diff options
Diffstat (limited to '14972-h/14972-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 14972-h/14972-h.htm | 13156 |
1 files changed, 13156 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/14972-h/14972-h.htm b/14972-h/14972-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e8c5e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/14972-h/14972-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13156 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta name="generator" content= + "HTML Tidy for Linux/x86 (vers 1st August 2004), see www.w3.org" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of SKETCHES AND STUDIES IN ITALY AND + GREECE BY JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS + </title> + <meta http-equiv="content-type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + + + +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- +A { + TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +P { + MARGIN-TOP: 0.75em; MARGIN-BOTTOM: 0.75em; TEXT-ALIGN: justify; +} +H1 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H2 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H3 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H4 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H5 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} +H6 { + TEXT-ALIGN: center; +} + +HR { + WIDTH: 33%; +} +HR.full { + WIDTH: 100%; HEIGHT: 5px; +} +A:link { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +LINK { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:visited { + COLOR: blue; TEXT-DECORATION: none; +} +A:hover { + COLOR: red; +} + + +BODY { + MARGIN-LEFT: 7%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 8%; +} +.linenum { + LEFT: 4%; POSITION: absolute; TOP: auto; +} +.note { + MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 2em; +} +.blkquot { + MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; MARGIN-RIGHT: 4em; +} +.pagenum { + FONT-SIZE: smaller; LEFT: 92%; POSITION: absolute; + TEXT-ALIGN: right; +} +.newpage { + display: none; +} +.sidenote { + CLEAR: right; MARGIN-TOP: 1em; PADDING-LEFT: 1em; + FONT-SIZE: smaller; FLOAT: right; + MARGIN-BOTTOM: 1em; WIDTH: 20%; +} + +ins.correction {border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-color: red; + border-bottom-width:1px; +} + +.poem { + MARGIN-LEFT: 10%; MARGIN-RIGHT: 10%; TEXT-ALIGN: left; +} + .poem p {line-height: 1.1em; + margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; + } +.poem BR { + DISPLAY: none; +} +.poem .stanza { + MARGIN: 1em 0em; +} + .poem .i1 {margin-left: 1em;} /* p or span indents */ + .poem .i2 {margin-left: 2em;} /* indents */ + .poem .i3 {margin-left: 3em;} /* indents */ + .poem .i4 {margin-left: 4em;} /* indents */ + +.poem SPAN { + DISPLAY: block; PADDING-LEFT: 3em; MARGIN: 0px; TEXT-INDENT: -3em; +} +.poem SPAN.i2 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 2em; +} +.poem SPAN.i4 { + DISPLAY: block; MARGIN-LEFT: 4em; +} +.poem .caesura { + VERTICAL-ALIGN: -200%; +} +LI.indent { + MARGIN-LEFT: 5%; +} + + .fnanchor { + font-size: smaller; /* discreet [X] */ + vertical-align: 2px; /* bumped up a trace from baseline */ + } + + .footnote { + font-size: 90%; /* somewhat smaller */ + margin: 0 1em 1em 2em; + text-align: justify; + } + + --> + +/*]]>*/ + + +</style> + </head> + <body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece +by John Addington Symonds + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece + +Author: John Addington Symonds + +Release Date: February 8, 2005 [EBook #14972] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES IN ITALY *** + + + + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Leonard Johnson and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + <div style= + " background-color: white; color: black; border-style: ridge;"> + <center> + <h1> + SKETCHES AND STUDIES + <br /> + IN + <br /> + ITALY AND GREECE + </h1> + </center> + </div> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h2> + BY + <br /> + JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS + </h2> + <h4> + AUTHOR OF "RENAISSANCE IN ITALY", "STUDIES OF THE GREEK POETS," + ETC + </h4> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h3> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h3> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h4> + FIRST SERIES + </h4> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h4> + NEW EDITION + </h4> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h4> + LONDON + <br /> + <br /> + JOHN MURRAY, + <br /> + ALBEMARLE STREET, W. + </h4> + <h3> + 1914 + </h3> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 65%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="PREFATORY_NOTE" id="PREFATORY_NOTE"></a>PREFATORY NOTE + </h2> + <p> + In preparing this new edition of the late J.A. Symonds's three + volumes of travels, 'Sketches in Italy and Greece,' 'Sketches and + Studies in Italy,' and 'Italian Byways,' nothing has been changed + except the order of the Essays. For the convenience of travellers + a topographical arrangement has been adopted. This implied a new + title to cover the contents of all three volumes, and 'Sketches + and Studies in Italy and Greece' has been chosen as departing + least from the author's own phraseology. + </p> + <p> + HORATIO F. BROWN. + </p> + <p> + Venice: <i>June</i> 1898. + </p> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <table summary="toc"> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"><b>TABLE OF CONTENTS</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#PREFATORY_NOTE"><b>PREFATORY NOTE</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#THE_LOVE_OF_THE_ALPS1"><b>THE LOVE OF THE + ALPS</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#WINTER_NIGHTS_AT_DAVOS"><b>WINTER NIGHTS AT + DAVOS</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#BACCHUS_IN_GRAUBUNDEN"><b>BACCHUS IN + GRAUBÜNDEN</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#OLD_TOWNS_OF_PROVENCE"><b>OLD TOWNS OF + PROVENCE</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#THE_CORNICE"><b>THE CORNICE</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#AJACCIO"><b>AJACCIO</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#MONTE"><b>MONTE GENEROSO</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#LOMBARD_VIGNETTES"><b>LOMBARD VIGNETTES</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#COMO_AND_IL_MEDEGHINO"><b>COMO AND IL + MEDEGHINO</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#BERGAMO_AND_BARTOLOMMEO_COLLEONI"><b>BERGAMO AND + BARTOLOMMEO COLLEONI</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#CREMA_AND_THE_CRUCIFIX"><b>CREMA AND THE + CRUCIFIX</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#CHERUBINO_AT_THE_SCALA_THEATRE"><b>CHERUBINO AT THE + SCALA THEATRE</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#A_VENETIAN_MEDLEY"><b>A VENETIAN MEDLEY</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#THE_GONDOLIERS_WEDDING"><b>THE GONDOLIER'S + WEDDING</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#A_CINQUE_CENTO_BRUTUS"><b>A CINQUE CENTO + BRUTUS</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#TWO_DRAMATISTS_OF_THE_LAST_CENTURY"><b>TWO + DRAMATISTS OF THE LAST CENTURY</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"> + <a href="#FOOTNOTES"><b>FOOTNOTES</b></a> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <h2> + SKETCHES AND STUDIES + <br /> + IN + <br /> + ITALY AND GREECE + </h2> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="THE_LOVE_OF_THE_ALPS1" id= + "THE_LOVE_OF_THE_ALPS1"></a><i>THE LOVE OF THE + ALPS</i><small><a name="FNanchor_1_1" id= + "FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class= + "fnanchor">[1]</a></small> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + Of all the joys in life, none is greater than the joy of arriving + on the outskirts of Switzerland at the end of a long dusty day's + journey from Paris. The true epicure in refined pleasures will + never travel to Basle by night. He courts the heat of the sun and + the monotony of French plains,—their sluggish streams and + never-ending poplar trees—for the sake of the evening + coolness and the gradual approach to the great Alps, which await + him at the close of the day. It is about Mulhausen that he begins + to feel a change in the landscape. The fields broaden into + rolling downs, watered by clear and running streams; the green + Swiss thistle grows by riverside and cowshed; pines begin to tuft + the slopes of gently rising hills; and now the sun has set, the + stars come out, first Hesper, then the troop of lesser lights; + and he feels—yes, indeed, there is now no mistake—the + well-known, well-loved magical fresh air, that never fails to + blow from snowy mountains and meadows watered by perennial + streams. The last hour is one of exquisite enjoyment, and when he + reaches Basle, he scarcely sleeps all night for hearing the swift + Rhine beneath the balconies, and knowing that the moon is shining + on its waters, through the town, beneath the bridges, between + pasture-lands and copses, up the still mountain-girdled valleys + to the ice-caves where the water springs. There is nothing in all + experience of travelling like this. We may greet the + Mediterranean at Marseilles with enthusiasm; on entering Rome by + the Porta del Popolo, we may reflect with pride that we have + reached the goal of our pilgrimage, and are at last among + world-shaking memories. But neither Rome nor the Riviera wins our + hearts like Switzerland. We do not lie awake in London thinking + of them; we do not long so intensely, as the year comes round, to + revisit them. Our affection is less a passion than that which we + cherish for Switzerland. + </p> + <p> + Why, then, is this? What, after all, is the love of the Alps, and + when and where did it begin? It is easier to ask these questions + than to answer them. The classic nations hated mountains. Greek + and Roman poets talk of them with disgust and dread. Nothing + could have been more depressing to a courtier of Augustus than + residence at Aosta, even though he found his theatres and + triumphal arches there. Wherever classical feeling has + predominated, this has been the case. Cellini's Memoirs, written + in the height of pagan Renaissance, well express the aversion + which a Florentine or Roman felt for the inhospitable + wildernesses of Switzerland.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id= + "FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class= + "fnanchor">[2]</a> Dryden, in his dedication to 'The Indian + Emperor,' says, 'High objects, it is true, attract the sight; but + it looks up with pain on craggy rocks and barren mountains, and + continues not intent on any object which is wanting in shades and + green to entertain it.' Addison and Gray had no better epithets + than 'rugged,' 'horrid,' and the like for Alpine landscape. The + classic spirit was adverse to enthusiasm for mere nature. + Humanity was too prominent, and city life absorbed all + interests,—not to speak of what perhaps is the weightiest + reason—that solitude, indifferent accommodation, and + imperfect means of travelling, rendered mountainous countries + peculiarly disagreeable. It is impossible to enjoy art or nature + while suffering from fatigue and cold, dreading the attacks of + robbers, and wondering whether you will find food and shelter at + the end of your day's journey. Nor was it different in the Middle + Ages. Then individuals had either no leisure from war or strife + with the elements, or else they devoted themselves to the + salvation of their souls. But when the ideas of the Middle Ages + had decayed, when improved arts of life had freed men from + servile subjection to daily needs, when the bondage of religious + tyranny had been thrown off and political liberty allowed the + full development of tastes and instincts, when, moreover, the + classical traditions had lost their power, and courts and + coteries became too narrow for the activity of man,—then + suddenly it was discovered that Nature in herself possessed + transcendent charms. It may seem absurd to class them all + together; yet there is no doubt that the French Revolution, the + criticism of the Bible, Pantheistic forms of religious feeling, + landscape-painting, Alpine travelling, and the poetry of Nature, + are all signs of the same movement—of a new Renaissance. + Limitations of every sort have been shaken off during the last + century; all forms have been destroyed, all questions asked. The + classical spirit loved to arrange, model, preserve traditions, + obey laws. We are intolerant of everything that is not simple, + unbiassed by prescription, liberal as the wind, and natural as + the mountain crags. We go to feed this spirit of freedom among + the Alps. What the virgin forests of America are to the + Americans, the Alps are to us. What there is in these huge blocks + and walls of granite crowned with ice that fascinates us, it is + hard to analyse. Why, seeing that we find them so attractive, + they should have repelled our ancestors of the fourth generation + and all the world before them, is another mystery. We cannot + explain what rapport there is between our human souls and these + inequalities in the surface of the earth which we call Alps. + Tennyson speaks of + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Some vague emotion of delight + </p> + <p> + In gazing up an Alpine height, + </p> + </div> + <p> + and its vagueness eludes definition. The interest which physical + science has created for natural objects has something to do with + it. Curiosity and the charm of novelty increase this interest. No + towns, no cultivated tracts of Europe however beautiful, form + such a contrast to our London life as Switzerland. Then there is + the health and joy that comes from exercise in open air; the + senses freshened by good sleep; the blood quickened by a lighter + and rarer atmosphere. Our modes of life, the breaking down of + class privileges, the extension of education, which contribute to + make the individual greater and society less, render the solitude + of mountains refreshing. Facilities of travelling and improved + accommodation leave us free to enjoy the natural beauty which we + seek. Our minds, too, are prepared to sympathise with the + inanimate world; we have learned to look on the universe as a + whole, and ourselves as a part of it, related by close ties of + friendship to all its other members Shelley's, Wordsworth's, + Goethe's poetry has taught us this; we are all more or less + Pantheists, worshippers of 'God in Nature,' convinced of the + omnipresence of the informing mind. + </p> + <p> + Thus, when we admire the Alps, we are after all but children of + the century. We follow its inspiration blindly; and while we + think ourselves spontaneous in our ecstasy, perform the part for + which we have been trained from childhood by the atmosphere in + which we live. It is this very unconsciousness and universality + of the impulse we obey which makes it hard to analyse. + Contemporary history is difficult to write; to define the spirit + of the age in which we live is still more difficult; to account + for 'impressions which owe all their force to their identity with + themselves' is most difficult of all. We must be content to feel, + and not to analyse. + </p> + <p> + Rousseau has the credit of having invented the love of Nature. + Perhaps he first expressed, in literature, the pleasures of open + life among the mountains, of walking tours, of the '<i>école + buissonnière</i>,' away from courts, and schools, and cities, + which it is the fashion now to love. His bourgeois birth and + tastes, his peculiar religious and social views, his intense + self-engrossment,—all favoured the development of + Nature-worship. But Rousseau was not alone, nor yet creative, in + this instance. He was but one of the earliest to seize and + express a new idea of growing humanity. For those who seem to be + the most original in their inauguration of periods are only such + as have been favourably placed by birth and education to imbibe + the floating creeds of the whole race. They resemble the first + cases of an epidemic, which become the centres of infection and + propagate disease. At the time of Rousseau's greatness the French + people were initiative. In politics, in literature, in fashions, + and in philosophy, they had for some time led the taste of + Europe. But the sentiment which first received a clear and + powerful expression in the works of Rousseau, soon declared + itself in the arts and literature of other nations. Goethe, + Wordsworth, and the earlier landscape-painters, proved that + Germany and England were not far behind the French. In England + this love of Nature for its own sake is indigenous, and has at + all times been peculiarly characteristic of our genius. Therefore + it is not surprising that our life and literature and art have + been foremost in developing the sentiment of which we are + speaking. Our poets, painters, and prose writers gave the tone to + European thought in this respect. Our travellers in search of the + adventurous and picturesque, our Alpine Club, have made of + Switzerland an English playground. + </p> + <p> + The greatest period in our history was but a foreshadowing of + this. To return to Nature-worship was but to reassume the habits + of the Elizabethan age, altered indeed by all the changes of + religion, politics, society, and science which the last three + centuries have wrought, yet still, in its original love of free + open life among the fields and woods, and on the sea, the same. + Now the French national genius is classical. It reverts to the + age of Louis XIV., and Rousseauism in their literature is as true + an innovation and parenthesis as Pope-and-Drydenism was in ours. + As in the age of the Reformation, so in this, the German element + of the modern character predominates. During the two centuries + from which we have emerged, the Latin element had the upper hand. + Our love of the Alps is a Gothic, a Teutonic, instinct; + sympathetic with all that is vague, infinite, and insubordinate + to rules, at war with all that is defined and systematic in our + genius. This we may perceive in individuals as well as in the + broader aspects of arts and literatures. The classically minded + man, the reader of Latin poets, the lover of brilliant + conversation, the frequenter of clubs and drawing-rooms, nice in + his personal requirements, scrupulous in his choice of words, + averse to unnecessary physical exertion, preferring town to + country life, <i>cannot</i> deeply feel the charm of the Alps. + Such a man will dislike German art, and however much he may + strive to be Catholic in his tastes, will find as he grows older + that his liking for Gothic architecture and modern painting + diminish almost to aversion before an increasing admiration for + Greek peristyles and the Medicean Venus. If in respect of + speculation all men are either Platonists or Aristotelians, in + respect of taste all men are either Greek or German. + </p> + <p> + At present the German, the indefinite, the natural, commands; the + Greek, the finite, the cultivated, is in abeyance. We who talk so + much about the feeling of the Alps, are creatures, not creators + of our <i>cultus</i>,—a strange reflection, proving how + much greater man is than men, the common reason of the age in + which we live than our own reasons, its constituents and + subjects. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps it is our modern tendency to 'individualism' which makes + the Alps so much to us. Society is there reduced to a vanishing + point—no claims are made on human sympathies—there is + no need to toil in yoke-service with our fellows. We may be + alone, dream our own dreams, and sound the depths of personality + without the reproach of selfishness, without a restless wish to + join in action or money-making or the pursuit of fame. To + habitual residents among the Alps this absence of social duties + and advantages may be barbarising, even brutalising. But to men + wearied with too much civilisation, and deafened by the noise of + great cities, it is beyond measure refreshing. Then, again, among + the mountains history finds no place. The Alps have no past nor + present nor future. The human beings who live upon their sides + are at odds with nature, clinging on for bare existence to the + soil, sheltering themselves beneath protecting rocks from + avalanches, damming up destructive streams, all but annihilated + every spring. Man, who is paramount in the plain, is nothing + here. His arts and sciences, and dynasties, and modes of life, + and mighty works, and conquests and decays, demand our whole + attention in Italy or Egypt. But here the mountains, immemorially + the same, which were, which are, and which are to be, present a + theatre on which the soul breathes freely and feels herself + alone. Around her on all sides is God, and Nature, who is here + the face of God and not the slave of man. The spirit of the world + hath here not yet grown old. She is as young as on the first day; + and the Alps are a symbol of the self-creating, self-sufficing, + self-enjoying universe which lives for its own ends. For why do + the slopes gleam with flowers, and the hillsides deck themselves + with grass, and the inaccessible ledges of black rock bear their + tufts of crimson primroses and flaunting tiger-lilies? Why, + morning after morning, does the red dawn flush the pinnacles of + Monte Rosa above cloud and mist unheeded? Why does the torrent + shout, the avalanche reply in thunder to the music of the sun, + the trees and rocks and meadows cry their 'Holy, Holy, Holy'? + Surely not for us. We are an accident here, and even the few men + whose eyes are fixed habitually upon these things are dead to + them—the peasants do not even know the names of their own + flowers, and sigh with envy when you tell them of the plains of + Lincolnshire or Russian steppes. + </p> + <p> + But indeed there is something awful in the Alpine elevation above + human things. We do not love Switzerland merely because we + associate its thought with recollections of holidays and + joyfulness. Some of the most solemn moments of life are spent + high up above among the mountains, on the barren tops of rocky + passes, where the soul has seemed to hear in solitude a low + controlling voice. It is almost necessary for the development of + our deepest affections that some sad and sombre moments should be + interchanged with hours of merriment and elasticity. It is this + variety in the woof of daily life which endears our home to us; + and perhaps none have fully loved the Alps who have not spent + some days of meditation, or it may be of sorrow, among their + solitudes. Splendid scenery, like music, has the power to make + 'of grief itself a fiery chariot for mounting above the sources + of grief,' to ennoble and refine our passions, and to teach us + that our lives are merely moments in the years of the eternal + Being. There are many, perhaps, who, within sight of some great + scene among the Alps, upon the height of the Stelvio or the + slopes of Mürren, or at night in the valley of Courmayeur, have + felt themselves raised above cares and doubts and miseries by the + mere recognition of unchangeable magnificence; have found a deep + peace in the sense of their own nothingness. It is not granted to + us everyday to stand upon these pinnacles of rest and faith above + the world. But having once stood there, how can we forget the + station? How can we fail, amid the tumult of our common cares, to + feel at times the hush of that far-off tranquillity? When our + life is most commonplace, when we are ill or weary in city + streets, we can remember the clouds upon the mountains we have + seen, the sound of innumerable waterfalls, and the scent of + countless flowers. A photograph of Bisson's or of Braun's, the + name of some well-known valley, the picture of some Alpine plant, + rouses the sacred hunger in our souls, and stirs again the faith + in beauty and in rest beyond ourselves which no man can take from + us. We owe a deep debt of gratitude to everything which enables + us to rise above depressing and enslaving circumstances, which + brings us nearer in some way or other to what is eternal in the + universe, and which makes us know that, whether we live or die, + suffer or enjoy, life and gladness are still strong in the world. + On this account, the proper attitude of the soul among the Alps + is one of silence. It is almost impossible without a kind of + impiety to frame in words the feelings they inspire. Yet there + are some sayings, hallowed by long usage, which throng the mind + through a whole summer's day, and seem in harmony with its + emotions—some portions of the Psalms or lines of greatest + poets, inarticulate hymns of Beethoven and Mendelssohn, waifs and + strays not always apposite, but linked by strong and subtle + chains of feeling with the grandeur of the mountains. This + reverential feeling for the Alps is connected with the + Pantheistic form of our religious sentiments to which I have + before alluded. It is a trite remark, that even devout men of the + present generation prefer temples <i>not</i> made with hands to + churches, and worship God in the fields more contentedly than in + their pews. What Mr. Ruskin calls 'the instinctive sense of the + divine presence not formed into distinct belief' lies at the root + of our profound veneration for the nobler aspects of mountain + scenery. This instinctive sense has been very variously expressed + by Goethe in Faust's celebrated confession of faith, by Shelley + in the stanzas of 'Adonais,' which begin 'He is made one with + nature,' by Wordsworth in the lines on Tintern Abbey, and lately + by Mr. Roden Noel in his noble poems of Pantheism. It is more or + less strongly felt by all who have recognised the indubitable + fact that religious belief is undergoing a sure process of change + from the dogmatic distinctness of the past to some at present + dimly descried creed of the future. Such periods of transition + are of necessity full of discomfort, doubt, and anxiety, vague, + variable, and unsatisfying. The men in whose spirits the + fermentation of the change is felt, who have abandoned their old + moorings, and have not yet reached the haven for which they are + steering, cannot but be indistinct and undecided in their faith. + The universe of which they form a part becomes important to them + in its infinite immensity. The principles of beauty, goodness, + order and law, no longer connected in their minds with definite + articles of faith, find symbols in the outer world. They are glad + to fly at certain moments from mankind and its oppressive + problems, for which religion no longer provides a satisfactory + solution, to Nature, where they vaguely localise the spirit that + broods over us controlling all our being. To such men Goethe's + hymn is a form of faith, and born of such a mood are the + following far humbler verses:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + At Mürren let the morning lead thee out + </p> + <p class="i2"> + To walk upon the cold and cloven hills, + </p> + <p> + To hear the congregated mountains shout + </p> + <p class="i2"> + Their pæan of a thousand foaming rills. + </p> + <p> + Raimented with intolerable light + </p> + <p class="i2"> + The snow-peaks stand above thee, row on row + </p> + <p> + Arising, each a seraph in his might; + </p> + <p class="i2"> + An organ each of varied stop doth blow. + </p> + <p> + Heaven's azure dome trembles through all her spheres, + </p> + <p class="i2"> + Feeling that music vibrate; and the sun + </p> + <p> + Raises his tenor as he upward steers, + </p> + <p class="i2"> + And all the glory-coated mists that run + </p> + <p> + Below him in the valley, hear his voice, + </p> + <p> + And cry unto the dewy fields, Rejoice! + </p> + </div> + <p> + There is a profound sympathy between music and fine scenery: they + both affect us in the same way, stirring strong but undefined + emotions, which express themselves in 'idle tears,' or evoking + thoughts 'which lie,' as Wordsworth says, 'too deep for tears,' + beyond the reach of any words. How little we know what multitudes + of mingling reminiscences, held in solution by the mind, and + colouring its fancy with the iridescence of variable hues, go to + make up the sentiments which music or which mountains stir! It is + the very vagueness, changefulness, and dreamlike indistinctness + of these feelings which cause their charm; they harmonise with + the haziness of our beliefs and seem to make our very doubts + melodious. For this reason it is obvious that unrestrained + indulgence in the pleasures of music or of scenery may tend to + destroy habits of clear thinking, sentimentalise the mind, and + render it more apt to entertain embryonic fancies than to bring + ideas to definite perfection. + </p> + <p> + If hours of thoughtfulness and seclusion are necessary to the + development of a true love for the Alps, it is no less essential + to a right understanding of their beauty that we should pass some + wet and gloomy days among the mountains. The unclouded sunsets + and sunrises which often follow one another in September in the + Alps, have something terrible. They produce a satiety of + splendour, and oppress the mind with a sense of perpetuity. I + remember spending such a season in one of the Oberland valleys, + high up above the pine-trees, in a little châlet. Morning after + morning I awoke to see the sunbeams glittering on the Eiger and + the Jungfrau; noon after noon the snow-fields blazed beneath a + steady fire; evening after evening they shone like beacons in the + red light of the setting sun. Then peak by peak they lost the + glow; the soul passed from them, and they stood pale yet weirdly + garish against the darkened sky. The stars came out, the moon + shone, but not a cloud sailed over the untroubled heavens. Thus + day after day for several weeks there was no change, till I was + seized with an overpowering horror of unbroken calm. I left the + valley for a time; and when I returned to it in wind and rain, I + found that the partial veiling of the mountain heights restored + the charm which I had lost and made me feel once more at home. + The landscape takes a graver tone beneath the mist that hides the + higher peaks, and comes drifting, creeping, feeling, through the + pines upon their slopes—white, silent, blinding + vapour-wreaths around the sable spires. Sometimes the cloud + descends and blots out everything. Again it lifts a little, + showing cottages and distant Alps beneath its skirts. Then it + sweeps over the whole valley like a veil, just broken here and + there above a lonely châlet or a thread of distant dangling + torrent foam. Sounds, too, beneath the mist are more strange. The + torrent seems to have a hoarser voice and grinds the stones more + passionately against its boulders. The cry of shepherds through + the fog suggests the loneliness and danger of the hills. The + bleating of penned sheep or goats, and the tinkling of the + cowbells, are mysteriously distant and yet distinct in the dull + dead air. Then, again, how immeasurably high above our heads + appear the domes and peaks of snow revealed through chasms in the + drifting cloud; how desolate the glaciers and the avalanches in + gleams of light that struggle through the mist! There is a leaden + glare peculiar to clouds, which makes the snow and ice more + lurid. Not far from the house where I am writing, the avalanche + that swept away the bridge last winter is lying now, dripping + away, dank and dirty, like a rotting whale. I can see it from my + window, green beech-boughs nodding over it, forlorn larches + bending their tattered branches by its side, splinters of broken + pine protruding from its muddy caves, the boulders on its flank, + and the hoarse hungry torrent tossing up its tongues to lick the + ragged edge of snow. Close by, the meadows, spangled with yellow + flowers and red and blue, look even more brilliant than if the + sun were shining on them. Every cup and blade of grass is + drinking. But the scene changes; the mist has turned into + rain-clouds, and the steady rain drips down, incessant, blotting + out the view. Then, too, what a joy it is if the clouds break + towards evening with a north wind, and a rainbow in the valley + gives promise of a bright to-morrow! We look up to the cliffs + above our heads, and see that they have just been powdered with + the snow that is a sign of better weather. + </p> + <p> + Such rainy days ought to be spent in places like Seelisberg and + Mürren, at the edge of precipices, in front of mountains, or + above a lake. The cloud-masses crawl and tumble about the valleys + like a brood of dragons; now creeping along the ledges of the + rock with sinuous self-adjustment to its turns and twists; now + launching out into the deep, repelled by battling winds, or + driven onward in a coil of twisted and contorted serpent curls. + In the midst of summer these wet seasons often end in a heavy + fall of snow. You wake some morning to see the meadows which last + night were gay with July flowers huddled up in snow a foot in + depth. But fair weather does not tarry long to reappear. You put + on your thickest boots and sally forth to find the great cups of + the gentians full of snow, and to watch the rising of the + cloud-wreaths under the hot sun. Bad dreams or sickly thoughts, + dissipated by returning daylight or a friend's face, do not fly + away more rapidly and pleasantly than those swift glory-coated + mists that lose themselves we know not where in the blue depths + of the sky. + </p> + <p> + In contrast with these rainy days nothing can be more perfect + than clear moonlight nights. There is a terrace upon the roof of + the inn at Courmayeur where one may spend hours in the silent + watches, when all the world has gone to sleep beneath. The Mont + Chétif and the Mont de la Saxe form a gigantic portal not + unworthy of the pile that lies beyond. For Mont Blanc resembles a + vast cathedral; its countless spires are scattered over a mass + like that of the Duomo at Milan, rising into one tower at the + end. By night the glaciers glitter in the steady moon; domes, + pinnacles, and buttresses stand clear of clouds. Needles of every + height and most fantastic shapes rise from the central ridge, + some solitary, like sharp arrows shot against the sky, some + clustering into sheaves. On every horn of snow and bank of grassy + hill stars sparkle, rising, setting, rolling round through the + long silent night. Moonlight simplifies and softens the + landscape. Colours become scarcely distinguishable, and forms, + deprived of half their detail, gain in majesty and size. The + mountains seem greater far by night than day—higher heights + and deeper depths, more snowy pyramids, more beetling crags, + softer meadows, and darker pines. The whole valley is hushed, but + for the torrent and the chirping grasshopper and the striking of + the village clocks. The black tower and the houses of Courmayeur + in the foreground gleam beneath the moon until she reaches the + edge of the Cramont, and then sinks quietly away, once more to + reappear among the pines, then finally to leave the valley dark + beneath the shadow of the mountain's bulk. Meanwhile the heights + of snow still glitter in the steady light: they, too, will soon + be dark, until the dawn breaks, tinging them with rose. + </p> + <p> + But it is not fair to dwell exclusively upon the more sombre + aspect of Swiss beauty when there are so many lively scenes of + which to speak. The sunlight and the freshness and the flowers of + Alpine meadows form more than half the charm of Switzerland. The + other day we walked to a pasture called the Col de Checruit, high + up the valley of Courmayeur, where the spring was still in its + first freshness. Gradually we climbed, by dusty roads and through + hot fields where the grass had just been mown, beneath the fierce + light of the morning sun. Not a breath of air was stirring, and + the heavy pines hung overhead upon their crags, as if to fence + the gorge from every wandering breeze. There is nothing more + oppressive than these scorching sides of narrow rifts, shut in by + woods and precipices. But suddenly the valley broadened, the + pines and larches disappeared, and we found ourselves upon a wide + green semicircle of the softest meadows. Little rills of water + went rushing through them, rippling over pebbles, rustling under + dock leaves, and eddying against their wooden barriers. Far and + wide 'you scarce could see the grass for flowers,' while on every + side the tinkling of cow-bells, and the voices of shepherds + calling to one another from the Alps, or singing at their work, + were borne across the fields. As we climbed we came into still + fresher pastures, where the snow had scarcely melted. There the + goats and cattle were collected, and the shepherds sat among + them, fondling the kids and calling them by name. When they + called, the creatures came, expecting salt and bread. It was + pretty to see them lying near their masters, playing and butting + at them with their horns, or bleating for the sweet rye-bread. + The women knitted stockings, laughing among themselves, and + singing all the while. As soon as we reached them, they gathered + round to talk. An old herdsman, who was clearly the patriarch of + this Arcadia, asked us many questions in a slow deliberate voice. + We told him who we were, and tried to interest him in the + cattle-plague, which he appeared to regard as an evil very unreal + and far away—like the murrain upon Pharaoh's herds which + one reads about in Exodus. But he was courteous and polite, doing + the honours of his pasture with simplicity and ease. He took us + to his châlet and gave us bowls of pure cold milk. It was a funny + little wooden house, clean and dark. The sky peeped through its + tiles, and if shepherds were not in the habit of sleeping soundly + all night long, they might count the setting and rising stars + without lifting their heads from the pillow. He told us how far + pleasanter they found the summer season than the long cold winter + which they have to spend in gloomy houses in Courmayeur. This, + indeed, is the true pastoral life which poets have + described—a happy summer holiday among the flowers, well + occupied with simple cares, and harassed by 'no enemy but winter + and rough weather.' + </p> + <p> + Very much of the charm of Switzerland belongs to simple + things—to greetings from the herdsmen, the 'Guten Morgen,' + and 'Guten Abend,' that are invariably given and taken upon + mountain paths; to the tame creatures, with their large dark + eyes, who raise their heads one moment from the pasture while you + pass; and to the plants that grow beneath your feet. The latter + end of May is the time when spring begins in the high Alps. + Wherever sunlight smiles away a patch of snow, the brown turf + soon becomes green velvet, and the velvet stars itself with red + and white and gold and blue. You almost see the grass and lilies + grow. First come pale crocuses and lilac soldanellas. These break + the last dissolving clods of snow, and stand upon an island, with + the cold wall they have thawed all round them. It is the fate of + these poor flowers to spring and flourish on the very skirts of + retreating winter; they soon wither—the frilled chalice of + the soldanella shrivels up and the crocus fades away before the + grass has grown; the sun, which is bringing all the other plants + to life, scorches their tender petals. Often when summer has + fairly come, you still may see their pearly cups and lilac bells + by the side of avalanches, between the chill snow and the fiery + sun, blooming and fading hour by hour. They have as it were but a + Pisgah view of the promised land, of the spring which they are + foremost to proclaim. Next come the clumsy gentians and yellow + anemones, covered with soft down like fledgling birds. These are + among the earliest and hardiest blossoms that embroider the high + meadows with a diaper of blue and gold. About the same time + primroses and auriculas begin to tuft the dripping rocks, while + frail white fleur-de-lis, like flakes of snow forgotten by the + sun, and golden-balled ranunculuses join with forget-me-nots and + cranesbill in a never-ending dance upon the grassy floor. Happy, + too, is he who finds the lilies-of-the-valley clustering about + the chestnut boles upon the Colma, or in the beechwood by the + stream at Macugnaga, mixed with garnet-coloured columbines and + fragrant white narcissus, which the people of the villages call + 'Angiolini.' There, too, is Solomon's seal, with waxen bells and + leaves expanded like the wings of hovering butterflies. But these + lists of flowers are tiresome and cold; it would be better to + draw the portrait of one which is particularly fascinating. I + think that botanists have called it <i>Saxifraga cotyledon</i>; + yet, in spite of its long name, it is beautiful and poetic. + London-pride is the commonest of all the saxifrages; but the one + of which I speak is as different from London-pride as a + Plantagenet upon his throne from that last Plantagenet who died + obscure and penniless some years ago. It is a great majestic + flower, which plumes the granite rocks of Monte Rosa in the + spring. At other times of the year you see a little tuft of + fleshy leaves set like a cushion on cold ledges and dark places + of dripping cliffs. You take it for a stonecrop—one of + those weeds doomed to obscurity, and safe from being picked + because they are so uninviting—and you pass it by + incuriously. But about June it puts forth its power, and from the + cushion of pale leaves there springs a strong pink stem, which + rises upward for a while, and then curves down and breaks into a + shower of snow-white blossoms. Far away the splendour gleams, + hanging like a plume of ostrich-feathers from the roof of rock, + waving to the wind, or stooping down to touch the water of the + mountain stream that dashes it with dew. The snow at evening, + glowing with a sunset flush, is not more rosy-pure than this + cascade of pendent blossoms. It loves to be + alone—inaccessible ledges, chasms where winds combat, or + moist caverns overarched near thundering falls, are the places + that it seeks. I will not compare it to a spirit of the mountains + or to a proud lonely soul, for such comparisons desecrate the + simplicity of nature, and no simile can add a glory to the + flower. It seems to have a conscious life of its own, so large + and glorious it is, so sensitive to every breath of air, so nobly + placed upon its bending stem, so royal in its solitude. I first + saw it years ago on the Simplon, feathering the drizzling crags + above Isella. Then we found it near Baveno, in a crack of sombre + cliff beneath the mines. The other day we cut an armful opposite + Varallo, by the Sesia, and then felt like murderers; it was so + sad to hold in our hands the triumph of those many patient + months, the full expansive life of the flower, the splendour + visible from valleys and hillsides, the defenceless creature + which had done its best to make the gloomy places of the Alps + most beautiful. + </p> + <p> + After passing many weeks among the high Alps it is a pleasure to + descend into the plains. The sunset, and sunrise, and the stars + of Lombardy, its level horizons and vague misty distances, are a + source of absolute relief after the narrow skies and embarrassed + prospects of a mountain valley. Nor are the Alps themselves ever + more imposing than when seen from Milan or the church-tower of + Chivasso or the terrace of Novara, with a foreground of Italian + cornfields and old city towers and rice-ground, golden-green + beneath a Lombard sun. Half veiled by clouds, the mountains rise + like visionary fortress walls of a celestial + city—unapproachable, beyond the range of mortal feet. But + those who know by old experience what friendly châlets, and cool + meadows, and clear streams are hidden in their folds and valleys, + send forth fond thoughts and messages, like carrier-pigeons, from + the marble parapets of Milan, crying, 'Before another sun has + set, I too shall rest beneath the shadow of their pines!' It is + in truth not more than a day's journey from Milan to the brink of + snow at Macugnaga. But very sad it is to <i>leave</i> the Alps, + to stand upon the terraces of Berne and waft ineffectual + farewells. The unsympathising Aar rushes beneath; and the + snow-peaks, whom we love like friends, abide untroubled by the + coming and the going of the world. The clouds drift over + them—the sunset warms them with a fiery kiss. Night comes, + and we are hurried far away to wake beside the Seine, + remembering, with a pang of jealous passion, that the flowers on + Alpine meadows are still blooming, and the rivulets still flowing + with a ceaseless song, while Paris shops are all we see, and all + we hear is the dull clatter of a Paris crowd. + </p> + <p> + <i>THE ALPS IN WINTER</i> + </p> + <p> + The gradual approach of winter is very lovely in the high Alps. + The valley of Davos, where I am writing, more than five thousand + feet above the sea, is not beautiful, as Alpine valleys go, + though it has scenery both picturesque and grand within easy + reach. But when summer is passing into autumn, even the bare + slopes of the least romantic glen are glorified. Golden lights + and crimson are cast over the grey-green world by the fading of + innumerable plants. Then the larches begin to put on sallow tints + that deepen into orange, burning against the solid blue sky like + amber. The frosts are severe at night, and the meadow grass turns + dry and wan. The last lilac crocuses die upon the fields. + Icicles, hanging from watercourse or mill-wheel, glitter in the + noonday sunlight. The wind blows keenly from the north, and now + the snow begins to fall and thaw and freeze, and fall and thaw + again. The seasons are confused; wonderful days of flawless + purity are intermingled with storm and gloom. At last the time + comes when a great snowfall has to be expected. There is hard + frost in the early morning, and at nine o'clock the thermometer + stands at 2°. The sky is clear, but it clouds rapidly with films + of cirrus and of stratus in the south and west. Soon it is + covered over with grey vapour in a level sheet, all the hill-tops + standing hard against the steely heavens. The cold wind from the + west freezes the moustache to one's pipe-stem. By noon the air is + thick with a coagulated mist; the temperature meanwhile has + risen, and a little snow falls at intervals. The valleys are + filled with a curious opaque blue, from which the peaks rise, + phantom-like and pallid, into the grey air, scarcely + distinguishable from their background. The pine-forests on the + mountain-sides are of darkest indigo. There is an indescribable + stillness and a sense of incubation. The wind has fallen. Later + on, the snow-flakes flutter silently and sparely through the + lifeless air. The most distant landscape is quite blotted out. + After sunset the clouds have settled down upon the hills, and the + snow comes in thick, impenetrable fleeces. At night our hair + crackles and sparkles when we brush it. Next morning there is a + foot and a half of finely powdered snow, and still the snow is + falling. Strangely loom the châlets through the semi-solid + whiteness. Yet the air is now dry and singularly soothing. The + pines are heavy with their wadded coverings; now and again one + shakes himself in silence, and his burden falls in a white cloud, + to leave a black-green patch upon the hillside, whitening again + as the imperturbable fall continues. The stakes by the roadside + are almost buried. No sound is audible. Nothing is seen but the + snow-plough, a long raft of planks with a heavy stone at its stem + and a sharp prow, drawn by four strong horses, and driven by a + young man erect upon the stem. + </p> + <p> + So we live through two days and nights, and on the third a north + wind blows. The snow-clouds break and hang upon the hills in + scattered fleeces; glimpses of blue sky shine through, and + sunlight glints along the heavy masses. The blues of the shadows + are everywhere intense. As the clouds disperse, they form in + moulded domes, tawny like sunburned marble in the distant south + lands. Every châlet is a miracle of fantastic curves, built by + the heavy hanging snow. Snow lies mounded on the roads and + fields, writhed into loveliest wreaths, or outspread in the + softest undulations. All the irregularities of the hills are + softened into swelling billows like the mouldings of Titanic + statuary. + </p> + <p> + It happened once or twice last winter that such a clearing after + snowfall took place at full moon. Then the moon rose in a swirl + of fleecy vapour—clouds above, beneath, and all around. The + sky was blue as steel, and infinitely deep with mist-entangled + stars. The horn above which she first appears stood carved of + solid black, and through the valley's length from end to end + yawned chasms and clefts of liquid darkness. As the moon rose, + the clouds were conquered, and massed into rolling waves upon the + ridges of the hills. The spaces of open sky grew still more blue. + At last the silver light came flooding over all, and here and + there the fresh snow glistened on the crags. There is movement, + palpitation, life of light through earth and sky. To walk out on + such a night, when the perturbation of storm is over and the + heavens are free, is one of the greatest pleasures offered by + this winter life. It is so light that you can read the smallest + print with ease. The upper sky looks quite black, shading by + violet and sapphire into turquoise upon the horizon. There is the + colour of ivory upon the nearest snow-fields, and the distant + peaks sparkle like silver, crystals glitter in all directions on + the surface of the snow, white, yellow, and pale blue. The stars + are exceedingly keen, but only a few can shine in the intensity + of moonlight. The air is perfectly still, and though icicles may + be hanging from beard and moustache to the furs beneath one's + chin, there is no sensation of extreme cold. + </p> + <p> + During the earlier frosts of the season, after the first snows + have fallen, but when there is still plenty of moisture in the + ground, the loveliest fern-fronds of pure rime may be found in + myriads on the meadows. They are fashioned like perfect vegetable + structures, opening fan-shaped upon crystal stems, and catching + the sunbeams with the brilliancy of diamonds. Taken at certain + angles, they decompose light into iridescent colours, appearing + now like emeralds, rubies, or topazes, and now like Labrador + spar, blending all hues in a wondrous sheen. When the lake + freezes for the first time, its surface is of course quite black, + and so transparent that it is easy to see the fishes swimming in + the deep beneath; but here and there, where rime has fallen, + there sparkle these fantastic flowers and ferns and mosses made + of purest frost. Nothing, indeed, can be more fascinating than + the new world revealed by frost. In shaded places of the valley + you may walk through larches and leafless alder thickets by + silent farms, all silvered over with hoar spangles—fairy + forests, where the flowers and foliage are rime. The streams are + flowing half-frozen over rocks sheeted with opaque green ice. + Here it is strange to watch the swirl of water freeing itself + from these frost-shackles, and to see it eddying beneath the + overhanging eaves of frailest crystal-frosted snow. All is so + silent, still, and weird in this white world, that one marvels + when the spirit of winter will appear, or what shrill voices in + the air will make his unimaginable magic audible. Nothing + happens, however, to disturb the charm, save when a sunbeam cuts + the chain of diamonds on an alder bough, and down they drift in a + thin cloud of dust. It may be also that the air is full of + floating crystals, like tiniest most restless fire-flies rising + and falling and passing crosswise in the sun-illumined shade of + tree or mountain-side. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to describe these beauties of the winter-world; + and yet one word must be said about the sunsets. Let us walk out, + therefore, towards the lake at four o'clock in mid-December. The + thermometer is standing at 3°, and there is neither breath of + wind nor cloud. Venus is just visible in rose and sapphire, and + the thin young moon is beside her. To east and south the snowy + ranges burn with yellow fire, deepening to orange and crimson + hues, which die away and leave a greenish pallor. At last, the + higher snows alone are livid with a last faint tinge of light, + and all beneath is quite white. But the tide of glory turns. + While the west grows momently more pale, the eastern heavens + flush with afterglow, suffuse their spaces with pink and violet. + Daffodil and tenderest emerald intermingle; and these colours + spread until the west again has rose and primrose and sapphire + wonderfully blent, and from the burning skies a light is cast + upon the valley—a phantom light, less real, more like the + hues of molten gems, than were the stationary flames of sunset. + Venus and the moon meanwhile are silvery clear. Then the whole + illumination fades like magic. + </p> + <p> + All the charms of which I have been writing are combined in a + sledge-drive. With an arrowy gliding motion one passes through + the snow-world as through a dream. In the sunlight the snow + surface sparkles with its myriad stars of crystals. In the shadow + it ceases to glitter, and assumes a blueness scarcely less blue + than the sky. So the journey is like sailing through alternate + tracts of light irradiate heavens, and interstellar spaces of the + clearest and most flawless ether. The air is like the keen air of + the highest glaciers. As we go, the bells keep up a drowsy + tinkling at the horse's head. The whole landscape is + transfigured—lifted high up out of commonplaceness. The + little hills are Monte Rosas and Mont Blancs. Scale is + annihilated, and nothing tells but form. There is hardly any + colour except the blue of sky and shadow. Everything is traced in + vanishing tints, passing from the almost amber of the distant + sunlight through glowing white into pale greys and brighter blues + and deep ethereal azure. The pines stand in black platoons upon + the hillsides, with a tinge of red or orange on their sable. Some + carry masses of snow. Others have shaken their plumes free. The + châlets are like fairy houses or toys, waist-deep in stores of + winter fuel. With their mellow tones of madder and umber on the + weather-beaten woodwork relieved against the white, with + fantastic icicles and folds of snow depending from their eaves, + or curled like coverlids from roof and window-sill, they are far + more picturesque than in the summer. Colour, wherever it is + found, whether in these cottages or in a block of serpentine by + the roadside, or in the golden bulrush blades by the lake shore, + takes more than double value. It is shed upon the landscape like + a spiritual and transparent veil. Most beautiful of all are the + sweeping lines of pure untroubled snow, fold over fold of + undulating softness, billowing along the skirts of the peaked + hills. There is no conveying the charm of immaterial, aërial, + lucid beauty, the feeling of purity and aloofness from sordid + things, conveyed by the fine touch on all our senses of light, + colour, form, and air, and motion, and rare tinkling sound. The + magic is like a spirit mood of Shelley's lyric verse. And, what + is perhaps most wonderful, this delicate delight may be enjoyed + without fear in the coldest weather. It does not matter how low + the temperature may be, if the sun is shining, the air dry, and + the wind asleep. + </p> + <p> + Leaving the horse-sledges on the verge of some high hill-road, + and trusting oneself to the little hand-sledge which the people + of the Grisons use, and which the English have christened by the + Canadian term 'toboggan,' the excitement becomes far greater. The + hand-sledge is about three feet long, fifteen inches wide, and + half a foot above the ground, on runners shod with iron. Seated + firmly at the back, and guiding with the feet in front, the rider + skims down precipitous slopes and round perilous corners with a + rapidity that beats a horse's pace. Winding through sombre + pine-forests, where the torrent roars fitfully among caverns of + barbed ice, and the glistening mountains tower above in their + glory of sun-smitten snow, darting round the frozen ledges at the + turnings of the road, silently gliding at a speed that seems + incredible, it is so smooth, he traverses two or three miles + without fatigue, carried onward by the mere momentum of his + weight. It is a strange and great joy. The toboggan, under these + conditions, might be compared to an enchanted boat shooting the + rapids of a river; and what adds to its fascination is the entire + loneliness in which the rider passes through those weird and + ever-shifting scenes of winter radiance. Sometimes, when the snow + is drifting up the pass, and the world is blank behind, before, + and all around, it seems like plunging into chaos. The muffled + pines loom fantastically through the drift as we rush past them, + and the wind, ever and anon, detaches great masses of snow in + clouds from their bent branches. Or again at night, when the moon + is shining, and the sky is full of flaming stars, and the snow, + frozen to the hardness of marble, sparkles with innumerable + crystals, a new sense of strangeness and of joy is given to the + solitude, the swiftness, and the silence of the exercise. No + other circumstances invest the poetry of rapid motion with more + fascination. Shelley, who so loved the fancy of a boat inspired + with its own instinct of life, would have delighted in the game, + and would probably have pursued it recklessly. At the same time, + as practised on a humbler scale nearer home, in company, and on a + run selected for convenience rather than for picturesqueness, + tobogganing is a very Bohemian amusement. No one who indulges in + it can count on avoiding hard blows and violent upsets, nor will + his efforts to maintain his equilibrium at the dangerous corners + be invariably graceful. + </p> + <p> + Nothing, it might be imagined, could be more monotonous than an + Alpine valley covered up with snow. And yet to one who has passed + many months in that seclusion Nature herself presents no + monotony; for the changes constantly wrought by light and cloud + and alternations of weather on this landscape are infinitely + various. The very simplicity of the conditions seems to assist + the supreme artist. One day is wonderful because of its unsullied + purity; not a cloud visible, and the pines clothed in velvet of + rich green beneath a faultless canopy of light. The next presents + a fretwork of fine film, wrought by the south wind over the whole + sky, iridescent with delicate rainbow tints within the influences + of the sun, and ever-changing shape. On another, when the + turbulent Föhn is blowing, streamers of snow may be seen flying + from the higher ridges against a pallid background of slaty + cloud, while the gaunt ribs of the hills glisten below with + fitful gleams of lurid light. At sunrise, one morning, stealthy + and mysterious vapours clothe the mountains from their basement + to the waist, while the peaks are glistening serenely in clear + daylight. Another opens with silently falling snow. A third is + rosy through the length and breadth of the dawn-smitten valley. + It is, however, impossible to catalogue the indescribable variety + of those beauties, which those who love nature may enjoy by + simply waiting on the changes of the winter in a single station + of the Alps. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="WINTER_NIGHTS_AT_DAVOS" id= + "WINTER_NIGHTS_AT_DAVOS"></a><i>WINTER NIGHTS AT DAVOS</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Light, marvellously soft yet penetrating, everywhere diffused, + everywhere reflected without radiance, poured from the moon high + above our heads in a sky tinted through all shades and + modulations of blue, from turquoise on the horizon to opaque + sapphire at the zenith—<i>dolce color</i>. (It is difficult + to use the word <i>colour</i> for this scene without suggesting + an exaggeration. The blue is almost indefinable, yet felt. But if + possible, the total effect of the night landscape should be + rendered by careful exclusion of tints from the word-palette. The + art of the etcher is more needed than that of the painter.) + Heaven overhead is set with stars, shooting intensely, + smouldering with dull red in Aldeboran, sparkling diamond-like in + Sirius, changing from orange to crimson and green in the swart + fire of yonder double star. On the snow this moonlight falls + tenderly, not in hard white light and strong black shadow, but in + tones of cream and ivory, rounding the curves of drift. The + mountain peaks alone glisten as though they were built of silver + burnished by an agate. Far away they rise diminished in stature + by the all-pervading dimness of bright light, that erases the + distinctions of daytime. On the path before our feet lie crystals + of many hues, the splinters of a thousand gems. In the wood there + are caverns of darkness, alternating with spaces of star-twinkled + sky, or windows opened between russet stems and solid branches + for the moony sheen. The green of the pines is felt, although + invisible, so soft in substance that it seems less like velvet + than some materialised depth of dark green shadow. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + Snow falling noiseless and unseen. One only knows that it is + falling by the blinking of our eyes as the flakes settle on their + lids and melt. The cottage windows shine red, and moving lanterns + of belated wayfarers define the void around them. Yet the night + is far from dark. The forests and the mountain-bulk beyond the + valley loom softly large and just distinguishable through a + pearly haze. The path is purest trackless whiteness, almost + dazzling though it has no light. This was what Dante felt when he + reached the lunar sphere: + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Parova a me, che nube ne coprisse + </p> + <p> + Lucida, spessa, solida e pulita. + </p> + </div> + <p> + Walking silent, with insensible footfall, slowly, for the snow is + deep above our ankles, we wonder what the world would be like if + this were all. Could the human race be acclimatised to this + monotony (we say) perhaps emotion would be rarer, yet more + poignant, suspended brooding on itself, and wakening by flashes + to a quintessential mood. Then fancy changes, and the thought + occurs that even so must be a planet, not yet wholly made, nor + called to take her place among the sisterhood of light and song. + </p> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + Sunset was fading out upon the Rhætikon and still reflected from + the Seehorn on the lake, when we entered the gorge of the + Fluela—dense pines on either hand, a mounting drift of snow + in front, and faint peaks, paling from rose to saffron, far + above, beyond. There was no sound but a tinkling stream and the + continual jingle of our sledge-bells. We drove at a foot's pace, + our horse finding his own path. When we left the forest, the + light had all gone except for some almost imperceptible touches + of primrose on the eastern horns. It was a moonless night, but + the sky was alive with stars, and now and then one fell. The last + house in the valley was soon passed, and we entered those bleak + gorges where the wind, fine, noiseless, penetrating like an edge + of steel, poured slantwise on us from the north. As we rose, the + stars to west seemed far beneath us, and the Great Bear sprawled + upon the ridges of the lower hills outspread. We kept slowly + moving onward, upward, into what seemed like a thin impalpable + mist, but was immeasurable tracts of snow. The last cembras were + left behind, immovable upon dark granite boulders on our right. + We entered a formless and unbillowed sea of greyness, from which + there rose dim mountain-flanks that lost themselves in air. Up, + ever up, and still below us westward sank the stars. We were now + 7500 feet above sea-level, and the December night was rigid with + intensity of frost. The cold, and movement, and solemnity of + space, drowsed every sense. + </p> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + The memory of things seen and done in moonlight is like the + memory of dreams. It is as a dream that I recall the night of our + tobogganing to Klosters, though it was full enough of active + energy. The moon was in her second quarter, slightly filmed with + very high thin clouds, that disappeared as night advanced, + leaving the sky and stars in all their lustre. A sharp frost, + sinking to three degrees above zero Fahrenheit, with a fine pure + wind, such wind as here they call 'the mountain breath.' We drove + to Wolfgang in a two-horse sledge, four of us inside, and our two + Christians on the box. Up there, where the Alps of Death descend + to join the Lakehorn Alps, above the Wolfswalk, there is a world + of whiteness—frozen ridges, engraved like cameos of aërial + onyx upon the dark, star-tremulous sky; sculptured buttresses of + snow, enclosing hollows filled with diaphanous shadow, and + sweeping aloft into the upland fields of pure clear drift. Then + came the swift descent, the plunge into the pines, moon-silvered + on their frosted tops. The battalions of spruce that climb those + hills defined the dazzling snow from which they sprang, like the + black tufts upon an ermine robe. At the proper moment we left our + sledge, and the big Christian took his reins in hand to follow + us. Furs and greatcoats were abandoned. Each stood forth tightly + accoutred, with short coat, and clinging cap, and gaitered legs + for the toboggan. Off we started in line, with but brief interval + between, at first slowly, then glidingly, and when the impetus + was gained, with darting, bounding, almost savage + swiftness—sweeping round corners, cutting the hard + snow-path with keen runners, avoiding the deep ruts, trusting to + chance, taking advantage of smooth places, till the rush and + swing and downward swoop became mechanical. Space was devoured. + Into the massy shadows of the forest, where the pines joined + overhead, we pierced without a sound, and felt far more than saw + the great rocks with their icicles; and out again, emerging into + moonlight, met the valley spread beneath our feet, the mighty + peaks of the Silvretta and the vast blue sky. On, on, hurrying, + delaying not, the woods and hills rushed by. Crystals upon the + snow-banks glittered to the stars. Our souls would fain have + stayed to drink these marvels of the moon-world, but our limbs + refused. The magic of movement was upon us, and eight minutes + swallowed the varying impressions of two musical miles. The + village lights drew near and nearer, then the sombre village + huts, and soon the speed grew less, and soon we glided to our + rest into the sleeping village street. + </p> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + It was just past midnight. The moon had fallen to the western + horns. Orion's belt lay bar-like on the opening of the pass, and + Sirius shot flame on the Seehorn. A more crystalline night, more + full of fulgent stars, was never seen, stars everywhere, but + mostly scattered in large sparkles on the snow. Big Christian + went in front, tugging toboggans by their strings, as Gulliver, + in some old woodcut, drew the fleets of Lilliput. Through the + brown wood-châlets of Selfrangr, up to the undulating meadows, + where the snow slept pure and crisp, he led us. There we sat + awhile and drank the clear air, cooled to zero, but innocent and + mild as mother Nature's milk. Then in an instant, down, down + through the hamlet, with its châlets, stables, pumps, and logs, + the slumbrous hamlet, where one dog barked, and darkness dwelt + upon the path of ice, down with the tempest of a dreadful speed, + that shot each rider upward in the air, and made the frame of the + toboggan tremble—down over hillocks of hard frozen snow, + dashing and bounding, to the river and the bridge. No bones were + broken, though the race was thrice renewed, and men were spilt + upon the roadside by some furious plunge. This amusement has the + charm of peril and the unforeseen. In no wise else can colder, + keener air be drunken at such furious speed. The joy, too, of the + engine-driver and the steeplechaser is upon us. Alas, that it + should be so short! If only roads were better made for the + purpose, there would be no end to it; for the toboggan cannot + lose his wind. But the good thing fails at last, and from the + silence of the moon we pass into the silence of the fields of + sleep. + </p> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + The new stable is a huge wooden building, with raftered lofts to + stow the hay, and stalls for many cows and horses. It stands + snugly in an angle of the pine-wood, bordering upon the great + horse-meadow. Here at night the air is warm and tepid with the + breath of kine. Returning from my forest walk, I spy one window + yellow in the moonlight with a lamp. I lift the latch. The hound + knows me, and does not bark. I enter the stable, where six horses + are munching their last meal. Upon the corn-bin sits a knecht. We + light our pipes and talk. He tells me of the valley of Arosa (a + hawk's flight westward over yonder hills), how deep in grass its + summer lawns, how crystal-clear its stream, how blue its little + lakes, how pure, without a taint of mist, 'too beautiful to + paint,' its sky in winter! This knecht is an Ardüser, and the + valley of Arosa lifts itself to heaven above his Langwies home. + It is his duty now to harness a sleigh for some night-work. We + shake hands and part—I to sleep, he for the snow. + </p> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + The lake has frozen late this year, and there are places in it + where the ice is not yet firm. Little snow has fallen since it + froze—about three inches at the deepest, driven by winds + and wrinkled like the ribbed sea-sand. Here and there the + ice-floor is quite black and clear, reflecting stars, and dark as + heaven's own depths. Elsewhere it is of a suspicious whiteness, + blurred in surface, with jagged cracks and chasms, treacherously + mended by the hand of frost. Moving slowly, the snow cries + beneath our feet, and the big crystals tinkle. These are shaped + like fern-fronds, growing fan-wise from a point, and set at + various angles, so that the moonlight takes them with capricious + touch. They flash, and are quenched, and flash again, light + darting to light along the level surface, while the sailing + planets and the stars look down complacent at this mimicry of + heaven. Everything above, around, beneath, is very + beautiful—the slumbrous woods, the snowy fells, and the far + distance painted in faint blue upon the tender background of the + sky. Everything is placid and beautiful; and yet the place is + terrible. For, as we walk, the lake groans, with throttled sobs, + and sudden cracklings of its joints, and sighs that shiver, + undulating from afar, and pass beneath our feet, and die away in + distance when they reach the shore. And now and then an upper + crust of ice gives way; and will the gulfs then drag us down? We + are in the very centre of the lake. There is no use in thinking + or in taking heed. Enjoy the moment, then, and march. Enjoy the + contrast between this circumambient serenity and sweetness, and + the dreadful sense of insecurity beneath. Is not, indeed, our + whole life of this nature? A passage over perilous deeps, roofed + by infinity and sempiternal things, surrounded too with + evanescent forms, that like these crystals, trodden underfoot, or + melted by the Föhn-wind into dew, flash, in some lucky moment, + with a light that mimics stars! But to allegorise and sermonise + is out of place here. It is but the expedient of those who cannot + etch sensation by the burin of their art of words. + </p> + <p> + VIII + </p> + <p> + It is ten o'clock upon Sylvester Abend, or New Year's Eve. Herr + Buol sits with his wife at the head of his long table. His family + and serving folk are round him. There is his mother, with little + Ursula, his child, upon her knee. The old lady is the mother of + four comely daughters and nine stalwart sons, the eldest of whom + is now a grizzled man. Besides our host, four of the brothers are + here to-night; the handsome melancholy Georg, who is so gentle in + his speech; Simeon, with his diplomatic face; Florian, the + student of medicine; and my friend, colossal-breasted Christian. + Palmy came a little later, worried with many cares, but happy to + his heart's core. No optimist was ever more convinced of his + philosophy than Palmy. After them, below the salt, were ranged + the knechts and porters, the marmiton from the kitchen, and + innumerable maids. The board was tesselated with plates of + birnen-brod and eier-brod, küchli and cheese and butter; and + Georg stirred grampampuli in a mighty metal bowl. For the + uninitiated, it may be needful to explain these Davos delicacies. + Birnen-brod is what the Scotch would call a 'bun,' or massive + cake, composed of sliced pears, almonds, spices, and a little + flour. Eier-brod is a saffron-coloured sweet bread, made with + eggs; and küchli is a kind of pastry, crisp and flimsy, fashioned + into various devices of cross, star, and scroll. Grampampuli is + simply brandy burnt with sugar, the most unsophisticated punch I + ever drank from tumblers. The frugal people of Davos, who live on + bread and cheese and dried meat all the year, indulge themselves + but once with these unwonted dainties in the winter. + </p> + <p> + The occasion was cheerful, and yet a little solemn. The scene was + feudal. For these Buols are the scions of a warrior race: + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + A race illustrious for heroic deeds; + </p> + <p> + Humbled, but not degraded. + </p> + </div> + <p> + During the six centuries through which they have lived nobles in + Davos, they have sent forth scores of fighting men to foreign + lands, ambassadors to France and Venice and the Milanese, + governors to Chiavenna and Bregaglia and the much-contested + Valtelline. Members of their house are Counts of + Buol-Schauenstein in Austria, Freiherrs of Muhlingen and + Berenberg in the now German Empire. They keep the patent of + nobility conferred on them by Henri IV. Their ancient + coat—parted per pale azure and argent, with a dame of the + fourteenth century bearing in her hand a rose, all + counterchanged—is carved in wood and monumental marble on + the churches and old houses hereabouts. And from immemorial + antiquity the Buol of Davos has sat thus on Sylvester Abend with + family and folk around him, summoned from alp and snowy field to + drink grampampuli and break the birnen-brod. + </p> + <p> + These rites performed, the men and maids began to + sing—brown arms lounging on the table, and red hands folded + in white aprons—serious at first in hymn-like cadences, + then breaking into wilder measures with a jodel at the close. + There is a measured solemnity in the performance, which strikes + the stranger as somewhat comic. But the singing was good; the + voices strong and clear in tone, no hesitation and no shirking of + the melody. It was clear that the singers enjoyed the music for + its own sake, with half-shut eyes, as they take dancing, solidly, + with deep-drawn breath, sustained and indefatigable. But eleven + struck; and the two Christians, my old friend, and Palmy, said we + should be late for church. They had promised to take me with them + to see bell-ringing in the tower. All the young men of the + village meet, and draw lots in the Stube of the Rathhaus. One + party tolls the old year out; the other rings the new year in. He + who comes last is sconced three litres of Veltliner for the + company. This jovial fine was ours to pay to-night. + </p> + <p> + When we came into the air, we found a bitter frost; the whole sky + clouded over; a north wind whirling snow from alp and forest + through the murky gloom. The benches and broad walnut tables of + the Bathhaus were crowded with men, in shaggy homespun of brown + and grey frieze. Its low wooden roof and walls enclosed an + atmosphere of smoke, denser than the external snow-drift. But our + welcome was hearty, and we found a score of friends. Titanic + Fopp, whose limbs are Michelangelesque in length; spectacled + Morosani; the little tailor Kramer, with a French horn on his + knees; the puckered forehead of the Baumeister; the Troll-shaped + postman; peasants and woodmen, known on far excursions upon pass + and upland valley. Not one but carried on his face the memory of + winter strife with avalanche and snow-drift, of horses struggling + through Fluela whirlwinds, and wine-casks tugged across Bernina, + and haystacks guided down precipitous gullies at thundering speed + 'twixt pine and pine, and larches felled in distant glens beside + the frozen watercourses. Here we were, all met together for one + hour from our several homes and occupations, to welcome in the + year with clinked glasses and cries of <i>Prosit Neujahr!</i> + </p> + <p> + The tolling bells above us stopped. Our turn had come. Out into + the snowy air we tumbled, beneath the row of wolves' heads that + adorn the pent-house roof. A few steps brought us to the still + God's acre, where the snow lay deep and cold upon high-mounded + graves of many generations. We crossed it silently, bent our + heads to the low Gothic arch, and stood within the tower. It was + thick darkness there. But far above, the bells began again to + clash and jangle confusedly, with volleys of demonic joy. + Successive flights of ladders, each ending in a giddy platform + hung across the gloom, climb to the height of some hundred and + fifty feet; and all their rungs were crusted with frozen snow, + deposited by trampling boots. For up and down these stairs, + ascending and descending, moved other than angels—the + friezejacketed Bürschen, Grisons bears, rejoicing in their + exercise, exhilarated with the tingling noise of beaten metal. We + reached the first room safely, guided by firm-footed Christian, + whose one candle just defined the rough walls and the slippery + steps. There we found a band of boys, pulling ropes that set the + bells in motion. But our destination was not reached. One more + aërial ladder, perpendicular in darkness, brought us swiftly to + the home of sound. It is a small square chamber, where the bells + are hung, filled with the interlacement of enormous beams, and + pierced to north and south by open windows, from whose parapets I + saw the village and the valley spread beneath. The fierce wind + hurried through it, charged with snow, and its narrow space was + thronged with men. Men on the platform, men on the window-sills, + men grappling the bells with iron arms, men brushing by to reach + the stairs, crossing, recrossing, shouldering their mates, + drinking red wine from gigantic beakers, exploding crackers, + firing squibs, shouting and yelling in corybantic chorus. They + yelled and shouted, one could see it by their open mouths and + glittering eyes; but not a sound from human lungs could reach our + ears. The overwhelming incessant thunder of the bells drowned + all. It thrilled the tympanum, ran through the marrow of the + spine, vibrated in the inmost entrails. Yet the brain was only + steadied and excited by this sea of brazen noise. After a few + moments I knew the place and felt at home in it. Then I enjoyed a + spectacle which sculptors might have envied. For they ring the + bells in Davos after this fashion:—The lads below set them + going with ropes. The men above climb in pairs on ladders to the + beams from which they are suspended. Two mighty pine-trees, + roughly squared and built into the walls, extend from side to + side across the belfry. Another from which the bells hang, + connects these massive trunks at right angles. Just where the + central beam is wedged into the two parallel supports, the + ladders reach them from each side of the belfry, so that, bending + from the higher rung of the ladder, and leaning over, stayed upon + the lateral beam, each pair of men can keep one bell in movement + with their hands. Each comrade plants one leg upon the ladder, + and sets the other knee firmly athwart the horizontal pine. Then + round each other's waist they twine left arm and right. The two + have thus become one man. Right arm and left are free to grasp + the bell's horns, sprouting at its crest beneath the beam. With a + grave rhythmic motion, bending sideward in a close embrace, + swaying and returning to their centre from the well-knit loins, + they drive the force of each strong muscle into the vexed bell. + The impact is earnest at first, but soon it becomes frantic. The + men take something from each other of exalted enthusiasm. This + efflux of their combined energies inspires them and exasperates + the mighty resonance of metal which they rule. They are lost in a + trance of what approximates to dervish passion—so thrilling + is the surge of sound, so potent are the rhythms they obey. Men + come and tug them by the heels. One grasps the starting thews + upon their calves. Another is impatient for their place. But they + strain still, locked together, and forgetful of the world. At + length they have enough: then slowly, clingingly unclasp, turn + round with gazing eyes, and are resumed, sedately, into the + diurnal round of common life. Another pair is in their room upon + the beam. + </p> + <p> + The Englishman who saw these things stood looking up, enveloped + in his ulster with the grey cowl thrust upon his forehead, like a + monk. One candle cast a grotesque shadow of him on the plastered + wall. And when his chance came, though he was but a weakling, he + too climbed and for some moments hugged the beam, and felt the + madness of the swinging bell. Descending, he wondered long and + strangely whether he ascribed too much of feeling to the men he + watched. But no, that was impossible. There are emotions deeply + seated in the joy of exercise, when the body is brought into + play, and masses move in concert, of which the subject is but + half conscious. Music and dance, and the delirium of battle or + the chase, act thus upon spontaneous natures. The mystery of + rhythm and associated energy and blood tingling in sympathy is + here. It lies at the root of man's most tyrannous instinctive + impulses. + </p> + <p> + It was past one when we reached home, and now a meditative man + might well have gone to bed. But no one thinks of sleeping on + Sylvester Abend. So there followed bowls of punch in one friend's + room, where English, French, and Germans blent together in + convivial Babel; and flasks of old Montagner in another. Palmy, + at this period, wore an archdeacon's hat, and smoked a + churchwarden's pipe; and neither were his own, nor did he derive + anything ecclesiastical or Anglican from the association. Late in + the morning we must sally forth, they said, and roam the town. + For it is the custom here on New Year's night to greet + acquaintances, and ask for hospitality, and no one may deny these + self-invited guests. We turned out again into the grey snow-swept + gloom, a curious Comus—not at all like Greeks, for we had + neither torches in our hands nor rose-wreaths to suspend upon a + lady's door-posts. And yet I could not refrain, at this supreme + moment of jollity, in the zero temperature, amid my Grisons + friends, from humming to myself verses from the Greek + Anthology:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + The die is cast! Nay, light the torch! + </p> + <p> + I'll take the road! Up, courage, ho! + </p> + <p> + Why linger pondering in the porch? + </p> + <p> + Upon Love's revel we will go! + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + Shake off those fumes of wine! Hang care + </p> + <p> + And caution! What has Love to do + </p> + <p> + With prudence? Let the torches flare! + </p> + <p> + Quick, drown the doubts that hampered you! + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + Cast weary wisdom to the wind! + </p> + <p> + One thing, but one alone, I know: + </p> + <p> + Love bent e'en Jove and made him blind + </p> + <p> + Upon Love's revel we will go! + </p> + </div> + </div> + <p> + And then again:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + I've drunk sheer madness! Not with wine, + </p> + <p> + But old fantastic tales, I'll arm + </p> + <p> + My heart in heedlessness divine, + </p> + <p> + And dare the road, nor dream of harm! + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + I'll join Love's rout! Let thunder break, + </p> + <p> + Let lightning blast me by the way! + </p> + <p> + Invulnerable Love shall shake + </p> + <p> + His ægis o'er my head to-day. + </p> + </div> + </div> + <p> + This last epigram was not inappropriate to an invalid about to + begin the fifth act in a roystering night's adventure. And still + once more:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + Cold blows the winter wind; 'tis Love, + </p> + <p> + Whose sweet eyes swim with honeyed tears, + </p> + <p> + That bears me to thy doors, my love, + </p> + <p> + Tossed by the storm of hopes and fears. + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + Cold blows the blast of aching Love; + </p> + <p> + But be thou for my wandering sail, + </p> + <p> + Adrift upon these waves of love, + </p> + <p> + Safe harbour from the whistling gale! + </p> + </div> + </div> + <p> + However, upon this occasion, though we had winter-wind enough, + and cold enough, there was not much love in the business. My arm + was firmly clenched in Christian Buol's, and Christian Palmy came + behind, trolling out songs in Italian dialect, with still + recurring <i>canaille</i> choruses, of which the facile rhymes + seemed mostly made on a prolonged <i>amu-u-u-r</i>. It is + noticeable that Italian ditties are specially designed for + fellows shouting in the streets at night. They seem in keeping + there, and nowhere else that I could ever see. And these Davosers + took to them naturally when the time for Comus came. It was + between four and five in the morning, and nearly all the houses + in the place were dark. The tall church-tower and spire loomed up + above us in grey twilight. The tireless wind still swept thin + snow from fell and forest. But the frenzied bells had sunk into + their twelvemonth's slumber, which shall be broken only by + decorous tollings at less festive times. I wondered whether they + were tingling still with the heart-throbs and with the pressure + of those many arms? Was their old age warmed, as mine was, with + that gust of life—the young men who had clung to them like + bees to lily-bells, and shaken all their locked-up tone and + shrillness into the wild winter air? Alas! how many generations + of the young have handled them; and they are still there, frozen + in their belfry; and the young grow middle-aged, and old, and die + at last; and the bells they grappled in their lust of manhood + toll them to their graves, on which the tireless wind will, + winter after winter, sprinkle snow from alps and forests which + they knew. + </p> + <p> + 'There is a light,' cried Christian, 'up in Anna's window!' 'A + light! a light!' the Comus shouted. But how to get at the window, + which is pretty high above the ground, and out of reach of the + most ardent revellers? We search a neighbouring shed, extract a + stable-ladder, and in two seconds Palmy has climbed to the + topmost rung, while Christian and Georg hold it firm upon the + snow beneath. Then begins a passage from some comic opera of + Mozart's or Cimarosa's—an escapade familiar to Spanish or + Italian students, which recalls the stage. It is an episode from + 'Don Giovanni,' translated to this dark-etched scene of snowy + hills, and Gothic tower, and mullioned windows deep embayed + beneath their eaves and icicles. <i>Deh vieni alla finestra!</i> + sings Palmy-Leporello; the chorus answers: <i>Deh vieni! Perchè + non vieni ancora?</i> pleads Leporello; the chorus shouts: + <i>Perchè? Mio amu-u-u-r</i>, sighs Leporello; and Echo cries, + <i>amu-u-u-r!</i> All the wooing, be it noticed, is conducted in + Italian. But the actors murmur to each other in Davoser Deutsch, + 'She won't come, Palmy! It is far too late; she is gone to bed. + Come down; you'll wake the village with your caterwauling!' But + Leporello waves his broad archdeacon's hat, and resumes a flood + of flexible Bregaglian. He has a shrewd suspicion that the girl + is peeping from behind the window curtain; and tells us, bending + down from the ladder, in a hoarse stage-whisper, that we must + have patience; 'these girls are kittle cattle, who take long to + draw: but if your lungs last out, they're sure to show.' And + Leporello is right. Faint heart ne'er won fair lady. From the + summit of his ladder, by his eloquent Italian tongue, he brings + the shy bird down at last. We hear the unbarring of the house + door, and a comely maiden, in her Sunday dress, welcomes us + politely to her ground-floor sitting-room. The Comus enters, in + grave order, with set speeches, handshakes, and inevitable + <i>Prosits</i>! It is a large low chamber, with a huge stone + stove, wide benches fixed along the walls, and a great oval + table. We sit how and where we can. Red wine is produced, and + eier-brod and küchli. Fräulein Anna serves us sedately, holding + her own with decent self-respect against the inrush of the + revellers. She is quite alone; but are not her father and mother + in bed above, and within earshot? Besides, the Comus, even at + this abnormal hour and after an abnormal night, is well + conducted. Things seem slipping into a decorous wine-party, when + Leporello readjusts the broad-brimmed hat upon his head, and very + cleverly acts a little love-scene for our benefit. Fräulein Anna + takes this as a delicate compliment, and the thing is so prettily + done in truth, that not the sternest taste could be offended. + Meanwhile another party of night-wanderers, attracted by our + mirth, break in. More <i>Prosits</i> and clinked glasses follow; + and with a fair good-morning to our hostess, we retire. + </p> + <p> + It is too late to think of bed. 'The quincunx of heaven,' as Sir + Thomas Browne phrased it on a dissimilar occasion, 'runs low.... + The huntsmen are up in America; and not in America only, for the + huntsmen, if there are any this night in Graubünden, have long + been out upon the snow, and the stable-lads are dragging the + sledges from their sheds to carry down the mails to Landquart. We + meet the porters from the various hotels, bringing letter-bags + and luggage to the post. It is time to turn in and take a cup of + black coffee against the rising sun. + </p> + <p> + IX + </p> + <p> + Some nights, even in Davos, are spent, even by an invalid, in + bed. A leaflet, therefore, of 'Sleep-chasings' may not + inappropriately be flung, as envoy to so many wanderings on foot + and sledge upon the winter snows. + </p> + <p> + The first is a confused medley of things familiar and things + strange. I have been dreaming of far-away old German towns, with + gabled houses deep in snow; dreaming of châlets in forgotten + Alpine glens, where wood-cutters come plunging into sleepy light + from gloom, and sinking down beside the stove to shake the drift + from their rough shoulders; dreaming of vast veils of icicles + upon the gaunt black rocks in places where no foot of man will + pass, and where the snow is weaving eyebrows over the ledges of + grey whirlwind-beaten precipices; dreaming of Venice, forlorn + beneath the windy drip of rain, the gas lamps flickering on the + swimming piazzetta, the barche idle, the gondolier wrapped in his + thread-bare cloak, alone; dreaming of Apennines, with world-old + cities, brown, above the brown sea of dead chestnut boughs; + dreaming of stormy tides, and watchers aloft in lighthouses when + day is finished; dreaming of dead men and women and dead children + in the earth, far down beneath the snow-drifts, six feet deep. + And then I lift my face, awaking, from my pillow; the pallid moon + is on the valley, and the room is filled with spectral light. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. This is a hospice in an + unfrequented pass, between sad peaks, beside a little black lake, + overdrifted with soft snow. I pass into the house-room, gliding + silently. An old man and an old woman are nodding, bowed in + deepest slumber, by the stove. A young man plays the zither on a + table. He lifts his head, still modulating with his fingers on + the strings. He looks right through me with wide anxious eyes. He + does not see me, but sees Italy, I know, and some one wandering + on a sandy shore. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. This is S. Stephen's Church in + Wien. Inside, the lamps are burning dimly in the choir. There is + fog in the aisles; but through the sleepy air and over the red + candles flies a wild soprano's voice, a boy's soul in its singing + sent to heaven. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. From the mufflers in which his + father, the mountebank, has wrapped the child, to carry him + across the heath, a little tumbling-boy emerges in soiled tights. + He is half asleep. His father scrapes the fiddle. The boy + shortens his red belt, kisses his fingers to us, and ties himself + into a knot among the glasses on the table. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. I am on the parapet of a huge + circular tower, hollow like a well, and pierced with windows at + irregular intervals. The parapet is broad, and slabbed with red + Verona marble. Around me are athletic men, all naked, in the + strangest attitudes of studied rest, down-gazing, as I do, into + the depths below. There comes a confused murmur of voices, and + the tower is threaded and rethreaded with great cables. Up these + there climb to us a crowd of young men, clinging to the ropes and + flinging their bodies sideways on aërial trapezes. My heart + trembles with keen joy and terror. For nowhere else could plastic + forms be seen more beautiful, and nowhere else is peril more + apparent. Leaning my chin upon the utmost verge, I wait. I watch + one youth, who smiles and soars to me; and when his face is + almost touching mine, he speaks, but what he says I know not. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. The whole world rocks to its + foundations. The mountain summits that I know are shaken. They + bow their bristling crests. They are falling, falling on us, and + the earth is riven. I wake in terror, shouting: INSOLITIS + TREMUERUNT MOTIBUS ALPES! An earthquake, slight but real, has + stirred the ever-wakeful Vesta of the brain to this Virgilian + quotation. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. Once more at night I sledge + alone upon the Klosters road. It is the point where the woods + close over it and moonlight may not pierce the boughs. There come + shrill cries of many voices from behind, and rushings that pass + by and vanish. Then on their sledges I behold the phantoms of the + dead who died in Davos, longing for their homes; and each flies + past me, shrieking in the still cold air; and phosphorescent like + long meteors, the pageant turns the windings of the road below + and disappears. + </p> + <p> + I sleep, and change my dreaming. This is the top of some high + mountain, where the crags are cruelly tortured and cast in + enormous splinters on the ledges of cliffs grey with old-world + ice. A ravine, opening at my feet, plunges down immeasurably to a + dim and distant sea. Above me soars a precipice embossed with a + gigantic ice-bound shape. As I gaze thereon, I find the + lineaments and limbs of a Titanic man chained and nailed to the + rock. His beard has grown for centuries, and flowed this way and + that, adown his breast and over to the stone on either side; and + the whole of him is covered with a greenish ice, ancient beyond + the memory of man. 'This is Prometheus,' I whisper to myself, + 'and I am alone on Caucasus.' + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="BACCHUS_IN_GRAUBUNDEN" id= + "BACCHUS_IN_GRAUBUNDEN"></a>BACCHUS IN GRAUBÜNDEN + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Some years' residence in the Canton of the Grisons made me + familiar with all sorts of Valtelline wine; with masculine but + rough <i>Inferno</i>, generous <i>Forzato</i>, delicate + <i>Sassella</i>, harsher <i>Montagner</i>, the raspberry flavour + of <i>Grumello</i>, the sharp invigorating twang of <i>Villa</i>. + The colour, ranging from garnet to almandine or ruby, told me the + age and quality of wine; and I could judge from the crust it + forms upon the bottle, whether it had been left long enough in + wood to ripen. I had furthermore arrived at the conclusion that + the best Valtelline can only be tasted in cellars of the Engadine + or Davos, where this vintage matures slowly in the mountain air, + and takes a flavour unknown at lower levels. In a word, it had + amused my leisure to make or think myself a connoisseur. My + literary taste was tickled by the praise bestowed in the Augustan + age on Rhætic grapes by Virgil: + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Et quo te carmine dicam, + </p> + <p> + Rhætica? nec cellis ideo contende Falernis. + </p> + </div> + <p> + I piqued myself on thinking that could the poet but have drank + one bottle at Samaden—where Stilicho, by the way, in his + famous recruiting expedition may perhaps have drank it—he + would have been less chary in his panegyric. For the point of + inferiority on which he seems to insist, namely, that Valtelline + wine does not keep well in cellar, is only proper to this vintage + in Italian climate. Such meditations led my fancy on the path of + history. Is there truth, then, in the dim tradition that this + mountain land was colonised by Etruscans? Is <i>Ras</i> the root + of Rhætia? The Etruscans were accomplished wine-growers, we know. + It was their Montepulciano which drew the Gauls to Rome, if Livy + can be trusted. Perhaps they first planted the vine in + Valtelline. Perhaps its superior culture in that district may be + due to ancient use surviving in a secluded Alpine valley. One + thing is certain, that the peasants of Sondrio and Tirano + understand viticulture better than the Italians of Lombardy. + </p> + <p> + Then my thoughts ran on to the period of modern history, when the + Grisons seized the Valtelline in lieu of war-pay from the Dukes + of Milan. For some three centuries they held it as a subject + province. From the Rathhaus at Davos or Chur they sent their + nobles—Von Salis and Buol, Planta and Sprecher von + Bernegg—across the hills as governors or podestàs to + Poschiavo, Sondrio, Tirano, and Morbegno. In those old days the + Valtelline wines came duly every winter over snow-deep passes to + fill the cellars of the Signori Grigioni. That quaint traveller + Tom Coryat, in his so-called 'Crudities,' notes the custom early + in the seventeenth century. And as that custom then obtained, it + still subsists with little alteration. The + wine-carriers—Weinführer, as they are called—first + scaled the Bernina pass, halting then as now, perhaps at + Poschiavo and Pontresina. Afterwards, in order to reach Davos, + the pass of the Scaletta rose before them—a wilderness of + untracked snow-drifts. The country-folk still point to narrow, + light hand-sledges, on which the casks were charged before the + last pitch of the pass. Some wine came, no doubt, on + pack-saddles. A meadow in front of the Dischma-Thal, where the + pass ends, still bears the name of the Ross-Weid, or + horse-pasture. It was here that the beasts of burden used for + this wine-service, rested after their long labours. In favourable + weather the whole journey from Tirano would have occupied at + least four days, with scanty halts at night. + </p> + <p> + The Valtelline slipped from the hands of the Grisons early in + this century. It is rumoured that one of the Von Salis family + negotiated matters with Napoleon more for his private benefit + than for the interests of the state. However this may have been, + when the Graubünden became a Swiss Canton, after four centuries + of sovereign independence, the whole Valtelline passed to + Austria, and so eventually to Italy. According to modern and just + notions of nationality, this was right. In their period of power, + the Grisons masters had treated their Italian dependencies with + harshness. The Valtelline is an Italian valley, connected with + the rest of the peninsula by ties of race and language. It is, + moreover, geographically linked to Italy by the great stream of + the Adda, which takes its rise upon the Stelvio, and after + passing through the Lake of Como, swells the volume of the Po. + </p> + <p> + But, though politically severed from the Valtelline, the + Engadiners and Davosers have not dropped their old habit of + importing its best produce. What they formerly levied as masters, + they now acquire by purchase. The Italian revenue derives a large + profit from the frontier dues paid at the gate between Tirano and + Poschiavo on the Bernina road. Much of the same wine enters + Switzerland by another route, travelling from Sondrio to + Chiavenna and across the Splügen. But until quite recently, the + wine itself could scarcely be found outside the Canton. It was + indeed quoted upon Lombard wine-lists. Yet no one drank it; and + when I tasted it at Milan, I found it quite unrecognisable. The + fact seems to be that the Graubündeners alone know how to deal + with it; and, as I have hinted, the wine requires a mountain + climate for its full development. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + The district where the wine of Valtellina is grown extends, + roughly speaking, from Tirano to Morbegno, a distance of some + fifty-four miles. The best sorts come from the middle of this + region. High up in the valley, soil and climate are alike less + favourable. Low down a coarser, earthier quality springs from fat + land where the valley broadens. The northern hillsides to a very + considerable height above the river are covered with vineyards. + The southern slopes on the left bank of the Adda, lying more in + shade, yield but little. Inferno, Grumello, and Perla di Sassella + are the names of famous vineyards. Sassella is the general name + for a large tract. Buying an Inferno, Grumello, or Perla di + Sassella wine, it would be absurd to suppose that one obtained it + precisely from the eponymous estate. But as each of these + vineyards yields a marked quality of wine, which is taken as + standard-giving, the produce of the whole district may be broadly + classified as approaching more or less nearly to one of these + accepted types. The Inferno, Grumello, and Perla di Sassella of + commerce are therefore three sorts of good Valtelline, ticketed + with famous names to indicate certain differences of quality. + Montagner, as the name implies, is a somewhat lighter wine, grown + higher up in the hill-vineyards. And of this class there are many + species, some approximating to Sassella in delicacy of flavour, + others approaching the tart lightness of the Villa vintage. This + last takes its title from a village in the neighbourhood of + Tirano, where a table-wine is chiefly grown. + </p> + <p> + Forzato is the strongest, dearest, longest-lived of this whole + family of wines. It is manufactured chiefly at Tirano; and, as + will be understood from its name, does not profess to belong to + any one of the famous localities. Forzato or Sforzato, forced or + enforced, is in fact a wine which has undergone a more artificial + process. In German the people call it Strohwein, which also + points to the method of its preparation. The finest grapes are + selected and dried in the sun (hence the <i>Stroh</i>) for a + period of eight or nine weeks. When they have almost become + raisins, they are pressed. The must is heavily charged with + sugar, and ferments powerfully. Wine thus made requires several + years to ripen. Sweet at first, it takes at last a very fine + quality and flavour, and is rough, almost acid, on the tongue. + Its colour too turns from a deep rich crimson to the tone of + tawny port, which indeed it much resembles. + </p> + <p> + Old Forzato, which has been long in cask, and then perhaps three + years in bottle, will fetch at least six francs, or may rise to + even ten francs a flask. The best Sassella rarely reaches more + than five francs. Good Montagner and Grumello can be had perhaps + for four francs; and Inferno of a special quality for six francs. + Thus the average price of old Valtelline wine may be taken as + five francs a bottle. These, I should observe, are hotel prices. + </p> + <p> + Valtelline wines bought in the wood vary, of course, according to + their age and year of vintage. I have found that from 2.50 fr. to + 3.50 fr. per litre is a fair price for sorts fit to bottle. The + new wine of 1881 sold in the following winter at prices varying + from 1.05 fr. to 1.80 fr. per litre. + </p> + <p> + It is customary for the Graubünden wine-merchants to buy up the + whole produce of a vineyard from the peasants at the end of the + vintage. They go in person or depute their agents to inspect the + wine, make their bargains, and seal the cellars where the wine is + stored. Then, when the snow has fallen, their own horses with + sleighs and trusted servants go across the passes to bring it + home. Generally they have some local man of confidence at Tirano, + the starting-point for the homeward journey, who takes the casks + up to that place and sees them duly charged. Merchants of old + standing maintain relations with the same peasants, taking their + wine regularly; so that from Lorenz Gredig at Pontresina or + Andreas Gredig at Davos Dörfli, from Fanconi at Samaden, or from + Giacomi at Chiavenna, special qualities of wine, the produce of + certain vineyards, are to be obtained. Up to the present time + this wine trade has been conducted with simplicity and honesty by + both the dealers and the growers. One chief merit of Valtelline + wine is that it is pure. How long so desirable a state of things + will survive the slow but steady development of an export + business may be questioned. + </p> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + With so much practical and theoretical interest in the produce of + the Valtelline to stimulate my curiosity, I determined to visit + the district at the season when the wine was leaving it. It was + the winter of 1881-82, a winter of unparalleled beauty in the + high Alps. Day succeeded day without a cloud. Night followed + night with steady stars, gliding across clear mountain ranges and + forests of dark pines unstirred by wind. I could not hope for a + more prosperous season; and indeed I made such use of it, that + between the months of January and March I crossed six passes of + the Alps in open sleighs—the Fluela Bernina, Splügen, + Julier, Maloja, and Albula—with less difficulty and + discomfort in mid-winter than the traveller may often find on + them in June. + </p> + <p> + At the end of January, my friend Christian and I left Davos long + before the sun was up, and ascended for four hours through the + interminable snow-drifts of the Fluela in a cold grey shadow. The + sun's light seemed to elude us. It ran along the ravine through + which we toiled; dipped down to touch the topmost pines above our + heads; rested in golden calm upon the Schiahorn at our back; + capriciously played here and there across the Weisshorn on our + left, and made the precipices of the Schwartzhorn glitter on our + right. But athwart our path it never fell until we reached the + very summit of the pass. Then we passed quietly into the full + glory of the winter morning—a tranquil flood of sunbeams, + pouring through air of crystalline purity, frozen and motionless. + White peaks and dark brown rocks soared up, cutting a sky of + almost purple blueness. A stillness that might be felt brooded + over the whole world; but in that stillness there was nothing + sad, no suggestion of suspended vitality. It was the stillness + rather of untroubled health, of strength omnipotent but + unexerted. + </p> + <p> + From the Hochspitz of the Fluela the track plunges at one bound + into the valley of the Inn, following a narrow cornice carved + from the smooth bank of snow, and hung, without break or barrier, + a thousand feet or more above the torrent. The summer road is + lost in snow-drifts. The galleries built as a protection from + avalanches, which sweep in rivers from those grim, bare fells + above, are blocked with snow. Their useless arches yawn, as we + glide over or outside them, by paths which instinct in our horse + and driver traces. As a fly may creep along a house-roof, + slanting downwards we descend. One whisk from the swinged tail of + an avalanche would hurl us, like a fly, into the ruin of the + gaping gorge. But this season little snow has fallen on the + higher hills; and what still lies there, is hard frozen. + Therefore we have no fear, as we whirl fast and faster from the + snow-fields into the black forests of gnarled cembras and + wind-wearied pines. Then Süss is reached, where the Inn hurries + its shallow waters clogged with ice-floes through a sleepy + hamlet. The stream is pure and green; for the fountains of the + glaciers are locked by winter frosts; and only clear rills from + perennial sources swell its tide. At Süss we lost the sun, and + toiled in garish gloom and silence, nipped by the ever-deepening + cold of evening, upwards for four hours to Samaden. + </p> + <p> + The next day was spent in visiting the winter colony at San + Moritz, where the Kulm Hotel, tenanted by some twenty guests, + presented in its vastness the appearance of a country-house. One + of the prettiest spots in the world is the ice-rink, fashioned by + the skill of Herr Caspar Badrutt on a high raised terrace, + commanding the valley of the Inn and the ponderous bulwarks of + Bernina. The silhouettes of skaters, defined against that + landscape of pure white, passed to and fro beneath a cloudless + sky. Ladies sat and worked or read on seats upon the ice. Not a + breath of wind was astir, and warm beneficent sunlight flooded + the immeasurable air. Only, as the day declined, some iridescent + films overspread the west; and just above Maloja the apparition + of a mock sun—a well-defined circle of opaline light, + broken at regular intervals by four globes—seemed to + portend a change of weather. This forecast fortunately proved + delusive. We drove back to Samaden across the silent snow, + enjoying those delicate tints of rose and violet and saffron + which shed enchantment for one hour over the white monotony of + Alpine winter. + </p> + <p> + At half-past eight next morning, the sun was rising from behind + Pitz Languard, as we crossed the Inn and drove through Pontresina + in the glorious light, with all its huge hotels quite empty and + none but a few country-folk abroad. Those who only know the + Engadine in summer have little conception of its beauty. Winter + softens the hard details of bare rock, and rounds the melancholy + grassless mountain flanks, suspending icicles to every ledge and + spangling the curved surfaces of snow with crystals. The + landscape gains in purity, and, what sounds unbelievable, in + tenderness. Nor does it lose in grandeur. Looking up the valley + of the Morteratsch that morning, the glaciers were + distinguishable in hues of green and sapphire through their veil + of snow; and the highest peaks soared in a transparency of + amethystine light beneath a blue sky traced with filaments of + windy cloud. Some storm must have disturbed the atmosphere in + Italy, for fan-shaped mists frothed out around the sun, and + curled themselves above the mountains in fine feathery wreaths, + melting imperceptibly into air, until, when we had risen above + the cembras, the sky was one deep solid blue. + </p> + <p> + All that upland wilderness is lovelier now than in the summer; + and on the morning of which I write, the air itself was far more + summery than I have ever known it in the Engadine in August. We + could scarcely bear to place our hands upon the woodwork of the + sleigh because of the fierce sun's heat. And yet the atmosphere + was crystalline with windless frost. As though to increase the + strangeness of these contrasts, the pavement of beaten snow was + stained with red drops spilt from wine-casks which pass over it. + </p> + <p> + The chief feature of the Bernina—what makes it a dreary + pass enough in summer, but infinitely beautiful in + winter—is its breadth; illimitable undulations of + snow-drifts; immensity of open sky; unbroken lines of white, + descending in smooth curves from glittering ice-peaks. + </p> + <p> + A glacier hangs in air above the frozen lakes, with all its + green-blue ice-cliffs glistening in intensest light. Pitz Palu + shoots aloft like sculptured marble, delicately veined with soft + aërial shadows of translucent blue. At the summit of the pass all + Italy seems to burst upon the eyes in those steep serried ranges, + with their craggy crests, violet-hued in noonday sunshine, as + though a bloom of plum or grape had been shed over them, + enamelling their jagged precipices. + </p> + <p> + The top of the Bernina is not always thus in winter. It has a bad + reputation for the fury of invading storms, when falling snow + hurtles together with snow scooped from the drifts in eddies, and + the weltering white sea shifts at the will of whirlwinds. The + Hospice then may be tenanted for days together by weather-bound + wayfarers; and a line drawn close beneath its roof shows how two + years ago the whole building was buried in one snow-shroud. This + morning we lounged about the door, while our horses rested and + postillions and carters pledged one another in cups of new + Veltliner. + </p> + <p> + The road takes an awful and sudden dive downwards, quite + irrespective of the carefully engineered post-track. At this + season the path is badly broken into ruts and chasms by the wine + traffic. In some places it was indubitably perilous: a narrow + ledge of mere ice skirting thinly clad hard-frozen banks of snow, + which fell precipitately sideways for hundreds of sheer feet. We + did not slip over this parapet, though we were often within an + inch of doing so. Had our horse stumbled, it is not probable that + I should have been writing this. + </p> + <p> + When we came to the galleries which defend the road from + avalanches, we saw ahead of us a train of over forty sledges + ascending, all charged with Valtelline wine. Our postillions drew + up at the inner side of the gallery, between massive columns of + the purest ice dependent from the rough-hewn roof and walls of + rock. A sort of open <i>loggia</i> on the farther side framed + vignettes of the Valtelline mountains in their hard cerulean + shadows and keen sunlight. Between us and the view defiled the + wine-sledges; and as each went by, the men made us drink out of + their <i>trinketti</i>. These are oblong, hexagonal wooden kegs, + holding about fourteen litres, which the carter fills with wine + before he leaves the Valtelline, to cheer him on the homeward + journey. You raise it in both hands, and when the bung has been + removed, allow the liquor to flow stream-wise down your throat. + It was a most extraordinary Bacchic procession—a pomp + which, though undreamed of on the banks of the Ilissus, + proclaimed the deity of Dionysos in authentic fashion. Struggling + horses, grappling at the ice-bound floor with sharp-spiked shoes; + huge, hoarse drivers, some clad in sheepskins from Italian + valleys, some brown as bears in rough Graubünden homespun; casks, + dropping their spilth of red wine on the snow; greetings, + embracings; patois of Bergamo, Romansch, and German roaring + around the low-browed vaults and tingling ice pillars; pourings + forth of libations of the new strong Valtelline on breasts and + beards;—the whole made up a scene of stalwart jollity and + manful labour such as I have nowhere else in such wild + circumstances witnessed. Many Davosers were there, the men of + Andreas Gredig, Valär, and so forth; and all of these, on + greeting Christian, forced us to drain a <i>Schluck</i> from + their unmanageable cruses. Then on they went, crying, creaking, + struggling, straining through the corridor, which echoed + deafeningly, the gleaming crystals of those hard Italian + mountains in their winter raiment building a background of still + beauty to the savage Bacchanalian riot of the team. + </p> + <p> + How little the visitors who drink Valtelline wine at S. Moritz or + Davos reflect by what strange ways it reaches them. A sledge can + scarcely be laden with more than one cask of 300 litres on the + ascent; and this cask, according to the state of the road, has + many times to be shifted from wheels to runners and back again + before the journey is accomplished. One carter will take charge + of two horses, and consequently of two sledges and two casks, + driving them both by voice and gesture rather than by rein. When + they leave the Valtelline, the carters endeavour, as far as + possible, to take the pass in gangs, lest bad weather or an + accident upon the road should overtake them singly. At night they + hardly rest three hours, and rarely think of sleeping, but spend + the time in drinking and conversation. The horses are fed and + littered; but for them too the night-halt is little better than a + baiting-time. In fair weather the passage of the mountain is not + difficult, though tiring. But woe to men and beasts alike if they + encounter storms! Not a few perish in the passes; and it + frequently happens that their only chance is to unyoke the horses + and leave the sledges in a snow-wreath, seeking for themselves + such shelter as may possibly be gained, frost-bitten, after hours + of battling with impermeable drifts. The wine is frozen into one + solid mass of rosy ice before it reaches Pontresina. This does + not hurt the young vintage, but it is highly injurious to wine of + some years' standing. The perils of the journey are aggravated by + the savage temper of the drivers. Jealousies between the natives + of rival districts spring up; and there are men alive who have + fought the whole way down from Fluela Hospice to Davos Platz with + knives and stones, hammers and hatchets, wooden staves and + splintered cart-wheels, staining the snow with blood, and + bringing broken pates, bruised limbs, and senseless comrades home + to their women to be tended. + </p> + <p> + Bacchus Alpinus shepherded his train away from us to northward, + and we passed forth into noonday from the gallery. It then seemed + clear that both conductor and postillion were sufficiently merry. + The plunge they took us down those frozen parapets, with shriek + and <i>jauchzen</i> and cracked whips, was more than ever + dangerous. Yet we reached La Rosa safely. This is a lovely + solitary spot, beside a rushing stream, among grey granite + boulders grown with spruce and rhododendron: a veritable rose of + Sharon blooming in the desert. The wastes of the Bernina stretch + above, and round about are leaguered some of the most forbidding + sharp-toothed peaks I ever saw. Onwards, across the silent snow, + we glided in immitigable sunshine, through opening valleys and + pine-woods, past the robber-huts of Pisciadella, until at + evenfall we rested in the roadside inn at Poschiavo. + </p> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + The snow-path ended at Poschiavo; and when, as usual, we started + on our journey next day at sunrise, it was in a carriage upon + wheels. Yet even here we were in full midwinter. Beyond Le Prese + the lake presented one sheet of smooth black ice, reflecting + every peak and chasm of the mountains, and showing the rocks and + water-weeds in the clear green depths below. The glittering floor + stretched away for acres of untenanted expanse, with not a skater + to explore those dark mysterious coves, or strike across the + slanting sunlight poured from clefts in the impendent hills. + Inshore the substance of the ice sparkled here and there with + iridescence like the plumelets of a butterfly's wing under the + microscope, wherever light happened to catch the jagged or + oblique flaws that veined its solid crystal. + </p> + <p> + From the lake the road descends suddenly for a considerable + distance through a narrow gorge, following a torrent which rushes + among granite boulders. Chestnut trees begin to replace the + pines. The sunnier terraces are planted with tobacco, and at a + lower level vines appear at intervals in patches. One comes at + length to a great red gate across the road, which separates + Switzerland from Italy, and where the export dues on wine are + paid. The Italian custom-house is romantically perched above the + torrent. Two courteous and elegant <i>finanzieri</i>, mere boys, + were sitting wrapped in their military cloaks and reading novels + in the sun as we drove up. Though they made some pretence of + examining the luggage, they excused themselves with sweet smiles + and apologetic eyes—it was a disagreeable duty! + </p> + <p> + A short time brought us to the first village in the Valtelline, + where the road bifurcates northward to Bormio and the Stelvio + pass, southward to Sondrio and Lombardy. It is a little hamlet, + known by the name of La Madonna di Tirano, having grown up round + a pilgrimage church of great beauty, with tall Lombard + bell-tower, pierced with many tiers of pilastered windows, ending + in a whimsical spire, and dominating a fantastic cupola building + of the earlier Renaissance. Taken altogether, this is a charming + bit of architecture, picturesquely set beneath the granite + snow-peaks of the Valtelline. The church, they say, was raised at + Madonna's own command to stay the tide of heresy descending from + the Engadine; and in the year 1620, the bronze statue of S. + Michael, which still spreads wide its wings above the cupola, + looked down upon the massacre of six hundred Protestants and + foreigners, commanded by the patriot Jacopo Robustelli. + </p> + <p> + From Madonna the road leads up the valley through a narrow avenue + of poplar-trees to the town of Tirano. We were now in the + district where Forzato is made, and every vineyard had a name and + history. In Tirano we betook ourself to the house of an old + acquaintance of the Buol family, Bernardo da Campo, or, as the + Graubündeners call him, Bernard Campbèll. We found him at dinner + with his son and grandchildren in a vast, dark, bare Italian + chamber. It would be difficult to find a more typical old + Scotchman of the Lowlands than he looked, with his clean + close-shaven face, bright brown eyes, and snow-white hair + escaping from a broad-brimmed hat. He might have sat to a painter + for some Covenanter's portrait, except that there was nothing + dour about him, or for an illustration to Burns's 'Cotter's + Saturday Night.' The air of probity and canniness combined with a + twinkle of dry humour was completely Scotch; and when he tapped + his snuff-box, telling stories of old days, I could not refrain + from asking him about his pedigree. It should be said that there + is a considerable family of Campèlls or Campbèlls in the + Graubünden, who are fabled to deduce their stock from a Scotch + Protestant of Zwingli's time; and this made it irresistible to + imagine that in our friend Bernardo I had chanced upon a notable + specimen of atavism. All he knew, however, was, that his first + ancestor had been a foreigner, who came across the mountains to + Tirano two centuries ago.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id= + "FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class= + "fnanchor">[3]</a> + </p> + <p> + This old gentleman is a considerable wine-dealer. He sent us with + his son, Giacomo, on a long journey underground through his + cellars, where we tasted several sorts of Valtelline, especially + the new Forzato, made a few weeks since, which singularly + combines sweetness with strength, and both with a slight + effervescence. It is certainly the sort of wine wherewith to + tempt a Polyphemus, and not unapt to turn a giant's head. + </p> + <p> + Leaving Tirano, and once more passing through the poplars by + Madonna, we descended the valley all along the vineyards of Villa + and the vast district of Sassella. Here and there, at wayside + inns, we stopped to drink a glass of some particular vintage; and + everywhere it seemed as though god Bacchus were at home. The + whole valley on the right side of the Adda is one gigantic + vineyard, climbing the hills in tiers and terraces, which justify + its Italian epithet of <i>Teatro di Bacco</i>. The rock is a + greyish granite, assuming sullen brown and orange tints where + exposed to sun and weather. The vines are grown on stakes, not + trellised over trees or carried across boulders, as is the + fashion at Chiavenna or Terlan. Yet every advantage of the + mountain is adroitly used; nooks and crannies being specially + preferred, where the sun's rays are deflected from hanging + cliffs. The soil seems deep, and is of a dull yellow tone. When + the vines end, brushwood takes up the growth, which expires at + last in crag and snow. Some alps and chalets, dimly traced + against the sky, are evidences that a pastoral life prevails + above the vineyards. Pan there stretches the pine-thyrsus down to + vine-garlanded Dionysos. + </p> + <p> + The Adda flows majestically among willows in the midst, and the + valley is nearly straight. The prettiest spot, perhaps, is at + Tresenda or S. Giacomo, where a pass from Edolo and Brescia + descends from the southern hills. But the Valtelline has no great + claim to beauty of scenery. Its chief town, Sondrio, where we + supped and drank some special wine called <i>il vino de' Signori + Grigioni</i>, has been modernised in dull Italian fashion. + </p> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + The hotel at Sondrio, La Maddalena, was in carnival uproar of + masquers, topers, and musicians all night through. It was as much + as we could do to rouse the sleepy servants and get a cup of + coffee ere we started in the frozen dawn. 'Verfluchte Maddalena!' + grumbled Christian as he shouldered our portmanteaus and bore + them in hot haste to the post. Long experience only confirms the + first impression, that, of all cold, the cold of an Italian + winter is most penetrating. As we lumbered out of Sondrio in a + heavy diligence, I could have fancied myself back once again at + Radicofani or among the Ciminian hills. The frost was + penetrating. Fur-coats would not keep it out; and we longed to be + once more in open sledges on Bernina rather than enclosed in that + cold coupé. Now we passed Grumello, the second largest of the + renowned vine districts; and always keeping the white mass of + Monte di Disgrazia in sight, rolled at last into Morbegno. Here + the Valtelline vintage properly ends, though much of the ordinary + wine is probably supplied from the inferior produce of these + fields. It was past noon when we reached Colico, and saw the Lake + of Como glittering in sunlight, dazzling cloaks of snow on all + the mountains, which look as dry and brown as dead beech-leaves + at this season. Our Bacchic journey had reached its close; and it + boots not here to tell in detail how we made our way across the + Splügen, piercing its avalanches by low-arched galleries scooped + from the solid snow, and careering in our sledges down + perpendicular snow-fields, which no one who has crossed that pass + from the Italian side in winter will forget. We left the refuge + station at the top together with a train of wine-sledges, and + passed them in the midst of the wild descent. Looking back, I saw + two of their horses stumble in the plunge and roll headlong over. + Unluckily in one of these somersaults a man was injured. Flung + ahead into the snow by the first lurch, the sledge and wine-cask + crossed him like a garden-roller. Had his bed not been of snow, + he must have been crushed to death; and as it was, he presented a + woeful appearance when he afterwards arrived at Splügen. + </p> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + Though not strictly connected with the subject of this paper, I + shall conclude these notes of winter wanderings in the high Alps + with an episode which illustrates their curious vicissitudes. + </p> + <p> + It was late in the month of March, and nearly all the mountain + roads were open for wheeled vehicles. A carriage and four horses + came to meet us at the termination of a railway journey in + Bagalz. We spent one day in visiting old houses of the Grisons + aristocracy at Mayenfeld and Zizers, rejoicing in the early + sunshine, which had spread the fields with spring + flowers—primroses and oxlips, violets, anemones, and bright + blue squills. At Chur we slept, and early next morning started + for our homeward drive to Davos. Bad weather had declared itself + in the night. It blew violently, and the rain soon changed to + snow, frozen by a bitter north blast. Crossing the dreary heath + of Lenz was both magnificent and dreadful. By the time we reached + Wiesen, all the forests were laden with snow, the roads deep in + snow-drifts, the whole scene wintrier than it had been the winter + through. + </p> + <p> + At Wiesen we should have stayed, for evening was fast setting in. + But in ordinary weather it is only a two hours drive from Wiesen + to Davos. Our coachman made no objections to resuming the + journey, and our four horses had but a light load to drag. So we + telegraphed for supper to be prepared, and started between five + and six. + </p> + <p> + A deep gorge has to be traversed, where the torrent cleaves its + way between jaws of limestone precipices. The road is carried + along ledges and through tunnels in the rock. Avalanches, which + sweep this passage annually from the hills above, give it the + name of Züge, or the Snow-Paths. As we entered the gorge darkness + fell, the horses dragged more heavily, and it soon became evident + that our Tyrolese driver was hopelessly drunk. He nearly upset us + twice by taking sharp turns in the road, banged the carriage + against telegraph posts and jutting rocks, shaved the very verge + of the torrent in places where there was no parapet, and, what + was worst of all, refused to leave his box without a fight. The + darkness by this time was all but total, and a blinding + snow-storm swept howling through the ravine. At length we got the + carriage to a dead-stop, and floundered out in deep wet snow + toward some wooden huts where miners in old days made their + habitation. The place, by a curious, perhaps unconscious irony, + is called Hoffnungsau, or the Meadow of Hope. Indeed, it is not + ill named; for many wanderers, escaping, as we did, from the + dreadful gorge of Avalanches on a stormy night, may have felt, as + we now felt, their hope reviving when they reached this shelter. + </p> + <p> + There was no light; nothing above, beneath, around, on any side, + but tearing tempest and snow whirled through the ravine. The + horses were taken out of the carriage; on their way to the + stable, which fortunately in these mountain regions will be + always found beside the poorest habitation, one of them fell back + across a wall and nearly broke his spine. Hoffnungsau is + inhabited all through the year. In its dismal dark kitchen we + found a knot of workmen gathered together, and heard there were + two horses on the premises besides our own. It then occurred to + us that we might accomplish the rest of the journey with such + sledges as they bring the wood on from the hills in winter, if + coal-boxes or boxes of any sort could be provided. These should + be lashed to the sledges and filled with hay. We were only four + persons; my wife and a friend should go in one, myself and my + little girl in the other. No sooner thought of than put into + practice. These original conveyances were improvised, and after + two hours' halt on the Meadow of Hope, we all set forth again at + half-past eight. + </p> + <p> + I have rarely felt anything more piercing than the grim cold of + that journey. We crawled at a foot's pace through changeful + snow-drifts. The road was obliterated, and it was my duty to keep + a petroleum stable-lamp swinging to illuminate the untracked + wilderness. My little girl was snugly nested in the hay, and + sound asleep with a deep white covering of snow above her. + Meanwhile, the drift clave in frozen masses to our faces, lashed + by a wind so fierce and keen that it was difficult to breathe it. + My forehead-bone ached, as though with neuralgia, from the mere + mask of icy snow upon it, plastered on with frost. Nothing could + be seen but millions of white specks, whirled at us in eddying + concentric circles. Not far from the entrance to the village we + met our house-folk out with lanterns to look for us. It was past + eleven at night when at last we entered warm rooms and refreshed + ourselves for the tiring day with a jovial champagne supper. + Horses, carriage, and drunken driver reached home next morning. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="OLD_TOWNS_OF_PROVENCE" id= + "OLD_TOWNS_OF_PROVENCE"></a>OLD TOWNS OF PROVENCE + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + Travellers journeying southward from Paris first meet with + olive-trees near Montdragon or Monsélimart—little towns, + with old historic names, upon the road to Orange. It is here that + we begin to feel ourselves within the land of Provence, where the + Romans found a second Italy, and where the autumn of their + antique civilisation was followed, almost without an intermediate + winter of barbarism, by the light and delicate springtime of + romance. Orange itself is full of Rome. Indeed, the ghost of the + dead empire seems there to be more real and living than the + actual flesh and blood of modern time, as represented by narrow + dirty streets and mean churches. It is the shell of the huge + theatre, hollowed from the solid hill, and fronted with a wall + that seems made rather to protect a city than to form a + sounding-board for a stage, which first tells us that we have + reached the old Arausio. Of all theatres this is the most + impressive, stupendous, indestructible, the Colosseum hardly + excepted; for in Rome herself we are prepared for something + gigantic, while in the insignificant Arausio—a sort of + antique Tewkesbury—to find such magnificence, durability, + and vastness, impresses one with a nightmare sense that the old + lioness of Empire can scarcely yet be dead. Standing before the + colossal, towering, amorphous precipice which formed the + background of the scena, we feel as if once more the + 'heart-shaking sound of Consul Romanus' might be heard; as if + Roman knights and deputies, arisen from the dead, with faces hard + and stern as those of the warriors carved on Trajan's frieze, + might take their seats beneath us in the orchestra, and, after + proclamation made, the mortmain of imperial Rome be laid upon the + comforts, liberties, and little gracefulnesses of our modern + life. Nor is it unpleasant to be startled from such reverie by + the voice of the old guardian upon the stage beneath, sonorously + devolving the vacuous Alexandrines with which he once welcomed + his ephemeral French emperor from Algiers. The little man is dim + with distance, eclipsed and swallowed up by the shadows and + grotesque fragments of the ruin in the midst of which he stands. + But his voice—thanks to the inimitable constructive art of + the ancient architect, which, even in the desolation of at least + thirteen centuries, has not lost its cunning-emerges from the + pigmy throat, and fills the whole vast hollow with its clear, if + tiny, sound. Thank heaven, there is no danger of Roman + resurrection here! The illusion is completely broken, and we turn + to gather the first violets of February, and to wonder at the + quaint postures of a praying mantis on the grass grown tiers and + porches fringed with fern. + </p> + <p> + The sense of Roman greatness which is so oppressive in Orange and + in many other parts of Provence, is not felt at Avignon. Here we + exchange the ghost of Imperial for the phantom of Ecclesiastical + Rome. The fixed epithet of Avignon is Papal; and as the express + train rushes over its bleak and wind-tormented plain, the heavy + dungeon-walls and battlemented towers of its palace fortress seem + to warn us off, and bid us quickly leave the Babylon of exiled + impious Antichrist. Avignon presents the bleakest, barest, + greyest scene upon a February morning, when the incessant mistral + is blowing, and far and near, upon desolate hillside and sandy + plain, the scanty trees are bent sideways, the crumbling castle + turrets shivering like bleached skeletons in the dry ungenial + air. Yet inside the town, all is not so dreary. The Papal palace, + with its terrible Glacière, its chapel painted by Simone Memmi, + its endless corridors and staircases, its torture-chamber, + funnel-shaped to drown and suffocate—so runs + tradition—the shrieks of wretches on the rack, is now a + barrack, filled with lively little French soldiers, whose + politeness, though sorely taxed, is never ruffled by the + introduction of inquisitive visitors into their dormitories, + eating-places, and drill-grounds. And strange, indeed, it is to + see the lines of neat narrow barrack beds, between which the + red-legged little men are shaving, polishing their guns, or + mending their trousers, in those vaulted halls of popes and + cardinals, those vast presence-chambers and audience-galleries, + where Urban entertained S. Catherine, where Rienzi came, a + prisoner, to be stared at. Pass by the Glacière with a shudder, + for it has still the reek of blood about it; and do not long + delay in the cheerless dungeon of Rienzi. Time and regimental + whitewash have swept these lurking-places of old crime very bare; + but the parable of the seven devils is true in more senses than + one, and the ghosts that return to haunt a deodorised, + disinfected, garnished sepulchre are almost more ghastly than + those which have never been disturbed from their old habitations. + </p> + <p> + Little by little the eye becomes accustomed to the bareness and + greyness of this Provençal landscape; and then we find that the + scenery round Avignon is eminently picturesque. The view from Les + Doms—which is a hill above the Pope's palace, the + Acropolis, as it were, of Avignon—embraces a wide stretch + of undulating champaign, bordered by low hills, and intersected + by the flashing waters of the majestic Rhone. Across the stream + stands Villeneuve, like a castle of romance, with its round stone + towers fronting the gates and battlemented walls of the Papal + city. A bridge used to connect the two towns, but it is now + broken. The remaining fragment is of solid build, resting on + great buttresses, one of which rises fantastically above the + bridge into a little chapel. Such, one might fancy, was the + bridge which Ariosto's Rodomonte kept on horse against the + Paladins of Charlemagne, when angered by the loss of his love. + Nor is it difficult to imagine Bradamante spurring up the slope + against him with her magic lance in rest, and tilting him into + the tawny waves beneath. + </p> + <p> + On a clear October morning, when the vineyards are taking their + last tints of gold and crimson, and the yellow foliage of the + poplars by the river mingles with the sober greys of olive-trees + and willows, every square inch of this landscape, glittering as + it does with light and with colour, the more beautiful for its + subtlety and rarity, would make a picture. Out of many such + vignettes let us choose one. We are on the shore close by the + ruined bridge, the rolling muddy Rhone in front; beyond it, by + the towing-path, a tall strong cypress-tree rises beside a little + house, and next to it a crucifix twelve feet or more in height, + the Christ visible afar, stretched upon His red cross; arundo + donax is waving all around, and willows near; behind, far off, + soar the peaked hills, blue and pearled with clouds; past the + cypress, on the Rhone, comes floating a long raft, swift through + the stream, its rudder guided by a score of men: one standing + erect upon the prow bends forward to salute the cross; on flies + the raft, the tall reeds rustle, and the cypress sleeps. + </p> + <p> + For those who have time to spare in going to or from the south it + is worth while to spend a day or two in the most comfortable and + characteristic of old French inns, the Hôtel de l'Europe, at + Avignon. Should it rain, the museum of the town is worth a visit. + It contains Horace Vernet's not uncelebrated picture of Mazeppa, + and another, less famous, but perhaps more interesting, by + swollen-cheeked David, the 'genius in convulsion,' as Carlyle has + christened him. His canvas is unfinished. Who knows what cry of + the Convention made the painter fling his palette down and leave + the masterpiece he might have spoiled? For in its way the picture + is a masterpiece. There lies Jean Barrad, drummer, aged fourteen, + slain in La Vendée, a true patriot, who, while his life-blood + flowed away, pressed the tricolor cockade to his heart, and + murmured 'Liberty!' David has treated his subject classically. + The little drummer-boy, though French enough in feature and in + feeling, lies, Greek-like, naked on the sand—a very + Hyacinth of the Republic, La Vendée's Ilioneus. The tricolor + cockade and the sentiment of upturned patriotic eyes are the only + indications of his being a hero in his teens, a citizen who + thought it sweet to die for France. + </p> + <p> + In fine weather a visit to Vaucluse should by no means be + omitted, not so much, perhaps, for Petrarch's sake as for the + interest of the drive, and for the marvel of the fountain of the + Sorgues. For some time after leaving Avignon you jog along the + level country between avenues of plane-trees; then comes a hilly + ridge, on which the olives, mulberries, and vineyards join their + colours and melt subtly into distant purple. After crossing this + we reach L'Isle, an island village girdled by the gliding + Sorgues, overshadowed with gigantic plane-boughs, and echoing to + the plash of water dripped from mossy fern-tufted millwheels. + Those who expect Petrarch's Sorgues to be some trickling poet's + rill emerging from a damp grotto, may well be astounded at the + rush and roar of this azure river so close upon its + fountain-head. It has a volume and an arrow-like rapidity that + communicate the feeling of exuberance and life. In passing, let + it not be forgotten that it was somewhere or other in this + 'chiaro fondo di Sorga,' as Carlyle describes, that Jourdain, the + hangman-hero of the Glacière, stuck fast upon his pony when + flying from his foes, and had his accursed life, by some + diabolical providence, spared for future butcheries. On we go + across the austere plain, between fields of madder, the red roots + of the 'garance' lying in swathes along the furrows. In front + rise ash-grey hills of barren rock, here and there crimsoned with + the leaves of the dwarf sumach. A huge cliff stands up and seems + to bar all passage. Yet the river foams in torrents at our side. + Whence can it issue? What pass or cranny in that precipice is + cloven for its escape? These questions grow in interest as we + enter the narrow defile of limestone rocks which leads to the + cliff-barrier, and find ourselves among the figs and olives of + Vaucluse. Here is the village, the little church, the ugly column + to Petrarch's memory, the inn, with its caricatures of Laura, and + its excellent trout, the bridge and the many-flashing, eddying + Sorgues, lashed by millwheels, broken by weirs, divided in its + course, channelled and dyked, yet flowing irresistibly and + undefiled. Blue, purple, greened by moss and water-weeds, + silvered by snow-white pebbles, on its pure smooth bed the river + runs like elemental diamond, so clear and fresh. The rocks on + either side are grey or yellow, terraced into oliveyards, with + here and there a cypress, fig, or mulberry tree. Soon the gardens + cease, and lentisk, rosemary, box, and ilex—shrubs of + Provence—with here and there a sumach out of reach, cling + to the hard stone. And so at last we are brought face to face + with the sheer impassable precipice. At its basement sleeps a + pool, perfectly untroubled; a lakelet in which the sheltering + rocks and nestling wild figs are glassed as in a mirror—a + mirror of blue-black water, like amethyst or fluor-spar—so + pure, so still, that where it laps the pebbles you can scarcely + say where air begins and water ends. This, then, is Petrarch's + 'grotto;' this is the fountain of Vaucluse. Up from its deep + reservoirs, from the mysterious basements of the mountain, wells + the silent stream; pauseless and motionless it fills its urn, + rises unruffled, glides until the brink is reached, then + overflows, and foams, and dashes noisily, a cataract, among the + boulders of the hills. Nothing at Vaucluse is more impressive + than the contrast between the tranquil silence of the fountain + and the roar of the released impetuous river. Here we can realise + the calm clear eyes of sculptured water-gods, their brimming + urns, their gushing streams, the magic of the mountain-born and + darkness-cradled flood. Or again, looking up at the sheer steep + cliff, 800 feet in height, and arching slightly roofwise, so that + no rain falls upon the cavern of the pool, we seem to see the + stroke of Neptune's trident, the hoof of Pegasus, the force of + Moses' rod, which cleft rocks and made water gush forth in the + desert. There is a strange fascination in the spot. As our eyes + follow the white pebble which cleaves the surface and falls + visibly, until the veil of azure is too thick for sight to + pierce, we feel as if some glamour were drawing us, like Hylas, + to the hidden caves. At least, we long to yield a prized and + precious offering to the spring, to grace the nymph of Vaucluse + with a pearl of price as token of our reverence and love. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile nothing has been said about Petrarch, who himself said + much about the spring, and complained against those very nymphs + to whom we have in wish, at least, been scattering jewels, that + they broke his banks and swallowed up his gardens every winter. + At Vaucluse Petrarch loved, and lived, and sang. He has made + Vaucluse famous, and will never be forgotten there. But for the + present the fountain is even more attractive than the memory of + the poet.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> + </p> + <p> + The change from Avignon to Nismes is very trying to the latter + place; for Nismes is not picturesquely or historically + interesting. It is a prosperous modern French town with two + almost perfect Roman monuments—Les Arènes and the Maison + Carrée. The amphitheatre is a complete oval, visible at one + glance. Its smooth white stone, even where it has not been + restored, seems unimpaired by age; and Charles Martel's + conflagration, when he burned the Saracen hornet's nest inside + it, has only blackened the outer walls and arches venerably. + Utility and perfect adaptation of means to ends form the beauty + of Roman buildings. The science of construction and large + intelligence displayed in them, their strength, simplicity, + solidity, and purpose, are their glory. Perhaps there is only one + modern edifice—Palladio's Palazzo della Ragione at + Vicenza—which approaches the dignity and loftiness of Roman + architecture; and this it does because of its absolute freedom + from ornament, the vastness of its design, and the durability of + its material. The temple, called the Maison Carrée, at Nismes, is + also very perfect, and comprehended at one glance. Light, + graceful, airy, but rather thin and narrow, it reminds one of the + temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. + </p> + <p> + But if Nismes itself is not picturesque, its environs contain the + wonderful Pont du Gard. A two or three hours' drive leads through + a desolate country to the valley of the Cardon, where suddenly, + at a turn of the road, one comes upon the aqueduct. It is not + within the scope of words to describe the impression produced by + those vast arches, row above row, cutting the deep blue sky. The + domed summer clouds sailing across them are comprehended in the + gigantic span of their perfect semicircles, which seem rather to + have been described by Miltonic compasses of Deity than by merely + human mathematics. Yet, standing beneath one of the vaults and + looking upward, you may read Roman numerals in order from I. to + X., which prove their human origin well enough. Next to their + strength, regularity, and magnitude, the most astonishing point + about this triple tier of arches, piled one above the other to a + height of 180 feet above a brawling stream between two barren + hills, is their lightness. The arches are not thick; the causeway + on the top is only just broad enough for three men to walk + abreast. So smooth and perpendicular are the supporting walls + that scarcely a shrub or tuft of grass has grown upon the + aqueduct in all these years. And yet the huge fabric is + strengthened by no buttress, has needed no repair. This lightness + of structure, combined with such prodigious durability, produces + the strongest sense of science and self-reliant power in the men + who designed it. None but Romans could have built such a + monument, and have set it in such a place—a wilderness of + rock and rolling hill, scantily covered with low brushwood, and + browsed over by a few sheep—for such a purpose, too, in + order to supply Nemausus with pure water. The modern town does + pretty well without its water; but here subsists the civilisation + of eighteen centuries past intact: the human labour yet remains, + the measuring, contriving mind of man, shrinking from no + obstacles, spanning the air, and in one edifice combining + gigantic strength and perfect beauty. It is impossible not to + echo Rousseau's words in such a place, and to say with him: 'Le + retentissement de mes pas dans ces immenses voûtes me faisait + croire entendre la forte voix de ceux qui les avaient bâties. Je + me perdais comme un insecte dans cette immensité. Je sentais, + tout en me faisant petit, je ne sais quoi qui m'élevait l'âme; et + je me disais en soupirant, Que ne suis-je né Romain!' + </p> + <p> + There is nothing at Arles which produces the same deep and + indelible impression. Yet Arles is a far more interesting town + than Nismes, partly because of the Rhone delta which begins + there, partly because of its ruinous antiquity, and partly also + because of the strong local character of its population. The + amphitheatre of Arles is vaster and more sublime in its + desolation than the tidy theatre at Nismes; the crypts, and dens, + and subterranean passages suggest all manner of speculation as to + the uses to which they may have been appropriated; while the + broken galleries outside, intricate and black and cavernous, like + Piranesi's etchings of the 'Carceri,' present the wildest + pictures of greatness in decay, fantastic dilapidation. The ruins + of the smaller theatre, again, with their picturesquely grouped + fragments and their standing columns, might be sketched for a + frontispiece to some dilettante work on classical antiquities. + For the rest, perhaps the Aliscamps, or ancient Roman + burial-ground, is the most interesting thing at Arles, not only + because of Dante's celebrated lines in the canto of + 'Farinata:'— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Si come ad Arli ove 'l Rodano stagna, + </p> + <p> + Fanno i sepolcri tutto 'l loco varo; + </p> + </div> + <p> + but also because of the intrinsic picturesqueness of this avenue + of sepulchres beneath green trees upon a long soft grassy field. + </p> + <p> + But as at Avignon and Nismes, so also at Arles, one of the chief + attractions of the place lies at a distance, and requires a + special expedition. The road to Les Baux crosses a true Provençal + desert where one realises the phrase, 'Vieux comme les rochers de + Provence,'—a wilderness of grey stone, here and there worn + into cart-tracks, and tufted with rosemary, box, lavender, and + lentisk. On the way it passes the Abbaye de Mont Majeur, a ruin + of gigantic size, embracing all periods of architecture; where + nothing seems to flourish now but henbane and the wild cucumber, + or to breathe but a mumble-toothed and terrible old hag. The ruin + stands above a desolate marsh, its vast Italian buildings of + Palladian splendour looking more forlorn in their decay than the + older and austerer mediæval towers, which rise up proud and + patient and defiantly erect beneath the curse of time. When at + length what used to be the castle town of Les Baux is reached, + you find a naked mountain of yellow sandstone, worn away by + nature into bastions and buttresses and coigns of vantage, + sculptured by ancient art into palaces and chapels, battlements + and dungeons. Now art and nature are confounded in one ruin. + Blocks of masonry lie cheek by jowl with masses of the rough-hewn + rock; fallen cavern vaults are heaped round fragments of + fan-shaped spandrel and clustered column-shaft; the doors and + windows of old pleasure-rooms are hung with ivy and wild fig for + tapestry; winding staircases start midway upon the cliff, and + lead to vacancy. High overhead suspended in mid-air hang + chambers—lady's bower or poet's singing-room—now + inaccessible, the haunt of hawks and swallows. Within this rocky + honeycomb—'cette ville en monolithe,' as it has been aptly + called, for it is literally scooped out of one mountain + block—live about two hundred poor people, foddering their + wretched goats at carved piscina and stately sideboards, erecting + mud beplastered hovels in the halls of feudal princes. Murray is + wrong in calling the place a mediæval town in its original state, + for anything more purely ruinous, more like a decayed old cheese, + cannot possibly be conceived. The living only inhabit the tombs + of the dead. At the end of the last century, when revolutionary + effervescence was beginning to ferment, the people of Arles swept + all its feudality away, defacing the very arms upon the town + gate, and trampling the palace towers to dust. + </p> + <p> + The castle looks out across a vast extent of plain over Arles, + the stagnant Rhone, the Camargue, and the salt pools of the + lingering sea. In old days it was the eyrie of an eagle race + called Seigneurs of Les Baux; and whether they took their title + from the rock, or whether, as genealogists would have it, they + gave the name of Oriental Balthazar—their reputed ancestor, + one of the Magi—to the rock itself, remains a mystery not + greatly worth the solving. + </p> + <p> + Anyhow, here they lived and flourished, these feudal princes, + bearing for their ensign a silver comet of sixteen rays upon a + field of gules—themselves a comet race, baleful to the + neighbouring lowlands, blazing with lurid splendour over wide + tracts of country, a burning, raging, fiery-souled, swift-handed + tribe, in whom a flame unquenchable glowed from son to sire + through twice five hundred years until, in the sixteenth century, + they were burned out, and nothing remained but + cinders—these broken ruins of their eyrie, and some outworn + and dusty titles. Very strange are the fate and history of these + same titles: King of Arles, for instance, savouring of troubadour + and high romance; Prince of Tarentum, smacking of old plays and + Italian novels; Prince of Orange, which the Nassaus, through the + Châlons, seized in all its emptiness long after the real + principality had passed away, and came therewith to sit on + England's throne. + </p> + <p> + The Les Baux in their heyday were patterns of feudal nobility. + They warred incessantly with Counts of Provence, archbishops and + burghers of Arles, Queens of Naples, Kings of Aragon. Crusading, + pillaging, betraying, spending their substance on the sword, and + buying it again by deeds of valour or imperial acts of favour, + tuning troubadour harps, presiding at courts of love,—they + filled a large page in the history of Southern France. The Les + Baux were very superstitious. In the fulness of their prosperity + they restricted the number of their dependent towns, or <i>places + baussenques</i>, to seventy-nine, because these numbers in + combination were thought to be of good omen to their house. Beral + des Baux, Seigneur of Marseilles, was one day starting on a + journey with his whole force to Avignon. He met an old woman + herb-gathering at daybreak, and said, 'Mother, hast thou seen a + crow or other bird?' 'Yea,' answered the crone, 'on the trunk of + a dead willow.' Beral counted upon his fingers the day of the + year, and turned bridle. With troubadours of name and note they + had dealings, but not always to their own advantage, as the + following story testifies. When the Baux and Berengers were + struggling for the countship of Provence, Raymond Berenger, by + his wife's counsel, went, attended by troubadours, to meet the + Emperor Frederick at Milan. There he sued for the investiture and + ratification of Provence. His troubadours sang and charmed + Frederick; and the Emperor, for the joy he had in them, wrote his + celebrated lines beginning— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Plas mi cavalier Francez. + </p> + </div> + <p> + And when Berenger made his request he met with no refusal. + Hearing thereof, the lords of Baux came down in wrath with a + clangour of armed men. But music had already gained the day; and + where the Phoebus of Provence had shone, the Æolus of + storm-shaken Les Baux was powerless. Again, when Blacas, a knight + of Provence, died, the great Sordello chanted one of his most + fiery hymns, bidding the princes of Christendom flock round and + eat the heart of the dead lord. 'Let Rambaude des Baux,' cries + the bard, with a sarcasm that is clearly meant, but at this + distance almost unintelligible, 'take also a good piece, for she + is fair and good and truly virtuous; let her keep it well who + knows so well to husband her own weal.' But the poets were not + always adverse to the house of Baux. Fouquet, the beautiful and + gentle melodist whom Dante placed in paradise, served Adelaisie, + wife of Berald, with long service of unhappy love, and wrote upon + her death 'The Complaint of Berald des Baux for Adelaisie.' + Guillaume de Cabestan loved Berangère des Baux, and was so loved + by her that she gave him a philtre to drink, whereof he sickened + and grew mad. Many more troubadours are cited as having + frequented the castle of Les Baux, and among the members of the + princely house were several poets. + </p> + <p> + Some of them were renowned for beauty. We hear of a Cécile, + called Passe Rose, because of her exceeding loveliness; also of + an unhappy François, who, after passing eighteen years in prison, + yet won the grace and love of Joan of Naples by his charms. But + the real temper of this fierce tribe was not shown among + troubadours, or in the courts of love and beauty. The stern and + barren rock from which they sprang, and the comet of their + scutcheon, are the true symbols of their nature. History records + no end of their ravages and slaughters. It is a tedious catalogue + of blood—how one prince put to fire and sword the whole + town of Courthezon; how another was stabbed in prison by his + wife; how a third besieged the castle of his niece, and sought to + undermine her chamber, knowing her the while to be in childbed; + how a fourth was flayed alive outside the walls of Avignon. There + is nothing terrible, splendid, and savage, belonging to feudal + history, of which an example may not be found in the annals of + Les Baux, as narrated by their chronicler, Jules Canonge. + </p> + <p> + However abrupt may seem the transition from these memories of the + ancient nobles of Les Baux to mere matters of travel and + picturesqueness, it would be impossible to take leave of the old + towns of Provence without glancing at the cathedrals of S. + Trophime at Arles, and of S. Gilles—a village on the border + of the dreary flamingo-haunted Camargue. Both of these buildings + have porches splendidly encrusted with sculptures, half + classical, half mediæval, marking the transition from ancient to + modern art. But that of S. Gilles is by far the richer and more + elaborate. The whole façade of this church is one mass of + intricate decoration; Norman arches and carved lions, like those + of Lombard architecture, mingling fantastically with Greek + scrolls of fruit and flowers, with elegant Corinthian columns + jutting out upon the church steps, and with the old conventional + wave-border that is called Etruscan in our modern jargon. From + the midst of florid fret and foliage lean mild faces of saints + and Madonnas. Symbols of evangelists with half-human, half-animal + eyes and wings, are interwoven with the leafy bowers of cupids. + Grave apostles stand erect beneath acanthus wreaths that ought to + crisp the forehead of a laughing Faun or Bacchus. And yet so + full, exuberant, and deftly chosen are these various elements, + that there remains no sense of incongruity or discord. The + mediæval spirit had much trouble to disentangle itself from + classic reminiscences; and fortunately for the picturesqueness of + S. Gilles, it did not succeed. How strangely different is the + result of this transition in the south from those severe and + rigid forms which we call Romanesque in Germany and Normandy and + England! + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="THE_CORNICE" id="THE_CORNICE"></a>THE CORNICE + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + It was a dull afternoon in February when we left Nice, and drove + across the mountains to Mentone. Over hill and sea hung a thick + mist. Turbia's Roman tower stood up in cheerless solitude, + wreathed round with driving vapour, and the rocky nest of Esa + seemed suspended in a chaos between sea and sky. Sometimes the + fog broke and showed us Villafranca, lying green and flat in the + deep blue below: sometimes a distant view of higher peaks swam + into sight from the shifting cloud. But the whole scene was + desolate. Was it for this that we had left our English home, and + travelled from London day and night? At length we reached the + edge of the cloud, and jingled down by Roccabruna and the + olive-groves, till one by one Mentone's villas came in sight, and + at last we found ourselves at the inn door. That night, and all + next day and the next night, we heard the hoarse sea beat and + thunder on the beach. The rain and wind kept driving from the + south, but we consoled ourselves with thinking that the + orange-trees and every kind of flower were drinking in the + moisture and waiting to rejoice in sunlight which would come. + </p> + <p> + It was a Sunday morning when we woke and found that the rain had + gone, the sun was shining brightly on the sea, and a clear north + wind was blowing cloud and mist away. Out upon the hills we went, + not caring much what path we took; for everything was beautiful, + and hill and vale were full of garden walks. Through + lemon-groves,—pale, golden-tender trees,—and olives, + stretching their grey boughs against the lonely cottage tiles, we + climbed, until we reached the pines and heath above. Then I knew + the meaning of Theocritus for the first time. We found a well, + broad, deep, and clear, with green herbs growing at the bottom, a + runlet flowing from it down the rocky steps, maidenhair, black + adiantum, and blue violets, hanging from the brink and mirrored + in the water. This was just the well in <i>Hylas</i>. Theocritus + has been badly treated. They call him a court poet, dead to + Nature, artificial in his pictures. Yet I recognised this + fountain by his verse, just as if he had showed me the very spot. + Violets grow everywhere, of every shade, from black to lilac. + Their stalks are long, and the flowers 'nod' upon them, so that I + see how the Greeks could make them into chaplets—how + Lycidas wore his crown of white violets<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id= + "FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class= + "fnanchor">[5]</a> lying by the fireside elbow-deep in withered + asphodel, watching the chestnuts in the embers, and softly + drinking deep healths to Ageanax far off upon the waves. It is + impossible to go wrong in these valleys. They are cultivated to + the height of about five hundred feet above the sea, in terraces + laboriously built up with walls, earthed and manured, and + irrigated by means of tanks and aqueducts. Above this level, + where the virgin soil has not been yet reclaimed, or where the + winds of winter bring down freezing currents from the mountains + through a gap or gully of the lower hills, a tangled growth of + heaths and arbutus, and pines, and rosemarys, and myrtles, + continue the vegetation, till it finally ends in bare grey rocks + and peaks some thousand feet in height. Far above all signs of + cultivation on these arid peaks, you still may see villages and + ruined castles, built centuries ago for a protection from the + Moorish pirates. To these mountain fastnesses the people of the + coast retreated when they descried the sails of their foes on the + horizon. In Mentone, not very long ago, old men might be seen who + in their youth were said to have been taken captive by the Moors; + and many Arabic words have found their way into the patois of the + people. + </p> + <p> + There is something strangely fascinating in the sight of these + ruins on the burning rocks, with their black sentinel cypresses, + immensely tall and far away. Long years and rain and sunlight + have made these castellated eyries one with their native stone. + It is hard to trace in their foundations where Nature's + workmanship ends and where man's begins. What strange sights the + mountain villagers must see! The vast blue plain of the + unfurrowed deep, the fairy range of Corsica hung midway between + the sea and sky at dawn or sunset, the stars so close above their + heads, the deep dew-sprinkled valleys, the green pines! On + penetrating into one of these hill-fortresses, you find that it + is a whole village, with a church and castle and piazza, some few + feet square, huddled together on a narrow platform. We met one + day three magnates of Gorbio taking a morning stroll backwards + and forwards, up and down their tiny square. Vehemently + gesticulating, loudly chattering, they talked as though they had + not seen each other for ten years, and were but just unloading + their budgets of accumulated news. Yet these three men probably + had lived, eaten, drunk, and talked together from the cradle to + that hour: so true it is that use and custom quicken all our + powers, especially of gossiping and scandal-mongering. S. Agnese + is the highest and most notable of all these villages. The cold + and heat upon its absolutely barren rock must be alike + intolerable. In appearance it is not unlike the Etruscan towns of + Central Italy; but there is something, of course, far more + imposing in the immense antiquity and the historical associations + of a Narni, a Fiesole, a Chiusi, or an Orvieto. Sea-life and + rusticity strike a different note from that of those + Apennine-girdled seats of dead civilisation, in which nations, + arts, and religions have gone by and left but few + traces,—some wrecks of giant walls, some excavated tombs, + some shrines, where monks still sing and pray above the relics of + the founders of once world-shaking, now almost forgotten, orders. + Here at Mentone there is none of this; the idyllic is the true + note, and Theocritus is still alive. + </p> + <p> + We do not often scale these altitudes, but keep along the + terraced glades by the side of olive-shaded streams. The violets, + instead of peeping shyly from hedgerows, fall in ripples and + cascades over mossy walls among maidenhair and spleen-worts. They + are very sweet, and the sound of trickling water seems to mingle + with their fragrance in a most delicious harmony. Sound, smell, + and hue make up one chord, the sense of which is pure and perfect + peace. The country-people are kind, letting us pass everywhere, + so that we make our way along their aqueducts and through their + gardens, under laden lemon-boughs, the pale fruit dangling at our + ears, and swinging showers of scented dew upon us as we pass. Far + better, however, than lemon or orange trees, are the olives. Some + of these are immensely old, numbering, it is said, five + centuries, so that Petrarch may almost have rested beneath their + shade on his way to Avignon. These veterans are cavernous with + age: gnarled, split, and twisted trunks, throwing out arms that + break into a hundred branches; every branch distinct, and + feathered with innumerable sparks and spikelets of white, wavy, + greenish light. These are the leaves, and the stems are grey with + lichens. The sky and sea—two blues, one full of sunlight + and the other purple—set these fountains of perennial + brightness like gems in lapis-lazuli. At a distance the same + olives look hoary and soft—a veil of woven light or + luminous haze. When the wind blows their branches all one way, + they ripple like a sea of silver. But underneath their covert, in + the shade, grey periwinkles wind among the snowy drift of allium. + The narcissus sends its arrowy fragrance through the air, while, + far and wide, red anemones burn like fire, with interchange of + blue and lilac buds, white arums, orchises, and pink gladiolus. + Wandering there, and seeing the pale flowers, stars white and + pink and odorous, we dream of Olivet, or the grave Garden of the + Agony, and the trees seem always whispering of sacred things. How + people can blaspheme against the olives, and call them imitations + of the willow, or complain that they are shabby shrubs, I do not + know.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> + </p> + <p> + This shore would stand for Shelley's Island of Epipsychidion, or + the golden age which Empedocles describes, when the mild nations + worshipped Aphrodite with incense and the images of beasts and + yellow honey, and no blood was spilt upon her altars—when + 'the trees flourished with perennial leaves and fruit, and ample + crops adorned their boughs through all the year.' This even now + is literally true of the lemon-groves, which do not cease to + flower and ripen. Everything fits in to complete the reproduction + of Greek pastoral life. The goats eat cytisus and myrtle on the + shore; a whole flock gathered round me as I sat beneath a tuft of + golden green euphorbia the other day, and nibbled bread from my + hands. The frog still croaks by tank and fountain, 'whom the + Muses have ordained to sing for aye,' in spite of Bion's death. + The narcissus, anemone, and hyacinth still tell their tales of + love and death. Hesper still gazes on the shepherd from the + mountain-head. The slender cypresses still vibrate, the pines + murmur. Pan sleeps in noontide heat, and goat-herds and wayfaring + men lie down to slumber by the roadside, under olive-boughs in + which cicadas sing. The little villages high up are just as + white, the mountains just as grey and shadowy when evening falls. + Nothing is changed—except ourselves. I expect to find a + statue of Priapus or pastoral Pan, hung with wreaths of + flowers—the meal cake, honey, and spilt wine upon his + altar, and young boys and maidens dancing round. Surely, in some + far-off glade, by the side of lemon-grove or garden, near the + village, there must be still a pagan remnant of glad + Nature-worship. Surely I shall chance upon some Thyrsis piping in + the pine-tree shade, or Daphne flying from the arms of Phoebus. + So I dream until I come upon the Calvary set on a solitary + hillock, with its prayer-steps lending a wide prospect across the + olives and the orange-trees, and the broad valleys, to + immeasurable skies and purple seas. There is the iron cross, the + wounded heart, the spear, the reed, the nails, the crown of + thorns, the cup of sacrificial blood, the title, with its + superscription royal and divine. The other day we crossed a brook + and entered a lemon-field, rich with blossoms and carpeted with + red anemones. Everything basked in sunlight and glittered with + exceeding brilliancy of hue. A tiny white chapel stood in a + corner of the enclosure. Two iron-grated windows let me see + inside: it was a bare place, containing nothing but a wooden + praying-desk, black and worm-eaten, an altar with its candles and + no flowers, and above the altar a square picture brown with age. + On the floor were scattered several pence, and in a vase above + the holy-water vessel stood some withered hyacinths. As my sight + became accustomed to the gloom, I could see from the darkness of + the picture a pale Christ nailed to the cross with agonising + upward eyes and ashy aureole above the bleeding thorns. Thus I + stepped suddenly away from the outward pomp and bravery of nature + to the inward aspirations, agonies, and martyrdoms of + man—from Greek legends of the past to the real Christian + present—and I remembered that an illimitable prospect has + been opened to the world, that in spite of ourselves we must turn + our eyes heavenward, inward, to the infinite unseen beyond us and + within our souls. Nothing can take us back to Phoebus or to Pan. + Nothing can again identify us with the simple natural earth. + '<i>Une immense espérance a traversé la terre</i>,' and these + chapels, with their deep significances, lurk in the fair + landscape like the cares of real life among our dreams of art, or + like a fear of death and the hereafter in the midst of opera + music. It is a strange contrast. The worship of men in those old + times was symbolised by dances in the evening, banquets, + libations, and mirth-making. 'Euphrosyne' was alike the goddess + of the righteous mind and of the merry heart. Old withered women + telling their rosaries at dusk; belated shepherds crossing + themselves beneath the stars when they pass the chapel; maidens + weighed down with Margaret's anguish of unhappy love; youths + vowing their life to contemplation in secluded + cloisters,—these are the human forms which gather round + such chapels; and the motto of the worshippers consists in this, + 'Do often violence to thy desire.' In the Tyrol we have seen + whole villages praying together at daybreak before their day's + work, singing their <i>Miserere</i> and their <i>Gloria</i> and + their <i>Dies Iræ</i>, to the sound of crashing organs and + jangling bells; appealing in the midst of Nature's splendour to + the Spirit which is above Nature, which dwells in darkness rather + than light, and loves the yearnings and contentions of our soul + more than its summer gladness and peace. Even the olives here + tell more to us of Olivet and the Garden than of the oil-press + and the wrestling-ground. The lilies carry us to the Sermon on + the Mount, and teach humility, instead of summoning up some + legend of a god's love for a mortal. The hillside tanks and + running streams, and water-brooks swollen by sudden rain, speak + of Palestine. We call the white flowers stars of Bethlehem. The + large sceptre-reed; the fig-tree, lingering in barrenness when + other trees are full of fruit; the locust-beans of the + Caruba:—for one suggestion of Greek idylls there is yet + another, of far deeper, dearer power. + </p> + <p> + But who can resist the influence of Greek ideas at the Cap S. + Martin? Down to the verge of the sea stretch the tall, twisted + stems of Levant pines, and on the caverned limestone breaks the + deep blue water. Dazzling as marble are these rocks, pointed and + honeycombed with constant dashing of the restless sea, tufted + with corallines and grey and purple seaweeds in the little pools, + but hard and dry and rough above tide level. Nor does the sea + always lap them quietly; for the last few days it has come + tumbling in, roaring and raging on the beach with huge waves + crystalline in their transparency, and maned with fleecy spray. + Such were the rocks and such the swell of breakers when Ulysses + grasped the shore after his long swim. Samphire, very salt and + fragrant, grows in the rocky honeycomb; then lentisk and + beach-loving myrtle, both exceeding green and bushy; then + rosemary and euphorbia above the reach of spray. Fishermen, with + their long reeds, sit lazily perched upon black rocks above blue + waves, sunning themselves as much as seeking sport. One distant + tip of snow, seen far away behind the hills, reminds us of an + alien, unremembered winter. While dreaming there, this fancy came + into my head: Polyphemus was born yonder in the Gorbio Valley. + There he fed his sheep and goats, and on the hills found scanty + pasture for his kine. He and his mother lived in the white house + by the cypress near the stream where tulips grow. Young Galatea, + nursed in the caverns of these rocks, white as the foam, and shy + as the sea fishes, came one morning up the valley to pick + mountain hyacinths, and little Polyphemus led the way. He knew + where violets and sweet narcissus grew, as well as Galatea where + pink coralline and spreading sea-flowers with their waving arms. + But Galatea, having filled her lap with bluebells, quite forgot + the leaping kids, and piping Cyclops, and cool summer caves, and + yellow honey, and black ivy, and sweet vine, and water cold as + Alpine snow. Down the swift streamlet she danced laughingly, and + made herself once more bitter with the sea. But Polyphemus + remained,—hungry, sad, gazing on the barren sea, and piping + to the mockery of its waves. + </p> + <p> + Filled with these Greek fancies, it is strange to come upon a + little sandstone dell furrowed by trickling streams and overgrown + with English primroses; or to enter the village of Roccabruna, + with its mediæval castle and the motto on its walls, <i>Tempora + labuntur tacitisque senescimus annis</i>. A true motto for the + town, where the butcher comes but once a week, and where men and + boys, and dogs, and palms, and lemon-trees grow up and flourish + and decay in the same hollow of the sunny mountain-side. Into the + hard conglomerate of the hill the town is built; house walls and + precipices mortised into one another, dovetailed by the art of + years gone by, and riveted by age. The same plants grow from both + alike—spurge, cistus, rue, and henbane, constant to the + desolation of abandoned dwellings. From the castle you look down + on roofs, brown tiles and chimney-pots, set one above the other + like a big card-castle. Each house has its foot on a neighbour's + neck, and its shoulder set against the native stone. The streets + meander in and out, and up and down, overarched and balconied, + but very clean. They swarm with children, healthy, happy, little + monkeys, who grow fat on salt fish and yellow polenta, with oil + and sun <i>ad libitum</i>. + </p> + <p> + At night from Roccabruna you may see the flaring gas-lamps of the + gaming-house at Monaco, that Armida's garden of the nineteenth + century. It is the sunniest and most sheltered spot of all the + coast. Long ago Lucan said of Monaco, '<i>Non Corus in illum jus + habet aut Zephyrus</i>;' winter never comes to nip its tangled + cactuses, and aloes, and geraniums. The air swoons with the scent + of lemon-groves; tall palm-trees wave their graceful branches by + the shore; music of the softest and the loudest swells from the + palace; cool corridors and sunny seats stand ready for the + noontide heat or evening calm; without, are olive-gardens, green + and fresh and full of flowers. But the witch herself holds her + high court and never-ending festival of sin in the painted + banquet-halls and among the green tables. + </p> + <p> + Let us leave this scene and turn with the country-folk of + Roccabruna to S. Michael's Church at Mentone. High above the sea + it stands, and from its open doors you look across the mountains + with their olive-trees. Inside the church is a seething mass of + country-folk and townspeople, mostly women, and these almost all + old, but picturesque beyond description; kerchiefs of every + colour, wrinkles of every shape and depth, skins of every tone of + brown and yellow, voices of every gruffness, shrillness, + strength, and weakness. Wherever an empty corner can be found, it + is soon filled by tottering babies and mischievous children. The + country-women come with their large dangling earrings of thin + gold, wearing pink tulips or lemon-buds in their black hair. A + low buzz of gossiping and mutual recognition keeps the air alive. + The whole service seems a holiday—a general enjoyment of + gala dresses and friendly greetings, very different from the + silence, immobility, and <i>noli me tangere</i> aspect of an + English congregation. Over all drones, rattles, snores, and + shrieks the organ; wailing, querulous, asthmatic, incomplete, its + everlasting nasal chant—always beginning, never ending, + through a range of two or three notes ground into one monotony. + The voices of the congregation rise and sink above it. These + southern people, like the Arabs, the Apulians, and the Spaniards, + seem to find their music in a hurdy-gurdy swell of sound. The + other day we met a little girl, walking and spinning, and singing + all the while, whose song was just another version of this chant. + It has a discontented plaintive wail, as if it came from some + vast age, and were a cousin of primeval winds. + </p> + <p> + At first sight, by the side of Mentone, San Remo is sadly + prosaic. The valleys seem to sprawl, and the universal olives are + monotonously grey upon their thick clay soil. Yet the wealth of + flowers in the fat earth is wonderful. One might fancy oneself in + a weedy farm flower-bed invaded by stray oats and beans and + cabbages and garlic from the kitchen-garden. The country does not + suggest a single Greek idea. It has no form or outline—no + barren peaks, no spare and difficult vegetation. The beauty is + rich but tame—valleys green with oats and corn, blossoming + cherry-trees, and sweet bean-fields, figs coming into leaf, and + arrowy bay-trees by the side of sparkling streams: here and there + a broken aqueduct or rainbow bridge hung with maidenhair and + briar and clematis and sarsaparilla. + </p> + <p> + In the cathedral church of San Siro on Good Friday they hang the + columns and the windows with black; they cover the pictures and + deface the altar; above the high altar they raise a crucifix, and + below they place a catafalque with the effigy of the dead Christ. + To this sad symbol they address their prayers and incense, chant + their 'litanies and lurries,' and clash the rattles, which + commemorate their rage against the traitor Judas. So far have we + already passed away from the Greek feeling of Mentone. As I + listened to the hideous din, I could not but remember the + Theocritean burial of Adonis. Two funeral beds prepared: two + feasts recurring in the springtime of the year. What a difference + beneath this superficial + similarity—καλος + νέκυς οι΅α + καθεύδων— + <i>attritus ægrâ macie</i>. But the fast of Good Friday is + followed by the festival of Easter. That, after all, is the chief + difference. + </p> + <p> + After leaving the cathedral we saw a pretty picture in a dull old + street of San Remo—three children leaning from a window, + blowing bubbles. The bubbles floated down the street, of every + colour, round and trembling, like the dreams of life which + children dream. The town is certainly most picturesque. It + resembles a huge glacier of houses poured over a wedge of rock, + running down the sides and along the ridge, and spreading itself + into a fan between two torrents on the shore below. House over + house, with balcony and staircase, convent turret and church + tower, palm-trees and olives, roof gardens and clinging + creepers—this white cataract of buildings streams downward + from the lazar-house, and sanctuary, and sandstone quarries on + the hill. It is a mass of streets placed close above each other, + and linked together with arms and arches of solid masonry, as a + protection from the earthquakes, which are frequent at San Remo. + The walls are tall, and form a labyrinth of gloomy passages and + treacherous blind alleys, where the Moors of old might meet with + a ferocious welcome. Indeed, San Remo is a fortress as well as a + dwelling-place. Over its gateways may still be traced the pipes + for molten lead, and on its walls the eyeloops for arrows, with + brackets for the feet of archers. Masses of building have been + shaken down by earthquakes. The ruins of what once were houses + gape with blackened chimneys and dark forlorn cellars; mazes of + fungus and unhealthy weeds among the still secure habitations. + Hardly a ray of light penetrates the streets; one learns the + meaning of the Italian word <i>uggia</i> from their cold and + gloom. During the day they are deserted by every one but babies + and witchlike old women—some gossiping, some sitting vacant + at the house door, some spinning or weaving, or minding little + children—ugly and ancient as are their own homes, yet clean + as are the streets. The younger population goes afield; the men + on mules laden for the hills, the women burdened like mules with + heavy and disgusting loads. It is an exceptionally good-looking + race; tall, well-grown, and strong.—But to the streets + again. The shops in the upper town are few, chiefly wine-booths + and stalls for the sale of salt fish, eggs, and bread, or + cobblers' and tinkers' ware. Notwithstanding the darkness of + their dwellings, the people have a love of flowers; azaleas lean + from their windows, and vines, carefully protected by a sheath of + brickwork, climb the six stories, to blossom out into a pergola + upon the roof. Look at that mass of greenery and colours, dimly + seen from beneath, with a yellow cat sunning herself upon the + parapet! To reach such a garden and such sunlight who would not + mount six stories and thread a labyrinth of passages? I should + prefer a room upon the east side of the town, looking southward + to the Molo and the sea, with a sound of water beneath, and a + palm soaring up to fan my window with his feathery leaves. + </p> + <p> + The shrines are little spots of brightness in the gloomy streets. + Madonna with a sword; Christ holding His pierced and bleeding + heart; l'Eterno Padre pointing to the dead Son stretched upon His + knee; some souls in torment; S. Roch reminding us of old plagues + by the spot upon his thigh;—these are the symbols of the + shrines. Before them stand rows of pots filled with gillyflowers, + placed there by pious, simple, praying hands—by maidens + come to tell their sorrows to our Lady rich in sorrow, by old + women bent and shrivelled, in hopes of paradise or gratitude for + happy days, when Madonna kept Cecchino faithful to his home, or + saved the baby from the fever. + </p> + <p> + Lower down, between the sea and the hill, is the municipal, + aristocratic, ecclesiastical quarter of San Remo. There stands + the Palace Borea—a truly princely pile, built in the last + Renaissance style of splendour, with sea-nymphs and dolphins, and + satyric heads, half lips, half leafage, round about its doors and + windows. Once it formed the dwelling of a feudal family, but now + it is a roomy anthill of a hundred houses, shops, and offices, + the Boreas of to-day retaining but a portion of one flat, and + making profit of the rest. There, too, are the barracks and the + syndic's hall; the Jesuits' school, crowded with boys and girls; + the shops for clothes, confectionery, and trinkets; the piazza, + with its fountain and tasselled planes, and flowery + chestnut-trees, a mass of greenery. Under these trees the idlers + lounge, boys play at leap-frog, men at bowls. Women in San Remo + work all day, but men and boys play for the most part at bowls or + toss-penny or leap-frog or morra. San Siro, the cathedral, stands + at one end of the square. Do not go inside; it has a sickly smell + of immemorial incense and garlic, undefinable and horrible. Far + better looks San Siro from the parapet above the torrent. There + you see its irregular half-Gothic outline across a tangle of + lemon-trees and olives. The stream rushes by through high walls, + covered with creepers, spanned by ferny bridges, feathered by one + or two old tufty palms. And over all rises the ancient turret of + San Siro, like a Spanish giralda, a minaret of pinnacles and + pyramids and dome bubbles, with windows showing heavy bells, old + clocks, and sundials painted on the walls, and a cupola of green + and yellow tiles like serpent-scales, to crown the whole. The sea + lies beyond, and the house-roofs break it with grey horizontal + lines. Then there are convents, legions of them, large white + edifices, Jesuitical apparently for the most part, clanging + importunate bells, leaning rose-blossoms and cypress-boughs over + their jealous walls. + </p> + <p> + Lastly, there is the port—the mole running out into the + sea, the quay planted with plane-trees, and the + fishing-boats—by which San Remo is connected with the naval + glory of the past—with the Riviera that gave birth to + Columbus—with the Liguria that the Dorias ruled—with + the great name of Genoa. The port is empty enough now; but from + the pier you look back on San Remo and its circling hills, a + jewelled town set in illimitable olive greyness. The quay seems + also to be the cattle-market. There the small buff cows of North + Italy repose after their long voyage or march, kneeling on the + sandy ground or rubbing their sides against the wooden cross awry + with age and shorn of all its symbols. Lambs frisk among the + boats; impudent kids nibble the drooping ears of patient mules. + Hinds in white jackets and knee-breeches made of skins, lead + shaggy rams and fiercely bearded goats, ready to butt at every + barking dog, and always seeking opportunities of flight. Farmers + and parish priests in black petticoats feel the cattle and + dispute about the price, or whet their bargains with a draught of + wine. Meanwhile the nets are brought on shore glittering with the + fry of sardines, which are cooked like whitebait, with + cuttlefish—amorphous objects stretching shiny feelers on + the hot dry sand—and prickly purple eggs of the sea-urchin. + Women go about their labour through the throng, some carrying + stones upon their heads, or unloading boats and bearing planks of + wood in single file, two marching side by side beneath one load + of lime, others scarcely visible under a stack of oats, another + with her baby in its cradle fast asleep. + </p> + <p> + San Remo has an elder brother among the hills, which is called + San Romolo, after one of the old bishops of Genoa. Who San Remo + was is buried in remote antiquity; but his town has prospered, + while of San Romolo nothing remains but a ruined hill-convent + among pine-trees. The old convent is worth visiting. Its road + carries you into the heart of the sierra which surrounds San + Remo, a hill-country something like the Jura, undulating and + green to the very top with maritime pines and pinasters. Riding + up, you hear all manner of Alpine sounds; brawling streams, + tinkling cowbells, and herdsmen calling to each other on the + slopes. Beneath you lies San Remo, scarcely visible; and over it + the great sea rises ever so far into the sky, until the white + sails hang in air, and cloud and sea-line melt into each other + indistinguishably. Spanish chestnuts surround the monastery with + bright blue gentians, hepaticas, forget-me-nots, and primroses + about their roots. The house itself is perched on a knoll with + ample prospect to the sea and to the mountains, very near to + heaven, within a theatre of noble contemplations and + soul-stirring thoughts. If Mentone spoke to me of the poetry of + Greek pastoral life, this convent speaks of mediæval + monasticism—of solitude with God, above, beneath, and all + around, of silence and repose from agitating cares, of continuity + in prayer, and changelessness of daily life. Some precepts of the + <i>Imitatio</i> came into my mind: 'Be never wholly idle; read or + write, pray or meditate, or work with diligence for the common + needs.' 'Praiseworthy is it for the religious man to go abroad + but seldom, and to seem to shun, and keep his eyes from men.' + 'Sweet is the cell when it is often sought, but if we gad about, + it wearies us by its seclusion.' Then I thought of the monks so + living in this solitude; their cell windows looking across the + valley to the sea, through summer and winter, under sun and + stars. Then would they read or write, what long melodious hours! + or would they pray, what stations on the pine-clad hills! or + would they toil, what terraces to build and plant with corn, what + flowers to tend, what cows to milk and pasture, what wood to cut, + what fir-cones to gather for the winter fire! or should they + yearn for silence, silence from their comrades of the solitude, + what whispering galleries of God, where never human voice breaks + loudly, but winds and streams and lonely birds disturb the awful + stillness! In such a hermitage as this, only more wild, lived S. + Francis of Assisi, among the Apennines.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id= + "FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class= + "fnanchor">[7]</a> It was there that he learned the tongues of + beasts and birds, and preached them sermons. Stretched for hours + motionless on the bare rocks, coloured like them and rough like + them in his brown peasant's serge, he prayed and meditated, saw + the vision of Christ crucified, and planned his order to + regenerate a vicious age. So still he lay, so long, so like a + stone, so gentle were his eyes, so kind and low his voice, that + the mice nibbled breadcrumbs from his wallet, lizards ran over + him, and larks sang to him in the air. There, too, in those long, + solitary vigils, the Spirit of God came upon him, and the spirit + of Nature was even as God's Spirit, and he sang: 'Laudato sia Dio + mio Signore, con tutte le creature, specialmente messer lo frate + sole; per suor luna, e per le stelle; per frate vento e per + l'aire, e nuvolo, e sereno e ogni tempo.' Half the value of this + hymn would be lost were we to forget how it was written, in what + solitudes and mountains far from men, or to ticket it with some + abstract word like Pantheism. Pantheism it is not; but an + acknowledgment of that brotherhood, beneath the love of God, by + which the sun and moon and stars, and wind and air and cloud, and + clearness and all weather, and all creatures, are bound together + with the soul of man. + </p> + <p> + Few, of course, were like S. Francis. Probably no monk of San + Romolo was inspired with his enthusiasm for humanity, or had his + revelation of the Divine Spirit inherent in the world. Still + fewer can have felt the æsthetic charm of Nature but most + vaguely. It was as much as they could boast, if they kept + steadily to the rule of their order, and attended to the concerns + each of his own soul. A terrible selfishness, if rightly + considered; but one which accorded with the delusion that this + world is a cave of care, the other world a place of torture or + undying bliss, death the prime object of our meditation, and + lifelong abandonment of our fellow-men the highest mode of + existence. Why, then, should monks, so persuaded of the riddle of + the earth, have placed themselves in scenes so beautiful? Why + rose the Camaldolis and Chartreuses over Europe? white convents + on the brows of lofty hills, among the rustling boughs of + Vallombrosas, in the grassy meadows of Engelbergs,—always + the eyries of Nature's lovers, men smitten with the loveliness of + earth? There is surely some meaning in these poetic stations. + </p> + <p> + Here is a sentence of the <i>Imitatio</i> which throws some light + upon the hymn of S. Francis and the sites of Benedictine + monasteries, by explaining the value of natural beauty for monks + who spent their life in studying death: 'If thy heart were right, + then would every creature be to thee a mirror of life, and a book + of holy doctrine. There is no creature so small and vile that + does not show forth the goodness of God.' With this sentence + bound about their foreheads, walked Fra Angelico and S. Francis. + To men like them the mountain valleys and the skies, and all that + they contained, were full of deep significance. Though they + reasoned '<i>de conditione humanæ miseriæ</i>,' and '<i>de + contemptu mundi</i>,' yet the whole world was a pageant of God's + glory, a testimony to His goodness. Their chastened senses, pure + hearts, and simple wills were as wings by which they soared above + the things of earth, and sent the music of their souls aloft with + every other creature in the symphony of praise. To them, as to + Blake, the sun was no mere blazing disc or ball, but 'an + innumerable company of the heavenly host singing, "Holy, holy, + holy is the Lord God Almighty."' To them the winds were brothers, + and the streams were sisters—brethren in common dependence + upon God their Father, brethren in common consecration to His + service, brethren by blood, brethren by vows of holiness. + Unquestioning faith rendered this world no puzzle; they + overlooked the things of sense because the spiritual things were + ever present, and as clear as day. Yet did they not forget that + spiritual things are symbolised by things of sense; and so the + smallest herb of grass was vital to their tranquil + contemplations. We who have lost sight of the invisible world, + who set our affections more on things of earth, fancy that + because these monks despised the world, and did not write about + its landscapes, therefore they were dead to its beauty. This is + mere vanity: the mountains, stars, seas, fields, and living + things were only swallowed up in the one thought of God, and made + subordinate to the awfulness of human destinies. We to whom hills + are hills, and seas are seas, and stars are ponderable + quantities, speak, write, and reason of them as of objects + interesting in themselves. The monks were less ostensibly + concerned about such things, because they only found in them the + vestibules and symbols of a hidden mystery. + </p> + <p> + The contrast between the Greek and mediæval modes of regarding + Nature is not a little remarkable. Both Greeks and monks, judged + by nineteenth-century standards, were unobservant of natural + beauties. They make but brief and general remarks upon landscapes + and the like. The + ποντίων τε + κυμάτων + άνήριθμον + γέλασμα is very + rare. But the Greeks stopped at the threshold of Nature; the + forces they found there, the gods, were inherent in Nature, and + distinct. They did not, like the monks, place one spiritual + power, omnipotent and omnipresent, above all, and see in Nature + lessons of Divine government. We ourselves having somewhat + overstrained the latter point of view, are now apt to return + vaguely to Greek fancies. Perhaps, too, we talk so much about + scenery because it is scenery to us, and the life has gone out of + it. + </p> + <p> + I cannot leave the Cornice without one word about a place which + lies between Mentone and San Remo. Bordighera has a beauty which + is quite distinct from both. Palms are its chief characteristics. + They lean against the garden walls, and feather the wells outside + the town, where women come with brazen pitchers to draw water. In + some of the marshy tangles of the plain, they spring from a thick + undergrowth of spiky leaves, and rear their tall aërial arms + against the deep blue background of the sea or darker purple of + the distant hills. White pigeons fly about among their branches, + and the air is loud with cooings and with rustlings, and the + hoarser croaking of innumerable frogs. Then, in the olive-groves + that stretch along the level shore, are labyrinths of rare and + curious plants, painted tulips and white periwinkles, flinging + their light of blossoms and dark glossy leaves down the swift + channels of the brawling streams. On each side of the rivulets + they grow, like sister cataracts of flowers instead of spray. At + night fresh stars come out along the coast, beneath the stars of + heaven; for you can see the lamps of Ventimiglia and Mentone and + Monaco, and, far away, the lighthouses upon the promontories of + Antibes and the Estrelles. At dawn, a vision of Corsica grows + from the sea. The island lies eighty miles away, but one can + trace the dark strip of irregular peaks glowing amid the gold and + purple of the rising sun. If the air is clear and bright, the + snows and overvaulting clouds which crown its mountains shine all + day, and glitter like an apparition in the bright blue sky. + 'Phantom fair,' half raised above the sea, it stands, as unreal + and transparent as the moon when seen in April sunlight, yet not + to be confounded with the shape of any cloud. If Mentone speaks + of Greek legends, and San Romolo restores the monastic past, we + feel ourselves at Bordighera transported to the East; and lying + under its tall palms can fancy ourselves at Tyre or Daphne, or in + the gardens of a Moslem prince. + </p> + <div class="blockquot"> + <p> + Note.—Dec. 1873. My old impressions are renewed and + confirmed by a third visit, after seven years, to this coast. + For purely idyllic loveliness, the Cornice is surpassed by + nothing in the South. A very few spots in Sicily, the road + between Castellammare and Amalfi, and the island of Corfu, are + its only rivals in this style of scenery. From Cannes to Sestri + is one continuous line of exquisitely modulated landscape + beauty, which can only be fully appreciated by travellers in + carriage or on foot. + </p> + </div> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="AJACCIO" id="AJACCIO"></a><i>AJACCIO</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + It generally happens that visitors to Ajaccio pass over from the + Cornice coast, leaving Nice at night, and waking about sunrise to + find themselves beneath the frowning mountains of Corsica. The + difference between the scenery of the island and the shores which + they have left is very striking. Instead of the rocky mountains + of the Cornice, intolerably dry and barren at their summits, but + covered at their base with villages and ancient towns and + olive-fields, Corsica presents a scene of solitary and peculiar + grandeur. The highest mountain-tops are covered with snow, and + beneath the snow-level to the sea they are as green as Irish or + as English hills, but nearly uninhabited and uncultivated. + Valleys of almost Alpine verdure are succeeded by tracts of + chestnut wood and scattered pines, or deep and flowery + brushwood—the 'maquis' of Corsica, which yields shelter to + its traditional outlaws and bandits. Yet upon these hillsides + there are hardly any signs of life; the whole country seems + abandoned to primeval wildness and the majesty of desolation. + Nothing can possibly be more unlike the smiling Riviera, every + square mile of which is cultivated like a garden, and every + valley and bay dotted over with white villages. After steaming + for a few hours along this savage coast, the rocks which guard + the entrance to the bay of Ajaccio, murderous-looking teeth and + needles ominously christened Sanguinari, are passed, and we enter + the splendid land-locked harbour, on the northern shore of which + Ajaccio is built. About three centuries ago the town, which used + to occupy the extreme or eastern end of the bay, was removed to a + more healthy point upon the northern coast, so that Ajaccio is + quite a modern city. Visitors who expect to find in it the + picturesqueness of Genoa or San Remo, or even of Mentone, will be + sadly disappointed. It is simply a healthy, well-appointed town + of recent date, the chief merits of which are, that it has wide + streets, and is free, externally at least, from the filth and + rubbish of most southern seaports. + </p> + <p> + But if Ajaccio itself is not picturesque, the scenery which it + commands, and in the heart of which it lies, is of the most + magnificent. The bay of Ajaccio resembles a vast Italian + lake—a Lago Maggiore, with greater space between the + mountains and the shore. From the snow-peaks of the interior, + huge granite crystals clothed in white, to the southern extremity + of the bay, peak succeeds peak and ridge rises behind ridge in a + line of wonderful variety and beauty. The atmospheric changes of + light and shadow, cloud and colour, on this upland country, are + as subtle and as various as those which lend their beauty to the + scenery of the lakes, while the sea below is blue and rarely + troubled. One could never get tired with looking at this view. + Morning and evening add new charms to its sublimity and beauty. + In the early morning Monte d'Oro sparkles like a Monte Rosa with + its fresh snow, and the whole inferior range puts on the crystal + blueness of dawn among the Alps. In the evening, violet and + purple tints and the golden glow of Italian sunset lend a + different lustre to the fairyland. In fact, the beauties of + Switzerland and Italy are curiously blended in this landscape. + </p> + <p> + In soil and vegetation the country round Ajaccio differs much + from the Cornice. There are very few olive-trees, nor is the + cultivated ground backed up so immediately by stony mountains; + but between the seashore and the hills there is plenty of space + for pasture-land, and orchards of apricot and peach-trees, and + orange gardens. This undulating champaign, green with meadows and + watered with clear streams, is very refreshing to the eyes of + Northern people, who may have wearied of the bareness and + greyness of Nice or Mentone. It is traversed by excellent roads, + recently constructed on a plan of the French Government, which + intersect the country in all directions, and offer an infinite + variety of rides or drives to visitors. The broken granite of + which these roads are made is very pleasant for riding over. Most + of the hills through which they strike, after starting from + Ajaccio, are clothed with a thick brushwood of box, ilex, + lentisk, arbutus, and laurustinus, which stretches down + irregularly into vineyards, olive-gardens, and meadows. It is, + indeed, the native growth of the island; for wherever a piece of + ground is left untilled, the macchi grow up, and the scent of + their multitudinous aromatic blossoms is so strong that it may be + smelt miles out at sea. Napoleon, at S. Helena, referred to this + fragrance when he said that he should know Corsica blindfold by + the smell of its soil. Occasional woods of holm oak make darker + patches on the landscape, and a few pines fringe the side of + enclosure walls or towers. The prickly pear runs riot in and out + among the hedges and upon the walls, diversifying the colours of + the landscape with its strange grey-green masses and unwieldy + fans. In spring, when peach and almond trees are in blossom, and + when the roadside is starred with asphodels, this country is most + beautiful in its gladness. The macchi blaze with cistus flowers + of red and silver. Golden broom mixes with the dark purple of the + great French lavender, and over the whole mass of blossom wave + plumes of Mediterranean heath and sweet-scented yellow coronilla. + Under the stems of the ilex peep cyclamens, pink and sweet; the + hedgerows are a tangle of vetches, convolvuluses, lupines, + orchises, and alliums, with here and there a purple iris. It + would be difficult to describe all the rare and lovely plants + which are found here in a profusion that surpasses even the + flower-gardens of the Cornice, and reminds one of the most + favoured Alpine valleys in their early spring. + </p> + <p> + Since the French occupied Corsica they have done much for the + island by improving its harbours and making good roads, and + endeavouring to mitigate the ferocity of the people. But they + have many things to contend against, and Corsica is still behind + the other provinces of France. The people are idle, haughty, + umbrageous, fiery, quarrelsome, fond of gipsy life, and retentive + through generations of old feuds and prejudices to an almost + inconceivable extent. Then the nature of the country itself + offers serious obstacles to its proper colonisation and + cultivation. The savage state of the island and its internal + feuds have disposed the Corsicans to quit the seaboard for their + mountain villages and fortresses, so that the great plains at the + foot of the hills are unwholesome for want of tillage and + drainage. Again, the mountains themselves have in many parts been + stripped of their forests, and converted into mere wildernesses + of macchi stretching up and down their slopes for miles and miles + of useless desolation. Another impediment to proper cultivation + is found in the old habit of what is called free pasturage. The + highland shepherds are allowed by the national custom to drive + down their flocks and herds to the lowlands during the winter, so + that fences are broken, young crops are browsed over and trampled + down, and agriculture becomes a mere impossibility. The last and + chief difficulty against which the French have had to contend, + and up to this time with apparent success, is brigandage. The + Corsican system of brigandage is so very different from that of + the Italians, Sicilians, and Greeks, that a word may be said + about its peculiar character. In the first place, it has nothing + at all to do with robbery and thieving. The Corsican bandit took + to a free life among the macchi, not for the sake of supporting + himself by lawless depredation, but because he had put himself + under a legal and social ban by murdering some one in obedience + to the strict code of honour of his country. His victim may have + been the hereditary foe of his house for generations, or else the + newly made enemy of yesterday. But in either case, if he had + killed him fairly, after a due notification of his intention to + do so, he was held to have fulfilled a duty rather than to have + committed a crime. He then betook himself to the dense tangles of + evergreens which I have described, where he lived upon the + charity of countryfolk and shepherds. In the eyes of those simple + people it was a sacred duty to relieve the necessities of the + outlaws, and to guard them from the bloodhounds of justice. There + was scarcely a respectable family in Corsica who had not one or + more of its members thus <i>alla campagna</i>, as it was + euphemistically styled. The Corsicans themselves have attributed + this miserable state of things to two principal causes. The first + of these was the ancient bad government of the island: under its + Genoese rulers no justice was administered, and private vengeance + for homicide or insult became a necessary consequence among the + haughty and warlike families of the mountain villages. Secondly, + the Corsicans have been from time immemorial accustomed to wear + arms in everyday life. They used to sit at their house doors and + pace the streets with musket, pistol, dagger, and cartouch-box on + their persons; and on the most trivial occasion of merriment or + enthusiasm they would discharge their firearms. This habit gave a + bloody termination to many quarrels, which might have ended more + peaceably had the parties been unarmed; and so the seeds of + <i>vendetta</i> were constantly being sown. Statistics published + by the French Government present a hideous picture of the state + of bloodshed in Corsica even during this century. In one period + of thirty years (between 1821 and 1850) there were 4319 murders + in the island. Almost every man was watching for his neighbour's + life, or seeking how to save his own; and agriculture and + commerce were neglected for this grisly game of hide-and-seek. In + 1853 the French began to take strong measures, and, under the + Prefect Thuillier, they hunted the bandits from the macchi, + killing between 200 and 300 of them. At the same time an edict + was promulgated against bearing arms. It is forbidden to sell the + old Corsican stiletto in the shops, and no one may carry a gun, + even for sporting purposes, unless he obtains a special licence. + These licences, moreover, are only granted for short and + precisely measured periods. + </p> + <p> + In order to appreciate the stern and gloomy character of the + Corsicans, it is necessary to leave the smiling gardens of + Ajaccio, and to visit some of the more distant mountain + villages—Vico, Cavro, Bastelica, or Bocognano, any of which + may easily be reached from the capital. Immediately after + quitting the seaboard, we enter a country austere in its + simplicity, solemn without relief, yet dignified by its majesty + and by the sense of freedom it inspires. As we approach the + mountains, the macchi become taller, feathering man-high above + the road, and stretching far away upon the hills. Gigantic masses + of granite, shaped like buttresses and bastions, seem to guard + the approaches to these hills; while, looking backward over the + green plain, the sea lies smiling in a haze of blue among the + rocky horns and misty headlands of the coast. There is a + stateliness about the abrupt inclination of these granite slopes, + rising from their frowning portals by sharp <i>arêtes</i> to the + snows piled on their summits, which contrasts in a strange way + with the softness and beauty of the mingling sea and plain + beneath. In no landscape are more various qualities combined; in + none are they so harmonised as to produce so strong a sense of + majestic freedom and severe power. Suppose that we are on the + road to Corte, and have now reached Bocognano, the first + considerable village since we left Ajaccio. Bocognano might be + chosen as typical of Corsican hill-villages, with its narrow + street, and tall tower-like houses of five or six stories high, + faced with rough granite, and pierced with the smallest windows + and very narrow doorways. These buildings have a mournful and + desolate appearance. There is none of the grandeur of antiquity + about them; no sculptured arms or castellated turrets, or + balconies or spacious staircases, such as are common in the + poorest towns of Italy. The signs of warlike occupation which + they offer, and their sinister aspect of vigilance, are + thoroughly prosaic. They seem to suggest a state of society in + which feud and violence were systematised into routine. There is + no relief to the savage austerity of their forbidding aspect; no + signs of wealth or household comfort; no trace of art, no + liveliness and gracefulness of architecture. Perched upon their + coigns of vantage, these villages seem always menacing, as if + Saracen pirates, or Genoese marauders, or bandits bent on + vengeance, were still for ever on the watch. Forests of immensely + old chestnut-trees surround Bocognano on every side, so that you + step from the village streets into the shade of woods that seem + to have remained untouched for centuries. The country-people + support themselves almost entirely upon the fruit of these + chestnuts; and there is a large department of Corsica called + Castagniccia, from the prevalence of these trees and the + sustenance which the inhabitants derive from them. Close by the + village brawls a torrent, such as one may see in the Monte Rosa + valleys or the Apennines, but very rarely in Switzerland. It is + of a pure green colour, absolutely like Indian jade, foaming + round the granite boulders, and gliding over smooth slabs of + polished stone, and eddying into still, deep pools fringed with + fern. Monte d'Oro, one of the largest mountains of Corsica, soars + above, and from his snows the purest water, undefiled by glacier + mud or the <i>débris</i> of avalanches, melts away. Following the + stream, we rise through the macchi and the chestnut woods, which + grow more sparely by degrees, until we reach the zone of beeches. + Here the scene seems suddenly transferred to the Pyrenees; for + the road is carried along abrupt slopes, thickly set with + gigantic beech-trees, overgrown with pink and silver lichens. In + the early spring their last year's leaves are still crisp with + hoar-frost; one morning's journey has brought us from the summer + of Ajaccio to winter on these heights, where no flowers are + visible but the pale hellebore and tiny lilac crocuses. + Snow-drifts stretch by the roadside, and one by one the pioneers + of the vast pine-woods of the interior appear. A great portion of + the pine-forest (<i>Pinus larix</i>, or Corsican pine, not larch) + between Bocognano and Corte had recently been burned by accident + when we passed by. Nothing could be more forlorn than the black + leafless stems and branches emerging from the snow. Some of these + trees were mast-high, and some mere saplings. Corte itself is + built among the mountain fastnesses of the interior. The snows + and granite cliffs of Monte Rotondo overhang it to the + north-west, while two fair valleys lead downward from its eyrie + to the eastern coast. The rock on which it stands rises to a + sharp point, sloping southward, and commanding the valleys of the + Golo and the Tavignano. Remembering that Corte was the old + capital of Corsica, and the centre of General Paoli's government, + we are led to compare the town with Innsprück, Meran, or + Grenoble. In point of scenery and situation it is hardly second + to any of these mountain-girdled cities; but its poverty and + bareness are scarcely less striking than those of Bocognano. + </p> + <p> + The whole Corsican character, with its stern love of justice, its + furious revengefulness and wild passion for freedom, seems to be + illustrated by the peculiar elements of grandeur and desolation + in this landscape. When we traverse the forest of Vico or the + rocky pasture-lands of Niolo, the history of the Corsican + national heroes, Giudice della Rocca and Sampiero, becomes + intelligible, nor do we fail to understand some of the mysterious + attraction which led the more daring spirits of the island to + prefer a free life among the macchi and pine-woods to placid + lawful occupations in farms and villages. The lives of the two + men whom I have mentioned are so prominent in Corsican history, + and are so often still upon the lips of the common people, that + it may be well to sketch their outlines in the foreground of the + Salvator Rosa landscape just described. Giudice was the governor + of Corsica, as lieutenant for the Pisans, at the end of the + thirteenth century. At that time the island belonged to the + republic of Pisa, but the Genoese were encroaching on them by + land and sea, and the whole life of their brave champion was + spent in a desperate struggle with the invaders, until at last he + died, old, blind, and in prison, at the command of his savage + foes. Giudice was the title which the Pisans usually conferred + upon their governor, and Della Rocca deserved it by right of his + own inexorable love of justice. Indeed, justice seems to have + been with him a passion, swallowing up all other feelings of his + nature. All the stories which are told of him turn upon this + point in his character; and though they may not be strictly true, + they illustrate the stern virtues for which he was celebrated + among the Corsicans, and show what kind of men this harsh and + gloomy nation loved to celebrate as heroes. This is not the place + either to criticise these legends or to recount them at full + length. The most famous and the most characteristic may, however, + be briefly told. On one occasion, after a victory over the + Genoese, he sent a message that the captives in his hands should + be released if their wives and sisters came to sue for them. The + Genoese ladies embarked, and arrived in Corsica, and to Giudice's + nephew was intrusted the duty of fulfilling his uncle's promise. + In the course of executing his commission, the youth was so + smitten with the beauty of one of the women that he dishonoured + her. Thereupon Giudice had him at once put to death. Another + story shows the Spartan justice of this hero in a less savage + light. He was passing by a cowherd's cottage, when he heard some + young calves bleating. On inquiring what distressed them, he was + told that the calves had not enough milk to drink after the farm + people had been served. Then Giudice made it a law that the + calves throughout the land should take their fill before the cows + were milked. + </p> + <p> + Sampiero belongs to a later period of Corsican history. After a + long course of misgovernment the Genoese rule had become + unbearable. There was no pretence of administering justice, and + private vengeance had full sway in the island. The sufferings of + the nation were so great that the time had come for a new judge + or saviour to rise among them. Sampiero was the son of obscure + parents who lived at Bastelica. But his abilities very soon + declared themselves, and made a way for him in the world. He + spent his youth in the armies of the Medici and of the French + Francis, gaining great renown as a brave soldier. Bayard became + his friend, and Francis made him captain of his Corsican bands. + But Sampiero did not forget the wrongs of his native land while + thus on foreign service. He resolved, if possible, to undermine + the power of Genoa, and spent the whole of his manhood and old + age in one long struggle with their great captain, Stephen Doria. + Of his stern patriotism and Roman severity of virtue the + following story is a terrible illustration. Sampiero, though a + man of mean birth, had married an heiress of the noble Corsican + house of the Ornani. His wife, Vannina, was a woman of timid and + flexible nature, who, though devoted to her husband, fell into + the snares of his enemies. During his absence on an embassy to + Algiers the Genoese induced her to leave her home at Marseilles + and to seek refuge in their city, persuading her that this step + would secure the safety of her child. She was starting on her + journey when a friend of Sampiero arrested her, and brought her + back to Aix, in Provence. Sampiero, when he heard of these + events, hurried to France, and was received by a relative of his, + who hinted that he had known of Vannina's projected flight. 'E tu + hai taciuto?' was Sampiero's only answer, accompanied by a stroke + of his poignard that killed the lukewarm cousin. Sampiero now + brought his wife from Aix to Marseilles, preserving the most + absolute silence on the way, and there, on entering his house, he + killed her with his own hand. It is said that he loved Vannina + passionately; and when she was dead, he caused her to be buried + with magnificence in the church of S. Francis. Like Giudice, + Sampiero fell at last a prey to treachery. The murder of Vannina + had made the Ornani his deadly foes. In order to avenge her + blood, they played into the hands of the Genoese, and laid a plot + by which the noblest of the Corsicans was brought to death. + First, they gained over to their scheme a monk of Bastelica, + called Ambrogio, and Sampiero's own squire and shield-bearer, + Vittolo. By means of these men, in whom he trusted, he was drawn + defenceless and unattended into a deeply wooded ravine near + Cavro, not very far from his birthplace, where the Ornani and + their Genoese troops surrounded him. Sampiero fired his pistols + in vain, for Vittolo had loaded them with the shot downwards. + Then he drew his sword, and began to lay about him, when the same + Vittolo, the Judas, stabbed him from behind, and the old lion + fell dead by his friend's hand. Sampiero was sixty-nine when he + died, in the year 1567. It is satisfactory to know that the + Corsicans have called traitors and foes to their country Vittoli + for ever. These two examples of Corsican patriots are enough; we + need not add to theirs the history of Paoli—a milder and + more humane, but scarcely less heroic leader. Paoli, however, in + the hour of Corsica's extremest peril, retired to England, and + died in philosophic exile. Neither Giudice nor Sampiero would + have acted thus. The more forlorn the hope, the more they + struggled. + </p> + <p> + Among the old Corsican customs which are fast dying out, but + which still linger in the remote valleys of Niolo and Vico, is + the <i>vócero</i>, or funeral chant, improvised by women at + funerals over the bodies of the dead. Nothing illustrates the + ferocious temper and savage passions of the race better than + these <i>vóceri</i>, many of which have been written down and + preserved. Most of them are songs of vengeance and imprecation, + mingled with hyperbolical laments and utterances of extravagant + grief, poured forth by wives and sisters at the side of murdered + husbands and brothers. The women who sing them seem to have lost + all milk of human kindness, and to have exchanged the virtues of + their sex for Spartan fortitude and the rage of furies. While we + read their turbid lines we are carried in imagination to one of + the cheerless houses of Bastelica or Bocognano, overshadowed by + its mournful chestnut-tree, on which the blood of the murdered + man is yet red. The <i>gridata</i>, or wake, is assembled in a + dark room. On the wooden board, called <i>tola</i>, the corpse + lies stretched; and round it are women, veiled in the blue-black + mantle of Corsican costume, moaning and rocking themselves upon + their chairs. The <i>pasto</i> or <i>conforto</i>, food supplied + for mourners, stands upon a side table, and round the room are + men with savage eyes and bristling beards, armed to the teeth, + keen for vengeance. The dead man's musket and pocket-pistol lie + beside him, and his bloody shirt is hung up at his head. + Suddenly, the silence, hitherto only disturbed by suppressed + groans and muttered curses, is broken by a sharp cry. A woman + rises: it is the sister of the dead man; she seizes his shirt, + and holding it aloft with Mænad gestures and frantic screams, + gives rhythmic utterance to her grief and rage. 'I was spinning, + when I heard a great noise: it was a gunshot, which went into my + heart, and seemed a voice that cried, "Run, thy brother is + dying." I ran into the room above; I took the blow into my + breast; I said, "Now he is dead, there is nothing to give me + comfort. Who will undertake thy vengeance? When I show thy shirt, + who will vow to let his beard grow till the murderer is slain? + Who is there left to do it? A mother near her death? A sister? Of + all our race there is only left a woman, without kin, poor, + orphan, and a girl. Yet, O my brother! never fear. For thy + vengeance thy sister is enough! + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + '"Ma per fà la to bindetta, + </p> + <p> + Sta siguru, basta anch ella! + </p> + </div> + <p> + Give me the pistol; I will shoulder the gun; I will away to the + hills. My brother, heart of thy sister, thou shalt be avenged!"' + A <i>vócero</i> declaimed upon the bier of Giammatteo and + Pasquale, two cousins, by the sister of the former, is still + fiercer and more energetic in its malediction. This Erinnys of + revenge prays Christ and all the saints to extirpate the + murderer's whole race, to shrivel it up till it passes from the + earth. Then, with a sudden and vehement transition to the pathos + of her own sorrow, she exclaims:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + 'Halla mai bista nissunu + </p> + <p> + Tumbà l'omi pe li canti?' + </p> + </div> + <p> + It appears from these words that Giammatteo's enemies had killed + him because they were jealous of his skill in singing. Shortly + after, she curses the curate of the village, a kinsman of the + murderer, for refusing to toll the funeral bells; and at last, + all other threads of rage and sorrow being twined and knotted + into one, she gives loose to her raging thirst for blood: 'If + only I had a son, to train like a sleuth-hound, that he might + track the murderer! Oh, if I had a son! Oh, if I had a lad!' Her + words seem to choke her, and she swoons, and remains for a short + time insensible. When the Bacchante of revenge awakes, it is with + milder feelings in her heart: 'O brother mine, Matteo! art thou + sleeping? Here I will rest with thee and weep till daybreak.' It + is rare to find in literature so crude and intense an expression + of fiery hatred as these untranslatable <i>vóceri</i> present. + The emotion is so simple and so strong that it becomes sublime by + mere force, and affects us with a strange pathos when contrasted + with the tender affection conveyed in such terms of endearment as + 'my dove,' 'my flower,' 'my pheasant,' 'my bright painted + orange,' addressed to the dead. In the <i>vóceri</i> it often + happens that there are several interlocutors: one friend + questions and another answers; or a kinswoman of the murderer + attempts to justify the deed, and is overwhelmed with deadly + imprecations. Passionate appeals are made to the corpse: 'Arise! + Do you not hear the women cry? Stand up. Show your wounds, and + let the fountains of your blood flow! Alas! he is dead; he + sleeps; he cannot hear!' Then they turn again to tears and + curses, feeling that no help or comfort can come from the + clay-cold form. The intensity of grief finds strange language for + its utterance. A girl, mourning over her father, cries:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + 'Mi l'hannu crucifissatu + </p> + <p> + Cume Ghiesu Cristu in croce.' + </p> + </div> + <p> + Once only, in Viale's collection, does any friend of the dead + remember mercy. It is an old woman, who points to the crucifix + above the bier. + </p> + <p> + But all the <i>vóceri</i> are not so murderous. Several are + composed for girls who died unwedded and before their time, by + their mothers or companions. The language of these laments is far + more tender and ornate. They praise the gentle virtues and beauty + of the girl, her piety and helpful household ways. The most + affecting of these dirges is that which celebrates the death of + Romana, daughter of Dariola Danesi. Here is a pretty picture of + the girl: 'Among the best and fairest maidens you were like a + rose among flowers, like the moon among stars; so far more lovely + were you than the loveliest. The youths in your presence were + like lighted torches, but full of reverence; you were courteous + to all, but with none familiar. In church they gazed at you, but + you looked at none of them; and after mass you said, "Mother, let + us go." Oh! who will console me for your loss? Why did the Lord + so much desire you? But now you rest in heaven, all joy and + smiles; for the world was not worthy of so fair a face. Oh, how + far more beautiful will Paradise be now!' Then follows a piteous + picture of the old bereaved mother, to whom a year will seem a + thousand years, who will wander among relatives without + affection, neighbours without love; and who, when sickness comes, + will have no one to give her a drop of water, or to wipe the + sweat from her brow, or to hold her hand in death. Yet all that + is left for her is to wait and pray for the end, that she may + join again her darling. + </p> + <p> + But it is time to return to Ajaccio itself. At present the + attractions and ornaments of the town consist of a good public + library, Cardinal Fesch's large but indifferent collection of + pictures, two monuments erected to Napoleon, and Napoleon's + house. It will always be the chief pride of Ajaccio that she gave + birth to the great emperor. Close to the harbour, in a public + square by the sea-beach, stands an equestrian statue of the + conqueror, surrounded by his four brothers on foot. They are all + attired in Roman fashion, and are turned seaward, to the west, as + if to symbolise the emigration of this family to subdue Europe. + There is something ludicrous and forlorn in the stiffness of the + group—something even pathetic, when we think how Napoleon + gazed seaward from another island, no longer on horseback, no + longer laurel-crowned, an unthroned, unseated conqueror, on S. + Helena. His father's house stands close by. An old Italian + waiting-woman, who had been long in the service of the Murats, + keeps it and shows it. She has the manners of a lady, and can + tell many stories of the various members of the Buonaparte + family. Those who fancy that Napoleon was born in a mean dwelling + of poor parents will be surprised to find so much space and + elegance in these apartments. Of course his family was not rich + by comparison with the riches of French or English nobles. But + for Corsicans they were well-to-do, and their house has an air of + antique dignity. The chairs of the entrance-saloon have been + literally stripped of their coverings by enthusiastic visitors; + the horse-hair stuffing underneath protrudes itself with a sort + of comic pride, as if protesting that it came to be so tattered + in an honourable service. Some of the furniture seems new; but + many old presses, inlaid with marbles, agates, and lapis-lazuli, + such as Italian families preserve for generations, have an air of + respectable antiquity about them. Nor is there any doubt that the + young Napoleon led his minuets beneath the stiff girandoles of + the formal dancing-room. There, too, in a dark back chamber, is + the bed in which he was born. At its foot is a photograph of the + Prince Imperial sent by the Empress Eugénie, who, when she + visited the room, wept much <i>pianse molto</i> (to use the old + lady's phrase)—at seeing the place where such lofty + destinies began. On the wall of the same room is a portrait of + Napoleon himself as the young general of the republic—with + the citizen's unkempt hair, the fierce fire of the Revolution in + his eyes, a frown upon his forehead, lips compressed, and + quivering nostrils; also one of his mother, the pastille of a + handsome woman, with Napoleonic eyes and brows and nose, but with + a vacant simpering mouth. Perhaps the provincial artist knew not + how to seize the expression of this feature, the most difficult + to draw. For we cannot fancy that Letizia had lips without the + firmness or the fulness of a majestic nature. + </p> + <p> + The whole first story of this house belonged to the Buonaparte + family. The windows look out partly on a little court and partly + on narrow streets. It was, no doubt, the memory of this home that + made Napoleon, when emperor, design schemes for the good of + Corsica—schemes that might have brought him more honour + than many conquests, but which he had no time or leisure to carry + out. On S. Helena his mind often reverted to them, and he would + speak of the gummy odours of the macchi wafted from the hillsides + to the seashore. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="MONTE" id="MONTE"></a><i>MONTE GENEROSO</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + The long hot days of Italian summer were settling down on plain + and country when, in the last week of May, we travelled northward + from Florence and Bologna seeking coolness. That was very hard to + find in Lombardy. The days were long and sultry, the nights + short, without a respite from the heat. Milan seemed a furnace, + though in the Duomo and the narrow shady streets there was a + twilight darkness which at least looked cool. Long may it be + before the northern spirit of improvement has taught the Italians + to despise the wisdom of their forefathers, who built those + sombre streets of palaces with overhanging eaves, that, almost + meeting, form a shelter from the fiercest sun. The lake country + was even worse than the towns; the sunlight lay all day asleep + upon the shining waters, and no breeze came to stir their surface + or to lift the tepid veil of haze, through which the stony + mountains, with their yet unmelted patches of winter snow, glared + as if in mockery of coolness. + </p> + <p> + Then we heard of a new inn, which had just been built by an + enterprising Italian doctor below the very top of Monte Generoso. + There was a picture of it in the hotel at Cadenabbia, but this + gave but little idea of any particular beauty. A big square + house, with many windows, and the usual ladies on mules, and + guides with alpenstocks, advancing towards it, and some round + bushes growing near, was all it showed. Yet there hung the real + Monte Generoso above our heads, and we thought it must be cooler + on its height than by the lake-shore. To find coolness was the + great point with us just then. Moreover, some one talked of the + wonderful plants that grew among its rocks, and of its grassy + slopes enamelled with such flowers as make our cottage gardens at + home gay in summer, not to speak of others rarer and peculiar to + the region of the Southern Alps. Indeed, the Generoso has a name + for flowers, and it deserves it, as we presently found. + </p> + <p> + This mountain is fitted by its position for commanding one of the + finest views in the whole range of the Lombard Alps. A glance at + the map shows that. Standing out pre-eminent among the chain of + lower hills to which it belongs, the lakes of Lugano and Como + with their long arms enclose it on three sides, while on the + fourth the plain of Lombardy with its many cities, its rich + pasture-lands and cornfields intersected by winding river-courses + and straight interminable roads, advances to its very foot. No + place could be better chosen for surveying that contrasted scene + of plain and mountain, which forms the great attraction of the + outlying buttresses of the central Alpine mass. The superiority + of the Monte Generoso to any of the similar eminences on the + northern outskirts of Switzerland is great. In richness of + colour, in picturesqueness of suggestion, in sublimity and + breadth of prospect, its advantages are incontestable. The + reasons for this superiority are obvious. On the Italian side the + transition from mountain to plain is far more abrupt; the + atmosphere being clearer, a larger sweep of distance is within + our vision; again, the sunlight blazes all day long upon the very + front and forehead of the distant Alpine chain, instead of merely + slanting along it, as it does upon the northern side. + </p> + <p> + From Mendrisio, the village at the foot of the mountain, an easy + mule-path leads to the hotel, winding first through + English-looking hollow lanes with real hedges, which are rare in + this country, and English primroses beneath them. Then comes a + forest region of luxuriant chestnut-trees, giants with pink boles + just bursting into late leafage, yellow and tender, but too thin + as yet for shade. A little higher up, the chestnuts are displaced + by wild laburnums bending under their weight of flowers. The + graceful branches meet above our heads, sweeping their long + tassels against our faces as we ride beneath them, while the air + for a good mile is full of fragrance. It is strange to be + reminded in this blooming labyrinth of the dusty suburb roads and + villa gardens of London. The laburnum is pleasant enough in S. + John's Wood or the Regent's Park in May—a tame domesticated + thing of brightness amid smoke and dust. But it is another joy to + see it flourishing in its own home, clothing acres of the + mountain-side in a very splendour of spring-colour, mingling its + paler blossoms with the golden broom of our own hills, and with + the silver of the hawthorn and wild cherry. Deep beds of + lilies-of-the-valley grow everywhere beneath the trees; and in + the meadows purple columbines, white asphodels, the Alpine + spiræa, tall, with feathery leaves, blue scabious, golden + hawkweeds, turkscap lilies, and, better than all, the exquisite + narcissus poeticus, with its crimson-tipped cup, and the pure + pale lilies of San Bruno, are crowded in a maze of dazzling + brightness. Higher up the laburnums disappear, and flaunting + crimson peonies gleam here and there upon the rocks, until at + length the gentians and white ranunculuses of the higher Alps + displace the less hardy flowers of Italy. + </p> + <p> + About an hour below the summit of the mountain we came upon the + inn, a large clean building, with scanty furniture and snowy + wooden floors, guiltless of carpets. It is big enough to hold + about a hundred guests; and Doctor Pasta, who built it, a native + of Mendrisio, was gifted either with much faith or with a real + prophetic instinct.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id= + "FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class= + "fnanchor">[8]</a> Anyhow he deserves commendation for his spirit + of enterprise. As yet the house is little known to English + travellers: it is mostly frequented by Italians from Milan, + Novara, and other cities of the plain, who call it the Italian + Righi, and come to it, as cockneys go to Richmond, for noisy + picnic excursions, or at most for a few weeks' + <i>villeggiatura</i> in the summer heats. When we were there in + May the season had scarcely begun, and the only inmates besides + ourselves were a large party from Milan, ladies and gentlemen in + holiday guise, who came, stayed one night, climbed the peak at + sunrise, and departed amid jokes and shouting and half-childish + play, very unlike the doings of a similar party in sober England. + After that the stillness of nature descended on the mountain, and + the sun shone day after day upon that great view which seemed + created only for ourselves. And what a view it was! The plain + stretching up to the high horizon, where a misty range of pink + cirrus-clouds alone marked the line where earth ended and the sky + began, was islanded with cities and villages innumerable, basking + in the hazy shimmering heat. Milan, seen through the doctor's + telescope, displayed its Duomo perfect as a microscopic shell, + with all its exquisite fretwork, and Napoleon's arch of triumph + surmounted by the four tiny horses, as in a fairy's dream. Far + off, long silver lines marked the lazy course of Po and Ticino, + while little lakes like Varese and the lower end of Maggiore + spread themselves out, connecting the mountains with the plain. + Five minutes' walk from the hotel brought us to a ridge where the + precipice fell suddenly and almost sheer over one arm of Lugano + Lake. Sullenly outstretched asleep it lay beneath us, coloured + with the tints of fluor-spar, or with the changeful green and + azure of a peacock's breast. The depth appeared immeasurable. San + Salvadore had receded into insignificance: the houses and + churches and villas of Lugano bordered the lake-shore with an + uneven line of whiteness. And over all there rested a blue mist + of twilight and of haze, contrasting with the clearness of the + peaks above. It was sunset when we first came here; and, wave + beyond wave, the purple Italian hills tossed their crested + summits to the foot of a range of stormy clouds that shrouded the + high Alps. Behind the clouds was sunset, clear and golden; but + the mountains had put on their mantle for the night, and the hem + of their garment was all we were to see. And yet—over the + edge of the topmost ridge of cloud, what was that long hard line + of black, too solid and immovable for cloud, rising into four + sharp needles clear and well defined? Surely it must be the + familiar outline of Monte Rosa itself, the form which every one + who loves the Alps knows well by heart, which picture-lovers know + from Ruskin's woodcut in the 'Modern Painters.' For a moment only + the vision stayed: then clouds swept over it again, and from the + place where the empress of the Alps had been, a pillar of mist + shaped like an angel's wing, purple and tipped with gold, shot up + against the pale green sky. That cloud-world was a pageant in + itself, as grand and more gorgeous perhaps than the mountains + would have been. Deep down through the hollows of the Simplon a + thunderstorm was driving; and we saw forked flashes once and + again, as in a distant world, lighting up the valleys for a + moment, and leaving the darkness blacker behind them as the storm + blurred out the landscape forty miles away. Darkness was coming + to us too, though our sky was clear and the stars were shining + brightly. At our feet the earth was folding itself to sleep; the + plain was wholly lost; little islands of white mist had formed + themselves, and settled down upon the lakes and on their marshy + estuaries; the birds were hushed; the gentian-cups were filling + to the brim with dew. Night had descended on the mountain and the + plain; the show was over. + </p> + <p> + The dawn was whitening in the east next morning, when we again + scrambled through the dwarf beechwood to the precipice above the + lake. Like an ink-blot it lay, unruffled, slumbering sadly. Broad + sheets of vapour brooded on the plain, telling of miasma and + fever, of which we on the mountain, in the pure cool air, knew + nothing. The Alps were all there now—cold, unreal, + stretching like a phantom line of snowy peaks, from the sharp + pyramids of Monte Viso and the Grivola in the west to the distant + Bernina and the Ortler in the east. Supreme among them towered + Monte Rosa—queenly, triumphant, gazing down in proud + pre-eminence, as she does when seen from any point of the Italian + plain. There is no mountain like her. Mont Blanc himself is + scarcely so regal; and she seems to know it, for even the clouds + sweep humbled round her base, girdling her at most, but leaving + her crown clear and free. Now, however, there were no clouds to + be seen in all the sky. The mountains had a strange unshriven + look, as if waiting to be blessed. Above them, in the cold grey + air, hung a low black arch of shadow, the shadow of the bulk of + the huge earth, which still concealed the sun. Slowly, slowly + this dark line sank lower, till, one by one, at last, the peaks + caught first a pale pink flush; then a sudden golden glory + flashed from one to the other, as they leapt joyfully into life. + It is a supreme moment this first burst of life and light over + the sleeping world, as one can only see it on rare days and in + rare places like the Monte Generoso. The earth—enough of it + at least for us to picture to ourselves the whole—lies at + our feet; and we feel as the Saviour might have felt, when from + the top of that high mountain He beheld the kingdoms of the world + and all the glory of them. Strangely and solemnly may we image to + our fancy the lives that are being lived down in those cities of + the plain: how many are waking at this very moment to toil and a + painful weariness, to sorrow, or to 'that unrest which men + miscall delight;' while we upon our mountain buttress, suspended + in mid-heaven and for a while removed from daily cares, are + drinking in the beauty of the world that God has made so fair and + wonderful. From this same eyrie, only a few years ago, the + hostile armies of France, Italy, and Austria might have been + watched moving in dim masses across the plains, for the + possession of which they were to clash in mortal fight at + Solferino and Magenta. All is peaceful now. It is hard to picture + the waving cornfields trodden down, the burning villages and + ransacked vineyards, all the horrors of real war to which that + fertile plain has been so often the prey. But now these memories + of + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Old, unhappy, far-off things, + </p> + <p> + And battles long ago, + </p> + </div> + <p> + do but add a calm and beauty to the radiant scene that lies + before us. And the thoughts which it suggests, the images with + which it stores our mind, are not without their noblest uses. The + glory of the world sinks deeper into our shallow souls than we + well know; and the spirit of its splendour is always ready to + revisit us on dark and dreary days at home with an unspeakable + refreshment. Even as I write, I seem to see the golden glow + sweeping in broad waves over the purple hills nearer and nearer, + till the lake brightens at our feet, and the windows of Lugano + flash with sunlight, and little boats creep forth across the + water like spiders on a pond, leaving an arrowy track of light + upon the green behind them, while Monte Salvadore with its tiny + chapel and a patch of the further landscape are still kept in + darkness by the shadow of the Generoso itself. The birds wake + into song as the sun's light comes; cuckoo answers cuckoo from + ridge to ridge; dogs bark; and even the sounds of human life rise + up to us: children's voices and the murmurs of the market-place + ascending faintly from the many villages hidden among the + chestnut-trees beneath our feet; while the creaking of a cart we + can but just see slowly crawling along the straight road by the + lake, is heard at intervals. + </p> + <p> + The full beauty of the sunrise is but brief. Already the low + lakelike mists we saw last night have risen and spread, and + shaken themselves out into masses of summer clouds, which, + floating upward, threaten to envelop us upon our vantage-ground. + Meanwhile they form a changeful sea below, blotting out the + plain, surging up into the valleys with the movement of a billowy + tide, attacking the lower heights like the advance-guard of a + besieging army, but daring not as yet to invade the cold and + solemn solitudes of the snowy Alps. These, too, in time, when the + sun's heat has grown strongest, will be folded in their midday + pall of sheltering vapour. + </p> + <p> + The very summit of Monte Generoso must not be left without a word + of notice. The path to it is as easy as the sheep-walks on an + English down, though cut along grass-slopes descending at a + perilously sharp angle. At the top the view is much the same, as + far as the grand features go, as that which is commanded from the + cliff by the hotel. But the rocks here are crowded with rare + Alpine flowers—delicate golden auriculas with powdery + leaves and stems, pale yellow cowslips, imperial purple + saxifrages, soldanellas at the edge of lingering patches of the + winter snow, blue gentians, crocuses, and the frail, rosy-tipped + ranunculus, called glacialis. Their blooming time is brief. When + summer comes the mountain will be bare and burned, like all + Italian hills. The Generoso is a very dry mountain, silent and + solemn from its want of streams. There is no sound of falling + waters on its crags; no musical rivulets flow down its sides, led + carefully along the slopes, as in Switzerland, by the peasants, + to keep their hay-crops green and gladden the thirsty turf + throughout the heat and drought of summer. The soil is a Jurassic + limestone: the rain penetrates the porous rock, and sinks through + cracks and fissures, to reappear above the base of the mountain + in a full-grown stream. This is a defect in the Generoso, as much + to be regretted as the want of shade upon its higher pastures. + Here, as elsewhere in Piedmont, the forests are cut for charcoal; + the beech-scrub, which covers large tracts of the hills, never + having the chance of growing into trees much higher than a man. + It is this which makes an Italian mountain at a distance look + woolly, like a sheep's back. Among the brushwood, however, + lilies-of-the-valley and Solomon's seals delight to grow; and the + league-long beds of wild strawberries prove that when the + laburnums have faded, the mountain will become a garden of + feasting. + </p> + <p> + It was on the crest of Monte Generoso, late one afternoon in May, + that we saw a sight of great beauty. The sun had yet about an + hour before it sank behind the peaks of Monte Rosa, and the sky + was clear, except for a few white clouds that floated across the + plain of Lombardy. Then as we sat upon the crags, tufted with + soldanellas and auriculas, we could see a fleecy vapour gliding + upward from the hollows of the mountain, very thin and pale, yet + dense enough to blot the landscape to the south and east from + sight. It rose with an imperceptible motion, as the Oceanides + might have soared from the sea to comfort Prometheus in the + tragedy of Æschylus. Already the sun had touched its upper edge + with gold, and we were expecting to be enveloped in a mist; when + suddenly upon the outspread sheet before us there appeared two + forms, larger than life, yet not gigantic, surrounded with haloes + of such tempered iridescence as the moon half hidden by a summer + cloud is wont to make. They were the glorified figures of + ourselves; and what we did, the phantoms mocked, rising or + bowing, or spreading wide their arms. Some scarce-felt breeze + prevented the vapour from passing across the ridge to westward, + though it still rose from beneath, and kept fading away into thin + air above our heads. Therefore the vision lasted as long as the + sun stayed yet above the Alps; and the images with their aureoles + shrank and dilated with the undulations of the mist. I could not + but think of that old formula for an anthropomorphic + Deity—'the Brocken-spectre of the human spirit projected on + the mists of the Non-ego.' Even like those cloud-phantoms are the + gods made in the image of man, who have been worshipped through + successive ages of the world, gods dowered with like passions to + those of the races who have crouched before them, gods cruel and + malignant and lustful, jealous and noble and just, radiant or + gloomy, the counterparts of men upon a vast and shadowy scale. + But here another question rose. If the gods that men have made + and ignorantly worshipped be really but glorified copies of their + own souls, where is the sun in this parallel? Without the sun's + rays the mists of Monte Generoso could have shown, no shadowy + forms. Without some other power than the mind of man, could men + have fashioned for themselves those ideals that they named their + gods? Unseen by Greek, or Norseman, or Hindoo, the potent force + by which alone they could externalise their image, existed + outside them, independent of their thought. Nor does the trite + epigram touch the surface of the real mystery. The sun, the human + beings on the mountain, and the mists are all parts of one + material universe: the transient phenomenon we witnessed was but + the effect of a chance combination. Is, then, the anthropomorphic + God as momentary and as accidental in the system of the world as + that vapoury spectre? The God in whom we live and move and have + our being must be far more all-pervasive, more incognisable by + the souls of men, who doubt not for one moment of His presence + and His power. Except for purposes of rhetoric the metaphor that + seemed so clever fails. Nor, when once such thoughts have been + stirred in us by such a sight, can we do better than repeat + Goethe's sublime profession of a philosophic mysticism. This + translation I made one morning on the Pasterze Gletscher beneath + the spires of the Gross Glockner:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + To Him who from eternity, self-stirred, + </p> + <p> + Himself hath made by His creative word! + </p> + <p> + To Him, supreme, who causeth Faith to be, + </p> + <p> + Trust, Hope, Love, Power, and endless Energy! + </p> + <p> + To Him, who, seek to name Him as we will, + </p> + <p> + Unknown within Himself abideth still! + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + Strain ear and eye, till sight and sense be dim; + </p> + <p> + Thou'lt find but faint similitudes of Him: + </p> + <p> + Yea, and thy spirit in her flight of flame + </p> + <p> + Still strives to gauge the symbol and the name: + </p> + <p> + Charmed and compelled thou climb'st from height to height, + </p> + <p> + And round thy path the world shines wondrous bright; + </p> + <p> + Time, Space, and Size, and Distance cease to be, + </p> + <p> + And every step is fresh infinity. + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + What were the God who sat outside to scan + </p> + <p> + The spheres that 'neath His finger circling ran? + </p> + <p> + God dwells within, and moves the world and moulds, + </p> + <p> + Himself and Nature in one form enfolds: + </p> + <p> + Thus all that lives in Him and breathes and is, + </p> + <p> + Shall ne'er His puissance, ne'er His spirit miss. + </p> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <p> + The soul of man, too, is an universe: + </p> + <p> + Whence follows it that race with race concurs + </p> + <p> + In naming all it knows of good and true + </p> + <p> + God,—yea, its own God; and with homage due + </p> + <p> + Surrenders to His sway both earth and heaven; + </p> + <p> + Fears Him, and loves, where place for love is given. + </p> + </div> + </div> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="LOMBARD_VIGNETTES" id="LOMBARD_VIGNETTES"></a><i>LOMBARD + VIGNETTES</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + ON THE SUPERGA + </p> + <p> + This is the chord of Lombard colouring in May. Lowest in the + scale: bright green of varied tints, the meadow-grasses mingling + with willows and acacias, harmonised by air and distance. Next, + opaque blue—the blue of something between amethyst and + lapis-lazuli—that belongs alone to the basements of Italian + mountains. Higher, the roseate whiteness of ridged snow on Alps + or Apennines. Highest, the blue of the sky, ascending from pale + turquoise to transparent sapphire filled with light. A mediæval + mystic might have likened this chord to the spiritual world. For + the lowest region is that of natural life, of plant and bird and + beast, and unregenerate man; it is the place of faun and nymph + and satyr, the plain where wars are fought and cities built, and + work is done. Thence we climb to purified humanity, the mountains + of purgation, the solitude and simplicity of contemplative life + not yet made perfect by freedom from the flesh. Higher comes that + thin white belt, where are the resting places of angelic feet, + the points whence purged souls take their flight toward infinity. + Above all is heaven, the hierarchies ascending row on row to + reach the light of God. + </p> + <p> + This fancy occurred to me as I climbed the slope of the Superga, + gazing over acacia hedges and poplars to the mountains bare in + morning light. The occasional occurrence of bars across this + chord—poplars shivering in sun and breeze, stationary + cypresses as black as night, and tall campanili with the hot red + shafts of glowing brick—adds just enough of composition to + the landscape. Without too much straining of the allegory, the + mystic might have recognised in these aspiring bars the upward + effort of souls rooted in the common life of earth. + </p> + <p> + The panorama, unrolling as we ascend, is enough to overpower a + lover of beauty. There is nothing equal to it for space and + breadth and majesty. Monte Rosa, the masses of Mont Blanc blent + with the Grand Paradis, the airy pyramid of Monte Viso, these are + the battlements of that vast Alpine rampart, in which the vale of + Susa opens like a gate. To west and south sweep the Maritime Alps + and the Apennines. Beneath, glides the infant Po; and where he + leads our eyes, the plain is only limited by pearly mist. + </p> + <p> + A BRONZE BUST OF CALIGULA AT TURIN + </p> + <p> + The Albertina bronze is one of the most precious portraits of + antiquity, not merely because it confirms the testimony of the + green basalt bust in the Capitol, but also because it supplies an + even more emphatic and impressive illustration to the narrative + of Suetonius. + </p> + <p> + Caligula is here represented as young and singularly beautiful. + It is indeed an ideal Roman head, with the powerful square + modelling, the crisp short hair, low forehead and regular firm + features, proper to the noblest Roman type. The head is thrown + backward from the throat; and there is a something of menace or + defiance or suffering in the suggestion of brusque movement given + to the sinews of the neck. This attitude, together with the + tension of the forehead, and the fixed expression of pain and + strain communicated by the lines of the mouth—strong + muscles of the upper lip and abruptly chiselled under + lip—in relation to the small eyes, deep set beneath their + cavernous and level brows, renders the whole face a monument of + spiritual anguish. I remember that the green basalt bust of the + Capitol has the same anxious forehead, the same troubled and + overburdened eyes; but the agony of this fretful mouth, + comparable to nothing but the mouth of Pandolfo Sigismondo + Malatesta, and, like that, on the verge of breaking into the + spasms of delirium, is quite peculiar to the Albertina bronze. It + is just this which the portrait of the Capitol lacks for the + completion of Caligula. The man who could be so represented in + art had nothing wholly vulgar in him. The brutality of Caracalla, + the overblown sensuality of Nero, the effeminacy of Commodus or + Heliogabalus, are all absent here. This face idealises the + torture of a morbid soul. It is withal so truly beautiful that it + might easily be made the poem of high suffering or noble passion. + If the bronze were plastic, I see how a great sculptor, by but + few strokes, could convert it into an agonising Stephen or + Sebastian. As it is, the unimaginable touch of disease, the + unrest of madness, made Caligula the genius of insatiable + appetite; and his martyrdom was the torment of lust and ennui and + everlasting agitation. The accident of empire tantalised him with + vain hopes of satisfying the Charybdis of his soul's sick + cravings. From point to point he passed of empty pleasure and + unsatisfying cruelty, for ever hungry; until the malady of his + spirit, unrestrained by any limitations, and with the right + medium for its development, became unique—the tragic type + of pathological desire. What more than all things must have + plagued a man with that face was probably the unavoidable + meanness of his career. When we study the chapters of Suetonius, + we are forced to feel that, though the situation and the madness + of Caligula were dramatically impressive, his crimes were trivial + and, small. In spite of the vast scale on which he worked his + devilish will, his life presents a total picture of sordid vice, + differing only from pot-house dissipation and schoolboy cruelty + in point of size. And this of a truth is the Nemesis of evil. + After a time, mere tyrannous caprice must become commonplace and + cloying, tedious to the tyrant, and uninteresting to the student + of humanity: nor can I believe that Caligula failed to perceive + this to his own infinite disgust. + </p> + <p> + Suetonius asserts that he was hideously ugly. How are we to + square this testimony with the witness of the bronze before us? + What changed the face, so beautiful and terrible in youth, to + ugliness that shrank from sight in manhood? Did the murderers + find it blurred in its fine lineaments, furrowed with lines of + care, hollowed with the soul's hunger? Unless a life of vice and + madness had succeeded in making Caligula's face what the faces of + some maniacs are—the bloated ruin of what was once a living + witness to the soul within—I could fancy that death may + have sanctified it with even more beauty than this bust of the + self-tormented young man shows. Have we not all seen the anguish + of thought-fretted faces smoothed out by the hands of the + Deliverer? + </p> + <p> + FERRARI AT VERCELLI + </p> + <p> + It is possible that many visitors to the Cathedral of Como have + carried away the memory of stately women with abundant yellow + hair and draperies of green and crimson, in a picture they + connect thereafter with Gaudenzio Ferrari. And when they come to + Milan, they are probably both impressed and disappointed by a + Martyrdom of S. Catherine in the Brera, bearing the same artist's + name. If they wish to understand this painter, they must seek him + at Varallo, at Saronno, and at Vercelli. In the Church of S. + Cristoforo in Vercelli, Gaudenzio Ferrari at the full height of + his powers showed what he could do to justify Lomazzo's title + chosen for him of the Eagle. He has indeed the strong wing and + the swiftness of the king of birds. And yet the works of few + really great painters—and among the really great we place + Ferrari—leave upon the mind a more distressing sense of + imperfection. Extraordinary fertility of fancy, vehement dramatic + passion, sincere study of nature, and great command of technical + resources are here (as elsewhere in Ferrari's frescoes) + neutralised by an incurable defect of the combining and + harmonising faculty, so essential to a masterpiece. There is + stuff enough of thought and vigour and imagination to make a + dozen artists. And yet we turn away disappointed from the + crowded, dazzling, stupefying wilderness of forms and faces on + these mighty walls. + </p> + <p> + All that Ferrari derived from actual life—the heads of + single figures, the powerful movement of men and women in excited + action, the monumental pose of two praying nuns—is + admirably rendered. His angels too, in S. Cristoforo as + elsewhere, are quite original; not only in their type of beauty, + which is terrestrial and peculiar to Ferrari, without a touch of + Correggio's sensuality; but also in the intensity of their + emotion, the realisation of their vitality. Those which hover + round the Cross in the fresco of the 'Crucifixion' are as + passionate as any angels of the Giottesque masters in Assisi. + Those again which crowd the Stable of Bethlehem in the 'Nativity' + yield no point of idyllic charm to Gozzoli's in the Riccardi + Chapel. + </p> + <p> + The 'Crucifixion' and the 'Assumption of Madonna' are very tall + and narrow compositions, audacious in their attempt to fill + almost unmanageable space with a connected action. Of the two + frescoes the 'Crucifixion,' which has points of strong similarity + to the same subject at Varallo, is by far the best. Ferrari never + painted anything at once truer to life and nobler in tragic style + than the fainting Virgin. Her face expresses the very acme of + martyrdom—not exaggerated nor spasmodic, but real and + sublime—in the suffering of a stately matron. In points + like this Ferrari cannot be surpassed. Raphael could scarcely + have done better; besides, there is an air of sincerity, a stamp + of popular truth, in this episode, which lies beyond Raphael's + sphere. It reminds us rather of Tintoretto. + </p> + <p> + After the 'Crucifixion,' I place the 'Adoration of the Magi,' + full of fine mundane motives and gorgeous costumes; then the + 'Sposalizio' (whose marriage, I am not certain), the only grandly + composed picture of the series, and marked by noble heads; then + the 'Adoration of the Shepherds,' with two lovely angels holding + the bambino. The 'Assumption of the Magdalen'—for which + fresco there is a valuable cartoon in the Albertina Collection at + Turin—must have been a fine picture; but it is ruined now. + An oil altar-piece in the choir of the same church struck me less + than the frescoes. It represents Madonna and a crowd of saints + under an orchard of apple-trees, with cherubs curiously flung + about almost at random in the air. The motive of the orchard is + prettily conceived and carried out with spirit. + </p> + <p> + What Ferrari possessed was rapidity of movement, fulness and + richness of reality, exuberance of invention, excellent + portraiture, dramatic vehemence, and an almost unrivalled + sympathy with the swift and passionate world of angels. What he + lacked was power of composition, simplicity of total effect, + harmony in colouring, control over his own luxuriance, the sense + of tranquillity. He seems to have sought grandeur in size and + multitude, richness, éclat, contrast. Being the disciple of + Lionardo and Raphael, his defects are truly singular. As a + composer, the old leaven of Giovenone remained in him; but he + felt the dramatic tendencies of a later age, and in occasional + episodes he realised them with a force and <i>furia</i> granted + to very few of the Italian painters. + </p> + <p> + LANINI AT VERCELLI + </p> + <p> + The Casa Mariano is a palace which belonged to a family of that + name. Like many houses of the sort in Italy, it fell to vile + uses; and its hall of audience was turned into a lumber-room. The + Operai of Vercelli, I was told, bought the palace a few years + ago, restored the noble hall, and devoted a smaller room to a + collection of pictures valuable for students of the early + Vercellese style of painting. Of these there is no need to speak. + The great hall is the gem of the Casa Mariano. It has a coved + roof, with a large flat oblong space in the centre of the + ceiling. The whole of this vault and the lunettes beneath were + painted by Lanini; so runs the tradition of the fresco-painter's + name; and though much injured by centuries of outrage, and + somewhat marred by recent restoration, these frescoes form a + precious monument of Lombard art. The object of the painter's + design seems to have been the glorification of Music. In the + central compartment of the roof is an assembly of the gods, + obviously borrowed from Raphael's 'Marriage of Cupid and Psyche' + in the Farnesina at Rome. The fusion of Roman composition with + Lombard execution constitutes the chief charm of this singular + work, and makes it, so far as I am aware, unique. Single figures + of the goddesses, and the whole movement of the scene upon + Olympus, are transcribed without attempt at concealment. And yet + the fresco is not a barefaced copy. The manner of feeling and of + execution is quite different from that of Raphael's school. The + poetry and sentiment are genuinely Lombard. None of Raphael's + pupils could have carried out his design with a delicacy of + emotion and a technical skill in colouring so consummate. What, + we think, as we gaze upward, would the Master have given for such + a craftsman? The hardness, coarseness, and animal crudity of the + Roman School are absent: so also is their vigour. But where the + grace of form and colour is so soft and sweet, where the + high-bred calm of good company is so sympathetically rendered, + where the atmosphere of amorous languor and of melody is so + artistically diffused, we cannot miss the powerful modelling and + rather vulgar <i>tours de force</i> of Giulio Romano. The scale + of tone is silvery golden. There are no hard blues, no coarse red + flesh-tints, no black shadows. Mellow lights, the morning hues of + primrose, or of palest amber, pervade the whole society. It is a + court of gentle and harmonious souls; and though this style of + beauty might cloy, at first sight there is something ravishing in + those yellow-haired white-limbed, blooming deities. No movement + of lascivious grace as in Correggio, no perturbation of the + senses as in some of the Venetians, disturbs the rhythm of their + music; nor is the pleasure of the flesh, though felt by the + painter and communicated to the spectator, an interruption to + their divine calm. The white, saffron-haired goddesses are + grouped together like stars seen in the topaz light of evening, + like daffodils half smothered in snowdrops, and among them, + Diana, with the crescent on her forehead, is the fairest. Her + dream-like beauty need fear no comparison with the Diana of the + Camera di S. Paolo. Apollo and Bacchus are scarcely less lovely + in their bloom of earliest manhood; honey-pale, as Greeks would + say; like statues of living electron; realising Simaetha's + picture of her lover and his friend: + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Τοίς δ΄ ήν + ξανθοτέρα μέν + ελιχρύσοιο + γενειάς + </p> + <p> + στήθεα δε + στίλβοντα + πολύ πλέον + η΅ τυ Σελάνα. + <a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + It was thus that the almost childlike spirit of the Milanese + painters felt the antique: how differently from their Roman + brethren! It was thus that they interpreted the lines of their + own poets:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + E i tuoi capei più volte ho somigliati + </p> + <p> + Di Cerere a le paglie secche o bionde + </p> + <p> + Dintorno crespi al tuo capo legati.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id= + "FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class= + "fnanchor">[10]</a> + </p> + </div> + <p> + Yet the painter of this hall—whether we are to call him + Lanini or another—was not a composer. Where he has not + robbed the motives and the distribution of the figures from + Raphael, he has nothing left but grace of detail. The + intellectual feebleness of his style may be seen in many figures + of women playing upon instruments of music, ranged around the + walls. One girl at the organ is graceful; another with a + tambourine has a sort of Bassarid beauty. But the group of + Apollo, Pegasus, and a Muse upon Parnassus, is a failure in its + meaningless frigidity, while few of these subordinate + compositions show power of conception or vigour of design. + </p> + <p> + Lanini, like Sodoma, was a native of Vercelli; and though he was + Ferrari's pupil, there is more in him of Luini or of Sodoma than + of his master. He does not rise at any point to the height of + these three great masters, but he shares some of Luini's and + Sodoma's fine qualities, without having any of Ferrari's force. A + visit to the mangled remnants of his frescoes in S. Caterina will + repay the student of art. This was once, apparently, a double + church, or a church with the hall and chapel of a + <i>confraternita</i> appended to it. One portion of the building + was painted with the history of the Saint; and very lovely must + this work have been, to judge by the fragments which have + recently been rescued from whitewash, damp, and ruthless + mutilation. What wonderful Lombard faces, half obliterated on the + broken wall and mouldering plaster, smile upon us like drowned + memories swimming up from the depths of oblivion! Wherever three + or four are grouped together, we find an exquisite little + picture—an old woman and two young women in a doorway, for + example, telling no story, but touching us with simple harmony of + form. Nothing further is needed to render their grace + intelligible. Indeed, knowing the faults of the school, we may + seek some consolation by telling ourselves that these incomplete + fragments yield Lanini's best. In the coved compartments of the + roof, above the windows, ran a row of dancing boys; and these are + still most beautifully modelled, though the pallor of recent + whitewash is upon them. All the boys have blonde hair. They are + naked, with scrolls or ribbons wreathed around them, adding to + the airiness of their continual dance. Some of the loveliest are + in a room used to stow away the lumber of the church—old + boards and curtains, broken lanterns, candle-ends in tin sconces, + the musty apparatus of festival adornments, and in the midst of + all a battered, weather-beaten bier. + </p> + <p> + THE PIAZZA OF PIACENZA + </p> + <p> + The great feature of Piacenza is its famous + piazza—romantically, picturesquely perfect square, + surpassing the most daring attempts of the scene-painter, and + realising a poet's dreams. The space is considerable, and many + streets converge upon it at irregular angles. Its finest + architectural feature is the antique Palace of the Commune: + Gothic arcades of stone below, surmounted by a brick building + with wonderfully delicate and varied terra-cotta work in the + round-arched windows. Before this façade, on the marble pavement, + prance the bronze equestrian statues of two + Farnesi—insignificant men, exaggerated horses, flying + drapery—as <i>barocco</i> as it is possible to be in style, + but so splendidly toned with verdigris, so superb in their + <i>bravura</i> attitude, and so happily placed in the line of two + streets lending far vistas from the square into the town beyond, + that it is difficult to criticise them seriously. They form, + indeed, an important element in the pictorial effect, and enhance + the terra-cotta work of the façade by the contrast of their + colour. + </p> + <p> + The time to see this square is in evening twilight—that + wonderful hour after sunset—when the people are strolling + on the pavement, polished to a mirror by the pacing of successive + centuries, and when the cavalry soldiers group themselves at the + angles under the lamp-posts or beneath the dimly lighted Gothic + arches of the Palace. This is the magical mellow hour to be + sought by lovers of the picturesque in all the towns of Italy, + the hour which, by its tender blendings of sallow western lights + with glimmering lamps, casts the veil of half shadow over any + crudeness and restores the injuries of Time; the hour when all + the tints of these old buildings are intensified, etherealised, + and harmonised by one pervasive glow. When I last saw Piacenza, + it had been raining all day; and ere sundown a clearing had come + from the Alps, followed by fresh threatenings of thunderstorms. + The air was very liquid. There was a tract of yellow sunset sky + to westward, a faint new moon half swathed in mist above, and + over all the north a huge towered thundercloud kept flashing + distant lightnings. The pallid primrose of the West, forced down + and reflected back from that vast bank of tempest, gave unearthly + beauty to the hues of church and palace—tender half-tones + of violet and russet paling into greys and yellows on what in + daylight seemed but dull red brick. Even the uncompromising + façade of S. Francesco helped; and the Dukes were like statues of + the 'Gran Commendatore,' waiting for Don Giovanni's invitation. + </p> + <p> + MASOLINO AT CASTIGLIONE D'OLONA + </p> + <p> + Through the loveliest Arcadian scenery of woods and fields and + rushing waters the road leads downward from Varese to + Castiglione. The Collegiate Church stands on a leafy hill above + the town, with fair prospect over groves and waterfalls and + distant mountains. Here in the choir is a series of frescoes by + Masolino da Panicale, the master of Masaccio, who painted them + about the year 1428. 'Masolinus de Florentia pinxit' decides + their authorship. The histories of the Virgin, S. Stephen and S. + Lawrence, are represented: but the injuries of time and neglect + have been so great that it is difficult to judge them fairly. All + we feel for certain is that Masolino had not yet escaped from the + traditional Giottesque mannerism. Only a group of Jews stoning + Stephen, and Lawrence before the tribunal, remind us by dramatic + energy of the Brancacci Chapel. + </p> + <p> + The Baptistery frescoes, dealing with the legend of S. John, show + a remarkable advance; and they are luckily in better + preservation. A soldier lifting his two-handed sword to strike + off the Baptist's head is a vigorous figure, full of Florentine + realism. Also in the Baptism in Jordan we are reminded of + Masaccio by an excellent group of bathers—one man taking + off his hose, another putting them on again, a third standing + naked with his back turned, and a fourth shivering half-dressed + with a look of curious sadness on his face. The nude has been + carefully studied and well realised. The finest composition of + this series is a large panel representing a double + action—Salome at Herod's table begging for the Baptist's + head, and then presenting it to her mother Herodias. The costumes + are quattrocento Florentine, exactly rendered. Salome is a + graceful slender creature; the two women who regard her offering + to Herodias with mingled curiosity and horror, are well + conceived. The background consists of a mountain landscape in + Masaccio's simple manner, a rich Renaissance villa, and an open + loggia. The architecture perspective is scientifically accurate, + and a frieze of boys with garlands on the villa is in the best + manner of Florentine sculpture. On the mountain side, diminished + in scale, is a group of elders, burying the body of S. John. + These are massed together and robed in the style of Masaccio, and + have his virile dignity of form and action. Indeed this + interesting wall-painting furnishes an epitome of Florentine art, + in its intentions and achievements, during the first half of the + fifteenth century. The colour is strong and brilliant, and the + execution solid. + </p> + <p> + The margin of the Salome panel has been used for scratching the + Chronicle of Castiglione. I read one date, 1568, several of the + next century, the record of a duel between two gentlemen, and + many inscriptions to this effect, 'Erodiana Regina,' 'Omnia + praetereunt,' &c. A dirty one-eyed fellow keeps the place. In + my presence he swept the frescoes over with a scratchy broom, + flaying their upper surface in profound unconsciousness of + mischief. The armour of the executioner has had its steel colours + almost rubbed off by this infernal process. Damp and cobwebs are + far kinder. + </p> + <p> + THE CERTOSA + </p> + <p> + The Certosa of Pavia leaves upon the mind an impression of + bewildering sumptuousness: nowhere else are costly materials so + combined with a lavish expenditure of the rarest art. Those who + have only once been driven round together with the crew of + sightseers, can carry little away but the memory of lapis-lazuli + and bronze-work, inlaid agates and labyrinthine sculpture, + cloisters tenantless in silence, fair painted faces smiling from + dark corners on the senseless crowd, trim gardens with rows of + pink primroses in spring, and of begonia in autumn, blooming + beneath colonnades of glowing terra-cotta. The striking contrast + between the Gothic of the interior and the Renaissance façade, + each in its own kind perfect, will also be remembered; and + thoughts of the two great houses, Visconti and Sforza, to whose + pride of power it is a monument, may be blended with the + recollection of art-treasures alien to their spirit. + </p> + <p> + Two great artists, Ambrogio Borgognone and Antonio Amadeo, are + the presiding genii of the Certosa. To minute criticism, based + upon the accurate investigation of records and the comparison of + styles, must be left the task of separating their work from that + of numerous collaborators. But it is none the less certain that + the keynote of the whole music is struck by them, Amadeo, the + master of the Colleoni chapel at Bergamo, was both sculptor and + architect. If the façade of the Certosa be not absolutely his + creation, he had a hand in the distribution of its masses and the + detail of its ornaments. The only fault in this otherwise + faultless product of the purest quattrocento inspiration, is that + the façade is a frontispiece, with hardly any structural relation + to the church it masks: and this, though serious from the point + of view of architecture, is no abatement of its sculpturesque and + picturesque refinement. At first sight it seems a wilderness of + loveliest reliefs and statues—of angel faces, fluttering + raiment, flowing hair, love-laden youths, and stationary figures + of grave saints, mid wayward tangles of acanthus and wild vine + and cupid-laden foliage; but the subordination of these + decorative details to the main design, clear, rhythmical, and + lucid, like a chaunt of Pergolese or Stradella, will enrapture + one who has the sense for unity evoked from divers elements, for + thought subduing all caprices to the harmony of beauty. It is not + possible elsewhere in Italy to find the instinct of the earlier + Renaissance, so amorous in its expenditure of rare material, so + lavish in its bestowal of the costliest workmanship on ornamental + episodes, brought into truer keeping with a pure and simple + structural effect. + </p> + <p> + All the great sculptor-architects of Lombardy worked in + succession on this miracle of beauty; and this may account for + the sustained perfection of style, which nowhere suffers from the + languor of exhaustion in the artist or from repetition of + motives. It remains the triumph of North Italian genius, + exhibiting qualities of tenderness and self-abandonment to + inspiration, which we lack in the severer masterpieces of the + Tuscan school. + </p> + <p> + To Borgognone is assigned the painting of the roof in nave and + choir—exceeding rich, varied, and withal in sympathy with + stately Gothic style. Borgognone again is said to have designed + the saints and martyrs worked in <i>tarsia</i> for the + choir-stalls. His frescoes are in some parts well preserved, as + in the lovely little Madonna at the end of the south chapel, + while the great fresco above the window in the south transept has + an historical value that renders it interesting in spite of + partial decay. Borgognone's oil pictures throughout the church + prove, if such proof were needed after inspection of the + altar-piece in our National Gallery, that he was one of the most + powerful and original painters of Italy, blending the repose of + the earlier masters and their consummate workmanship with a + profound sensibility to the finest shades of feeling and the + rarest forms of natural beauty. He selected an exquisite type of + face for his young men and women; on his old men he bestowed + singular gravity and dignity. His saints are a society of strong, + pure, restful, earnest souls, in whom the passion of deepest + emotion is transfigured by habitual calm. The brown and golden + harmonies he loved, are gained without sacrifice of lustre: there + is a self-restraint in his colouring which corresponds to the + reserve of his emotion; and though a regret sometimes rises in + our mind that he should have modelled the light and shade upon + his faces with a brusque, unpleasing hardness, their pallor + dwells within our memory as something delicately sought if not + consummately attained. In a word, Borgognone was a true Lombard + of the best time. The very imperfection of his flesh-painting + repeats in colour what the greatest Lombard sculptors sought in + stone—a sharpness of relief that passes over into + angularity. This brusqueness was the counterpoise to tenderness + of feeling and intensity of fancy in these northern artists. Of + all Borgognone's pictures in the Certosa I should select the + altar-piece of S. Siro with S. Lawrence and S. Stephen and two + Fathers of the Church, for its fusion of this master's qualities. + </p> + <p> + The Certosa is a wilderness of lovely workmanship. From + Borgognone's majesty we pass into the quiet region of Luini's + Christian grace, or mark the influence of Lionardo on that rare + Assumption of Madonna by his pupil, Andrea Solari. Like + everything touched by the Lionardesque spirit, this great picture + was left unfinished: yet Northern Italy has nothing finer to show + than the landscape, outspread in its immeasurable purity of calm, + behind the grouped Apostles and the ascendant Mother of Heaven. + The feeling of that happy region between the Alps and Lombardy, + where there are many waters—<i>et tacitos sine labe laous + sine murmure rivos</i>—and where the last spurs of the + mountains sink in undulations to the plain, has passed into this + azure vista, just as all Umbria is suggested in a twilight + background of young Raphael or Perugino. + </p> + <p> + The portraits of the Dukes of Milan and their families carry us + into a very different realm of feeling. Medallions above the + doors of sacristy and chancel, stately figures reared aloft + beneath gigantic canopies, men and women slumbering with folded + hands upon their marble biers—we read in all those + sculptured forms a strange record of human restlessness, resolved + into the quiet of the tomb. The iniquities of Gian Galeazzo + Visconti, <i>il gran Biscione</i>, the blood-thirst of Gian + Maria, the dark designs of Filippo and his secret vices, + Francesco Sforza's treason, Galeazzo Maria's vanities and lusts; + their tyrants' dread of thunder and the knife; their awful deaths + by pestilence and the assassin's poignard; their selfishness, + oppression, cruelty and fraud; the murders of their kinsmen; + their labyrinthine plots and acts of broken faith;—all is + tranquil now, and we can say to each what Bosola found for the + Duchess of Malfi ere her execution:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Much you had of land and rent; + </p> + <p> + Your length in clay's now competent: + </p> + <p> + A long war disturbed your mind; + </p> + <p> + Here your perfect peace is signed! + </p> + </div> + <p> + Some of these faces are commonplace, with <i>bourgeois</i> + cunning written on the heavy features; one is bluff, another + stolid, a third bloated, a fourth stately. The sculptors have + dealt fairly with all, and not one has the lineaments of utter + baseness. To Cristoforo Solari's statues of Lodovico Sforza and + his wife, Beatrice d'Este, the palm of excellence in art and of + historical interest must be awarded. Sculpture has rarely been + more dignified and true to life than here. The woman with her + short clustering curls, the man with his strong face, are resting + after that long fever which brought woe to Italy, to Europe a new + age, and to the boasted minion of Fortune a slow death in the + prison palace of Loches. Attired in ducal robes, they lie in + state; and the sculptor has carved the lashes on their eyelids, + heavy with death's marmoreal sleep. He at least has passed no + judgment on their crimes. Let us too bow and leave their memories + to the historian's pen, their spirits to God's mercy. + </p> + <p> + After all wanderings in this Temple of Art, we return to Antonio + Amadeo, to his long-haired seraphs playing on the lutes of + Paradise, to his angels of the Passion with their fluttering + robes and arms outspread in agony, to his saints and satyrs + mingled on pilasters of the marble doorways, his delicate + <i>Lavabo</i> decorations, and his hymns of piety expressed in + noble forms of weeping women and dead Christs. Wherever we may + pass, this master-spirit of the Lombard style enthralls + attention. His curious treatment of drapery as though it ¦were + made of crumpled paper, and his trick of enhancing relief by + sharp angles and attenuated limbs, do not detract from his + peculiar charm. That is his way, very different from Donatello's, + of attaining to the maximum of life and lightness in the stubborn + vehicle of stone. Nor do all the riches of the choir—those + multitudes of singing angels, those Ascensions and Assumptions, + and innumerable basreliefs of gleaming marble moulded into + softest wax by mastery of art—distract our eyes from the + single round medallion, not larger than a common plate, inscribed + by him upon the front of the high altar. Perhaps, if one who + loved Amadeo were bidden to point out his masterpiece, he would + lead the way at once to this. The space is small: yet it includes + the whole tragedy of the Passion. Christ is lying dead among the + women on his mother's lap, and there are pitying angels in the + air above. One woman lifts his arm, another makes her breast a + pillow for his head. Their agony is hushed, but felt in every + limb and feature; and the extremity of suffering is seen in each + articulation of the worn and wounded form just taken from the + cross. It would be too painful, were not the harmony of art so + rare, the interlacing of those many figures in a simple round so + exquisite. The noblest tranquillity and the most passionate + emotion are here fused in a manner of adorable naturalness. + </p> + <p> + From the church it is delightful to escape into the cloisters, + flooded with sunlight, where the swallows skim, and the brown + hawks circle, and the mason bees are at work upon their cells + among the carvings. The arcades of the two cloisters are the + final triumph of Lombard terra-cotta. The memory fails before + such infinite invention, such facility and felicity of execution. + Wreaths of cupids gliding round the arches among grape-bunches + and bird-haunted foliage of vine; rows of angels, like rising and + setting planets, some smiling and some grave, ascending and + descending by the Gothic curves; saints stationary on their + pedestals, and faces leaning from the rounds above; crowds of + cherubs, and courses of stars, and acanthus leaves in woven + lines, and ribands incessantly inscribed with Ave Maria! Then, + over all, the rich red light and purple shadows of the brick, + than which no substance sympathises more completely with the sky + of solid blue above, the broad plain space of waving summer grass + beneath our feet. + </p> + <p> + It is now late afternoon, and when evening comes, the train will + take us back to Milan. There is yet a little while to rest tired + eyes and strained spirits among the willows and the poplars by + the monastery wall. Through that grey-green leafage, young with + early spring, the pinnacles of the Certosa leap like flames into + the sky. The rice-fields are under water, far and wide, shining + like burnished gold beneath the level light now near to sun-down. + Frogs are croaking; those persistent frogs, whom the Muses have + ordained to sing for aye, in spite of Bion and all tuneful poets + dead. We sit and watch the water-snakes, the busy rats, the + hundred creatures swarming in the fat well-watered soil. + Nightingales here and there, new-comers, tune their timid April + song: but, strangest of all sounds in such a place, my comrade + from the Grisons jodels forth an Alpine cowherd's melody. <i>Auf + den Alpen droben ist ein herrliches Leben!</i> + </p> + <p> + Did the echoes of Gian Galeazzo's convent ever wake to such a + tune as this before? + </p> + <p> + SAN MAURIZIO + </p> + <p> + The student of art in Italy, after mastering the characters of + different styles and epochs, finds a final satisfaction in the + contemplation of buildings designed and decorated by one master, + or by groups of artists interpreting the spirit of a single + period. Such supreme monuments of the national genius are not + very common, and they are therefore the more precious. Giotto's + Chapel at Padua; the Villa Farnesina at Rome, built by Peruzzi + and painted in fresco by Raphael and Sodoma; the Palazzo del Te + at Mantua, Giulio Romano's masterpiece; the Scuola di San Rocco, + illustrating the Venetian Renaissance at its climax, might be + cited among the most splendid of these achievements. In the + church of the Monastero Maggiore at Milan, dedicated to S. + Maurizio, Lombard architecture and fresco-painting may be studied + in this rare combination. The monastery itself, one of the oldest + in Milan, formed a retreat for cloistered virgins following the + rule of S. Benedict. It may have been founded as early as the + tenth century; but its church was rebuilt in the first two + decades of the sixteenth, between 1503 and 1519, and was + immediately afterwards decorated with frescoes by Luini and his + pupils. Gian Giacomo Dolcebono, architect and sculptor, called by + his fellow-craftsmen <i>magistro di taliare pietre</i>, gave the + design, at once simple and harmonious, which was carried out with + hardly any deviation from his plan. The church is a long + parallelogram, divided into two unequal portions, the first and + smaller for the public, the second for the nuns. The walls are + pierced with rounded and pilastered windows, ten on each side, + four of which belong to the outer and six to the inner section. + The dividing wall or septum rises to the point from which the + groinings of the roof spring; and round three sides of the whole + building, north, east, and south, runs a gallery for the use of + the convent. The altars of the inner and outer church are placed + against the septum, back to back, with certain differences of + structure that need not be described. Simple and severe, S. + Maurizio owes its architectural beauty wholly and entirely to + purity of line and perfection of proportion. There is a + prevailing spirit of repose, a sense of space, fair, lightsome, + and adapted to serene moods of the meditative fancy in this + building, which is singularly at variance with the religious + mysticism and imaginative grandeur of a Gothic edifice. The + principal beauty of the church, however, is its tone of colour. + Every square inch is covered with fresco or rich woodwork, + mellowed by time into that harmony of tints which blends the work + of greater and lesser artists in one golden hue of brown. Round + the arcades of the convent-loggia run delicate arabesques with + faces of fair female saints—Catherine, Agnes, Lucy, + Agatha,—gem-like or star-like, gazing from their gallery + upon the church below. The Luinesque smile is on their lips and + in their eyes, quiet, refined, as though the emblems of their + martyrdom brought back no thought of pain to break the Paradise + of rest in which they dwell. There are twenty-six in all, a + sisterhood of stainless souls, the lilies of Love's garden + planted round Christ's throne. Soldier saints are mingled with + them in still smaller rounds above the windows, chosen to + illustrate the virtues of an order which renounced the world. To + decide whose hand produced these masterpieces of Lombard suavity + and grace, or whether more than one, would not be easy. Near the + altar we can perhaps trace the style of Bartolommeo Suardi in an + Annunciation painted on the spandrils—that heroic style, + large and noble, known to us by the chivalrous S. Martin and the + glorified Madonna of the Brera frescoes. It is not impossible + that the male saints of the loggia may be also his, though a + tenderer touch, a something more nearly Lionardesque in its + quietude, must be discerned in Lucy and her sisters. The whole of + the altar in this inner church belongs to Luini. Were it not for + darkness and decay, we should pronounce this series of the + Passion in nine great compositions, with saints and martyrs and + torch-bearing genii, to be one of his most ambitious and + successful efforts. As it is, we can but judge in part; the + adolescent beauty of Sebastian, the grave compassion of S. Rocco, + the classical perfection of the cupid with lighted tapers, the + gracious majesty of women smiling on us sideways from their + Lombard eyelids—these remain to haunt our memory, emerging + from the shadows of the vault above. + </p> + <p> + The inner church, as is fitting, excludes all worldly elements. + We are in the presence of Christ's agony, relieved and tempered + by the sunlight of those beauteous female faces. All is solemn + here, still as the convent, pure as the meditations of a novice. + We pass the septum, and find ourselves in the outer church + appropriated to the laity. Above the high altar the whole wall is + covered with Luini's loveliest work, in excellent light and far + from ill preserved. The space divides into eight compartments. A + Pietà, an Assumption, Saints and Founders of the church, group + themselves under the influence of Luini's harmonising colour into + one symphonious whole. But the places of distinction are reserved + for two great benefactors of the convent, Alessandro de' + Bentivogli and his wife, Ippolita Sforza. When the Bentivogli + were expelled from Bologna by the Papal forces, Alessandro + settled at Milan, where he dwelt, honoured by the Sforzas and + allied to them by marriage, till his death in 1532. He was buried + in the monastery by the side of his sister Alessandra, a nun of + the order. Luini has painted the illustrious exile in his habit + as he lived. He is kneeling, as though in ever-during adoration + of the altar mystery, attired in a long black senatorial robe + trimmed with furs. In his left hand he holds a book; and above + his pale, serenely noble face is a little black berretta. Saints + attend him, as though attesting to his act of faith. Opposite + kneels Ippolita, his wife, the brilliant queen of fashion, the + witty leader of society, to whom Bandello dedicated his Novelle, + and whom he praised as both incomparably beautiful and singularly + learned. Her queenly form is clothed from head to foot in white + brocade, slashed and trimmed with gold lace, and on her forehead + is a golden circlet. She has the proud port of a princess, the + beauty of a woman past her prime but stately, the indescribable + dignity of attitude which no one but Luini could have rendered so + majestically sweet. In her hand is a book; and she, like + Alessandro, has her saintly sponsors, Agnes and Catherine and S. + Scolastica. + </p> + <p> + Few pictures bring the splendid Milanese Court so vividly before + us as these portraits of the Bentivogli: they are, moreover, very + precious for the light they throw on what Luini could achieve in + the secular style so rarely touched by him. Great, however, as + are these frescoes, they are far surpassed both in value and + interest by his paintings in the side chapel of S. Catherine. + Here more than anywhere else, more even than at Saronno or + Lugano, do we feel the true distinction of Luini—his + unrivalled excellence as a colourist, his power over pathos, the + refinement of his feeling, and the peculiar beauty of his + favourite types. The chapel was decorated at the expense of a + Milanese advocate, Francesco Besozzi, who died in 1529. It is he + who is kneeling, grey-haired and bareheaded, under the protection + of S. Catherine of Alexandria, intently gazing at Christ unbound + from the scourging pillar. On the other side stand S. Lawrence + and S. Stephen, pointing to the Christ and looking at us, as + though their lips were framed to say: 'Behold and see if there be + any sorrow like unto his sorrow.' Even the soldiers who have done + their cruel work, seem softened. They untie the cords tenderly, + and support the fainting form, too weak to stand alone. What + sadness in the lovely faces of S. Catherine and Lawrence! What + divine anguish in the loosened limbs and bending body of Christ; + what piety in the adoring old man! All the moods proper to this + supreme tragedy of the faith are touched as in some tenor song + with low accompaniment of viols; for it was Luini's special + province to feel profoundly and to express musically. The very + depth of the Passion is there; and yet there is no discord. + </p> + <p> + Just in proportion to this unique faculty for yielding a + melodious representation of the most intense moments of + stationary emotion, was his inability to deal with a dramatic + subject. The first episode of S. Catherine's execution, when the + wheel was broken and the executioners struck by lightning, is + painted in this chapel without energy and with a lack of + composition that betrays the master's indifference to his + subject. Far different is the second episode when Catherine is + about to be beheaded. The executioner has raised his sword to + strike. She, robed in brocade of black and gold, so cut as to + display the curve of neck and back, while the bosom is covered, + leans her head above her praying hands, and waits the blow in + sweetest resignation. Two soldiers stand at some distance in a + landscape of hill and meadow; and far up are seen the angels + carrying her body to its tomb upon Mount Sinai. I cannot find + words or summon courage to describe the beauty of this picture; + its atmosphere of holy peace, the dignity of its composition, the + golden richness of its colouring. The most tragic situation has + here again been alchemised by Luini's magic into a pure idyll, + without the loss of power, without the sacrifice of edification. + </p> + <p> + S. Catherine in this incomparable fresco is a portrait, the + history of which so strikingly illustrates the relation of the + arts to religion on the one hand, and to life on the other, in + the age of the Renaissance, that it cannot be omitted. At the end + of his fourth Novella, having related the life of the Contessa di + Cellant, Bandello says: 'And so the poor woman was beheaded; such + was the end of her unbridled desires; and he who would fain see + her painted to the life, let him go to the Church of the + Monistero Maggiore, and there will he behold her portrait.' The + Contessa di Cellant was the only child of a rich usurer who lived + at Casal Monferrato. Her mother was a Greek; and she was a girl + of such exquisite beauty, that, in spite of her low origin, she + became the wife of the noble Ermes Visconti in her sixteenth + year. He took her to live with him at Milan, where she frequented + the house of the Bentivogli, but none other. Her husband told + Bandello that he knew her temper better than to let her visit + with the freedom of the Milanese ladies. Upon his death, while + she was little more than twenty, she retired to Casale and led a + gay life among many lovers. One of these, the Count of Cellant in + the Val d'Aosta, became her second husband, conquered by her + extraordinary loveliness. They could not, however, agree + together. She left him, and established herself at Pavia. Rich + with her father's wealth and still of most seductive beauty, she + now abandoned herself to a life of profligacy. Three among her + lovers must be named: Ardizzino Valperga, Count of Masino; + Roberto Sanseverino, of the princely Naples family; and Don + Pietro di Cardona, a Sicilian. With each of the two first she + quarrelled, and separately besought each to murder the other. + They were friends and frustrated her plans by communicating them + to one another. The third loved her with the insane passion of a + very young man. What she desired, he promised to do blindly; and + she bade him murder his two predecessors in her favour. At this + time she was living at Milan, where the Duke of Bourbon was + acting as viceroy for the Emperor. Don Pietro took twenty-five + armed men of his household, and waylaid the Count of Masino, as + he was returning with his brother and eight or nine servants, + late one night from supper. Both the brothers and the greater + part of their suite were killed: but Don Pietro was caught. He + revealed the atrocity of his mistress; and she was sent to + prison. Incapable of proving her innocence, and prevented from + escaping, in spite of 15,000 golden crowns with which she hoped + to bribe her jailors, she was finally beheaded. Thus did a vulgar + and infamous Messalina, distinguished only by rare beauty, + furnish Luini with a S. Catherine for this masterpiece of pious + art! The thing seems scarcely credible. Yet Bandello lived in + Milan while the Church of S. Maurizio was being painted; nor does + he show the slightest sign of disgust at the discord between the + Contessa's life and her artistic presentation in the person of a + royal martyr. + </p> + <p> + A HUMANIST'S MONUMENT + </p> + <p> + In the Sculpture Gallery of the Brera is preserved a fair white + marble tomb, carved by that excellent Lombard sculptor, Agostino + Busti. The epitaph runs as follows:— + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + En Virtutem Mortis nesciam. + </p> + <p> + Vivet Lancinus Curtius + </p> + <p> + Sæcula per omnia + </p> + <p> + Quascunque lustrans oras, + </p> + <p> + Tantum possunt Camoenæ. + </p> + </div> + <p> + 'Look here on Virtue that knows nought of Death! Lancinus Curtius + shall live through all the centuries, and visit every shore of + earth. Such power have the Muses.' The timeworn poet reclines, as + though sleeping or resting, ready to be waked; his head is + covered with flowing hair, and crowned with laurel; it leans upon + his left hand. On either side of his couch stand cupids or genii + with torches turned to earth. Above is a group of the three + Graces, flanked by winged Pegasi. Higher up are throned two + Victories with palms, and at the top a naked Fame. We need not + ask who was Lancinus Curtius. He is forgotten, and his virtue has + not saved him from oblivion; though he strove in his lifetime, + <i>pro virili parte</i>, for the palm that Busti carved upon his + grave. Yet his monument teaches in short compass a deep lesson; + and his epitaph sums up the dream which lured the men of Italy in + the Renaissance to their doom. We see before us sculptured in + this marble the ideal of the humanistic poet-scholar's life: + Love, Grace, the Muse, and Nakedness, and Glory. There is not a + single intrusive thought derived from Christianity. The end for + which the man lived was Pagan. His hope was earthly fame. Yet his + name survives, if this indeed be a survival, not in those winged + verses which were to carry him abroad across the earth, but in + the marble of a cunning craftsman, scanned now and then by a + wandering scholar's eye in the half-darkness of a vault. + </p> + <p> + THE MONUMENT OF GASTON DE FOIX IN THE BRERA + </p> + <p> + The hero of Ravenna lies stretched upon his back in the hollow of + a bier covered with laced drapery; and his head rests on richly + ornamented cushions. These decorative accessories, together with + the minute work of his scabbard, wrought in the fanciful + mannerism of the <i>cinquecento</i>, serve to enhance the + statuesque simplicity of the young soldier's effigy. The contrast + between so much of richness in the merely subordinate details, + and this sublime severity of treatment in the person of the hero, + is truly and touchingly dramatic. There is a smile as of content + in death, upon his face; and the features are exceedingly + beautiful—with the beauty of a boy, almost of a woman. The + heavy hair is cut straight above the forehead and straight over + the shoulders, falling in massive clusters. A delicately + sculptured laurel branch is woven into a victor's crown, and laid + lightly on the tresses it scarcely seems to clasp. So fragile is + this wreath that it does not break the pure outline of the + boy-conqueror's head. The armour is quite plain. So is the + surcoat. Upon the swelling bust, that seems fit harbour for a + hero's heart, there lies the collar of an order composed of + cockle-shells; and this is all the ornament given to the figure. + The hands are clasped across a sword laid flat upon the breast, + and placed between the legs. Upon the chin is a little tuft of + hair, parted, and curling either way; for the victor of Ravenna, + like the Hermes of Homer, was πρωτον + ϋπηνητης, 'a youth of + princely blood, whose beard hath just begun to grow, for whom the + season of bloom is in its prime of grace.' The whole statue is + the idealisation of <i>virtù</i>—that quality so highly + prized by the Italians and the ancients, so well fitted for + commemoration in the arts. It is the apotheosis of human life + resolved into undying memory because of one great deed. It is the + supreme portrait in modern times of a young hero, chiselled by + artists belonging to a race no longer heroic, but capable of + comprehending and expressing the æsthetic charm of heroism. + Standing before it, we may say of Gaston what Arrian wrote to + Hadrian of Achilles:—'That he was a hero, if hero ever + lived, I cannot doubt; for his birth and blood were noble, and he + was beautiful, and his spirit was mighty, and he passed in + youth's prime away from men.' Italian sculpture, under the + condition of the <i>cinquecento</i>, had indeed no more congenial + theme than this of bravery and beauty, youth and fame, immortal + honour and untimely death; nor could any sculptor of death have + poetised the theme more thoroughly than Agostino Busti, whose + simple instinct, unlike that of Michelangelo, led him to + subordinate his own imagination to the pathos of reality. + </p> + <p> + SARONNO + </p> + <p> + The church of Saronno is a pretty building with a Bramantesque + cupola, standing among meadows at some distance from the little + town. It is the object of a special cult, which draws pilgrims + from the neighbouring country-side; but the concourse is not + large enough to load the sanctuary with unnecessary wealth. + Everything is very quiet in the holy place, and the offerings of + the pious seem to have been only just enough to keep the building + and its treasures of art in repair. The church consists of a + nave, a central cupola, a vestibule leading to the choir, the + choir itself, and a small tribune behind the choir. No other + single building in North Italy can boast so much that is + first-rate of the work of Luini and Gandenzio Ferrari. + </p> + <p> + The cupola is raised on a sort of drum composed of twelve pieces, + perforated with round windows and supported on four massive + piers. On the level of the eye are frescoes by Luini of S. Rocco, + S. Sebastian, S. Christopher, and S. Antony—by no means in + his best style, and inferior to all his other paintings in this + church. The Sebastian, for example, shows an effort to vary the + traditional treatment of this saint. He is tied in a sprawling + attitude to a tree; and little of Luini's special pathos or sense + of beauty—the melody of idyllic grace made + spiritual—appears in him. These four saints are on the + piers. Above are frescoes from the early Bible history by Lanini, + painted in continuation of Ferrari's medallions from the story of + Adam expelled from Paradise, which fill the space beneath the + cupola, leading the eye upward to Ferrari's masterpiece. + </p> + <p> + The dome itself is crowded with a host of angels singing and + playing upon instruments of music. At each of the twelve angles + of the drum stands a coryphæus of this celestial choir, full + length, with waving drapery. Higher up, the golden-haired, + broad-winged, divine creatures are massed together, filling every + square inch of the vault with colour. Yet there is no confusion. + The simplicity of the selected motive and the necessities of the + place acted like a check on Ferrari, who, in spite of his + dramatic impulse, could not tell a story coherently or fill a + canvas with harmonised variety. There is no trace of his violence + here. Though the motion of music runs through the whole multitude + like a breeze, though the joy expressed is a real <i>tripudio + celeste</i>, not one of all these angels flings his arms abroad + or makes a movement that disturbs the rhythm. We feel that they + are keeping time and resting quietly, each in his appointed seat, + as though the sphere was circling with them round the throne of + God, who is their centre and their source of gladness. Unlike + Correggio and his imitators, Ferrari has introduced no clouds, + and has in no case made the legs of his angels prominent. It is a + mass of noble faces and voluminously robed figures, emerging each + above the other like flowers in a vase. Bach too has specific + character, while all are robust and full of life, intent upon the + service set them. Their instruments of music are all the lutes + and viols, flutes, cymbals, drums, fifes, citherns, organs, and + harps that Ferrari's day could show. The scale of colour, as + usual with Ferrari, is a little heavy; nor are the tints + satisfactorily harmonised. But the vigour and invention of the + whole work would atone for minor defects of far greater + consequence. + </p> + <p> + It is natural, beneath this dome, to turn aside and think one + moment of Correggio at Parma. Before the <i>macchinisti</i> of + the seventeenth century had vulgarised the motive, Correggio's + bold attempt to paint heaven in flight from earth—earth + left behind in the persons of the Apostles standing round the + empty tomb, heaven soaring upward with a spiral vortex into the + abyss of light above—had an originality which set at nought + all criticism. There is such ecstasy of jubilation, such + rapturous rapidity of flight, that we who strain our eyes from + below, feel we are in the darkness of the grave which Mary left. + A kind of controlling rhythm for the composition is gained by + placing Gabriel, Madonna, and Christ at three points in the swirl + of angels. Nevertheless, composition—the presiding + all-controlling intellect—is just what makes itself felt by + absence; and Correggio's special qualities of light and colour + have now so far vanished from the cupola of the Duomo that the, + constructive poverty is not disguised. Here if anywhere in + painting, we may apply Goethe's words—<i>Gefühl ist + Alles.</i> + </p> + <p> + If then we return to Ferrari's angels at Saronno, we find that + the painter of Varallo chose a safer though a far more modest + theme. Nor did he expose himself to that most cruel of all + degradations which the ethereal genius of Correggio has suffered + from incompetent imitators. To daub a tawdry and superficial + reproduction of those Parmese frescoes, to fill the cupolas of + Italy with veritable <i>guazzetti di rane</i>, was comparatively + easy; and between our intelligence and what remains of that + stupendous masterpiece of boldness, crowd a thousand memories of + such ineptitude. On the other hand, nothing but solid work and + conscientious inspiration could enable any workman, however able, + to follow Ferrari in the path struck out by him at Saronno. His + cupola has had no imitator; and its only rival is the noble + pendant painted at Varallo by his own hand, of angels in adoring + anguish round the Cross. + </p> + <p> + In the ante-choir of the sanctuary are Luini's priceless frescoes + of the 'Marriage of the Virgin,' and the 'Dispute with the + Doctors.'<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id= + "FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class= + "fnanchor">[11]</a> Their execution is flawless, and they are + perfectly preserved. If criticism before such admirable examples + of so excellent a master be permissible, it may be questioned + whether the figures are not too crowded, whether the groups are + sufficiently varied and connected by rhythmic lines. Yet the + concords of yellow and orange with blue in the 'Sposalizio,' and + the blendings of dull violet and red in the 'Disputa,' make up + for much of stiffness. Here, as in the Chapel of S. Catherine at + Milan, we feel that Luini was the greatest colourist among + <i>frescanti.</i> In the 'Sposalizio' the female heads are + singularly noble and idyllically graceful. Some of the young men + too have Luini's special grace and abundance of golden hair. In + the 'Disputa' the gravity and dignity of old men are above all + things striking. + </p> + <p> + Passing into the choir, we find on either hand the 'Adoration of + the Magi' and the 'Purification of the Virgin,' two of Luini's + divinest frescoes. Above them in lunettes are four Evangelists + and four Latin Fathers, with four Sibyls. Time and neglect have + done no damage here: and here, again, perforce we notice perfect + mastery of colour in fresco. The blues detach themselves too + much, perhaps, from the rest of the colouring; and that is all a + devil's advocate could say. It is possible that the absence of + blue makes the S. Catherine frescoes in the Monastero Maggiore at + Milan surpass all other works of Luini. But nowhere else has he + shown more beauty and variety in detail than here. The group of + women led by Joseph, the shepherd carrying the lamb upon his + shoulder, the girl with a basket of white doves, the child with + an apple on the altar-steps, the lovely youth in the foreground + heedless of the scene; all these are idyllic incidents treated + with the purest, the serenest, the most spontaneous, the truest, + most instinctive sense of beauty. The landscape includes a view + of Saronno, and an episodical picture of the 'Flight into Egypt' + where a white-robed angel leads the way. All these lovely things + are in the 'Purification,' which is dated <i>Bernardinus Lovinus + pinxit</i>, MDXXV. + </p> + <p> + The fresco of the 'Magi' is less notable in detail, and in + general effect is more spoiled by obtrusive blues. There is, + however, one young man of wholly Lionardesque loveliness, whose + divine innocence of adolescence, unalloyed by serious thought, + unstirred by passions, almost forces a comparison with Sodoma. + The only painter who approaches Luini in what may be called the + Lombard, to distinguish it from the Venetian idyll, is Sodoma; + and the work of his which comes nearest to Luini's masterpieces + is the legend of S. Benedict, at Monte Oliveto, near Siena. Yet + Sodoma had not all Luini's innocence or <i>naïveté.</i> If he + added something slightly humorous which has an indefinite charm, + he lacked that freshness as of 'cool, meek-blooded flowers' and + boyish voices, which fascinates us in Luini. Sodoma was closer to + the earth, and feared not to impregnate what he saw of beauty + with the fiercer passions of his nature. If Luini had felt + passion, who shall say? It appears nowhere in his work, where + life is toned to a religious joyousness. When Shelley compared + the poetry of the Theocritean amourists to the perfume of the + tuberose, and that of the earlier Greek poets to 'a meadow-gale + of June, which mingles the fragrance of all the flowers of the + field,' he supplied us with critical images which may not + unfairly be used to point the distinction between Sodoma at Monte + Oliveto and Luini at Saronno. + </p> + <p> + THE CASTELLO OF FERRARA + </p> + <p> + Is it possible that the patron saints of cities should mould the + temper of the people to their own likeness? S. George, the + chivalrous, is champion of Ferrara. His is the marble group above + the Cathedral porch, so feudal in its medieval pomp. He and S. + Michael are painted in fresco over the south portcullis of the + Castle. His lustrous armour gleams with Giorgionesque brilliancy + from Dossi's masterpiece in the Pinacoteca. That Ferrara, the + only place in Italy where chivalry struck any root, should have + had S. George for patron, is at any rate significant. + </p> + <p> + The best preserved relic of princely feudal life in Italy is this + Castello of the Este family, with its sombre moat, chained + drawbridges, doleful dungeons, and unnumbered tragedies, each one + of which may be compared with Parisina's history. I do not want + to dwell on these things now. It is enough to remember the + Castello, built of ruddiest brick, time-mellowed with how many + centuries of sun and soft sea-air, as it appeared upon the close + of one tempestuous day. Just before evening the rain-clouds + parted and the sun flamed out across the misty Lombard plain. The + Castello burned like a hero's funeral pyre, and round its + high-built turrets swallows circled in the warm blue air. On the + moat slept shadows, mixed with flowers of sunset, tossed from + pinnacle and gable. Then the sky changed. A roof of thunder-cloud + spread overhead with the rapidity of tempest. The dying sun + gathered his last strength against it, fretting those steel-blue + arches with crimson; and all the fierce light, thrown from vault + to vault of cloud, was reflected back as from a shield, and cast + in blots and patches on the buildings. The Castle towered up + rosy-red and shadowy sombre, enshrined, embosomed in those purple + clouds; and momently ran lightning forks like rapiers through the + growing mass. Everything around, meanwhile, was quiet in the + grass-grown streets. The only sound was a high, clear boy's voice + chanting an opera tune. + </p> + <p> + PETRARCH'S TOMB AT ARQUA + </p> + <p> + The drive from Este along the skirts of the Euganean Hills to + Arqua takes one through a country which is tenderly beautiful, + because of its contrast between little peaked mountains and the + plain. It is not a grand landscape. It lacks all that makes the + skirts of Alps and Apennines sublime. Its charm is a certain + mystery and repose—an undefined sense of the neighbouring + Adriatic, a pervading consciousness of Venice unseen, but felt + from far away. From the terraces of Arqua the eye ranges across + olive-trees, laurels, and pomegranates on the southern slopes, to + the misty level land that melts into the sea, with churches and + tall campanili like gigantic galleys setting sail for fairyland + over 'the foam of perilous seas forlorn.' Let a blue-black shadow + from a thunder-cloud be cast upon this plain, and let one ray of + sunlight strike a solitary bell-tower;—it burns with palest + flame of rose against the steely dark, and in its slender shaft + and shell-like tint of pink all Venice is foreseen. + </p> + <p> + The village church of Arqua stands upon one of these terraces, + with a full stream of clearest water flowing by. On the little + square before the church-door, where the peasants congregate at + mass-time—open to the skies with all their stars and + storms, girdled by the hills, and within hearing of the vocal + stream—is Petrarch's sepulchre. Fit resting-place for what + remains to earth of such a poet's clay! It is as though + archangels, flying, had carried the marble chest and set it down + here on the hillside, to be a sign and sanctuary for after-men. A + simple rectilinear coffin, of smooth Verona <i>mandorlato</i>, + raised on four thick columns, and closed by a heavy cippus-cover. + Without emblems, allegories, or lamenting genii, this tomb of the + great poet, the great awakener of Europe from mental lethargy, + encircled by the hills, beneath the canopy of heaven, is + impressive beyond the power of words. Bending here, we feel that + Petrarch's own winged thoughts and fancies, eternal and aërial, + 'forms more real than living man, nurslings of immortality,' have + congregated to be the ever-ministering and irremovable attendants + on the shrine of one who, while he lived, was purest spirit in a + veil of flesh. + </p> + <p> + ON A MOUNTAIN + </p> + <p> + Milan is shining in sunset on those purple fields; and a score of + cities flash back the last red light, which shows each inequality + and undulation of Lombardy outspread four thousand feet beneath. + Both ranges, Alps and Apennines, are clear to view; and all the + silvery lakes are over-canopied and brought into one picture by + flame-litten mists. Monte Rosa lifts her crown of peaks above a + belt of clouds into light of living fire. The Mischabelhörner and + the Dom rest stationary angel-wings upon the rampart, which at + this moment is the wall of heaven. The pyramid of distant Monte + Viso burns like solid amethyst far, far away. Mont Cervin beckons + to his brother, the gigantic Finsteraarhorn, across tracts of + liquid ether. Bells are rising from the villages, now wrapped in + gloom, between me and the glimmering lake. A hush of evening + silence falls upon the ridges, cliffs, and forests of this + billowy hill, ascending into wave-like crests, and toppling with + awful chasms over the dark waters of Lugano. It is good to be + alone here at this hour. Yet I must rise and go—passing + through meadows, where white lilies sleep in silvery drifts, and + asphodel is pale with spires of faintest rose, and narcissus + dreams of his own beauty, loading the air with fragrance sweet as + some love-music of Mozart. These fields want only the white + figure of Persephone to make them poems: and in this twilight one + might fancy that the queen had left her throne by Pluto's side, + to mourn for her dead youth among the flowers uplifted between + earth and heaven. Nay, they are poems now, these fields; with + that unchanging background of history, romance, and human + life—the Lombard plain, against whose violet breadth the + blossoms bend their faint heads to the evening air. Downward we + hurry, on pathways where the beeches meet, by silent farms, by + meadows honey-scented, deep in dew. The columbine stands tall and + still on those green slopes of shadowy grass. The nightingale + sings now, and now is hushed again. Streams murmur through the + darkness, where the growth of trees, heavy with honeysuckle and + wild rose, is thickest. Fireflies begin to flit above the growing + corn. At last the plain is reached, and all the skies are + tremulous with starlight. Alas, that we should vibrate so + obscurely to these harmonies of earth and heaven! The inner finer + sense of them seems somehow unattainable—that spiritual + touch of soul evoking soul from nature, which should transfigure + our dull mood of self into impersonal delight. Man needs to be a + mytho-poet at some moments, or, better still, to be a mystic + steeped through half-unconsciousness in the vast wonder of the + world. Gold and untouched to poetry or piety by scenes that ought + to blend the spirit in ourselves with spirit in the world + without, we can but wonder how this phantom show of mystery and + beauty will pass away from us—how soon—and we be + where, see what, use all our sensibilities on aught or nought? + </p> + <p> + SIC GENIUS + </p> + <p> + In the picture-gallery at Modena there is a masterpiece of Dosso + Dossi. The frame is old and richly carved; and the painting, + bordered by its beautiful dull gold, shines with the lustre of an + emerald. In his happy moods Dosso set colour upon canvas, as no + other painter out of Venice ever did; and here he is at his + happiest. The picture is the portrait of a jester, dressed in + courtly clothes and with a feathered cap upon his head. He holds + a lamb in his arms, and carries the legend, <i>Sic Genius</i>. + Behind him is a landscape of exquisite brilliancy and depth. His + face is young and handsome. Dosso has made it one most wonderful + laugh. Even so perhaps laughed Yorick. Nowhere else have I seen a + laugh thus painted: not violent, not loud, although the lips are + opened to show teeth of dazzling whiteness;—but fine and + delicate, playing over the whole face like a ripple sent up from + the depths of the soul within. Who was he? What does the lamb + mean? How should the legend be interpreted? We cannot answer + these questions. He may have been the court-fool of Ferrara; and + his genius, the spiritual essence of the man, may have inclined + him to laugh at all things. That at least is the value he now has + for us. He is the portrait of perpetual irony, the spirit of the + golden Sixteenth Century which delicately laughed at the whole + world of thoughts and things, the quintessence of the poetry of + Ariosto, the wit of Berni, all condensed into one incarnation and + immortalised by truthfullest art. With the Gaul, the Spaniard, + and the German at her gates, and in her cities, and encamped upon + her fields, Italy still laughed; and when the voice of conscience + sounding through Savonarola asked her why, she only + smiled—<i>Sic Genius</i>. + </p> + <p> + One evening in May we rowed from Venice to Torcello, and at + sunset broke bread and drank wine together among the rank grasses + just outside that ancient church. It was pleasant to sit in the + so-called chair of Attila and feel the placid stillness of the + place. Then there came lounging by a sturdy young fellow in brown + country clothes, with a marvellous old wide-awake upon his head, + and across his shoulders a bunch of massive church-keys. In + strange contrast to his uncouth garb he flirted a pink Japanese + fan, gracefully disposing it to cool his sunburned olive cheeks. + This made us look at him. He was not ugly. Nay, there was + something of attractive in his face—the smooth-curved chin, + the shrewd yet sleepy eyes, and finely cut thin lips—a + curious mixture of audacity and meekness blent upon his features. + Yet this impression was but the prelude to his smile. When that + first dawned, some breath of humour seeming to stir in him + unbidden, the true meaning was given to his face. Each feature + helped to make a smile that was the very soul's life of the man + expressed. I broadened, showing brilliant teeth, and grew into a + noiseless laugh; and then I saw before me Dosso's jester, the + type of Shakspere's fools, the life of that wild irony, now rude, + now fine, which once delighted Courts. The laughter of the whole + world and of all the centuries was silent in his face. What he + said need not be repeated. The charm was less in his words than + in his personality; for Momus-philosophy lay deep in every look + and gesture of the man. The place lent itself to irony: parties + of Americans and English parsons, the former agape for any + rubbishy old things, the latter learned in the lore of obsolete + Church-furniture, had thronged Torcello; and now they were all + gone, and the sun had set behind the Alps, while an irreverent + stranger drank his wine in Attila's chair, and nature's jester + smiled—<i>Sic Genius</i>. + </p> + <p> + When I slept that night I dreamed of an altar-piece in the Temple + of Folly. The goddess sat enthroned beneath a canopy hung with + bells and corals. On her lap was a beautiful winged smiling + genius, who flourished two bright torches. On her left hand stood + the man of Modena with his white lamb, a new S. John. On her + right stood the man of Torcello with his keys, a new S. Peter. + Both were laughing after their all-absorbent, divine, noiseless + fashion; and under both was written, <i>Sic Genius</i>. Are not + all things, even profanity, permissible in dreams? + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="COMO_AND_IL_MEDEGHINO" id= + "COMO_AND_IL_MEDEGHINO"></a>COMO AND IL MEDEGHINO + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + To which of the Italian lakes should the palm of beauty be + accorded? This question may not unfrequently have moved the idle + minds of travellers, wandering through that loveliest region from + Orta to Garda—from little Orta, with her gemlike island, + rosy granite crags, and chestnut-covered swards above the Colma; + to Garda, bluest of all waters, surveyed in majestic length from + Desenzano or poetic Sirmione, a silvery sleeping haze of hill and + cloud and heaven and clear waves bathed in modulated azure. And + between these extreme points what varied lovelinesses lie in + broad Maggiore, winding Como, Varese with the laughing face + upturned to heaven, Lugano overshadowed by the crested crags of + Monte Generoso, and Iseo far withdrawn among the rocky Alps! He + who loves immense space, cloud shadows slowly sailing over purple + slopes, island gardens, distant glimpses of snow-capped + mountains, breadth, air, immensity, and flooding sunlight, will + choose Maggiore. But scarcely has he cast his vote for this, the + Juno of the divine rivals, when he remembers the triple + lovelinesses of the Larian Aphrodite, disclosed in all their + placid grace from Villa Serbelloni;—the green blue of the + waters, clear as glass, opaque through depth; the + <i>millefleurs</i> roses clambering into cypresses by Cadenabbia; + the laburnums hanging their yellow clusters from the clefts of + Sasso Eancio; the oleander arcades of Varenna; the wild white + limestone crags of San Martiuo, which he has climbed to feast his + eyes with the perspective, magical, serene, Lionardesquely + perfect, of the distant gates of Adda. Then while this modern + Paris is yet doubting, perhaps a thought may cross his mind of + sterner, solitary Lake Iseo—the Pallas of the three. She + offers her own attractions. The sublimity of Monte Adamello, + dominating Lovere and all the lowland like Hesiod's hill of + Virtue reared aloft above the plain of common life, has charms to + tempt heroic lovers. Nor can Varese be neglected. In some + picturesque respects, Varese is the most perfect of the lakes. + Those long lines of swelling hills that lead into the level, + yield an infinite series of placid foregrounds, pleasant to the + eye by contrast with the dominant snow-summits, from Monte Viso + to Monte Leone: the sky is limitless to southward; the low + horizons are broken by bell-towers and farmhouses; while + armaments of clouds are ever rolling in the interval of Alps and + plain. + </p> + <p> + Of a truth, to decide which is the queen of the Italian lakes, is + but an <i>infinita quæstio</i>; and the mere raising of it is + folly. Still each lover of the beautiful may give his vote; and + mine, like that of shepherd Paris, is already given to the Larian + goddess. Words fail in attempting to set forth charms which have + to be enjoyed, or can at best but lightly be touched with most + consummate tact, even as great poets have already touched on Como + Lake—from Virgil with his 'Lari maxume,' to Tennyson and + the Italian Manzoni. The threshold of the shrine is, however, + less consecrated ground; and the Cathedral of Como may form a + vestibule to the temple where silence is more golden than the + speech of a describer. + </p> + <p> + The Cathedral of Como is perhaps the most perfect building in + Italy for illustrating the fusion of Gothic and Renaissance + styles, both of a good type and exquisite in their sobriety. The + Gothic ends with the nave. The noble transepts and the choir, + each terminating in a rounded tribune of the same dimensions, are + carried out in a simple and decorous Bramantesque manner. The + transition from the one style to the other is managed so + felicitously, and the sympathies between them are so well + developed, that there is no discord. What we here call Gothic, is + conceived in a truly southern spirit, without fantastic + efflorescence or imaginative complexity of multiplied parts; + while the Renaissance manner, as applied by Tommaso Rodari, has + not yet stiffened into the lifeless neo-Latinism of the later + <i>cinquecento</i>: it is still distinguished by delicate + inventiveness, and beautiful subordination of decorative detail + to architectural effect. Under these happy conditions we feel + that the Gothic of the nave, with its superior severity and + sombreness, dilates into the lucid harmonies of choir and + transepts like a flower unfolding. In the one the mind is tuned + to inner meditation and religious awe; in the other the + worshipper passes into a temple of the clear explicit + faith—as an initiated neophyte might be received into the + meaning of the mysteries. + </p> + <p> + After the collapse of the Roman Empire the district of Como seems + to have maintained more vividly than the rest of Northern Italy + some memory of classic art. <i>Magistri Comacini</i> is a title + frequently inscribed upon deeds and charters of the earlier + middle ages, as synonymous with sculptors and architects. This + fact may help to account for the purity and beauty of the Duomo. + It is the work of a race in which the tradition of delicate + artistic invention had never been wholly interrupted. To Tommaso + Rodari and his brothers, Bernardino and Jacopo, the world owes + this sympathetic fusion of the Gothic and the Bramantesque + styles; and theirs too is the sculpture with which the Duomo is + so richly decorated. They were natives of Maroggia, a village + near Mendrisio, beneath the crests of Monte Generoso, close to + Campione, which sent so many able craftsmen out into the world + between the years 1300 and 1500. Indeed the name of Campionesi + would probably have been given to the Rodari, had they left their + native province for service in Eastern Lombardy. The body of the + Duomo had been finished when Tommaso Rodari was appointed master + of the fabric in 1487. To complete the work by the addition of a + tribune was his duty. He prepared a wooden model and exposed it, + after the fashion of those times, for criticism in his + <i>bottega</i>; and the usual difference of opinion arose among + the citizens of Como concerning its merits. Cristoforo Solaro, + surnamed Il Gobbo, was called in to advise. It may be remembered + that when Michelangelo first placed his Pietà in S. Peter's, + rumour gave it to this celebrated Lombard sculptor, and the + Florentine was constrained to set his own signature upon the + marble. The same Solaro carved the monument of Beatrice Sforza in + the Certosa of Pavia. He was indeed in all points competent to + criticise or to confirm the design of his fellow-craftsman. Il + Gobbo disapproved of the proportions chosen by Rodari, and + ordered a new model to be made; but after much discussion, and + some concessions on the part of Rodari, who is said to have + increased the number of the windows and lightened the orders of + his model, the work was finally entrusted to the master of + Maroggia. + </p> + <p> + Not less creditable than the general design of the tribune is the + sculpture executed by the brothers. The north side door is a + master-work of early Renaissance chiselling, combining mixed + Christian and classical motives with a wealth of floral ornament. + Inside, over the same door, is a procession of children seeming + to represent the Triumph of Bacchus, with perhaps some Christian + symbolism. Opposite, above the south door, is a frieze of + fighting Tritons—horsed sea deities pounding one another + with bunches of fish and splashing the water, in Mantegna's + spirit. The doorways of the façade are decorated with the same + rare workmanship; and the canopies, supported by naked fauns and + slender twisted figures, under which the two Plinies are seated, + may be reckoned among the supreme achievements of delicate + Renaissance sculpture. The Plinies are not like the work of the + same master. They are older, stiffer, and more Gothic. The chief + interest attaching to them is that they are habited and seated + after the fashion of Humanists. This consecration of the two + Pagan saints beside the portals of the Christian temple is truly + characteristic of the fifteenth century in Italy. Beneath, are + little basreliefs representing scenes from their respective + lives, in the style of carved predellas on the altars of saints. + </p> + <p> + The whole church is peopled with detached statues, among which a + Sebastian in the Chapel of the Madonna must be mentioned as + singularly beautiful. It is a finely modelled figure, with the + full life and exuberant adolescence of Venetian inspiration. A + peculiar feature of the external architecture is the series of + Atlantes, bearing on their shoulders urns, heads of lions, and + other devices, and standing on brackets round the upper cornice + just below the roof. They are of all sorts; young and old, male + and female; classically nude, and boldly outlined. These + water-conduits, the work of Bernardo Bianco and Francesco Rusca, + illustrate the departure of the earlier Renaissance from the + Gothic style. They are gargoyles; but they have lost the + grotesque element. At the same time the sculptor, while + discarding Gothic tradition, has not betaken himself yet to a + servile imitation of the antique. He has used invention, and + substituted for grinning dragons' heads something wild and + bizarre of his own in harmony with classic taste. + </p> + <p> + The pictures in the chapels, chiefly by Luini and + Ferrari—an idyllic Nativity, with faun-like shepherds and + choirs of angels—a sumptuous adoration of the Magi—a + jewelled Sposalizio with abundance of golden hair flowing over + draperies of green and crimson—will interest those who are + as yet unfamiliar with Lombard painting. Yet their architectural + setting, perhaps, is superior to their intrinsic merit as works + of art; and their chief value consists in adding rare dim flakes + of colour to the cool light of the lovely church. More curious, + because less easily matched, is the gilded woodwork above the + altar of S. Abondio, attributed to a German carver, but executed + for the most part in the purest Luinesque manner. The pose of the + enthroned Madonna, the type and gesture of S. Catherine, and the + treatment of the Pietà above, are thoroughly Lombard, showing how + Luini's ideal of beauty could be expressed in carving. Some of + the choicest figures in the Monastero Maggiore at Milan seem to + have descended from the walls and stepped into their tabernacles + on this altar. Yet the style is not maintained consistently. In + the reliefs illustrating the life of S. Abondio we miss Luini's + childlike grace, and find instead a something that reminds us of + Donatello—a seeking after the classical in dress, carriage, + and grouping of accessory figures. It may have been that the + carver, recognising Luini's defective composition, and finding + nothing in that master's manner adapted to the spirit of relief, + had the good taste to render what was Luinesquely lovely in his + female figures, and to fall back on a severer model for his + basreliefs. + </p> + <p> + The building-fund for the Duomo was raised in Como and its + districts. Boxes were placed in all the churches to receive the + alms of those who wished to aid the work. The clergy begged in + Lent, and preached the duty of contributing on special days. + Presents of lime and bricks and other materials were thankfully + received. Bishops, canons, and municipal magistrates were + expected to make costly gifts on taking office. Notaries, under + penalty of paying 100 soldi if they neglected their engagement, + were obliged to persuade testators, <i>cum bonis modis + dulciter</i>, to inscribe the Duomo on their wills. Fines for + various offences were voted to the building by the city. Each new + burgher paid a certain sum; while guilds and farmers of the taxes + bought monopolies and privileges at the price of yearly + subsidies. A lottery was finally established for the benefit of + the fabric. Of course each payment to the good work carried with + it spiritual privileges; and so willingly did the people respond + to the call of the Church, that during the sixteenth century the + sums subscribed amounted to 200,000 golden crowns. Among the most + munificent donators are mentioned the Marchese Giacomo Gallio, + who bequeathed 290,000 lire, and a Benzi, who gave 10,000 ducats. + </p> + <p> + While the people of Como were thus straining every nerve to + complete a pious work, which at the same time is one of the most + perfect masterpieces of Italian art, their lovely lake was turned + into a pirate's stronghold, and its green waves stained with + slaughter of conflicting navies. So curious is this episode in + the history of the Larian lake that it is worth while to treat of + it at some length. Moreover, the lives of few captains of + adventure offer matter more rich in picturesque details and more + illustrative of their times than that of Gian Giacomo de' Medici, + the Larian corsair, long known and still remembered as Il + Medeghino. He was born in Milan in 1498, at the beginning of that + darkest and most disastrous period of Italian history, when the + old fabric of social and political existence went to ruin under + the impact of conflicting foreign armies. He lived on until the + year 1555, witnessing and taking part in the dismemberment of the + Milanese Duchy, playing a game of hazard at high stakes for his + own profit with the two last Sforzas, the Empire, the French, and + the Swiss. At the beginning of the century, while he was still a + youth, the rich valley of the Valtelline, with Bormio and + Chiavenna, had been assigned to the Grisons. The Swiss Cantons at + the same time had possessed themselves of Lugano and Bellinzona. + By these two acts of robbery the mountaineers tore a portion of + its fairest territory from the Duchy; and whoever ruled in Milan, + whether a Sforza, or a Spanish viceroy, or a French general, was + impatient to recover the lost jewel of the ducal crown. So much + has to be premised, because the scene of our hero's romantic + adventures was laid upon the borderland between the Duchy and the + Cantons. Intriguing at one time with the Duke of Milan, at + another with his foes the French or Spaniards, Il Medeghino found + free scope for his peculiar genius in a guerilla warfare, carried + on with the avowed purpose of restoring the Valtelline to Milan. + To steer a plain course through that chaos of politics, in which + the modern student, aided by the calm clear lights of history and + meditation, cannot find a clue, was of course impossible for an + adventurer whose one aim was to gratify his passions and exalt + himself at the expense of others. It is therefore of little use + to seek motives of statecraft or of patriotism in the conduct of + Il Medeghino. He was a man shaped according to Machiavelli's + standard of political morality—self-reliant, using craft + and force with cold indifference to moral ends, bent only upon + wringing for himself the largest share of this world's power for + men who, like himself, identified virtue with unflinching and + immitigable egotism. + </p> + <p> + Il Medeghino's father was Bernardo de' Medici, a Lombard, who + neither claimed nor could have proved cousinship with the great + Medicean family of Florence. His mother was Cecilia Serbelloni. + The boy was educated in the fashionable humanistic studies, + nourishing his young imagination with the tales of Roman heroes. + The first exploit by which he proved his <i>virtù</i>, was the + murder of a man he hated, at the age of sixteen. This 'virile act + of vengeance,' as it was called, brought him into trouble, and + forced him to choose the congenial profession of arms. At a time + when violence and vigour passed for manliness, a spirited + assassination formed the best of introductions to the captains of + mixed mercenary troops. Il Medeghino rose in favour with his + generals, helped to reinstate Francesco Sforza in his capital, + and, returning himself to Milan, inflicted severe vengeance on + the enemies who had driven him to exile. It was his ambition, at + this early period of his life, to be made governor of the Castle + of Musso, on the Lake of Como. While fighting in the + neighbourhood, he had observed the unrivalled capacities for + defence presented by its site; and some pre-vision of his future + destinies now urged him to acquire it, as the basis for the free + marauding life he planned. The headland of Musso lies about + halfway between Gravedona and Menaggio, on the right shore of the + Lake of Como. Planted on a pedestal of rock, and surmounted by a + sheer cliff, there then stood a very ancient tower, commanding + this promontory on the side of the land. Between it and the water + the Visconti, in more recent days, had built a square fort; and + the headland had been further strengthened by the addition of + connecting walls and bastions pierced for cannon. Combining + precipitous cliffs, strong towers, and easy access from the lake + below, this fortress of Musso was exactly the fit station for a + pirate. So long as he kept the command of the lake, he had little + to fear from land attacks, and had a splendid basis for + aggressive operations. Il Medeghino made his request to the Duke + of Milan; but the foxlike Sforza would not grant him a plain + answer. At length he hinted that if his suitor chose to rid him + of a troublesome subject, the noble and popular Astore Visconti, + he should receive Musso for payment. Crimes of bloodshed and + treason sat lightly on the adventurer's conscience. In a short + time he compassed the young Visconti's death, and claimed his + reward. The Duke despatched him thereupon to Musso, with open + letters to the governor, commanding him to yield the castle to + the bearer. Private advice, also entrusted to Il Medeghino, bade + the governor, on the contrary, cut the bearer's throat. The young + man, who had the sense to read the Duke's letter, destroyed the + secret document, and presented the other, or, as one version of + the story goes, forged a ducal order in his own favour.<a name= + "FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> At any rate, the + castle was placed in his hands; and affecting to know nothing of + the Duke's intended treachery, Il Medeghino took possession of it + as a trusted servant of the ducal crown. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he was settled in his castle, the freebooter devoted + all his energies to rendering it still more impregnable by + strengthening the walls and breaking the cliffs into more horrid + precipices. In this work he was assisted by his numerous friends + and followers; for Musso rapidly became, like ancient Rome, an + asylum for the ruffians and outlaws of neighbouring provinces. It + is even said that his sisters, Clarina and Margherita, rendered + efficient aid with manual labour. The mention of Clarina's name + justifies a parenthetical side-glance at Il Medeghino's pedigree, + which will serve to illustrate the exceptional conditions of + Italian society during this age. She was married to the Count + Giberto Borromeo, and became the mother of the pious Carlo + Borromeo, whose shrine is still adored at Milan in the Duomo. Il + Medeghino's brother, Giovan Angelo, rose to the Papacy, assuming + the title of Pius IV. Thus this murderous marauder was the + brother of a Pope and the uncle of a Saint; and these three + persons of one family embraced the various degrees and typified + the several characters which flourished with peculiar lustre in + Renaissance Italy—the captain of adventure soaked in blood, + the churchman unrivalled for intrigue, and the saint aflame with + holiest enthusiasm. Il Medeghino was short of stature, but well + made and powerful; broad-chested; with a penetrating voice and + winning countenance. He dressed simply, like one of his own + soldiers; slept but little; was insensible to carnal pleasure; + and though he knew how to win the affection of his men by jovial + speech, he maintained strict discipline in his little army. In + all points he was an ideal bandit chief, never happy unless + fighting or planning campaigns, inflexible of purpose, bold and + cunning in the execution of his schemes, cruel to his enemies, + generous to his followers, sacrificing all considerations, human + and divine, to the one aim of his life, self-aggrandisement by + force and intrigue. He knew well how to make himself both feared + and respected. One instance of his dealing will suffice. A + gentleman of Bellano, Polidoro Boldoni, in return to his + advances, coldly replied that he cared for neither amity nor + relationship with thieves and robbers; whereupon Il Medeghino + extirpated his family, almost to a man. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his settlement in Musso, Il Medeghino, wishing to + secure the gratitude of the Duke, his master, began war with the + Grisons. From Coire, from the Engadine, and from Davos, the + Alpine pikemen were now pouring down to swell the troops of + Francis I.; and their road lay through the Lake of Como. Il + Medeghino burned all the boats upon the lake, except those which + he took into his own service, and thus made himself master of the + water passage. He then swept the 'length of lordly Lario' from + Colico to Lecco, harrying the villages upon the shore, and + cutting off the bands of journeying Switzers at his pleasure. Not + content with this guerilla, he made a descent upon the territory + of the Trepievi, and pushed far up towards Chiavenna, forcing the + Grisons to recall their troops from the Milanese. These acts of + prowess convinced the Duke that he had found a strong ally in the + pirate chief. When Francis I. continued his attacks upon the + Duchy, and the Grisons still adhered to their French paymaster, + the Sforza formally invested Gian Giacomo de' Medici with the + perpetual governorship of Musso, the Lake of Como, and as much as + he could wrest from the Grisons above the lake. Furnished now + with a just title for his depredations, Il Medeghino undertook + the siege of Chiavenna. That town is the key to the valleys of + the Splügen and Bregaglia. Strongly fortified and well situated + for defence, the burghers of the Grisons well knew that upon its + possession depended their power in the Italian valleys. To take + it by assault was impossible, Il Medeghino used craft, entered + the castle, and soon had the city at his disposition. Nor did he + lose time in sweeping Val Bregaglia. The news of this conquest + recalled the Switzers from the Duchy; and as they hurried + homeward just before the battle of Pavia, it may be affirmed that + Gian Giacomo de' Medici was instrumental in the defeat and + capture of the French King. The mountaineers had no great + difficulty in dislodging their pirate enemy from Chiavenna, the + Valtelline, and Val Bregaglia. But he retained his hold on the + Trepievi, occupied the Valsassina, took Porlezza, and established + himself still more strongly in Musso as the corsair monarch of + the lake. + </p> + <p> + The tyranny of the Sforzas in Milan was fast going to pieces + between France and Spain; and in 1526 the Marquis of Pescara + occupied the capital in the name of Charles V. The Duke, + meanwhile, remained a prisoner in his Castello. Il Medeghino was + now without a master; for he refused to acknowledge the + Spaniards, preferring to watch events and build his own power on + the ruins of the dukedom. At the head of 4,000 men, recruited + from the lakes and neighbouring valleys, he swept the country far + and wide, and occupied the rich champaign of the Brianza. He was + now lord of the lakes of Como and Lugano, and absolute in Lecco + and the adjoining valleys. The town of Como itself alone belonged + to the Spaniards; and even Como was blockaded by the navy of the + corsair. Il Medeghino had a force of seven big ships, with three + sails and forty-eight oars, bristling with guns and carrying + marines. His flagship was a large brigantine, manned by picked + rowers, from the mast of which floated the red banner with the + golden palle of the Medicean arms. Besides these larger vessels, + he commanded a flotilla of countless small boats. It is clear + that to reckon with him was a necessity. If he could not be put + down with force, he might be bought over by concessions. The + Spaniards adopted the second course, and Il Medeghino, judging + that the cause of the Sforza family was desperate, determined in + 1528 to attach himself to the Empire. Charles V. invested him + with the Castle of Musso and the larger part of Como Lake, + including the town of Lecco. He now assumed the titles of Marquis + of Musso and Count of Lecco: and in order to prove his + sovereignty before the world, he coined money with his own name + and devices. + </p> + <p> + It will be observed that Gian Giacomo de' Medici had hitherto + acted with a single-hearted view to his own interests. At the age + of thirty he had raised himself from nothing to a principality, + which, though petty, might compare with many of some name in + Italy—with Carpi, for example, or Mirandola, or Camerino. + Nor did he mean to remain quiet in the prime of life. He regarded + Como Lake as the mere basis for more arduous undertakings. + Therefore, when the whirligig of events restored Francesco Sforza + to his duchy in 1529, Il Medeghino refused to obey his old lord. + Pretending to move under the Duke's orders, but really acting for + himself alone, he proceeded to attack his ancient enemies, the + Grisons. By fraud and force he worked his way into their + territory, seized Morbegno, and overran the Valtelline. He was + destined, however, to receive a serious check. Twelve thousand + Switzers rose against him on the one hand, on the other the Duke + of Milan sent a force by land and water to subdue his rebel + subject, while Alessandro Gonzaga marched upon his castles in the + Brianza. He was thus assailed by formidable forces from three + quarters, converging upon the Lake of Como, and driving him to + his chosen element, the water. Hastily quitting the Valtelline, + he fell back to the Castle of Mandello on the lake, collected his + navy, and engaged the ducal ships in a battle off Menaggio. In + this battle he was worsted. But he did not lose his courage. From + Bellagio, from Varenna, from Bellano he drove forth his enemies, + rolled the cannon of the Switzers into the lake, regained Lecco, + defeated the troops of Alessandro Gonzaga, and took the Duke of + Mantua prisoner. Had he but held Como, it is probable that he + might have obtained such terms at this time as would have + consolidated his tyranny. The town of Como, however, now belonged + to the Duke of Milan, and formed an excellent basis for + operations against the pirate. Overmatched, with an exhausted + treasury and broken forces, Il Medeghino was at last compelled to + give in. Yet he retired with all the honours of war. In exchange + for Musso and the lake, the Duke agreed to give him 35,000 golden + crowns, together with the feud and marquisate of Marignano. A + free pardon was promised not only to himself and his brothers, + but to all his followers; and the Duke further undertook to + transport his artillery and munitions of war at his own expense + to Marignano. Having concluded this treaty under the auspices of + Charles V. and his lieutenant, Il Medeghino, in March 1532, set + sail from Musso, and turned his back upon the lake for ever. The + Switzers immediately destroyed the towers, forts, walls, and + bastions of the Musso promontory, leaving in the midst of their + ruins the little chapel of S. Eufemia. + </p> + <p> + Gian Giacomo de' Medici, henceforth known to Europe as the + Marquis of Marignano, now took service under Spain; and through + the favour of Anton de Leyva, Viceroy for the Duchy, rose to the + rank of Field Marshal. When the Marquis del Vasto succeeded to + the Spanish governorship of Milan in 1536, he determined to + gratify an old grudge against the ex-pirate, and, having invited + him to a banquet, made him prisoner. II Medeghino was not, + however, destined to languish in a dungeon. Princes and kings + interested themselves in his fate. He was released, and journeyed + to the court of Charles V. in Spain. The Emperor received him + kindly, and employed him first in the Low Countries, where he + helped to repress the burghers of Ghent, and at the siege of + Landrecy commanded the Spanish artillery against other Italian + captains of adventure: for, Italy being now dismembered and + enslaved, her sons sought foreign service where they found best + pay and widest scope for martial science. Afterwards the Medici + ruled Bohemia as Spanish Viceroy; and then, as general of the + league formed by the Duke of Florence, the Emperor, and the Pope + to repress the liberties of Tuscany, distinguished himself in + that cruel war of extermination, which turned the fair Contado of + Siena into a poisonous Maremma. To the last Il Medeghino + preserved the instincts and the passions of a brigand chief. It + was at this time that, acting for the Grand Duke of Tuscany, he + first claimed open kinship with the Medici of Florence. Heralds + and genealogists produced a pedigree, which seemed to authorise + this pretension; he was recognised, together with his brother, + Pius IV., as an offshoot of the great house which had already + given Dukes to Florence, Kings to France, and two Popes to the + Christian world. In the midst of all this foreign service he + never forgot his old dream of conquering the Valtelline; and in + 1547 he made proposals to the Emperor for a new campaign against + the Grisons. Charles V. did not choose to engage in a war, the + profits of which would have been inconsiderable for the master of + half the civilised world, and which might have proved troublesome + by stirring up the tameless Switzers. Il Medeghino was obliged to + abandon a project cherished from the earliest dawn of his + adventurous manhood. + </p> + <p> + When Gian Giacomo died in 1555, his brother Battista succeeded to + his claims upon Lecco and the Trepievi. His monument, magnificent + with five bronze figures, the masterpiece of Leone Lioni, from + Menaggio, Michelangelesque in style, and of consummate + workmanship, still adorns the Duomo of Milan. It stands close by + the door that leads to the roof. This mausoleum, erected to the + memory of Gian Giacomo and his brother Gabrio, is said to have + cost 7800 golden crowns. On the occasion of the pirate's funeral + the Senate of Milan put on mourning, and the whole city followed + the great robber, the hero of Renaissance <i>virtù</i>, to the + grave. + </p> + <p> + Between the Cathedral of Como and the corsair Medeghino there is + but a slight link. Yet so extraordinary were the social + circumstances of Renaissance Italy, that almost at every turn, on + her seaboard, in her cities, from her hill-tops, we are compelled + to blend our admiration for the loveliest and purest works of art + amid the choicest scenes of nature with memories of execrable + crimes and lawless characters. Sometimes, as at Perugia, the + <i>nexus</i> is but local. At others, one single figure, like + that of Cellini, unites both points of view in a romance of + unparalleled dramatic vividness. Or, again, beneath the vaults of + the Certosa, near Pavia, a masterpiece of the serenest beauty + carries our thoughts perforce back to the hideous cruelties and + snake-like frauds of its despotic founder. This is the excuse for + combining two such diverse subjects in one study. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="BERGAMO_AND_BARTOLOMMEO_COLLEONI" id= + "BERGAMO_AND_BARTOLOMMEO_COLLEONI"></a><i>BERGAMO AND BARTOLOMMEO + COLLEONI</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + From the new town of commerce to the old town of history upon the + hill, the road is carried along a rampart lined, with + horse-chestnut trees—clumps of massy foliage, and snowy + pyramids of bloom, expanded in the rapture of a southern spring. + Each pair of trees between their stems and arch of intermingling + leaves includes a space of plain, checkered with cloud-shadows, + melting blue and green in amethystine haze. To right and left the + last spurs of the Alps descend, jutting like promontories, + heaving like islands from the misty breadth below: and here and + there are towers, half-lost in airy azure; and cities dwarfed to + blots; and silvery lines where rivers flow; and distant, + vapour-drowned, dim crests of Apennines. The city walls above us + wave with snapdragons and iris among fig-trees sprouting from the + riven stones. There are terraces over-rioted with pergolas of + vine, and houses shooting forward into balconies and balustrades, + from which a Romeo might launch himself at daybreak, warned by + the lark's song. A sudden angle in the road is turned, and we + pass from airspace and freedom into the old town, beneath walls + of dark brown masonry, where wild valerians light their torches + of red bloom in immemorial shade. Squalor and splendour live here + side by side. Grand Renaissance portals grinning with Satyr masks + are flanked by tawdry frescoes shamming stonework, or by doorways + where the withered bush hangs out a promise of bad wine. The + Cappella Colleoni is our destination, that masterpiece of the + sculptor-architect's craft, with its variegated + marbles,—rosy and white and creamy yellow and + jet-black,—in patterns, basreliefs, pilasters, statuettes, + encrusted on the fanciful domed shrine. Upon the façade are + mingled, in the true Renaissance spirit of genial acceptance, + motives Christian and Pagan with supreme impartiality. Medallions + of emperors and gods alternate with virtues, angels and cupids in + a maze of loveliest arabesque; and round the base of the building + are told two stories—the one of Adam from his creation to + his fall, the other of Hercules and his labours. Italian + craftsmen of the <i>quattrocento</i> were not averse to setting + thus together, in one framework, the myths of our first parents + and Alemena's son: partly perhaps because both subjects gave + scope to the free treatment of the nude; but partly also, we may + venture to surmise, because the heroism of Hellas counterbalanced + the sin of Eden. Here then we see how Adam and Eve were made and + tempted and expelled from Paradise and set to labour, how Cain + killed Abel, and Lamech slew a man to his hurt, and Isaac was + offered on the mountain. The tale of human sin and the promise of + redemption are epitomised in twelve of the sixteen basreliefs. + The remaining four show Hercules wrestling with Antæus, taming + the Nemean lion, extirpating the Hydra, and bending to his will + the bull of Crete. Labour, appointed for a punishment to Adam, + becomes a title to immortality for the hero. The dignity of man + is reconquered by prowess for the Greek, as it is repurchased for + the Christian by vicarious suffering. Many may think this + interpretation of Amadeo's basreliefs far-fetched; yet, such as + it is, it agrees with the spirit of Humanism, bent ever on + harmonising the two great traditions of the past. Of the + workmanship little need be said, except that it is wholly + Lombard, distinguished from the similar work of Della Quercia at + Bologna and Siena by a more imperfect feeling for composition, + and a lack of monumental gravity, yet graceful, rich in motives, + and instinct with a certain wayward <i>improvvisatore</i> charm. + </p> + <p> + This Chapel was built by the great Condottiere Bartolommeo + Colleoni, to be the monument of his puissance even in the grave. + It had been the Sacristy of S. Maria Maggiore, which, when the + Consiglio della Misericordia refused it to him for his + half-proud, half-pious purpose, he took and held by force. The + structure, of costliest materials, reared by Gian Antonio Amadeo, + cost him 50,000 golden florins. An equestrian statue of gilt + wood, voted to him by the town of Bergamo, surmounts his monument + inside the Chapel. This was the work of two German masters, + called 'Sisto figlio di Enrico Syri da Norimberga' and 'Leonardo + Tedesco.' The tomb itself is of marble, executed for the most + part in a Lombard style resembling Amadeo's, but scarcely worthy + of his genius. The whole effect is disappointing. Five figures + representing Mars, Hercules, and three sons-in-law of Colleoni, + who surround the sarcophagus of the buried general, are indeed + almost grotesque. The angularity and crumpled draperies of the + Milanese manner, when so exaggerated, produce an impression of + caricature. Yet many subordinate details—a row of + <i>putti</i> in a <i>cinquecento</i> frieze, for + instance—and much of the low relief work—especially + the Crucifixion with its characteristic episodes of the fainting + Maries and the soldiers casting dice—are lovely in their + unaffected Lombardism. + </p> + <p> + There is another portrait of Colleoni in a round above the great + door, executed with spirit, though in a <i>bravura</i> style that + curiously anticipates the decline of Italian sculpture. Gaunt, + hollow-eyed, with prominent cheek bones and strong jaws, this + animated, half-length statue of the hero bears the stamp of a + good likeness; but when or by whom it was made, I do not know. + </p> + <p> + Far more noteworthy than Colleoni's own monument is that of his + daughter Medea. She died young in 1470, and her father caused her + tomb, carved of Carrara marble, to be placed in the Dominican + Church of Basella, which he had previously founded. It was not + until 1842 that this most precious masterpiece of Antonio + Amadeo's skill was transferred to Bergamo. <i>Hic jacet Medea + virgo.</i> Her hands are clasped across her breast. A robe of + rich brocade, gathered to the waist and girdled, lies in simple + folds upon the bier. Her throat, exceedingly long and slender, is + circled with a string of pearls. Her face is not beautiful, for + the features, especially the nose, are large and prominent; but + it is pure and expressive of vivid individuality. The hair curls + in crisp short clusters, and the ear, fine and shaped almost like + a Faun's, reveals the scrupulous fidelity of the sculptor. + Italian art has, in truth, nothing more exquisite than this still + sleeping figure of the girl, who, when she lived, must certainly + have been so rare of type and lovable in personality. If Busti's + Lancinus Curtius be the portrait of a humanist, careworn with + study, burdened by the laurel leaves that were so dry and + dusty—if Gaston de Foix in the Brera, smiling at death and + beautiful in the cropped bloom of youth, idealise the hero of + romance—if Michelangelo's Penseroso translate in marble the + dark broodings of a despot's soul—if Della Porta's Julia + Farnese be the Roman courtesan magnificently throned in + nonchalance at a Pope's footstool—if Verocchio's Colleoni + on his horse at Venice impersonate the pomp and circumstance of + scientific war—surely this Medea exhales the flower-like + graces, the sweet sanctities of human life, that even in that + turbid age were found among high-bred Italian ladies. Such power + have mighty sculptors, even in our modern world, to make the mute + stone speak in poems and clasp the soul's life of a century in + some five or six transcendent forms. + </p> + <p> + The Colleoni, or Coglioni, family were of considerable antiquity + and well-authenticated nobility in the town of Bergamo. Two + lions' heads conjoined formed one of their canting ensigns; + another was borrowed from the vulgar meaning of their name. Many + members of the house held important office during the three + centuries preceding the birth of the famous general, Bartolommeo. + He was born in the year 1400 at Solza, in the Bergamasque + Contado. His father Paolo, or Pùho as he was commonly called, was + poor and exiled from the city, together with the rest of the + Guelf nobles, by the Visconti. Being a man of daring spirit, and + little inclined to languish in a foreign state as the dependent + on some patron, Pùho formed the bold design of seizing the Castle + of Trezzo. This he achieved in 1405 by fraud, and afterwards held + it as his own by force. Partly with the view of establishing + himself more firmly in his acquired lordship, and partly out of + family affection, Pùho associated four of his first-cousins in + the government of Trezzo. They repaid his kindness with an act of + treason and cruelty, only too characteristic of those times in + Italy. One day while he was playing at draughts in a room of the + Castle, they assaulted him and killed him, seized his wife and + the boy Bartolommeo, and flung them into prison. The murdered + Pùho had another son, Antonio, who escaped and took refuge with + Giorgio Benzone, the tyrant of Crema. After a short time the + Colleoni brothers found means to assassinate him also; therefore + Bartolommeo alone, a child of whom no heed was taken, remained to + be his father's avenger. He and his mother lived together in + great indigence at Solza, until the lad felt strong enough to + enter the service of one of the numerous petty Lombard princes, + and to make himself if possible a captain of adventure. His name + alone was a sufficient introduction, and the Duchy of Milan, + dismembered upon the death of Gian Maria Visconti, was in such a + state that all the minor despots were increasing their forces and + preparing to defend by arms the fragments they had seized from + the Visconti heritage. Bartolommeo therefore had no difficulty in + recommending himself to Filippo d'Arcello, sometime general in + the pay of the Milanese, but now the new lord of Piacenza. With + this master he remained as page for two or three years, learning + the use of arms, riding, and training himself in the physical + exercises which were indispensable to a young Italian soldier. + Meanwhile Filippo Maria Visconti reacquired his hereditary + dominions; and at the age of twenty, Bartolommeo found it prudent + to seek a patron stronger than d'Arcello. The two great + Condottieri, Sforza Attendolo and Braccio, divided the military + glories of Italy at this period; and any youth who sought to rise + in his profession, had to enrol himself under the banners of the + one or the other. Bartolommeo chose Braccio for his master, and + was enrolled among his men as a simple trooper, or + <i>ragazzo</i>, with no better prospects than he could make for + himself by the help of his talents and his borrowed horse and + armour. Braccio at this time was in Apulia, prosecuting the war + of the Neapolitan Succession disputed between Alfonso of Aragon + and Louis of Anjou under the weak sovereignty of Queen Joan. On + which side of a quarrel a Condottiere fought mattered but little: + so great was the confusion of Italian politics, and so complete + was the egotism of these fraudful, violent, and treacherous party + leaders. Yet it may be mentioned that Braccio had espoused + Alfonso's cause. Bartolommeo Colleoni early distinguished himself + among the ranks of the Bracceschi. But he soon perceived that he + could better his position by deserting to another camp. + Accordingly he offered his services to Jacopo Caldora, one of + Joan's generals, and received from him a commission of twenty + men-at-arms. It may here be parenthetically said that the rank + and pay of an Italian captain varied with the number of the men + he brought into the field. His title 'Condottiere' was derived + from the circumstance that he was said to have received a + <i>Condotta di venti cavalli</i>, and so forth. Each + <i>cavallo</i> was equal to one mounted man-at-arms and two + attendants, who were also called <i>ragazzi</i>. It was his + business to provide the stipulated number of men, to keep them in + good discipline, and to satisfy their just demands. Therefore an + Italian army at this epoch consisted of numerous small armies + varying in size, each held together by personal engagements to a + captain, and all dependent on the will of a general-in-chief, who + had made a bargain with some prince or republic for supplying a + fixed contingent of fighting-men. The <i>Condottiere</i> was in + other words a contractor or <i>impresario</i>, undertaking to do + a certain piece of work for a certain price, and to furnish the + requisite forces for the business in good working order. It will + be readily seen upon this system how important were the personal + qualities of the captain, and what great advantages those + Condottieri had, who, like the petty princes of Romagna and the + March, the Montefeltri, Ordelaffi, Malatesti, Manfredi, Orsini, + and Vitelli, could rely upon a race of hardy vassals for their + recruits. + </p> + <p> + It is not necessary to follow Colleoni's fortunes in the Regno, + at Aquila, Ancona, and Bologna. He continued in the service of + Caldora, who was now General of the Church, and had his + <i>Condotta</i> gradually increased. Meanwhile his cousins, the + murderers of his father, began to dread his rising power, and + determined, if possible, to ruin him. He was not a man to be + easily assassinated; so they sent a hired ruffian to Caldora's + camp to say that Bartolommeo had taken his name by fraud, and + that he was himself the real son of Pùho Colleoni. Bartolommeo + defied the liar to a duel; and this would have taken place before + the army, had not two witnesses appeared, who knew the fathers of + both Colleoni and the <i>bravo</i>, and who gave such evidence + that the captains of the army were enabled to ascertain the + truth. The impostor was stripped and drummed out of the camp. + </p> + <p> + At the conclusion of a peace between the Pope and the Bolognese, + Bartolommeo found himself without occupation. He now offered + himself to the Venetians, and began to fight again under the + great Carmagnola against Filippo Visconti. His engagement allowed + him forty men, which, after the judicial murder of Carmagnola at + Venice in 1432, were increased to eighty. Erasmo da Narni, better + known as Gattamelata, was now his general-in-chief—a man + who had risen from the lowest fortunes to one of the most + splendid military positions in Italy. Colleoni spent the next + years of his life, until 1443, in Lombardy, manoeuvring against + Il Piccinino, and gradually rising in the Venetian service, until + his Condotta reached the number of 800 men. Upon Gattamelata's + death at Padua in 1440, Colleoni became the most important of the + generals who had fought with Caldora in the March. The lordships + of Romano in the Bergamasque and of Covo and Antegnate in the + Cremonese had been assigned to him; and he was in a position to + make independent engagements with princes. What distinguished him + as a general, was a combination of caution with audacity. He + united the brilliant system of his master Braccio with the more + prudent tactics of the Sforzeschi; and thus, though he often + surprised his foes by daring stratagems and vigorous assaults, he + rarely met with any serious check. He was a captain who could be + relied upon for boldly seizing an advantage, no less than for + using a success with discretion. Moreover he had acquired an + almost unique reputation for honesty in dealing with his masters, + and for justice combined with humane indulgence to his men. His + company was popular, and he could always bring capital troops + into the field. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1443 Colleoni quitted the Venetian service on account + of a quarrel with Gherardo Dandolo, the Provoditore of the + Republic. He now took a commission from Filippo Maria Visconti, + who received him at Milan with great honour, bestowed on him the + Castello Adorno at Pavia, and sent him into the March of Ancona + upon a military expedition. Of all Italian tyrants this Visconti + was the most difficult to serve. Constitutionally timid, + surrounded with a crowd of spies and base informers, shrinking + from the sight of men in the recesses of his palace, and + controlling the complicated affairs of his Duchy by means of + correspondents and intelligencers, this last scion of the + Milanese despots lived like a spider in an inscrutable network of + suspicion and intrigue. His policy was one of endless plot and + counterplot. He trusted no man; his servants were paid to act as + spies on one another; his bodyguard consisted of mutually hostile + mercenaries; his captains in the field were watched and thwarted + by commissioners appointed to check them at the point of + successful ambition or magnificent victory. The historian has a + hard task when he tries to fathom the Visconti's schemes, or to + understand his motives. Half the Duke's time seems to have been + spent in unravelling the webs that he had woven, in undoing his + own work, and weakening the hands of his chosen ministers. + Conscious that his power was artificial, that the least breath + might blow him back into the nothingness from which he had arisen + on the wrecks of his father's tyranny, he dreaded the personal + eminence of his generals above all things. His chief object was + to establish a system of checks, by means of which no one whom he + employed should at any moment be great enough to threaten him. + The most formidable of these military adventurers, Francesco + Sforza, had been secured by marriage with Bianca Maria Visconti, + his master's only daughter, in 1441; but the Duke did not even + trust his son-in-law. The last six years of his life were spent + in scheming to deprive Sforza of his lordships; and the war in + the March, on which he employed Colleoni, had the object of + ruining the principality acquired by this daring captain from + Pope Eugenius IV. in 1443. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni was by no means deficient in those foxlike qualities + which were necessary to save the lion from the toils spread for + him by Italian intriguers. He had already shown that he knew how + to push his own interests, by changing sides and taking service + with the highest bidder, as occasion prompted. Nor, though his + character for probity and loyalty stood exceptionally high among + the men of his profession, was he the slave to any questionable + claims of honour or of duty. In that age of confused politics and + extinguished patriotism, there was not indeed much scope for + scrupulous honesty. But Filippo Maria Visconti proved more than a + match for him in craft. While Colleoni was engaged in pacifying + the revolted population of Bologna, the Duke yielded to the + suggestion of his parasites at Milan, who whispered that the + general was becoming dangerously powerful. He recalled him, and + threw him without trial into the dungeons of the Forni at Monza. + Here Colleoni remained a prisoner more than a year, until the + Duke's death in 1447, when he made his escape, and profited by + the disturbance of the Duchy to reacquire his lordships in the + Bergamasque territory. The true motive for his imprisonment + remains still buried in obscure conjecture. Probably it was not + even known to the Visconti, who acted on this, as on so many + other occasions, by a mere spasm of suspicious jealousy, for + which he could have given no account. + </p> + <p> + From the year 1447 to the year 1455, it is difficult to follow + Colleoni's movements, or to trace his policy. First, we find him + employed by the Milanese Republic, during its brief space of + independence; then he is engaged by the Venetians, with a + commission for 1500 horse; next, he is in the service of + Francesco Sforza; once more in that of the Venetians, and yet + again in that of the Duke of Milan. His biographer relates with + pride that, during this period, he was three times successful + against French troops in Piedmont and Lombardy. It appears that + he made short engagements, and changed his paymasters according + to convenience. But all this time he rose in personal importance, + acquired fresh lordships in the Bergamasque, and accumulated + wealth. He reached the highest point of his prosperity in 1455, + when the Republic of S. Mark elected him General-in-Chief of + their armies, with the fullest powers, and with a stipend of + 100,000 florins. For nearly twenty-one years, until the day of + his death, in 1475, Colleoni held this honourable and lucrative + office. In his will he charged the Signory of Venice that they + should never again commit into the hands of a single captain such + unlimited control over their military resources. It was indeed no + slight tribute to Colleoni's reputation for integrity, that the + jealous Republic, which had signified its sense of Carmagnola's + untrustworthiness by capital punishment, should have left him so + long in the undisturbed disposal of their army. The Standard and + the Bâton of S. Mark were conveyed to Colleoni by two + ambassadors, and presented to him at Brescia on June 24, 1455. + Three years later he made a triumphal entry into Venice, and + received the same ensigns of military authority from the hands of + the new Doge, Pasquale Malipiero. On this occasion his staff + consisted of some two hundred officers, splendidly armed, and + followed by a train of serving-men. Noblemen from Bergamo, + Brescia, and other cities of the Venetian territory, swelled the + cortege. When they embarked on the lagoons, they found the water + covered with boats and gondolas, bearing the population of Venice + in gala attire, to greet the illustrious guest with instruments + of music. Three great galleys of the Republic, called Bucentaurs, + issued from the crowd of smaller craft. On the first was the Doge + in his state robes, attended by the government in office, or the + Signoria of S. Mark. On the second were members of the Senate and + minor magistrates. The third carried the ambassadors of foreign + powers. Colleoni was received into the first state-galley, and + placed by the side of the Doge. The oarsmen soon cleared the + space between the land and Venice, passed the small canals, and + swept majestically up the Canalozzo among the plaudits of the + crowds assembled on both sides to cheer their General. Thus they + reached the piazzetta, where Colleoni alighted between the two + great pillars, and, conducted by the Doge in person, walked to + the Church of S. Mark. Here, after Mass had been said, and a + sermon had been preached, kneeling before the high altar he + received the truncheon from the Doge's hands. The words of his + commission ran as follows:— + </p> + <p> + 'By authority and decree of this most excellent City of Venice, + of us the Prince, and of the Senate, you are to be Commander and + Captain General of all our forces and armaments on terra firma. + Take from our hands this truncheon, with good augury and fortune, + as sign and warrant of your power. Be it your care and effort, + with dignity and splendour to maintain and to defend the Majesty, + the Loyalty, and the Principles of this Empire. Neither + provoking, not yet provoked, unless at our command, shall you + break into open warfare with our enemies. Free jurisdiction and + lordship over each one of our soldiers, except in cases of + treason, we hereby commit to you.' + </p> + <p> + After the ceremony of his reception, Colleoni was conducted with + no less pomp to his lodgings, and the next ten days were spent in + festivities of all sorts. + </p> + <p> + The commandership-in-chief of the Venetian forces was perhaps the + highest military post in Italy. It placed Colleoni on the + pinnacle of his profession, and made his camp the favourite + school of young soldiers. Among his pupils or lieutenants we read + of Ercole d'Este, the future Duke of Ferrara; Alessandro Sforza, + lord of Pesaro; Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat; Cicco and Pino + Ordelaffi, princes of Forli; Astorre Manfredi, the lord of + Faenza; three Counts of Mirandola; two princes of Carpi; Deifobo, + the Count of Anguillara; Giovanni Antonio Caldora, lord of Jesi + in the March; and many others of less name. Honours came thick + upon him. When one of the many ineffectual leagues against the + infidel was formed in 1468, during the pontificate of Paul II., + he was named Captain-General for the Crusade. Pius II. designed + him for the leader of the expedition he had planned against the + impious and savage despot, Sigismondo Malatesta. King René of + Anjou, by special patent, authorised him to bear his name and + arms, and made him a member of his family. The Duke of Burgundy, + by a similar heraldic fiction, conferred upon him his name and + armorial bearings. This will explain why Colleoni is often styled + 'di Andegavia e Borgogna.' In the case of René, the honour was + but a barren show. But the patent of Charles the Bold had more + significance. In 1473 he entertained the project of employing the + great Italian General against his Swiss foes; nor does it seem + reasonable to reject a statement made by Colleoni's biographer, + to the effect that a secret compact had been drawn up between him + and the Duke of Burgundy, for the conquest and partition of the + Duchy of Milan. The Venetians, in whose service Colleoni still + remained, when they became aware of this project, met it with + peaceful but irresistible opposition. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni had been engaged continually since his earliest boyhood + in the trade of war. It was not therefore possible that he should + have gained a great degree of literary culture. Yet the fashion + of the times made it necessary that a man in his position should + seek the society of scholars. Accordingly his court and camp were + crowded with students, in whose wordy disputations he is said to + have delighted. It will be remembered that his contemporaries, + Alfonso the Magnanimous, Francesco Sforza, Federigo of Urbino, + and Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, piqued themselves at least as + much upon their patronage of letters, as upon their prowess in + the field. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni's court, like that of Urbino, was a model of good + manners. As became a soldier, he was temperate in food and + moderate in slumber. It was recorded of him that he had never sat + more than one hour at meat in his own house, and that he never + overslept the sunrise. After dinner he would converse with his + friends, using commonly his native dialect of Bergamo, and + entertaining the company now with stories of adventure, and now + with pithy sayings. In another essential point he resembled his + illustrious contemporary, the Duke of Urbino; for he was + sincerely pious in an age which, however it preserved the + decencies of ceremonial religion, was profoundly corrupt at + heart. His principal lordships in the Bergamasque territory owed + to his munificence their fairest churches and charitable + institutions. At Martinengo, for example, he rebuilt and + re-endowed two monasteries, the one dedicated to S. Chiara, the + other to S. Francis. In Bergamo itself he founded an + establishment named' La Pieta,' for the good purpose of dowering + and marrying poor girls. This house he endowed with a yearly + income of 3000 ducats. The Sulphur baths of Trescorio, at some + distance from the city, were improved and opened to poor patients + by a hospital which he provided. At Rumano he raised a church to + S. Peter, and erected buildings of public utility, which on his + death he bequeathed to the society of the Misericordia in that + town. All the places of his jurisdiction owed to him such + benefits as good water, new walls, and irrigation works. In + addition to these munificent foundations must be mentioned the + Basella, or Monastery of Dominican friars, which he established + not far from Bergamo, upon the river Serio, in memory of his + beloved daughter Medea. Last, not least, was the Chapel of S. + John the Baptist, attached to the Church of S. Maria Maggiore, + which he endowed with fitting maintenance for two priests and + deacons. + </p> + <p> + The one defect acknowledged by his biographer was his partiality + for women. Early in life he married Tisbe, of the noble house of + the Brescian Martinenghi, who bore him one daughter, Caterina, + wedded to Gasparre Martinengo. Two illegitimate daughters, Ursina + and Isotta, were recognised and treated by him as legitimate. The + first he gave in marriage to Gherardo Martinengo, and the second + to Jacopo of the same family. Two other natural children, + Doratina and Ricardona, were mentioned in his will: he left them + four thousand ducats a piece for dowry. Medea, the child of his + old age (for she was born to him when he was sixty), died before + her father, and was buried, as we have seen, in the Chapel of + Basella. + </p> + <p> + Throughout his life he was distinguished for great physical + strength and agility. When he first joined the troop of Braccio, + he could race, with his corselet on, against the swiftest runner + of the army; and when he was stripped, few horses could beat him + in speed. Far on into old age he was in the habit of taking long + walks every morning for the sake of exercise, and delighted in + feats of arms and jousting matches. 'He was tall, straight, and + full of flesh, well proportioned, and excellently made in all his + limbs. His complexion inclined somewhat to brown, but was + coloured with sanguine and lively carnation. His eyes were black; + in look and sharpness of light, they were vivid, piercing, and + terrible. The outlines of his nose and all his countenance + expressed a certain manly nobleness, combined with goodness and + prudence.' Such is the portrait drawn of Colleoni by his + biographer; and it well accords with the famous bronze statue of + the general at Venice. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni lived with a magnificence that suited his rank. His + favourite place of abode was Malpaga, a castle built by him at + the distance of about an hour's drive from Bergamo. The place is + worth a visit, though its courts and gates and galleries have now + been turned into a monster farm, and the southern rooms, where + Colleoni entertained his guests, are given over to the silkworms. + Half a dozen families, employed upon a vast estate of the + Martinengo family, occupy the still substantial house and + stables. The moat is planted with mulberry-trees; the upper rooms + are used as granaries for golden maize; cows, pigs, and horses + litter in the spacious yard. Yet the walls of the inner court and + of the ancient state rooms are brilliant with frescoes, executed + by some good Venetian hand, which represent the chief events of + Colleoni's life—his battles, his reception by the Signory + of Venice, his tournaments and hawking parties, and the great + series of entertainments with which he welcomed Christiern of + Denmark. This king had made his pilgrimage to Rome and was + returning westward, when the fame of Colleoni and his princely + state at Malpaga induced him to turn aside and spend some days as + the general's guest. In order to do him honour, Colleoni left his + castle at the king's disposal and established himself with all + his staff and servants in a camp at some distance from Malpaga. + The camp was duly furnished with tents and trenches, stockades, + artillery, and all the other furniture of war. On the king's + approach, Colleoni issued with trumpets blowing and banners + flying to greet his guest, gratifying him thus with a spectacle + of the pomp and circumstance of war as carried on in Italy. The + visit was further enlivened by sham fights, feats of arms, and + trials of strength. When it ended, Colleoni presented the king + with one of his own suits of armour, and gave to each of his + servants a complete livery of red and white, his colours. Among + the frescoes at Malpaga none are more interesting, and none, + thanks to the silkworms rather than to any other cause, are + fortunately in a better state of preservation, than those which + represent this episode in the history of the Castle. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni died in the year 1475, at the age of seventy-five. Since + he left no male representative, he constituted the Republic of S. + Mark his heir-in-chief, after properly providing for his + daughters and his numerous foundations. The Venetians received + under this testament a sum of 100,000 ducats, together with all + arrears of pay due to him, and 10,000 ducats owed him by the Duke + of Ferrara. It set forth the testator's intention that this money + should be employed in defence of the Christian faith against the + Turk. One condition was attached to the bequest. The legatees + were to erect a statue to Colleoni on the Piazza of S. Mark. + This, however, involved some difficulty; for the proud Republic + had never accorded a similar honour, nor did they choose to + encumber their splendid square with a monument. They evaded the + condition by assigning the Campo in front of the Scuola di S. + Marco, where also stands the Church of S. Zanipolo, to the + purpose. Here accordingly the finest bronze equestrian statue in + Italy, if we except the Marcus Aurelius of the Capitol, was + reared upon its marble pedestal by Andrea Verocchio and + Alessandro Leopardi. + </p> + <p> + Colleoni's liberal expenditure of wealth found its reward in the + immortality conferred by art. While the names of Braccio, his + master in the art of war, and of Piccinino, his great adversary, + are familiar to few but professed students, no one who has + visited either Bergamo or Venice can fail to have learned + something about the founder of the Chapel of S. John and the + original of Leopardi's bronze. The annals of sculpture assign to + Verocchio, of Florence, the principal share in this statue: but + Verocchio died before it was cast; and even granting that he + designed the model, its execution must be attributed to his + collaborator, the Venetian Leopardi. For my own part, I am loth + to admit that the chief credit of this masterpiece belongs to a + man whose undisputed work at Florence shows but little of its + living spirit and splendour of suggested motion. That the Tuscan + science of Verocchio secured conscientious modelling for man and + horse may be assumed; but I am fain to believe that the + concentrated fire which animates them both is due in no small + measure to the handling of his northern fellow-craftsman. + </p> + <p> + While immersed in the dreary records of crimes, treasons, + cruelties, and base ambitions, which constitute the bulk of + fifteenth-century Italian history, it is refreshing to meet with + a character so frank and manly, so simply pious and comparatively + free from stain, as Colleoni. The only general of his day who can + bear comparison with him for purity of public life and decency in + conduct, was Federigo di Montefeltro. Even here, the comparison + redounds to Colleoni's credit; for he, unlike the Duke of Urbino, + rose to eminence by his own exertion in a profession fraught with + peril to men of ambition and energy. Federigo started with a + principality sufficient to satisfy his just desires for power. + Nothing but his own sense of right and prudence restrained + Colleoni upon the path which brought Francesco Sforza to a duchy + by dishonourable dealings, and Carmagnola to the scaffold by + questionable practice against his masters. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="CREMA_AND_THE_CRUCIFIX" id= + "CREMA_AND_THE_CRUCIFIX"></a><i>CREMA AND THE CRUCIFIX</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + Few people visit Crema. It is a little country town of Lombardy, + between Cremona and Treviglio, with no historic memories but very + misty ones belonging to the days of the Visconti dynasty. On + every side around the city walls stretch smiling vineyards and + rich meadows, where the elms are married to the mulberry-trees by + long festoons of foliage hiding purple grapes, where the + sunflowers droop their heavy golden heads among tall stems of + millet and gigantic maize, and here and there a rice-crop ripens + in the marshy loam. In vintage time the carts, drawn by their + white oxen, come creaking townward in the evening, laden with + blue bunches. Down the long straight roads, between rows of + poplars, they creep on; and on the shafts beneath the pyramid of + fruit lie contadini stained with lees of wine. Far off across + that 'waveless sea' of Lombardy, which has been the battlefield + of countless generations, rise the dim grey Alps, or else pearled + domes of thunder-clouds in gleaming masses over some tall + solitary tower. Such backgrounds, full of peace, suggestive of + almost infinite distance, and dignified with colours of + incomparable depth and breadth, the Venetian painters loved. No + landscape in Europe is more wonderful than this—thrice + wonderful in the vastness of its arching heavens, in the + stillness of its level plain, and in the bulwark of huge crested + mountains, reared afar like bastions against the northern sky. + The little town is all alive in this September weather. At every + corner of the street, under rustling abeles and thick-foliaged + planes, at the doors of palaces and in the yards of inns, men, + naked from the thighs downward, are treading the red must into + vats and tuns; while their mild-eyed oxen lie beneath them in the + road, peaceably chewing the cud between one journey to the + vineyard and another. It must not be imagined that the scene of + Alma Tadema's 'Roman Vintage,' or what we fondly picture to our + fancy of the Athenian Lenaea, is repeated in the streets of + Crema. This modern treading of the wine-press is a very prosaic + affair. The town reeks with a sour smell of old casks and crushed + grape-skins, and the men and women at work bear no resemblance + whatever to Bacchus and his crew. Yet even as it is, the Lombard + vintage, beneath floods of sunlight and a pure blue sky, is + beautiful; and he who would fain make acquaintance with Crema, + should time his entry into the old town, if possible, on some + still golden afternoon of autumn. It is then, if ever, that he + will learn to love the glowing brickwork of its churches and the + quaint terra-cotta traceries that form its chief artistic charm. + </p> + <p> + How the unique brick architecture of the Lombard cities took its + origin—whether from the precepts of Byzantine aliens in the + earliest middle ages, or from the native instincts of a mixed + race composed of Gallic, Ligurian, Roman, and Teutonic elements, + under the leadership of Longobardic rulers—is a question + for antiquarians to decide. There can, however, be no doubt that + the monuments of the Lombard style, as they now exist, are no + less genuinely local, no less characteristic of the country they + adorn, no less indigenous to the soil they sprang from, than the + Attic colonnades of Mnesicles and Ictinus. What the marble + quarries of Pentelicus were to the Athenian builders, the clay + beneath their feet was to those Lombard craftsmen. From it they + fashioned structures as enduring, towers as majestic, and + cathedral aisles as solemn, as were ever wrought from chiselled + stone. There is a true sympathy between those buildings and the + Lombard landscape, which by itself might suffice to prove the + originality of their almost unknown architects. The rich colour + of the baked clay—finely modulated from a purplish red, + through russet, crimson, pink, and orange, to pale yellow and + dull grey—harmonises with the brilliant greenery of Lombard + vegetation and with the deep azure of the distant Alpine range. + Reared aloft above the flat expanse of plain, those square + <i>torroni</i>, tapering into octagons and crowned with slender + cones, break the long sweeping lines and infinite horizons with a + contrast that affords relief, and yields a resting-place to tired + eyes; while, far away, seen haply from some bridge above Ticino, + or some high-built palace loggia, they gleam like columns of pale + rosy fire against the front of mustering storm-clouds blue with + rain. In that happy orchard of Italy, a pergola of vines in leaf, + a clump of green acacias, and a campanile soaring above its + church roof, brought into chance combination with the reaches of + the plain and the dim mountain range, make up a picture eloquent + in its suggestive beauty. + </p> + <p> + Those ancient builders wrought cunningly with their material. The + bricks are fashioned and fixed to last for all time. Exposed to + the icy winds of a Lombard winter, to the fierce fire of a + Lombard summer, and to the moist vapours of a Lombard autumn; + neglected by unheeding generations; with flowers clustering in + their crannies, and birds nesting in their eaves, and mason-bees + filling the delicate network of their traceries—they still + present angles as sharp as when they were but finished, and + joints as nice as when the mortar dried in the first months of + their building. This immunity from age and injury they owe partly + to the imperishable nature of baked clay; partly to the care of + the artists who selected and mingled the right sorts of earth, + burned them with scrupulous attention, and fitted them together + with a patience born of loving service. Each member of the + edifice was designed with a view to its ultimate place. The + proper curve was ascertained for cylindrical columns and for + rounded arches. Larger bricks were moulded for the supporting + walls, and lesser pieces were adapted to the airy vaults and + lanterns. In the brickfield and the kiln the whole church was + planned and wrought out in its details, before the hands that + made a unity of all these scattered elements were set to the work + of raising it in air. When they came to put the puzzle together, + they laid each brick against its neighbour, filling up the almost + imperceptible interstices with liquid cement composed of + quicklime and fine sand in water. After five centuries the seams + between the layers of bricks that make the bell-tower of S. + Gottardo at Milan, yield no point of vantage to the penknife or + the chisel. + </p> + <p> + Nor was it in their welding of the bricks alone that these + craftsmen showed their science. They were wont to enrich the + surface with marble, sparingly but effectively employed—as + in those slender detached columns, which add such beauty to the + octagon of S. Gottardo, or in the string-courses of strange + beasts and reptiles that adorn the church fronts of Pavia. They + called to their aid the <i>mandorlato</i> of Verona, supporting + their porch pillars on the backs of couchant lions, inserting + polished slabs on their façades, and building huge sarcophagi + into their cloister alleys. Between terra-cotta and this marble + of Verona there exists a deep and delicate affinity. It took the + name of <i>mandorlato</i>, I suppose, from a resemblance to + almond blossoms. But it is far from having the simple beauty of a + single hue. Like all noble veined stones, it passes by a series + of modulations and gradations through a gamut of associated + rather than contrasted tints. Not the pink of the almond blossom + only, but the creamy whiteness of the almond kernel, and the dull + yellow of the almond nut may be found in it; and yet these + colours are so blent and blurred to all-pervading mellowness, + that nowhere is there any shock of contrast or violence of a + preponderating tone. The veins which run in labyrinths of + crossing, curving, and contorted lines all over its smooth + surface add, no doubt, to this effect of unity. The polish, + lastly, which it takes, makes the <i>mandorlato</i> shine like a + smile upon the sober face of the brickwork: for, serviceable as + terra-cotta is for nearly all artistic purposes, it cannot + reflect light or gain the illumination which comes from surface + brightness. + </p> + <p> + What the clay can do almost better than any crystalline material, + may be seen in the mouldings so characteristic of Lombard + architecture. Geometrical patterns of the rarest and most + fanciful device; scrolls of acanthus foliage, and traceries of + tendrils; Cupids swinging in festoons of vines; angels joining + hands in dance, with fluttering skirts and windy hair, and mouths + that symbol singing; grave faces of old men and beautiful + profiles of maidens leaning from medallions; wide-winged genii + filling the spandrils of cloister arches, and cherubs clustered + in the rondure of rose-windows—ornaments like these, + wrought from the plastic clay, and adapted with true taste to the + requirements of the architecture, are familiar to every one who + has studied the church front of Crema, the cloisters of the + Certosa, the courts of the Ospedale Maggiore at Milan, or the + public palace of Cremona. + </p> + <p> + If the <i>mandorlato</i> gives a smile to those majestic Lombard + buildings, the terra-cotta decorations add the element of life + and movement. The thought of the artist in its first freshness + and vivacity is felt in them. They have all the spontaneity of + improvisation, the seductive melody of unpremeditated music. + Moulding the supple earth with 'hand obedient to the brain,' the + <i>plasticatore</i> has impressed his most fugitive dreams of + beauty on it without effort; and what it cost him but a few + fatigueless hours to fashion, the steady heat of the furnace has + gifted with imperishable life. Such work, no doubt, has the + defects of its qualities. As there are few difficulties to + overcome, it suffers from a fatal facility—<i>nec pluteum + coedit nec demorsos sapit ungues</i>. It is therefore apt to be + unequal, touching at times the highest point of inspiration, as + in the angels of Guccio at Perugia, and sinking not unfrequently + into the commonplace of easygoing triviality, as in the common + floral traceries of Milanese windows. But it is never laboured, + never pedantic, never dulled by the painful effort to subdue an + obstinate material to the artist's will. If marble is required to + develop the strength of the few supreme sculptors, terra-cotta + saves intact the fancies of a crowd of lesser men. + </p> + <p> + When we reflect that all the force, solemnity, and beauty of the + Lombard buildings was evoked from clay, we learn from them this + lesson: that the thought of man needs neither precious material + nor yet stubborn substance for the production of enduring + masterpieces. The red earth was enough for God when He made man + in His own image; and mud dried in the sun suffices for the + artist, who is next to God in his creative faculty—since + <i>non merita nome di creatore se non Iddio ed il poeta</i>. + After all, what is more everlasting than terra-cotta? The + hobnails of the boys who ran across the brickfields in the Roman + town of Silchester, may still be seen, mingled with the impress + of the feet of dogs and hoofs of goats, in the tiles discovered + there. Such traces might serve as a metaphor for the footfall of + artistic genius, when the form-giver has stamped his thought upon + the moist clay, and fire has made that imprint permanent. + </p> + <p> + Of all these Lombard edifices, none is more beautiful than the + Cathedral of Crema, with its delicately finished campanile, built + of choicely tinted yellow bricks, and ending in a lantern of the + gracefullest, most airily capricious fancy. This bell-tower does + not display the gigantic force of Cremona's famous torrazzo, + shooting 396 feet into blue ether from the city square; nor can + it rival the octagon of S. Gottardo for warmth of hue. Yet it has + a character of elegance, combined with boldness of invention, + that justifies the citizens of Crema in their pride. It is + unique; and he who has not seen it does not know the whole + resources of the Lombard style. The façade of the Cathedral + displays that peculiar blending of Byzantine or Romanesque round + arches with Gothic details in the windows, and with the acute + angle of the central pitch, which forms the characteristic + quality of the late <i>trecento</i> Lombard manner. In its + combination of purity and richness it corresponds to the best age + of decorated work in English Gothic. What, however, strikes a + Northern observer is the strange detachment of this elaborate + façade from the main structure of the church. Like a frontispiece + cut out of cardboard and pierced with ornamental openings, it + shoots far above the low roof of the nave; so that at night the + moon, rising above the southern aisle, shines through its topmost + window, and casts the shadow of its tracery upon the pavement of + the square. This is a constructive blemish to which the Italians + in no part of the peninsula were sensitive. They seem to have + regarded their church fronts as independent of the edifice, + capable of separate treatment, and worthy in themselves of being + made the subject of decorative skill. + </p> + <p> + In the so-called Santuario of Crema—a circular church + dedicated to S. Maria della Croce, outside the walls—the + Lombard style has been adapted to the manner of the + Mid-Renaissance. This church was raised in the last years of the + fifteenth century by Gian Battista Battagli, an architect of + Lodi, who followed the pure rules of taste, bequeathed to North + Italian builders by Bramante. The beauty of the edifice is due + entirely to its tranquil dignity and harmony of parts, the + lightness of its circling loggia, and the just proportion + maintained between the central structure and the four projecting + porticoes. The sharp angles of these vestibules afford a contrast + to the simplicity of the main building, while their clustered + cupolas assist the general effect of roundness aimed at by the + architect. Such a church as this proves how much may be achieved + by the happy distribution of architectural masses. It was the + triumph of the best Renaissance style to attain lucidity of + treatment, and to produce beauty by geometrical proportion. When + Leo Battista Alberti complained to his friend, Matteo di Bastia, + that a slight alteration of the curves in his design for S. + Francesco at Rimini would 'spoil his music,' <i>ciò che tu muti + discorda tutta quella musica</i>, this is what he meant. The + melody of lines and the harmony of parts made a symphony to his + eyes no less agreeable than a concert of tuned lutes and voices + to his ears; and to this concord he was so sensitive that any + deviation was a discord. + </p> + <p> + After visiting the churches of Crema and sauntering about the + streets awhile, there is nothing left to do but to take refuge in + the old Albergo del Pozzo. This is one of those queer Italian + inns, which carry you away at once into a scene of Goldoni. It is + part of some palace, where nobles housed their <i>bravi</i> in + the sixteenth century, and which the lesser people of to-day have + turned into a dozen habitations. Its great stone staircase leads + to a saloon upon which the various bedchambers open; and round + its courtyard runs an open balcony, and from the court grows up a + fig-tree poking ripe fruit against a bedroom window. Oleanders in + tubs and red salvias in pots, and kitchen herbs in boxes, + flourish on the pavement, where the ostler comes to wash his + carriages, and where the barber shaves the poodle of the house. + Visitors to the Albergo del Pozzo are invariably asked if they + have seen the Museo; and when they answer in the negative, they + are conducted with some ceremony to a large room on the + ground-floor of the inn, looking out upon the courtyard and the + fig-tree. It was here that I gained the acquaintance of Signor + Folcioni, and became possessor of an object that has made the + memory of Crema doubly interesting to me ever since. + </p> + <p> + When we entered the Museo, we found a little old man, gentle, + grave, and unobtrusive, varnishing the ugly portrait of some + Signor of the <i>cinquecento</i>. Round the walls hung pictures, + of mediocre value, in dingy frames; but all of them bore sounding + titles. Titians, Lionardos, Guido Renis, and Luinis, looked down + and waited for a purchaser. In truth this museum was a + <i>bric-à-brac</i> shop of a sort that is common enough in Italy, + where treasures of old lace, glass, armour, furniture, and + tapestry, may still be met with. Signor Folcioni began by + pointing out the merits of his pictures; and after making due + allowance for his zeal as amateur and dealer, it was possible to + join in some of his eulogiums. A would-be Titian, for instance, + bought in Verona from a noble house in ruins, showed Venetian + wealth of colour in its gemmy greens and lucid crimsons shining + from a background deep and glowing. Then he led us to a + walnut-wood bureau of late Renaissance work, profusely carved + with nymphs and Cupids, and armed men, among festoons of fruits + embossed in high relief. Deeply drilled worm-holes set a seal of + antiquity upon the blooming faces and luxuriant garlandslike the + touch of Time who 'delves the parallels in beauty's brow.' On the + shelves of an ebony cabinet close by he showed us a row of cups + cut out of rock-crystal and mounted in gilt silver, with heaps of + engraved gems, old snuff-boxes, coins, medals, sprays of coral, + and all the indescribable lumber that one age flings aside as + worthless for the next to pick up from the dust-heap and regard + as precious. Surely the genius of culture in our century might be + compared to a chiffonnier of Paris, who, when the night has + fallen, goes into the streets, bag on back and lantern in hand, + to rake up the waifs and strays a day of whirling life has left + him. + </p> + <p> + The next curiosity was an ivory carving of S. Anthony preaching + to the fishes, so fine and small you held it on your palm, and + used a lens to look at it. Yet there stood the Santo + gesticulating, and there were the fishes in rows—the little + fishes first, and then the middle-sized, and last of all the + great big fishes almost out at sea, with their heads above the + water and their mouths wide open, just as the <i>Fioretti di San + Francesco</i> describes them. After this came some original + drawings of doubtful interest, and then a case of fifty-two + <i>nielli</i>. These were of unquestionable value; for has not + Cicognara engraved them on a page of his classic monograph? The + thin silver plates, over which once passed the burin of Maso + Finiguerra, cutting lines finer than hairs, and setting here a + shadow in dull acid-eaten grey, and there a high light of + exquisite polish, were far more delicate than any proofs + impressed from them. These frail masterpieces of Florentine + art—the first beginnings of line engraving—we held in + our hands while Signor Folcioni read out Cicognara's commentary + in a slow impressive voice, breaking off now and then to point at + the originals before us. + </p> + <p> + The sun had set, and the room was almost dark, when he laid his + book down, and said: 'I have not much left to show—yet + stay! Here are still some little things of interest.' He then + opened the door into his bedroom, and took down from a nail above + his bed a wooden Crucifix. Few things have fascinated me more + than this Crucifix—produced without parade, half + negligently, from the dregs of his collection by a dealer in old + curiosities at Crema. The cross was, or is—for it is lying + on the table now before me—twenty-one inches in length, + made of strong wood, covered with coarse yellow parchment, and + shod at the four ends with brass. The Christ is roughly hewn in + reddish wood, coloured scarlet, where the blood streams from the + five wounds. Over the head an oval medallion, nailed into the + cross, serves as framework to a miniature of the Madonna, softly + smiling with a Correggiesque simper. The whole Crucifix is not a + work of art, but such as may be found in every convent. Its date + cannot be earlier than the beginning of the eighteenth century. + As I held it in my hand, I thought—perhaps this has been + carried to the bedside of the sick and dying; preachers have + brandished it from the pulpit over conscience-stricken + congregations; monks have knelt before it on the brick floor of + their cells, and novices have kissed it in the vain desire to + drown their yearnings after the relinquished world; perhaps it + has attended criminals to the scaffold, and heard the secrets of + repentant murderers; but why should it be shown me as a thing of + rarity? These thoughts passed through my mind, while Signor + Folcioni quietly remarked: 'I bought this Cross from the Frati + when their convent was dissolved in Crema.' Then he bade me turn + it round, and showed a little steel knob fixed into the back + between the arms. This was a spring. He pressed it, and the upper + and lower parts of the cross came asunder; and holding the top + like a handle, I drew out as from a scabbard a sharp steel blade, + concealed in the thickness of the wood, behind the very body of + the agonising Christ. What had been a crucifix became a deadly + poniard in my grasp, and the rust upon it in the twilight looked + like blood. 'I have often wondered,' said Signor Folcioni, 'that + the Frati cared to sell me this.' + </p> + <p> + There is no need to raise the question of the genuineness of this + strange relic, though I confess to having had my doubts about it, + or to wonder for what nefarious purposes the impious weapon was + designed—whether the blade was inserted by some rascal monk + who never told the tale, or whether it was used on secret service + by the friars. On its surface the infernal engine carries a dark + certainty of treason, sacrilege, and violence. Yet it would be + wrong to incriminate the Order of S. Francis by any suspicion, + and idle to seek the actual history of this mysterious weapon. A + writer of fiction could indeed produce some dark tale in the + style of De Stendhal's 'Nouvelles,' and christen it 'The Crucifix + of Crema.' And how delighted would Webster have been if he had + chanced to hear of such a sword-sheath! He might have placed it + in the hands of Bosola for the keener torment of his Duchess. + Flamineo might have used it; or the disguised friars, who made + the deathbed of Bracciano hideous, might have plunged it in the + Duke's heart after mocking his eyes with the figure of the + suffering Christ. To imagine such an instrument of moral terror + mingled with material violence, lay within the scope of Webster's + sinister and powerful genius. But unless he had seen it with his + eyes, what poet would have ventured to devise the thing and + display it even in the dumb show of a tragedy? Fact is more + wonderful than romance. No apocalypse of Antichrist matches what + is told of Roderigo Borgia; and the crucifix of Crema exceeds the + sombre fantasy of Webster. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be the truth about this cross, it has at any rate + the value of a symbol or a metaphor. The idea which it + materialises, the historical events of which it is a sign, may + well arrest attention. A sword concealed in the + crucifix—what emblem brings more forcibly to mind than this + that two-edged glaive of persecution which Dominic unsheathed to + mow down the populations of Provence and to make Spain destitute + of men? Looking upon the crucifix of Crema, we may seem to see + pestilence-stricken multitudes of Moors and Jews dying on the + coasts of Africa and Italy. The Spaniards enter Mexico; and this + is the cross they carry in their hands. They take possession of + Peru; and while the gentle people of the Incas come to kiss the + bleeding brows of Christ, they plunge this dagger in their sides. + What, again, was the temporal power of the Papacy but a sword + embedded in a cross? Each Papa Rè, when he ascended the Holy + Chair, was forced to take the crucifix of Crema and to bear it + till his death. A long procession of war-loving Pontiffs, levying + armies and paying captains with the pence of S. Peter, in order + to keep by arms the lands they had acquired by fraud, defiles + before our eyes. First goes the terrible Sixtus IV., who died of + grief when news was brought him that the Italian princes had made + peace. He it was who sanctioned the conspiracy to murder the + Medici in church, at the moment of the elevation of the Host. The + brigands hired to do this work refused at the last moment. The + sacrilege appalled them. 'Then,' says the chronicler, 'was found + a priest, who, being used to churches, had no scruple.' The + poignard this priest carried was this crucifix of Crema. After + Sixtus came the blood-stained Borgia; and after him Julius II., + whom the Romans in triumphal songs proclaimed a second Mars, and + who turned, as Michelangelo expressed it, the chalices of Rome + into swords and helms. Leo X., who dismembered Italy for his + brother and nephew; and Clement VII., who broke the neck of + Florence and delivered the Eternal City to the spoiler, follow. + Of the antinomy between the Vicariate of Christ and an earthly + kingdom, incarnated by these and other Holy Fathers, what symbol + could be found more fitting than a dagger with a crucifix for + case and covering? + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to think or write of these matters without + rhetoric. When I laid my head upon my pillow that night in the + Albergo del Pozzo at Crema, it was full of such thoughts; and + when at last sleep came, it brought with it a dream begotten + doubtless by the perturbation of my fancy. For I thought that a + brown Franciscan, with hollow cheeks, and eyes aflame beneath his + heavy cowl, sat by my bedside, and, as he raised the crucifix in + his lean quivering hands, whispered a tale of deadly passion and + of dastardly revenge. His confession carried me away to a convent + garden of Palermo; and there was love in the story, and hate that + is stronger than love, and, for the ending of the whole matter, + remorse which dies not even in the grave. Each new possessor of + the crucifix of Crema, he told me, was forced to hear from him in + dreams his dreadful history. But, since it was a dream and + nothing more, why should I repeat it? I have wandered far enough + already from the vintage and the sunny churches of the little + Lombard town. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="CHERUBINO_AT_THE_SCALA_THEATRE" id= + "CHERUBINO_AT_THE_SCALA_THEATRE"></a><i>CHERUBINO AT THE SCALA + THEATRE</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + It was a gala night. The opera-house of Milan was one blaze of + light and colour. Royalty in field-marshal's uniform and + diamonds, attended by decorated generals and radiant ladies of + the court, occupied the great box opposite the stage. The tiers + from pit to gallery were filled with brilliantly dressed women. + From the third row, where we were fortunately placed, the curves + of that most beautiful of theatres presented to my gaze a series + of retreating and approaching lines, composed of noble faces, + waving feathers, sparkling jewels, sculptured shoulders, + uniforms, robes of costly stuffs and every conceivable bright + colour. Light poured from the huge lustre in the centre of the + roof, ran along the crimson velvet cushions of the boxes, and + flashed upon the gilded frame of the proscenium—satyrs and + acanthus scrolls carved in the manner of a century ago. Pit and + orchestra scarcely contained the crowd of men who stood in lively + conversation, their backs turned to the stage, their lorgnettes + raised from time to time to sweep the boxes. This surging sea of + faces and sober costumes enhanced by contrast the glitter, + variety, and luminous tranquillity of the theatre above it. + </p> + <p> + No one took much thought of the coming spectacle, till the + conductor's rap was heard upon his desk, and the orchestra broke + into the overture to Mozart's <i>Nozze</i>. Before they were half + through, it was clear that we should not enjoy that evening the + delight of perfect music added to the enchantment of so brilliant + a scene. The execution of the overture was not exactly bad. But + it lacked absolute precision, the complete subordination of all + details to the whole. In rendering German music Italians often + fail through want of discipline, or through imperfect sympathy + with a style they will not take the pains to master. Nor, when + the curtain lifted and the play began, was the vocalisation found + in all parts satisfactory. The Contessa had a meagre <i>mezza + voce</i>. Susanna, though she did not sing false, hovered on the + verge of discords, owing to the weakness of an organ which had to + be strained in order to make any effect on that enormous stage. + On the other hand, the part of Almaviva was played with dramatic + fire, and Figaro showed a truly Southern sense of comic fun. The + scenes were splendidly mounted, and something of a princely + grandeur—the largeness of a noble train of life—was + added to the drama by the vast proportions of the theatre. It was + a performance which, in spite of drawbacks, yielded pleasure. + </p> + <p> + And yet it might have left me frigid but for the artist who + played Cherubino. This was no other than Pauline Lucca, in the + prime of youth and petulance. From her first appearance to the + last note she sang, she occupied the stage. The opera seemed to + have been written for her. The mediocrity of the troupe threw her + commanding merits—the richness of her voice, the purity of + her intonation, her vivid conception of character, her + indescribable brusquerie of movement and emotion—into that + relief which a sapphire gains from a setting of pearls. I can see + her now, after the lapse of nearly twenty years, as she stood + there singing in blue doublet and white mantle, with the slouched + Spanish hat and plume of ostrich feathers, a tiny rapier at her + side, and blue rosettes upon her white silk shoes! The <i>Nozze + di Figaro</i> was followed by a Ballo. This had for its theme the + favourite legend of a female devil sent from the infernal regions + to ruin a young man. Instead of performing the part assigned her, + Satanella falls in love with the hero, sacrifices herself, and is + claimed at last by the powers of goodness. <i>Quia multum + amavit</i>, her lost soul is saved. If the opera left much to be + desired, the Ballo was perfection. That vast stage of the Scala + Theatre had almost overwhelmed the actors of the play. Now, + thrown open to its inmost depths, crowded with glittering moving + figures, it became a fairyland of fantastic loveliness. Italians + possess the art of interpreting a serious dramatic action by + pantomime. A Ballo with them is no mere affair of + dancing—fine dresses, evolutions performed by brigades of + pink-legged women with a fixed smile on their faces. It takes the + rank of high expressive art. And the motive of this Ballo was + consistently worked out in an intelligible sequence of + well-ordered scenes. To moralise upon its meaning would be out of + place. It had a conflict of passions, a rhythmical progression of + emotions, a tragic climax in the triumph of good over evil. + </p> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + At the end of the performance there were five persons in our + box—the beautiful Miranda, and her husband, a celebrated + English man of letters; a German professor of biology; a young + Milanese gentleman, whom we called Edoardo; and myself. Edoardo + and the professor had joined us just before the ballet. I had + occupied a seat behind Miranda and my friend the critic from the + commencement. We had indeed dined together first at their hotel, + the Rebecchino; and they now proposed that we should all adjourn + together there on foot for supper. From the Scala Theatre to the + Rebecchino is a walk of some three minutes. + </p> + <p> + When we were seated at the supper-table and had talked some while + upon indifferent topics, the enthusiasm roused in me by Pauline + Lucca burst out. I broke a moment's silence by exclaiming, 'What + a wonder-world music creates! I have lived this evening in a + sphere of intellectual enjoyment raised to rapture. I never lived + so fast before!' 'Do you really think so?' said Miranda. She had + just finished a <i>beccafico</i>, and seemed disposed for + conversation. 'Do you really think so? For my part, music is in a + wholly different region from experience, thought, or feeling. + What does it communicate to you?' And she hummed to herself the + <i>motif</i> of Cherubino's 'Non so più cosa son cosa + faccio.'—'What does it teach me?' I broke in upon the + melody. 'Why, to-night, when I heard the music, and saw her + there, and felt the movement of the play, it seemed to me that a + new existence was revealed. For the first time I understood what + love might be in one most richly gifted for emotion.' Miranda + bent her eyes on the table-cloth and played with her wineglass. + 'I don't follow you at all. I enjoyed myself to-night. The opera, + indeed, might have been better rendered. The ballet, I admit, was + splendid. But when I remember the music—even the best of + it—even Pauline Lucca's part'—here she looked up, and + shot me a quick glance across the table—'I have mere music + in my ears. Nothing more. Mere music!' The professor of biology, + who was gifted with, a sense of music and had studied it + scientifically, had now crunched his last leaf of salad. Wiping + his lips with his napkin, he joined our <i>tête-à-tête</i>. + 'Gracious madam, I agree with you. He who seeks from music more + than music gives, is on the quest—how shall I put + it?—of the Holy Grail.' 'And what,' I struck in, 'is this + minimum or maximum that music gives?' 'Dear young friend,' + replied the professor, 'music gives melodies, harmonies, the many + beautiful forms to which sound shall be fashioned. Just as in the + case of shells and fossils, lovely in themselves, interesting for + their history and classification, so is it with music. You must + not seek an intellectual meaning. No; there is no <i>Inhalt</i> + in music' And he hummed contentedly the air of 'Voi che sapete.' + While he was humming, Miranda whispered to me across the table, + 'Separate the Lucca from the music.' 'But,' I answered rather + hotly, for I was nettled by Miranda's argument <i>ad hominem</i>, + 'But it is not possible in an opera to divide the music from the + words, the scenery, the play, the actor. Mozart, when he wrote + the score to Da Ponte's libretto, was excited to production by + the situations. He did not conceive his melodies out of + connection with a certain cast of characters, a given ethical + environment.' 'I do not know, my dear young friend,' responded + the professor, 'whether you have read Mozart's Life and letters. + It is clearly shown in them how he composed airs at times and + seasons when he had no words to deal with. These he afterwards + used as occasion served. Whence I conclude that music was for him + a free and lovely play of tone. The words of our excellent Da + Ponte were a scaffolding to introduce his musical creations to + the public. But without that carpenter's work, the melodies of + Cherubino are <i>Selbst-ständig</i>, sufficient in themselves to + vindicate their place in art. Do I interpret your meaning, + gracious lady?' This he said bending to Miranda. 'Yes,' she + replied. But she still played with her wineglass, and did not + look as though she were quite satisfied. I meanwhile continued: + 'Of course I have read Mozart's Life, and know how he went to + work. But Mozart was a man of feeling, of experience, of ardent + passions. How can you prove to me that the melodies he gave to + Cherubino had not been evolved from situations similar to those + in which Cherubino finds himself? How can you prove he did not + feel a natural appropriateness in the <i>motifs</i> he selected + from his memory for Cherubino? How can you be certain that the + part itself did not stimulate his musical faculty to fresh and + still more appropriate creativeness? And if we must fall back on + documents, do you remember what he said himself about the + love-music in <i>Die Entführung?</i> I think he tells us that he + meant it to express his own feeling for the woman who had just + become his wife.' Miranda looked up as though she were almost + half-persuaded. Yet she hummed again 'Non so più,' then said to + herself, 'Yes, it is wiser to believe with the professor that + these are sequences of sounds, and nothing more.' Then she + sighed. In the pause which followed, her husband, the famous + critic, filled his glass, stretched his legs out, and began: 'You + have embarked, I see, upon the ocean of æsthetics. For my part, + to-night I was thinking how much better fitted for the stage + Beaumarchais' play was than this musical mongrel—this + operatic adaptation. The wit, observe, is lost. And + Cherubino—that sparkling little <i>enfant + terrible</i>—becomes a sentimental fellow—a something + I don't know what—between a girl and a boy—a medley + of romance and impudence—anyhow a being quite unlike the + sharply outlined playwright's page. I confess I am not a + musician; the drama is my business, and I judge things by their + fitness for the stage. My wife agrees with me to differ. She + likes music, I like plays. To-night she was better pleased than I + was; for she got good music tolerably well rendered, while I got + nothing but a mangled comedy.' + </p> + <p> + We bore the critic's monologue with patience. But once again the + spirit, seeking after something which neither Miranda, nor her + husband, nor the professor could be got to recognise, moved + within me. I cried out at a venture, 'People who go to an opera + must forget music pure and simple, must forget the drama pure and + simple. You must welcome a third species of art, in which the + play, the music, the singers with their voices, the orchestra + with its instruments—Pauline Lucca, if you like, with her + fascination' (and here I shot a side-glance at Miranda), 'are so + blent as to create a world beyond the scope of poetry or music or + acting taken by themselves. I give Mozart credit for having had + insight into this new world, for having brought it near to us. + And I hold that every fresh representation of his work is a fresh + revelation of its possibilities.' + </p> + <p> + To this the critic answered, 'You now seem to me to be + confounding the limits of the several arts.' 'What!' I continued, + 'is the drama but emotion presented in its most external forms as + action? And what is music but emotion, in its most genuine + essence, expressed by sound? Where then can a more complete + artistic harmony be found than in the opera?' + </p> + <p> + 'The opera,' replied our host, 'is a hybrid. You will probably + learn to dislike artistic hybrids, if you have the taste and + sense I give you credit for. My own opinion has been already + expressed. In the <i>Nozze</i>, Beaumarchais' <i>Mariage de + Figaro</i> is simply spoiled. My friend the professor declares + Mozart's music to be sufficient by itself, and the libretto to be + a sort of machinery for its display. Miranda, I think, agrees + with him. You plead eloquently for the hybrid. You have a right + to your own view. These things are matters, in the final resort, + of individual taste rather than of demonstrable principles. But I + repeat that you are very young.' The critic drained his + Lambrusco, and smiled at me. + </p> + <p> + 'Yes, he is young,' added Miranda. 'He must learn to distinguish + between music, his own imagination, and a pretty woman. At + present he mixes them all up together. It is a sort of + transcendental omelette. But I think the pretty woman has more to + do with it than metaphysics!' + </p> + <p> + All this while Edoardo had bestowed devout attention on his + supper. But it appeared that the drift of our discourse had not + been lost by him. 'Well,' he said, 'you finely fibred people + dissect and analyse. I am content with the <i>spettacolo</i>. + That pleases. What does a man want more? The <i>Nozze</i> is a + comedy of life and manners. The music is adorable. To-night the + women were not bad to look at—the Lucca was divine; the + scenes—ingenious. I thought but little. I came away + delighted. You could have a better play, Caro Signore!' (with a + bow to our host). 'That is granted. You might have better music, + Cara Signora!' (with a bow to Miranda). 'That too is granted. But + when the play and the music come together—how shall I + say?—the music helps the play, and the play helps the + music; and we—well we, I suppose, must help both!' + </p> + <p> + Edoardo's little speech was so ingenuous, and, what is more, so + true to his Italian temperament, that it made us all laugh and + leave the argument just where we found it. The bottles of + Lambrusco supplied us each with one more glass; and while we were + drinking them, Miranda, woman-like, taking the last word, but + contradicting herself, softly hummed 'Non so più cosa son,' and + 'Ah!' she said, 'I shall dream of love to-night!' + </p> + <p> + We rose and said good-night. But when I had reached my bedroom in + the Hôtel de la Ville, I sat down, obstinate and unconvinced, and + penned this rhapsody, which I have lately found among papers of + nearly twenty years ago. I give it as it stands. + </p> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + Mozart has written the two melodramas of love—the one a + melo-tragedy, the other a melo-comedy. But in really noble art, + Comedy and Tragedy have faces of equal serenity and beauty. In + the Vatican there are marble busts of the two Muses, differing + chiefly in their head-dresses: that of Tragedy is an elaborately + built-up structure of fillets and flowing hair, piled high above + the forehead and descending in long curls upon the shoulders; + while Comedy wears a similar adornment, with the addition of a + wreath of vine-leaves and grape-bunches. The expression of the + sister goddesses is no less finely discriminated. Over the mouth + of Comedy plays a subtle smile, and her eyes are relaxed in a + half-merriment. A shadow rests upon the slightly heavier brows of + Tragedy, and her lips, though not compressed, are graver. So + delicately did the Greek artist indicate the division between two + branches of one dramatic art. And since all great art is + classical, Mozart's two melodramas, <i>Don Giovanni</i> and the + <i>Nozze di Figaro</i>, though the one is tragic and the other + comic, are twin-sisters, similar in form and feature. + </p> + <p> + The central figure of the melo-tragedy is Don Juan, the hero of + unlimited desire, pursuing the unattainable through tortuous + interminable labyrinths, eager in appetite yet never satisfied, + 'for ever following and for ever foiled.' He is the incarnation + of lust that has become a habit of the soul—rebellious, + licentious, selfish, even cruel. His nature, originally noble and + brave, has assumed the qualities peculiar to + lust—rebellion, license, cruelty, defiant egotism. Yet, + such as he is, doomed to punishment and execration, Don Juan + remains a fit subject for poetry and music, because he is + complete, because he is impelled by some demonic influence, + spurred on by yearnings after an unsearchable delight. In his + death, the spirit of chivalry survives, metamorphosed, it is + true, into the spirit of revolt, yet still tragic, such as might + animate the desperate sinner of a haughty breed. + </p> + <p> + The central figure of the melo-comedy is Cherubino, the genius of + love, no less insatiable, but undetermined to virtue or to vice. + This is the point of Cherubino, that the ethical capacities in + him are still potential. His passion still hovers on the + borderland of good and bad. And this undetermined passion is + beautiful because of extreme freshness; of infinite, immeasurable + expansibility. Cherubino is the epitome of all that belongs to + the amorous temperament in a state of still ascendant + adolescence. He is about sixteen years of age—a boy + yesterday, a man to-morrow—to-day both and + neither—something beyond boyhood, but not yet limited by + man's responsibility and man's absorbing passions. He partakes of + both ages in the primal awakening to self-consciousness. Desire, + which in Don Juan has become a fiend, hovers before him like a + fairy. His are the sixteen years, not of a Northern climate, but + of Spain or Italy, where manhood appears in a flash, and + overtakes the child with sudden sunrise of new faculties. + <i>Nondum amabam, sed amare amabam, quaerebam quod amarem, amans + amare</i>—'I loved not yet, but was in love with loving; I + sought what I should love, being in love with loving.' That + sentence, penned by S. Augustine and consecrated by Shelley, + describes the mood of Cherubino. He loves at every moment of his + life, with every pulse of his being. His object is not a beloved + being, but love itself—the satisfaction of an irresistible + desire, the paradise of bliss which merely loving has become for + him. What love means he hardly knows. He only knows that he must + love. And women love him—half as a plaything to be trifled + with, half as a young god to be wounded by. This rising of the + star of love as it ascends into the heaven of youthful fancy, is + revealed in the melodies Mozart has written for him. How shall we + describe their potency? Who shall translate those curiously + perfect words to which tone and rhythm have been indissolubly + wedded? <i>E pur mi piace languir cosi.... E se non ho chi m' + oda, parlo d'amor con me.</i> + </p> + <p> + But if this be so, it may be asked, Who shall be found worthy to + act Cherubino on the stage? You cannot have seen and heard + Pauline Lucca, or you would not ask this question. + </p> + <p> + Cherubino is by no means the most important person in the plot of + the <i>Nozze</i>. But he strikes the keynote of the opera. His + love is the standard by which we measure the sad, retrospective, + stately love of the Countess, who tries to win back an alienated + husband. By Cherubino we measure the libertine love of the Count, + who is a kind of Don Juan without cruelty, and the humorous love + of Figaro and his sprightly bride Susanna. Each of these + characters typifies one of the many species of love. But + Cherubino anticipates and harmonises all. They are conscious, + experienced, world-worn, disillusioned, trivial. He is all love, + foreseen, foreshadowed in a dream of life to be; all love, + diffused through brain and heart and nerves like electricity; all + love, merging the moods of ecstasy, melancholy, triumph, regret, + jealousy, joy, expectation, in a hazy sheen, as of some Venetian + sunrise. What will Cherubino be after three years? A Romeo, a + Lovelace, a Lothario, a Juan? a disillusioned rake, a + sentimentalist, an effete fop, a romantic lover? He may become + any one of these, for he contains the possibilities of all. As + yet, he is the dear glad angel of the May of love, the + nightingale of orient emotion. This moment in the unfolding of + character Mozart has arrested and eternalised for us in + Cherubino's melodies; for it is the privilege of art to render + things most fugitive and evanescent fixed imperishably in + immortal form. + </p> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + This is indeed a rhapsodical production. Miranda was probably + right. Had it not been for Pauline Lucca, I might not have + philosophised the <i>Nozze</i> thus. Yet, in the main, I believe + that my instinct was well grounded. Music, especially when wedded + to words, more especially when those words are dramatic, cannot + separate itself from emotion. It will not do to tell us that a + melody is a certain sequence of sounds; that the composer chose + it for its beauty of rhythm, form, and tune, and only used the + words to get it vocalised. We are forced to go farther back, and + ask ourselves, What suggested it in the first place to the + composer? why did he use it precisely in connection with this + dramatic situation? How can we answer these questions except by + supposing that music was for him the utterance through art of + some emotion? The final fact of human nature is emotion, + crystallising itself in thought and language, externalising + itself in action and art. 'What,' said Novalis, 'are thoughts but + pale dead feelings?' Admitting this even in part, we cannot deny + to music an emotional content of some kind. I would go farther, + and assert that, while a merely mechanical musician may set + inappropriate melodies to words, and render music inexpressive of + character, what constitutes a musical dramatist is the conscious + intention of fitting to the words of his libretto such melody as + shall interpret character, and the power to do this with effect. + </p> + <p> + That the Cherubino of Mozart's <i>Nozze</i> is quite different + from Beaumarchais' Cherubin does not affect this question. He is + a new creation, just because Mozart could not, or would not, + conceive the character of the page in Beaumarchais' sprightly + superficial spirit. He used the part to utter something + unutterable except by music about the soul of the still + adolescent lover. The libretto-part and the melodies, taken + together, constitute a new romantic ideal, consistent with + experience, but realised with the intensity and universality + whereby art is distinguished from life. Don Juan was a myth + before Mozart touched him with the magic wand of music. Cherubino + became a myth by the same Prospero's spell. Both characters have + the universality, the symbolic potency, which belongs to + legendary beings. That there remains a discrepancy between the + boy-page and the music made for him, can be conceded without + danger to my theory; for the music made for Cherubino is meant to + interpret his psychical condition, and is independent of his + boyishness of conduct. + </p> + <p> + This further explains why there may be so many renderings of + Cherubino's melodies. Mozart idealised an infinite emotion. The + singer is forced to define; the actor also is forced to define. + Each introduces his own limit on the feeling. When the actor and + the singer meet together in one personality, this definition of + emotion becomes of necessity doubly specific. The condition of + all music is that it depends in a great measure on the + temperament of the interpreter for its momentary shade of + expression, and this dependence is of course exaggerated when the + music is dramatic. Furthermore, the subjectivity of the audience + enters into the problem as still another element of definition. + It may therefore be fairly said that, in estimating any + impression produced by Cherubino's music, the original character + of the page, transplanted from French comedy to Italian opera, + Mozart's conception of that character, Mozart's specific quality + of emotion and specific style of musical utterance, together with + the contralto's interpretation of the character and rendering of + the music, according to her intellectual capacity, artistic + skill, and timbre of voice, have collaborated with the + individuality of the hearer. Some of the constituents of the + ever-varying product—a product which is new each time the + part is played—are fixed. Da Ponte's Cherubino and Mozart's + melodies remain unalterable. All the rest is undecided; the + singer and the listener change on each occasion. + </p> + <p> + To assert that the musician Mozart meant nothing by his music, to + assert that he only cared about it <i>quâ</i> music, is the same + as to say that the painter Tintoretto, when he put the + Crucifixion upon canvas, the sculptor Michelangelo, when he + carved Christ upon the lap of Mary, meant nothing, and only cared + about the beauty of their forms and colours. Those who take up + this position prove, not that the artist has no meaning to + convey, but that for them the artist's nature is unintelligible, + and his meaning is conveyed in an unknown tongue. It seems + superfluous to guard against misinterpretation by saying that to + expect clear definition from music—the definition which + belongs to poetry—would be absurd. The sphere of music is + in sensuous perception; the sphere of poetry is in intelligence. + Music, dealing with pure sound, must always be vaguer in + significance than poetry, dealing with words. Nevertheless, its + effect upon the sentient subject may be more intense and + penetrating for this very reason. We cannot fail to understand + what words are intended to convey; we may very easily interpret + in a hundred different ways the message of sound. But this is not + because words are wider in their reach and more alive; rather + because they are more limited, more stereotyped, more dead. They + symbolise something precise and unmistakable; but this precision + is itself attenuation of the something symbolised. The exact + value of the counter is better understood when it is a word than + when it is a chord, because all that a word conveys has already + become a thought, while all that musical sounds convey remains + within the region of emotion which has not been intellectualised. + Poetry touches emotion through the thinking faculty. If music + reaches the thinking faculty at all, it is through fibres of + emotion. But emotion, when it has become thought, has already + lost a portion of its force, and has taken to itself a something + alien to its nature. Therefore the message of music can never + rightly be translated into words. It is the very largeness and + vividness of the sphere of simple feeling which makes its + symbolical counterpart in sound so seeming vague. But in spite of + this incontestable defect of seeming vagueness, emotion expressed + by music is nearer to our sentient self, if we have ears to take + it in, than the same emotion limited by language. It is intenser, + it is more immediate, as compensation for being less + intelligible, less unmistakable in meaning. It is an infinite, an + indistinct, where each consciousness defines and sets a limitary + form. + </p> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + A train of thought which begins with the concrete not + unfrequently finds itself finishing, almost against its will, in + abstractions. This is the point to which the performance of + Cherubino's part by Pauline Lucca at the Scala twenty years ago + has led me—that I have to settle with myself what I mean by + art in general, and what I take to be the proper function of + music as one of the fine arts. + </p> + <p> + 'Art,' said Goethe, 'is but form-giving.' We might vary this + definition, and say, 'Art is a method of expression or + presentation.' Then comes the question: If art gives form, if it + is a method of expression or presentation, to what does it give + form, what does it express or present? The answer certainly must + be: Art gives form to human consciousness; expresses or presents + the feeling or the thought of man. Whatever else art may do by + the way, in the communication of innocent pleasures, in the + adornment of life and the softening of manners, in the creation + of beautiful shapes and sounds, this, at all events, is its prime + function. + </p> + <p> + While investing thought, the spiritual subject-matter of all art, + with form, or finding for it proper modes of presentation, each + of the arts employs a special medium, obeying the laws of beauty + proper to that medium. The vehicles of the arts, roughly + speaking, are material substances (like stone, wood, metal), + pigments, sounds, and words. The masterly handling of these + vehicles and the realisation of their characteristic types of + beauty have come to be regarded as the craftsman's paramount + concern. And in a certain sense this is a right conclusion; for + dexterity in the manipulation of the chosen vehicle and power to + create a beautiful object, distinguish the successful artist from + the man who may have had like thoughts and feelings. This + dexterity, this power, are the properties of the artist + <i>quâ</i> artist. Yet we must not forget that the form created + by the artist for the expression of a thought or feeling is not + the final end of art itself. That form, after all, is but the + mode of presentation through which the spiritual content + manifests itself. Beauty, in like manner, is not the final end of + art, but is the indispensable condition under which the artistic + manifestation of the spiritual content must he made. It is the + business of art to create an ideal world, in which perception, + emotion, understanding, action, all elements of human life + sublimed by thought, shall reappear in concrete forms as beauty. + This being so, the logical criticism of art demands that we + should not only estimate the technical skill of artists and their + faculty for presenting beauty to the æsthetic sense, but that we + should also ask ourselves what portion of the human spirit he has + chosen to invest with form, and how he has conceived his subject. + It is not necessary that the ideas embodied in a work of art + should be the artist's own. They may be common to the race and + age: as, for instance, the conception of sovereign deity + expressed in the Olympian Zeus of Pheidias, or the conception of + divine maternity expressed in Raphael's 'Madonna di San Sisto.' + Still the personality of the artist, his own intellectual and + moral nature, his peculiar way of thinking and feeling, his + individual attitude towards the material given to him in ideas of + human consciousness, will modify his choice of subject and of + form, and will determine his specific type of beauty. To take an + example: supposing that an idea, common to his race and age, is + given to the artist for treatment; this will be the final end of + the work of art which he produces. But his personal qualities and + technical performance determine the degree of success or failure + to which he attains in presenting that idea and in expressing it + with beauty. Signorelli fails where Perugino excels, in giving + adequate and lovely form to the religious sentiment. Michelangelo + is sure of the sublime, and Raphael of the beautiful. + </p> + <p> + Art is thus the presentation of the human spirit by the artist to + his fellow-men. The subject-matter of the arts is commensurate + with what man thinks and feels and does. It is as deep as + religion, as wide as life. But what distinguishes art from + religion or from life is, that this subject-matter must assume + beautiful form, and must be presented directly or indirectly to + the senses. Art is not the school or the cathedral, but the + playground, the paradise of humanity. It does not teach, it does + not preach. Nothing abstract enters into art's domain. Truth and + goodness are transmuted into beauty there, just as in science + beauty and goodness assume the shape of truth, and in religion + truth and beauty become goodness. The rigid definitions, the + unmistakable laws of science, are not to be found in art. + Whatever art has touched acquires a concrete sensuous embodiment, + and thus ideas presented to the mind in art have lost a portion + of their pure thought-essence. It is on this account that the + religious conceptions of the Greeks were so admirably fitted for + the art of sculpture, and certain portions of the mediæval + Christian mythology lent themselves so well to painting. For the + same reason the metaphysics of ecclesiastical dogma defy the + artist's plastic faculty. Art, in a word, is a middle term + between reason and the senses. Its secondary aim, after the prime + end of presenting the human spirit in beautiful form has been + accomplished, is to give tranquil and innocent enjoyment. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + From what has gone before it will be seen that no human being can + make or mould a beautiful form without incorporating in that form + some portion of the human mind, however crude, however + elementary. In other words, there is no work of art without a + theme, without a motive, without a subject. The presentation of + that theme, that motive, that subject, is the final end of art. + The art is good or bad according as the subject has been well or + ill presented, consistently with the laws of beauty special to + the art itself. Thus we obtain two standards for æsthetic + criticism. We judge a statue, for example, both by the sculptor's + intellectual grasp upon his subject, and also by his technical + skill and sense of beauty. In a picture of the Last Judgment by + Fra Angelico we say that the bliss of the righteous has been more + successfully treated than the torments of the wicked, because the + former has been better understood, although the painter's skill + in each is equal. In the Perseus of Cellini we admire the + sculptor's spirit, finish of execution, and originality of + design, while we deplore that want of sympathy with the heroic + character which makes his type of physical beauty slightly vulgar + and his facial expression vacuous. If the phrase 'Art for art's + sake' has any meaning, this meaning is simply that the artist, + having chosen a theme, thinks exclusively in working at it of + technical dexterity or the quality of beauty. There are many + inducements for the artist thus to narrow his function, and for + the critic to assist him by applying the canons of a soulless + connoisseurship to his work; for the conception of the subject is + but the starting-point in art-production, and the artist's + difficulties and triumphs as a craftsman lie in the region of + technicalities. He knows, moreover, that, however deep or noble + his idea may be, his work of art will be worthless if it fail in + skill or be devoid of beauty. What converts a thought into a + statue or a picture, is the form found for it; and so the form + itself seems all-important. The artist, therefore, too easily + imagines that he may neglect his theme; that a fine piece of + colouring, a well-balanced composition, or, as Cellini put it, + 'un bel corpo ignudo,' is enough. And this is especially easy in + an age which reflects much upon the arts, and pursues them with + enthusiasm, while its deeper thoughts and feelings are not of the + kind which translate themselves readily into artistic form. But, + after all, a fine piece of colouring, a well-balanced + composition, a sonorous stanza, a learned essay in counterpoint, + are not enough. They are all excellent good things, yielding + delight to the artistic sense and instruction to the student. Yet + when we think of the really great statues, pictures, poems, music + of the world, we find that these are really great because of + something more—and that more is their theme, their + presentation of a noble portion of the human soul. Artists and + art-students may be satisfied with perfect specimens of a + craftsman's skill, independent of his theme; but the mass of men + will not be satisfied; and it is as wrong to suppose that art + exists for artists and art-students, as to talk of art for art's + sake. Art exists for humanity. Art transmutes thought and feeling + into terms of beautiful form. Art is great and lasting in + proportion as it appeals to the human consciousness at large, + presenting to it portions of itself in adequate and lovely form. + </p> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + It was necessary in the first place firmly to apprehend the truth + that the final end of all art is the presentation of a spiritual + content; it is necessary in the next place to remove confusions + by considering the special circumstances of the several arts. + </p> + <p> + Each art has its own vehicle of presentation. What it can present + and how it must present it, depends upon the nature of this + vehicle. Thus, though architecture, sculpture, painting, music, + poetry, meet upon the common ground of spiritualised + experience—though the works of art produced by the + architect, sculptor, painter, musician, poet, emanate from the + spiritual nature of the race, are coloured by the spiritual + nature of the men who make them, and express what is spiritual in + humanity under concrete forms invented for them by the + artist—yet it is certain that all of these arts do not deal + exactly with the same portions of this common material in the + same way or with the same results. Each has its own department. + Each exhibits qualities of strength and weakness special to + itself. To define these several departments, to explain the + relation of these several vehicles of presentation to the common + subject-matter, is the next step in criticism. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + Of the fine arts, architecture alone subserves utility. We build + for use. But the geometrical proportions which the architect + observes, contain the element of beauty and powerfully influence + the soul. Into the language of arch and aisle and colonnade, of + cupola and façade and pediment, of spire and vault, the architect + translates emotion, vague perhaps but deep, mute but + unmistakable. When we say that a building is sublime or graceful, + frivolous or stern, we mean that sublimity or grace, frivolity or + sternness, is inherent in it. The emotions connected with these + qualities are inspired in us when we contemplate it, and are + presented to us by its form. Whether the architect deliberately + aimed at the sublime or graceful—whether the dignified + serenity of the Athenian genius sought to express itself in the + Parthenon, and the mysticism of mediæval Christianity in the + gloom of Chartres Cathedral—whether it was Renaissance + paganism which gave its mundane pomp and glory to S. Peter's, and + the refined selfishness of royalty its specious splendour to the + palace of Versailles—need not be curiously questioned. The + fact that we are impelled to raise these points, that + architecture more almost than any art connects itself + indissolubly with the life, the character, the moral being of a + nation and an epoch, proves that we are justified in bringing it + beneath our general definition of the arts. In a great measure + because it subserves utility, and is therefore dependent upon the + necessities of life, does architecture present to us through form + the human spirit. Comparing the palace built by Giulio Romano for + the Dukes of Mantua with the contemporary castle of a German + prince, we cannot fail at once to comprehend the difference of + spiritual conditions, as these displayed themselves in daily + life, which then separated Italy from the Teutonic nations. But + this is not all. Spiritual quality in the architect himself finds + clear expression in his work. Coldness combined with violence + marks Brunelleschi's churches; a certain suavity and well-bred + taste the work of Bramante; while Michelangelo exhibits wayward + energy in his Library of S. Lorenzo, and Amadeo self-abandonment + to fancy in his Lombard chapels. I have chosen examples from one + nation and one epoch in order that the point I seek to make, the + demonstration of a spiritual quality in buildings, may be fairly + stated. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + Sculpture and painting distinguish themselves from the other fine + arts by the imitation of concrete existences in nature. They copy + the bodies of men and animals, the aspects of the world around + us, and the handiwork of men. Yet, in so far as they are rightly + arts, they do not make imitation an object in itself. The grapes + of Zeuxis at which birds pecked, the painted dog at which a cat's + hair bristles—if such grapes or such a dog were ever put on + canvas—are but evidences of the artist's skill, not of his + faculty as artist. These two plastic, or, as I prefer to call + them, figurative arts, use their imitation of the external world + for the expression, the presentation of internal, spiritual + things. The human form is for them the outward symbol of the + inner human spirit, and their power of presenting spirit is + limited by the means at their disposal. + </p> + <p> + Sculpture employs stone, wood, clay, the precious metals, to + model forms, detached and independent, or raised upon a flat + surface in relief. Its domain is the whole range of human + character and consciousness, in so far as these can be indicated + by fixed facial expression, by physical type, and by attitude. If + we dwell for an instant on the greatest historical epoch of + sculpture, we shall understand the domain of this art in its + range and limitation. At a certain point of Greek development the + Hellenic Pantheon began to be translated by the sculptors into + statues; and when the genius of the Greeks expired in Rome, the + cycle of their <ins class="correction" title= + "Transcriber's note: original reads 'pyschological'">psychological</ins> + conceptions had been exhaustively presented through this medium. + During that long period of time, the most delicate gradations of + human personality, divinised, idealised, were presented to the + contemplation of the consciousness which gave them being, in + appropriate types. Strength and swiftness, massive force and airy + lightness, contemplative repose and active energy, voluptuous + softness and refined grace, intellectual sublimity and lascivious + seductiveness—the whole rhythm of qualities which can be + typified by bodily form—were analysed, selected, combined + in various degrees, to incarnate the religious conceptions of + Zeus, Aphrodite, Herakles, Dionysus, Pallas, Fauns and Satyrs, + Nymphs of woods and waves, Tritons, the genius of Death, heroes + and hunters, lawgivers and poets, presiding deities of minor + functions, man's lustful appetites and sensual needs. All that + men think, or do, or are, or wish for, or imagine in this world, + had found exact corporeal equivalents. Not physiognomy alone, but + all the portions of the body upon which the habits of the + animating soul are wont to stamp themselves, were studied and + employed as symbolism. Uranian Aphrodite was distinguished from + her Pandemic sister by chastened lust-repelling loveliness. The + muscles of Herakles were more ponderous than the tense sinews of + Achilles. The Hermes of the palæstra bore a torso of majestic + depth; the Hermes, who carried messages from heaven, had limbs + alert for movement. The brows of Zeus inspired awe; the breasts + of Dionysus breathed delight. + </p> + <p> + A race accustomed, as the Greeks were, to read this symbolism, + accustomed, as the Greeks were, to note the individuality of + naked form, had no difficulty in interpreting the language of + sculpture. Nor is there now much difficulty in the task. Our + surest guide to the subject of a basrelief or statue is study of + the physical type considered as symbolical of spiritual quality. + From the fragment of a torso the true critic can say whether it + belongs to the athletic or the erotic species. A limb of Bacchus + differs from a limb of Poseidon. The whole psychological + conception of Aphrodite Pandemos enters into every muscle, every + joint, no less than into her physiognomy, her hair, her attitude. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, a limit to the domain of sculpture. This art + deals most successfully with personified generalities. It is also + strong in the presentation of incarnate character. But when it + attempts to tell a story, we often seek in vain its meaning. + Battles of Amazons or Centaurs upon basreliefs, indeed, are + unmistakable. The subject is indicated here by some external + sign. The group of Laocoon appeals at once to a reader of Virgil, + and the divine vengeance of Leto's children upon Niobe is + manifest in the Uffizzi marbles. But who are the several heroes + of the Æginetan pediment, and what was the subject of the + Pheidian statues on the Parthenon? Do the three graceful figures + of a basrelief which exists at Naples and in the Villa Albani, + represent Orpheus, Hermes, and Eurydice, or Antiope and her two + sons? Was the winged and sworded genius upon the Ephesus column + meant for a genius of Death or a genius of Love? + </p> + <p> + This dimness of significance indicates the limitation of + sculpture, and inclines some of those who feel its charm to + assert that the sculptor seeks to convey no intellectual meaning, + that he is satisfied with the creation of beautiful form. There + is sense in this revolt against the faith which holds that art is + nothing but a mode of spiritual presentation. Truly the artist + aims at producing beauty, is satisfied if he conveys delight. But + it is impossible to escape from the certainty that, while he is + creating forms of beauty, he means something; and that something, + that theme for which he finds the form, is part of the world's + spiritual heritage. Only the crudest works of plastic art, + capricci and arabesques, have no intellectual content; and even + these are good in so far as they convey the playfulness of fancy. + </p> + <p> + Painting employs colours upon surfaces—walls, panels, + canvas. What has been said about sculpture will apply in a great + measure to this art. The human form, the world around us, the + works of man's hands, are represented in painting, not for their + own sake merely, but with a view to bringing thought, feeling, + action, home to the consciousness of the spectator from the + artist's consciousness on which they have been impressed. + Painting can tell a story better than sculpture, can represent + more complicated feelings, can suggest thoughts of a subtler + intricacy. Through colour, it can play, like music, directly on + powerful but vague emotion. It is deficient in fulness and + roundness of concrete reality. A statue stands before us, the + soul incarnate in ideal form, fixed and frozen for eternity. The + picture is a reflection cast upon a magic glass; not less + permanent, but reduced to a shadow of reality. To follow these + distinctions farther would be alien from the present purpose. It + is enough to repeat that, within their several spheres, according + to their several strengths and weaknesses, both sculpture and + painting present the spirit to us only as the spirit shows itself + immersed in things of sense. The light of a lamp enclosed within + an alabaster vase is still lamplight, though shorn of lustre and + toned to coloured softness. Even thus the spirit, immersed in + things of sense presented to us by the figurative arts, is still + spirit, though diminished in its intellectual clearness and + invested with hues not its own. To fashion that alabaster form of + art with utmost skill, to make it beautiful, to render it + transparent, is the artist's function. But he will have failed of + the highest if the light within burns dim, or if he gives the + world a lamp in which no spiritual flame is lighted. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + Music transports us to a different region. It imitates nothing. + It uses pure sound, and sound of the most wholly artificial + kind—so artificial that the musical sounds of one race are + unmusical, and therefore unintelligible, to another. Like + architecture, music relies upon mathematical proportions. Unlike + architecture, music serves no utility. It is the purest art of + pleasure—the truest paradise and playground of the spirit. + It has less power than painting, even less power than sculpture, + to tell a story or to communicate an idea. For we must remember + that when music is married to words, the words, and not the + music, reach our thinking faculty. And yet, in spite of all, + music presents man's spirit to itself through form. The domain of + the spirit over which music reigns, is emotion—not defined + emotion, not feeling even so defined as jealousy or + anger—but those broad bases of man's being out of which + emotions spring, defining themselves through action into this or + that set type of feeling. Architecture, we have noticed, is so + connected with specific modes of human existence, that from its + main examples we can reconstruct the life of men who used it. + Sculpture and painting, by limiting their presentation to the + imitation of external things, have all the help which experience + and, association render. The mere artificiality of music's + vehicle separates it from life and makes its message + untranslatable. Yet, as I have already pointed out, this very + disability under which it labours is the secret of its + extraordinary potency. Nothing intervenes between the musical + work of art and the fibres of the sentient being it immediately + thrills. We do not seek to say what music means. We feel the + music. And if a man should pretend that the music has not passed + beyond his ears, has communicated nothing but a musical delight, + he simply tells us that he has not felt music. The ancients on + this point were wiser than some moderns when, without pretending + to assign an intellectual significance to music, they held it for + an axiom that one type of music bred one type of character, + another type another. A change in the music of a state, wrote + Plato, will be followed by changes in its constitution. It is of + the utmost importance, said Aristotle, to provide in education + for the use of the ennobling and the fortifying moods. These + philosophers knew that music creates a spiritual world, in which + the spirit cannot live and move without contracting habits of + emotion. In this vagueness of significance but intensity of + feeling lies the magic of music. A melody occurs to the composer, + which he certainly connects with no act of the reason, which he + is probably unconscious of connecting with any movement of his + feeling, but which nevertheless is the form in sound of an + emotional mood. When he reflects upon the melody secreted thus + impromptu, he is aware, as we learn from his own lips, that this + work has correspondence with emotion. Beethoven calls one + symphony Heroic, another Pastoral; of the opening of another he + says, 'Fate knocks at the door.' Mozart sets comic words to the + mass-music of a friend, in order to mark his sense of its + inaptitude for religious sentiment. All composers use phrases + like Maestoso, Pomposo, Allegro, Lagrimoso, Con Fuoco, to express + the general complexion of the mood their music ought to + represent. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + Before passing to poetry, it may be well to turn aside and + consider two subordinate arts, which deserve a place in any + system of æsthetics. These are dancing and acting. Dancing uses + the living human form, and presents feeling or action, the + passions and the deeds of men, in artificially educated movements + of the body. The element of beauty it possesses, independently of + the beauty of the dancer, is rhythm. Acting or the art of mimicry + presents the same subject-matter, no longer under the conditions + of fixed rhythm but as an ideal reproduction of reality. The + actor is what he represents, and the element of beauty in his art + is perfection of realisation. It is his duty as an artist to show + us Orestes or Othello, not perhaps exactly as Othello and Orestes + were, but as the essence of their tragedies, ideally incorporate + in action, ought to be. The actor can do this in dumb show. Some + of the greatest actors of the ancient world were mimes. But he + usually interprets a poet's thought, and attempts to present an + artistic conception in a secondary form of art, which has for its + advantage his own personality in play. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + The last of the fine arts is literature; or, in the narrower + sphere of which it will be well to speak here only, is poetry. + Poetry employs words in fixed rhythms, which we call metres. Only + a small portion of its effect is derived from the beauty of its + sound. It appeals to the sense of hearing far less immediately + than music does. It makes no appeal to the eyesight, and takes no + help from the beauty of colour. It produces no tangible object. + But language being the storehouse of all human experience, + language being the medium whereby spirit communicates with spirit + in affairs of life, the vehicle which transmits to us the + thoughts and feelings of the past, and on which we rely for + continuing our present to the future, it follows that, of all the + arts, poetry soars highest, flies widest, and is most at home in + the region of the spirit. What poetry lacks of sensuous fulness, + it more than balances by intellectual intensity. Its significance + is unmistakable, because it employs the very material men use in + their exchange of thoughts and correspondence of emotions. To the + bounds of its empire there is no end. It embraces in its own more + abstract being all the arts. By words it does the work in turn of + architecture, sculpture, painting, music. It is the metaphysic of + the fine arts. Philosophy finds place in poetry; and life itself, + refined to its last utterance, hangs trembling on this thread + which joins our earth to heaven, this bridge between experience + and the realms where unattainable and imperceptible will have no + meaning. + </p> + <p> + If we are right in defining art as the manifestation of the human + spirit to man by man in beautiful form, poetry, more + incontestably than any other art, fulfils this definition and + enables us to gauge its accuracy. For words are the spirit, + manifested to itself in symbols with no sensual alloy. Poetry is + therefore the presentation, through words, of life and all that + life implies. Perception, emotion, thought, action, find in + descriptive, lyrical, reflective, dramatic, and epical poetry + their immediate apocalypse. In poetry we are no longer puzzled + with problems as to whether art has or has not of necessity a + spiritual content. There cannot be any poetry whatsoever without + a spiritual meaning of some sort: good or bad, moral, immoral, or + non-moral, obscure or lucid, noble or ignoble, slight or + weighty—such distinctions do not signify. In poetry we are + not met by questions whether the poet intended to convey a + meaning when he made it. Quite meaningless poetry (as some + critics would fain find melody quite meaningless, or a statue + meaningless, or a Venetian picture meaningless) is a + contradiction in terms. In poetry, life, or a portion of life, + lives again, resuscitated and presented to our mental faculty + through art. The best poetry is that which reproduces the most of + life, or its intensest moments. Therefore the extensive species + of the drama and the epic, the intensive species of the lyric, + have been ever held in highest esteem. Only a half-crazy critic + flaunts the paradox that poetry is excellent in so far as it + assimilates the vagueness of music, or estimates a poet by his + power of translating sense upon the borderland of nonsense into + melodious words. Where poetry falls short in the comparison with + other arts, is in the quality of form-giving, in the quality of + sensuous concreteness. Poetry can only present forms to the + mental eye and to the intellectual sense, stimulate the physical + senses by indirect suggestion. Therefore dramatic poetry, the + most complicated kind of poetry, relies upon the actor; and + lyrical poetry, the intensest kind of poetry, seeks the aid of + music. But these comparative deficiencies are overbalanced, for + all the highest purposes of art, by the width and depth, the + intelligibility and power, the flexibility and multitudinous + associations, of language. The other arts are limited in what + they utter. There is nothing which has entered into the life of + man which poetry cannot express. Poetry says everything in man's + own language to the mind. The other arts appeal imperatively, + each in its own region, to man's senses; and the mind receives + art's message by the help of symbols from the world of sense. + Poetry lacks this immediate appeal to sense. But the elixir which + it offers to the mind, its quintessence extracted from all things + of sense, reacts through intellectual perception upon all the + faculties that make men what they are. + </p> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + I used a metaphor in one of the foregoing paragraphs to indicate + the presence of the vital spirit, the essential element of + thought or feeling, in the work of art. I said it radiated + through the form, as lamplight through an alabaster vase. Now the + skill of the artist is displayed in modelling that vase, in + giving it shape, rich and rare, and fashioning its curves with + subtlest workmanship. In so far as he is a craftsman, the + artist's pains must be bestowed upon this precious vessel of the + animating theme. In so far as he has power over beauty, he must + exert it in this plastic act. It is here that he displays + dexterity; here that he creates; here that he separates himself + from other men who think and feel. The poet, more perhaps than + any other artist, needs to keep this steadily in view; for words + being our daily vehicle of utterance, it may well chance that the + alabaster vase of language should be hastily or trivially + modelled. This is the true reason why 'neither gods nor men nor + the columns either suffer mediocrity in singers.' Upon the poet + it is specially incumbent to see that he has something rare to + say and some rich mode of saying it. The figurative arts need + hardly be so cautioned. They run their risk in quite a different + direction. For sculptor and for painter, the danger is lest he + should think that alabaster vase his final task. He may too + easily be satisfied with moulding a beautiful but empty form. + </p> + <hr style='width: 45%;' /> + <p> + The last word on the topic of the arts is given in one sentence. + Let us remember that every work of art enshrines a spiritual + subject, and that the artist's power is shown in finding for that + subject a form of ideal loveliness. Many kindred points remain to + be discussed; as what we mean by beauty, which is a condition + indispensable to noble art; and what are the relations of the + arts to ethics. These questions cannot now be raised. It is + enough in one essay to have tried to vindicate the spirituality + of art in general. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="A_VENETIAN_MEDLEY" id="A_VENETIAN_MEDLEY"></a><i>A + VENETIAN MEDLEY</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + I.—FIRST IMPRESSIONS AND FAMILIARITY + </p> + <p> + It is easy to feel and to say something obvious about Venice. The + influence of this sea-city is unique, immediate, and + unmistakable. But to express the sober truth of those impressions + which remain when the first astonishment of the Venetian + revelation has subsided, when the spirit of the place has been + harmonised through familiarity with our habitual mood, is + difficult. + </p> + <p> + Venice inspires at first an almost Corybantic rapture. From our + earliest visits, if these have been measured by days rather than + weeks, we carry away with us the memory of sunsets emblazoned in + gold and crimson upon cloud and water; of violet domes and + bell-towers etched against the orange of a western sky; of + moonlight silvering breeze-rippled breadths of liquid blue; of + distant islands shimmering in sun-litten haze; of music and black + gliding boats; of labyrinthine darkness made for mysteries of + love and crime; of statue-fretted palace fronts; of brazen + clangour and a moving crowd; of pictures by earth's proudest + painters, cased in gold on walls of council chambers where Venice + sat enthroned a queen, where nobles swept the floors with robes + of Tyrian brocade. These reminiscences will be attended by an + ever-present sense of loneliness and silence in the world around; + the sadness of a limitless horizon, the solemnity of an unbroken + arch of heaven, the calm and greyness of evening on the lagoons, + the pathos of a marble city crumbling to its grave in mud and + brine. + </p> + <p> + These first impressions of Venice are true. Indeed they are + inevitable. They abide, and form a glowing background for all + subsequent pictures, toned more austerely, and painted in more + lasting hues of truth upon the brain. Those have never felt + Venice at all who have not known this primal rapture, or who + perhaps expected more of colour, more of melodrama, from a scene + which nature and the art of man have made the richest in these + qualities. Yet the mood engendered by this first experience is + not destined to be permanent. It contains an element of unrest + and unreality which vanishes upon familiarity. From the blare of + that triumphal bourdon of brass instruments emerge the delicate + voices of violin and clarinette. To the contrasted passions of + our earliest love succeed a multitude of sweet and fanciful + emotions. It is my present purpose to recapture some of the + impressions made by Venice in more tranquil moods. Memory might + be compared to a kaleidoscope. Far away from Venice I raise the + wonder-working tube, allow the glittering fragments to settle as + they please, and with words attempt to render something of the + patterns I behold. + </p> + <p> + II.—A LODGING IN SAN VIO + </p> + <p> + I have escaped from the hotels with their bustle of tourists and + crowded <i>tables-d'hôte</i>. My garden stretches down to the + Grand Canal, closed at the end with a pavilion, where I lounge + and smoke and watch the cornice of the Prefettura fretted with + gold in sunset light. My sitting-room and bed-room face the + southern sun. There is a canal below, crowded with gondolas, and + across its bridge the good folk of San Vio come and go the whole + day long—men in blue shirts with enormous hats, and jackets + slung on their left shoulder; women in kerchiefs of orange and + crimson. Barelegged boys sit upon the parapet, dangling their + feet above the rising tide. A hawker passes, balancing a basket + full of live and crawling crabs. Barges filled with Brenta water + or Mirano wine take up their station at the neighbouring steps, + and then ensues a mighty splashing and hurrying to and fro of men + with tubs upon their heads. The brawny fellows in the wine-barge + are red from brows to breast with drippings of the vat. And now + there is a bustle in the quarter. A <i>barca</i> has arrived from + S. Erasmo, the island of the market-gardens. It is piled with + gourds and pumpkins, cabbages and tomatoes, pomegranates and + pears—a pyramid of gold and green and scarlet. Brown men + lift the fruit aloft, and women bending from the pathway bargain + for it. A clatter of chaffering tongues, a ring of coppers, a + Babel of hoarse sea-voices, proclaim the sharpness of the + struggle. When the quarter has been served, the boat sheers off + diminished in its burden. Boys and girls are left seasoning their + polenta with a slice of <i>zucca</i>, while the mothers of a + score of families go pattering up yonder courtyard with the + material for their husbands' supper in their handkerchiefs. + Across the canal, or more correctly the <i>Rio</i>, opens a wide + grass-grown court. It is lined on the right hand by a row of poor + dwellings, swarming with gondoliers' children. A garden wall runs + along the other side, over which I can see pomegranate-trees in + fruit and pergolas of vines. Far beyond are more low houses, and + then the sky, swept with sea-breezes, and the masts of an + ocean-going ship against the dome and turrets of Palladio's + Redentore. + </p> + <p> + This is my home. By day it is as lively as a scene in + <i>Masaniello</i>. By night, after nine o'clock, the whole stir + of the quarter has subsided. Far away I hear the bell of some + church tell the hours. But no noise disturbs my rest, unless + perhaps a belated gondolier moors his boat beneath the window. My + one maid, Catina, sings at her work the whole day through. My + gondolier, Francesco, acts as valet. He wakes me in the morning, + opens the shutters, brings sea-water for my bath, and takes his + orders for the day. 'Will it do for Chioggia, Francesco?' + 'Sissignore! The Signorino has set off in his <i>sandolo</i> + already with Antonio. The Signora is to go with us in the + gondola.' 'Then get three more men, Francesco, and see that all + of them can sing.' + </p> + <p> + III.—TO CHIOGGIA WITH OAR AND SAIL + </p> + <p> + The <i>sandolo</i> is a boat shaped like the gondola, but smaller + and lighter, without benches, and without the high steel prow or + <i>ferro</i> which distinguishes the gondola. The gunwale is only + just raised above the water, over which the little craft skims + with a rapid bounding motion, affording an agreeable variation + from the stately swanlike movement of the gondola. In one of + these boats—called by him the <i>Fisolo</i> or + Seamew—my friend Eustace had started with Antonio, + intending to row the whole way to Chioggia, or, if the breeze + favoured, to hoist a sail and help himself along. After + breakfast, when the crew for my gondola had been assembled, + Francesco and I followed with the Signora. It was one of those + perfect mornings which occur as a respite from broken weather, + when the air is windless and the light falls soft through haze on + the horizon. As we broke into the lagoon behind the Redentore, + the islands in front of us, S. Spirito, Poveglia, Malamocco, + seemed as though they were just lifted from the sea-line. The + Euganeans, far away to westward, were bathed in mist, and almost + blent with the blue sky. Our four rowers put their backs into + their work; and soon we reached the port of Malamocco, where a + breeze from the Adriatic caught us sideways for a while. This is + the largest of the breaches in the Lidi, or raised sand-reefs, + which protect Venice from the sea: it affords an entrance to + vessels of draught like the steamers of the Peninsular and + Oriental Company. We crossed the dancing wavelets of the port; + but when we passed under the lee of Pelestrina, the breeze + failed, and the lagoon was once again a sheet of undulating + glass. At S. Pietro on this island a halt was made to give the + oarsmen wine, and here we saw the women at their cottage doorways + making lace. The old lace industry of Venice has recently been + revived. From Burano and Pelestrina cargoes of hand-made + imitations of the ancient fabrics are sent at intervals to + Jesurun's magazine at S. Marco. He is the chief <i>impresario</i> + of the trade, employing hundreds of hands, and speculating for a + handsome profit in the foreign market on the price he gives his + workwomen. + </p> + <p> + Now we are well lost in the lagoons—Venice no longer + visible behind; the Alps and Euganeans shrouded in a noonday + haze; the lowlands at the mouth of Brenta marked by clumps of + trees ephemerally faint in silver silhouette against the filmy, + shimmering horizon. Form and colour have disappeared in + light-irradiated vapour of an opal hue. And yet instinctively we + know that we are not at sea; the different quality of the water, + the piles emerging here and there above the surface, the + suggestion of coast-lines scarcely felt in this infinity of + lustre, all remind us that our voyage is confined to the charmed + limits of an inland lake. At length the jutting headland of + Pelestrina was reached. We broke across the Porto di Chioggia, + and saw Chioggia itself ahead—a huddled mass of houses low + upon the water. One by one, as we rowed steadily, the + fishing-boats passed by, emerging from their harbour for a twelve + hours' cruise upon the open sea. In a long line they came, with + variegated sails of orange, red, and saffron, curiously chequered + at the corners, and cantled with devices in contrasted tints. A + little land-breeze carried them forward. The lagoon reflected + their deep colours till they reached the port. Then, slightly + swerving eastward on their course, but still in single file, they + took the sea and scattered, like beautiful bright-plumaged birds, + who from a streamlet float into a lake, and find their way at + large according as each wills. + </p> + <p> + The Signorino and Antonio, though want of wind obliged them to + row the whole way from Venice, had reached Chioggia an hour + before, and stood waiting to receive us on the quay. It is a + quaint town this Chioggia, which has always lived a separate life + from that of Venice. Language and race and customs have held the + two populations apart from those distant years when Genoa and the + Republic of S. Mark fought their duel to the death out in the + Chioggian harbours, down to these days, when your Venetian + gondolier will tell you that the Chioggoto loves his pipe more + than his <i>donna</i> or his wife. The main canal is lined with + substantial palaces, attesting to old wealth and comfort. But + from Chioggia, even more than from Venice, the tide of modern + luxury and traffic has retreated. The place is left to fishing + folk and builders of the fishing craft, whose wharves still form + the liveliest quarter. Wandering about its wide deserted courts + and <i>calli</i>, we feel the spirit of the decadent Venetian + nobility. Passages from Goldoni's and Casanova's Memoirs occur to + our memory. It seems easy to realise what they wrote about the + dishevelled gaiety and lawless license of Chioggia in the days of + powder, sword-knot, and <i>soprani</i>. Baffo walks beside us in + hypocritical composure of bag-wig and senatorial dignity, + whispering unmentionable sonnets in his dialect of <i>Xe</i> and + <i>Ga</i>. Somehow or another that last dotage of S. Mark's + decrepitude is more recoverable by our fancy than the heroism of + Pisani in the fourteenth century. From his prison in blockaded + Venice the great admiral was sent forth on a forlorn hope, and + blocked victorious Doria here with boats on which the nobles of + the Golden Book had spent their fortunes. Pietro Doria boasted + that with his own hands he would bridle the bronze horses of S. + Mark. But now he found himself between the navy of Carlo Zeno in + the Adriatic and the flotilla led by Vittore Pisani across the + lagoon. It was in vain that the Republic of S. George strained + every nerve to send him succour from the Ligurian sea; in vain + that the lords of Padua kept opening communications with him from + the mainland. From the 1st of January 1380 till the 21st of June + the Venetians pressed the blockade ever closer, grappling their + foemen in a grip that if relaxed one moment would have hurled him + at their throats. The long and breathless struggle ended in the + capitulation at Chioggia of what remained of Doria's forty-eight + galleys and fourteen thousand men. + </p> + <p> + These great deeds are far away and hazy. The brief sentences of + mediæval annalists bring them less near to us than the + <i>chroniques scandaleuses</i> of good-for-nothing scoundrels, + whose vulgar adventures might be revived at the present hour with + scarce a change of setting. Such is the force of <i>intimité</i> + in literature. And yet Baffo and Casanova are as much of the past + as Doria and Pisani. It is only perhaps that the survival of + decadence in all we see around us, forms a fitting framework for + our recollections of their vividly described corruption. + </p> + <p> + Not far from the landing-place a balustraded bridge of ample + breadth and large bravura manner spans the main canal. Like + everything at Chioggia, it is dirty and has fallen from its first + estate. Yet neither time nor injury can obliterate style or + wholly degrade marble. Hard by the bridge there are two rival + inns. At one of these we ordered a seadinner—crabs, + cuttlefishes, soles, and turbots—which we ate at a table in + the open air. Nothing divided us from the street except a row of + Japanese privet-bushes in hooped tubs. Our banquet soon assumed a + somewhat unpleasant similitude to that of Dives; for the + Chioggoti, in all stages of decrepitude and squalor, crowded + round to beg for scraps—indescribable old women, enveloped + in their own petticoats thrown over their heads; girls hooded + with sombre black mantles; old men wrinkled beyond recognition by + their nearest relatives; jabbering, half-naked boys; slow, + slouching fishermen with clay pipes in their mouths and + philosophical acceptance on their sober foreheads. + </p> + <p> + That afternoon the gondola and sandolo were lashed together side + by side. Two sails were raised, and in this lazy fashion we stole + homewards, faster or slower according as the breeze freshened or + slackened, landing now and then on islands, sauntering along the + sea-walls which bulwark Venice from the Adriatic, and + singing—those at least of us who had the power to sing. + Four of our Venetians had trained voices and memories of + inexhaustible music. Over the level water, with the ripple + plashing at our keel, their songs went abroad, and mingled with + the failing day. The barcaroles and serenades peculiar to Venice + were, of course, in harmony with the occasion. But some + transcripts from classical operas were even more attractive, + through the dignity with which these men invested them. By the + peculiarity of their treatment the <i>recitativo</i> of the stage + assumed a solemn movement, marked in rhythm, which removed it + from the commonplace into antiquity, and made me understand how + cultivated music may pass back by natural, unconscious transition + into the realm of popular melody. + </p> + <p> + The sun sank, not splendidly, but quietly in banks of clouds + above the Alps. Stars came out, uncertainly at first, and then in + strength, reflected on the sea. The men of the Dogana watch-boat + challenged us and let us pass. Madonna's lamp was twinkling from + her shrine upon the harbour-pile. The city grew before us. + Stealing into Venice in that calm—stealing silently and + shadowlike, with scarce a ruffle of the water, the masses of the + town emerging out of darkness into twilight, till San Giorgio's + gun boomed with a flash athwart our stern, and the gas-lamps of + the Piazzetta swam into sight; all this was like a long enchanted + chapter of romance. And now the music of our men had sunk to one + faint whistling from Eustace of tunes in harmony with whispers at + the prow. + </p> + <p> + Then came the steps of the Palazzo Venier and the deep-scented + darkness of the garden. As we passed through to supper, I plucked + a spray of yellow Banksia rose, and put it in my buttonhole. The + dew was on its burnished leaves, and evening had drawn forth its + perfume. + </p> + <p> + IV.—MORNING RAMBLES + </p> + <p> + A story is told of Poussin, the French painter, that when he was + asked why he would not stay in Venice, he replied, 'If I stay + here, I shall become a colourist!' A somewhat similar tale is + reported of a fashionable English decorator. While on a visit to + friends in Venice, he avoided every building which contains a + Tintoretto, averring that the sight of Tintoretto's pictures + would injure his carefully trained taste. It is probable that + neither anecdote is strictly true. Yet there is a certain + epigrammatic point in both; and I have often speculated whether + even Venice could have so warped the genius of Poussin as to shed + one ray of splendour on his canvases, or whether even Tintoretto + could have so sublimed the prophet of Queen Anne as to make him + add dramatic passion to a London drawing-room. Anyhow, it is + exceedingly difficult to escape from colour in the air of Venice, + or from Tintoretto in her buildings. Long, delightful mornings + may be spent in the enjoyment of the one and the pursuit of the + other by folk who have no classical or pseudo-mediæval theories + to oppress them. + </p> + <p> + Tintoretto's house, though changed, can still be visited. It + formed part of the Fondamenta dei Mori, so called from having + been the quarter assigned to Moorish traders in Venice. A + spirited carving of a turbaned Moor leading a camel charged with + merchandise, remains above the waterline of a neighbouring + building; and all about the crumbling walls sprout flowering + weeds—samphire and snapdragon and the spiked campanula, + which shoots a spire of sea-blue stars from chinks of Istrian + stone. + </p> + <p> + The house stands opposite the Church of Santa Maria dell' Orto, + where Tintoretto was buried, and where four of his chief + masterpieces are to be seen. This church, swept and garnished, is + a triumph of modern Italian restoration. They have contrived to + make it as commonplace as human ingenuity could manage. Yet no + malice of ignorant industry can obscure the treasures it + contains—the pictures of Cima, Gian Bellini, Palma, and the + four Tintorettos, which form its crowning glory. Here the master + may be studied in four of his chief moods: as the painter of + tragic passion and movement, in the huge 'Last Judgment;' as the + painter of impossibilities, in the 'Vision of Moses upon Sinai;' + as the painter of purity and tranquil pathos, in the 'Miracle of + S. Agnes;' as the painter of Biblical history brought home to + daily life, in the 'Presentation of the Virgin.' Without leaving + the Madonna dell' Orto, a student can explore his genius in all + its depth and breadth; comprehend the enthusiasm he excites in + those who seek, as the essentials of art, imaginative boldness + and sincerity; understand what is meant by adversaries who + maintain that, after all, Tintoretto was but an inspired Gustave + Doré. Between that quiet canvas of the 'Presentation,' so modest + in its cool greys and subdued gold, and the tumult of flying, + <ins class="correction" title= + "Transcriber's note: original reads 'ruining'">running</ins> + ascending figures in the 'Judgment,' what an interval there is! + How strangely the white lamb-like maiden, kneeling beside her + lamb in the picture of S. Agnes, contrasts with the dusky + gorgeousness of the Hebrew women despoiling themselves of jewels + for the golden calf! Comparing these several manifestations of + creative power, we feel ourselves in the grasp of a painter who + was essentially a poet, one for whom his art was the medium for + expressing before all things thought and passion. Each picture is + executed in the manner suited to its tone of feeling, the key of + its conception. + </p> + <p> + Elsewhere than in the Madonna dell' Orto there are more + distinguished single examples of Tintoretto's realising faculty. + The 'Last Supper' in San Giorgio, for instance, and the + 'Adoration of the Shepherds' in the Scuola di San Rocco + illustrate his unique power of presenting sacred history in a + novel, romantic framework of familiar things. The commonplace + circumstances of ordinary life have been employed to portray in + the one case a lyric of mysterious splendour; in the other, an + idyll of infinite sweetness. Divinity shines through the rafters + of that upper chamber, where round a low large table the Apostles + are assembled in a group translated from the social customs of + the painter's days. Divinity is shed upon the straw-spread + manger, where Christ lies sleeping in the loft, with shepherds + crowding through the room beneath. + </p> + <p> + A studied contrast between the simplicity and repose of the + central figure and the tumult of passions in the multitude + around, may be observed in the 'Miracle of S. Agnes.' It is this + which gives dramatic vigour to the composition. But the same + effect is carried to its highest fulfilment, with even a loftier + beauty, in the episode of Christ before the judgment-seat of + Pilate, at San Rocco. Of all Tintoretto's religious pictures, + that is the most profoundly felt, the most majestic. No other + artist succeeded as he has here succeeded in presenting to us God + incarnate. For this Christ is not merely the just man, innocent, + silent before his accusers. The stationary, white-draped figure, + raised high above the agitated crowd, with tranquil forehead + slightly bent, facing his perplexed and fussy judge, is more than + man. We cannot say perhaps precisely why he is divine. But + Tintoretto has made us feel that he is. In other words, his + treatment of the high theme chosen by him has been adequate. + </p> + <p> + We must seek the Scuola di San Rocco for examples of Tintoretto's + liveliest imagination. Without ceasing to be Italian in his + attention to harmony and grace, he far exceeded the masters of + his nation in the power of suggesting what is weird, mysterious, + upon the borderland of the grotesque. And of this quality there + are three remarkable instances in the Scuola. No one but + Tintoretto could have evoked the fiend in his 'Temptation of + Christ.' It is an indescribable hermaphroditic genius, the genius + of carnal fascination, with outspread downy rose-plumed wings, + and flaming bracelets on the full but sinewy arms, who kneels and + lifts aloft great stones, smiling entreatingly to the sad, grey + Christ seated beneath a rugged pent-house of the desert. No one + again but Tintoretto could have dashed the hot lights of that + fiery sunset in such quivering flakes upon the golden flesh of + Eve, half hidden among laurels, as she stretches forth the fruit + of the Fall to shrinking Adam. No one but Tintoretto, till we + come to Blake, could have imagined yonder Jonah, summoned by the + beck of God from the whale's belly. The monstrous fish rolls over + in the ocean, blowing portentous vapour from his trump-shaped + nostril. The prophet's beard descends upon his naked breast in + hoary ringlets to the girdle. He has forgotten the past peril of + the deep, although the whale's jaws yawn around him. Between him + and the outstretched finger of Jehovah calling him again to life, + there runs a spark of unseen spiritual electricity. + </p> + <p> + To comprehend Tintoretto's touch upon the pastoral idyll we must + turn our steps to San Giorgio again, and pace those meadows by + the running river in company with his Manna-Gatherers. Or we may + seek the Accademia, and notice how he here has varied the + 'Temptation of Adam by Eve,' choosing a less tragic motive of + seduction than the one so powerfully rendered at San Rocco. Or in + the Ducal Palace we may take our station, hour by hour, before + the 'Marriage of Bacchus and Ariadne.' It is well to leave the + very highest achievements of art untouched by criticism, + undescribed. And in this picture we have the most perfect of all + modern attempts to realise an antique myth—more perfect + than Raphael's 'Galatea,' or Titian's 'Meeting of Bacchus with + Ariadne,' or Botticelli's 'Birth of Venus from the Sea.' It may + suffice to marvel at the slight effect which melodies so powerful + and so direct as these produce upon the ordinary public. Sitting, + as is my wont, one Sunday morning, opposite the 'Bacchus,' four + Germans with a cicerone sauntered by. The subject was explained + to them. They waited an appreciable space of time. Then the + youngest opened his lips and spake: 'Bacchus war der Wein-Gott.' + And they all moved heavily away. <i>Bos locutus est</i>. 'Bacchus + was the wine-god!' This, apparently, is what a picture tells to + one man. To another it presents divine harmonies, perceptible + indeed in nature, but here by the painter-poet for the first time + brought together and cadenced in a work of art. For another it is + perhaps the hieroglyph of pent-up passions and desired + impossibilities. For yet another it may only mean the + unapproachable inimitable triumph of consummate craft. + </p> + <p> + Tintoretto, to be rightly understood, must be sought all over + Venice—in the church as well as the Scuola di San Rocco; in + the 'Temptation of S. Anthony' at S. Trovaso no less than in the + Temptations of Eve and Christ; in the decorative pomp of the Sala + del Senato, and in the Paradisal vision of the Sala del Gran + Consiglio. Yet, after all, there is one of his most + characteristic moods, to appreciate which fully we return to the + Madonna dell' Orto. I have called him 'the painter of + impossibilities.' At rare moments he rendered them possible by + sheer imaginative force. If we wish to realise this phase of his + creative power, and to measure our own subordination to his + genius in its most hazardous enterprise, we must spend much time + in the choir of this church. Lovers of art who mistrust this play + of the audacious fancy—aiming at sublimity in supersensual + regions, sometimes attaining to it by stupendous effort or + authentic revelation, not seldom sinking to the verge of bathos, + and demanding the assistance of interpretative sympathy in the + spectator—such men will not take the point of view required + of them by Tintoretto in his boldest flights, in the 'Worship of + the Golden Calf' and in the 'Destruction of the World by Water.' + It is for them to ponder well the flying archangel with the + scales of judgment in his hand, and the seraph-charioted Jehovah + enveloping Moses upon Sinai in lightnings. + </p> + <p> + The gondola has had a long rest. Were Francesco but a little more + impatient, he might be wondering what had become of the padrone. + I bid him turn, and we are soon gliding into the Sacca della + Misericordia. This is a protected float, where the wood which + comes from Cadore and the hills of the Ampezzo is stored in + spring. Yonder square white house, standing out to sea, fronting + Murano and the Alps, they call the Oasa degli Spiriti. No one + cares to inhabit it; for here, in old days, it was the wont of + the Venetians to lay their dead for a night's rest before their + final journey to the graveyard of S. Michele. So many generations + of dead folk had made that house their inn, that it is now no + fitting home for living men. San Michele is the island close + before Murano, where the Lombardi built one of their most + romantically graceful churches of pale Istrian stone, and where + the Campo Santo has for centuries received the dead into its oozy + clay. The cemetery is at present undergoing restoration. Its + state of squalor and abandonment to cynical disorder makes one + feel how fitting for Italians would be the custom of cremation. + An island in the lagoons devoted to funeral pyres is a solemn and + ennobling conception. This graveyard, with its ruinous walls, its + mangy riot of unwholesome weeds, its corpses festering in slime + beneath neglected slabs in hollow chambers, and the mephitic wash + of poisoned waters that surround it, inspires the horror of + disgust. + </p> + <p> + The morning has not lost its freshness. Antelao and Tofana, + guarding the vale above Cortina, show faint streaks of snow upon + their amethyst. Little clouds hang in the still autumn sky. There + are men dredging for shrimps and crabs through shoals uncovered + by the ebb. Nothing can be lovelier, more resting to eyes tired + with pictures than this tranquil, sunny expanse of the lagoon. As + we round the point of the Bersaglio, new landscapes of island and + Alp and low-lying mainland move into sight at every slow stroke + of the oar. A luggage-train comes lumbering along the railway + bridge, puffing white smoke into the placid blue. Then we strike + down Cannaregio, and I muse upon processions of kings and + generals and noble strangers, entering Venice by this water-path + from Mestre, before the Austrians built their causeway for the + trains. Some of the rare scraps of fresco upon house fronts, + still to be seen in Venice, are left in Cannaregio. They are + chiaroscuro allegories in a bold bravura manner of the sixteenth + century. From these and from a few rosy fragments on the Fondaco + dei Tedeschi, the Fabbriche Nuove, and precious fading figures in + a certain courtyard near San Stefano, we form some notion how + Venice looked when all her palaces were painted. Pictures by + Gentile Bellini, Mansueti, and Carpaccio help the fancy in this + work of restoration. And here and there, in back canals, we come + across coloured sections of old buildings, capped by true + Venetian chimneys, which for a moment seem to realise our dream. + </p> + <p> + A morning with Tintoretto might well be followed by a morning + with Carpaccio or Bellini. But space is wanting in these pages. + Nor would it suit the manner of this medley to hunt the Lombardi + through palaces and churches, pointing out their singularities of + violet and yellow panellings in marble, the dignity of their + wide-opened arches, or the delicacy of their shallow chiselled + traceries in cream-white Istrian stone. It is enough to indicate + the goal of many a pleasant pilgrimage: warrior angels of + Vivarini and Basaiti hidden in a dark chapel of the Frari; Fra + Francesco's fantastic orchard of fruits and flowers in distant S. + Francesco della Vigna; the golden Gian Bellini in S. Zaccaria; + Palma's majestic S. Barbara in S. Maria Formosa; San Giobbe's + wealth of sculptured frieze and floral scroll; the Ponte di + Paradiso, with its Gothic arch; the painted plates in the Museo + Civico; and palace after palace, loved for some quaint piece of + tracery, some moulding full of mediæval symbolism, some fierce + impossible Renaissance freak of fancy. + </p> + <p> + Bather than prolong this list, I will tell a story which drew me + one day past the Public Gardens to the metropolitan Church of + Venice, San Pietro di Castello. The novella is related by + Bandello. It has, as will be noticed, points of similarity to + that of 'Romeo and Juliet.' + </p> + <p> + V.—A VENETIAN NOVELLA + </p> + <p> + At the time when Carpaccio and Gentile Bellini were painting + those handsome youths in tight jackets, parti-coloured hose, and + little round caps placed awry upon their shocks of well-combed + hair, there lived in Venice two noblemen, Messer Pietro and + Messer Paolo, whose palaces fronted each other on the Grand + Canal. Messer Paolo was a widower, with one married daughter, and + an only son of twenty years or thereabouts, named Gerardo. Messer + Pietro's wife was still living; and this couple had but one + child, a daughter, called Elena, of exceeding beauty, aged + fourteen. Gerardo, as is the wont of gallants, was paying his + addresses to a certain lady; and nearly every day he had to cross + the Grand Canal in his gondola, and to pass beneath the house of + Elena on his way to visit his Dulcinea; for this lady lived some + distance up a little canal on which the western side of Messer + Pietro's palace looked. + </p> + <p> + Now it so happened that at the very time when the story opens, + Messer Pietro's wife fell ill and died, and Elena was left alone + at home with her father and her old nurse. Across the little + canal of which I spoke there dwelt another nobleman, with four + daughters, between the years of seventeen and twenty-one. Messer + Pietro, desiring to provide amusement for poor little Elena, + besought this gentleman that his daughters might come on + feast-days to play with her. For you must know that, except on + festivals of the Church, the custom of Venice required that + gentlewomen should remain closely shut within the private + apartments of their dwellings. His request was readily granted; + and on the next feast-day the five girls began to play at ball + together for forfeits in the great saloon, which opened with its + row of Gothic arches and balustraded balcony upon the Grand + Canal. The four sisters, meanwhile, had other thoughts than for + the game. One or other of them, and sometimes three together, + would let the ball drop, and run to the balcony to gaze upon + their gallants, passing up and down in gondolas below; and then + they would drop flowers or ribands for tokens. Which negligence + of theirs annoyed Elena much; for she thought only of the game. + Wherefore she scolded them in childish wise, and one of them made + answer, 'Elena, if you only knew how pleasant it is to play as we + are playing on this balcony, you would not care so much for ball + and forfeits!' + </p> + <p> + On one of those feast-days the four sisters were prevented from + keeping their little friend company. Elena, with nothing to do, + and feeling melancholy, leaned upon the window-sill which + overlooked the narrow canal. And it chanced that just then + Gerardo, on his way to Dulcinea, went by; and Elena looked down + at him, as she had seen those sisters look at passers-by. Gerardo + caught her eye, and glances passed between them, and Gerardo's + gondolier, bending from the poop, said to his master, 'O master! + methinks that gentle maiden is better worth your wooing than + Dulcinea.' Gerardo pretended to pay no heed to these words; but + after rowing a little way, he bade the man turn, and they went + slowly back beneath the window. This time Elena, thinking to play + the game which her four friends had played, took from her hair a + clove carnation and let it fall close to Gerardo on the cushion + of the gondola. He raised the flower and put it to his lips, + acknowledging the courtesy with a grave bow. But the perfume of + the clove and the beauty of Elena in that moment took possession + of his heart together, and straightway he forgot Dulcinea. + </p> + <p> + As yet he knew not who Elena was. Nor is this wonderful; for the + daughters of Venetian nobles were but rarely seen or spoken of. + But the thought of her haunted him awake and sleeping; and every + feast-day, when there was the chance of seeing her, he rowed his + gondola beneath her windows. And there she appeared to him in + company with her four friends; the five girls clustering together + like sister roses beneath the pointed windows of the Gothic + balcony. Elena, on her side, had no thought of love; for of love + she had heard no one speak. But she took pleasure in the game + those friends had taught her, of leaning from the balcony to + watch Gerardo. He meanwhile grew love-sick and impatient, + wondering how he might declare his passion. Until one day it + happened that, talking through a lane or <i>calle</i> which + skirted Messer Pietro'a palace, he caught sight of Elena's nurse, + who was knocking at the door, returning from some shopping she + had made. This nurse had been his own nurse in childhood; + therefore he remembered her, and cried aloud, 'Nurse, Nurse!' But + the old woman did not hear him, and passed into the house and + shut the door behind her. Whereupon Gerardo, greatly moved, still + called to her, and when he reached the door, began to knock upon + it violently. And whether it was the agitation of finding himself + at last so near the wish of his heart, or whether the pains of + waiting for his love had weakened him, I know not; but, while he + knocked, his senses left him, and he fell fainting in the + doorway. Then the nurse recognised the youth to whom she had + given suck, and brought him into the courtyard by the help of + handmaidens, and Elena came down and gazed upon him. The house + was now full of bustle, and Messer Pietro heard the noise, and + seeing the son of his neighbour in so piteous a plight, he caused + Gerardo to be laid upon a bed. But for all they could do with + him, he recovered not from his swoon. And after a while force was + that they should place him in a gondola and ferry him across to + his father's house. The nurse went with him, and informed Messer + Paolo of what had happened. Doctors were sent for, and the whole + family gathered round Gerardo's bed. After a while he revived a + little; and thinking himself still upon the doorstep of Pietro's + palace, called again, 'Nurse, Nurse!' She was near at hand, and + would have spoken to him. But while he summoned his senses to his + aid, he became gradually aware of his own kinsfolk and dissembled + the secret of his grief. They beholding him in better cheer, + departed on their several ways, and the nurse still sat alone + beside him. Then he explained to her what he had at heart, and + how he was in love with a maiden whom he had seen on feast-days + in the house of Messer Pietro. But still he knew not Elena's + name; and she, thinking it impossible that such a child had + inspired this passion, began to marvel which of the four sisters + it was Gerardo loved. Then they appointed the next Sunday, when + all the five girls should be together, for Gerardo by some sign, + as he passed beneath the window, to make known to the old nurse + his lady. + </p> + <p> + Elena, meanwhile, who had watched Gerardo lying still and pale in + swoon beneath her on the pavement of the palace, felt the + stirring of a new unknown emotion in her soul. When Sunday came, + she devised excuses for keeping her four friends away, bethinking + her that she might see him once again alone, and not betray the + agitation which she dreaded. This ill suited the schemes of the + nurse, who nevertheless was forced to be content. But after + dinner, seeing how restless was the girl, and how she came and + went, and ran a thousand times to the balcony, the nurse began to + wonder whether Elena herself were not in love with some one. So + she feigned to sleep, but placed herself within sight of the + window. And soon Gerardo came by in his gondola; and Elena, who + was prepared, threw to him her nosegay. The watchful nurse had + risen, and peeping behind the girl's shoulder, saw at a glance + how matters stood. Thereupon she began to scold her charge, and + say, 'Is this a fair and comely thing, to stand all day at + balconies and throw flowers at passers-by? Woe to you if your + father should come to know of this! He would make you wish + yourself among the dead!' Elena, sore troubled at her nurse's + rebuke, turned and threw her arms about her neck, and called her + 'Nanna!' as the wont is of Venetian children. Then she told the + old woman how she had learned that game from the four sisters, + and how she thought it was not different, but far more pleasant, + than the game of forfeits; whereupon her nurse spoke gravely, + explaining what love is, and how that love should lead to + marriage, and bidding her search her own heart if haply she could + choose Gerardo for her husband. There was no reason, as she knew, + why Messer Paolo's son should not mate with Messer Pietro's + daughter. But being a romantic creature, as many women are, she + resolved to bring the match about in secret. + </p> + <p> + Elena took little time to reflect, but told her nurse that she + was willing, if Gerardo willed it too, to have him for her + husband. Then went the nurse and made the young man know how + matters stood, and arranged with him a day, when Messer Pietro + should be in the Council of the Pregadi, and the servants of the + palace otherwise employed, for him to come and meet his Elena. A + glad man was Gerardo, nor did he wait to think how better it + would be to ask the hand of Elena in marriage from her father. + But when the day arrived, he sought the nurse, and she took him + to a chamber in the palace, where there stood an image of the + Blessed Virgin. Elena was there, pale and timid; and when the + lovers clasped hands, neither found many words to say. But the + nurse bade them take heart, and leading them before Our Lady, + joined their hands, and made Gerardo place his ring on his + bride's finger. After this fashion were Gerardo and Elena wedded. + And for some while, by the assistance of the nurse, they dwelt + together in much love and solace, meeting often as occasion + offered. + </p> + <p> + Messer Paolo, who knew nothing of these things, took thought + meanwhile for his son's career. It was the season when the + Signiory of Venice sends a fleet of galleys to Beirut with + merchandise; and the noblemen may bid for the hiring of a ship, + and charge it with wares, and send whomsoever they list as factor + in their interest. One of these galleys, then, Messer Paolo + engaged, and told his son that he had appointed him to journey + with it and increase their wealth. 'On thy return, my son,' he + said, 'we will bethink us of a wife for thee.' Gerardo, when he + heard these words, was sore troubled, and first he told his + father roundly that he would not go, and flew off in the twilight + to pour out his perplexities to Elena. But she, who was prudent + and of gentle soul, besought him to obey his father in this + thing, to the end, moreover, that, having done his will and + increased his wealth, he might afterwards unfold the story of + their secret marriage. To these good counsels, though loth, + Gerardo consented. His father was overjoyed at his son's + repentance. The galley was straightway laden with merchandise, + and Gerardo set forth on his voyage. + </p> + <p> + The trip to Beirut and back lasted usually six months or at the + most seven. Now when Gerardo had been some six months away, + Messer Pietro, noticing how fair his daughter was, and how she + had grown into womanhood, looked about him for a husband for her. + When he had found a youth suitable in birth and wealth and years, + he called for Elena, and told her that the day had been appointed + for her marriage. She, alas! knew not what to answer. She feared + to tell her father that she was already married, for she knew not + whether this would please Gerardo. For the same reason she + dreaded to throw herself upon the kindness of Messer Paolo. Nor + was her nurse of any help in counsel; for the old woman repented + her of what she had done, and had good cause to believe that, + even if the marriage with Gerardo were accepted by the two + fathers, they would punish her for her own part in the affair. + Therefore she bade Elena wait on fortune, and hinted to her that, + if the worst came to the worst, no one need know she had been + wedded with the ring to Gerardo. Such weddings, you must know, + were binding; but till they had been blessed by the Church, they + had not taken the force of a religious sacrament. And this is + still the case in Italy among the common folk, who will say of a + man, 'Si, è ammogliato; ma il matrimonio non è stato benedetto.' + 'Yes, he has taken a wife, but the marriage has not yet been + blessed.' + </p> + <p> + So the days flew by in doubt and sore distress for Elena. Then on + the night before her wedding, she felt that she could bear this + life no longer. But having no poison, and being afraid to pierce + her bosom with a knife, she lay down on her bed alone, and tried + to die by holding in her breath. A mortal swoon came over her; + her senses fled; the life in her remained suspended. And when her + nurse came next morning to call her, she found poor Elena cold as + a corpse. Messer Pietro and all the household rushed, at the + nurse's cries, into the room, and they all saw Elena stretched + dead upon her bed undressed. Physicians were called, who made + theories to explain the cause of death. But all believed that she + was really dead, beyond all help of art or medicine. Nothing + remained but to carry her to church for burial instead of + marriage. Therefore, that very evening, a funeral procession was + formed, which moved by torchlight up the Grand Canal, along the + Riva, past the blank walls of the Arsenal, to the Campo before + San Pietro in Castello. Elena lay beneath the black felze in one + gondola, with a priest beside her praying, and other boats + followed bearing mourners. Then they laid her in a marble chest + outside the church, and all departed, still with torches burning, + to their homes. + </p> + <p> + Now it so fell out that upon that very evening Gerardo's galley + had returned from Syria, and was anchoring within the port of + Lido, which looks across to the island of Castello. It was the + gentle custom of Venice at that time that, when a ship arrived + from sea, the friends of those on board at once came out to + welcome them, and take and give the news. Therefore many noble + youths and other citizens were on the deck of Gerardo's galley, + making merry with him over the safe conduct of his voyage. Of one + of these he asked, 'Whose is yonder funeral procession returning + from San Pietro?' The young man made answer, 'Alas, for poor + Elena, Messer Pietro's daughter! She should have been married + this day. But death took her, and to-night they buried her in the + marble monument outside the church.' A woeful man was Gerardo, + hearing suddenly this news, and knowing what his dear wife must + have suffered ere she died. Yet he restrained himself, daring not + to disclose his anguish, and waited till his friends had left the + galley. Then he called to him the captain of the oarsmen, who was + his friend, and unfolded to him all the story of his love and + sorrow, and said that he must go that night and see his wife once + more, if even he should have to break her tomb. The captain tried + to dissuade him, but in vain. Seeing him so obstinate, he + resolved not to desert Gerardo. The two men took one of the + galley's boats, and rowed together toward San Pietro. It was past + midnight when they reached the Campo and broke the marble + sepulchre asunder. Pushing back its lid, Gerardo descended into + the grave and abandoned himself upon the body of his Elena. One + who had seen them at that moment could not well have said which + of the two was dead and which was living—Elena or her + husband. Meantime the captain of the oarsmen, fearing lest the + watch (set by the Masters of the Night to keep the peace of + Venice) might arrive, was calling on Gerardo to come back. + Gerardo heeded him no whit. But at the last, compelled by his + entreaties, and as it were astonied, he arose, bearing his wife's + corpse in his arms, and carried her clasped against his bosom to + the boat, and laid her therein, and sat down by her side and + kissed her frequently, and suffered not his friend's + remonstrances. Force was for the captain, having brought himself + into this scrape, that he should now seek refuge by the nearest + way from justice. Therefore he hoved gently from the bank, and + plied his oar, and brought the gondola apace into the open + waters. Gerardo still clasped Elena, dying husband by dead wife. + But the sea-breeze freshened towards daybreak; and the captain, + looking down upon that pair, and bringing to their faces the + light of his boat's lantern, judged their case not desperate at + all. On Elena's cheek there was a flush of life less deadly even + than the pallor of Gerardo's forehead. Thereupon the good man + called aloud, and Gerardo started from his grief; and both + together they chafed the hands and feet of Elena; and, the + sea-breeze aiding with its saltness, they awoke in her the spark + of life. + </p> + <p> + Dimly burned the spark. But Gerardo, being aware of it, became a + man again. Then, having taken counsel with the captain, both + resolved to bear her to that brave man's mother's house. A bed + was soon made ready, and food was brought; and after due time, + she lifted up her face and knew Gerardo. The peril of the grave + was past, but thought had now to be taken for the future. + Therefore Gerardo, leaving his wife to the captain's mother, + rowed back to the galley and prepared to meet his father. With + good store of merchandise and with great gains from his traffic, + he arrived in that old palace on the Grand Canal. Then having + opened to Messer Paolo the matters of his journey, and shown him + how he had fared, and set before him tables of disbursements and + receipts, he seized the moment of his father's gladness. + 'Father,' he said, and as he spoke he knelt upon his knees, + 'Father, I bring you not good store of merchandise and bags of + gold alone; I bring you also a wedded wife, whom I have saved + this night from death.' And when the old man's surprise was + quieted, he told him the whole story. Now Messer Paolo, desiring + no better than that his son should wed the heiress of his + neighbour, and knowing well that Messer Pietro would make great + joy receiving back his daughter from the grave, bade Gerardo in + haste take rich apparel and clothe Elena therewith, and fetch her + home. These things were swiftly done; and after evenfall Messer + Pietro was bidden to grave business in his neighbour's palace. + With heavy heart he came, from a house of mourning to a house of + gladness. But there, at the banquet-table's head he saw his dead + child Elena alive, and at her side a husband. And when the whole + truth had been declared, he not only kissed and embraced the pair + who knelt before him, but of his goodness forgave the nurse, who + in her turn came trembling to his feet. Then fell there joy and + bliss in overmeasure that night upon both palaces of the Canal + Grande. And with the morrow the Church blessed the spousals which + long since had been on both sides vowed and consummated. + </p> + <p> + VI.—ON THE LAGOONS + </p> + <p> + The mornings are spent in study, sometimes among pictures, + sometimes in the Marcian Library, or again in those vast convent + chambers of the Frari, where the archives of Venice load + innumerable shelves. The afternoons invite us to a further flight + upon the water. Both sandolo and gondola await our choice, and we + may sail or row, according as the wind and inclination tempt us. + </p> + <p> + Yonder lies San Lazzaro, with the neat red buildings of the + Armenian convent. The last oleander blossoms shine rosy pink + above its walls against the pure blue sky as we glide into the + little harbour. Boats piled with coal-black grapes block the + landing-place, for the Padri are gathering their vintage from the + Lido, and their presses run with new wine. Eustace and I have not + come to revive memories of Byron—that curious patron saint + of the Armenian colony—or to inspect the printing-press, + which issues books of little value for our studies. It is enough + to pace the terrace, and linger half an hour beneath the low + broad arches of the alleys pleached with vines, through which the + domes and towers of Venice rise more beautiful by distance. + </p> + <p> + Malamocco lies considerably farther, and needs a full hour of + stout rowing to reach it. Alighting there, we cross the narrow + strip of land, and find ourselves upon the huge + sea-wall—block piled on block—of Istrian stone in + tiers and ranks, with cunning breathing-places for the waves to + wreak their fury on and foam their force away in fretful waste. + The very existence of Venice may be said to depend sometimes on + these <i>murazzi</i>, which were finished at an immense cost by + the Republic in the days of its decadence. The enormous monoliths + which compose them had to be brought across the Adriatic in + sailing vessels. Of all the Lidi, that of Malamocco is the + weakest; and here, if anywhere, the sea might effect an entrance + into the lagoon. Our gondoliers told us of some places where the + <i>murazzi</i> were broken in a gale, or <i>sciroccale</i>, not + very long ago. Lying awake in Venice, when the wind blows hard, + one hears the sea thundering upon its sandy barrier, and blesses + God for the <i>murazzi</i>. On such a night it happened once to + me to dream a dream of Venice overwhelmed by water. I saw the + billows roll across the smooth lagoon like a gigantic Eager. The + Ducal Palace crumbled, and San Marco's domes went down. The + Campanile rocked and shivered like a reed. And all along the + Grand Canal the palaces swayed helpless, tottering to their fall, + while boats piled high with men and women strove to stem the + tide, and save themselves from those impending ruins. It was a + mad dream, born of the sea's roar and Tintoretto's painting. But + this afternoon no such visions are suggested. The sea sleeps, and + in the moist autumn air we break tall branches of the seeded + yellowing samphire from hollows of the rocks, and bear them + homeward in a wayward bouquet mixed with cobs of Indian-corn. + </p> + <p> + Fusina is another point for these excursions. It lies at the + mouth of the Canal di Brenta, where the mainland ends in marsh + and meadows, intersected by broad renes. In spring the ditches + bloom with fleurs-de-lys; in autumn they take sober colouring + from lilac daisies and the delicate sea-lavender. Scores of tiny + plants are turning scarlet on the brown moist earth; and when the + sun goes down behind the Euganean hills, his crimson canopy of + cloud, reflected on these shallows, muddy shoals, and wilderness + of matted weeds, converts the common earth into a fairyland of + fabulous dyes. Purple, violet, and rose are spread around us. In + front stretches the lagoon, tinted with a pale light from the + east, and beyond this pallid mirror shines Venice—a long + low broken line, touched with the softest roseate flush. Ere we + reach the Giudecca on our homeward way, sunset has faded. The + western skies have clad themselves in green, barred with dark + fire-rimmed clouds. The Euganean hills stand like stupendous + pyramids, Egyptian, solemn, against a lemon space on the horizon. + The far reaches of the lagoons, the Alps, and islands assume + those tones of glowing lilac which are the supreme beauty of + Venetian evening. Then, at last, we see the first lamps glitter + on the Zattere. The quiet of the night has come. + </p> + <p> + Words cannot be formed to express the endless varieties of + Venetian sunset. The most magnificent follow after wet stormy + days, when the west breaks suddenly into a labyrinth of fire, + when chasms of clear turquoise heavens emerge, and horns of flame + are flashed to the zenith, and unexpected splendours scale the + fretted clouds, step over step, stealing along the purple caverns + till the whole dome throbs. Or, again, after a fair day, a change + of weather approaches, and high, infinitely high, the skies are + woven over with a web of half-transparent cirrus-clouds. These in + the afterglow blush crimson, and through their rifts the depth of + heaven is of a hard and gemlike blue, and all the water turns to + rose beneath them. I remember one such evening on the way back + from Torcello. We were well out at sea between Mazzorbo and + Murano. The ruddy arches overhead were reflected without + interruption in the waveless ruddy lake below. Our black boat was + the only dark spot in this sphere of splendour. We seemed to hang + suspended; and such as this, I fancied, must be the feeling of an + insect caught in the heart of a fiery-petalled rose. Yet not + these melodramatic sunsets alone are beautiful. Even more + exquisite, perhaps, are the lagoons, painted in monochrome of + greys, with just one touch of pink upon a western cloud, + scattered in ripples here and there on the waves below, reminding + us that day has passed and evening come. And beautiful again are + the calm settings of fair weather, when sea and sky alike are + cheerful, and the topmost blades of the lagoon grass, peeping + from the shallows, glance like emeralds upon the surface. There + is no deep stirring of the spirit in a symphony of light and + colour; but purity, peace, and freshness make their way into our + hearts. + </p> + <p> + VII.—AT THE LIDO + </p> + <p> + Of all these afternoon excursions, that to the Lido is most + frequent. It has two points for approach. The more distant is the + little station of San Nicoletto, at the mouth of the Porto. With + an ebb-tide, the water of the lagoon runs past the mulberry + gardens of this hamlet like a river. There is here a grove of + acacia-trees, shadowy and dreamy, above deep grass, which even an + Italian summer does not wither. The Riva is fairly broad, forming + a promenade, where one may conjure up the personages of a century + ago. For San Nicoletto used to be a fashionable resort before the + other points of Lido had been occupied by pleasure-seekers. An + artist even now will select its old-world quiet, leafy shade, and + prospect through the islands of Vignole and Sant' Erasmo to + snow-touched peaks of Antelao and Tofana, rather than the glare + and bustle and extended view of Venice which its rival Sant' + Elisabetta offers. + </p> + <p> + But when we want a plunge into the Adriatic, or a stroll along + smooth sands, or a breath of genuine sea-breeze, or a handful of + horned poppies from the dunes, or a lazy half-hour's + contemplation of a limitless horizon flecked with russet sails, + then we seek Sant' Elisabetta. Our boat is left at the + landing-place. We saunter across the island and back again. + Antonio and Francesco wait and order wine, which we drink with + them in the shade of the little <i>osteria's</i> wall. + </p> + <p> + A certain afternoon in May I well remember, for this visit to the + Lido was marked by one of those apparitions which are as rare as + they are welcome to the artist's soul. I have always held that in + our modern life the only real equivalent for the antique + mythopoeic sense—that sense which enabled the Hellenic race + to figure for themselves the powers of earth and air, streams and + forests, and the presiding genii of places, under the forms of + living human beings, is supplied by the appearance at some + felicitous moment of a man or woman who impersonates for our + imagination the essence of the beauty that environs us. It seems, + at such a fortunate moment, as though we had been waiting for + this revelation, although perchance the want of it had not been + previously felt. Our sensations and perceptions test themselves + at the touchstone of this living individuality. The keynote of + the whole music dimly sounding in our ears is struck. A melody + emerges, clear in form and excellent in rhythm. The landscapes we + have painted on our brain, no longer lack their central figure. + The life proper to the complex conditions we have studied is + discovered, and every detail, judged by this standard of + vitality, falls into its right relations. + </p> + <p> + I had been musing long that day and earnestly upon the mystery of + the lagoons, their opaline transparencies of air and water, their + fretful risings and sudden subsidence into calm, the + treacherousness of their shoals, the sparkle and the splendour of + their sunlight. I had asked myself how would a Greek sculptor + have personified the elemental deity of these salt-water lakes, + so different in quality from the Ægean or Ionian sea? What would + he find distinctive of their spirit? The Tritons of these + shallows must be of other form and lineage than the fierce-eyed + youth who blows his conch upon the curled crest of a wave, crying + aloud to his comrades, as he bears the nymph away to caverns + where the billows plunge in tideless instability. + </p> + <p> + We had picked up shells and looked for sea-horses on the Adriatic + shore. Then we returned to give our boatmen wine beneath the + vine-clad <i>pergola</i>. Four other men were there, drinking, + and eating from a dish of fried fish set upon the coarse white + linen cloth. Two of them soon rose and went away. Of the two who + stayed, one was a large, middle-aged man; the other was still + young. He was tall and sinewy, but slender, for these Venetians + are rarely massive in their strength. Each limb is equally + developed by the exercise of rowing upright, bending all the + muscles to their stroke. Their bodies are elastically supple, + with free sway from the hips and a mercurial poise upon the + ankle. Stefano showed these qualities almost in exaggeration. The + type in him was refined to its artistic perfection. Moreover, he + was rarely in repose, but moved with a singular brusque grace. A + black broad-brimmed hat was thrown back upon his matted + <i>zazzera</i> of dark hair tipped with dusky brown. This shock + of hair, cut in flakes, and falling wilfully, reminded me of the + lagoon grass when it darkens in autumn upon uncovered shoals, and + sunset gilds its sombre edges. Fiery grey eyes beneath it gazed + intensely, with compulsive effluence of electricity. It was the + wild glance of a Triton. Short blonde moustache, dazzling teeth, + skin bronzed, but showing white and healthful through open front + and sleeves of lilac shirt. The dashing sparkle of this animate + splendour, who looked to me as though the sea-waves and the sun + had made him in some hour of secret and unquiet rapture, was + somehow emphasised by a curious dint dividing his square + chin—a cleft that harmonised with smile on lip and steady + flame in eyes. I hardly know what effect it would have upon a + reader to compare eyes to opals. Yet Stefano's eyes, as they met + mine, had the vitreous intensity of opals, as though the colour + of Venetian waters were vitalised in them. This noticeable being + had a rough, hoarse voice, which, to develop the parallel with a + sea-god, might have screamed in storm or whispered raucous + messages from crests of tossing billows. + </p> + <p> + I felt, as I looked, that here, for me at least, the mythopoem of + the lagoons was humanised; the spirit of the saltwater lakes had + appeared to me; the final touch of life emergent from nature had + been given. I was satisfied; for I had seen a poem. + </p> + <p> + Then we rose, and wandered through the Jews' cemetery. It is a + quiet place, where the flat grave-stones, inscribed in Hebrew and + Italian, lie deep in Lido sand, waved over with wild grass and + poppies. I would fain believe that no neglect, but rather the + fashion of this folk, had left the monuments of generations to be + thus resumed by nature. Yet, knowing nothing of the history of + this burial-ground, I dare not affirm so much. There is one + outlying piece of the cemetery which seems to contradict my + charitable interpretation. It is not far from San Nicoletto. No + enclosure marks it from the unconsecrated dunes. Acacia-trees + sprout amid the monuments, and break the tablets with their + thorny shoots upthrusting from the soil. Where patriarchs and + rabbis sleep for centuries, the fishers of the sea now wander, + and defile these habitations of the dead: + </p> + <div class="poem"> + <p> + Corruption most abhorred + </p> + <p> + Mingling itself with their renownèd ashes. + </p> + </div> + <p> + Some of the grave-stones have been used to fence the towing-path; + and one I saw, well carved with letters legible of Hebrew on fair + Istrian marble, which roofed an open drain leading from the + stable of a Christian dog. + </p> + <p> + VIII.—A VENETIAN RESTAURANT + </p> + <p> + At the end of a long glorious day, unhappy is that mortal whom + the Hermes of a cosmopolitan hotel, white-chokered and + white-waistcoated, marshals to the Hades of the + <i>table-d'hôte</i>. The world has often been compared to an inn; + but on my way down to this common meal I have, not unfrequently, + felt fain to reverse the simile. From their separate stations, at + the appointed hour, the guests like ghosts flit to a gloomy + gas-lit chamber. They are of various speech and race, preoccupied + with divers interests and cares. Necessity and the waiter drive + them all to a sepulchral syssition, whereof the cook too + frequently deserves that old Greek comic + epithet—αδου + μάγειρος + —cook of the Inferno. And just as we are told that in + Charon's boat we shall not be allowed to pick our society, so + here we must accept what fellowship the fates provide. An English + spinster retailing paradoxes culled to-day from Ruskin's + handbooks; an American citizen describing his jaunt in a gondóla + from the railway station; a German shopkeeper descanting in one + breath on Baur's Bock and the beauties of the Marcusplatz; an + intelligent æsthete bent on working into clearness his own views + of Carpaccio's genius: all these in turn, or all together, must + be suffered gladly through well-nigh two long hours. Uncomforted + in soul we rise from the expensive banquet; and how often rise + from it unfed! + </p> + <p> + Far other be the doom of my own friends—of pious bards and + genial companions, lovers of natural and lovely things! Nor for + these do I desire a seat at Florian's marble tables, or a perch + in Quadri's window, though the former supply dainty food, and the + latter command a bird's-eye view of the Piazza. Rather would I + lead them to a certain humble tavern on the Zattere. It is a + quaint, low-built, unpretending little place, near a bridge, with + a garden hard by which sends a cataract of honeysuckles sunward + over a too-jealous wall. In front lies a Mediterranean steamer, + which all day long has been discharging cargo. Gazing westward up + Giudecca, masts and funnels bar the sunset and the Paduan hills; + and from a little front room of the <i>trattoria</i> the view is + so marine that one keeps fancying oneself in some ship's cabin. + Sea-captains sit and smoke beside their glass of grog in the + pavilion and the <i>caffé</i>. But we do not seek their company + at dinner-time. Our way lies under yonder arch, and up the narrow + alley into a paved court. Here are oleanders in pots, and plants + of Japanese spindle-wood in tubs; and from the walls beneath the + window hang cages of all sorts of birds—a talking parrot, a + whistling blackbird, goldfinches, canaries, linnets. Athos, the + fat dog, who goes to market daily in a <i>barchetta</i> with his + master, snuffs around. 'Where are Porthos and Aramis, my friend?' + Athos does not take the joke; he only wags his stump of tail and + pokes his nose into my hand. What a Tartufe's nose it is! Its + bridge displays the full parade of leather-bound brass-nailed + muzzle. But beneath, this muzzle is a patent sham. The frame does + not even pretend to close on Athos' jaw, and the wise dog wears + it like a decoration. A little farther we meet that ancient grey + cat, who has no discoverable name, but is famous for the + sprightliness and grace with which she bears her eighteen years. + Not far from the cat one is sure to find Carlo—the + bird-like, bright-faced, close-cropped Venetian urchin, whose + duty it is to trot backwards and forwards between the cellar and + the dining-tables. At the end of the court we walk into the + kitchen, where the black-capped little <i>padrone</i> and the + gigantic white-capped chef are in close consultation. Here we + have the privilege of inspecting the larder—fish of various + sorts, meat, vegetables, several kinds of birds, pigeons, tordi, + beccafichi, geese, wild ducks, chickens, woodcock, &c., + according to the season. We select our dinner, and retire to eat + it either in the court among the birds beneath the vines, or in + the low dark room which occupies one side of it. Artists of many + nationalities and divers ages frequent this house; and the talk + arising from the several little tables, turns upon points of + interest and beauty in the life and landscape of Venice. There + can be no difference of opinion about the excellence of the + <i>cuisine</i>, or about the reasonable charges of this + <i>trattoria</i>. A soup of lentils, followed by boiled turbot or + fried soles, beefsteak or mutton cutlets, tordi or beccafichi, + with a salad, the whole enlivened with good red wine or Florio's + Sicilian Marsala from the cask, costs about four francs. Gas is + unknown in the establishment. There is no noise, no bustle, no + brutality of waiters, no <i>ahurissement</i> of tourists. And + when dinner is done, we can sit awhile over our cigarette and + coffee, talking until the night invites us to a stroll along the + Zattere or a <i>giro</i> in the gondola. + </p> + <p> + IX.—NIGHT IN VENICE + </p> + <p> + Night in Venice! Night is nowhere else so wonderful, unless it be + in winter among the high Alps. But the nights of Venice and the + nights of the mountains are too different in kind to be compared. + </p> + <p> + There is the ever-recurring miracle of the full moon rising, + before day is dead, behind San Giorgio, spreading a path of gold + on the lagoon which black boats traverse with the glow-worm lamp + upon their prow; ascending the cloudless sky and silvering the + domes of the Salute; pouring vitreous sheen upon the red lights + of the Piazzetta; flooding the Grand Canal, and lifting the + Rialto higher in ethereal whiteness; piercing but penetrating not + the murky labyrinth of <i>rio</i> linked with <i>rio</i>, through + which we wind in light and shadow, to reach once more the level + glories and the luminous expanse of heaven beyond the + Misericordia. + </p> + <p> + This is the melodrama of Venetian moonlight; and if a single + impression of the night has to be retained from one visit to + Venice, those are fortunate who chance upon a full moon of fair + weather. Yet I know not whether some quieter and soberer effects + are not more thrilling. To-night, for example, the waning moon + will rise late through veils of <i>scirocco</i>. Over the bridges + of San Cristoforo and San Gregorio, through the deserted Calle di + Mezzo, my friend and I walk in darkness, pass the marble + basements of the Salute, and push our way along its Riva to the + point of the Dogana. We are out at sea alone, between the + Canalozzo and the Giudecca. A moist wind ruffles the water and + cools our forehead. It is so dark that we can only see San + Giorgio by the light reflected on it from the Piazzetta. The same + light climbs the Campanile of S. Mark, and shows the golden angel + in a mystery of gloom. The only noise that reaches us is a + confused hum from the Piazza. Sitting and musing there, the + blackness of the water whispers in our ears a tale of death. And + now we hear a plash of oars, and gliding through the darkness + comes a single boat. One man leaps upon the landing-place without + a word and disappears. There is another wrapped in a military + cloak asleep. I see his face beneath me, pale and quiet. The + <i>barcaruolo</i> turns the point in silence. From the darkness + they came; into the darkness they have gone. It is only an + ordinary incident of coastguard service. But the spirit of the + night has made a poem of it. + </p> + <p> + Even tempestuous and rainy weather, though melancholy enough, is + never sordid here. There is no noise from carriage traffic in + Venice, and the sea-wind preserves the purity and transparency of + the atmosphere. It had been raining all day, but at evening came + a partial clearing. I went down to the Molo, where the large + reach of the lagoon was all moon-silvered, and San Giorgio + Maggiore dark against the bluish sky, and Santa Maria della + Salute domed with moon-irradiated pearl, and the wet slabs of the + Riva shimmering in moonlight, the whole misty sky, with its + clouds and stellar spaces, drenched in moonlight, nothing but + moonlight sensible except the tawny flare of gas-lamps and the + orange lights of gondolas afloat upon the waters. On such a night + the very spirit of Venice is abroad. We feel why she is called + Bride of the Sea. + </p> + <p> + Take yet another night. There had been a representation of + Verdi's 'Forza del Destino' at the Teatro Malibran. After + midnight we walked homeward through the Merceria, crossed the + Piazza, and dived into the narrow <i>calle</i> which leads to the + <i>traghetto</i> of the Salute. It was a warm moist starless + night, and there seemed no air to breathe in those narrow alleys. + The gondolier was half asleep. Eustace called him as we jumped + into his boat, and rang our <i>soldi</i> on the gunwale. Then he + arose and turned the <i>ferro</i> round, and stood across towards + the Salute. Silently, insensibly, from the oppression of + confinement in the airless streets to the liberty and immensity + of the water and the night we passed. It was but two minutes ere + we touched the shore and said good-night, and went our way and + left the ferryman. But in that brief passage he had opened our + souls to everlasting things—the freshness, and the + darkness, and the kindness of the brooding, all-enfolding night + above the sea. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="THE_GONDOLIERS_WEDDING" id= + "THE_GONDOLIERS_WEDDING"></a><i>THE GONDOLIER'S WEDDING</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + The night before the wedding we had a supper-party in my rooms. + We were twelve in all. My friend Eustace brought his gondolier + Antonio with fair-haired, dark-eyed wife, and little Attilio, + their eldest child. My own gondolier, Francesco, came with his + wife and two children. Then there was the handsome, languid + Luigi, who, in his best clothes, or out of them, is fit for any + drawing-room. Two gondoliers, in dark blue shirts, completed the + list of guests, if we exclude the maid Catina, who came and went + about the table, laughing and joining in the songs, and sitting + down at intervals to take her share of wine. The big room looking + across the garden to the Grand Canal had been prepared for + supper; and the company were to be received in the smaller, which + has a fine open space in front of it to southwards. But as the + guests arrived, they seemed to find the kitchen and the cooking + that was going on quite irresistible. Catina, it seems, had lost + her head with so many cuttlefishes, <i>orai</i>, cakes, and + fowls, and cutlets to reduce to order. There was, therefore, a + great bustle below stairs; and I could hear plainly that all my + guests were lending their making, or their marring, hands to the + preparation of the supper. That the company should cook their own + food on the way to the dining-room, seemed a quite novel + arrangement, but one that promised well for their contentment + with the banquet. Nobody could be dissatisfied with what was + everybody's affair. + </p> + <p> + When seven o'clock struck, Eustace and I, who had been + entertaining the children in their mothers' absence, heard the + sound of steps upon the stairs. The guests arrived, bringing + their own <i>risotto</i> with them. Welcome was short, if hearty. + We sat down in carefully appointed order, and fell into such + conversation as the quarter of San Vio and our several interests + supplied. From time to time one of the matrons left the table and + descended to the kitchen, when a finishing stroke was needed for + roast pullet or stewed veal. The excuses they made their host for + supposed failure in the dishes, lent a certain grace and comic + charm to the commonplace of festivity. The entertainment was + theirs as much as mine; and they all seemed to enjoy what took + the form by degrees of curiously complicated hospitality. I do + not think a well-ordered supper at any <i>trattoria</i>, such as + at first suggested itself to my imagination, would have given any + of us an equal pleasure or an equal sense of freedom. The three + children had become the guests of the whole party. Little + Attilio, propped upon an air-cushion, which puzzled him + exceedingly, ate through his supper and drank his wine with solid + satisfaction, opening the large brown eyes beneath those tufts of + clustering fair hair which promise much beauty for him in his + manhood. Francesco's boy, who is older and begins to know the + world, sat with a semi-suppressed grin upon his face, as though + the humour of the situation was not wholly hidden from him. + Little Teresa, too, was happy, except when her mother, a severe + Pomona, with enormous earrings and splendid <i>fazzoletto</i> of + crimson and orange dyes, pounced down upon her for some supposed + infraction of good manners—<i>creanza</i>, as they vividly + express it here. Only Luigi looked a trifle bored. But Luigi has + been a soldier, and has now attained the supercilious superiority + of young-manhood, which smokes its cigar of an evening in the + piazza and knows the merits of the different cafés. The great + business of the evening began when the eating was over, and the + decanters filled with new wine of Mirano circulated freely. The + four best singers of the party drew together; and the rest + prepared themselves to make suggestions, hum tunes, and join with + fitful effect in choruses. Antonio, who is a powerful young + fellow, with bronzed cheeks and a perfect tempest of coal-black + hair in flakes upon his forehead, has a most extraordinary + soprano—sound as a bell, strong as a trumpet, well trained, + and true to the least shade in intonation. Piero, whose rugged + Neptunian features, sea-wrinkled, tell of a rough water-life, + boasts a bass of resonant, almost pathetic quality. Francesco has + a <i>mezzo voce</i>, which might, by a stretch of politeness, be + called baritone. Piero's comrade, whose name concerns us not, has + another of these nondescript voices. They sat together with their + glasses and cigars before them, sketching part-songs in outline, + striking the keynote—now higher and now lower—till + they saw their subject well in view. Then they burst into full + singing, Antonio leading with a metal note that thrilled one's + ears, but still was musical. Complicated contrapuntal pieces, + such as we should call madrigals, with ever-recurring refrains of + 'Venezia, gemma Triatica, sposa del mar,' descending probably + from ancient days, followed each other in quick succession. + Barcaroles, serenades, love-songs, and invitations to the water + were interwoven for relief. One of these romantic pieces had a + beautiful burden, 'Dormi, o bella, o fingi di dormir,' of which + the melody was fully worthy. But the most successful of all the + tunes were two with a sad motive. The one repeated incessantly + 'Ohimé! mia madre morì;' the other was a girl's love lament: + 'Perchè tradirmi, perchè lasciarmi! prima d'amarmi non eri così!' + Even the children joined in these; and Catina, who took the solo + part in the second, was inspired to a great dramatic effort. All + these were purely popular songs. The people of Venice, however, + are passionate for operas. Therefore we had duets and solos from + 'Ernani,' the 'Ballo in Maschera,' and the 'Forza del Destino,' + and one comic chorus from 'Boccaccio,' which seemed to make them + wild with pleasure. To my mind, the best of these more formal + pieces was a duet between Attila and Italia from some opera + unknown to me, which Antonio and Piero performed with + incomparable spirit. It was noticeable how, descending to the + people, sung by them for love at sea, or on excursions to the + villages round Mestre, these operatic reminiscences had lost + something of their theatrical formality, and assumed instead the + serious gravity, the quaint movement, and marked emphasis which + belong to popular music in Northern and Central Italy. An antique + character was communicated even to the recitative of Verdi by + slight, almost indefinable, changes of rhythm and accent. There + was no end to the singing. 'Siamo appassionati per il canto,' + frequently repeated, was proved true by the profusion and variety + of songs produced from inexhaustible memories, lightly tried + over, brilliantly performed, rapidly succeeding each other. Nor + were gestures wanting—lifted arms, hands stretched to + hands, flashing eyes, hair tossed from the + forehead—unconscious and appropriate action—which + showed how the spirit of the music and words alike possessed the + men. One by one the children fell asleep. Little Attilio and + Teresa were tucked up beneath my Scotch shawl at two ends of a + great sofa; and not even his father's clarion voice, in the + character of Italia defying Attila to harm 'le mie superbe + città,' could wake the little boy up. The night wore on. It was + past one. Eustace and I had promised to be in the church of the + Gesuati at six next morning. We therefore gave the guests a + gentle hint, which they as gently took. With exquisite, because + perfectly unaffected, breeding they sank for a few moments into + common conversation, then wrapped the children up, and took their + leave. It was an uncomfortable, warm, wet night of sullen + <i>scirocco</i>. + </p> + <p> + The next day, which was Sunday, Francesco called me at five. + There was no visible sunrise that cheerless damp October morning. + Grey dawn stole somehow imperceptibly between the veil of clouds + and leaden waters, as my friend and I, well sheltered by our + <i>felze</i>, passed into the Giudecca, and took our station + before the church of the Gesuati. A few women from the + neighbouring streets and courts crossed the bridges in draggled + petticoats on their way to first mass. A few men, shouldering + their jackets, lounged along the Zattere, opened the great green + doors, and entered. Then suddenly Antonio cried out that the + bridal party was on its way, not as we had expected, in boats, + but on foot. We left our gondola, and fell into the ranks, after + shaking hands with Francesco, who is the elder brother of the + bride. There was nothing very noticeable in her appearance, + except her large dark eyes. Otherwise both face and figure were + of a common type; and her bridal dress of sprigged grey silk, + large veil and orange blossoms, reduced her to the level of a + <i>bourgeoise</i>. It was much the same with the bridegroom. His + features, indeed, proved him a true Venetian gondolier; for the + skin was strained over the cheekbones, and the muscles of the + throat beneath the jaws stood out like cords, and the bright blue + eyes were deep-set beneath a spare brown forehead. But he had + provided a complete suit of black for the occasion, and wore a + shirt of worked cambric, which disguised what is really splendid + in the physique of these oarsmen, at once slender and sinewy. + Both bride and bridegroom looked uncomfortable in their clothes. + The light that fell upon them in the church was dull and leaden. + The ceremony, which was very hurriedly performed by an unctuous + priest, did not appear to impress either of them. Nobody in the + bridal party, crowding together on both sides of the altar, + looked as though the service was of the slightest interest and + moment. Indeed, this was hardly to be wondered at; for the + priest, so far as I could understand his gabble, took the larger + portion for read, after muttering the first words of the rubric. + A little carven image of an acolyte—a weird boy who seemed + to move by springs, whose hair had all the semblance of painted + wood, and whose complexion was white and red like a + clown's—did not make matters more intelligible by + spasmodically clattering responses. + </p> + <p> + After the ceremony we heard mass and contributed to three + distinct offertories. Considering how much account even two + <i>soldi</i> are to these poor people, I was really angry when I + heard the copper shower. Every member of the party had his or her + pennies ready, and dropped them into the boxes. Whether it was + the effect of the bad morning, or the ugliness of a very + ill-designed <i>barocco</i> building, or the fault of the fat + oily priest, I know not. But the <i>sposalizio</i> struck me as + tame and cheerless, the mass as irreverent and vulgarly + conducted. At the same time there is something too impressive in + the mass for any perfunctory performance to divest its symbolism + of sublimity. A Protestant Communion Service lends itself more + easily to degradation by unworthiness in the minister. + </p> + <p> + We walked down the church in double file, led by the bride and + bridegroom, who had knelt during the ceremony with the best + man—<i>compare</i>, as he is called—at a narrow + <i>prie-dieu</i> before the altar. The <i>compare</i> is a person + of distinction at these weddings. He has to present the bride + with a great pyramid of artificial flowers, which is placed + before her at the marriage-feast, a packet of candles, and a box + of bonbons. The comfits, when the box is opened, are found to + include two magnificent sugar babies lying in their cradles. I + was told that a <i>compare</i>, who does the thing handsomely, + must be prepared to spend about a hundred francs upon these + presents, in addition to the wine and cigars with which he treats + his friends. On this occasion the women were agreed that he had + done his duty well. He was a fat, wealthy little man, who lived + by letting market-boats for hire on the Rialto. + </p> + <p> + From the church to the bride's house was a walk of some three + minutes. On the way we were introduced to the father of the + bride—a very magnificent personage, with points of strong + resemblance to Vittorio Emmanuele. He wore an enormous + broad-brimmed hat and emerald-green earrings, and looked + considerably younger than his eldest son, Francesco. Throughout + the <i>nozze</i> he took the lead in a grand imperious fashion of + his own. Wherever he went, he seemed to fill the place, and was + fully aware of his own importance. In Florence I think he would + have got the nickname of <i>Tacchin</i>, or turkey-cock. Here at + Venice the sons and daughters call their parent briefly + <i>Vecchio</i>. I heard him so addressed with a certain amount of + awe, expecting an explosion of bubbly-jock displeasure. But he + took it, as though it was natural, without disturbance. The other + <i>Vecchio</i>, father of the bridegroom, struck me as more + sympathetic. He was a gentle old man, proud of his many + prosperous, laborious sons. They, like the rest of the gentlemen, + were gondoliers. Both the <i>Vecchi</i>, indeed, continue to ply + their trade, day and night, at the <i>traghetto</i>. + </p> + <p> + <i>Traghetti</i> are stations for gondolas at different points of + the canals. As their name implies, it is the first duty of the + gondoliers upon them to ferry people across. This they do for the + fixed fee of five centimes. The <i>traghetti</i> are in fact + Venetian cab-stands. And, of course, like London cabs, the + gondolas may be taken off them for trips. The municipality, + however, makes it a condition, under penalty of fine to the + <i>traghetto</i>, that each station should always be provided + with two boats for the service of the ferry. When vacancies occur + on the <i>traghetti</i>, a gondolier who owns or hires a boat + makes application to the municipality, receives a number, and is + inscribed as plying at a certain station. He has now entered a + sort of guild, which is presided over by a <i>Capo-traghetto</i>, + elected by the rest for the protection of their interests, the + settlement of disputes, and the management of their common funds. + In the old acts of Venice this functionary is styled <i>Gastaldo + di traghetto</i>. The members have to contribute something yearly + to the guild. This payment varies upon different stations, + according to the greater or less amount of the tax levied by the + municipality on the <i>traghetto</i>. The highest subscription I + have heard of is twenty-five francs; the lowest, seven. There is + one <i>traghetto</i>, known by the name of Madonna del Giglio or + Zobenigo, which possesses near its <i>pergola</i> of vines a nice + old brown Venetian picture. Some stranger offered a considerable + sum for this. But the guild refused to part with it. + </p> + <p> + As may be imagined, the <i>traghetti</i> vary greatly in the + amount and quality of their custom. By far the best are those in + the neighbourhood of the hotels upon the Grand Canal. At any one + of these a gondolier during the season is sure of picking up some + foreigner or other who will pay him handsomely for comparatively + light service. A <i>traghetto</i> on the Giudecca, on the + contrary, depends upon Venetian traffic. The work is more + monotonous, and the pay is reduced to its tariffed minimum. So + far as I can gather, an industrious gondolier, with a good boat, + belonging to a good <i>traghetto</i>, may make as much as ten or + fifteen francs in a single day. But this cannot be relied on. + They therefore prefer a fixed appointment with a private family, + for which they receive by tariff five francs a day, or by + arrangement for long periods perhaps four francs a day, with + certain perquisites and small advantages. It is great luck to get + such an engagement for the winter. The heaviest anxieties which + beset a gondolier are then disposed of. Having entered private + service, they are not allowed to ply their trade on the + <i>traghetto</i>, except by stipulation with their masters. Then + they may take their place one night out of every six in the rank + and file. The gondoliers have two proverbs, which show how + desirable it is, while taking a fixed engagement, to keep their + hold on the <i>traghetto</i>. One is to this effect: <i>il + traghetto è un buon padrone</i>. The other satirises the meanness + of the poverty-stricken Venetian nobility: <i>pompa di servitù, + misera insegna</i>. When they combine the <i>traghetto</i> with + private service, the municipality insists on their retaining the + number painted on their gondola; and against this their employers + frequently object. It is therefore a great point for a gondolier + to make such an arrangement with his master as will leave him + free to show his number. The reason for this regulation is + obvious. Gondoliers are known more by their numbers and their + <i>traghetti</i> than their names. They tell me that though there + are upwards of a thousand registered in Venice, each man of the + trade knows the whole confraternity by face and number. Taking + all things into consideration, I think four francs a day the + whole year round are very good earnings for a gondolier. On this + he will marry and rear a family, and put a little money by. A + young unmarried man, working at two and a half or three francs a + day, is proportionately well-to-do. If he is economical, he ought + upon these wages to save enough in two or three years to buy + himself a gondola. A boy from fifteen to nineteen is called a + <i>mezz' uomo</i>, and gets about one franc a day. A new gondola + with all its fittings is worth about a thousand francs. It does + not last in good condition more than six or seven years. At the + end of that time the hull will fetch eighty francs. A new hull + can be had for three hundred francs. The old fittings—brass + sea-horses or <i>cavalli</i>, steel prow or <i>ferro</i>, covered + cabin or <i>felze</i>, cushions and leather-covered back-board or + <i>stramazetto</i>, maybe transferred to it. When a man wants to + start a gondola, he will begin by buying one already half past + service—a <i>gondola da traghetto</i> or <i>di mezza + età</i>. This should cost him something over two hundred francs. + Little by little, he accumulates the needful fittings; and when + his first purchase is worn out, he hopes to set up with a + well-appointed equipage. He thus gradually works his way from the + rough trade which involves hard work and poor earnings to that + more profitable industry which cannot be carried on without a + smart boat. The gondola is a source of continual expense for + repairs. Its oars have to be replaced. It has to be washed with + sponges, blacked, and varnished. Its bottom needs frequent + cleaning. Weeds adhere to it in the warm brackish water, growing + rapidly through the summer months, and demanding to be scrubbed + off once in every four weeks. The gondolier has no place where he + can do this for himself. He therefore takes his boat to a wharf, + or <i>squero</i>, as the place is called. At these <i>squeri</i> + gondolas are built as well as cleaned. The fee for a thorough + setting to rights of the boat is five francs. It must be done + upon a fine day. Thus in addition to the cost, the owner loses a + good day's work. + </p> + <p> + These details will serve to give some notion of the sort of + people with whom Eustace and I spent our day. The bride's house + is in an excellent position on an open canal leading from the + Canalozzo to the Giudecca. She had arrived before us, and + received her friends in the middle of the room. Each of us in + turn kissed her cheek and murmured our congratulations. We found + the large living-room of the house arranged with chairs all round + the walls, and the company were marshalled in some order of + precedence, my friend and I taking place near the bride. On + either hand airy bedrooms opened out, and two large doors, wide + open, gave a view from where we sat of a good-sized kitchen. This + arrangement of the house was not only comfortable, but pretty; + for the bright copper pans and pipkins ranged on shelves along + the kitchen walls had a very cheerful effect. The walls were + whitewashed, but literally covered with all sorts of pictures. A + great plaster cast from some antique, an Atys, Adonis, or Paris, + looked down from a bracket placed between the windows. There was + enough furniture, solid and well kept, in all the rooms. Among + the pictures were full-length portraits in oils of two celebrated + gondoliers—one in antique costume, the other painted a few + years since. The original of the latter soon came and stood + before it. He had won regatta prizes; and the flags of four + discordant colours were painted round him by the artist, who had + evidently cared more to commemorate the triumphs of his sitter + and to strike a likeness than to secure the tone of his own + picture. This champion turned out a fine + fellow—Corradini—with one of the brightest little + gondoliers of thirteen for his son. + </p> + <p> + After the company were seated, lemonade and cakes were handed + round amid a hubbub of chattering women. Then followed cups of + black coffee and more cakes. Then a glass of Cyprus and more + cakes. Then a glass of curaçoa and more cakes. Finally, a glass + of noyau and still more cakes. It was only a little after seven + in the morning. Yet politeness compelled us to consume these + delicacies. I tried to shirk my duty; but this discretion was + taken by my hosts for well-bred modesty; and instead of being let + off, I had the richest piece of pastry and the largest maccaroon + available pressed so kindly on me, that, had they been poisoned, + I would not have refused to eat them. The conversation grew more, + and more animated, the women gathering together in their dresses + of bright blue and scarlet, the men lighting cigars and puffing + out a few quiet words. It struck me as a drawback that these + picturesque people had put on Sunday-clothes to look as much like + shopkeepers as possible. But they did not all of them succeed. + Two handsome women, who handed the cups round—one a + brunette, the other a blonde—wore skirts of brilliant blue, + with a sort of white jacket, and white kerchief folded heavily + about their shoulders. The brunette had a great string of coral, + the blonde of amber, round her throat. Gold earrings and the long + gold chains Venetian women wear, of all patterns and degrees of + value, abounded. Nobody appeared without them; but I could not + see any of an antique make. The men seemed to be contented with + rings—huge, heavy rings of solid gold, worked with a rough + flower pattern. One young fellow had three upon his fingers. This + circumstance led me to speculate whether a certain portion at + least of this display of jewellery around me had not been + borrowed for the occasion. + </p> + <p> + Eustace and I were treated quite like friends. They called us + <i>I Signori</i>. But this was only, I think, because our English + names are quite unmanageable. The women fluttered about us and + kept asking whether we really liked it all? whether we should + come to the <i>pranzo</i>? whether it was true we danced? It + seemed to give them unaffected pleasure to be kind to us; and + when we rose to go away, the whole company crowded round, shaking + hands and saying: 'Si divertirà bene stasera!' Nobody resented + our presence; what was better, no one put himself out for us. + 'Vogliono veder il nostro costume,' I heard one woman say. + </p> + <p> + We got home soon after eight, and, as our ancestors would have + said, settled our stomachs with a dish of tea. It makes me + shudder now to think of the mixed liquids and miscellaneous cakes + we had consumed at that unwonted hour. + </p> + <p> + At half-past three, Eustace and I again prepared ourselves for + action. His gondola was in attendance, covered with the + <i>felze</i>, to take us to the house of the <i>sposa</i>. We + found the canal crowded with poor people of the + quarter—men, women, and children lining the walls along its + side, and clustering like bees upon the bridges. The water itself + was almost choked with gondolas. Evidently the folk of San Vio + thought our wedding procession would be a most exciting pageant. + We entered the house, and were again greeted by the bride and + bridegroom, who consigned each of us to the control of a fair + tyrant. This is the most fitting way of describing our + introduction to our partners of the evening; for we were no + sooner presented, than the ladies swooped upon us like their + prey, placing their shawls upon our left arms, while they seized + and clung to what was left available of us for locomotion. There + was considerable giggling and tittering throughout the company + when Signora Fenzo, the young and comely wife of a gondolier, + thus took possession of Eustace, and Signora dell' Acqua, the + widow of another gondolier, appropriated me. The affair had been + arranged beforehand, and their friends had probably chaffed them + with the difficulty of managing two mad Englishmen. However, they + proved equal to the occasion, and the difficulties were entirely + on our side. Signora Fenzo was a handsome brunette, quiet in her + manners, who meant business. I envied Eustace his subjection to + such a reasonable being. Signora dell' Acqua, though a widow, was + by no means disconsolate; and I soon perceived that it would + require all the address and diplomacy I possessed, to make + anything out of her society. She laughed incessantly; darted in + the most diverse directions, dragging me along with her; + exhibited me in triumph to her cronies; made eyes at me over a + fan, repeated my clumsiest remarks, as though they gave her + indescribable amusement; and all the while jabbered Venetian at + express rate, without the slightest regard for my incapacity to + follow her vagaries. The <i>Vecchio</i> marshalled us in order. + First went the <i>sposa</i> and <i>comare</i> with the mothers of + bride and bridegroom. Then followed the <i>sposo</i> and the + bridesmaid. After them I was made to lead my fair tormentor. As + we descended the staircase there arose a hubbub of excitement + from the crowd on the canals. The gondolas moved turbidly upon + the face of the waters. The bridegroom kept muttering to himself, + 'How we shall be criticised! They will tell each other who was + decently dressed, and who stepped awkwardly into the boats, and + what the price of my boots was!' Such exclamations, murmured at + intervals, and followed by chest-drawn sighs, expressed a deep + preoccupation. With regard to his boots, he need have had no + anxiety. They were of the shiniest patent leather, much too + tight, and without a speck of dust upon them. But his nervousness + infected me with a cruel dread. All those eyes were going to + watch how we comported ourselves in jumping from the + landing-steps into the boat! If this operation, upon a + ceremonious occasion, has terrors even for a gondolier, how + formidable it ought to be to me! And here is the Signora dell' + Acqua's white cachemire shawl dangling on one arm, and the + Signora herself languishingly clinging to the other; and the + gondolas are fretting in a fury of excitement, like corks, upon + the churned green water! The moment was terrible. The + <i>sposa</i> and her three companions had been safely stowed away + beneath their <i>felze</i>. The <i>sposo</i> had successfully + handed the bridesmaid into the second gondola. I had to perform + the same office for my partner. Off she went, like a bird, from + the bank. I seized a happy moment, followed, bowed, and found + myself to my contentment gracefully ensconced in a corner + opposite the widow. Seven more gondolas were packed. The + procession moved. We glided down the little channel, broke away + into the Grand Canal, crossed it, and dived into a labyrinth from + which we finally emerged before our destination, the Trattoria di + San Gallo. The perils of the landing were soon over; and, with + the rest of the guests, my mercurial companion and I slowly + ascended a long flight of stairs leading to a vast upper chamber. + Here we were to dine. + </p> + <p> + It had been the gallery of some palazzo in old days, was above + one hundred feet in length, fairly broad, with a roof of wooden + rafters and large windows opening on a courtyard garden. I could + see the tops of three cypress-trees cutting the grey sky upon a + level with us. A long table occupied the centre of this room. It + had been laid for upwards of forty persons, and we filled it. + There was plenty of light from great glass lustres blazing with + gas. When the ladies had arranged their dresses, and the + gentlemen had exchanged a few polite remarks, we all sat down to + dinner—I next my inexorable widow, Eustace beside his calm + and comely partner. The first impression was one of + disappointment. It looked so like a public dinner of middle-class + people. There was no local character in costume or customs. Men + and women sat politely bored, expectant, trifling with their + napkins, yawning, muttering nothings about the weather or their + neighbours. The frozen commonplaceness of the scene was made for + me still more oppressive by Signora dell' Acqua. She was + evidently satirical, and could not be happy unless continually + laughing at or with somebody. 'What a stick the woman will think + me!' I kept saying to myself. 'How shall I ever invent jokes in + this strange land? I cannot even flirt with her in Venetian! And + here I have condemned myself—and her too, poor + thing—to sit through at least three hours of mortal + dulness!' Yet the widow was by no means unattractive. Dressed in + black, she had contrived by an artful arrangement of lace and + jewellery to give an air of lightness to her costume. She had a + pretty little pale face, a <i>minois chiffonné</i>, with slightly + turned-up nose, large laughing brown eyes, a dazzling set of + teeth, and a tempestuously frizzled mop of powdered hair. When I + managed to get a side-look at her quietly, without being giggled + at or driven half mad by unintelligible incitements to a + jocularity I could not feel, it struck me that, if we once found + a common term of communication we should become good friends. But + for the moment that <i>modus vivendi</i> seemed unattainable. She + had not recovered from the first excitement of her capture of me. + She was still showing me off and trying to stir me up. The + arrival of the soup gave me a momentary relief; and soon the + serious business of the afternoon began. I may add that before + dinner was over, the Signora dell' Acqua and I were fast friends. + I had discovered the way of making jokes, and she had become + intelligible. I found her a very nice, though flighty, little + woman; and I believe she thought me gifted with the faculty of + uttering eccentric epigrams in a grotesque tongue. Some of my + remarks were flung about the table, and had the same success as + uncouth Lombard carvings have with connoisseurs in + <i>naïvetés</i> of art. By that time we had come to be + <i>compare</i> and <i>comare</i> to each other—the sequel + of some clumsy piece of jocularity. + </p> + <p> + It was a heavy entertainment, copious in quantity, excellent in + quality, plainly but well cooked. I remarked there was no fish. + The widow replied that everybody present ate fish to satiety at + home. They did not join a marriage feast at the San Gallo, and + pay their nine francs, for that! It should be observed that each + guest paid for his own entertainment. This appears to be the + custom. Therefore attendance is complimentary, and the married + couple are not at ruinous charges for the banquet. A curious + feature in the whole proceeding had its origin in this custom. I + noticed that before each cover lay an empty plate, and that my + partner began with the first course to heap upon it what she had + not eaten. She also took large helpings, and kept advising me to + do the same. I said: 'No; I only take what I want to eat; if I + fill that plate in front of me as you are doing, it will be great + waste.' This remark elicited shrieks of laughter from all who + heard it; and when the hubbub had subsided, I perceived an + apparently official personage bearing down upon Eustace, who was + in the same perplexity. It was then circumstantially explained to + us that the empty plates were put there in order that we might + lay aside what we could not conveniently eat, and take it home + with us. At the end of the dinner the widow (whom I must now call + my <i>comare</i>) had accumulated two whole chickens, half a + turkey, and a large assortment of mixed eatables. I performed my + duty and won her regard by placing delicacies at her disposition. + </p> + <p> + Crudely stated, this proceeding moves disgust. But that is only + because one has not thought the matter out. In the performance + there was nothing coarse or nasty. These good folk had made a + contract at so much a head—so many fowls, so many pounds of + beef, &c, to be supplied; and what they had fairly bought, + they clearly had a right to. No one, so far as I could notice, + tried to take more than his proper share; except, indeed, Eustace + and myself. In our first eagerness to conform to custom, we both + overshot the mark, and grabbed at disproportionate helpings. The + waiters politely observed that we were taking what was meant for + two; and as the courses followed in interminable sequence, we + soon acquired the tact of what was due to us. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the room grew warm. The gentlemen threw off their + coats—a pleasant liberty of which I availed myself, and was + immediately more at ease. The ladies divested themselves of their + shoes (strange to relate!) and sat in comfort with their + stockinged feet upon the <i>scagliola</i> pavement. I observed + that some cavaliers by special permission were allowed to remove + their partners' slippers. This was not my lucky fate. My + <i>comare</i> had not advanced to that point of intimacy. Healths + began to be drunk. The conversation took a lively turn; and women + went fluttering round the table, visiting their friends, to sip + out of their glass, and ask each other how they were getting on. + It was not long before the stiff veneer of <i>bourgeoisie</i> + which bored me had worn off. The people emerged in their true + selves: natural, gentle, sparkling with enjoyment, playful. + Playful is, I think, the best word to describe them. They played + with infinite grace and innocence, like kittens, from the old men + of sixty to the little boys of thirteen. Very little wine was + drunk. Each guest had a litre placed before him. Many did not + finish theirs; and for very few was it replenished. When at last + the dessert arrived, and the bride's comfits had been handed + round, they began to sing. It was very pretty to see a party of + three or four friends gathering round some popular beauty, and + paying her compliments in verse—they grouped behind her + chair, she sitting back in it and laughing up to them, and + joining in the chorus. The words, 'Brunetta mia simpatica, ti amo + sempre più,' sung after this fashion to Eustace's handsome + partner, who puffed delicate whiffs from a Russian cigarette, and + smiled her thanks, had a peculiar appropriateness. All the + ladies, it may be observed in passing, had by this time lit their + cigarettes. The men were smoking Toscani, Sellas, or Cavours, and + the little boys were dancing round the table breathing smoke from + their pert nostrils. + </p> + <p> + The dinner, in fact, was over. Other relatives of the guests + arrived, and then we saw how some of the reserved dishes were to + be bestowed. A side-table was spread at the end of the gallery, + and these late-comers were regaled with plenty by their friends. + Meanwhile, the big table at which we had dined was taken to + pieces and removed. The <i>scagliola</i> floor was swept by the + waiters. Musicians came streaming in and took their places. The + ladies resumed their shoes. Every one prepared to dance. + </p> + <p> + My friend and I were now at liberty to chat with the men. He knew + some of them by sight, and claimed acquaintance with others. + There was plenty of talk about different boats, gondolas, and + sandolos and topos, remarks upon the past season, and inquiries + as to chances of engagements in the future. One young fellow told + us how he had been drawn for the army, and should be obliged to + give up his trade just when he had begun to make it answer. He + had got a new gondola, and this would have to be hung up during + the years of his service. The warehousing of a boat in these + circumstances costs nearly one hundred francs a year, which is a + serious tax upon the pockets of a private in the line. Many + questions were put in turn to us, but all of the same tenor. 'Had + we really enjoyed the <i>pranzo</i>? Now, really, were we amusing + ourselves? And did we think the custom of the wedding <i>un bel + costume</i>?' We could give an unequivocally hearty response to + all these interrogations. The men seemed pleased. Their interest + in our enjoyment was unaffected. It is noticeable how often the + word <i>divertimento</i> is heard upon the lips of the Italians. + They have a notion that it is the function in life of the + <i>Signori</i> to amuse themselves. + </p> + <p> + The ball opened, and now we were much besought by the ladies. I + had to deny myself with a whole series of comical excuses. + Eustace performed his duty after a stiff English + fashion—once with his pretty partner of the <i>pranzo</i>, + and once again with a fat gondolier. The band played waltzes and + polkas, chiefly upon patriotic airs—the Marcia Reale, + Garibaldi's Hymn, &c. Men danced with men, women with women, + little boys and girls together. The gallery whirled with a + laughing crowd. There was plenty of excitement and + enjoyment—not an unseemly or extravagant word or gesture. + My <i>comare</i> careered about with a light mænadic impetuosity, + which made me regret my inability to accept her pressing + invitations. She pursued me into every corner of the room, but + when at last I dropped excuses and told her that my real reason + for not dancing was that it would hurt my health, she waived her + claims at once with an <i>Ah, poverino!</i> + </p> + <p> + Some time after midnight we felt that we had had enough of + <i>divertimento</i>. Francesco helped us to slip out unobserved. + With many silent good wishes we left the innocent playful people + who had been so kind to us. The stars were shining from a watery + sky as we passed into the piazza beneath the Campanile and the + pinnacles of S. Mark. The Riva was almost empty, and the little + waves fretted the boats moored to the piazzetta, as a warm moist + breeze went fluttering by. We smoked a last cigar, crossed our + <i>traghetto</i>, and were soon sound asleep at the end of a long + pleasant day. The ball, we heard next morning, finished about + four. + </p> + <p> + Since that evening I have had plenty of opportunities for seeing + my friends the gondoliers, both in their own homes and in my + apartment. Several have entertained me at their mid-day meal of + fried fish and amber-coloured polenta. These repasts were always + cooked with scrupulous cleanliness, and served upon a table + covered with coarse linen. The polenta is turned out upon a + wooden platter, and cut with a string called <i>lassa</i>. You + take a large slice of it on the palm of the left hand, and break + it with the fingers of the right. Wholesome red wine of the + Paduan district and good white bread were never wanting. The + rooms in which we met to eat looked out on narrow lanes or over + pergolas of yellowing vines. Their whitewashed walls were hung + with photographs of friends and foreigners, many of them + souvenirs from English or American employers. The men, in broad + black hats and lilac shirts, sat round the table, girt with the + red waist-wrapper, or <i>fascia</i>, which marks the ancient + faction of the Castellani. The other faction, called Nicolotti, + are distinguished by a black <i>assisa</i>. The quarters of the + town are divided unequally and irregularly into these two + parties. What was once a formidable rivalry between two sections + of the Venetian populace, still survives in challenges to trials + of strength and skill upon the water. The women, in their + many-coloured kerchiefs, stirred polenta at the smoke-blackened + chimney, whose huge pent-house roof projects two feet or more + across the hearth. When they had served the table they took their + seat on low stools, knitted stockings, or drank out of glasses + handed across the shoulder to them by their lords. Some of these + women were clearly notable housewives, and I have no reason to + suppose that they do not take their full share of the housework. + Boys and girls came in and out, and got a portion of the dinner + to consume where they thought best. Children went tottering about + upon the red-brick floor, the playthings of those hulking + fellows, who handled them very gently and spoke kindly in a sort + of confidential whisper to their ears. These little ears were + mostly pierced for earrings, and the light blue eyes of the + urchins peeped maliciously beneath shocks of yellow hair. A dog + was often of the party. He ate fish like his masters, and was + made to beg for it by sitting up and rowing with his paws. + <i>Voga, Azzò, voga!</i> The Anzolo who talked thus to his little + brown Spitz-dog has the hoarse voice of a Triton and the movement + of an animated sea-wave. Azzo performed his trick, swallowed his + fish-bones, and the fiery Anzolo looked round approvingly. + </p> + <p> + On all these occasions I have found these gondoliers the same + sympathetic, industrious, cheery affectionate folk. They live in + many respects a hard and precarious life. The winter in + particular is a time of anxiety, and sometimes of privation, even + to the well-to-do among them. Work then is scarce, and what there + is, is rendered disagreeable to them by the cold. Yet they take + their chance with facile temper, and are not soured by hardships. + The amenities of the Venetian sea and air, the healthiness of the + lagoons, the cheerful bustle of the poorer quarters, the + brilliancy of this Southern sunlight, and the beauty which is + everywhere apparent, must be reckoned as important factors in the + formation of their character. And of that character, as I have + said, the final note is playfulness. In spite of difficulties, + their life has never been stern enough to sadden them. Bare + necessities are marvellously cheap, and the pinch of real bad + weather—such frost as locked the lagoons in ice two years + ago, or such south-western gales as flooded the basement floors + of all the houses on the Zattere—is rare and does not last + long. On the other hand, their life has never been so lazy as to + reduce them to the savagery of the traditional Neapolitan + lazzaroni. They have had to work daily for small earnings, but + under favourable conditions, and their labour has been lightened + by much good-fellowship among themselves, by the amusements of + their <i>feste</i> and their singing clubs. + </p> + <p> + Of course it is not easy for a stranger in a very different + social position to feel that he has been admitted to their + confidence. Italians have an ineradicable habit of making + themselves externally agreeable, of bending in all indifferent + matters to the whims and wishes of superiors, and of saying what + they think <i>Signori</i> like. This habit, while it smoothes the + surface of existence, raises up a barrier of compliment and + partial insincerity, against which the more downright natures of + us Northern folk break in vain efforts. Our advances are met with + an imperceptible but impermeable resistance by the very people + who are bent on making the world pleasant to us. It is the very + reverse of that dour opposition which a Lowland Scot or a North + English peasant offers to familiarity; but it is hardly less + insurmountable. The treatment, again, which Venetians of the + lower class have received through centuries from their own + nobility, makes attempts at fraternisation on the part of + gentlemen unintelligible to them. The best way, here and + elsewhere, of overcoming these obstacles is to have some bond of + work or interest in common—of service on the one side + rendered, and goodwill on the other honestly displayed. The men + of whom I have been speaking will, I am convinced, not shirk + their share of duty or make unreasonable claims upon the + generosity of their employers. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="A_CINQUE_CENTO_BRUTUS" id= + "A_CINQUE_CENTO_BRUTUS"></a><i>A CINQUE CENTO BRUTUS</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <br /> + <p> + I.—THE SESTIERE DI SAN POLO + </p> + <p> + There is a quarter of Venice not much visited by tourists, lying + as it does outside their beat, away from the Rialto, at a + considerable distance from the Frari and San Rocco, in what might + almost pass for a city separated by a hundred miles from the + Piazza. This is the quarter of San Polo, one corner of which, + somewhere between the back of the Palazzo Foscari and the Campo + di San Polo, was the scene of a memorable act of vengeance in the + year 1546. Here Lorenzino de' Medici, the murderer of his cousin + Alessandro, was at last tracked down and put to death by paid + cut-throats. How they succeeded in their purpose, we know in + every detail from the narrative dictated by the chief assassin. + His story so curiously illustrates the conditions of life in + Italy three centuries ago, that I have thought it worthy of + abridgment. But, in order to make it intelligible, and to paint + the manners of the times more fully, I must first relate the + series of events which led to Lorenzino's murder of his cousin + Alessandro, and from that to his own subsequent assassination. + Lorenzino de' Medici, the Florentine Brutus of the sixteenth + century, is the hero of the tragedy. Some of his relatives, + however, must first appear upon the scene before he enters with a + patriot's knife concealed beneath a court-fool's bauble. + </p> + <p> + II.—THE MURDER OF IPPOLITO DE' MEDICI + </p> + <p> + After the final extinction of the Florentine Republic, the hopes + of the Medici, who now aspired to the dukedom of Tuscany, rested + on three bastards—Alessandro, the reputed child of Lorenzo, + Duke of Urbino; Ippolito, the natural son of Giuliano, Duke of + Nemours; and Giulio, the offspring of an elder Giuliano, who was + at this time Pope, with the title of Clement VII. Clement had + seen Rome sacked in 1527 by a horde of freebooters fighting under + the Imperial standard, and had used the remnant of these troops, + commanded by the Prince of Orange, to crush his native city in + the memorable siege of 1529-30. He now determined to rule + Florence from the Papal chair by the help of the two bastard + cousins I have named. Alessandro was created Duke of Cività di + Penna, and sent to take the first place in the city. Ippolito was + made a cardinal; since the Medici had learned that Rome was the + real basis of their power, and it was undoubtedly in Clement's + policy to advance this scion of his house to the Papacy. The sole + surviving representative of the great Lorenzo de' Medici's + legitimate blood was Catherine, daughter of the Duke of Urbino by + Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne. She was pledged in marriage to + the Duke of Orleans, who was afterwards Henry II. of France. A + natural daughter of the Emperor Charles V. was provided for her + putative half-brother Alessandro. By means of these alliances the + succession of Ippolito to the Papal chair would have been + secured, and the strength of the Medici would have been confirmed + in Tuscany, but for the disasters which have now to be related. + </p> + <p> + Between the cousins Alessandro and Ippolito there was no love + lost. As boys, they had both played the part of princes in + Florence under the guardianship of the Cardinal Passerini da + Cortona. The higher rank had then been given to Ippolito, who + bore the title of Magnifico, and seemed thus designated for the + lordship of the city. Ippolito, though only half a Medici, was of + more authentic lineage than Alessandro; for no proof positive + could be adduced that the latter was even a spurious child of the + Duke of Urbino. He bore obvious witness to his mother's blood + upon his mulatto's face; but this mother was the wife of a groom, + and it was certain that in the court of Urbino she had not been + chary of her favours. The old magnificence of taste, the + patronage of art and letters, and the preference for liberal + studies which distinguished Casa Medici, survived in Ippolito; + whereas Alessandro manifested only the brutal lusts of a + debauched tyrant. It was therefore with great reluctance that, + moved by reasons of state and domestic policy, Ippolito saw + himself compelled to accept the scarlet hat. Alessandro having + been recognised as a son of the Duke of Urbino, had become + half-brother to the future Queen of France. To treat him as the + head of the family was a necessity thrust, in the extremity of + the Medicean fortunes, upon Clement. Ippolito, who more entirely + represented the spirit of the house, was driven to assume the + position of a cadet, with all the uncertainties of an + ecclesiastical career. + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances Ippolito had not strength of character to + sacrifice himself for the consolidation of the Medicean power, + which could only have been effected by maintaining a close bond + of union between its members. The death of Clement in 1534 + obscured his prospects in the Church. He was still too young to + intrigue for the tiara. The new Pope, Alessandro Farnese, soon + after his election, displayed a vigour which was unexpected from + his age, together with a nepotism which his previous character + had scarcely warranted. The Cardinal de' Medici felt himself + excluded and oppressed. He joined the party of those numerous + Florentine exiles, headed by Filippo Strozzi, and the Cardinals + Salviati and Ridolfi, all of whom were connected by marriage with + the legitimate Medici, and who unanimously hated and were jealous + of the Duke of Cività di Penna. On the score of policy it is + difficult to condemn this step. Alessandro's hold upon Florence + was still precarious, nor had he yet married Margaret of Austria. + Perhaps Ippolito was right in thinking he had less to gain from + his cousin than from the anti-Medicean faction and the princes of + the Church who favoured it. But he did not play his cards well. + He quarrelled with the new Pope, Paul III., and by his + vacillations led the Florentine exiles to suspect he might betray + them. + </p> + <p> + In the summer of 1535 Ippolito was at Itri, a little town not far + from Gaeta and Terracina, within easy reach of Fondi, where dwelt + the beautiful Giulia Gonzaga. To this lady the Cardinal paid + assiduous court, passing his time with her in the romantic + scenery of that world-famous Capuan coast. On the 5th of August + his seneschal, Giovann' Andrea, of Borgo San Sepolcro, brought + him a bowl of chicken-broth, after drinking which he exclaimed to + one of his attendants, 'I have been poisoned, and the man who did + it is Giovann' Andrea.' The seneschal was taken and tortured, and + confessed that he had mixed a poison with the broth. Four days + afterwards the Cardinal died, and a post-mortem examination + showed that the omentum had been eaten by some corrosive + substance. Giovann' Andrea was sent in chains to Rome; but in + spite of his confession, more than once repeated, the court + released him. He immediately took refuge with Alessandro de' + Medici in Florence, whence he repaired to Borgo San Sepolcro, and + was, at the close of a few months, there murdered by the people + of the place. From these circumstances it was conjectured, not + without good reason, that Alessandro had procured his cousin's + death; and a certain Captain Pignatta, of low birth in Florence, + a bravo and a coward, was believed to have brought the poison to + Itri from the Duke. The Medicean courtiers at Florence did not + disguise their satisfaction; and one of them exclaimed, with + reference to the event, 'We know how to brush flies from our + noses!' + </p> + <p> + III.—THE MURDER OF ALESSANDRO DE' MEDICI + </p> + <p> + Having removed his cousin and rival from the scene, Alessandro + de' Medici plunged with even greater effrontery into the + cruelties and debaucheries which made him odious in Florence. It + seemed as though fortune meant to smile on him; for in this same + year (1535) Charles V. decided at Naples in his favour against + the Florentine exiles, who were pleading their own cause and that + of the city injured by his tyrannies; and in February of the + following year he married Margaret of Austria, the Emperor's + natural daughter. Francesco Guicciardini, the first statesman and + historian of his age, had undertaken his defence, and was ready + to support him by advice and countenance in the conduct of his + government. Within the lute of this prosperity, however, there + was one little rift. For some months past he had closely attached + to his person a certain kinsman, Lorenzo de' Medici, who was + descended in the fourth generation from Lorenzo, the brother of + Cosimo Pater Patriæ. This Lorenzo, or Lorenzino, or Lorenzaccio, + as his most intimate acquaintances called him, was destined to + murder Alessandro; and it is worthy of notice that the Duke had + received frequent warnings of his fate. A Perugian page, for + instance, who suffered from some infirmity, saw in a dream that + Lorenzino would kill his master. Astrologers predicted that the + Duke must die by having his throat cut. One of them is said to + have named Lorenzo de' Medici as the assassin; and another + described him so accurately that there was no mistaking the man. + Moreover, Madonna Lucrezia Salviati wrote to the Duke from Rome + that he should beware of a certain person, indicating Lorenzino; + and her daughter, Madonna Maria, told him to his face she hated + the young man, 'because I know he means to murder you, and murder + you he will.' Nor was this all. The Duke's favourite + body-servants mistrusted Lorenzino. On one occasion, when + Alessandro and Lorenzino, attended by a certain Giomo, were + escalading a wall at night, as was their wont upon illicit + love-adventures, Giomo whispered to his master: 'Ah, my lord, do + let me cut the rope, and rid ourselves of him!' To which the Duke + replied: 'No, I do not want this; but if he could, I know he'd + twist it round my neck.' + </p> + <p> + In spite, then, of these warnings and the want of confidence he + felt, the Duke continually lived with Lorenzino, employing him as + pander in his intrigues, and preferring his society to that of + simpler men. When he rode abroad, he took this evil friend upon + his crupper; although he knew for certain that Lorenzino had + stolen a tight-fitting vest of mail he used to wear, and, while + his arms were round his waist, was always meditating how to stick + a poignard in his body. He trusted, so it seems, to his own great + strength and to the other's physical weakness. + </p> + <p> + At this point, since Lorenzino is the principal actor in the + two-act drama which follows, it will be well to introduce him to + the reader in the words of Varchi, who was personally acquainted + with him. Born at Florence in 1514, he was left early by his + father's death to the sole care of his mother, Maria Soderini, 'a + lady of rare prudence and goodness, who attended with the utmost + pains and diligence to his education. No sooner, however, had he + acquired the rudiments of humane learning, which, being of very + quick parts, he imbibed with incredible facility, than he began + to display a restless mind, insatiable and appetitive of vice. + Soon afterwards, under the rule and discipline of Filippo + Strozzi, he made open sport of all things human and divine; and + preferring the society of low persons, who not only flattered him + but were congenial to his tastes, he gave free rein to his + desires, especially in affairs of love, without regard for sex or + age or quality, and in his secret soul, while he lavished feigned + caresses upon every one he saw, felt no esteem for any living + being. He thirsted strangely for glory, and omitted no point of + deed or word that might, he thought, procure him the reputation + of a man of spirit or of wit. He was lean of person, somewhat + slightly built, and on this account people called him Lorenzino. + He never laughed, but had a sneering smile; and although he was + rather distinguished by grace than beauty, his countenance being + dark and melancholy, still in the flower of his age he was + beloved beyond all measure by Pope Clement; in spite of which he + had it in his mind (according to what he said himself after + killing the Duke Alessandro) to have murdered him. He brought + Francesco di Raffaello de' Medici, the Pope's rival, who was a + young man of excellent attainments and the highest hope, to such + extremity that he lost his wits, and became the sport of the + whole court at Rome, and was sent back, as a lesser evil, as a + confirmed madman to Florence.' Varchi proceeds to relate how + Lorenzino fell into disfavour with the Pope and the Romans by + chopping the heads off statues from the arch of Constantine and + other monuments; for which act of vandalism Molsa impeached him + in the Roman Academy, and a price was set upon his head. Having + returned to Florence, he proceeded to court Duke Alessandro, into + whose confidence he wormed himself, pretending to play the spy + upon the exiles, and affecting a personal timidity which put the + Prince off his guard. Alessandro called him 'the philosopher,' + because he conversed in solitude with his own thoughts and seemed + indifferent to wealth and office. But all this while Lorenzino + was plotting how to murder him. + </p> + <p> + Giovio's account of this strange intimacy may be added, since it + completes the picture I have drawn from Varchi:—'Lorenzo + made himself the accomplice and instrument of those amorous + amusements for which the Duke had an insatiable appetite, with + the object of deceiving him. He was singularly well furnished + with all the scoundrelly arts and trained devices of the pander's + trade; composed fine verses to incite to lust; wrote and + represented comedies in Italian; and pretended to take pleasure + only in such tricks and studies. Therefore he never carried arms + like other courtiers, and feigned to be afraid of blood, a man + who sought tranquillity at any price. Besides, he bore a pallid + countenance and melancholy brow, walking alone, talking very + little and with few persons. He haunted solitary places apart + from the city, and showed such plain signs of hypochondria that + some began covertly to pass jokes on him. Certain others, who + were more acute, suspected that he was harbouring and devising in + his mind some terrible enterprise.' The Prologue to Lorenzino's + own comedy of 'Aridosiso' brings the sardonic, sneering, ironical + man vividly before us. He calls himself 'un certo omiciatto, che + non è nessun di voi che veggendolo non l'avesse a noia, pensando + che egli abbia fatto una commedia;' and begs the audience to damn + his play to save him the tedium of writing another. Criticised by + the light of his subsequent actions, this prologue may even be + understood to contain a covert promise of the murder he was + meditating. + </p> + <p> + 'In this way,' writes Varchi, 'the Duke had taken such + familiarity with Lorenzo, that, not content with making use of + him as a ruffian in his dealings with women, whether religious or + secular, maidens or wives or widows, noble or plebeian, young or + elderly, as it might happen, he applied to him to procure for his + pleasure a half-sister of Lorenzo's own mother, a young lady of + marvellous beauty, but not less chaste than beautiful, who was + the wife of Lionardo Ginori, and lived not far from the back + entrance to the palace of the Medici.' Lorenzino undertook this + odious commission, seeing an opportunity to work his designs + against the Duke. But first he had to form an accomplice, since + he could not hope to carry out the murder without help. A bravo, + called Michele del Tavolaccino, but better known by the nickname + of Scoronconcolo, struck him as a fitting instrument. He had + procured this man's pardon for a homicide, and it appears that + the fellow retained a certain sense of gratitude. Lorenzino began + by telling the man there was a courtier who put insults upon him, + and Scoronconcolo professed his readiness to kill the knave. 'Sia + chi si voglia; io l'ammazzerò, se fosse Cristo.' Up to the last + minute the name of Alessandro was not mentioned. Having thus + secured his assistant, Lorenzino chose a night when he knew that + Alessandro Vitelli, captain of the Duke's guard, would be from + home. Then, after supper, he whispered in Alessandro's ear that + at last he had seduced his aunt with an offer of money, and that + she would come to his, Lorenzo's chamber at the service of the + Duke that night. Only the Duke must appear at the rendezvous + alone, and when he had arrived, the lady should be fetched. + 'Certain it is,' says Varchi, 'that the Duke, having donned a + cloak of satin in the Neapolitan style, lined with sable, when he + went to take his gloves, and there were some of mail and some of + perfumed leather, hesitated awhile and said: "Which shall I + choose, those of war, or those of love-making?"' He took the + latter and went out with only four attendants, three of whom he + dismissed upon the Piazza di San Marco, while one was stationed + just opposite Lorenzo's house, with strict orders not to stir if + he should see folk enter or issue thence. But this fellow, called + the Hungarian, after waiting a great while, returned to the + Duke's chamber, and there went to sleep. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Lorenzino received Alessandro in his bedroom, where + there was a good fire. The Duke unbuckled his sword, which + Lorenzino took, and having entangled the belt with the hilt, so + that it should not readily be drawn, laid it on the pillow. The + Duke had flung himself already on the bed, and hid himself among + the curtains—doing this, it is supposed, to save himself + from the trouble of paying compliments to the lady when she + should arrive. For Caterina Ginori had the fame of a fair + speaker, and Alessandro was aware of his own incapacity to play + the part of a respectful lover. Nothing could more strongly point + the man's brutality than this act, which contributed in no small + measure to his ruin. + </p> + <p> + Lorenzino left the Duke upon the bed, and went at once for + Scoronconcolo. He told him that the enemy was caught, and bade + him only mind the work he had to do. 'That will I do,' the bravo + answered, 'even though it were the Duke himself.' 'You've hit the + mark,' said Lorenzino with a face of joy; 'he cannot slip through + our fingers. Come!' So they mounted to the bedroom, and + Lorenzino, knowing where the Duke was laid, cried: 'Sir, are you + asleep?' and therewith ran him through the back. Alessandro was + sleeping, or pretending to sleep, face downwards, and the sword + passed through his kidneys and diaphragm. But it did not kill + him. He slipped from the bed, and seized a stool to parry the + next blow. Scoronconcolo now stabbed him in the face, while + Lorenzino forced him back upon the bed; and then began a hideous + struggle. In order to prevent his cries, Lorenzino doubled his + fist into the Duke's mouth. Alessandro seized the thumb between + his teeth, and held it in a vice until he died. This disabled + Lorenzino, who still lay upon his victim's body, and + Scoronconcolo could not strike for fear of wounding his master. + Between the writhing couple he made, however, several passes with + his sword, which only pierced the mattress. Then he drew a knife + and drove it into the Duke's throat, and bored about till he had + severed veins and windpipe. + </p> + <p> + IV.—THE FLIGHT OF LORENZINO DE' MEDICI + </p> + <p> + Alessandro was dead. His body fell to earth. The two murderers, + drenched with blood, lifted it up, and placed it on the bed, + wrapped in the curtains, as they had found him first. Then + Lorenzino went to the window, which looked out upon the Via + Larga, and opened it to rest and breathe a little air. After this + he called for Scoronconcolo's boy, Il Freccia, and bade him look + upon the dead man. Il Freccia recognised the Duke. But why + Lorenzino did this, no one knew. It seemed, as Varchi says, that, + having planned the murder with great ability, and executed it + with daring, his good sense and good luck forsook him. He made no + use of the crime he had committed; and from that day forward till + his own assassination, nothing prospered with him. Indeed, the + murder of Alessandro appears to have been almost motiveless, + considered from the point of view of practical politics. Varchi + assumes that Lorenzino's burning desire of glory prompted the + deed; and when he had acquired the notoriety he sought, there was + an end to his ambition. This view is confirmed by the Apology he + wrote and published for his act. It remains one of the most + pregnant, bold, and brilliant pieces of writing which we possess + in favour of tyrannicide from that epoch of insolent crime and + audacious rhetoric. So energetic is the style, and so biting the + invective of this masterpiece, in which the author stabs a second + time his victim, that both Giordani and Leopardi affirmed it to + be the only true monument of eloquence in the Italian language. + If thirst for glory was Lorenzino's principal incentive, + immediate glory was his guerdon. He escaped that same night with + Scoronconcolo and Freccia to Bologna, where he stayed to dress + his thumb, and then passed forward to Venice. Filippo Strozzi + there welcomed him as the new Brutus, gave him money, and + promised to marry his two sons to the two sisters of the + tyrant-killer. Poems were written and published by the most + famous men of letters, including Benedetto Varchi and Francesco + Maria Molsa, in praise of the Tuscan Brutus, the liberator of his + country from a tyrant. A bronze medal was struck bearing his + name, with a profile copied from Michelangelo's bust of Brutus. + On the obverse are two daggers and a cup, and the date viii. id. + Jan. + </p> + <p> + The immediate consequence of Alessandro's murder was the + elevation of Cosimo, son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere, and second + cousin of Lorenzino, to the duchy. At the ceremony of his + investiture with the ducal honours, Cosimo solemnly undertook to + revenge Alessandro's murder. In the following March he buried his + predecessor with pomp in San Lorenzo. The body was placed beside + the bones of the Duke of Urbino in the marble chest of + Michelangelo, and here not many years ago it was discovered. Soon + afterwards Lorenzino was declared a rebel. His portrait was + painted according to old Tuscan precedent, head downwards, and + suspended by one foot, upon the wall of the fort built by + Alessandro. His house was cut in twain from roof to pavement, and + a narrow lane was driven through it, which received the title of + Traitor's Alley, <i>Chiasso del Traditore</i>. The price of four + thousand golden florins was put upon his head, together with the + further sum of one hundred florins per annum in perpetuity to be + paid to the murderer and his direct heirs in succession, by the + Otto di Balia. Moreover, the man who killed Lorenzino was to + enjoy all civic privileges; exemption from all taxes, ordinary + and extraordinary; the right of carrying arms, together with two + attendants, in the city and the whole domain of Florence; and the + further prerogative of restoring ten outlaws at his choice. If + Lorenzino could be captured and brought alive to Florence, the + whole of this reward would be doubled. + </p> + <p> + This decree was promulgated in April 1537, and thenceforward + Lorenzino de' Medici lived a doomed man. The assassin, who had + been proclaimed a Brutus by Tuscan exiles and humanistic + enthusiasts, was regarded as a Judas by the common people. + Ballads were written on him with the title of the 'Piteous and + sore lament made unto himself by Lorenzino de' Medici, who + murdered the most illustrious Duke Alessandro.' He had become a + wild beast, whom it was honourable to hunt down, a pest which it + was righteous to extirpate. Yet fate delayed nine years to + overtake him. What remains to be told about his story must be + extracted from the narrative of the bravo who succeeded, with the + aid of an accomplice, in despatching him at Venice.<a name= + "FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> So far as possible, I + shall use the man's own words, translating them literally, and + omitting only unimportant details. The narrative throws brilliant + light upon the manners and movements of professional cut-throats + at that period in Italy. It seems to have been taken down from + the hero Francesco, or Cecco, Bibboni's lips; and there is no + doubt that we possess in it a valuable historical document for + the illustration of contemporary customs. It offers in all points + a curious parallel to Cellini's account of his own homicides and + hair-breadth escapes. Moreover, it is confirmed in its minutest + circumstances by the records of the criminal courts of Venice in + the sixteenth century. This I can attest from recent examination + of MSS. relating to the <i>Signori di Notte</i> and the + <i>Esecutori contro la Bestemmia</i>, which are preserved among + the Archives at the Frari. + </p> + <p> + V.—THE MURDER OF LORENZINO DE' MEDICI + </p> + <p> + 'When I returned from Germany,' begins Bibboni, 'where I had been + in the pay of the Emperor, I found at Vicenza Bebo da Volterra, + who was staying in the house of M. Antonio da Roma, a nobleman of + that city. This gentleman employed him because of a great feud he + had; and he was mighty pleased, moreover, at my coming, and + desired that I too should take up my quarters in his palace.' + </p> + <p> + This paragraph strikes the keynote of the whole narrative, and + introduces us to the company we are about to keep. The noblemen + of that epoch, if they had private enemies, took into their + service soldiers of adventure, partly to protect their persons, + but also to make war, when occasion offered, on their foes. The + <i>bravi</i>, as they were styled, had quarters assigned them in + the basement of the palace, where they might be seen swaggering + about the door or flaunting their gay clothes behind the massive + iron bars of the windows which opened on the streets. When their + master went abroad at night they followed him, and were always at + hand to perform secret services in love affairs, assassination, + and espial. For the rest, they haunted taverns, and kept up + correspondence with prostitutes. An Italian city had a whole + population of such fellows, the offscourings of armies, drawn + from all nations, divided by their allegiance of the time being + into hostile camps, but united by community of interest and + occupation, and ready to combine against the upper class, upon + whose vices, enmities, and cowardice they throve. + </p> + <p> + Bibboni proceeds to say how another gentleman of Vicenza, M. + Francesco Manente, had at this time a feud with certain of the + Guazzi and the Laschi, which had lasted several years, and cost + the lives of many members of both parties and their following. M. + Francesco being a friend of M. Antonio, besought that gentleman + to lend him Bibboni and Bebo for a season; and the two + <i>bravi</i> went together with their new master to Celsano, a + village in the neighbourhood. 'There both parties had estates, + and all of them kept armed men in their houses, so that not a day + passed without feats of arms, and always there was some one + killed or wounded. One day, soon afterwards, the leaders of our + party resolved to attack the foe in their house, where we killed + two, and the rest, numbering five men, entrenched themselves in a + ground-floor apartment; whereupon we took possession of their + harquebuses and other arms, which forced them to abandon the + villa and retire to Vicenza; and within a short space of time + this great feud was terminated by an ample peace.' After this + Bebo took service with the Rector of the University in Padua, and + was transferred by his new patron to Milan. Bibboni remained at + Vicenza with M. Galeazzo della Seta, who stood in great fear of + his life, notwithstanding the peace which had been concluded + between the two factions. At the end of ten months he returned to + M. Antonio da Roma and his six brothers, 'all of whom being very + much attached to me, they proposed that I should live my life + with them, for good or ill, and be treated as one of the family; + upon the understanding that if war broke out and I wanted to take + part in it, I should always have twenty-five crowns and arms and + horse, with welcome home, so long as I lived; and in case I did + not care to join the troops, the same provision for my + maintenance.' + </p> + <p> + From these details we comprehend the sort of calling which a + bravo of Bibboni's species followed. Meanwhile Bebo was at Milan. + 'There it happened that M. Francesco Vinta, of Volterra, was on + embassy from the Duke of Florence. He saw Bebo, and asked him + what he was doing in Milan, and Bebo answered that he was a + knight errant.' This phrase, derived no doubt from the romantic + epics then in vogue, was a pretty euphemism for a rogue of Bebo's + quality. The ambassador now began cautiously to sound his man, + who seems to have been outlawed from the Tuscan duchy, telling + him he knew a way by which he might return with favour to his + home, and at last disclosing the affair of Lorenzo. Bebo was + puzzled at first, but when he understood the matter, he professed + his willingness, took letters from the envoy to the Duke of + Florence, and, in a private audience with Cosimo, informed him + that he was ready to attempt Lorenzino's assassination. He added + that 'he had a comrade fit for such a job, whose fellow for the + business could not easily be found.' + </p> + <p> + Bebo now travelled to Vicenza, and opened the whole matter to + Bibboni, who weighed it well, and at last, being convinced that + the Duke's commission to his comrade was <i>bona fide</i>, + determined to take his share in the undertaking. The two agreed + to have no accomplices. They went to Venice, and 'I,' says + Bibboni, 'being most intimately acquainted with all that city, + and provided there with many friends, soon quietly contrived to + know where Lorenzino lodged, and took a room in the + neighbourhood, and spent some days in seeing how we best might + rule our conduct.' Bibboni soon discovered that Lorenzino never + left his palace; and he therefore remained in much perplexity, + until, by good luck, Ruberto Strozzi arrived from France in + Venice, bringing in his train a Navarrese servant, who had the + nickname of Spagnoletto. This fellow was a great friend of the + bravo. They met, and Bibboni told him that he should like to go + and kiss the hands of Messer Ruberto, whom he had known in Rome. + Strozzi inhabited the same palace as Lorenzino. 'When we arrived + there, both Messer Ruberto and Lorenzo were leaving the house, + and there were around them so many gentlemen and other persons, + that I could not present myself, and both straightway stepped + into the gondola. Then I, not having seen Lorenzo for a long + while past, and because he was very quietly attired, could not + recognise the man exactly, but only as it were between certainty + and doubt. Wherefore I said to Spagnoletto, "I think I know that + gentleman, but don't remember where I saw him." And Messer + Ruberto was giving him his right hand. Then Spagnoletto answered, + "You know him well enough; he is Messer Lorenzo. But see you tell + this to nobody. He goes by the name of Messer Dario, because he + lives in great fear for his safety, and people don't know that he + is now in Venice." I answered that I marvelled much, and if I + could have helped him, would have done so willingly. Then I asked + where they were going, and he said, to dine with Messer Giovanni + della Casa, who was the Pope's Legate. I did not leave the man + till I had drawn from him all I required.' + </p> + <p> + Thus spoke the Italian Judas. The appearance of La Casa on the + scene is interesting. He was the celebrated author of the + scandalous 'Capitolo del Forno,' the author of many sublime and + melancholy sonnets, who was now at Venice, prosecuting a charge + of heresy against Pier Paolo Vergerio, and paying his addresses + to a noble lady of the Quirini family. It seems that on the + territory of San Marco he made common cause with the exiles from + Florence, for he was himself by birth a Florentine, and he had no + objection to take Brutus-Lorenzino by the hand. + </p> + <p> + After the noblemen had rowed off in their gondola to dine with + the Legate, Bibboni and his friend entered their palace, where he + found another old acquaintance, the house-steward, or + <i>spenditore</i> of Lorenzo. From him he gathered much useful + information. Pietro Strozzi, it seems, had allowed the + tyrannicide one thousand five hundred crowns a year, with the + keep of three brave and daring companions (<i>tre compagni bravi + e facinorosi</i>), and a palace worth fifty crowns on lease. But + Lorenzo had just taken another on the Campo di San Polo at three + hundred crowns a year, for which swagger (<i>altura</i>) Pietro + Strozzi had struck a thousand crowns off his allowance. Bibboni + also learned that he was keeping house with his uncle, Alessandro + Soderini, another Florentine outlaw, and that he was ardently in + love with a certain beautiful Barozza. This woman was apparently + one of the grand courtesans of Venice. He further ascertained the + date when he was going to move into the palace at San Polo, and, + 'to put it briefly, knew everything he did, and, as it were, how + many times a day he spit.' Such were the intelligences of the + servants' hall, and of such value were they to men of Bibboni's + calling. + </p> + <p> + In the Carnival of 1546 Lorenzo meant to go masqued in the habit + of a gipsy woman to the square of San Spirito, where there was to + be a joust. Great crowds of people would assemble, and Bibboni + hoped to do his business there. The assassination, however, + failed on this occasion, and Lorenzo took up his abode in the + palace he had hired upon the Campo di San Polo. This Campo is one + of the largest open places in Venice, shaped irregularly, with a + finely curving line upon the western side, where two of the + noblest private houses in the city are still standing. Nearly + opposite these, in the south-western angle, stands, detached, the + little old church of San Polo. One of its side entrances opens + upon the square; the other on a lane, which leads eventually to + the Frari. There is nothing in Bibboni's narrative to make it + clear where Lorenzo hired his dwelling. But it would seem from + certain things which he says later on, that in order to enter the + church his victim had to cross the square. Meanwhile Bibboni took + the precaution of making friends with a shoemaker, whose shop + commanded the whole Campo, including Lorenzo's palace. In this + shop he began to spend much of his time; 'and oftentimes I + feigned to be asleep; but God knows whether I was sleeping, for + my mind, at any rate, was wide-awake.' + </p> + <p> + A second convenient occasion for murdering Lorenzo soon seemed to + offer. He was bidden to dine with Monsignor della Casa; and + Bibboni, putting a bold face on, entered the Legate's palace, + having left Bebo below in the loggia, fully resolved to do the + business. 'But we found,' he says, 'that, they had gone to dine + at Murano, so that we remained with our tabors in their bag.' The + island of Murano at that period was a favourite resort of the + Venetian nobles, especially of the more literary and artistic, + who kept country-houses there, where they enjoyed the fresh air + of the lagoons and the quiet of their gardens. + </p> + <p> + The third occasion, after all these weeks of watching, brought + success to Bibboni's schemes. He had observed how Lorenzo + occasionally so far broke his rules of caution as to go on foot, + past the church of San Polo, to visit the beautiful Barozza; and + he resolved, if possible, to catch him on one of these journeys. + 'It so chanced on the 28th of February, which was the second + Sunday of Lent, that having gone, as was my wont, to pry out + whether Lorenzo would give orders for going abroad that day, I + entered the shoemaker's shop, and stayed awhile, until Lorenzo + came to the window with a napkin round his neck for he was + combing his hair—and at the same moment I saw a certain + Giovan Battista Martelli, who kept his sword for the defence of + Lorenzo's person, enter and come forth again. Concluding that + they would probably go abroad, I went home to get ready and + procure the necessary weapons, and there I found Bebo asleep in + bed, and made him get up at once, and we came to our accustomed + post of observation, by the church of San Polo, where our men + would have to pass.' Bibboni now retired to his friend the + shoemaker's, and Bebo took up his station at one of the + side-doors of San Polo; 'and, as good luck would have it, Giovan + Battista Martelli came forth, and walked a piece in front, and + then Lorenzo came, and then Alessandro Soderini, going the one + behind the other, like storks, and Lorenzo, on entering the + church, and lifting up the curtain of the door, was seen from the + opposite door by Bebo, who at the same time noticed how I had + left the shop, and so we met upon the street as we had agreed, + and he told me that Lorenzo was inside the church.' + </p> + <p> + To any one who knows the Campo di San Polo, it will be apparent + that Lorenzo had crossed from the western side of the piazza and + entered the church by what is technically called its northern + door. Bebo, stationed at the southern door, could see him when he + pushed the heavy <i>stoia</i> or leather curtain aside, and at + the same time could observe Bibboni's movements in the cobbler's + shop. Meanwhile Lorenzo walked across the church and came to the + same door where Bebo had been standing. 'I saw him issue from the + church and take the main street; then came Alessandro Soderini, + and I walked last of all; and when we reached the point we had + determined on, I jumped in front of Alessandro with the poignard + in my hand, crying, "Hold hard, Alessandro, and get along with + you in God's name, for we are not here for you!" He then threw + himself around my waist, and grasped my arms, and kept on calling + out. Seeing how wrong I had been to try to spare his life, I + wrenched myself as well as I could from his grip, and with my + lifted poignard struck him, as God willed, above the eyebrow, and + a little blood trickled from the wound. He, in high fury, gave me + such a thrust that I fell backward, and the ground besides was + slippery from having rained a little. Then Alessandro drew his + sword, which he carried in its scabbard, and thrust at me in + front, and struck me on the corslet, which for my good fortune + was of double mail. Before I could get ready I received three + passes, which, had I worn a doublet instead of that mailed + corslet, would certainly have run me through. At the fourth pass + I had regained my strength and spirit, and closed with him, and + stabbed him four times in the head, and being so close he could + not use his sword, but tried to parry with his hand and hilt, and + I, as God willed, struck him at the wrist below the sleeve of + mail, and cut his hand off clean, and gave him then one last + stroke on his head. Thereupon he begged for God's sake spare his + life, and I, in trouble about Bebo, left him in the arms of a + Venetian nobleman, who held him back from jumping into the + canal.' + </p> + <p> + Who this Venetian nobleman, found unexpectedly upon the scene, + was, does not appear. Nor, what is still more curious, do we hear + anything of that Martelli, the bravo, 'who kept his sword for the + defence of Lorenzo's person.' The one had arrived accidentally, + it seems. The other must have been a coward and escaped from the + scuffle. + </p> + <p> + 'When I turned,' proceeds Bibboni, 'I found Lorenzo on his knees. + He raised himself, and I, in anger, gave him a great cut across + the head, which split it in two pieces, and laid him at my feet, + and he never rose again.' + </p> + <p> + VI.—THE ESCAPE OF THE BRAVI + </p> + <p> + Bebo, meanwhile, had made off from the scene of action. And + Bibboni, taking to his heels, came up with him in the little + square of San Marcello. They now ran for their lives till they + reached the traghetto di San Spirito, where they threw their + poignards into the water, remembering that no man might carry + these in Venice under penalty of the galleys. Bibboni's white + hose were drenched with blood. He therefore agreed to separate + from Bebo, having named a rendezvous. Left alone, his ill luck + brought him face to face with twenty constables (<i>sbirri</i>). + 'In a moment I conceived that they knew everything, and were come + to capture me, and of a truth I saw that it was over with me. As + swiftly as I could I quickened pace and got into a church, near + to which was the house of a Compagnia, and the one opened into + the other, and knelt down and prayed, commending myself with + fervour to God for my deliverance and safety. Yet while I prayed, + I kept my eyes well open and saw the whole band pass the church, + except one man who entered, and I strained my sight so that I + seemed to see behind as well as in front, and then it was I + longed for my poignard, for I should not have heeded being in a + church.' But the constable, it soon appeared, was not looking for + Bibboni. So he gathered up his courage, and ran for the Church of + San Spirito, where the Padre Andrea Volterrano was preaching to a + great congregation. He hoped to go in by one door and out by the + other, but the crowd prevented him, and he had to turn back and + face the <i>sbirrí</i>. One of them followed him, having probably + caught sight of the blood upon his hose. Then Bibboni resolved to + have done with the fellow, and rushed at him, and flung him down + with his head upon the pavement, and ran like mad and came at + last, all out of breath, to San Marco. It seems clear that before + Bibboni separated from Bebo they had crossed the water, for the + Sestiere di San Polo is separated from the Sestiere di San Marco + by the Grand Canal. And this they must have done at the traghetto + di San Spirito. Neither the church nor the traghetto are now in + existence, and this part of the story is therefore + obscure.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href= + "#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Having reached San + Marco, he took a gondola at the Ponte della Paglia, where + tourists are now wont to stand and contemplate the Ducal Palace + and the Bridge of Sighs. First, he sought the house of a woman of + the town who was his friend; then changed purpose, and rowed to + the palace of the Count Salici da Collalto. 'He was a great + friend and intimate of ours, because Bebo and I had done him many + and great services in times passed. There I knocked; and Bebo + opened the door, and when he saw me dabbled with blood, he + marvelled that I had not come to grief and fallen into the hands + of justice, and, indeed, had feared as much because I had + remained so long away.' It appears, therefore, that the Palazzo + Collalto was their rendezvous. 'The Count was from home; but + being known to all his people, I played the master and went into + the kitchen to the fire, and with soap and water turned my hose, + which had been white, to a grey colour.' This is a very delicate + way of saying that he washed out the blood of Alessandro and + Lorenzo! + </p> + <p> + Soon after the Count returned, and 'lavished caresses' upon Bebo + and his precious comrade. They did not tell him what they had + achieved that morning, but put him off with a story of having + settled a <i>sbirro</i> in a quarrel about a girl. Then the Count + invited them to dinner; and being himself bound to entertain the + first physician of Venice, requested them to take it in an upper + chamber. He and his secretary served them with their own hands at + table. When the physician arrived, the Count went downstairs; and + at this moment a messenger came from Lorenzo's mother, begging + the doctor to go at once to San Polo, for that her son had been + murdered and Soderini wounded to the death. It was now no longer + possible to conceal their doings from the Count, who told them to + pluck up courage and abide in patience. He had himself to dine + and take his siesta, and then to attend a meeting of the Council. + </p> + <p> + About the hour of vespers, Bibboni determined to seek better + refuge. Followed at a discreet distance by Bebo, he first called + at their lodgings and ordered supper. Two priests came in and + fell into conversation with them. But something in the behaviour + of one of these good men roused his suspicions. So they left the + house, took a gondola, and told the man to row hard to S. Maria + Zobenigo. On the way he bade him put them on shore, paid him + well, and ordered him to wait for them. They landed near the + palace of the Spanish embassy; and here Bibboni meant to seek + sanctuary. For it must be remembered that the houses of + ambassadors, no less than of princes of the Church, were + inviolable. They offered the most convenient harbouring-places to + rascals. Charles V., moreover, was deeply interested in the + vengeance taken on Alessandro de' Medici's murderer, for his own + natural daughter was Alessandro's widow and Duchess of Florence. + In the palace they were met with much courtesy by about forty + Spaniards, who showed considerable curiosity, and told them that + Lorenzo and Alessandro Soderini had been murdered that morning by + two men whose description answered to their appearance. Bibboni + put their questions by and asked to see the ambassador. He was + not at home. In that case, said Bibboni, take us to the + secretary. Attended by some thirty Spaniards, 'with great joy and + gladness,' they were shown into the secretary's chamber. He sent + the rest of the folk away, 'and locked the door well, and then + embraced and kissed us before we had said a word, and afterwards + bade us talk freely without any fear.' When Bibboni had told the + whole story, he was again embraced and kissed by the secretary, + who thereupon left them and went to the private apartment of the + ambassador. Shortly after he returned and led them by a winding + staircase into the presence of his master. The ambassador greeted + them with great honour, told them he would strain all the power + of the empire to hand them in safety over to Duke Cosimo, and + that he had already sent a courier to the Emperor with the good + news. + </p> + <p> + So they remained in hiding in the Spanish embassy; and in ten + days' time commands were received from Charles himself that + everything should be done to convey them safely to Florence. The + difficulty was how to smuggle them out of Venice, where the + police of the Republic were on watch, and Florentine outlaws were + mounting guard on sea and shore to catch them. The ambassador + began by spreading reports on the Rialto every morning of their + having been seen at Padua, at Verona, in Friuli. He then hired a + palace at Malghera, near Mestre, and went out daily with fifty + Spaniards, and took carriage or amused himself with horse + exercise and shooting. The Florentines, who were on watch, could + only discover from his people that he did this for amusement. + When he thought that he had put them sufficiently off their + guard, the ambassador one day took Bibboni and Bebo out by + Canaregio and Mestre to Malghera, concealed in his own gondola, + with the whole train of Spaniards in attendance. And though, on + landing, the Florentines challenged them, they durst not + interfere with an ambassador or come to battle with his men. So + Bebo and Bibboni were hustled into a coach, and afterwards + provided with two comrades and four horses. They rode for ninety + miles without stopping to sleep, and on the day following this + long journey reached Trento, having probably threaded the + mountain valleys above Bassano, for Bibboni speaks of a certain + village where the people talked half German. The Imperial + Ambassador at Trento forwarded them next day to Mantua; from + Mantua they came to Piacenza; thence, passing through the valley + of the Taro, crossing the Apennines at Cisa, descending on + Pontremoli, and reaching Pisa at night, the fourteenth day after + their escape from Venice. + </p> + <p> + When they arrived at Pisa, Duke Cosimo was supping. So they went + to an inn, and next morning presented themselves to his Grace. + Cosimo received them kindly, assured them of his gratitude, + confirmed them in the enjoyment of their rewards and privileges, + and swore that they might rest secure of his protection in all + parts of his dominion. We may imagine how the men caroused + together after this reception. As Bibboni adds, 'We were now able + for the whole time of life left us to live splendidly, without a + thought or care.' The last words of his narrative are these: + 'Bebo from Pisa, at what date I know not, went home to Volterra, + his native town, and there finished his days; while I abode in + Florence, where I have had no further wish to hear of wars, but + to live my life in holy peace.' + </p> + <p> + So ends the story of the two <i>bravi</i>. We have reason to + believe, from some contemporary documents which Cantù has brought + to light, that Bibboni exaggerated his own part in the affair. + Luca Martelli, writing to Varchi, says that it was Bebo who clove + Lorenzo's skull with a cutlass. He adds this curious detail, that + the weapons of both men were poisoned, and that the wound + inflicted by Bibboni on Soderini's hand was a slight one. Yet, + the poignard being poisoned, Soderini died of it. In other + respects Martelli's brief account agrees with that given by + Bibboni, who probably did no more, his comrade being dead, than + claim for himself, at some expense of truth, the lion's share of + their heroic action. + </p> + <p> + VII.—LORENZINO BRUTUS + </p> + <p> + It remains to ask ourselves, What opinion can be justly formed of + Lorenzino's character and motives? When he murdered his cousin, + was he really actuated by the patriotic desire to rid his country + of a monster? Did he imitate the Roman Brutus in the noble spirit + of his predecessors, Olgiati and Boscoli, martyrs to the creed of + tyrannicide? Or must this crowning action of a fretful life be + explained, like his previous mutilation of the statues on the + Arch of Constantine, by a wild thirst for notoriety? Did he hope + that the exiles would return to Florence, and that he would enjoy + an honourable life, an immortality of glorious renown? Did envy + for his cousin's greatness and resentment of his undisguised + contempt—the passions of one who had been used for vile + ends—conscious of self-degradation and the loss of honour, + yet mindful of his intellectual superiority—did these + emotions take fire in him and mingle with a scholar's + reminiscences of antique heroism, prompting him to plan a deed + which should at least assume the show of patriotic zeal, and + prove indubitable courage in its perpetrator? Did he, again, + perhaps imagine, being next in blood to Alessandro and direct + heir to the ducal crown by the Imperial Settlement of 1530, that + the city would elect her liberator for her ruler? Alfieri and + Niccolini, having taken, as it were, a brief in favour of + tyrannicide, praised Lorenzino as a hero. De Musset, who wrote a + considerable drama on his story, painted him as a <i>roué</i> + corrupted by society, enfeebled by circumstance, soured by + commerce with an uncongenial world, who hides at the bottom of + his mixed nature enough of real nobility to make him the leader + of a forlorn hope for the liberties of Florence. This is the most + favourable construction we can put upon Lorenzo's conduct. Yet + some facts of the case warn us to suspend our judgment. He seems + to have formed no plan for the liberation of his fellow-citizens. + He gave no pledge of self-devotion by avowing his deed and + abiding by its issues. He showed none of the qualities of a + leader, whether in the cause of freedom or of his own dynastic + interests, after the murder. He escaped as soon as he was able, + as secretly as he could manage, leaving the city in confusion, + and exposing himself to the obvious charge of abominable treason. + So far as the Florentines knew, his assassination of their Duke + was but a piece of private spite, executed with infernal craft. + It is true that when he seized the pen in exile, he did his best + to claim the guerdon of a patriot, and to throw the blame of + failure on the Florentines. In his Apology, and in a letter + written to Francesco de' Medici, he taunts them with lacking the + spirit to extinguish tyranny when he had slain the tyrant. He + summons plausible excuses to his aid—the impossibility of + taking persons of importance into his confidence, the loss of + blood he suffered from his wound, the uselessness of rousing + citizens whom events proved over-indolent for action. He declares + that he has nothing to regret. Having proved by deeds his will to + serve his country, he has saved his life in order to spend it for + her when occasion offered. But these arguments, invented after + the catastrophe, these words, so bravely penned when action ought + to have confirmed his resolution, do not meet the case. It was no + deed of a true hero to assassinate a despot, knowing or half + knowing that the despot's subjects would immediately elect + another. Their languor could not, except rhetorically, be + advanced in defence of his own flight. + </p> + <p> + The historian is driven to seek both the explanation and + palliation of Lorenzo's failure in the temper of his times. There + was enough daring left in Florence to carry through a plan of + brilliant treason, modelled on an antique Roman tragedy. But + there was not moral force in the protagonist to render that act + salutary, not public energy sufficient in his fellow-citizens to + accomplish his drama of deliverance. Lorenzo was corrupt. + Florence was flaccid. Evil manners had emasculated the hero. In + the state the last spark of independence had expired with + Ferrucci. + </p> + <p> + Still I have not without forethought dubbed this man a Cinque + Cento Brutus. Like much of the art and literature of his century, + his action may be regarded as a <i>bizarre</i> imitation of the + antique manner. Without the force and purpose of a Roman, Lorenzo + set himself to copy Plutarch's men—just as sculptors carved + Neptunes and Apollos without the dignity and serenity of the + classic style. The antique faith was wanting to both murderer and + craftsman in those days. Even as Renaissance work in art is too + often aimless, decorative, vacant of intention, so Lorenzino's + Brutus tragedy seems but the snapping of a pistol in void air. He + had the audacity but not the ethical consistency of his crime. He + played the part of Brutus like a Roscius, perfect in its + histrionic details. And it doubtless gave to this skilful actor a + supreme satisfaction—salving over many wounds of vanity, + quenching the poignant thirst for things impossible and draughts + of fame—that he could play it on no mimic stage, but on the + theatre of Europe. The weakness of his conduct was the central + weakness of his age and country. Italy herself lacked moral + purpose, sense of righteous necessity, that consecration of self + to a noble cause, which could alone have justified Lorenzo's + perfidy. Confused memories of Judith, Jael, Brutus, and other + classical tyrannicides, exalted his imagination. Longing for + violent emotions, jaded with pleasure which had palled, + discontented with his wasted life, jealous of his brutal cousin, + appetitive to the last of glory, he conceived his scheme. Having + conceived, he executed it with that which never failed in Cinque + Cento Italy—the artistic spirit of perfection. When it was + over, he shrugged his shoulders, wrote his magnificent Apology + with a style of adamant upon a plate of steel, and left it for + the outlaws of Filippo Strozzi's faction to deal with the crisis + he had brought about. For some years he dragged out an ignoble + life in obscurity, and died at last, as Varchi puts it, more by + his own carelessness than by the watchful animosity of others. + Over the wild, turbid, clever, incomprehensible, inconstant + hero-artist's grave we write our <i>Requiescat</i>. Clio, as she + takes the pen in hand to record this prayer, smiles disdainfully + and turns to graver business. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="TWO_DRAMATISTS_OF_THE_LAST_CENTURY" id= + "TWO_DRAMATISTS_OF_THE_LAST_CENTURY"></a><i>TWO DRAMATISTS OF THE + LAST CENTURY</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <p> + There are few contrasts more striking than that which is + presented by the memoirs of Goldoni and Alfieri. Both of these + men bore names highly distinguished in the history of Italian + literature. Both of them were framed by nature with strongly + marked characters, and fitted to perform a special work in the + world. Both have left behind them records of their lives and + literary labours, singularly illustrative of their peculiar + differences. There is no instance in which we see more clearly + the philosophical value of autobiographies, than in these vivid + pictures which the great Italian tragedian and comic author have + delineated. Some of the most interesting works of Lionardo da + Vinci, Giorgione, Albert Dürer, Rembrandt, Rubens, and Andrea del + Sarto, are their portraits painted by themselves. These pictures + exhibit not only the lineaments of the masters, but also their + art. The hand which drew them was the hand which drew the 'Last + Supper,' or the 'Madonna of the Tribune:' colour, method, + chiaroscuro, all that makes up manner in painting, may be studied + on the same canvas as that which faithfully represents the + features of the man whose genius gave his style its special + character. We seem to understand the clear calm majesty of + Lionardo's manner, the silver-grey harmonies and smooth facility + of Andrea's Madonnas, the better for looking at their faces drawn + by their own hands at Florence. And if this be the case with a + dumb picture, how far higher must be the interest and importance + of the written life of a known author! Not only do we recognise + in its composition the style and temper and habits of thought + which are familiar to us in his other writings; but we also hear + from his own lips how these were formed, how his tastes took + their peculiar direction, what circumstances acted on his + character, what hopes he had, and where he failed. Even should + his autobiography not bear the marks of uniform candour, it + probably reveals more of the actual truth, more of the man's real + nature in its height and depth, than any memoir written by friend + or foe. Its unconscious admissions, its general spirit, and the + inferences which we draw from its perusal, are far more valuable + than any mere statement of facts or external analysis, however + scientific. When we become acquainted with the series of events + which led to the conception or attended the production of some + masterpiece of literature, a new light is thrown upon its + beauties, fresh life bursts forth from every chapter, and we seem + to have a nearer and more personal interest in its success. What + a powerful sensation, for instance, is that which we experience + when, after studying the 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' + Gibbon tells us how the thought of writing it came to him upon + the Capitol, among the ruins of dead Rome, and within hearing of + the mutter of the monks of Ara Coeli, and how he finished it one + night by Lake Geneva, and laid his pen down and walked forth and + saw the stars above his terrace at Lausanne! + </p> + <p> + The memoirs of Alfieri and Goldoni are not deficient in any of + the characteristics of good autobiography. They seem to bear upon + their face the stamp of truthfulness, they illustrate their + authors' lives with marvellous lucidity, and they are full of + interest as stories. But it is to the contrast which they present + that our attention should be chiefly drawn. Other biographies may + be as interesting and amusing. None show in a more marked manner + two distinct natures endowed with genius for one art, and yet + designed in every possible particular for different branches of + that art. Alfieri embodies Tragedy; Goldoni is the spirit of + Comedy. They are both Italians: their tragedies and comedies are + by no means cosmopolitan; but this national identity of character + only renders more remarkable the individual divergences by which + they were impelled into their different paths. Thalia seems to + have made the one, body, soul, and spirit; and Melpomene the + other; each goddess launched her favourite into circumstances + suited to the evolution of his genius, and presided over his + development, so that at his death she might exclaim,—Behold + the living model of my Art! + </p> + <p> + Goldoni was born at Venice in the year 1707; he had already + reached celebrity when Alfieri saw the light for the first time, + in 1749, at Asti. Goldoni's grandfather was a native of Modena, + who had settled in Venice, and there lived with the prodigality + of a rich and ostentatious 'bourgeois.' 'Amid riot and luxury did + I enter the world,' says the poet, after enumerating the banquets + and theatrical displays with which the old Goldoni entertained + his guests in his Venetian palace and country-house. Venice at + that date was certainly the proper birthplace for a comic poet. + The splendour of the Renaissance had thoroughly habituated her + nobles to pleasures of the sense, and had enervated their proud, + maritime character, while the great name of the republic robbed + them of the caution for which they used to be conspicuous. Yet + the real strength of Venice was almost spent, and nothing + remained but outward insolence and prestige. Everything was gay + about Goldoni in his earliest childhood. Puppet-shows were built + to amuse him by his grandfather. 'My mother,' he says, 'took + charge of my education, and my father of my amusements.' Let us + turn to the opening scene in Alfieri's life, and mark the + difference. A father above sixty, 'noble, wealthy, and + respectable,' who died before his son had reached the age of one + year old. A mother devoted to religion, the widow of one marquis, + and after the death of a second husband, Alfieri's father, + married for the third time to a nobleman of ancient birth. These + were Alfieri's parents. He was born in a solemn palazzo in the + country town of Asti, and at the age of five already longed for + death as an escape from disease and other earthly troubles. So + noble and so wealthy was the youthful poet that an abbé was + engaged to carry out his education, but not to teach him more + than a count should know. Except this worthy man he had no + companions whatever. Strange ideas possessed the boy. He + ruminated on his melancholy, and when eight years old attempted + suicide. At this age he was sent to the academy at Turin, + attended, as befitted a lad of his rank, by a man-servant, who + was to remain and wait on him at school. Alfieri stayed here + several years without revisiting his home, tyrannised over by the + valet who added to his grandeur, constantly subject to sickness, + and kept in almost total ignorance by his incompetent preceptors. + The gloom and pride and stoicism of his temperament were + augmented by this unnatural discipline. His spirit did not break, + but took a haughtier and more disdainful tone. He became familiar + with misfortunes. He learned to brood over and intensify his + passions. Every circumstance of his life seemed strung up to a + tragic pitch. This at least is the impression which remains upon + our mind after reading in his memoirs the narrative of what must + in many of its details have been a common schoolboy's life at + that time. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, what had become of young Goldoni? His boyhood was as + thoroughly plebeian, various, and comic as Alfieri's had been + patrician, monotonous, and tragical. Instead of one place of + residence, we read of twenty. Scrape succeeds to scrape, + adventure to adventure. Knowledge of the world, and some book + learning also, flow in upon the boy, and are eagerly caught up by + him and heterogeneously amalgamated in his mind. Alfieri learned + nothing, wrote nothing, in his youth, and heard his parents + say—'A nobleman need never strive to be a doctor of the + faculties.' Goldoni had a little medicine and much law thrust + upon him. At eight he wrote a comedy, and ere long began to read + the plays of Plautus, Terence, Aristophanes, and Machiavelli. + Between the nature of the two poets there was a marked and + characteristic difference as to their mode of labour and of + acquiring knowledge. Both of them loved fame, and wrought for it; + but Alfieri did so from a sense of pride and a determination to + excel; while Goldoni loved the approbation of his fellows, sought + their compliments, and basked in the sunshine of smiles. Alfieri + wrote with labour. Each tragedy he composed went through a triple + process of composition, and received frequent polishing when + finished. Goldoni dashed off his pieces with the greatest ease on + every possible subject. He once produced sixteen comedies in one + theatrical season. Alfieri's were like lion's + whelps—brought forth with difficulty, and at long + intervals; Goldoni's, like the brood of a hare—many, + frequent, and as agile as their parent. Alfieri amassed knowledge + scrupulously, but with infinite toil. He mastered Greek and + Hebrew when he was past forty. Goldoni never gave himself the + least trouble to learn anything, but trusted to the ready wit, + good memory, and natural powers, which helped him in a hundred + strange emergencies. Power of will and pride sustained the one; + facility and a good-humoured vanity the other. This contrast was + apparent at a very early age. We have seen how Alfieri passed his + time at Turin, in a kind of aristocratic prison of educational + ignorance. Goldoni's grandfather died when he was five years old, + and left his family in great embarrassment. The poet's father + went off to practise medicine at Perugia. His son followed him, + acquired the rudiments of knowledge in that town, and then + proceeded to study philosophy alone at Rimini. There was no + man-servant or academy in his case. He was far too plebeian and + too free. The boy lodged with a merchant, and got some smattering + of Thomas Aquinas and the Peripatetics into his small brain, + while he contrived to form a friendship with an acting company. + They were on the wing for Venice in a coasting boat, which would + touch at Chiozza, where Goldoni's mother then resided. The boy + pleased them. Would he like the voyage? This offer seemed too + tempting, and away he rushed, concealed himself on board, and + made one of a merry motley shipload. 'Twelve persons, actors as + well as actresses, a prompter, a machinist, a storekeeper, eight + domestics, four chambermaids, two nurses, children of every age, + cats, dogs, monkeys, parrots, birds, pigeons, and a lamb; it was + another Noah's ark.' The young poet felt at home; how could a + comic poet feel otherwise? They laughed, they sang, they danced; + they ate and drank, and played at cards. 'Macaroni! Every one + fell on it, and three dishes were devoured. We had also alamode + beef, cold fowl, a loin of veal, a dessert, and excellent wine. + What a charming dinner! No cheer like a good appetite.' Their + harmony, however, was disturbed. The 'première amoureuse,' who, + in spite of her rank and title, was ugly and cross, and required + to be coaxed with cups of chocolate, lost her cat. She tried to + kill the whole boat-load of beasts—cats, dogs, monkeys, + parrots, pigeons, even the lamb stood in danger of her wrath. A + regular quarrel ensued, was somehow set at peace, and all began + to laugh again. This is a sample of Goldoni's youth. Comic + pleasures, comic dangers; nothing deep or lasting, but light and + shadow cheerfully distributed, clouds lowering with storm, a + distant growl of thunder, then a gleam of light and sunshine + breaking overhead. He gets articled to an attorney at Venice, + then goes to study law at Pavia; studies society instead, and + flirts, and finally is expelled for writing satires. Then he + takes a turn at medicine with his father in Friuli, and acts as + clerk to the criminal chancellor at Chiozza. + </p> + <p> + Every employment seems easy to him, but he really cares for none + but literature. He spends all his spare time in reading and in + amusements, and begins to write a tragic opera. This proves, + however, eminently unsuccessful, and he burns it in a comic fit + of anger. One laughable love-affair in which he engaged at Udine + exhibits his adventures in their truly comic aspect. It reminds + us of the scene in 'Don Giovanni,' where Leporello personates the + Don and deceives Donna Elvira. Goldoni had often noticed a + beautiful young lady at church and on the public drives: she was + attended by a waiting-maid, who soon perceived that her mistress + had excited the young man's admiration, and who promised to + befriend him in his suit. Goldoni was told to repair at night to + the palace of his mistress, and to pour his passion forth beneath + her window. Impatiently he waited for the trysting hour, conned + his love-sentences, and gloried in the romance of the adventure. + When night came, he found the window, and a veiled figure of a + lady in the moonlight, whom he supposed at once to be his + mistress. Her he eloquently addressed in the true style of + Romeo's rapture, and she answered him. Night after night this + happened, but sometimes he was a little troubled by a sound of + ill-suppressed laughter interrupting the <i>tête-à-tête</i>. + Meanwhile Teresa, the waiting-maid, received from his hands + costly presents for her mistress, and made him promises on her + part in exchange. As she proved unable to fulfil them, Goldoni + grew suspicious, and at last discovered that the veiled figure to + whom he had poured out his tale of love was none other than + Teresa, and that the laughter had proceeded from her mistress, + whom the faithless waiting-maid regaled at her lover's expense. + Thus ended this ridiculous matter. Goldoni was not, however, + cured by his experience. One other love-affair rendered Udine too + hot to hold him, and in consequence of a third he had to fly from + Venice just when he was beginning to flourish there. At length he + married comfortably and suitably, settling down into a quiet life + with a woman whom, if he did not love her with passion, he at + least respected and admired. Goldoni, in fact, had no real + passion in his nature. + </p> + <p> + Alfieri, on the other hand, was given over to volcanic + ebullitions of the most ungovernable hate and affection, joy and + sorrow. The chains of love which Goldoni courted so willingly, + Alfieri regarded with the greatest shyness. But while Goldoni + healed his heart of all its bruises in a week or so, the tragic + poet bore about him wounds that would not close. He enumerates + three serious passions which possessed his whole nature, and at + times deprived him almost of his reason. A Dutch lady first won + his heart, and when he had to leave her, Alfieri suffered so + intensely that he never opened his lips during the course of a + long journey through Germany, Switzerland, and Piedmont. Fevers, + and suicides attempted but interrupted, marked the termination of + this tragic amour. His second passion had for its object an + English lady, with whose injured husband he fought a duel, + although his collarbone was broken at the time. The lady proved + unworthy of Alfieri as well as of her husband, and the poet left + her in a most deplorable state of hopelessness and intellectual + prostration. At last he formed a permanent affection for the wife + of Prince Charles Edward, the Countess of Albany, in close + friendship with whom he lived after her husband's death. The + society of this lady gave him perfect happiness; but it was + founded on her lofty beauty, the pathos of her situation, and her + intellectual qualities. Melpomene presided at this union, while + Thalia blessed the nuptials of Goldoni. How characteristic also + were the adventures which these two pairs of lovers encountered! + Goldoni once carried his wife upon his back across two rivers in + their flight from the Spanish to the Austrian camp at Rimini, + laughing and groaning, and perceiving the humour of his situation + all the time. Alfieri, on an occasion of even greater difficulty, + was stopped with his illustrious friend at the gates of Paris in + 1792. They were flying in post-chaises, with their servants and + their baggage, from the devoted city, when a troop of + <i>sansculottes</i> rushed on them, surged around the carriage, + called them aristocrats, and tried to drag them off to prison. + Alfieri, with his tall gaunt figure, pallid face, and red + voluminous hair, stormed, raged, and raised his deep bass voice + above the tumult. For half an hour he fought with them, then made + his coachmen gallop through the gates, and scarcely halted till + they got to Gravelines. By this prompt movement they escaped + arrest and death at Paris. These two scenes would make agreeable + companion pictures: Goldoni staggering beneath his wife across + the muddy bed of an Italian stream—the smiling writer of + agreeable plays, with his half-tearful helpmate ludicrous in her + disasters; Alfieri mad with rage among Parisian Mænads, his + princess quaking in her carriage, the air hoarse with cries, and + death and safety trembling in the balance. It is no wonder that + the one man wrote 'La Donna di Garbo' and the 'Cortese + Veneziano,' while the other was inditing essays on Tyranny and + dramas of 'Antigone,' 'Timoleon,' and 'Brutus.' + </p> + <p> + The difference between the men is seen no less remarkably in + regard to courage. Alfieri was a reckless rider, and astonished + even English huntsmen by his desperate leaps. In one of them he + fell and broke his collar-bone, but not the less he held his + tryst with a fair lady, climbed her park gates, and fought a duel + with her husband. Goldoni was a pantaloon for cowardice. In the + room of an inn at Desenzano which he occupied together with a + female fellow-traveller, an attempt was made to rob them by a + thief at night. All Goldoni was able to do consisted in crying + out for help, and the lady called him 'M. l'Abbé' ever after for + his want of pluck. Goldoni must have been by far the more + agreeable of the two. In all his changes from town to town of + Italy he found amusement and brought gaiety. The sights, the + theatres, the society aroused his curiosity. He trembled with + excitement at the performance of his pieces, made friends with + the actors, taught them, and wrote parts to suit their qualities. + At Pisa he attended as a stranger the meeting of the Arcadian + Academy, and at its close attracted all attention to himself by + his clever improvisation. He was in truth a ready-witted man, + pliable, full of resource, bred half a valet, half a Roman + <i>græculus</i>. Alfieri saw more of Europe than Goldoni. France, + Germany, Holland, Switzerland, England, Spain, all parts of Italy + he visited with restless haste. From land to land he flew, + seeking no society, enjoying nothing, dashing from one inn door + to another with his servants and his carriages, and thinking + chiefly of the splendid stud of horses which he took about with + him upon his travels. He was a lonely, stiff, self-engrossed, + indomitable man. He could not rest at home: he could not bear to + be the vassal of a king and breathe the air of courts. So he + lived always on the wing, and ended by exiling himself from + Sardinia in order to escape the trammels of paternal government. + As for his tragedies, he wrote them to win laurels from + posterity. He never cared to see them acted; he bullied even his + printers and correctors; he cast a glove down in defiance of his + critics. Goldoni sought the smallest meed of approbation. It + pleased him hugely in his old age to be Italian master to a + French princess. Alfieri openly despised the public. Goldoni + wrote because he liked to write; Alfieri, for the sake of proving + his superior powers. Against Alfieri's hatred of Turin and its + trivial solemnities, we have to set Goldoni's love of Venice and + its petty pleasures. He would willingly have drunk chocolate and + played at dominoes or picquet all his life on the Piazza di San + Marco, when Alfieri was crossing the sierras on his Andalusian + horse, and devouring a frugal meal of rice in solitude. Goldoni + glided through life an easy man, with genial, venial thoughts; + with a clear, gay, gentle temper; a true sense of what is good + and just; and a heart that loved diffusively, if not too warmly. + Many were the checks and obstacles thrown on his path; but round + them or above them he passed nimbly, without scar or scathe. + Poverty went close behind him, but he kept her off, and never + felt the pinch of need. Alfieri strained and strove against the + barriers of fate; a sombre, rugged man, proud, candid, and + self-confident, who broke or bent all opposition; now moving + solemnly with tragic pomp, now dashing passionately forward by + the might of will. Goldoni drew his inspirations from the moment + and surrounding circumstances. Alfieri pursued an ideal, slowly + formed, but strongly fashioned and resolutely followed. Of wealth + he had plenty and to spare, but he disregarded it, and was a + Stoic in his mode of life. He was an unworldly man, and hated + worldliness. Goldoni, but for his authorship, would certainly + have grown a prosperous advocate, and died of gout in Venice. + Goldoni liked smart clothes; Alfieri went always in black. + Goldoni's fits of spleen—for he <i>was</i> melancholy now + and then—lasted a day or two, and disappeared before a + change of place. Alfieri dragged his discontent about with him + all over Europe, and let it interrupt his work and mar his + intellect for many months together. Alfieri was a patriot, and + hated France. Goldoni never speaks of politics, and praises Paris + as a heaven on earth. The genial moralising of the latter appears + childish by the side of Alfieri's terse philosophy and pregnant + remarks on the development of character. What suits the page of + Plautus would look poor in 'Oedipus' or 'Agamemnon.' Goldoni's + memoirs are diffuse and flippant in their light French dress. + They seem written to please. Alfieri's Italian style marches with + dignity and Latin terseness. He rarely condescends to smile. He + writes to instruct the world and to satisfy himself. Grim humour + sometimes flashes out, as when he tells the story of the Order of + Homer, which he founded. How different from Goldoni's naïve + account of his little ovation in the theatre at Paris! + </p> + <p> + But it would be idle to carry on this comparison, already + tedious. The life of Goldoni was one long scene of shifts and + jests, of frequent triumphs and some failures, of lessons hard at + times, but kindly. Passions and <i>ennui</i>, flashes of heroic + patriotism, constant suffering and stoical endurance, art and + love idealised, fill up the life of Alfieri. Goldoni clung much + to his fellow-men, and shared their pains and pleasures. Alfieri + spent many of his years in almost absolute solitude. On the whole + character and deeds of the one man was stamped Comedy: the other + was own son of Tragedy. + </p> + <p> + If, after reading the autobiographies of Alfieri and Goldoni, we + turn to the perusal of their plays, we shall perceive that there + is no better commentary on the works of an artist than his life, + and no better life than one written by himself. The old style of + criticism, which strove to separate an author's productions from + his life, and even from the age in which he lived, to set up an + arbitrary canon of taste, and to select one or two great painters + or poets as ideals because they seemed to illustrate that canon, + has passed away. We are beginning to feel that art is a part of + history and of physiology. That is to say, the artist's work can + only be rightly understood by studying his age and temperament. + Goldoni's versatility and want of depth induced him to write + sparkling comedies. The merry life men passed at Venice in its + years of decadence proved favourable to his genius. Alfieri's + melancholy and passionate qualities, fostered in solitude, and + aggravated by a tyranny he could not bear, led him irresistibly + to tragic composition. Though a noble, his nobility only added to + his pride, and insensibly his intellect had been imbued with the + democratic sentiments which were destined to shake Europe in his + lifetime. This, in itself, was a tragic circumstance, bringing + him into close sympathy with the Brutus, the Prometheus, the + Timoleon of ancient history. Goldoni's <i>bourgeoisie</i>, in the + atmosphere of which he was born and bred, was essentially comic. + The true comedy of manners, which is quite distinct from + Shakspere's fancy or from Aristophanic satire, is always laid in + middle life. Though Goldoni tried to write tragedies, they were + unimpassioned, dull, and tame. He lacked altogether the fire, + high-wrought nobility of sentiment, and sense of form essential + for tragic art. On the other hand, Alfieri composed some comedies + before his death which were devoid of humour, grace, and + lightness. A strange elephantine eccentricity is their utmost + claim to comic character. Indeed, the temper of Alfieri, ever in + extremes, led him even to exaggerate the qualities of tragedy. He + carried its severity to a pitch of dulness and monotony. His + chiaroscuro was too strong; virtue and villany appearing in pure + black and white upon his pages. His hatred of tyrants induced him + to transgress the rules of probability, so that it has been well + said that if his wicked kings had really had such words of scorn + and hatred thrown at them by their victims, they were greatly to + be pitied. On the other hand, his pithy laconisms have often a + splendidly tragical effect. There is nothing in the modern drama + more rhetorically impressive, though spasmodic, than the + well-known dialogue between Antigone and Creon:— + </p> + <p> + '<i>Cr</i>. Scegliesti? + </p> + <p> + '<i>Ant</i>. Ho scelto. + </p> + <p> + '<i>Cr</i>. Emon? + </p> + <p> + '<i>Ant</i>. Morte. + </p> + <p> + '<i>Cr</i>. L'avrai!' + </p> + <p> + Goldoni's comedies, again, have not enough of serious thought or + of true creative imagination to be works of high art. They lean + too much to the side of farce; they have none of the tragic salt + which gives a dignity to Tartuffe. They are, in a word, almost + too enethistically comic. + </p> + <p> + The contrast between these authors might lead us to raise the + question long ago discussed by Socrates at Agathon's + banquet—Can the same man write both comedies and tragedies? + We in England are accustomed to read the serious and comic plays + of Shakspere, Fletcher, Jonson, and to think that one poet could + excel in either branch. The custom of the Elizabethan theatre + obliged this double authorship; yet it must be confessed that + Shakspere's comedies are not such comedies as Greek or Romnan or + French critics would admit. They are works of the purest + imagination, wholly free from the laws of this world; while the + tragedies of Fletcher have a melodramatic air equally at variance + with the classical Melpomene. It may very seriously be doubted + whether the same mind could produce, with equal power, a comedy + like the 'Cortese Veneziano' and a tragedy like Alfieri's + 'Brutus.' At any rate, returning to our old position, we find in + these two men the very opposite conditions of dramatic genius. + They are, as it were, specimens prepared by Nature for the + instruction of those who analyse genius in its relations to + temperament, to life, and to external circumstances. + </p> + <h5> + <a href="#CONTENTS">CONTENTS</a> + </h5> + <br /> + <br /> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + <h2> + <a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a><i>FOOTNOTES:</i> + </h2> + <hr style="width: 100%;" /> + + <br /> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This Essay + was written in 1866, and published in 1867. Reprinting it in + 1879, after eighteen months spent continuously in one high + valley of the Grisons, I feel how slight it is. For some + amends, I take this opportunity of printing at the end of it a + description of Davos in winter. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See, + however, what is said about Leo Battista Alberti in the sketch + of Rimini in the second series. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The Grisons + surname Campèll may derive from the Romansch Campo Bello. The + founder of the house was one Kaspar Campèll, who in the first + half of the sixteenth century preached the Reformed religion in + the Engadine. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> I have + translated and printed at the end of the second volume some + sonnets of Petrarch as a kind of palinode for this + impertinence. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This begs + the question whether + λευκόϊον does + not properly mean snowflake, or some such flower. Violets in + Greece, however, were often used for crowns: + ΐοστέφανος + is the epithet of Homer for Aphrodite, and of Aristophanes for + Athens. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Olive-trees + must be studied at Mentone or San Remo, in Corfu, at Tivoli, on + the coast between Syracuse and Catania, or on the lowlands of + Apulia. The stunted but productive trees of the Rhone valley, + for example, are no real measure of the beauty they can + exhibit. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Dante, Par. + xi. 106. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It is but + just to Doctor Pasta to remark that the above sentence was + written more than ten years ago. Since then he has enlarged and + improved his house in many ways, furnished it more luxuriously, + made paths through the beechwoods round it, and brought + excellent water at a great cost from a spring near the summit + of the mountain. A more charming residence from early spring to + late autumn can scarcely be discovered. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> 'The down + upon their cheeks and chin was yellower than helichrysus, and + their breasts gleamed whiter far than thou, O Moon.' + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> 'Thy + tresses have I oftentimes compared to Ceres' yellow autumn + sheaves, wreathed in curled bands around thy head.' + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Both + these and the large frescoes in the choir have been + chromolithographed by the Arundel Society. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> I cannot + see clearly through these transactions, the muddy waters of + decadent Italian plot and counterplot being inscrutable to + senses assisted by nothing more luminous than mere tradition. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Those who + are interested in such matters may profitably compare this + description of a planned murder in the sixteenth century with + the account written by Ambrogio Tremazzi of the way in which he + tracked and slew Troilo Orsini in Paris in the year 1577. It is + given by Gnoli in his <i>Vittoria Accoramboni</i>, pp. 404-414. + </p> + </div> + <div class="footnote"> + <p> + <a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href= + "#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> So far as + I can discover, the only church of San Spirito in Venice was a + building on the island of San Spirito, erected by Sansavino, + which belonged to the Sestiere di S. Croce, and which was + suppressed in 1656. Its plate and the fine pictures which + Titian painted there were transferred at that date to S.M. + della Salute. I cannot help inferring that either Bibboni's + memory failed him, or that his words were wrongly understood by + printer or amanuensis. If for S. Spirito we substitute S. + Stefano, the account would be intelligible. + </p> + </div> + <hr style='width: 100%;' /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches and Studies in Italy and +Greece, by John Addington Symonds + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES IN ITALY *** + +***** This file should be named 14972-h.htm or 14972-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/9/7/14972/ + +Produced by Ted Garvin, Leonard Johnson and the PG Online Distributed +Proofreading Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + + </body> +</html> |