+Constantine the Great, 193
+
+Constantinople, 121, 183
+
+Constitution, revision of the, 405-410
+
+_Consulta_, 29, 35
+
+Consultation, Act of (1766), 321, 328
+
+Contarini, Tommaso, 121
+
+Continental system, 358, 362, 379
+
+Contra-Remonstrants,   129 ff.,   133 f., 137
+
+_Contra-Remonstratie_, 129
+
+Cook's strait, 164
+
+Coornheert, Dirk Volkertz, 191
+
+Copenhagen, 230 f.
+
+Coromandel, 165, 320
+
+Council of State, powers and functions   of, 110 f.
+
+Council-pensionaries,     powers     and   functions of,
+  116 f.
+
+_Coursier des Pays Bas_, the, 391
+
+Courtrai, 40, 245, 290, 309
+
+Crecy, battle of, 1
+
+Cromwell, 163, 215, 218-224, 229, 234, 236
+
+Cuba, 170
+
+Culemberg, Count of, 36 f., 44
+
+Cultivation-system, 415 f., 430, 432
+
+Cumberland, Duke of, 309, 311 f.
+
+Curacoa, 276, 323, 327
+
+Cuyp, Albert, 200
+
+
+D'Affry, French ambassador, 317 ff.
+
+D'Allegne, Marquis, 290
+
+D'Alphonse, Baron, 361
+
+D'Argenson, French minister, 310 f.
+
+D'Avaux,   French   ambassador,   266,   268, 272
+
+D'Avila, Sancho, 59, 66, 106
+
+D'Ellougue, 385
+
+D'Estrades, Count, 203, 208, 232 f., 265
+
+D'Estrees, 252, 259, 278
+
+D'Hoogvoort, Baron Emmanuel, 391-395
+
+D'Hoogvoort, Baron Joseph, 393
+
+D'Oultremont,   Countess   Henriette, 405
+
+D'Ursel, Duke, 378
+
+Daendels, General, 341 f., 344 f., 347,   350-353, 364
+
+Dale, Sir Thomas, 161
+
+Danube, the, 288
+
+Danzig, 25, 229
+
+David, son of Philip the Good and   Bishop of Utrecht, 2,
+  14
+
+Davis' straits, 124
+
+De Beaufort, Admiral, 239, 241
+
+De Beauharnais, Hortense, 356, 360 f.
+
+De Berg, Count, 144 f.
+
+De Breze, French commander, 149
+
+De Celles, _prefet_, 361, 381
+
+De Cocq, preacher, 407
+
+De Costa, Calvinistic leader, 407
+
+De Fenelon, French ambassador, 307, 309
+
+De Foere, Abbe, 384 f.
+
+De Gerlache, Catholic leader, 385
+
+De Graeff, governor of St Eustatius, 323
+
+De Groot, pensionary, 131-136, 142 f.
+
+De Haan, pensionary, 131
+
+De Haas, artist, 432
+
+De Hembyze, Calvinist leader, 73
+
+De Heze, Baron, 65
+
+De Klundert, 341
+
+De la Vauguyon, Duke, 323 f.
+
+De la Ville, Abbe, 311
+
+De Laet, historian, 166
+
+De Larrey, Count, 310
+
+De Maulde, French ambassador, 341
+
+De Mean, Count, 380 f.
+
+De Meester, ministry of, 427
+
+De Mist, leader of the federalists, 349
+
+De Nemours, Duc, 397 f.
+
+De Neufville, 320
+
+De Neve, printer, 387
+
+De Perponcher, envoy, 365
+
+De Rosne, Seigneur, 94
+
+De Ryhove, Calvinist leader, 73
+
+De Standaart, _prefet_, 361
+
+De Verac, Count, 332
+
+De Vries, Admiral, 241
+
+De Vrij Temminck, 323
+
+De With, Cornelisz Witte, Vice-Admiral, 152, 182 f.,
+  217, 219 f., 230
+
+De Witt, Cornelis, Ruwaard, 226, 236, 241, 243, 252-255
+
+De Witt, Jacob, 207, 209, 212, 226
+
+De Witt, John, 117, 198, 212-224, 225-235, 236-250,
+  252-257, 298, 301, 317, 320, 431
+
+Deane, commanding English fleet, 219
+
+Dedel, Belgian minister, 403
+
+"Defensive Confederacy," the, 331
+
+Deforgues, 353
+
+Dekker, Douwes,   415, 432;
+  _Max Havelaar_ of, 415, 432
+
+Delacroix, Charles, 350
+
+Delft, 62 f., 79 ff., 83, 99, 112, 157, 159, 183, 207,
+  277
+
+Delftware, 183
+
+Delfziil, 92
+
+Demerara, 328, 347, 376
+
+Denain, 296
+
+Dendermonde, 41, 82, 290, 310
+
+Deputed-Estates, functions of, 114
+
+Descartes, Rene, 190
+
+Dettingen, 308
+
+Deventer, 87 f., 92, 114, 226, 407
+
+Deventer, Gerard Prounick, 86, 89
+
+Devolution, law of, 233, 244
+
+Diamond industry, 183
+
+Dieden, Colonel, 144
+
+Dieren, 208 f.
+
+Diest, 149
+
+Dietz, 371, 374
+
+Dijkveld, 267, 271, 274, 280
+
+Dillenburg, town and principality of, 42, 44, 47, 49,
+  54, 371, 374
+
+Djapara, 161
+
+Doce river, 172
+
+Does, Jan van der, 60
+
+Doesburg, 87, 252
+
+Doggerbank, the, 329
+
+Dohna, Swedish ambassador, 244 f.
+
+Dokkum, 118
+
+Dolhain, the lord of, 50
+
+Dolman, Colonel, 218
+
+Donker, 385
+
+Donker-Curtius, 408 f., 411, 414
+
+Dordrecht, 51 f., 54, 98, 112, 135 ff.,
+    178, 194, 207, 209 f., 212, 226, 247,
+    253 f., 274. 279, 335, 341
+
+Doreslaer, Dr, 203 f., 212 f.
+
+Dort, synod at, 87, 162, 184 f., 407
+
+Dorth, Colonel Jan van, lord of Horst, 167 f.
+
+Dortmund, 354
+
+Douat, Merlin de, 345
+
+Douay, 21, 71, 294, 296
+
+Douw, Gerard, 200
+
+Dover, 215, 217; secret treaty of, 248 f.
+
+Downing, George, 234, 249
+
+Downs, battle of the, 151 f., 175, 212, 215, 217
+
+Drake, 175
+
+Drebbel, Cornelius, 199
+
+Drente, 5, 21, 73, 93, 96, 115, 138, 153,
+    238, 251, 304, 354, 357, 367
+
+Du Chattel, artist, 432
+
+Ducpetiaux, 394
+
+Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester, 77,
+    84-91, 95, 97 f., 110, 115, 117, 432
+
+Duiveland, 62, 359
+
+Dumonceau, General, 347
+
+Dumouriez, 340 f.
+
+Duncan, Admiral, 347, 352
+
+Dungeness, 217 f.
+
+Dunkirk, 82, 100 ff., 145, 149, 151 f.,
+    171, 228, 232, 240, 264, 292, 296
+
+Dueren, 368
+
+Dutch Brabant, 312
+
+Dutch Flanders, 156, 185, 311, 330 f.,
+    342, 345 f., 397
+
+"Dutch mission," 412
+
+Dutch Republic, beginnings of the, 82-109
+
+
+East Friesland, 357
+
+East India Company (Dutch), 105, 124,
+    147, 155, 159-185, 233, 252, 261,
+    275, 305, 339 f., 345
+
+East India Company (English), 159, 233, 320
+
+East Indies, 98 ff., 106, 124, 143, 158,
+    160 f., 229, 248, 275, 328, 346, 379,
+    407, 415 f., 430
+
+Edam, 112, 207
+
+Education Act (1878), 424
+
+Educational affairs, 380, 391, 409, 414,
+    420, 422, 424 f., 427, 431
+
+Edward I of England, 16
+
+Edward, Prince, of Bohemia, 213
+
+Effingham, 175
+
+Egmont, _see_ Lamoral
+
+Elba, 371, 384
+
+Elbing, 229
+
+Elburg, 334
+
+Elizabeth, Queen of England, 50, 57,
+    62, 70 f., 74, 77, 83-86, 88 f., 95 f.,
+    102, 122 f.
+
+Elizabeth of Bohemia, 141
+
+Elizabeth of Goerlitz, Duchess of Luxemburg, 2
+
+Elizabeth of Parma, 302
+
+Elsass, 8
+Elseviers, the, 201
+
+Elsinore, 230
+
+Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont, Princess, queen-regent, 421
+
+Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, regent, 27 f.
+
+Ems, the, 45
+
+Ems Occidental, 361
+
+Ems Oriental, 361
+
+Enghien, Duke of, 155
+
+English Muscovy Company, 121, 123, 166
+
+Enkhuizen, 56, 89, 98, 112, 118, 159
+
+Enschede, 96
+
+Episcopius, Simon, 136, 188
+
+Ermerius, 352
+
+Ernest Casimir of Nassau, stadholder, 101, 138, 146
+
+Ernest of Austria, Archduke, 93 f.
+
+Erp, Christina van, 196
+
+Essequibo river and colony, 177, 276, 328, 347, 376
+
+Eternal Edict, 246 f., 253
+
+Eugene of Savoy, Prince, 387 f., 290-296
+
+"Evangelicals," 128
+
+Evertsen, Cornelis, Admiral, 240 f., 261, 278
+
+Evertsen, Jan, Vice-Admiral, 218, 220, 237
+
+Exclusion, Act of (_Acte van Seclusie_), 222-225, 232
+
+Exeter, 273
+
+Exhibition at Brussels, 389 f.
+
+
+Fadrique de Toledo, Don, 168
+
+Fagel, Caspar, council-pensionary, 246, 255 f.
+
+Fagel, Francis,    council-pensionary,
+    260, 264, 267, 277, 303, 319, 365
+
+Falck, Captain of the National Guard,
+    364 f., 369, 380, 396
+
+Farnese, Alexander, Prince of Parma,
+    70-74, 77-80, 82, 84 ff., 88 f., 92 f., 192
+
+Federation, Act of (1576), 63
+
+Femern, 182
+
+Ferdinand I, 306
+
+Ferdinand, Cardinal Infante, 148 ff., 153
+
+Ferdinand of Aragon, 14 ff., 18 f.
+
+Ferrara, 97
+
+Fiji archipelago, 164
+
+Fijnje, member of Executive Council, 350
+
+Finance, Chamber of, 52, 86
+
+Finspong, 179
+
+Fisheries, 6, 16, 97, 122, 218, 430
+
+Fishing rights dispute, 16, 122-125,
+    143, 166, 214
+
+Fivelingoo, 114
+
+Flanders, _passim_
+
+Flemish Belgium, 378
+
+Fleurus, 278, 342
+
+Fleury, Cardinal, 303, 307
+
+Flinck, Govaert, 200
+
+Florence, 195
+
+Floriszoon, Vice-Admiral, 218, 230
+
+Flushing, 28, 30, 51 f., 58, 77, 84 f.,
+    123, 331, 346, 357, 359, 428
+
+Flushing and Veere, marquisate of, 113, 304
+
+Fokker, member of Executive Council, 350
+
+Fontainebleau, 138; treaty of (1785), 331
+
+Fontenoy, battle of, 310
+
+Formosa, 164
+
+Fort Zelandia, 164
+
+Forth, Firth of, 243
+
+"Forty-Eighters," 315
+
+Fox, 329
+
+France, treaty with (1482), 12
+
+Franche-Comte, 1, 9, 30, 34, 245
+
+Franchise, reforms of the, 421-424
+
+Francis I, 19 f.
+
+Francis, Emperor, 368
+
+Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, 306
+
+Franco-German War (1870), 417
+
+Franeker, University of, 188, 190
+
+Frankfort, 294
+
+Franklin, 325
+
+Frederick II the Great, of Prussia, 274, 306 f., 321
+
+Frederick III, Emperor, 7 f., 13
+
+Frederick III of Denmark, 218, 230 f.
+
+Frederick, Elector Palatine, King of
+    Bohemia, 139, 142
+
+Frederick, Prince, second son of King
+    William I, 375, 392, 394, 421
+
+Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange,
+    stadholder, 103 f., 116, 121, 130,
+    138 f., 141-144, 146-150, 153-157,
+    178, 181 f., 186, 192, 194, 199, 202,
+    209, 232, 298 f., 312
+
+Frederick Henry bay, 165
+
+Frederick Henry cape, 165
+
+Frederick of Toledo, Don, 53, 55 f.
+
+Frederick William I of Prussia, 306
+
+Frederick William II of Prussia, 335, 366
+
+Frederick William of Brandenburg
+    (the Great Elector), 157
+
+Frederikshald, 301
+
+French annexation, 357-366
+
+
+"French Fury," 78
+
+French Revolution, 340
+
+Friendly or Tonga islands, 164
+
+Friesland, _passim_
+
+Frise, 361
+
+Friso, John William, of Nassau-Siegen,
+    285, 299, 304
+
+Fruin, Robert, 431
+
+Fryscell, 182
+
+Fuchs, Paul, 270
+
+Fuentes, Count of, 93 f.
+
+Fulda, Bishopric of, 354
+
+Fundamental Assemblies, 351
+
+Fundamental Law, 366 f., 370, 372 f.,
+    375 f, 378, 380, 384 f., 391 f., 394,
+    405, 412, 420 f., 429 f.
+
+Funen, 230 f.
+
+Furnes, 297
+
+Fuerstenberg, Cardinal Archbishop, 272
+
+
+Gabbard, the, 219
+
+Galle, 165
+
+Ganges, the, 275
+
+_Gecommitteerde-Raden_,114
+
+_Gedeputeerde-Staten_, 114
+
+Geer, Louis de, 178 ff., 181 f.
+
+Geertruidenberg, 14, 93, 293 f., 341
+
+Gelder, 88
+
+Gelderland, _passim_
+
+Gembloux, 70
+
+Gendebien, Alexandre de, 391 ff., 395
+
+Genlis, Huguenot leader, 53
+
+Gennep, 149
+
+Genoa, 42
+
+George II of England, 304, 307 f.
+
+George of Saxe-Meissen, 21
+
+Gerard, Balthazar, 80
+
+Gerard, Marshal, 402
+
+Gevangenpoort, the, 255
+
+Ghent, 6, 9, 11ff., 16, 24, 28, 45 f.,
+   65 f., 69, 71, 73, 82, 97, 156, 264,
+   290ff., 310, 377, 379f., 385, 391;
+   Pacification of, 66f., 71f., 81, 94
+
+Gibraltar, 106, 289
+
+Gilds, 5
+
+Gilles, Jacob, 310f.
+
+Goa, 106
+
+Goch, 149
+
+Godolphin, 286, 294
+
+Goeman-Borgesius, 424
+
+Goerce, 254
+
+Gogel, finance minister, 342, 349, 355,
+   357f.
+
+Golden Fleece, Order of the, 7
+
+Gomarus, Franciscus, 128, 188
+
+Gomez, Ruy, 49
+
+Gondomar, Count of, 123
+
+Gonzales de Cordova, Don, 146
+
+Gooiland, 195
+
+Gorkum, 112, 251, 335
+
+Gotheborg, 121
+
+Gouda, 99, 112, 129, 259, 335, 420;
+   convention at (1610), 129
+
+Goyen, Jan van, 200
+
+Graeff, Cornelis de, 226, 234
+
+Graeff, Jacob van der, 253
+
+Grain, traffic in, 85f.
+
+Grand Alliance (1689), 273f., 281f.,
+   286, 289, 291, 294f.
+
+Granson, battle at, 8
+
+Granvelle, Anthony Perrenot de, Cardinal,
+   Bishop of Arras, Archbishop
+   of Mechlin, 22, 28f., 31-35, 49, 75, 80
+
+Grave, 102, 258, 262
+
+Grave, Admiral, 308
+
+Gravelines, 28, 70
+
+Great Assembly, the, 209-213
+
+Great Fire of London, 242
+
+Great Privilege, the, 9f., 14
+
+Great Rebellion, the, 152
+
+Great War (1914), the, 428, 430
+
+Greenland, 123
+
+Grobendonc, governor of Hertogenbosch,
+   144
+
+Groenloo, 95
+
+Groll, 104
+
+_Grondwet_, 366
+
+Groningen, _passim_; University of, 181,
+   431
+
+Groot, Hofstede de, 407
+
+Groot, Pieter de, pensionary, 246,
+   248f., 252ff.
+
+Groote Eylandt cape, 165
+
+Grotius, Hugo (Huig van Groot), 122,
+   188f.; _Mare Liberum _ of, 132, 189
+
+Guadeloupe, 376
+
+"Gueux, les," 38
+
+_Gueux de mer_, 50
+
+Guiana, 99, 177 f., 276, 340, 376
+
+Guinea, 99, 234 f., 328, 418
+
+Gustavus Adolphus, 147, 178 ff., 229
+
+Guyon, Francis (Balthazar Gerard), 80
+
+_Gymnasia_, 431
+
+
+Haarlem, 55 f., 58, 60, 62, 74, 90, 112,
+  131, 183 f., 207, 246, 314, 341, 357,
+  413
+
+Haarlem lake, 55, 412
+
+Haasrecht, 335
+
+Habsburg rule in the Netherlands, 12-26
+
+Hadamar, 371, 374
+
+Haersolte, 226 f.
+
+Haga, Cornells, 121, 183
+
+Hagen, Steven van der, 105
+
+Hague, the, _passim_
+
+Hahn, leader of the moderates, 349
+
+Hainault, 2, 9, 21, 52, 65, 71, 228, 244,
+ 262
+
+Hals, Frans, 199 f.
+
+Hamburg, 25, 320
+
+Hanover, 272, 283, 286, 302
+
+Hanse League, Hanse towns, 6, 25,
+ 120 f.
+
+Harderwijk, University of, 188
+
+Harlingen, 118
+
+Harmensz, Jacob, _see_ Arminius
+
+Harmignies, 53 f.
+
+Harris, Sir James (Lord Malmesbury),
+ 332, 335 ff.
+
+Harwich, 84
+
+Harwood, Colonel, 147
+
+Hattem, 334, 341
+
+Haverman, artist, 432
+
+Havre, commander, 66
+
+Heemskerk, Th., 427
+
+Heidelberg, 90, 119
+
+Heidelberg catechism, 128, 137
+
+Heiligerlee, 45
+
+Heim, Antony van der, council-pensionary,
+ 303 f., 309 ff.
+
+Hein, Piet, Vice-Admiral, 167, 169 ff.
+
+Heinsius, Antony, council-pensionary,
+ 277, 280, 282 f., 285 ff., 290 f., 294,
+ 300
+
+Heinsius, Daniel, 188
+
+Heinsius, Nicolas, 188
+
+Helder, the, 352, 367, 379
+
+Hellemans, Heleonore, 196 f.
+
+Helst, Bartolomaus van der, 199 f.
+
+Helvoetsluis, 273
+
+Hendrikszoon, Boudewyn, 168 f.
+
+Heneage, Lord, 85
+
+Henrietta, Duchess of Orleans, 248
+
+Henrietta Maria, 154 f.
+
+Henry III of France, 62, 83 f., 92
+
+Henry IV of France (Henry of Navarre),
+  92, 94 ff., 104, 109, 120, 122, 195
+
+Henry VII of England, 16 f.
+
+Henry, stadholder of Luxemburg, 421
+
+Henry Casimir, stadholder, son of
+  William Frederick, 238, 264, 266,
+  268, 270, 277, 285
+
+Henry Casimir of Nassau, 146, 153
+
+Henry of Bavaria, Bishop of Utrecht, 21
+
+Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+  Prince, 426
+
+Henry of Nassau, brother of the Prince
+  of Orange, 47, 59
+
+Henry of Nassau, friend and adviser
+  of Charles V, 30
+
+Herbert, Admiral, 273
+
+Heresy, extirpation of, 23, 31 ff., 35 ff.,
+  39, 42 f., 67
+
+Herring fisheries, 6, 24, 254
+
+Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-duc), 32, 102,
+  143-146, 150, 156, 171, 253, 315,
+  328, 413
+
+Hesse, 272
+
+Hesse-Cassel, 283
+
+Het Loo, 333, 358
+
+Higher education, 380, 427, 431
+
+"High-Mightinesses," 112
+
+"Historical Christians," 425, 427
+
+Hobbema, Meindert, 200
+
+Hochstaedt, 288
+
+Hoeth, 352
+
+Hohenlo, Count of, 84
+
+Holland, _passim_; incorporation of, with
+  Zeeland in the Burgundian dominion,
+  2; union of, with Belgium, 376-388
+
+Holmes, Admiral, 234 f.
+
+Holstein, 181
+
+Honthorst, Gerard, 200
+
+Hooft, burgomaster of Amsterdam,
+  323
+
+Hooft, Cornelis Pietersz, 195
+
+Hooft, party leader, 264, 266
+
+Hooft, Pieter Cornelisz, 194-197;
+  _Geerard van Velzen, Warenar_ and
+  _Baeto_ of, 195; _Netherland Histories_
+  of, 196
+
+Hoogerbeets, pensionary, 131-136,142
+
+Hoogh, Pieter van der, 200
+
+Hooghley, the, 320
+
+Hooghly on the Ganges, 275
+
+Hoogstraeten, Count of, 31, 33, 41 f.,
+  44 f., 47
+
+Hook faction, 12 ff.
+
+Hook of Holland, 416
+
+Hoorn, 56, 98, 112, 118, 159, 166
+
+Hoorn, Count of, _see_ Montmorency
+
+Hoorn, dowager Countess of, 45
+
+Hop, Jan, 285, 316
+
+Houtman, Cornelis, 99
+
+Hudde, Johan, 267
+
+Hudson, Henry, 166
+
+Hugonet, the lord, 10
+
+Huguenot refugees, 269 f., 276
+
+_Huis in't Bosch,_ the, 426
+
+Hulst, 92, 94, 153, 156
+
+Humbercourt, the lord, 10
+
+Hume, 323
+
+Hunsingoo, 114
+
+Huy, 67, 288, 310
+
+Huyghens, Christian, 198 f.
+
+Huyghens, Constantine, 192, 194, 196 f.
+
+
+
+India, 99, 317
+
+Indies, trade in the, 107 ff., 145, 147,
+  155 ff., 160, 165, 189, 275, 313, 336,
+  339
+
+Infamy, Order of, 385
+
+Inquisition, 36-39, 49, 54, 128
+
+Isabel, Queen of Portugal, 15 f.
+
+Isabel Clara Eugenia, Infanta, Archduchess,
+  94, 96 f., 100, 140, 145-148
+
+Isabel of Castile, 14 ff., 19
+
+Isabel of Portugal, wife of Philip the
+  Good, 7
+
+Isny, 354
+
+Israels, Joseph, 432
+
+Issel superieur, 361
+
+Ita, Pieter Adriansz, 170
+
+Itamarca, 173
+
+
+Jacatra, 161
+
+Jacoba, heiress of William VI of Holland, 2
+
+Jacobin clubs, 348 f.
+
+James I of England, 104, 121 ff., 125,
+  139, 142, 162 f., 189, 212
+
+James II of England, Duke of York,
+  203, 234, 236 f., 242, 252, 262 f.,
+  269-273, 283
+
+James III of England, son of James II
+  so termed, 271, 283, 285
+
+Janssens, governor-general of Java, 364
+
+Japan, 124, 164
+
+Japara, 275
+
+Jarnac, battle of, 47
+
+Jaureguy, Juan, 77, 79 f.
+
+Java, 99, 161 ff., 165, 328, 339, 347,
+  363 f., 376, 379, 415 f., 432
+
+Jeannin, President, 108 f.
+
+Jemappes, 340, 393
+
+Jemmingen, 45, 47
+
+Jever, 357
+
+Joachimi, 204, 212
+
+Joan Maurice of Nassau, 175 ff., 210,
+  227, 238, 245, 251
+
+Joanna, Duchess of Brabant, 2
+
+Joao IV of Portugal, 176
+
+John II of France, 1
+
+John III, Count of Namur, 2
+
+John IV, son of Anthony of Burgundy
+  and husband of Tacoba of Holland, 2
+
+John Casimir, 71 f.
+
+John de Marnix, lord of Thoulouse, 42
+
+John of Austria, Don, 64, 66--70
+
+John of Bavaria, husband of Duchess
+  Elizabeth of Goerlitz, 2
+
+John of Leyden, 22
+
+John of Nassau, Count, stadholder,
+  41 f., 45, 59, 61, 72, 79, 83, 146, 285
+
+John the Fearless, 1 f.
+
+Jones, Paul, 325
+
+Joseph I, Emperor, 290, 294, 306
+
+Joseph II, Emperor, 330 f., 338
+
+Joseph Ferdinand, 281 f.
+
+Joubert, General, 350, 352
+
+Jourdan, 342
+
+Juan, Infante, son of Ferdinand and
+  Isabel, 15
+
+Juan de Vargas, 44 f.
+
+Juana, Infanta, daughter of Ferdinand
+  and Isabel and wife of Philip the
+  Fair, 14 ff., 17
+
+Julian, French secret agent, 387
+
+Juelich, fortress of, 120
+
+Juelich and Cleves, Duke of, 119
+
+Juelich-Cleves duchies, question concerning
+  succession to, 119 f., 122
+
+Junius, 128
+
+Jutland, 181
+
+Kaiserwerth, 287 f.
+
+Kampen, 114, 335
+
+Kandy, 165
+
+Kantelaur, leader of the moderates, 349
+
+Kappeyne, Joannes, 420; Education
+  Act of (1878), 422
+
+Katwijk, 220, 358
+
+Kempenaer, 408, 411
+
+Kemper, 365 f.
+
+Kennemerland, 13
+
+Kentish Knock, 217
+
+Keppel, Earl of Albemarle, 284
+
+Kerkoven, Jan van der, lord of Heenyliet,
+  152
+
+Kijkduin, 259
+
+Kitzingen, 179
+
+Klein-Schnellendorf, convention of,
+  307
+
+Knocke, 297, 309
+
+Knodsenburg, 92
+
+Koen, Jan Pieterzoon, governor-general,
+  124, 161 ff., 164
+
+Koehler, General, 419
+
+Kolkmar, Dr, 428
+
+Koning, Salomon, 200
+
+Koningh, Pieter de, 200
+
+Koopman, Rear-Admiral, 402
+
+Korvey, abbey of, 354
+
+Kragenhoff, Minister of War, 358
+
+Kraijenhoff, revolutionary leader, 342
+
+Kronborg, 230
+
+Krueger, President, 426
+
+Kuenen, Abraham, 431
+
+Kuyff, head of city police, 390
+
+Kuyper, Dr Abraham, 419 f., 422,
+  424-427
+
+
+L'Oyseleur, Pierre, Seigneur de Villiers,
+  75
+
+La Hogue, 278
+
+La Motte, 71
+
+La Rochelle, 50
+
+Laaland, 182
+
+"Ladies' Peace," the (1529), 20
+
+Lafayette, 322
+
+Lalaing, George, Count of Renneberg,
+  stadholder, 65, 71, 73
+
+Lamoral, Count of Egmont, stadholder,
+  28 f., 31, 33-37, 39-43, 45 f., 68
+
+Lamoussaye, French minister, 388
+
+Landrecies, 296
+
+Land's Advocate or Council-Pensionary,
+  office of, 116 f.
+
+Landskrona, 230
+
+Language decree (1819), 383, 386
+
+Lauffeldt, 312
+
+Law, Edward, 301
+
+Lawrence, Henry, 325
+
+Le Brun, Duke of Piacenza, 361, 365
+
+League of the Beggars, 385
+
+Ledenburg, 133 f.
+
+Lee, 325
+
+Leeuwarden, 136
+
+Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 199
+
+Leffingen, 101
+
+Leghorn, 218
+
+Leicester, Earl of, _see_ Dudley
+
+Leipzig, 364 f.
+
+Leopold I, Emperor, 290
+
+Leopold II, Emperor, 338
+
+Leopold, Archduke, Bishop of Passau,
+  119 f.
+
+Leopold   of   Saxe-Coburg, King of
+  Belgium, 398 ff., 403
+
+Leuchtenberg, Duke, of 398
+
+Lewis Ernest, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel,
+   _see_ Brunswick-Wolfenbuettel
+
+Lewis of Baden, 288
+
+Lewis of Nassau, 36 f., 39,41,44 f.,47,
+  49, 51-54, 58 f.
+
+Ley, the, 156
+
+Leyden, 12, 24, 55 f., 58-61, 74, 89 f.,
+  112, 128, 131, 183 f., 187 f., 190,
+  195, 201, 314, 341, 358, 360, 365,
+  408;
+  University of, 60, 187, 190, 431
+
+"Libertines," 128
+
+Libri-Bagnano, 387, 389 f.
+
+Liefkenshoek, 82, 402
+
+Liege, district and town of, 13 f., 21,
+  39, 178 f., 249, 287 f., 310, 374 f.,
+  378, 380, 385, 393, 399
+
+Lievens, Jan, 200
+
+Ligny, 371
+
+Lilienrot, Count, 280
+
+Lille, 15, 21, 71, 245, 292, 309
+
+Lillo, 403
+
+Limburg, 2, 21, 149, 158, 288, 383,
+  397 f., 400, 402 f., 416 f., 429 f.
+
+Linden, Cort van den, 428
+
+Lindhoven, 82
+
+Lingen, 96, 104
+
+Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van, 99
+
+Lionne, French minister, 245
+
+Lipsius, Justus, 188
+
+Lisbon, 159 f., 167 f., 173 f., 176, 229
+
+Listerdiep passage, 181
+
+Literary gilds, 190, 201
+
+Literature, 431 f.
+
+Livonia, 178
+
+Loevestein, 136, 143, 188, 207
+
+Lohman, Jonkheer Savornin, 425
+
+Lombardy, 20
+
+Lonck, Hendrik Cornelisz, 171 f.
+
+London, 122, 126, 396 f.,
+  _et passim_; Articles of (1814), 395;
+  conferences at, 162, 429;
+  Conventions of, 376, 402
+
+Loos, Admiral, 175
+
+Lorraine, 7 ff., 42, 282, 306
+
+Lothaire, 1
+
+Louis II, Count of Flanders, 1
+
+Louis XI of France, 8 ff., 12, 15
+
+Louis XIII of France, 149, 154, 195
+
+Louis XIV of France, 232, 239, 243 ff.,
+  248 f., 252 ff., 260 f., 263 ff., 266-270,
+  272, 277 f., 280-283, 285, 290-293, 396
+
+Louis XV of France, 280, 311
+
+Louis XVI of France, 321, 331
+
+Louis, King of Hungary, 20
+
+Louis Bonaparte, 355-361, 363
+
+Louis de Male, Count of Flanders, 1
+
+Louis del Rio, 44 f.
+
+Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, King
+  of the French, 389, 397, 407 f.
+
+Louise Henrietta, wife of Frederick
+  William of Brandenburg, 157
+
+Louise of Savoy, 20
+
+Louvain, 53, 90, 149, 290, 310, 380 f.,
+  388, 393, 399
+
+Louvois, Minister of War, 249
+
+Loewenthal, Count, 311 f.
+
+Luebeck, 25
+
+Lucas, Rear-Admiral, 346
+
+Luis de Requesens, Don, 56 f.
+
+Lumbres, the lord of, 50 f.
+
+Lueneburg, 283
+
+Luther, Martin, 19, 22 f.
+
+Luetzen, 147, 179
+
+Luxemburg, duchy and town of, 2, 21, 42, 66, 102, 267, 330,
+  371, 373 ff., 378, 396 ff., 400, 402 f., 416, 421, 429
+
+Luxemburg, French marshal, 249, 258 f., 265, 278 f., 286
+
+Luzac, 408
+
+
+Maas, the, 51, 59, 62, 159, 220, 251, 360
+
+Maasland, 357
+
+_Maatschappij van Weldadigheid_, 380
+
+Macassar, 229, 275
+
+Mackay, Baron, 422 f.
+
+Mackay Law, 423, 427
+
+Madagascar, 99
+
+Madrid, 29, 31, 33 ff., 37, 39, 41 f., 44, 49, 51, 64, 70,
+  75, 89, 94, 108, 113, 156, 167 f., 171, 286
+
+Maerlandt, 190
+
+Maes, Nicholas, 200
+
+Maestricht, 45, 59, 74 f., 146, 149 f., 156, 253, 258 f.,
+  262, 264 f., 312, 330 f., 341 f., 346, 368, 397 f., 400
+
+Magellan, Straits of, 99 f., 166
+
+_Magnus Intercursus, _16 f., 122, 214
+
+Main, the, 308
+
+Malacca, 105, 275, 346
+
+Malaga, 289
+
+Malay Archipelago, 105, 160 f.
+
+"Malcontents," the, 71
+
+Malines, 380
+
+Malmesbury, Lord, _see_ Harris
+
+Malplaquet, 293
+
+_Mains Intercursus_, 17
+
+Manhattan, 166, 177
+
+Mansfeld, Count of, 33, 40, 93
+
+Maranhao, 175
+
+Marcelis, Gabriel, 182
+
+Margaret, Archduchess, daughter of Mary and Maximilian,
+  regent, 11 f., 15, 17-20, 22 f., 29
+
+Margaret, daughter of Louis de Male, Count of Flanders,
+  and wife of Philip the Hardy, 1 f.
+
+Margaret, dowager Countess of Flanders, widow of Louis II, 1
+
+Margaret, Duchess of Parma, regent, 28 f., 31, 33 ff.,
+  37, 39, 41 ff., 70
+
+Margaret, sister of William VI of Holland and wife of
+  John the Fearless, 1
+
+Margaret of Burgundy, wife of William VI of Holland, 1
+
+Margaret of York, wife of Charles the Bold, 7, 9
+
+Maria cape, 164
+
+Maria island, 165
+
+Maria Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 304, 320
+
+Maria Theresa, queen of Louis XIV, 233, 239, 244, 281
+
+Maria Theresa of Austria, 303, 306-309
+
+Maria van Diemen cape, 165
+
+Marie de' Medici, regent, 120, 154
+
+Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon, 360, 363
+
+Maris brothers, 432
+
+Marlborough, Duke of (John Churchill), 283, 286 ff.,
+  290-295
+
+Mary, princess royal, wife of William II of Orange, 152,
+  210, 234
+
+Mary, Princess, wife of William III of Orange, 263, 271,
+  273, 279, 284
+
+Mary, regent, queen of Louis of Hungary, 20, 22 ff., 26 f.,
+  29 f., 85
+
+Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold and wife of
+  Maximilian of Austria, 8-12
+
+Mary of Modena, 262
+
+Mary Tudor, Queen, 27 f.
+
+Massa, Isaac, 121
+
+Matanzas bay, 170 f.
+
+Matelief, Cornelis, 105 f., 160
+
+Matsjan, 124
+
+Matthias, Archduke, 69 f., 72, 78
+
+Maure, Anton, 432
+
+Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, stadholder, 83 ff., 87-93,
+  95, 101-104, 106-109, 113, 115 ff., 120, 122, 127-138,
+  139 ff., 143, 195, 198, 202, 205, 249, 257, 314
+
+Maurice of Nassau-Ouwerkerk, Count, 308
+
+Maurice of Saxony, 33, 49
+
+Maurier, Aubrey du, 135
+
+Mauritius, 105, 164 f.
+
+Mauritshuis, the Hague, 199
+
+Mauritsstad, 175 f.
+
+Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria, 281
+
+Maximilian Joseph, Emperor, 309
+
+Maximilian of Austria, Emperor, King of the Romans, 8, 10-15,
+  17 ff., 45
+
+May, Job, 365
+
+Mazarin, Cardinal, 154 f., 203, 208, 232
+
+Mechlin, 1, 5, 10, 14, 17, 19, 21, 24, 32, 53 ff., 82, 310
+
+Medemblik, 112
+
+Medina-Coeli, Duke of, 54, 56
+
+Medway, the, 243, 252
+
+Meer, Jan van der, 200
+
+Meerman, John, 244
+
+Meeus, Ferdinand, 393
+
+Meghem, Count of, 31, 37, 39 f., 42
+
+Melliton, General, 365
+
+Mendoca Furdado, Diogo de, 167
+
+Mendoza, Admiral of Aragon, 100, 102
+
+Menin, 290, 297, 309
+
+Mennonites, 22, 185
+
+Mercantile Marine, Dutch, formation of, 24
+
+Merchant Adventurers, Fellowship of, 125
+
+Merode, Count Felix de, 392 f., 395
+
+Mesdag, Hendrik, 432
+
+Mesnager, 295
+
+Metzu, Gabriel, 200
+
+Meurs, 95, 102
+
+Meuse, the, 59, 74, 102, 144, 146, 288, 361, 368 f., 399 f., 402
+
+Mexico, 170, 275
+
+Meyer, envoy, 345 f.
+
+Michigan, 408
+
+Middelburg, 51, 58, 70, 82, 98, 125, 160, 247, 311 f., 359
+
+Midderigh, revolutionary leader, 349 f.
+
+Middle kingdom, restoration of, 1 f., 7 f.
+
+Mijer, colonial minister, 416
+
+Milan, 56
+
+Milanese, the, 282, 297
+
+Military service, 362, 423, 426
+
+_Million de l'industrie_, the, 383
+
+Milton, John, 188, 193
+
+Miranda, General, 341
+
+Mississippi Company, 301
+
+Moerdijk, the, 341
+
+Mohacs, battle of, 20
+
+Moluccas, 99, 105, 124 f., 160-163, 233, 275 f., 330, 346
+
+Moncontour, battle of, 47
+
+Mondragon, Spanish commander, 58 f., 64, 94
+
+Monk, commanding English fleet, 219 f., 239-242
+
+Monmouth, commanding English force, 264
+
+Monnikendam, 112, 207
+
+Mons, 52, 70, 245, 264 f., 293, 310
+
+Mont-Cassel, 263
+
+Montesquieu, 323
+
+Montigny, the lord of, 31, 34, 39, 44, 71
+
+Montmorency, Philip de, Count of Hoorn, Admiral of Flanders,
+  31, 33 ff., 37, 41 ff., 45 f., 68
+
+Montpensier, Duke of, 61
+
+Mook, 59, 66, 272
+
+Morat, battle at, 9
+
+Moreau, General, 342
+
+Morgan, Colonel, 146 f.
+
+Moscow, 364
+
+Moucheron, Balthazar de, 98, 121
+
+_Mouture_, 382, 385 f.
+
+Mozambique, the, 106
+
+Muiden, 195 ff., 251
+
+_Muidener Kring_, 196
+
+Mulder, Staffel, 407
+
+"Multatuli" (Douwes Dekker), 415, 432
+
+Muenster, 22, 238 f., 248 f., 252 f., 258 f., 261;
+  congress of, 156;
+  treaty of (1648), 157 f., 165, 177, 186, 202, 205, 280,
+  330 f.
+
+Muscovy, 301
+
+Music, modern development of, 201
+
+
+Naarden, 55 f., 258 f.
+
+Namur, 2, 9, 21, 67 f., 71, 149, 228, 279, 297, 310, 378
+
+Nancy, 8 f.
+
+Nantes, the Edict of, Revocation of, 269
+
+Naples, 49, 297, 390
+
+Napoleon III, 417
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, 353-364, 371 f., 376, 379, 384
+
+Napoleon Louis, 361
+
+Nassau, 335
+
+Nassau river, 164
+
+_Nassauische Erbverein_, the, 429
+
+Nassau-Siegen, house of, 116, 138
+
+_National_, the, 387, 389 f.
+
+National Assembly, formation of, 348 ff.
+
+Navigation Act, 214, 233, 242 f., 274
+
+_Nederlandsche Handelsmaatschappij, De_, 379
+
+Neer, Aart van der, 200
+
+Neerwinden, 279, 341
+
+Negapatam, 328, 330
+
+Negro slave trade, 276
+
+Negumbo, 165
+
+Netherland confession, 128, 137
+
+Netherlands, the revolt of, 47-68;
+  formation of the kingdom of, 367-375, 376-388
+
+Netscher, Caspar, 200
+
+Neuss, battle at, 8
+
+Nevers, 1
+
+New Amsterdam, 166, 177
+
+New England, 177
+
+New Guinea, 164
+
+"New Lighters," 407
+
+New Netherland, 166, 177, 235;
+  Company of, 166
+
+New South Wales, 164
+
+New York, 261, 325, 343
+
+New Zealand, 164 f.
+
+Newfoundland, 166, 325
+
+Ney, commanding French force, 371
+
+Neyen, Father John, 106, 108
+
+Nicholas II, Tsar, 426
+
+Nicolas de Harnes, 36
+
+Nieuport, 82, 101 f., 310, 318
+
+Nieuwenaar, Count, stadholder, 83, 86, 91
+
+Nieuwenhuis, Domela, 421 f., 425
+
+Nieuwerbrug, 259
+
+Nieuwpoort, 222 ff.
+
+Nijmwegen, 92, 113, 258, 263 ff., 287, 299, 333, 335, 341, 360;
+  treaty of (1678), 265-268, 270, 280
+
+Nobles, league of, 33-38, 41
+
+Noel, French ambassador, 348 ff.
+
+Noircarmes, royalist noble, 44
+
+Noerdlingen, battle of, 148
+
+Nore, the, 243
+
+Norrkoeping, 179
+
+North American colonies, British, revolt of, 322 f.
+
+North Brabant, 144, 146, 185, 258, 409
+
+North Holland, 56, 353
+
+North Holland Canal, 379
+
+North Quarter, the, 87 ff., 159
+
+Northern or Greenland Company, 124, 166
+
+Nova Zembla, 124
+
+Nyborg, 231
+
+Nymphenburg, 307
+
+
+Obdam, _see_ Wassenaer
+
+Oberstein, Count, 66
+
+_Observateur_, the, 385
+
+Ogle, Colonel, 133
+
+Oldenbarneveldt, John van, Advocate, pensionary, 83,
+  85-91, 96, 100 ff., 104, 106 ff., 117, 119 ff., 123,
+  127-138, 140 ff., 165, 188, 193, 225, 257
+
+Oldenzaal, 96, 104
+
+Olinda, 171 f., 174
+
+Oliva, peace of, 231
+
+Ommelanden, 73
+
+Ondaatje, party leader, 333
+
+Oostergoo, 114
+
+Ootmarsum, 96
+
+Oquendo, Antonio de, Admiral, 151 f., 173 ff.
+
+Orange, Princes of, _see_ Fred. Henry, Maurice, Philip William, William
+
+Orange-Nassau, house of, 115 f., 396 f., 421, 423, 429
+
+Orchies, 21, 71
+
+Orinoco, the, 170, 177
+
+Orleans, Duke of, _see_ Louis Philippe
+
+Orloff, Count Alexis, 401
+
+Ormonde, Duke of, 289, 295 f.
+
+Ostade, Adrian van, 200
+
+Ostade, Isaac van, 200
+
+Ostend, 82, 101 ff., 290, 292, 302, 308, 310, 318, 330
+
+Ostend Company, 302 f.
+
+Otto, branch of house of Nassau, 374
+
+Oudenarde, 291, 309 f.
+
+Oudinot, Marshal, 359 ff.
+
+Ouwerkerk, field-marshal, 288
+
+Overyssel, _passim_
+
+Oxenstierna, Axel, 148, 179-182, 188
+
+Oxford, Earl of, Colonel, 147
+
+
+Painting, art of, 199 f., 432
+
+Palembang, 275
+
+Palmerston, Lord, 396, 400-403
+
+_Pangeran_, the, native ruler, 161
+
+Pappenheim, commanding Imperialist army, 146
+
+Para, 178
+
+Paris,_passim_;
+  treaties of, 319, 369, 373, 376, 396
+
+Parker, Hyde, Vice-Admiral, 329
+
+Parma, 43
+
+Partition treaties, 281 f.
+
+Pater, Adrian Jansz, 170, 173 f.
+
+Patrician oligarchy, 113, 300, 304, 315, 332, 344
+
+Patriot party, 332-336, 344
+
+Paul IV, Pope, 32
+
+Paul of Russia, Emperor, 352
+
+Paulus, Pieter, 344, 347 ff.
+
+Pauw, Adrian, pensionary, 145, 148, 157, 204, 209, 214 f., 218
+
+Pauw, Reinier, 131, 137
+
+"Pays de par deca," 3 f.
+
+Peace Congress, the first (1899), 426
+
+Pecquinius, Chancellor of Brabant, 140
+
+Penaranda, Spanish envoy, 157
+
+Penn, naval commander, 216
+
+Pennington, Vice-Admiral, 151 f.
+
+Pernambuco, 171, 173 f.
+
+"Perpetual Edict," the, 67
+
+Perre, Paulus van der, 214
+
+Perrenot, Nicholas, 28
+
+Peru, 170, 275
+
+Peter the Great, Tsar, 302
+
+Philibert, Prince of Orange-Chalons, 30
+
+Philip II of Spain, 6, 22, 25-36, 39-42, 45, 47 ff., 49,
+  52, 57, 61-64, 67, 70, 73-76, 80, 83 f., 86, 92 ff.,
+  96 f., 99, 183, 187, 281
+
+Philip III of Spain, 108, 140, 280
+
+Philip IV of Spain, 148, 170, 232 f., 239, 244
+
+Philip V of Spain, 282 f., 286, 290-293, 296 f., 302
+
+Philip de Marnix, lord of Sainte Aldegonde, 36, 44, 50, 52, 56 f., 77, 79
+
+Philip of Anjou, Duke, 281 f., 291
+
+Philip of Baden, Bishop of Utrecht, 14
+
+Philip of Cleef, 13
+
+Philip of Hesse, 33, 41
+
+Philip of St Pol, 2
+
+Philip the Fair, Archduke, 11-17, 21
+
+Philip the Good, 1 ff., 5 ff., 48
+
+Philip the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, 1 f.
+
+Philip William, Count of Buren, Prince of Orange, 30, 44, 113, 137
+
+Philippines, the, 106
+
+Picardy, 9, 95
+
+Piccolomini, commanding Imperialist troops, 149
+
+Pichegru, commander, 342
+
+Piedmont, 293
+
+Pierson, N.G., 423 f., 426
+
+Pijman, Minister of War, 352
+
+Pitt, 341
+
+Pius IV, Pope, 32
+
+Pius IX, Pope, 412 f.
+
+Plancius, Petrus, 98
+
+Plessis-les-Tours (1580), 74, 76
+
+Plymouth, 217
+
+Poeloe-Rum, 162, 233, 243
+
+Poictiers, battle of, 1
+
+Pondicherry, 275
+
+Portland, 218
+
+Portsmouth, 324
+
+Potgieter, 408
+
+Potter, Louis de, 385 ff., 391, 395;
+  _Lettre de Demophile au Roi_ of, 386
+
+Potter, Paul, 200
+
+Povo, or the Reciff, 171
+
+Pozo, 171 f.
+
+"Pragmatic Army," the, 308 f.
+
+Pragmatic Sanction, the, 303, 306
+
+Prague, 139, 307
+
+"Precisians," 128
+
+Press laws, 384 ff., 391, 409
+
+Price, Richard, 323
+
+Priestley, 323
+
+Primary education, 355, 380, 409, 414, 420, 422, 425, 431
+
+_Prins Willem_, ship, 173 f.
+
+Prinsenhof, Delft, 79 f.
+
+Provincial Estates, powers and functions of, 112 ff.
+
+_Provintie van Utrecht_, ship, 174
+
+Prussian invasion, 335 f.
+
+Pultova, 301
+
+Purmerend, 113
+
+Putte, Fransen van de, 416, 419
+
+Putten, 226
+
+Pyrenees, peace of the (1659), 228, 231 f., 274
+
+
+Quadruple Alliance, 302
+
+Quatre Bras, 371 f., 406
+
+Quesnoy, 295 f.
+
+_Quotisatie_, 4
+
+
+Raad-Pensionaris, powers and functions of, 117
+
+Railways, 415
+
+Ramel, member of National Convention, 345
+
+Ramillies, 290
+
+Rammekens, 84, 149
+
+Rastatt, peace of (1714), 297
+
+Ratisbon, truce of (1684), 268
+
+Reading-societies, 342
+
+Reciff, the, 171-175, 177
+
+"Reduction, Treaty of," 93
+
+Reformation movements, 2 ff.
+
+"Reformed" congregations, 128
+
+Regnier, lord of Groeneveldt, 140
+
+Reingoud, Jacques, 86
+
+Reinierz, 165
+
+Rembrandt van Rhyn, 199 ff., 432
+
+Remonstrants, 129, 132 f., 136 f., 142, 193
+
+_Remonstratie_, 129
+
+Rene of Lorraine, Duke, 8 f.
+
+Rene of Nassau, 30
+
+_Repartitie_, 111
+
+Repelaer, envoy, 342
+
+Requesens, 61 f., 64
+
+"Request," the, 37 f.
+
+_Reveil_ movement, 407
+
+Rewbell, plenipotentiary, 345 f.
+
+Rheims, 32
+
+Rheinberg, 95, 100, 102, 104, 288
+
+Rhetoric, Chambers of, 190 f.
+
+Rhine, the, 59, 62, 82, 102, 119, 149, 288, 291, 293, 358, 361, 368, 371, 379
+
+Rhineland, 40, 49, 58, 139
+
+Ricardot, president of the Privy Council, 107
+
+Richelieu, Cardinal, 142 f., 148 f., 154
+
+Rights of Man, the, 332
+
+Rijks Museum, Amsterdam, 199
+
+Rio de Janeiro, 169
+
+Rio Grande, the, 175
+
+Rio Negro, the, 178
+
+Ripperda, ambassador, 302
+
+Ripperda, Calvinist leader, 55
+
+Robert de la Marck, 13
+
+Rochefoucault, 360
+
+Rochussen, artist, 432
+
+Rochussen, J.J., 415
+
+Rocroi, 155
+
+Roda, 65
+
+Rodney, Admiral, 327, 346
+
+Roell, Jonkheer Johan, 424
+
+Roell, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 358, 380
+
+Roemerswaal, 14, 58
+
+Roeremonde, 53 f., 146, 288, 413
+
+Roeskilde, 230
+
+Rogier, Charles, 393 ff.
+
+Rome, 19, 361, 419
+
+Ronkens, burgomaster, 299
+
+Rooke, Sir George, Admiral, 289
+
+Rotterdam, 12, 59, 83, 90, 98 f., 112, 118, 129, 131.
+136 f., 159, 300, 334, 341, 364, 379
+
+Roucoux, 310
+
+Rouille, French agent, 290
+
+Rouppe, burgomaster, 393
+
+Rousseau, 323, 332
+
+Royal Academies of the Arts, 380
+
+Royal African Company, 234
+
+_Royal Charles_, flag-ship, 243
+
+_Royal James_, flag-ship, 252
+
+Royal Netherland Institute for Science, Letters and the Fine Arts, 358
+
+Rudolph II, Emperor, 119
+
+Rump Parliament, the, 219
+
+Rupert, Prince, 216, 239-242, 259
+
+Russell, Admiral, 271
+
+Russian trade, 98, 121, 275, 301
+
+Ruysch, Nicholas, 226
+
+Ruysdael, Jacob, 200
+
+Ruyter, Michael Adriansz de, Admiral, 194, 216 ff., 219 f.,
+  228 f., 231, 234 f., 237 f., 240 f., 243, 252, 259, 289
+
+Ryswyck, 107, 140, 280; peace of, 280
+
+
+Saba, 328
+
+Sadowa, 416
+
+Saftingen, 331
+
+Sainte Aldegonde, _see_ Philip de Marnix
+
+Salamanca, 15
+
+Saldanha bay, 346
+
+Sallant, 114
+
+Salmasius, 188
+
+San Francisco fort, 171 f.
+
+San Jorge fort, 171 f.
+
+San Salvador, 167 ff.
+
+San Thome de Guiana, 170
+
+Sandwich, Earl of, 237
+
+Sasbout, councillor of state, 65
+
+Sas-van-Gent, 82, 156
+
+Savoy, 286, 296
+
+Saxe, Maurice de, Marshal, 309-312
+
+Saxe-Weimar, Duke of, 368
+
+Saxony, 272
+
+Scaliger, Josephus Justus, 188
+
+Schaep, Gerard, 204, 214
+
+Schaepman, Dr, 422, 424 f.
+
+Scheffer, artist, 432
+
+Scheldt, the, 23, 79, 82, 89 f., 150 f., 156, 158, 248, 259,
+  311, 330 f., 359, 361, 379, 399, 401 f., 428
+
+Schenck, 149
+
+_Schepens_, or sheriffs, 6
+
+Scheveningen, 155, 220, 232, 343, 366
+
+Schiedam, 112, 207
+
+_Schieringers_, 14
+
+Schimmelpenninck, Count, 408 f.
+
+Schimmelpenninck, Rutger Jan, council-pensionary, 344, 349, 353-356
+
+Schleswig, 181
+
+Scholte, preacher, 407
+
+Schomberg, Marshal, 272
+
+Schoenbrunn, treaty of, 359
+
+Schonen, 230
+
+Schools, 414 f., 420, 422 f., 425 ff., 431
+
+Schoonhoven, 112, 335
+
+Schouburg (theatre), the, Amsterdam, 201
+
+_Schout_, or chief judge, 6
+
+Schouten, Willem, 168
+
+Schouwen, 62, 359
+
+_Schutterij_, 255 f.
+
+Schuurman, Anna Maria, 197 f.
+
+Scribe and Auber, _La Muette de Portici_   of, 390
+
+"Sea Terror of Delft," the, 169
+
+Secondary and technical education, 416, 431
+
+Seeland, 230
+
+Selden, _Mare clausum_ of, 189
+
+Semonville, French ambassador, 353
+
+Seneff, 262
+
+Senlis, treaty of (1493), 13
+
+"Separatists," the (_de Afgescheidenen_), 407
+
+Seraing, 380, 383
+
+_Settinge_, 4
+
+Seven Bishops, acquittal of (1688), 271
+
+Seven Years' War, 320, 323
+
+Seventeen, College of the, 100
+
+"Sharp Resolution," the, 131
+
+Sheerness, 243, 273
+
+Shetlands, the, 216
+
+Ship-money, 215
+
+Siam, 105, 163
+
+Sicilies, the two, 306
+
+Sidney, Sir Philip, 87
+
+Siegen, 371, 374
+
+Sieyes, 345 f.
+
+Sigismund of Austria, Duke, 8
+
+Silesia, 306 ff., 406
+
+Simonszoon, Menno, 22
+
+Six, burgomaster, 200
+
+Skagerak, the, 182
+
+Slaak, the, 146
+
+Slangenburg, General, 288
+
+Slave trade, 276; abolition of, 415 f.
+
+Slingelandt, pensionary, 226
+
+Sluis, 12 f., 82, 89, 103, 254, 311, 330, 342
+
+Social Contract, the, 332
+
+Social-Democratic Bond, the, 425
+
+"Social-Democratic Workmen's Party," the, 425
+
+"Socialist Bond," the, 425
+
+Sommelsdijk, lord of, _see_ Aerssens
+
+Sonoy, Diedrich, stadholder, 50, 87 ff.
+
+Sophie, Queen, 417, 421
+
+Sound, the, 180 ff., 229 ff.
+
+South Beveland, 58, 345
+
+South Brabant, 383
+
+South Holland, 58, 60, 62, 64
+
+South Sea Company, 301
+
+Southampton, treaty of (1625), 163
+
+Southwold bay, 237, 252
+
+Spa, 93
+
+"Spanish Fury," the, 66
+
+Spanish Succession, War of the, 280 ff., 285-297, 299
+
+_Spectateur Belge_, the, 384 f.
+
+Spice trade, 105, 161 ff., 276
+
+Spiegel, Hendrik Laurensz, 191 f.
+
+Spinola, Ambrosio de, 103 ff., 107, 120, 139 f., 145, 150
+
+Spinoza, Baruch, 190
+
+Spinozan system, the, 190
+
+Spitsbergen, 99, 123 f., 143, 166
+
+St Agatha, convent of, 79
+
+St Anthony fort, 144
+
+St Antonio de Padua, 174
+
+St Bartholomew, massacre of, 53, 78
+
+St Denis, 265
+
+St Dizier, 30
+
+St Eustatius, 323, 327
+
+St Germain, 283
+
+St Germain-en-Laye, 245
+
+St Isabella fort, 144
+
+_St Jago_, ship, 174
+
+St John, Henry, Viscount Bolingbroke, 294 f.
+
+St John, Oliver, 212 ff.
+
+St Martin, 328
+
+St Omer, 40
+
+St Quentin, battle at (1557), 28
+
+St Trond, 39
+
+St Venant, 294
+
+St Vincent, 171
+
+_Stad en Landen_, 93, 111
+
+Stadholders, powers and functions of, 4f., 115 f.
+
+Stair, Lord, 307
+
+_Standdard, De_, 420
+
+Stanley, Sir William, 87 f.
+
+Staten river, 164
+
+States-Flanders, 103
+
+States-General, constitution of, 3 f., 111 f., 345
+
+Steen, Jan, 200
+
+Steenbergen, 82
+
+Steenwijk, 93, 258
+
+Steinkirk, 279
+
+Stevin, Simon, 198
+
+Steyn, council-pensionary, 316, 318 f.
+
+Stock-dealing, 322
+
+Stockholm, 121, 201, 230
+
+Stoke, Melis, 190
+
+Story, Rear-Admiral, 352
+
+Strafford, Earl of, 152
+
+Strafford, Lord, 295
+
+Strasburg, 267, 280
+
+Strickland, Walter, 203 f., 212 f.
+
+Strickland, William, 154
+
+Stuyvesant, Peter, 177
+
+Suffren, French admiral, 328
+
+Sugar plantations, 276, 340
+
+Sumatra, 163
+
+Surat, 275
+
+Surinam, 243, 248, 261, 276, 327, 347, 416, 418;
+  Society of, 345
+
+_Survivance Acte de_ (1631), 145, 202
+
+Swammerdam, Jan, 199
+
+Sweden and Holland, relations of, 178-182
+
+Swedo-Dutch Company, 179
+
+Swiss Cantons, the, 8
+
+
+_Tableau sommaire des pretensions_, 330
+
+Tagus, the, 289
+
+Tallard, Marshal, 288
+
+Talleyrand, 349, 352, 396, 400 f.
+
+Tasman, Abel, 164
+
+Tasmania, 164 f.
+
+Tasman's head, 165
+
+Tasman's peninsula, 165
+
+Tasso's _Gerusalemme Liberata_, Dutch translation of, 197
+
+Teligny, Louise de, _see_ Coligny
+
+Teligny, Sieur de, 78
+
+Temple, Sir William, 244 f., 248 f., 265
+
+Ten Days' Campaign, 399 f., 406
+
+Terburg, Gerard, 200
+
+Termonde, 53
+
+Ternate, 124, 160
+
+Terneuzen, canal of, 379
+
+Terschelling, island, 241
+
+Terscholen, 146
+
+Texel, the, 220, 237, 243, 329, 347, 352
+
+Textile industries, 183
+
+Thames, the, 238, 241, 243, 252, 259
+
+Thijssen, Marten, 173 f., 181 f.
+
+Thirty Years' War, 139, 143, 148, 155, 178, 188, 201
+
+Tholen island, 146
+
+Thomas of Savoy, Prince, 149
+
+Thorbecke, Johan Rudolf, 408, 411 ff., 415-419, 424, 430
+
+Tichelaer, barber, 255, 257
+
+Tidor, 105, 160
+
+Tielemans, 387
+
+Tilburg, 410
+
+Tilly, Count, 255 f.
+
+Tilsit, peace of (1807), 359
+
+Tonga islands, 164
+
+Torbay, 273, 277
+
+Torcy, French minister, 294
+
+Torre, Count de, 175 f.
+
+Torrington, Admiral, 278
+
+Torstensson, General, 141, 180 ff.
+
+Toulon, 278, 289 ff.
+
+Toulouse, Count of, 289
+
+Tournay, 21, 32, 40, 245, 293, 297, 309 f., 380
+
+Tourville, Admiral, 278
+
+Towerson, Gabriel, 163
+
+Trade and industries, prosperous state of, 6, 23 ff., 120 ff.
+
+Transvaal, 420
+
+Treaty of the XVIII Articles, 398 ff.
+
+Treaty of the XXIV Articles, 400 f., 403
+
+Trent, Council of, 35 f.
+
+Treves, 32
+
+Trevor, English ambassador, 245
+
+Trier, 7 f.
+
+Trip, Elias, 178, 182
+
+Triple Alliance, 245, 248
+
+Troelstra, 425, 427
+
+Tromp, Cornelis, 237 f., 240 f.
+
+Tromp, Martin, Admiral, 151 f., 175, 194, 216-220, 289
+
+Troubles, Council of, 43, 45
+
+Tulip mania, 184
+
+Turenne, General, 141, 249, 258, 286
+
+Turkish advance, 19, 287
+
+Turnhout, 95
+
+Tuscany, Grand Duchy of, 306
+
+Twelve years' truce, 109 f., 119-126, 139, 196
+
+Twente, 114, 226
+
+
+Uilenburg, Saskia, 201
+
+Uitgeest, Dirk Simonsz, 170
+
+Ulrum, 407
+
+Union, Act of, Utrecht, 210
+
+_Union_, the, association, 384 f.
+
+United East-India Company, creation of, 100
+
+"United States of Belgium," 338
+
+Universities, 60, 181, 187 ff., 380, 431
+
+Upper Gelderland, 297
+
+Usselincx, Willem, 165 ff.
+
+Utrecht, town, bishopric, and district of, _passim_;
+  treaties of, 285-301, 331;
+  Union of, 72 f., 89, 115;
+  University of, 188, 190, 380, 431
+
+Uyttenbogaert, Johannes, 128, 130, 188
+
+
+Valckenier, Gillis, 246, 260, 264, 266 f.
+
+Valckenier, revolutionary leader, 349
+
+Valdez, commander, 59 f.
+
+Valenciennes, 40, 52 f., 263
+
+Vallecilla, Francisco de, Vice-Admiral, 174
+
+Valmy, 340
+
+Van Alphen river, 164
+
+Van Asperen, 256
+
+Van Bankhem, banker, 256 f.
+
+Van Berckel, burgomaster, 323
+
+Van Beuningen, diplomatist, 230, 245 f., 248, 264, 266 f.
+
+Van Beverningh, treasurer-general, 221-224, 245, 258, 260, 264 f., 267
+
+Van Blauw, envoy, 342, 345 f.
+
+Van Bylandt, Admiral, 324
+
+Van Dam, revolutionary leader, 342
+
+Van de Spiegel of Goes, Laurens Pieter, council-pensionary, 332, 335-342
+
+Van de Weyer, envoy, 393, 395, 400, 404
+
+Van den Berg, Count, stadholder, 79
+
+Van den Bosch, General, 380
+
+Van der Capellen, 141
+
+Van der Capellen tot de Pol, Jan Dirk, 323, 327 f., 332
+
+Van der Capellen van den Marsch, 332 ff.
+
+Van der Duyn van Maasdam, Baron, 364 f.
+
+Van der Fosse, Baron, 390
+
+Van der Goes, 425
+
+Van der Myle, 121, 127, 142
+
+Van der Straeten, advocate, 384
+
+Van Diemen, Antony, 164 f.
+
+Van Diemen, Maria, 165
+
+Van Diemen cape, 164
+
+Van Diemen gulf, 164
+
+Van Diemen river, 164
+
+Van Diemen's Land, 164
+
+Van Dussen, envoy, 294
+
+Van Eyk, Spenger, 424
+
+Van Galen, Jan, Admiral, 217 f.
+
+Van Ghent, Admiral, 243
+
+Van Gogh, Vincent, 432
+
+Van Haersolte, 352
+
+Van Hagenbach, Peter, 8
+
+Van Hall, F.A., 406, 408, 413 ff.
+
+Van Haren, Otto Zwier, 313, 316
+
+Van Hasselt, 352
+
+Van Heemskerk, J., 416 f., 419 ff., 422
+
+Van Heemskerk, Jacob, 99, 106, 123
+
+Van Heemstra, Baron S., 415
+
+Van Heyliger, governor of St Eustatius, 323
+
+Van Hoeft, 352
+
+Van Hogelanden, Boreel, 408
+
+Van Hogendorp, Gijsbert Karel, 364-367, 372, 380
+
+Van Hoogstraeten, Samuel, 200
+
+Van Hoornbeck, Isaac, pensionary, 300
+
+Van Hout, Jan, 60
+
+Van Houten, Samuel, 423 f.
+
+Van Knuyt, plenipotentiary, 157
+
+Van Kol, 425
+
+Van Langen, member of Executive Council, 350
+
+Van Lennep, J., 192, 432
+
+Van Limburg-Stirum, Count, 364 f.
+
+Van Lynden van Sandenburg, Count, 420 f.
+
+Van Maanen, Minister of Justice, 358, 385-393
+
+Van Marle, leader of the federalists, 349
+
+Van Meteren, chronicler, 195
+
+Van Mieris, Frans, 200
+
+Van Naaldwijk, Jan, 12
+
+Van Nagell, 369
+
+Van Neck, Jacob, 99
+
+Van Noort, Olivier, 99
+
+Van Odijk, Seigneur, 247, 267, 274
+
+Van Poortvliet, Tak, 423 f.
+
+Van Prinsterer, G. Groen, 411, 414 f., 419, 424 f.
+
+Van Raalte, preacher, 408
+
+Van Rechteren, Count, 301
+
+Van Reigersberg, Nicholas, 142
+
+Van Rheede, Godard, lord of Amerongen, 267
+
+Van Rhoon, Count Bentinck, 332
+
+Van Rhyn, _see_ Rembrandt
+
+Van Riebeck, Jan, 165
+
+Van Schooten, Francis, 198
+
+Van Slingelandt, Simon, 285, 301, 303 f.
+
+Van Speult, governor of Amboina, 163
+
+Van Stoutenberg, William, 140
+
+Van Stralen, Antony, 43
+
+Van Swieten, General, 419
+
+Van Tienhoven, Cornelis, 423
+
+Van Waesberg, 201
+
+Van Weede, Everhard, lord of Dijkveld, 267
+
+Van Welderen, ambassador, 325 f.
+
+Van Zuylen van Nyevelt, Baron, 416 f.
+
+"Vaste Colleges," establishment of, 5
+
+Vauban, 279
+
+Vaucelles, peace of (1556), 27
+
+Vecht river, 195
+
+Veere, 58, 118, 274, 311, 359
+
+Velde, Adrian van der, 200
+
+Velde, William van der, 200
+
+Vendome, 291 f.
+
+Venetia, 368
+
+Venice, 121, 195
+
+Venloo, 146, 288, 341, 346
+
+Verdugo, Spanish commander, 93 f.
+
+Verdun, treaty of (843), 1
+
+Vere, Sir Francis, 93, 101 f.
+
+Vere, Sir Horace, 139
+
+_Vereenigte Provintien_, ship, 173 f.
+
+Verhoef, goldsmith, 256 f.
+
+Verhuell, Admiral, 355 f., 358, 361, 367
+
+Versailles, 282, 290, 308
+
+Vervins, peace of (1598), 96
+
+_Vetkoopers_, 14
+
+Victoria, 164
+
+Vienna, 69, 266, 287 f., 302, 306 f.;
+  congress of, 370 f., 373, 375, 400;
+  treaties of, 274, 277, 303, 396, 429
+
+Viglius van Zwychem van Aytta, councillor, 22, 29, 31, 33, 35 f., 65
+
+Vigo, 289
+
+Villars, Marshal, 291-294, 296
+
+Villeroy, Marshal, 279, 288, 290
+
+Vilvoorde, 392, 394
+
+Vin et Pain, Colonel, 259
+
+Vincent, General Baron, 369
+
+Virginia, 177
+
+Visscher, Anna, 197
+
+Visscher, Maria Tesselschade, 197
+
+Visscher, Roemer, 191, 197
+
+Vitringa, leader of the federalists, 349
+
+Vivien, pensionary, 226, 247
+
+Vlieter, 352
+
+Voetius, 188
+
+Vollenhove, 114
+
+Voltaire, 323
+
+Von Thulemeyer, Prussian ambassador, 335
+
+Vondel, Joost van den, 192 ff., 197, 432
+
+Voorne, 254
+
+Voorne canal, the, 379
+
+Vossius, Gerardus Johannes, 188
+
+Vossius, Isaac, 188
+
+Vreede, revolutionary leader, 349 f.
+
+Vries, Gerrit de, 419
+
+
+Waal, the, 59, 89, 104, 149, 345, 360
+
+_Waardgelders_, 130-133
+
+Waas, 92
+
+Waerdenburgh, Jonckheer Diederik
+  van, 171 f., 174
+
+Waerwyck, Wybrand van, 99, 105
+
+Wageningen, 431
+
+Wagram, 359
+
+Waigat, the, 99
+
+Walcheren, 51, 64, 101, 248, 254, 311, 345, 359
+
+_Walcheren_, ship, 174
+
+Waldeck, George Frederick von, Count, 239, 258, 267, 269, 272, 278
+
+Waldeck, Prince of, 310, 312
+
+Walpole, Robert, 303, 307
+
+Walram, branch of house of Nassau, 374
+
+Walraven, lord of Brederode, 107
+
+Warneton, 297
+
+Warnsfeld, combat of, 87
+
+Wassenaer, Jacob van, lord of Obdam, 220, 229 f., 237 f.
+
+Wassenaer-Twickel, Count of, 309 ff., 317
+
+Waterloo, 371 f., 377, 406
+
+Wauthier, Major-General, 390
+
+Wavre, 371, 393
+
+Webb, General, 292
+
+Weingarten, abbey of, 354
+
+Wellington, 366, 371, 396
+
+Werf, Pieter Adriaanzoon van der, 60
+
+Wesel, 100, 144
+
+Wesenbeke, Jacob van, 50
+
+West Coast of Africa, the, company for trading on, 179
+
+West Flanders, 82, 101, 309
+
+West Friesland, 13, 52, 54, 87
+
+West India Company, 147, 155, 159-185, 276, 305, 339 f., 345
+
+West Indies, 158, 166, 169 f., 214, 216, 318 f., 346 f., 416
+
+Westergoo, 114
+
+Westminster, peace of (1674), 261
+
+Westphalia, treaty of, 270, 274
+
+West-Quarter, district of Groningen, 114
+
+Whale fishery, 123, 166
+
+White, Charles, 386
+
+White Sea trade, 98, 121
+
+Wild Coast of Guiana, the, traders on, 178
+
+Wildrik, member of Executive Council, 350
+
+Wilhelmina, Queen, 421, 426-428, 429
+
+Wilhelmina of Prussia, Frederika Louise, wife of William V, 321, 335-338
+
+_Wilhelmus_, the, 333
+
+Willebroek, 42
+
+Willekens, Jacob, admiral-in-chief, 167
+
+William the Silent, Prince of Orange, stadholder, 29 ff., 33-37,
+  39-42, 44 f., 47, 49-83, 87, 90, 103, 113, 115 ff., 128, 187,
+  191, 268, 285;
+  _Apology_ of, 75
+
+William II of Orange, stadholder, 116, 143, 152, 194, 202-211,
+  212, 226, 249, 261, 268, 298, 314, 321
+
+William III of Orange, stadholder, 116, 152, 194, 227, 232, 234,
+  241 f., 246 ff., 250 f., 253 f., 256 f., 258-273, 274-284, 285,
+  287, 289, 298 ff., 301, 303, 312, 314 f., 317, 320 f., 324, 431
+
+William IV of Orange, stadholder, 304 f., 306-315, 316 f., 321
+
+William V of Orange, stadholder, 316, 319, 321-326, 327-336,   343,
+  346, 354
+
+William I, King of the Netherlands, VI Prince of Orange, 341 ff.,
+  354, 364-367, 369-374, 376 f., 379 ff., 385, 387, 392 f.,
+  395-398, 400-406
+
+William II (William Frederick), King of the Netherlands,
+  392 f., 395, 398 f., 401, 405-410
+
+William III, King of the Netherlands, 410, 411-418, 419-425, 429;
+  Prince of Orange, son of, 417, 421
+
+William, Count of Holland, husband of Margaret of Burgundy, 1
+
+William, Count-Palatine of Neuburg, 119 f.
+
+William de Blois, lord of Treslong, 50 f.
+
+William de la Marck, lord of Lumey, 50
+
+William de la Marck, ruler of Liege, 12
+
+William Frederick, stadholder, 153, 203, 205 ff., 209 f., 223, 225,
+  227, 238, 285
+
+William Lewis of Nassau, stadholder, 83, 90-93, 101, 103 f., 107,
+  115, 130 f., 135, 138
+
+William of Juelich and Cleves, 21
+
+William of Nassau, Count, 150
+
+William of Nassau, lord of Zuilestein, 271
+
+William of Nassau-Dillenburg, Count, 29
+
+Willoughby, Hugh, 123
+
+Willoughby, Lord, 89
+
+Winter, Jan de, Vice-Admiral, 347
+
+Winwood, Sir Ralph, 123
+
+Witsen, Nicolaes, 267, 274
+
+Witt, Jacob de, _see_ De Witt
+
+Witt, John de, _see_ De Witt
+
+Witte de With, _see_ De With
+
+Woerden, 258, 335
+
+Wool and cloth trade, 7, 16, 125
+
+Worcester, battle of, 208, 212
+
+Worms, diet of (1521), 19, 23
+
+Wouvermans, Philip, 200
+
+Wouw, 88
+
+Wrangel, Swedish admiral, 182, 230
+
+Wynendael, 292
+
+Wyvants, Jan, 200
+
+
+Xanten, treaty of (1614), 120
+
+
+Y, the, 24, 55, 181, 416
+
+Ymuiden, 416
+
+York, Duke of, second son of George III, 341 f., 353
+
+York, royal camp at, 155
+
+Yorke, British ambassador, 318, 323 ff.
+
+Yorke, Sir Robert, 87 f.
+
+Ypres, 6, 24, 40, 73, 79, 82, 264, 297, 309
+
+Yssel, the, 89, 104, 251
+
+
+Zaandam, 98, 302
+
+Zederik canal, the, 379
+
+Zeeland, _passim_
+
+Zevenwolden, 114
+
+Zierikzee, 58, 62, 64
+
+Zoutman, Rear-Admiral, 328 f.
+
+Zuid-Beveland, 359
+
+Zuid-Willemsvaart canal, the, 379
+
+Zuilestein, 271
+
+Zutphen, 21, 55 f., 72, 82, 87 f., 92, 113
+
+Zuyder-Zee, the, 24, 56, 72, 98, 195, 251;
+  department, 361
+
+Zwijn, the, 23
+
+Zwijndrecht, 407
+
+Zwingli, Zwinglians, 22, 38
+
+Zwolle, 114, 226
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
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