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diff --git a/15191.txt b/15191.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..32c457c --- /dev/null +++ b/15191.txt @@ -0,0 +1,43544 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Commercial Products of the Vegetable +Kingdom, by P. L. Simmonds + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom + Considered in Their Various Uses to Man and in Their Relation to the + Arts and Manufactures; Forming a Practical Treatise & Handbook of + Reference for the Colonist, Manufacturer, Merchant, and Consumer, + on the Cultivation, Preparation for Shipment, and Commercial Value, + &c. of the Various Substances Obtained From Trees and Plants, Entering + into the Husbandry of Tropical and Sub-tropical Regions, &c. + + +Author: P. L. Simmonds + +Release Date: February 27, 2005 [EBook #15191] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VEGETABLE KINGDOM *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Stephen Schulze and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + + + + + +THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, + + +CONSIDERED IN THEIR VARIOUS USES TO MAN AND IN THEIR RELATION TO THE +ARTS AND MANUFACTURES; + +FORMING A PRACTICAL TREATISE & HANDBOOK OF REFERENCE FOR THE + +Colonist, Manufacturer, Merchant, and Consumer, + +ON THE CULTIVATION, PREPARATION FOR SHIPMENT, AND COMMERCIAL VALUE, +&c. OF THE VARIOUS SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM TREES AND PLANTS, + +ENTERING INTO THE HUSBANDRY OF TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL REGIONS, &c. + + +BY P.L. SIMMONDS, + +HONORARY AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL AND +COMMERCIAL SOCIETIES OF JAMAICA, BRITISH GUIANA, ANTIGUA, BARBADOS, +KONIGSBERG, CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, NATAL, THE NEW YORK STATE SOCIETY, THE +NOVA SCOTIA CENTRAL BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, THE SOCIETIES FOR PROMOTING +AGRICULTURE IN PHILADELPHIA AND NEW ORLEANS; ONE OF THE EDITORS OF +"JOHNSON'S FARMER'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA;" MANY YEARS EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR OF +THE "COLONIAL MAGAZINE," &c. &c. + + +MDCCCLIV. + + + +LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. + + +African Steam Ship Company, 3, Mincing Lane +Archbell, J., Esq., Pietermaritzburg, Natal +Assam Company, 30, Great Winchester-street +Aubert, Honourable J.M.A., M.C., St. Lucia + +Botanical Society (the Royal), Regent's Park +Burton, C.H., Esq., 133, Fenchurch-street +Boddington, Messrs. & Co., 9, St. Helen's Place +Bristol Chamber of Commerce, Bristol +Brown, Messrs. & Co., 4, Pancras Lane +Begg, Thomas, Esq., 3, Corbett Court, Gracechurch-street +Bow, J.B. De., Editor of Commercial Review, New Orleans +Breede, L. Von, Esq., Natal +Breen, H.H., Esq., St. Lucia +Barbados General Agricultural Society +British Guiana Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society +Browne, Hunter & Co., Messrs., Liverpool +Bagshaw, John, Esq., M.P., Cliff House, Harwich +Berry, Richard L., Esq., Chagford, Devonshire +Blyth, Messrs., J. & A., Steam Engine House, Limehouse +Blyth, Philip P., Esq., 23, Upper Wimpole Street +Brown, Messrs. Robert & Co., 25, Lawrence Pountney Lane + +Carmichael, Sir James, Bart., Sussex Gardens +Christopher, J.S., Esq., 26, Coleman-street +Challis, Alderman, 32, Wilson Street, Finsbury +Childs, R.W., Esq., 26, Coleman Street +Cape of Good Hope Agricultural Society +Campbell, C.T., Graham's Town, Cape of Good Hope (3 copies) +Central Board of Agriculture, Halifax, Nova Scotia (5 copies) +Crum, H.E., Esq., (Messrs. J. Ewing & Co's.,) Glasgow +Clegg, T., Esq., Manchester +Carleton, Percival A., Esq., Stipendiary Magistrate, Bahamas + +Davis, Messrs. T.E. & W.W., manufacturers, 159 and 160, Whitechapel Road +Dinneford, Messrs. & Co, 172, New Bond-street +Denoon, Messrs. D. & Co., 6, Adam's Court, Old Broad-st. +Decasseres, Phineas, Esq., Falmouth, Jamaica +Dod, Francis, Esq., Savanna le Mar, Jamaica +Duke, Sir James, M.P., Portland Place +Dunbar, Messrs. D., & Sons, 95, Fore-street, Limehouse +Dennistoun, Messrs. J. & A., Glasgow +Drysdale, Hon. J.V., Colonial Secretary, St. Lucia +Drumm, Mr. W., Chemist, Barbados (12 copies) + +Ede, Francis, Esq., Great Winchester-street +Ede, Limbrey, Esq., merchant, Winchester-street +Edmonds, E., junr., Esq., Bilcomb Brook, Bradford, Wilts +Evett, Thomas, Esq., Trelawney, Jamaica + +Forbes, Dr., F.R.S., Burlington-street +Fielden, J. Leyland, Esq., Feniscowles, Blackburn +Fox, Mr. C., Paternoster Row +Foster, T.C., Esq., Natal +Framgee, Neeswanjee & Co., Bombay +Forman, Mr. R.B., 14, Mincing Lane +Franks & Co., Messrs., 36, Fenchurch-street + +Grey, The Right Honourable Earl +Grassett, Elliot, Esq., 6, Chesham-street, Belgrave Square +Gray, Messrs. B.C.T. & Co., Great St. Helen's +Gray & Co., Messrs., Commercial Chambers, Mincing Lane +Glasgow, Messrs. Alexander & Co., Glasgow +Glasgow Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures + +Harker, George, Esq., 102 and 103, Upper Thames-street +Henry, J.G., Esq., Bicknollon House, Williton, Somerset +Holloway, Thomas, Esq., 244, Strand +Hanbury, Daniel, Esq, 2, Plough Court +Howard, Messrs. James & Frederick, Bedford +Haywood, James, Esq., Birmingham +Henley, The Right Honourable J.W., M.P. +Humphreys, E.R., L.L.D., Cheltenham School +Haynes, Robert, Esq., Thimbleby Lodge, Northallerton +Howson, Rev. J.S., M.A., Principal of Liverpool Collegiate School +Howard, W.M., Esq., Barbados +Hitchins, Richard, Esq., Kingston, Jamaica +Hamilton, William, Esq., 29, St. Vincent Place, Glasgow +Hodge, Honorable Langford L., Antigua + +Ifill, Benjamin, Esq., 86, Gloucester Terrace, Hyde Park Gardens +Innes, J., Esq., Moorgate-street +Isle of Thanet Agricultural Association, Ramsgate + +Jamaica Association, 1, New Square, Lincoln's Inn +Jamaica Royal Agricultural Society +Jennings, J.H., Esq., Stipendiary Magistrate, St. Lucia +Jung & Burgtheel, Messrs., 2, Winchester Buildings +Johnson, C.W., Esq., F.R.S., Croydon + +Keane, Charles C., Esq., Bermuda +Keating, Thomas, Esq., St. Paul's Churchyard +Keeling & Hunt, Messrs., Monument Yard + +Laird, J.M., Esq., African Steam Ship Co., Mincing Lane +Laurie, W.C., Esq. 6, Great Winchester-street +Lane, Crawford & Co., Messrs., Hong Kong (12 copies) +Lee, D. McPhee, Esq., Bermuda +Livesay, Drs., R.N., 35, Nelson Square +Lloyd, B.S., Esq., Birchin Lane +Liverpool, Library of Collegiate Institution +Lawton, Isaac, Esq., Kingston, Jamaica (2 copies) +Lyons, George, Esq., Falmouth, Jamaica (2 copies) +Lawrence & Co., Messrs., Madras (3 copies) +Losack, F.C., Esq., Trelawney, Jamaica +Lord Mayor, The Right Honourable, Mansion House + +Molesworth, The Right Honourable Sir William, Bart., M.P., Eaton Square +McCulloch, J.R., Esq., Her Majesty's Stationery Office +Morewood, Edward Esq., Compensation, Natal +Morewood, J.J., Esq., 1, Winchester Buildings +Martin, R. Montgomery, Esq., 21, Victoria Road, Kensington +McHenry, George, M.D., 12, Danzie Street, Liverpool +Masterman, John, Esq., M.P., Nicholas Lane, City +Mayers, J.P. Esq., Staplegrove, Barbados +Mouat, Richard, Esq., R.N., H.M. Dockyard, Port Royal, Jamaica +McHugh, R.G., Esq., St. Lucia +Marryatt, Charles, Esq., Laurence Pountney Lane +Mason, J.P. and Co., 18, Mincing Lane +Mosely, Mr. E.N., Nassau, Bahamas. +Michelli, Mr. F., Gould Square + +Nesbit, J.C. Esq., F.G.S., Scientific School, Kennington Lane +Newdegate, C.N., Esq., M.P., Blackheath +Natal Agricultural and Horticultural Society +Newcastle, his Grace the Duke of, (2 copies) +New York State Agricultural Society, Albany +Noble, Messrs. G. & J.A., 11, George Yard, Lombard Street, + +Pakington, Right Hon. Sir John S., M.P. +Poole, David, Esq., Analytical Chemist, 18, Jubilee Street, Mile End Road. +Poole, Braithwaite, Esq., London and North Western Railway, Liverpool. +Pitts and Gavin, Messrs., Kandy, Ceylon. +Porteous, The Honorable James, Jamaica. +Prescott, George W., Esq., 62, Threadneedle Street + +Rowland, Messrs. Alex. and Sons, 20, Hatton Garden (3 copies) +Ransomes and Sims, Messrs., Implement Makers, Ipswich (2 copies) +Rolph, Thomas, Esq., M.D., Portsmouth. +Richardson, Robert, Esq., 3, Jermyn Street, St. James's +Richardson, Mr. J.M., Cornhill +Rowe, Sir Joshua, Chief Justice of Jamaica +Roberts, Charles, Esq., 38, Mincing Lane +Russell, Graham, Esq., 63, Miller Street, Glasgow +Rothschild, Baron, Lionel De, M.P., New Court, Swithin's Lane + +Sampson, M.B., Esq., City Editor of the _Times_, Lombard Street +Saunders, Trelawney W., Esq., F.R.G.S., 6, Charing Cross +Staunton, Sir George Thomas, Bart., M.P., F.B.S., Hants +Strousberg, B.H., Esq., F.R.G.S., Editor of "The Merchant's Magazine." +Straube, Dr., 36, Moorgate Street +Stewart, Charles, Esq., 4, Adam's Court, Old Bond-street (2 copies) +Schomburgk, Sir R.H., British Consul, St. Domingo +Sewell, William, Esq., St. James's, Jamaica +Stephenson, R. Macdonald, Esq., East India Railway, Calcutta +Simmonds, Richard, Esq., R.N., Admiralty, Somerset House +Simmonds, J.G., Esq., R.N., H.M.S. _Crane_, West Coast of Africa +Simeon, Hardy and Sons, Messrs., Cork +Samuelson, B., Esq., Britannia Iron Works, Banbury +Stanford, Mr., 6, Charing Cross + +Trade, The Honorable the Board of +Tennent, Sir J. Emerson, M.P. +Travers, Messrs., and Co., 19, St. Swithin's Lane +Thibou, James B., Esq., Antigua +Tollemache, Honorable F., Hillmagham Hall, Ipswich +Thornton, Edward, Esq., Statistical Department, East India House + +Weeding, Thomas, Esq., 6, Great Winchester Street (2 copies) +Weguelin, T.M., Esq., 7, Austin Friars +Wyld, James, Esq, Great Globe, Leicester Square +Westgarth, Ross and Co., Messrs., Melbourne, Port Philip +Wortley, S.S., Esq., Cumberland Pen, Spanish Town, Jamaica +Wray, Leonard, Esq., Natal +Wells, Charles, Esq., Grenada +Woodifield, R.D., Esq., Custom House +Woods, R.C., Esq., Straits Times, Singapore (20 copies) +Wilson, Mr. Effingham, Royal Exchange Buildings (2 copies) + +Yeatman, Rev. H.F., L.L.B., Stockhouse, near Sherborne +Young, Bryan, T., Esq., Barbados + + + + +WORKS CONSULTED. + +SIMMONDS'S COLONIAL MAGAZINE, 15 vols. + +PORTER'S TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. + +PAXTON'S BOTANICAL DICTIONARY. + +LAWSON'S MERCHANT'S MAGAZINE, 2 vols. + +PROFESSOR ROYLE, on the Productive Resources of India. + +CRAWFORD'S HISTORY OF THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, 3 vols. + +LOGAN'S JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, 3 vols. + +REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE EAST INDIA +COMPANY, in regard to the Cultivation and Manufacture of Cotton, Wool, +Raw Silk, and Indigo in India. + +JOURNAL OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. + +MILBURN'S ORIENTAL COMMERCE. + +URE'S DICTIONARY OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, AND SUPPLEMENTS. + +CHASE'S HISTORY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. + +PROFESSOR BALFOUR'S MANUAL OF BOTANY. + +DUPON'S TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA, 2 vols. + +COUNT DANDOLO on the art of Rearing Silk Worms. + +JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 7 +vols. + +PRIDHAM'S HISTORY OF CEYLON AND ITS DEPENDENCIES, 2 vols. + +PRIDHAM'S HISTORY OF THE MAURITIUS. + +TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF JAMAICA, 5 vols. + +THE BARBADOS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S REPORTER, 2 vols. + +LOW'S DISSERTATION ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. + +M'CULLOCH'S COMMERCIAL DICTIONARY, last Edition and Supplements. + +HUNT'S NEW YORK MERCHANT'S MAGAZINE, 27 vols. + +DE BOW'S COMMERCIAL REVIEW, New Orleans, 6 vols. + +RENNY'S HISTORY OF JAMAICA. + +SCHOMBURGK'S HISTORY OF BARBADOS. + +BREEN'S HISTORY OF ST. LUCIA. + +CAPTAIN BEEVER'S AFRICAN MEMORANDA. + +PERREIRA'S ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. + +SPRY'S PLANTS, &c., required for India. + +HOOPER'S MEDICAL DICTIONARY. + +PERLEY'S REPORTS ON THE FOREST TREES AND FISHERIES OF NEW BRUNSWICK. + +ESSAYS ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE TEA PLANT IN THE UNITED STATES, by +Junius Smith, L.L.D. + +THE MAHOGANY TREE, its Range, &c. + +THE STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, by John Bailey, R.M. + +THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF NOVA SCOTIA, by A Gesner. + +REPORTS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT STATE OF H.M.'s COLONIAL POSSESSIONS, +for the years 1849-50. + +POOLE'S STATISTICS OF COMMERCE. + +PATENT OFFICE REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1849-50. + +DE BOW'S INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES OF +AMERICA, 4 vols. + +OFFICIAL AND DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION; Part +1.--RAW MATERIALS. + +DR. O'SHAUGHNESSY'S BENGAL DISPENSATORY. + +ARCHER'S ECONOMIC BOTANY. + +A FEW WORDS ON THE TEA DUTIES, by J. Ingram Travers. + +OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF CEYLON. + +GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE, by James McQueen. + +A HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, by W. Rhind. + +THE STATISTICAL COMPANION, by Banfield and Weld. + +FORTUNE'S TRAVELS IN CHINA. + +BALL ON TEA CULTURE. + +PROFESSOR ROYLE ON COTTON. + +LECTURES ON THE RESULTS OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION, delivered before the +Society of Arts, 2 vols. + +JOHNSON'S FARMER'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA. + +A DISSERTATION UPON TEA, by Thomas Short, M.D.; 1753. + +PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS ON TRADE AND NAVIGATION. + +THE HONG KONG ALMANAC AND DIRECTORY. + +JAMAICA ALMANACS, &c. + +KEEFER'S PRIZE ESSAY ON THE CANALS OF CANADA, 1850. + +COLMAN'S CONTINENTAL AGRICULTURE, 1848. + +CUBA IN 1851, by Alexander Jones. + +MARTIN, on China. + +CEYLON ALMANACS. + +EARL'S ENTERPRISE IN TROPICAL AUSTRALIA. + +CUNNINGHAM'S HINTS FOR AUSTRALIAN EMIGRANTS. + +DR. TURNBULL'S CUBA, with Notes of Porto Rico. + +LT. MOODIE'S TEN YEARS IN SOUTH AFRICA, 2 vols. + +FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 20 vols. + +ROBERTSON'S LETTERS ON SOUTH AMERICA, 3 vols. + +STEVENSON'S TWENTY YEARS RESIDENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA, 3 vols. + +JOURNALS OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON AND PARIS. + +PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL, 10 vols. + +THE LEADING AGRICULTURAL PERIODICALS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE +COLONIES. + +BALANZA GENERAL DE COMERCIO OF CUBA. + +KNIGHT'S CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The objects and purposes of the following Work are fully set forth in +the introductory chapter; but I may be permitted to remark here, that +its compilation and arrangement have occupied a very large share of my +time and attention, and I can therefore assert with confidence, that +it will be found the most full and complete book of the kind that has +ever yet appeared. It is not a mere condensation from Encyclopaedias, +Commercial Dictionaries, and Parliamentary and Consular Reports; but +is the fruit of my own Colonial experience as a practical planter and +of much laborious research and studious investigation into a class of +ephemeral but useful publications, which seldom meet with any extended +or enduring circulation--assisted, moreover, by the contributions and +suggestions of many of the most eminent agricultural chemists, +planters, and merchants of our Colonial Possessions and Foreign +Countries. + +Few are aware of the great labor and research required for digesting +and arranging conflicting accounts--for consulting the numerous +detached papers and foreign works treating of the subjects embraced in +this volume, and for referring to the home and colonial trade +circulars, Legislative papers, and scientific periodicals of different +countries. The harassing duties appertaining to the position of City +editor of a daily paper, coupled with numerous other literary +engagements, have afforded me insufficient time to do full justice to +the work while passing through the press; and several literal +typographical errors in the botanical names have, I find, escaped my +attention in the revision of the sheets. I have, however, thought it +scarcely necessary to make a list of errata for these. From want of +leisure, to reduce all the weights and measures named in the body of +the work into English, I have given their relative value in the Index. +I have taken considerable pains to make the Index most full and +complete, for it has always appeared to me, that in works embracing a +great variety of subjects, facility of reference is of paramount +importance. + +Some discrepancy may here and there be found between the figures +quoted from Parliamentary returns and those derived from private trade +circulars; but the statistics are accurate enough for approximate +calculations. + +Whilst the work has been passing through the press, several important +modifications and alterations have been made in our Tariff. + +I have throughout found great difficulty in obtaining commercial +information from the various Colonial brokers and importers of the +City, who, with but few exceptions, have been stupidly jealous of any +publicity respecting the staples in the sale of which they were +specially interested. The greatest fear was expressed lest any details +as to the sources of supply, stocks on hand, and cost prices of many +of the minor articles, should transpire. After the results of the +Great Exhibition, the exertions making to establish Trade Museums, and +the prospect of information to be furnished at the new Crystal Palace, +this narrow-minded and selfish feeling seems singularly misplaced. + +I had not originally contemplated touching upon the grain crops and +food plants of temperate regions; but the prospect of a failure in our +harvest, the disturbed state of political affairs on the Continent, +with short supplies from Russia and the Danubian provinces, and the +absence of any reliable statistics and information for convenient +reference on this all-important subject, added to the recommendations +of one or two well-informed correspondents, induced me to go more into +detail on the Food-plants and Breadstuffs than I had at first +intended, and to treat very fully upon Wheat, Barley, Potatoes, and +other subsidiary food crops. This has trenched somewhat largely on my +space; and although the volume has been swelled to an unexpected size, +I am reluctantly compelled to omit some few Sections, such as those +treating of elastic and other Gums, Resins, &c.; on tropical Fruits; +and on textile substances and products available for cordage and +clothing. The latter section, which includes Cotton, Flax, Jute, &c., +and embraces a wide and important range of plants, I propose issuing +in a separate volume at an early date, with a large fund of +statistical and general information. + +Among those gentlemen to whom I acknowledge myself most indebted for +valuable suggestions or important information, are my friends Sir R.H. +Schomburgk, British Consul at St. Domingo, and Mr. R. Montgomery +Martin, the well-known Statist and Colonial Historian; Mr. R.D. +Wodifield, Deputy Inspector of Imports at the port of London; Mr. +Leonard Wray, of Natal, author of "The Practical Sugar Planter;" Dr. +W. Hamilton, of Plymouth, a talented and frequent contributor to the +scientific periodicals of the day; Mr. T.C. Archer, of Liverpool, +author of "Economic Botany;" Mr. Greene, of the firm of Blyth, +Brothers, and Greene; Mr. J.S. Christopher, author of several works on +the Cape Colony, and Natal; Mr. B.H. Strousberg, editor of "The +Merchant's Magazine," and Mr. G.W. Johnson, the eminent agricultural +writer, author of various elaborate "Essays on the Agriculture of +Hindostan," which were written for my "Colonial Magazine." + +P.L. SIMMONDS. + +5, BARGE YARD, BUCKLERSBURY, +December, 1853. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER + + Objects of the work. + + Prof. Solly on the demand for a practical book on raw + materials. + + Objects of the Society of Arts and Great Exhibition. + + Necessity for an attention to the culture of the minor + staples of the soil. + + New objects of industry worthy the attention of + Science. + + Principal part of our homeward commerce composed of raw + materials from the Vegetable Kingdom. + + Mutual dependence of countries on Commerce for the + supply of their wants. + + System of arrangement of subjects adopted by the + author. + + Many articles of commerce omitted for want of space. + + Those of tropical and sub-tropical regions chiefly + discussed. + + Hints for the cultivator. Division of zones, and + countries lying within each, with their range of + temperature. + + Table of climate; duration and production of the + principal cultivated plants. + + +SECTION I.--DRIED LEAVES, SEEDS, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES USED IN +THE PREPARATION OF POPULAR DIETETIC BEVERAGES + + _Cacao_ or _Cocoa_. + + Varieties and description of the tree. + + Mode of cultivation in the Colombian Republics. + + Enemies of the tree. + + Expenses of a plantation in Jamaica. + + Cultivation in Trinidad and St. Lucia. + + Statistics and consumption. + + _Coffee_. + + Home consumption and revenue of coffee. + + Chicory largely substituted for; history of the fiscal + changes. + + Continental demand. + + Present produce and consumption in various countries. + + Cultivation in Mocha. + + Cultivation in India; in Ceylon. + + Exports from that island. + + Manures suitable for the tree. + + Peeling, pulping, and winnowing. + + Improved machinery. + + New use for coffee leaves. + + Culture in Java. + + Production of America and the West Indies; Venezuela. + + Statistics of the Brazils. + + Shipments of various countries to the United States. + + Comparative consumption by different nations. + + Cultivation in Jamaica; Trinidad; British Guiana; Cuba; + decline of production in this island. + + Statistics of exports. + + Preparation of coffee leaves for infusion according to + Dr. Gardner's patent. + + Dr. Hooker's opinion thereon. + + _Tea_. + + Immense consumption of. + + Liebig's analysis of. + + Varieties of the plant. + + Imports of tea for a series of years. + + Alterations in the duties. + + Statistics of import and consumption, revenue and + prices. + + Value and extent of the tea exported from China; first + cost at the ports; enormous prices paid for superior + teas. + + Total outlay for tea. + + Consumption of tea in China. + + Export to various countries. + + Total production. + + Consumption per head in England; not properly within + the reach of the poorer classes. + + China could furnish any quantity. + + Mr. Travers on the tea duties. + + Brick tea of Thibet. + + Tea annually imported into the United States; + proportion of green to black. + + Range of the plant. + + Countries in which its culture has been attempted. + + Its progress in America. + + The Assam Company and its plantations. + + Extension of tea culture by the East India Co. + + Mr. Fortune's travels in the tea districts of China. + + Instructions and details as to soil, management and + manufacture, by Dr. Jameson and Mr. Fortune. + + Dr. Campbell's notes. + + Mr. A. Macfarlane's Report. + + The East India tea plantations in the North-West + Provinces. + + Experimental cultivation of the tea plant in Brazil; M. + Geullemin's report thereon. + + Paraguay Tea: Mr. Robertson's description of the + collection and manufacture. + + _Sugar_. + + Plants from which it is usually obtained. + + The sugar cane; its range of cultivation. + + Production in our colonies. + + Consumption in the last ten years. + + Improvements in sugar machinery and manufacture. + + Quantity of cane sugar annually produced and sent into + the markets. + + Local consumption in India. + + Present European supply; demand according to the + consumption in England. + + Estimated annual production throughout the world. + + Consumption in the principal European countries. + + Average annual consumption in the United Kingdom. + + Comparative amount of beet-root and cane sugar produced + in the last four years. _Gazette_ prices of sugar + in the last ten years. + + Production of sugar in the United States. + + Production in Cuba. + + Production in the British West Indies. + + Production in Mauritius. + + Statistics of imports from the Mauritius. + + Production in the British East Indies. + + Production in Java. + + Production in the Philippines. + + Chemical distinction between cane and grape sugar. + Varieties of the sugar cane cultivated. + + Possibility of raising the cane from seed. + + Analysis of the cane, and of a sugar soil. + + Chemical examination of cane juice. + + Vacuum pans. + + Boiling and tempering. + + Composition of cane juice. + + Ramos's prepared plantain juice. + + Professor Fownes on the manufacture of sugar. + Expression of cane juice. + + Construction of the sugar mill. + + Quantity of juice obtained by each kind of mill. + + Position of rollers. + + Mode of culture and varieties in the East Indies. + + Soils considered best adapted for its luxuriant growth. + + Manures. + + Sets and planting. + + Aftergrowth. + + Harvesting. + + Injuries, from seasons, storms, insects, &c. + + Mode of cultivation in the Brazils; in Natal; expenses. + + Comparison between the cost of production in Mauritius + and Natal. + + Comparative cost in free and slave countries. + + Beet-root sugar: variety cultivated; mode of expression + and manufacture; yield of sugar; estimated profit; + extensive production in France; production in the + German States. + + Statistics of the Prussian Provinces of Saxony; Russia, + Belgium and Austria. + + A Visitor's account of the French manufactories. + + Mr. Colman's opinion. + + Proportion of sugar in the beet. + + Maple Sugar: description of the tree; its production + limited to America; extent of the manufacture in Canada + and the United States; processes employed; statistics + of production. + + Maize Sugar. + + +SECTION II.--THE GRAIN CROPS, EDIBLE ROOTS AND FARINACEOUS +PLANTS, FORMING THE BREADSTUFFS OF COMMERCE + + Statistics of _Wheat Culture_. + + Exports of flour from the United States. + + Adaptation of the soil and climate of the United States + to the culture of the cereals. + + Export of sophisticated (damaged) flour. Kiln drying of + bread stuffs and exclusion of air. Value of the "whole + meal" of wheat as compared with that of the fine flour. + Nutritious properties of various articles of food. + + Composition of wheat and wheat-flour, and the modes of + determining their nutritive value. + + Rotation of crops in connexion with wheat culture. + + Production and consumption of the United Kingdom. + + Statistics of other countries. + + Barley, Oats, Rye, Buckwheat, Maize: Indian corn and + meal imported. + + Crop and exports of United States. + + System of culture. + + Rice: Statistics of production and culture in Carolina. + + The Bhull rice lands of Lower Scinde. + + Rice in Kashmir; exports from Arracan. + + Millet. + + Broom Corn. + + Chenopodium Quinoa. + + Fundi or Fundungi. + + Pulse. + + The Sago Palms. + + Manufacture and extent of the trade in Singapore. + + The bread-fruit tree. + + Kafir bread. + + The PLANTAIN and BANANA; various products of these + palms. + + STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS investigated. + + Characters of starch from different plants. + + Tenacity and clearness of jellies; per centage of + starch yielded, and produce of plant per acre; their + meal as articles of export. + + Indian Corn starch. + + Rice starch. + + ARROWROOT: East and West India, culture and statistics + of. + + ROOT CROPS: Potatoes, Yams, Cocos, or Eddoes, Sweet + Potatoes, Cassava or Manioc. + + NEW TUBEROUS PLANTS recommended as substitutes for the + potato. + + MISCELLANEOUS FOOD PLANTS. + + LICHENS and MOSSES. + + FERNS. + + +SECTION III.--SPICES, AROMATIC CONDIMENTS, AND FRAGRANT WOODS. + + CINNAMON. + + Limited range of the culture in Ceylon. + + Analysis of the soil most favorable to the tree. + + Peeling. + + Various kinds of bark; commercial classification, + distinguishing properties of good cinnamon; suitability + of the Straits Settlement for cinnamon plantations; oil + of cinnamon; statistics and exports from Ceylon, and + prices realised; reduction of the duty; extent of land + under cultivation with the tree; progress of the + culture in Java; exports thence to Holland. + + CASSIA BARK: species from whence derived; imports, + consumption and prices. + + Cassia Buds. + + Cassia Oil. + + CANELLA ALBA. + + CASCARILLA BARK. + + CLOVES: description and varieties of the tree. + + Produce in Java. + + Introduction into the West Indies. + + Progress of the culture in Pinang and Singapore. + + The Clove plantations of Zanzibar. Imports and + consumption of the United Kingdom. + + The NUTMEG: Botanical description. + + Dr. Oxley's account of the cultivation and management + of a plantation; enemies of the tree. + + Produce and returns. + + Preparation of the nuts for market. + + Statistics of culture in the Straits Settlements. + + Memorandum on the duties on nutmegs. + + Exports of nutmegs from Singapore and Java. + + Imports into the United Kingdom, and consumption of + wild and cultivated nutmegs and mace. + + GINGER: description and consumption of. + + Commercial distinction between black and white ginger. + East and West India ginger, directions for cultivation. + + Shipments from Jamaica. + + Comparison between the imports from the East and from + the West. + + Total annual imports and consumption. + + GALANGALE ROOT. + + CARDAMOMS; plants from which derived. + + Grains of Paradise. + + Meleguetta, or Guinea pepper. PEPPER: description of + the vine; range of the plant. + + Production of the World. + + The culture declining in Java. + + Extent of the production in Singapore. + + Exports from Ceylon. + + Its introduction into the Mauritius. + + Shipments from Singapore. + + Imports and consumption of the United Kingdom. + + CHILLIES AND CAYENNE PEPPER: varieties of Capsicum. + + PIMENTO: description of the tree; production of the + spice limited to Jamaica. + + Imports and consumption. + + VANILLA: description of the plant. + + Its collection and preparation for the market. + + Commercial varieties. + + Tonquin beans. + + TURMERIC: sources of supply. + + Commercial uses. + + Value of the Curry stuffs of the East. + + Imports and consumption. + + GINSENG: description of--demand for in China, exports + from America, and commercial value. + + Canary, Coriander, mustard and anise seeds. + + PUTCHUX, or COSTUS. + + LIGNUM ALOES, and fragrant woods. + + +SECTION IV.--DYES AND COLORING STUFFS AND TANNING SUBSTANCES + + Importance and value of these substances to our + manufacturing interests. + + New specimens and materials recently produced. + + Miscellaneous notices of useful plants. + + Lana Dye. + + Prices of Dyewoods. + + Red SANDERS WOOD. + + FUSTIC. + + SAPPAN WOOD, Camwood and Barwood. + + Imports of Dyewoods. + + ARNATTO. + + Commercial kinds. + + Cultivation and manufacture. + + Imports, consumption and prices. + + CHAY-ROOT. + + Wood Dyes. + + Mangrove Bark. + + SUMACH. + + Statistics of imports and prices. + + SAFFLOWER. + + Gamboge. + + Common native dyes. + + INDIGO; plants which produce it. + + Commercial sources of supply. + + Cultivation in Central America, in Jamaica and the West + Indies; once an important crop in the United States. + + The indigo plant a common weed in many parts of Africa. + + Cultivation in India. + + Classification of the dye-stuff. + + Localities best suited to its production. + + Process of Manufacture. + + Annual production in the East Indies; adaptation of + Ceylon. + + Extent of the culture in Java; annual exports + therefrom; imports and consumption. + + MADDER: extent of the demand for. Enormous profit of + the cultivation; system of harvesting and manufacture. + + Large supplies received from France. + + MUNJEET, or Indian madder, deserving of more + consideration. + + LOGWOOD, FUSTIC, Quercitron. + + Brazil Wood. + + LICHENS FOR DYEING. + + Henna. + + ORCHILLA WEED. + + Chemical examination of the coloring principles of the + Lichens. + + BARKS FOR TANNING: cursory notice of a variety of + suitable barks. + + Proportions of tannin yielded by different barks. + + CATECHU: definition of, and whence derived. + + GAMBIER PLANT: cultivation in Singapore; returns from a + plantation. + + Different qualities of extract and mode of obtaining + it. + + Places of manufacture; average produce. + + Terra Japonica, a misnomer. Cutch, another name for + Catechu. + + Statistics of imports and consumption; the amount and + value of Gambier from Singapore. + + DIVI-DIVI: description of. + + CORK TREE BARK. + + MIMOSA BARK. + + Valuable native barks of New Zealand. + + Mangrove bark. + + MYROBALANS. + + Kino: definition of; sources from whence obtained. + + VALONIA: statistics of, consumption and prices. + + +SECTION V.--OLEAGINOUS PLANTS AND THOSE YIELDING FIXED OR +ESSENTIAL OILS + + General Remarks. + + Extensive demand for Oils. + + Proportion of oil furnished by various seeds. + + Richness of Indian seeds in oil. + + RAPE OIL. + + Domba Oil. + + The EARTH or GROUND NUT, its extensive cultivation for + food and oil. + + Tea oil. + + Tobacco seed oil. + + Poppy oil. + + Tallicoonah oil. + + Carap oil. + + Macaw oil. _Madia sativa_. + + Cocum oil. + + Candle Tree. + + Cinnamon Suet. + + Croton oil. + + Oil of Ben. + + PALM OIL: progress of the African trade. + + Imports into Liverpool. + + Quantity retained for home consumption. + + Statistics of; imports of the four principal vegetable + oils. + + OLIVE OIL: description of the tree and its varieties; + its cultivation attempted in the United States. + + Preservation of the fruit. + + Expression of the oil. + + Range of prices. + + Frequently adulterated with cheaper oils. + + Annual imports and consumption. + + ALMOND OIL. + + SESAME, or TEEL Oil. + + Various species cultivated in the East. + + Large exports of the seed from India; native oil mills; + processes of expression and manufacture. + + Sunflower oil. + + Margose, or Neem oil. + + Illepe oil. + + Vegetable butter. Candle nut tree. + + Colza oil. + + VEGETABLE WAX. + + The Candleberry myrtle. + + The CASTOR OIL PLANT: manufacture of the oil in the + East and West Indies. + + Extent of the imports annually. + + The oil-cake for manure. + + Kanari oil. + + The COCO-NUT PALM: description of the tree; its various + and important uses. + + Varieties of this palm met with. + + Wide range of the plant. + + Directions for its culture; profits derived from + plantations; great attention paid to them in Ceylon. + + Commercial value of its products. + + Statistics of culture in Pinang. + + Natural enemies of the tree. + + Copperah and Poonac. + + Statistical returns connected with its products in + Ceylon. + + Imports and consumption of coco-nut oil. + + Comparison of the consumption of the chief vegetable + oils of commerce. + + The value and uses of oil-cake for cattle-feeding. + + VOLATILE, OR ESSENTIAL OILS: description of the most + important. + + Oil of peppermint. + + Process of obtaining the perfumed oils. + + Cultivation of Roses in the East and preparation of + Attar. Lemon-grass oil. + + Citronella oil. + + Patchouly. + + SAPONACEOUS PLANTS. + + +SECTION VI.--DRUGS, INCLUDING NARCOTICS AND OTHER MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES + + The COCA PLANT. _Cocculus Indicus_. + + BETEL LEAF. + + The ARECA PALM; extensive use of the nuts in the East + as a masticatory. + + Narcotic properties. + + Catechu, or Cutch; its astringent properties. + + Davy's analysis. + + Value of the Areca nuts exported from Ceylon. + + The POPPY: increasing consumption of Opium in this + country. + + Production of the Drug in India. + + Large revenue derived therefrom. + + Variety of the poppy grown; system of culture pursued. + + Various modes of consuming opium. + + Its preparation and manufacture described. + + Commercial varieties met with. + + Requisites for the successful culture of the poppy for + opium. + + The TOBACCO PLANT; species cultivated. + + London's classification. + + Analyses of various samples of tobacco; Statistics of + the culture in Brazil; extent of the consumption; + considerations of revenue; memorial of Liverpool + Chamber of Commerce. + + Comparative consumption of tea, coffee and tobacco, per + head. + + Imports and duty received on tobacco in the last five + years. + + Consumption checked in England and France by the high + duties. + + Imports, sales, and stocks, in Bremen for 10 years. + + Culture and statistics in the United States. + + Quantity exported from 1821 to 1850. + + Countries from whence we received our supplies in 1850. + + Particulars of the tobacco trade in 1850 and 1853. + + Mode of culture pursued in Virginia. + + General instructions for the planter. + + Information as to growing Cuba tobacco. + + History of the trade and cultivation in Cuba. + + Statistics of exports from the Havana. + + Culture of tobacco in the East. + + Analysis of tobacco soils. + + Progress of cultivation and shipments in Ceylon. + + Manila tobacco and cigars. + + Production in the Islands of the Archipelago. + + Suggestions and directions for tobacco culture in New + South Wales. + + Its value and extensive use as a sheep wash. + + Excellence of the product and manufacture in New South + Wales; culture of tobacco in South Australia. + + MISCELLANEOUS DRUGS. + + Poisons. + + ALOES: varieties of the plant; culture and manufacture + in Socotra, Barbados, and the Cape Colony. + + ASAFOETIDA. + + CAMPHOR. + + CINCHONA BARK: commercial varieties of CALUMBA ROOT. + + COLOCYNTH. + + CUBEBS. + + GAMBOGE. + + GENTIAN. + + IPECACUAN. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + +The want of a practical work treating of the cultivation and +manufacture of the chief Agricultural Productions of the Tropics and +Foreign Countries, has long been felt, for not even separate essays +are to be met with on very many of the important subjects treated of +in this volume. + +The requirements of several friends proceeding to settle in the +Colonies, and wishing to devote themselves to Cotton culture, Coffee +planting, the raising of Tobacco, Indigo, and other agricultural +staples, first called my attention to the consideration of this +fertile and extensive field of investigation. + +Professor Solly, in one of the series of Lectures on the results of +the Great Exhibition, delivered before the Society of Arts, early last +year, made some practical remarks bearing on the subject:-- + + "If (he said) you were to place before any manufacturer specimens of + all the substances which could be employed in his particular + manufacture, and if you could tell him from whence each could be + procured, its cost, the quantities in which he might obtain it, and + its physical and chemical properties, he would soon be able to + select for himself the one best suited for his purposes. This, + however, has never happened in relation to any one art; in every + case manufacturers have had to make the best of the materials which + chance or accident has brought before them. It is strange and + startling, but nevertheless perfectly true, that even at the present + time there are many excellent and abundant productions of nature + with which not only our manufacturers, but, in some instances, even + our men of science, are wholly unacquainted. _There is not a single + book published which gives even tolerably complete information on + any one of the different classes of vegetable raw produce at present + under our consideration_. The truth of these remarks will be felt + strongly by any one who takes the trouble to examine any of these + great divisions of raw materials. He will obtain tolerably complete + information respecting most of those substances which are known in + trade and commerce; but of the greater number of those not known to + the broker, he will learn little or nothing. Men of science, for the + most part, look down upon such knowledge. The practical uses of any + substances, the wants and difficulties of the manufacturer, are + regarded as mere trade questions, vulgar and low--simple questions + of money. On the other hand, mere men of business do not feel the + want of such knowledge, because, in the first place, they are + ignorant of its existence, and secondly, because they do not see how + it could aid them or their business; and if it should happen that an + enterprising manufacturer desires to learn something of the + cultivation and production of the raw material with which he works, + he generally finds it quite impossible to obtain any really sound + and useful information. In such cases, if he is a man of energy and + of capital, he often is at the cost of sending out a perfectly + qualified person to some distant part of the globe, to learn for him + those practical details which he desires to know. This is no + uncommon thing; and many cases might be stated, showing the great + advantages which have arisen to those who have thus gained a march + upon their neighbours." + +The Society of Arts, appreciating the importance of from time to time +encouraging the introduction of new and improved products from our +Indian and Colonial Possessions, has offered many gold medals as +premiums for a great variety of staples from abroad. + +The Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations brought together +an immense variety of productions from tropical regions, of which the +English public were comparatively ignorant. Attracting public +attention, as these necessarily did, information on the best modes of +cultivating and manufacturing them will be peculiarly valuable to the +colonists, and is as eagerly sought after by many brokers, merchants +and manufacturers at home. + +In consequence of the recent liberal policy of Great Britain, the +competition of foreign countries, the want of cheap and abundant +labor, and other causes, those chief staples, Sugar and Coffee, which +for a series of years formed the principal and almost exclusive +articles of production in our colonies, and which had met with a ready +and remunerative sale in the British markets, have either fallen off +to an alarming extent, or become so reduced in price as scarcely to +repay the cost of cultivation. The partial abandonment of the +cultivation of these staples in our colonies has had the effect of +crippling the agricultural and commercial enterprise of several of our +most valuable foreign possessions, and throwing out of employment a +number of persons: it behoves us, therefore, to direct attention to +some of the many minor articles in demand;--to those indigenous or +exotic products of the soil in tropical regions, which, being +inexpensive in cultivation and manufacture, might be undertaken with a +moderate outlay of labor and capital, and the certainty of a ready and +remunerative sale in the European markets; and could moreover be +attended to without neglecting or at all interfering with the +cultivation of the leading staples. + +It is evident that the export wealth of tropical regions must be +chiefly agricultural, the soil and climate being peculiarly fitted for +the culture of fruits, trees and plants yielding oils, gums, starch, +spices, and other valuable products, which no art can raise cheaply in +more temperate latitudes. The large and continued emigration of +farmers and other enterprising persons from Britain and the Continent +to Natal, the Cape Colony, Northern Australia, Ceylon, the East India +Company's Possessions and the Straits Settlements, Brazil, New +Granada, and the Central American Republics, Texas, the Southern +States of North America, and other tropical and sub-tropical +countries, renders information as to the agriculture and productions +of those regions highly desirable. Even to the settlers in our West +Indian possessions, most of whom have too long pursued the old beaten +track of culture and manufacture, comparatively regardless of modern +improvements and the results of chemical, scientific, and practical +investigation, recent information on all these subjects, and a +comparison of the practices of different countries, cannot fail to be +useful. + +There is much valuable information to be met with in detached papers +and essays in the scientific periodicals of the day, and in colonial +and other publications; such as the Transactions and Journals of the +different agricultural and horticultural societies of the East and +West Indies, the United States, Australia, &c., but none readily +accessible for easy reference, and which the new settler, proceeding +out to try his fortune in those fair and productive regions of the +globe, can turn to as a hand book. I have had much experience in +Tropical Agriculture, and for many years my attention has been mainly +directed to this important subject, for which purpose I have kept up a +large and extended correspondence with numerous agricultural, +scientific and other societies abroad; with experienced practical men, +and have also received the leading journals of all the tropical +Colonies. + +No one person could be expected to be thoroughly familiar with all the +different modes of culture and preparation of every one of the +numerous products to be described in this volume; but where my own +agricultural experience (of several years in the West Indies and South +America) was at fault, I have availed myself of the practical +knowledge of those of my colonial friends and correspondents best +informed on the subject, and am particularly fortunate in having many +valuable essays on Tropical Agriculture scattered through the +different volumes of my "Colonial Magazine." + +The discussion of the best modes of culture, properties, manufacture, +consumption, uses, and value of the commercial products of the +vegetable kingdom cannot be without its value, and the attention of +merchants and planters may be usefully directed to various articles, +which will be profitable both in an agricultural and commercial point +of view; many of which are already sources of wealth to other +countries. + +The introduction of new objects of industry into the colonial +dependencies of the British Empire, is no longer considered a mere +subject of speculation, but one well worthy the attention of the eye +of science; and the fostering hand of care is beginning to be held out +to productions of nature and art, which, if not all equally necessary +to the welfare of man, yet certainly merit the attention of the +cultivator and capitalist, and have great claims on the scientific +observer, and on those interested in raising the manufactures of our +country to a higher standard. + +Few who have not investigated this subject are aware of the immense +number of countries lying in the equatorial and tropical ranges of the +torrid zone, many of which, from the value and importance of their +indigenous productions, have already attracted considerable notice, +and to which still more attention will be directed by European nations +as the value of their various products becomes more extensively known. + +The homeward commerce which we carry on with our numerous Colonies, +with our Indian Possessions, and with foreign countries, is +principally in articles furnished by the vegetable kingdom, such as +the cereal grains, wheat, rice, maize, &c.; vegetables used in +preparing dietetic drinks and distilled liquors, as tea, coffee, +cacao, and the sugar cane, grapes, &c.; spices and condiments; drugs; +dyes and tanning substances, obtained from the bark, leaves, fruit, +and roots of various herbs and trees; the expressed or distilled oils +of different plants; fruits in the green, dried, or preserved state; +starches obtained from the roots or trunks of many farinaceous plants; +fibrous substances used for cordage, matting, and clothing, as cotton, +Indian hemp, flax, coco-nut coir, plantain and pine-apple fibre; +timber and fancy woods. These substances, in the aggregate, form at +least nine-tenths in value of the whole imports of this country. There +are also several products of the animal kingdom dependent on vegetable +culture, which might be brought into this category, such as silk and +cochineal. Very few of these products of the vegetable kingdom come to +us in any other than an unmanufactured state; they are shipped to this +country as the chief emporium and factory of the world, either for +re-export or to be prepared for consumption by the millions to whom +they furnish employment, sustenance, and articles of clothing. + +It is a wise ordination of Providence, that the different nations of +the earth are as it were mutually dependent on each other for many of +the necessaries and luxuries of life, and the means of progress and +civilization. Commerce is thus extended, the various arts and +manufactures improved by comparison and competition; and the acres yet +untilled in distant lands hold out strong inducements for immigration, +their climate and products affording health, freedom, and independence +to the over-tasked and heavily taxed artisan and agriculturist of +Europe. Although the systems of tropical agriculture, generally +pursued, are peculiar and effective, yet there is no doubt that much +improvement remains to be carried out in the practices adopted, in the +implements employed, and the machinery used for preparing the crops +for shipment. In the British Isles our insulated position, limited +extent of country, unsettled climate, and numerous population, +aggregated in dense masses, have compelled us to investigate and avail +ourselves of every improvement in agriculture, arts and manufactures, +which experience, ingenuity, and a comparison with the customs of +other countries, have placed at our disposal. + +If we except sandy deserts, and some of the interior portions of the +polar regions, it will be found that there is scarcely any country but +what is capable of improvement. Indeed, so extensive are the resources +of agriculture, that further improvements may be most easily effected. + +Let us then examine and ascertain what new objects may be improved +upon, and if by our speculations only one single article, either for +food or use, is added to those already in use, or those that are +already cultivated be improved upon, it is equivalent to an increase +of our wealth. + +An eminent writer has truly remarked that "Agriculture is the parent +of Manufactures, seeing that the productions of nature are the +materials of art." + +In the economy of Providence every fragment of creation seems to +unfold, as man progresses in the arts of life, unbounded capabilities +of adaptation to his every want. We have, indeed, daily illustration +of the truth of that trite and homely adage, that "nothing is made in +vain." + +That quaint old English poet, Herbert, who flourished in the fifteenth +century, in a short poem on "Providence," has graphically described, +in his unique vein, the sentiment which forces itself upon us in view +of the numerous discoveries of the age in which we live:-- + +"All countries have enough to serve their need. + + * * * * * + + ----The Indian nut alone + Is clothing, meat and trencher, drink and can, + Boat, cable, sail, and needle, all in one." + +"The addition (it has been well observed) of even a single flower, or +an ornamental shrub, to those which we already possess, is not to be +regarded as a matter below the care of industry and science. The more +we extend our researches into the productions of nature, the more are +our minds elevated by contemplating the variety as well as the +exceeding beauty and excellence of the works of the Creator." + +The mode of arrangement of the various subjects treated of involved +some consideration; two or three plans were open for adoption. 1st. To +describe the several products in the order of their agricultural +importance or commercial value. 2nd. An alphabetical reference, in the +style of a Dictionary or Encyclopaedia; and 3rd. Classifying them under +subdivisions, according to their particular or chief uses. The last +seemed to me the most desirable and efficient mode, although open to +some objections, from the variety of uses to which different parts of +many plants were applied. Some, as cotton, indigo, sugar, coffee, tea, +&c., would readily fall into their proper division, but others, as the +coco-nut, plantain, &c., from the variety of their products, would +come under several heads. I have, however, endeavoured to meet this +difficulty by placing each plant or tree under the section to which +its most valuable production seemed naturally to refer it. + +There are very many plants and substances which have been passed over +altogether, it being impossible, within the limits of a moderate sized +volume, to bring under notice even a tithe of the valuable grasses, +timber trees, cabinet woods, fruits, &c.; and I have confined myself +in a great measure to those which either already are, or might easily +be rendered, articles of commerce, of some importance. I have shown +their present value by quoting the current prices, and brought down, +as far as possible, the statistics of each article to the close of +last year, thus rendering the work valuable by commercial references +which could not be found collectively elsewhere. + +There are some articles of commerce which could not properly be +treated of in a work intended as a guide on agriculture and husbandry, +for the tropical planter and cultivator, who purposes devoting his +attention to the raising of useful crops and plants on his estate. The +forests and jungles of the tropics abound in products of an useful +character, the luxurious and spontaneous growth of nature, such as +ebony, sandal wood, &c.; but these must be sought for by a different +class of settlers; and the mahogany cutter of Honduras, the +teak-feller of India, the gatherer of elastic gums, can scarcely be +ranked with the cultivators of the soil. + +I had originally intended to confine my remarks to staples of tropical +growth, but I have been induced to depart from my prescribed plan by +the importance of some of the commercial products of temperate +regions, such as maple and beet-root sugar, wheat, the grain crops, +and potatoes. + +The system of agriculture, and modes of tillage, &c., of separate +countries in the Eastern and Western hemisphere, notwithstanding their +similarity of climate, are as opposite as if each country belonged to +a different zone; and yet much may be learned by one of the other. + +The only essentially useful division of seasons in countries within +the tropics is into a wet and dry season, the former being the period +of germination, the latter that of fructification. + +The implements of agriculture required are for the most part few and +simple, for no high tillage is necessary, the luxuriance of vegetation +being so great that most of the products of the soil will grow +indiscriminately throughout the year, and the only care of the +husbandman, after the first preparation of the soil, is to keep down +the vast growth of weeds, which might stifle the crops. + +In tropical regions there is less demand for manures than in temperate +climates, but still there are many additions to the soil that may +profitably be made. + +Firstly, that most important principle, which has only recently been +practically inculcated, is in too many quarters entirely neglected, +namely, returning to the soil the component parts taken off by various +crops, and which is so generally practised in all good agricultural +districts, by a careful rotation of crops. Liebig has well pointed out +this: "It must be admitted (he says), as a principle of agriculture, +that those substances which have been removed from a soil must be +completely restored to it; and whether this restoration be effected by +means of excrements, ashes, or bones, is in a great measure a matter +of indifference." Again he remarks, "We could keep our fields in a +constant state of fertility by replacing every year as much as we +remove from them in the form of produce; but an increase of fertility, +and consequent increase of crop, can only be obtained when we add more +to them than we take away." Of all natural manures, therefore, the +best for each description of plant is its own refuse, or ashes; enough +of these can seldom, however, be obtained. But, as far as they can be +restored, this principle is beginning to be acted upon by the sugar +planters of the West Indies, who employ the waste leaves and ashes of +the expressed stalk of the cane, after it has been used as fuel, to +manure their cane-fields. The vine growers of Germany and the Cape +also bury the cuttings of their vines around the roots of the plants. +The cinnamon grower of the East returns the waste bark and cuttings of +the shoots to the soil. And in the coco-nut groves of Ceylon, the +roots of the trees are best manured with the husks of the nuts and +decomposed poonac, or the refuse cake, after the oil has been +expressed from the pulp. Analysis of soils is, perhaps, not so +essential in countries where virgin land is usually in abundance, and +the luxuriance of vegetation furnishes itself, by decomposition, +abundant materials for replenishing the fertility of the soil. But +there are some substances, such as muriate of soda, gypsum, phosphate, +and other compounds of lime, which may be advantageously applied. +Guano and expensive artificial manures, are seldom required, and, +indeed, will not repay the planters for importing. + +An experienced cultivator can generally judge by a superficial +examination, aided by the situation, locality, and appearance of the +soil, whether a certain portion of land is fitted for the profitable +growth of any particular plant. Depth of soil, and facilities for +deepening it, with the nature of the subsoil, so as to know whether it +retains or parts with water, are also important considerations, +because tap-rooted plants require free scope for penetrating deep into +the ground. + +A due supply of water is of vital importance to most crops--and +therefore the extent and periods of the fall of rain are essential to +be known, as it is not always possible to resort to irrigation. The +quantity of labor required for previous tillage, cultivation, and +harvesting of different crops, and the available supply, are primary +essentials to be considered before entering upon the culture of any +staple product, however remunerative it may appear in prospective. +Facility and cost of transport to the nearest market or shipping port +are the next desiderata to be ascertained, as well as a careful +estimate of the cost of plant or machinery necessary. + +It may be desirable at the outset to make a brief enumeration of the +countries lying within the different zones, and the agricultural +products of which come, therefore, more especially under the notice of +the tropical planter. + +Meyen, in his division of the horizontal range of vegetation into +zones, extends-- + +1. The equatorial zone to fifteen degrees on both sides of the +equator. In this division we shall find the Cape Verd Islands, Sierra +Leone, Ascension, and St. Helena, the Republic of Liberia, the +European and native settlements in the Gulf of Guinea, and on the +western Coast of Africa, Abyssinnia, Zanzibar on the East Coast, +Mocha and Aden in the Red Sea, the northern portion of Madagascar, the +Seychelles, the Madras Presidency, Northern India, Ceylon and the +Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Siam, Malacca, Singapore and the Straits +Settlements, Cochin China, the Phillippine Islands, Borneo, Celebes +and the Moluccas, Java and Madura, Banca, the Johore Archipelago, +Timor and the eastern group of Islands, with New Guinea, a large +portion of Northern Australia, the Marquesas, Society's and other +oceanic islands. In South America the Republics of Peru, Bolivia, +Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela, British, French and Dutch Guiana, +and a large portion of the empire of Brazil; Trinidad, Barbados, and +most of the islands in the Carribean Sea. + +This zone has a mean temperature of 781/2 to 821/2 Fahrenheit. + +2. The tropical zone reaches from the 15th deg. on each side of the +equator to the tropics in 23 lat. The mean temperature is 731/2 to 783/4 +deg. Summer temperature 801/2 to 86 deg.; winter temperature in the +eastern coast districts, 59 deg. + +In this region is comprised the following countries:--Sandwich Isles, +Canton, in province of China, Burmah, Calcutta, and a portion of the +Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, Madagascar, Mauritius and +Bourbon; the southern portion of Brazil, Cuba, St. Domingo, Mexico, +and Central America. + +3. The sub-tropical zone extends from the tropics 23 to 34 deg. of +latitude. There are a number of tropical fruits in this region. The +winters are mild and vegetation is green throughout the year. In the +northern division of the zone palms and bananas grow on the plains. In +this region is comprised all the extreme northern portions of Africa, +coasting the Mediterranean, comprising Algiers and the Barbary States, +Egypt, part of Persia, Cabool and the Punjab; the greater portion of +China, Lower California, Texas, the South-Western States of America, +the Bermudas, the Cape Colony and Natal, New South Wales, Southern and +Western Australia--the Government settlements in the Northern Island +of New Zealand, the largest portion of Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and +the Argentine Republics, the Provinces of Brazil from St. Paul to Rio +Grande, Madeira and the Canary Isles. + +To define accurately the conditions of temperature which a plant +requires to maintain it in a flourishing condition we must ascertain +within what limits its period of vegetation, may vary, and what +quantity of heat it requires. This most remarkable circumstance was +first observed by Boussingault, but unfortunately we do not as yet +possess sufficiently accurate accounts of the conditions of culture in +the various regions of the earth, to enable us to follow out this +ingenious view in all its details. His theory is, that the time +required by a plant to arrive at maturity is as the inverse ratio of +the temperature; therefore, knowing the mean temperature of any place, +and the number of days which a plant takes to ripen, the time required +at any other point more or less elevated, can easily be ascertained. +Peter Purry, a native of Switzerland, who settled in Charleston in +the eighteenth century, in a memorial to the Duke of Newcastle, then +Secretary of State, sets out with this postulate, that "there is a +certain latitude on our globe, so happily tempered between the +extremes of heat and cold, as to be more particularly adapted than any +other for certain rich productions of the earth; among which are silk, +cotton, indigo," &c.--and he fixes on the latitude of 33 deg., whether +north or south, as the one of that peculiar character. + +The following Table, showing the climate, duration and production of +certain plants cultivated in tropical America, is from the proceedings +of the Agricultural Society of Grenada. The second, column gives the +altitude in English yards above the level of the sea. The third, the +mean temperature by Fahrenheit's thermometer. The fourth, the average +time required to commence bearing. The fifth, the number of plants in +a Spanish "fanegada" of 170 varras, about 153 square yards. The sixth, +the average duration of each plant. The seventh, the average produce +of each plant in the year:-- + + -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 + |Level of |Mn. Temp.| Time |No. of| |Average + |the Sea, to|Deg. Min.|Required|plants|Years |produce + -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Cacao | }|81.17 |61/2 | 1,156| 40 |11/4 lb + (_Theobroma |587 yds. }|46.00 |yrs | | |per tree + Cacao_) | }| | | | | + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Plantain {|630 yds. to|81.17 | 9 mths.| 3,613| 30 |50 + (_Musa {|1077 |46.00 |91/2 " | | |plantains + Paradisiaca_) {| |40.61 |11 " | | | + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------- + Indian Corn {|1077 |81.17 | 90 days|28,900|Annual|238 for + (_Zea Mays_) {|1260 to |40.61 |110 " | | |every + {| 1890 |36to37.80|120 " | | |seed + {|2880 |25.20to27|180 " | | | + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Manioc or {|1077 |81.17 |10 mths |28,900|Bicen-|One + Cassava {|1195 |40.61 |12 " | |nial |cassava + {| |43.00 |120 days| | |weighing + {| | | | | |3/4 lb. + {| | | | | |1/4 oz. + {| | | | | |starch + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Coco nut | 630 |81.17 |5 yrs. | 452| 60 |4 bottles + (_Cocos | |46.00 |6 " | | |oil per + nucifera_) | | | | | |tree + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Tobacco {| 630 |81.17 |150 days|28,900|Annual|1/2 lb. + (_Nicotiana_ {|1077 |46.00 |170 " | | |_dried_ + _tabacum_) {|1980 |40.61 |180 " | | |to each + {| |33.30 |225 " | | |5 plants + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Cotton {| 630 |81.17 |61/2 mth |28,900|31/2 |1/2 lb. + (_Gossypium_) {|1077 |46.00 |7 " | | |nett + {|1415 |40.61 |71/2" | | |per + {| |34.61 |9 " | | |plant + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Coffee {| 230 |47 |24 mths | 5,300| 45 |11/2 + (_Coffea_ {| 630 |46 |25 " | | |lb. + _Arabica_) {|1077to 2250|37.80 to |28 " | | |per + {|2453 |39.60 |36 " | | |tree + {| |33.30 | | | | + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Sugar cane {| 630 |84.17 |11 mths.|28,900| 5 |10 percnt + (_Saccharum_ {|1080 |46.00 |12 " | | |sugar + _officinarum_) {| |41.40 |14 " | | |upon the + {| | | | | |weight + {| | | | | |of the + {| | | | | |raw cane + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Indigo {| 90 |48.60 |21/2 " |57,800| 11/2 |70 plants + (_Indigofera_ {| 630 |46.00 |3 " | | |produce + _tinctoria_) {|1077 |40.61 |31/2 " | | |1 lb. + {| | | | | |coloring + {| | | | | |matter + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Potato {|1080 |38.70 |140 days|116,600 |41/2 + (_Solanum_ {|1980 |33.30 |165 " | |Annual|lb each + _tuberosum_) {|2700 |27.00 |210 " | | |plant + +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + Wheat {| 567 |42.30 | 80 " |57,800|Annual|37 for + (_Triticum_ {|1170 |38.70 |100 " | | |every + _aestivum_) {|2520 |32.99 |120 " | | |seed + {| | | | | |planted + -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- + +The plantain bears at 1,529 yards, in a temperature of 61 deg. +Fahrenheit, and requires fifteen months, but its cultivation is of +little benefit in so high a latitude. It is the same with the cassava +root. The cane at 1,160 altitude, in a temperature of 66 deg., gives +no sugar; and indigo at 1,620 affords no coloring matter. + + + + +SECTION I. + +DRIED LEAVES, SEEDS, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OF +POPULAR DIETETIC BEVERAGES. + + +No substances are so essentially necessary to mankind, or form such +important articles of commerce, as those which we come first to +consider, the dietetic products--cacao, coffee, tea, and sugar. The +consumption of these in all civilized countries is immense, +notwithstanding that in many they have been fettered with heavy fiscal +duties. The investigation of the culture of the plants from which they +are obtained, and the manufacture of the products, is a very curious +object of research. + + +CACAO OR COCOA. + +The chocolate nuts or seeds, termed cacao, are the fruit of species of +_Theobroma_, an evergreen tree, native of the Western Continent. That +commonly grown is _T. cacao_; but Lindley enumerates two other +species, _T. bicolor_, a native of New Granada; and _T. Guianensis_, +with yellow flowers, a native of Guiana. The seeds being nourishing +and agreeable to most people, are kept in the majority of houses in +America, as a part of the provisions of the family. By pressure they +yield fatty oil, called butter of cacao. They also contain a +crystalline principle analogous to caffeine, called theobromine. The +common cacao of the shops consists generally of the roasted beans, and +sometimes of the roasted integuments of the beans, ground to powder. +The consumption of cacao in the United Kingdom is about three millions +of pounds annually, yielding a revenue of L15,500. Few tropical +products are more valuable or more useful as food to man than cacao. +It is without any exception the cheapest food that we can conceive, +and were it more generally employed, so that the berries should not be +more than two, three, or, at most, six months old, from the time of +gathering (for, if kept longer, they lose their nutritive properties), +even a smaller quantity than that usually taken in a cup would +suffice: in fact, cacao cannot be _too_ new. The cacao beans lie in a +fruit somewhat like a cucumber, about five inches long and +three-and-a-half inches thick, which contains from twenty to thirty +beans, arranged in five regular rows with partitions between, and +which are surrounded with a rose-colored spongy substance, like that +of water melons. There are fruits, however, so large as to contain +from forty to fifty beans. Those grown in the West India islands, as +well as Berbice and Demerara, are much smaller, and have only from six +to fifteen; their development being less perfect than other parts of +South America. After the maturation of the fruit, when their green +colour has changed to a dark yellow, they are plucked, opened, their +beans cleared of the marrowy substance, and spread out to dry in the +air. In the West Indies they are immediately packed up for the market +when they are dried; but in Caraccas they are subjected to a species +of slight fermentation, by putting them into tubs or chests, covering +them with boards or stones, and turning them over every morning to +equalize the operation. They emit a good deal of moisture, and lose +the natural bitterness and acrimony of their taste by this process, as +well as some of their weight. Instead of wooden tubs, pits or trenches +dug in the ground are sometimes had recourse to for curing the beans; +an operation called earthing. They are, lastly, exposed to the sun and +dried. According to Lampadius, the kernels of the West India cacao +beans contain in 100 parts, besides water, 53.1 of fat or oil, 16.7 of +an albuminous brown matter, which contains all the aroma of the bean; +10.91 of starch, 73/4 of gum or mucilage, 0.9 of lignine, and 2.01 of a +reddish dye-stuff, somewhat akin to the pigment of cochineal. The +husks form 12 per cent, of the weight of the beans. The fatty matter +is of the consistence of tallow, white, of a mild agreeable taste, and +not apt to turn rancid by keeping. It melts only at 112 degrees Fahr., +and should, therefore, make tolerable candles. It is obtained by +exposing the beans to strong pressure in canvas bags, after they have +been steamed or soaked in boiling water for some time. From five to +six ounces of butter may be thus obtained from a pound of cacao. It +has a reddish tinge when first expressed, but it becomes white by +boiling with water. + +The beans, being freed from all spoiled and mouldy portions, are to be +gently roasted over a fire in an iron cylinder, with holes in its ends +for allowing the vapors to escape, the apparatus being similar to a +coffee-roaster. When the aroma begins to be well developed, the +roasting is known to be finished, and the beans must be turned out, +cooled, and freed by fanning and sifting from their husks. The kernels +are then to be converted into a paste, either by trituration in a +mortar heated to 130 degrees Fahr., or by a powerful mill.[1] The +cacao tree resembles our dwarf apple tree both in body and branches, +but the leaf, which is of a dark green, is considerably broader and +larger. The nuts are of the color and about the size of an almond, and +hang eighteen to thirty together by a slender stringy film, enclosed +in a pod. A ripe pod is of a beautiful yellow, intermixed with crimson +streaks; when dried, it shrivels up and changes to a deep brown; the +juice squeezed from the mucilaginous pulp contained in the husks of +these nuts appears like cream, and has a very grateful taste of a +cordial quality. The nuts have a light pleasant smell, and an +unctuous, bitterish, roughish (not ungrateful) taste. Those of +Nicaragua and Caracas are the most agreeable and are the largest; +those of the French Antilles, and our own West India islands, are the +most unctuous. + +The Mexicans, in preparing the chocolate paste, add some long pepper, +a little annatto, and lastly vanilla; some add cinnamon, cloves and +anise, and those who love perfumes, musk and ambergris. + +The finest American cacao is said to be that of Soconusco, but the +principal imports are from Caracas and Guayaquil, which is of a very +good quality. The province of Barcelona, adjoining Caracas exports +annually from 200,000 to 300,000 cwt. + +The very large shipments from Guayaquil are shown by the following +return. Of this quantity Spain takes the largest portion, Mexico the +next, and England receives but a very small quantity. + +Cacao exported from Guayaquil:-- + + lbs. + 1833 6,605,786 + 1834 10,999,853 + 1835 13,800,851 + 1836 10,918,565 + 1837 8,520,121 + 1838 7,199,057 + 1839 12,169,787 + 1840 14,266,942 + +The exports of cacao from the port of La Guayra, has been as follows +in the years ending December 31. + + Fanegas. + 1850 40,181 + 1851 47,951 + 1852 54,083 + +Five fanegas are equal to one English quarter. The price of cacao was, +at the close of 1852, sixteen dollars the fanega. + +The province of Caracas, according to Humboldt, at the end of the last +century, produced annually 150,000 fanegas of cacao, of which +two-thirds were exported to Spain, and the remainder locally consumed. +The shipments from the port of La Guayra alone averaged 80,000 to +100,000, or nearly double the present shipments. In the early part of +the present century the captain-generalship of Caracas produced nearly +200,000 fanegas, of which about 145,000 were sent direct to Europe. +The province of Caracas then produced 150,000 fanegas; Maracaibo, +20,000; Cumana, 18,000, and New Barcelona, 5,000. + +The vallies of Aragua, in the province of Caracas, those of Cariaco, +Campano, of Rio Caribe and the banks of the river Caroni, in Spanish +Guiana, produce excellent cacao in abundance. + +The tree there bears fruit in four years after it has been planted, +the following year still more, and increases in fecundity until the +ninth or tenth year, when it is in full bearing. + +The banks of the Magdalena, in the vicinity of Santa Martha and +Carthagena, are famed for the excellent cacao they produce. "This +tree," says Bonnycastle (Spanish America, vol. 1, p. 257), "is +indigenous, seldom exceeds the diameter of seven inches, and is +extremely beautiful when laden with its fruit, which are disposed on +short stalks over the stem and round the great branches, resembling +citrons, from their yellow color, and warty appearance. The leaves are +attenuate, stalked, drooping, about a foot long and three inches +broad, elliptic, oblong, pointed, slightly wavy, entire, and very +smooth on both sides; with one mid-rib and many transverse ones, +connected by innumerable veins. The petals of the flower are yellow, +the calyx of a light rose-color, and the flowers themselves are small +and placed on tufts on the sides of the branches, with single +foot-stalks, about an inch long. Its fruit is red, or a mixture of red +and yellow, and about three inches in diameter, with a fleshy rind +half-an-inch thick; the pulp is whitish and of the consistence of +butter, containing the seed; these seeds are generally twenty-five in +number in each fruit, and when first gathered are of a flesh color, +and form a nice preserve if taken just before they are ripe. Each tree +yields about two or three pounds of fruit annually, and comes to +maturity the third year after planting from the seed; it also bears +leaves, flowers, or fruit all the year round, the usual seasons for +gathering being June and December. The excellence of the Magdalena +chocolate may be attributed to the moist nature of the soil, as the +plant never thrives where the ground is hard and dry, or cannot be +irrigated." + +_Mode of cultivation in the Colombian Republics_--Plantations of cacao +were speedily multiplied in Colombia, and the soil so admirably +seconded the labors of the planter, that in the produce abundance was +united to excellence. The cacao of this quarter ranks next to that of +Soconusco. It is well known that the best commercial recommendation of +cacao is that of coming from Caracas. But even in these provinces the +quality varies. The cacao of Orituco is superior to that of other +places, and a quantity of equal bulk weighs twenty per cent. more. The +cacao of the coast comes next, and obtains a preference over that of +the interior. + +The plantations of cacao are all to the north of the chain of +mountains which coast the sea, and in the interior country. The former +extend from Cumana to the mouth of the Tocaygo; the latter are situate +in the vallies of Tuy, Orituco, Ocumare, Cura, Marrin, Tare, Santa +Theresa, Santa Lucia, Zuapira, Santa Philippo, Barquisimeto, Valencia, +Gruige and Cariaco. + +All kinds of soil are not equally adapted to the culture of cacao, +still less are all exposures; but an analysis of the soil destined to +this culture never furnishes indications on which reliance can be +placed. No regard should be had to color or composition; it is only +requisite that it should be friable to a certain depth, which is +ascertained by the size of the trees with which it is covered; this +sign determines the land proper for cacao. + +A suitable situation is not so easily found. It should be exposed as +little as possible to the north, and be on the borders of a river, +which may communicate moisture to the soil in dry seasons, and +receive its drainings in times of rain. A preference is particularly +to be given to land which can receive from the river the benefits of +irrigation without being exposed to injury from its overflow. + +After having chosen the land, it should be cleared of all trees, +shrubs, and other plants. This operation is performed in various ways. +It is customary in Colombia to commence felling the trees immediately +after the rains, that is, about the month of November; the wood, after +being cut, is left to dry, then collected in heaps and burnt. + +As soon as the new plantation is cleared, it is crossed with small +ditches, in directions according to the declivity of the soil. These +serve to drain the stagnant waters, to carry off the rains, and to +irrigate or water the soil whenever necessary. The _alignement_ is +then laid out, in which the cacao trees are to be arranged. They are +planted in triangles or squares. In either case, there is always in +the centre an alley, bordered by cacao trees, and running from east to +west. When they are planted in squares, this alley is crossed by +another running from north to south. The cacao plants should be placed +at fifteen or sixteen feet (French measure) from each other, in good +soil; and about thirteen or fourteen feet in soil of inferior quality. + +This is almost the only tree in nature to which the enlivening beams +of the sun are obnoxious. It requires to be sheltered from their +ardour; and the mode of combining this protection with the principles +of fertility, forms a very essential part of the skill which its +cultivation demands. The cacao tree is mingled with other trees, which +guard it from the rays of the sun, without depriving it of the benefit +of their heat. The _Erythrina_ and the banana are employed for this +purpose. The latter, by the rapidity of its growth, and the magnitude +of its leaves, protect it for the first year. The erythrina endures at +least as long as the cacao; it is not every soil, however, that agrees +with it. It perishes after a while in sandy and clayey ground, but it +flourishes in such as combine those two ingredients. + +In the Antilles this protection cannot be given to cacao, as it would +expose the plantation to destruction by every hurricane. Besides, the +cacao succeeds but indifferently there, and is much less oily than in +other parts. + +The quality of the soil, and the species of the erythrina, should +determine the distance at which they ought to be placed. That kind +which the Spaniards call _bucare anaveo_, is planted in a fertile +soil, at the distance of two alleys, that is to say, at each second +range of cacao trees. That which they call _bucare peonio_, is placed +at three alleys in good soils (about forty-eight French feet). + +The former species of erythrina is that which elevates itself the +highest. The second species has many thorns, the upper surface of the +leaf is darker and the lower whiter. Both kinds should be cut in the +wane of the moon, and remain in the shade until its increase, at +which time they should be planted. It is much preferable, however, to +take them from a nursery. + +In one range of cacao trees a banana is placed between two cacaos, and +an erythrina between the two following. In the other range a banana is +placed between each cacao tree, and no erythrinas, so that the latter +are at the distance of two alleys. The banana and the erythrina are +first planted, and when a shelter from the sun is thus provided, the +hole for the cacao is made, around which are planted four stalks of +the yucca plant, at the distance of two feet from each other. At the +end of two months the cacao is planted. The smaller the plant is, the +better. There are, nevertheless, soils subject to worms where the +small plants do not thrive; but, excepting in this particular, the +small plants are preferable, because the large require more labor for +their transportation and planting; many of them die, and those which +survive bud and shoot forth, but are never of any value. + +The cacao plant should not exceed thirty-six inches in size when +transplanted; if larger, it succeeds with difficulty, as will be +shown. + +The nurseries of cacao demand an excellent soil, well prepared, where +the water does not remain. They should be well sheltered from the sun. +Small knolls of earth are formed, in each of which are put two seeds +of cacao, in such a manner that they are parallel with the level of +the ground. During the first twenty days the seeds are covered with +two layers of banana or other leaves. If necessary, the ground is +watered; but the water is not suffered to remain. The most suitable +time for sowing is in November. + +Where there is not a facility for watering, the planting of the cacao +should take place in the rainy season; but when the former is +practicable, it is best to plant in dry weather and assist nature by +irrigation, since it is then in the power of the cultivator to give +the exact quantity of moisture necessary. But, in all cases, care +should be taken that the plants are not wet in the interval between +their being taken out of the ground and replanted. + +When the bananas grow old, they should be carefully felled, lest the +cacaos should be injured by their accidental fall. They are totally +removed as soon as the erythrina yields sufficient shade; this +operation gives more air to the trees of the plantation, and +encourages their growth. + +Until the cacao attains four feet in height, it is trimmed to the +stem. If it shoots forth several branches, they are reduced to three, +at equal distances; and, in proportion as the plant increases, the +leaves which appear on the three branches are stripped off. If they +bend much, and incline towards the earth, they are tied in bunches, so +that the tree may not remain crooked. The branches, which are trimmed, +are cut at the distance of two fingers from the tree. The suckers +which spring from the tree are also removed, as they only live at its +expense. + +_Enemies of the tree_.--The cacao trees should, as already stated, +have sufficient shade to prevent their being burned by the sun. If +they are much exposed to its rays, their branches are scattered, +crack, and the tree dies. They are also infested with worms, which +gnaw the bark all around, then attack the interior and destroy them. +The only remedy which has hitherto been found, is to employ people to +kill these worms, which are deposited by a small, scaly winged insect, +which gnaws the tree; as soon as it hears the approach of its +destroyers, it lets itself fall, and trusts to its wings for safety. + +The color of this insect is a mixture of ash color and white. If +pressed, it emits a sound something similar to the noise of water +thrown on a very hot substance. It has two small horns on its head, +the points of which are directed upwards. It is so lively that, even +when the head is separated from the body, it is a long time in dying. +To deposit its progeny it makes small holes in the tree. + +At the commencement of the winter, or rainy season, another worm makes +its appearance, which devours the leaves of the young cacao plant. +This species of worm is called _goaseme_, and they are in some years +so abundant, that all the people of the plantation are solely employed +in destroying them. This worm is four inches in length, and of the +thickness of a finger. It is sometimes called _angaripola_, or Indian, +on account of the vivacity of its colors. It is believed that these +worms are mediately produced by other large worms in the earth, from +which are engendered butterflies, who lay their eggs on the leaves of +the cacao. These eggs are full of small worms, which feed on the +leaves of the cacao, and appear in clusters of the size of a shilling. +They are sought and destroyed with great attention, as they occasion +considerable damage. Those which escape lodge themselves in the earth, +and in the succeeding year are changed into butterflies. At the time +when the worm makes its appearance, it is necessary to make fires, +which should not be so large as to injure the cacao, yet sufficient to +attract and burn the butterfly. + +The plantations of cacao in the valley of Tuy, the quarters of Marrin, +Cuba, Sabana, Ocumare, San Francis, &c., are subject to another +species of worm called _rasquilla_. It multiplies in the dry seasons. + +There are small insects, called by the Spaniards _accerredores_, of +the same figure with those which eat the bark of the cacao, but larger +and of a blackish colour. They feed on the branches of the tree; are +always found upon those branches which they have cut; and the evil can +only be obviated by killing them. + +The worms called _vachacos_ occasion also much damage. They eat the +leaf and the flower. To destroy them it is necessary to seek them in +their nests in the earth. Water is thrown on the spot, and stirred, as +in making mortar. By this means their young are crushed, and the evil +is diminished, if it be not entirely removed. + +A parasitical plant often attaches itself to a branch of the cacao +tree which it covers over and causes to wither, by nourishing itself +with the substance of the plant. The only remedy is to remove it. + +When the cacao trees are in a bearing state, they are subject to a +disease called _tache_. This is a black taint, or stain, which attacks +the trees, encircling them below, and kills them. The mode of +preservation is to make, in the beginning, a slight notch that shall +pierce the bark. But if the taint is extensive, it is necessary to cut +all the affected part. It then exudes a liquid and is healed. The bark +remains of a violet color in the part that has been tainted. + +The other enemies of the cacao are the agouti, stag, squirrel, monkey, +&c. The agouti produces most havoc. It often destroys in one night all +the hopes of the proprietor. + +Birds are not less injurious to the cacao. The whole class of parrots, +in particular the great Ara, which destroys for the pleasure of +destroying, and, the parroquets, which come in numerous flocks, +conspire also to ruin the plantations of cacao. + +_Means of preserving a plantation_.--It is necessary that a cacao +plantation should have always shade and irrigation; the branches of +the plant should be cleared of the lichens that form on them; the +worms destroyed; and no large herbs or shrubs and mosses permitted to +grow near, since the least disadvantage resulting therefrom would be +the loss of all the fruit that should fall into these thickets. But it +is most essential to deepen the trenches which carry off the water, in +proportion as the plant increases in size, and as the roots of course +pierce deeper; for if the trenches are left at a depth of three feet, +while the roots are six feet in the earth, it follows that the lower +part of the cacao plant is in a situation of too great humidity, and +rots at the level of the water. This precaution contributes not only +to make the plantation more durable, but also to render the crop more +productive. It is necessary, also, to abstain from cutting any branch +from cacao plants that are already bearing. Such an operation might +occasion the subsequent crop to be stronger; but the plants become +enervated, and often perish, according to the quality of the soil and +the number of branches cut off. + +If the earth of the plantations be pressed and trampled down by +animals, the duration of the plant is diminished. Irrigation, made +with judgment, maintains them long in a state of produce. + +_Withering of the fruit._--The fruit of the cacao withers on the tree +from three causes:-- + +First.--When the plantation is, during a long time, inundated with +water. I have seen plantations of cacao, which had only been covered +with water thirty hours, and of which the fruit was totally withered. + +Second.--From abundant rains, particularly in very damp valleys. This +is only to be remedied by keeping the plantation well drained, that +the water may not remain on it. + +Third.--A want of necessary irrigation, and the watering of the +plantation under an ardent sun. The vapor from the earth kills the +fruit. If the rains are deficient for a time, and an excessive rain +succeeds, the fruit of the cacao also withers. + +This dessication or withering takes place everywhere; but in some +places the surplus of fruit, which the tree is unable to nourish, is +alone subject to it. In others, as Araquita and Caucagua, it withers +in proportion to the northerly rains. An unsuitable soil occasions +another kind of decay. The pods become stinted, containing some good +and some bad seeds. The Spaniards call this _cocosearse_, which means +defective. + +_Harvest of the cacao_.--The tree yields two principal crops in a +year, one about St. John's day, the other towards the end of December. +The cacao however ripens and is gathered during the whole year. But in +all seasons the planters of the Central American republics make it a +point, so far as possible, to collect their crops only at the decline +of the moon; because experience proves that this precaution renders +the cacao more solid, and less liable to spoil. + +To collect the fruit, those negroes and Indians are employed who have +the sharpest sight, that only the ripe fruit may be gathered. The most +robust and active are chosen to carry it to the places where the beans +are to be shaken out. The aged and maimed are employed to do this. The +operation is performed on a floor well swept, and covered with green +leaves, on which they place the cacao. Some open the pod, and others +strike out the beans with a small piece of wood, which must not be +sharp, lest it should injure them. + +The good and bad beans must not be mingled together. There are four +sorts of cacao in every crop; the ripe and in good condition, the +green but sound, the worm-eaten, and the rotten. The first quality is +best, the second is not bad; but the two others should be rejected. + +As soon as that which is not fully ripe begins to show specks, it must +be separated. As to the pods which are not perfectly ripe, they should +remain in heaps during three days under green banana leaves, that they +may ripen before they are hulled. When the cacao is stored, great care +is necessary not to leave amongst it pieces of the pod or leaves, or +any other excrementitious particles. This care must be repeated every +time that it is removed from the store, or replaced in it. + +The cacao must always be exposed to the sun on the fourth day after it +has been gathered, and this exposure should be daily repeated until it +is perfectly dry. When that is the case, the beans burst on being +squeezed, their shell resounds when struck, and they no longer become +heated when placed in heaps; the latter is the best proof that the +moisture injurious to their preservation is dissipated. If the cacao +is not sufficiently exposed to the sun, it becomes mouldy; if too +much, it withers, and easily pulverises--in either case it soon rots. + +When the quantity of cacao gathered is considerable, it is placed in +the sunshine by a hundred quintals at a time, unless the cultivator +has a sufficient number of persons employed to expose a greater +quantity. This operation is indispensable, to prevent it from becoming +mouldy. If the rains prevent this exposure to the sun, it is +necessary, as soon as it is sufficiently cleaned or purified, to +spread it in apartments, galleries, or halls, with which the +plantation must be provided; this operation cannot be delayed without +danger of losing the crop. + +It is to be wished that stoves were employed to dry the cacao when the +sun fails, but this expedient, so simple and important, is generally +unknown. + +It is almost universally believed that the most essential precautions +for preserving the cacao consists in gathering it at the decline of +the moon. I believe that they may more seriously calculate on the care +of depositing it in apartments so hermetically closed that the air +cannot penetrate; it would be advisable to make these apartments of +wood, for the more perfect exclusion of moisture. The floor should be +elevated two feet; under the floor a pan of coals is placed, covered +with a funnel, the point of which enters into the heap of cacao and +then diffuses the vapor. In the apartment which contains the cacao, +some persons place bottles of vinegar, slightly stopped with paper, to +prevent the formation of worms. + +The beans which begin to show specks, may be preserved from entire +corruption by a slight application of brine. This occasions a small +degree of fermentation, which is sufficient to destroy the worms, and +to preserve the cacao during a considerable time from new attacks. Why +is not this preservative also employed after the cacao is dried, and +when placed in the store, where it awaits the purchaser? + +At St. Philip they make use of smoke to preserve the cacao; it is also +ascertained that fine salt, thrown in small quantities on the cacao, +protects it from worms. + +Much has been done for the cacao when it has been cleared of all green +or dead beans, and extraneous substances; when it has received no +bruise or injury in the operation of drying, and when it has been +subsequently kept in a place that is dry and not exposed to the air; +yet, even with all these precautions, cacao of the best quality is +seldom found marketable at the end of a year. + +These circumstances sufficiently prove that the culture of cacao +requires attention more than science, vigilance rather than genius, +and assiduity in preference to theory. Choice of ground, distribution +and draining of the waters, position of the trees destined to shade +the cacao, are almost the only points which require more than common +intelligence. Less expense is also required for an establishment of +this kind than for any other of equal revenue. One able hand, as I +have already said, is sufficient for the preservation and harvest of a +thousand plants, each of which should yield at least one pound of +cacao, in ground of moderate quality, and a pound and a half in the +best soil. By an averaged calculation of twenty ounces to each plant, +the thousand plants must produce twelve hundred and fifty pounds, +which, at the ordinary price of 31s. 6d. per cwt., would produce about +L17 10s. per annum for each laborer. The expenses of the plantation, +including those of utensils, machines, and buildings, are also less +considerable for cacao than for any other produce. The delay of the +first crop, and the accidents peculiar to cacao, can alone diminish +the number of planters attached to its culture, and induce a +preference to other commodities. + +The cacao plant is not in a state of prolific produce till the eighth +year in the interior, and the ninth in plantations on the coast. Yet, +by a singularity which situation alone can explain, the crops of cacao +commence in the ninth year in the valley of Goapa, and at the east of +the mouth of the Tuy. In the vicinity of the line, and on the banks of +Rio-Negro, the plantations are in full produce on the fourth, or at +most the fifth year. + +The cacao tree continues productive to the age of fifty years on the +coast, and thirty years in the interior of the country. + +In general the culture and preparation of cacao receives more +attention in the eastern parts of Venezuela than in other places, and +even than in the French colonies. It is true that the suitability of +the soil contributes much to the quality of the article; but without +the assistance derived from art, it would be far from possessing that +superiority awarded to it by commerce over the cacao of every other +country. + +Stevenson ("Travels in South America") speaks of another kind of cacao +tree, called moracumba, which is larger than the ordinary species, and +grows wild in the woods. The beans under the brown husk are composed +of a white, solid matter, almost like a lump of hard tallow. The +natives take a quantity of these, and pass a piece of slender cane +through them, and roast them, when they have the delicate flavour of +the cacao. + +There are several cacao plantations in Surinam. The trees are left to +grow their natural height, which is about that of a cherry-tree; their +leaves resemble those of the broad-leaved laurel, and are of a dark +green colour. The fruit in shape resembles a lemon, but is rather more +oval; it is at first green, and, when ripe, yellow. It is said that +there are some trees which produce above two hundred, each containing +about twenty beans or nuts. The fruit not only proceeds from the +branches, but even from the stem; and though there is always ripe and +unripe fruit, it is only gathered twice a year. The chocolate is in +that colony in general of an inferior quality, known by its dark brown +color and rough taste, but the superiority of the cacao depends +principally on the soil where the trees are planted.--(Baron Von +Sack's "Surinam.") + +My friend, Sir R. Schomburgk, in his "Description of British Guiana," +says--"While we crossed from the river Berbice to the Essequibo, we +met a number of chocolate nut trees, near the abandoned Caribi +settlement of Primoss. It is not to be doubted that the trees were +originally planted by the Indians, but from their number and the +distance from the river, I judged they were propagated by nature. +Though they were overshadowed by larger trees, and had for many years +been neglected, they had reached nevertheless a height of from thirty +to forty feet, and the luxuriant growth and the abundance of fruit, +proved that the plant was satisfied with the soil. The forests at the +banks of the Rio Branco, in the vicinity of Santa Maria and Carno, +abound in wild cacao trees, the fruits of which are collected by the +scanty population of that district for their own use." + +The cultivation of cacao will be most suitable to the less wealthy +individual, as it demands so little labor and outlay. Baron Humboldt +observes, in alluding to Spanish America, that cacao plantations are +occupied by persons of humble condition, who prepare for themselves +and their children a slow but certain fortune; a single laborer is +sufficient to aid them in their plantations, and 30,000 trees, once +established, assure competence for a generation and a half. + +The following have been the total imports of Cacao into the United +Kingdom from Mexico and Central America, &c.:-- + + lbs. + 1832 85,642 + 1834 16,171 + 1835 211 + 1836 861,531 + 1837 564,992 + 1838 1,681,965 + 1839 508,307 + 1840 1,058,015 + 1841 1,802,547 + 1842 441,084 + 1843 1,229,515 + (Parl. Paper, No. 426, Sess. 1844.) + +Only a few hundred pounds of this is entered annually for home +consumption, the great bulk being re-exported. + +In 1850 we imported 1,204,572 lbs. from Mexico; 1,231,773 lbs. from +Chile; 4,438 lbs. from Venezuela, and 23,538 lbs. from Hayti. + +BRAZIL.--A great deal of cacao is raised in different parts of this +empire. From the province of Para alone 35,000 bags, valued at +L35,000, were exported in the year 1845. Mr. Edwards, in his "Voyage +up the River Amazon," gives an interesting account:-- + + "We were now (he says) in the great cacao region, which, for an + extent of several hundred square miles, borders the river. The cacao + trees are low, not rising above fifteen or twenty feet, and are + distinguishable from a distance by the yellowish green of their + leaves, so different from aught else around them. They are planted + at intervals of about twelve feet, and, at first, are protected from + the sun's fierceness by banana trees, which, with their broad + leaves, form a complete shelter. Three years after planting the + trees yield, and therefore require little attention, or, rather, + receive not any. From an idea that the sun is injurious to the + berry, the tree-tops are suffered to mat together until the whole + becomes dense as thatch-work. The sun never penetrates this, and the + ground below is constantly wet. The trunk of the tree grows + irregularly, without beauty, although perhaps by careful training it + might be made as graceful as an apple tree. The leaf is thin, much + resembling our beech, excepting that it is smooth-edged. The flower + is very small, and the berry grows direct from the trunk or + branches. It is eight inches in length, five in diameter, and shaped + much like a rounded double cone. When ripe, it turns from light + green to a deep yellow, and at that time ornaments the tree finely. + Within the berry is a white acid pulp, and embedded in this are from + thirty to forty seeds, an inch in length, narrow and flat. These + seeds are the cacao of commerce. When the berries are ripe, they are + collected into great piles near the house, are cut open with a + tresado, and the seeds, squeezed carelessly from the pulp, are + spread upon mats to dry in the sun. Before being half dried they are + loaded into canoes in bulk, and transmitted to Para. Some of these + vessels will carry four thousand arrobas, of thirty-two pounds + weight each, and, as if such a bulk of damp produce would not + sufficiently spoil itself by its own steaming during a twenty days' + voyage, the captains are in the habit of throwing upon it great + quantities of water, to prevent its loss of weight. As might be + expected, when they arrive at Para it is little more than a heap of + mould, and it is then little wonder that Para cacao is considered + the most inferior in foreign markets. Cacao is very little drunk + throughout the province, and in the city we never saw it except at + the cafes. It is a delicious drink when properly prepared, and one + soon loses relish for that nasty compound known in the States as + chocolate, whose main ingredients are damaged rice and soap fat. The + cacao trees yield two crops annually, and, excepting in harvest + time, the proprietors have nothing to do but lounge in their + hammocks. Most of these people are in debt to traders in Santarem, + who trust them to an unlimited extent, taking a lien upon their + crops. Sometimes the plantations are of vast extent, and one can + walk for miles along the river, from one to another, as freely as + through an orchard. No doubt a scientific cultivator might make the + raising of cacao very profitable, and elevate its quality to that of + Guyaquil." + +Cacao shipped from Brazil to the United Kingdom, for nine years, +ending 1835:-- + + lbs. + 1827 3,992,449 + 1828 1,174,168 + 1829 2,442,456 + 1830 1,308,694 + 1831 1,716,614 + 1832 2,198,709 + 1833 2,402,803 + 1834 1,591,600 + 1835 1,678,769 + +_Cultivation in the West India Islands_.--The only English colonies +where this nutritious and wholesome substance is now cultivated to any +extent, are Trinidad, St. Lucia, Grenada, and St. Vincent. + +In Jamaica and British Guiana it has given place to the production of +sugar, and though it forms such an important article in the imports +and consumption of the United Kingdom, the quantity introduced from +British plantations is barely equal to the demand. The imports from +Jamaica in 1831 were 6,684 lbs., and in 1838, 16,564 lbs.; while the +imports since have been merely nominal. Of 5,014,681 lbs. imported in +1841, 2,920,298 lbs. were furnished by the British West Indian +colonies, 1,802,547 lbs. came from the Colombian republics, and +269,794 lbs. were brought from Brazil. Trinidad furnishes by far the +largest proportion of the West Indian supplies, the imports from +thence in 1841 having been 2,500,000 lbs., while the imports from all +the other islands were but 427,000 lbs. In 1850, 4,750,000 lbs. were +shipped from Trinidad, whilst in 1851 the quantity was nearly as much. + +Trinidad.--Although this tree is indigenous to many, if not most of +the tropical parts of America, it was first extensively cultivated in +Mexico; and it is remarkable that the words cacao and chocolate are +both of Mexican origin. From Mexico the variety called Creole cacao it +is supposed was transplanted to the West India colonies; that variety +called Forastero (stranger) came from the Brazils. The latter tree is +the most productive, but the former gives the best fruit, insomuch +that few persons now plant the Forastero cacao. There are two or +three indigenous species found growing wild in the forests of +Trinidad, viz., _T. Sylvestris cacao_, _T. Guianensis_, and another +sort. + +There are few, perhaps no agricultural or horticultural pursuits, so +delightful (observes Mr. Joseph, in his "History of Trinidad,") as +that of the cultivation of the cacao. It is planted in rows, +intersecting each other at right angles, at the distance of from +twelve to fifteen feet, according to the nature of the soil. The tree +is not suffered to grow higher than about fifteen feet, and its broad +rich foliage, the hues of which vary from a light green to a dark red, +loaded with yellow and dark red pods, which contain the chocolate +bean, are beautiful objects; these alleys are shaded by rows of +magnificent trees, called _Bois Immortel_ by the French and English, +by the Spaniards the Madre de Cacao. It is the _Erythrina umbrosa_ or +_arborea_ of Linnaeus. Like the Bignonia or Pouie, this tree, at +particular seasons, throws off its foliage and is covered with +blossoms; those of the Erythrina are of a brilliant red color, +justifying its Greek appellation. In this state they are literally +dazzling to behold--no object in the vegetable world looks more +striking than the alleys of a cacao walk shaded by a forest above them +of the Bois Immortel. + +I have been obligingly furnished by Mr. W. Purdie, the able Government +botanist of Trinidad, with a short essay upon the cultivation of the +cacao tree, with which many of the valleys of that island are so +beautifully adorned, and which, at one time, poured into that now +unfortunate colony so large a stream of wealth. Fortunately the cacao +planter of the island has managed to survive the many years of +depression under which--like sugar now--the cacao cultivations +lingered and sunk, and which brought the once wealthy planter down to +poverty and misery. His prospects, however, are gradually improving. + +The opinions put forth by Mr. Purdie, on the subject of which he +treats, will be found to run counter to the long-established practice +hitherto pursued in the treatment of cacao plantations; but it must +not be forgotten that these are the opinions of a person with whom the +study of trees, their physiology and functions, has been not merely an +amusing science, but an adopted employment, and whose acquirements in +this respect, previous to his arrival in the colony, recommended him +for selection as the agent to extend through South America (the great +cacao region) the investigations of one of the most noted botanical +gardens in Europe. + +Mr. Purdie says:-- + + "In the present depressed times, it behoves us to look well into the + resources of our fertile island, particularly as far as any + improvement can be suggested capable of averting, at least, a part + of the misery and ruin that is hovering over us, and which is too + eagerly borne on the lips of all classes of the community, instead + of using our efforts to do what we can to meet the difficulty; but + few seem to inquire whether we make the most of our present means or + not, whilst every one rather joins in the cry that sugar fetches + little or nothing, and it is no uncommon thing to hear the complaint + transferred from sugar to cacao. + + It is but too true that the markets are at present lamentably + against the most important branch of our industry, under the present + manner of sugar cultivation and manufacture in this island. But it + can hardly be admitted that the same is the case in that of + cacao--also a very important branch of our agriculture. + + My attention has been lately directed to the average produce per + tree, which will, I hope, throw some light on its cultivation. From + fifteen cacao trees, which are all there are at St. Ann's, I have + this year gathered 115 lbs. of cacoa (dried), and at present there + is at least 50 lbs. more ripe on the same trees. This gives 165 lbs. + of cacao from fifteen trees, or 11 lbs. per tree. These cannot be + considered fine trees; on the contrary, they are what would be + considered ordinary ones; therefore the average in this case is + fair, and differs materially from selecting the produce of fifteen + trees from a large plantation, and giving the average return of what + might be obtained from cacao cultivation. Last year these trees did + not average more than 2 lbs. per tree, and I attribute the increase + of crop to the thinning out of both the cacao and shade trees. + + In a former letter to the cacao-planters of Trinidad, I recommended + twenty-four to thirty feet from tree to tree as the proper distance; + but so as to meet the feelings of those who, unfortunately for + themselves, consider every cacao tree cut down a sacrifice, I + propose that the trees be thinned out to twenty-four feet, and that, + at intervals of twenty rows at most, avenues of fifty feet in both + directions should be left. After this, it will be better seen what + may be necessary to be done to each individual tree; neither should + the shade trees be forgotten; as a general rule, they are + prejudicially thick. + + By attending to this, I am quite satisfied that a very material + increase in the produce will be seen; indeed, I may say that on this + depends the chief difference of 11/4 lb. and 11 lbs. per tree; for I + consider it a very fair inference, that the average obtained here + can be realised in any other place in this island, and to any + extent, under the same circumstances of light and air, unless on + very poor soil, of which we fortunately have but little. + + At twenty-four feet apart there would be seventy-five trees per + acre, or 250 per quarree. This, at 11 lbs. per tree, gives 2,750 + lbs. of dried cacao per quarree, at 5 dollars per 100 lbs., gives + 137 dollars 50 cents gross; deducting 80 dollars per quarree + expenses, leaves 57 dollars 60 cents net profit. Thus an estate of + 120 acres, or 36 quarrees, would contain 9,000 trees, at 11 lbs. per + tree will give 33,000 lbs. of cacao, at 5 dollars gives 4,350 + dollars gross per annum; deducting 80 dollars per quarree (a much + more liberal sum than is at present laid out), leaves a net balance + of 1,950 dollars, or 16 dollars 25 cents per acre. + + Now this, it must be remembered, would be the produce from 9,000 + trees, and from an estate containing only 36 quarrees of land (which + cannot be considered a large one); what, then, might be expected + from estates containing 40,000 trees? + + I have been recently favoured with the following average return of + cacao in this island, which I have no doubt will be considered a + fair one. I insert it in full, and, from the very low return, it + shows a lamentable deficiency in the cultivation of this most + grateful tree:-- + + 'The average number of cacoa trees in a quarree of land is 868. + + '1st. The estates throughout the island are generally planted at a + distance of 12 feet by 12, and 131/2 feet by 131/2. Those planted at 12 + by 12 contain 969 trees in the quarree, and those at 131/2 by 131/2 + contain 767 trees, the area of the quarree being taken at 139,697 + superficial feet. There may be in the island about 60 quarrees in + all, planted at 15 by 15 feet. + + '2nd. The actual annual value of a quarree of land planted in cacoa + is ten fanegas, or 11/4 lb. to a tree. + + 'It is to be observed that this is the general return from each tree + as estates are now cultivated, but if planters had the means of + keeping their estates in high cultivation, each cacoa tree would + produce 2 lbs. on an average. + + '3rd. The annual average cost of cultivating a quarree in cacao, and + manufacturing the produce therefrom, is 35 dollars, in the imperfect + manner it is carried on at present, thereby giving only 10 fanegas + per quarree.' + + I believe there are many estates in the island where the average + distance is less than 12 by 12; however, to give the present mode + the full benefit of the return, I will adopt, for comparison's sake, + the maximum number of trees; so that 960 trees per quarree, at l1/4 + lb. per tree, gives 1,211 lbs. of cacao, at 5 dollars per 100 lbs. + is worth 60 dollars,[2] gross return per quarree; deducting 36 + dollars, not 80 dollars, for expenses, which leaves 24 dollars per + quarree net, or about 7 dollars 75 cents per acre. + + This is a startling account from lands among the most fertile in the + world, and from a plant, under fair treatment, next to the sugar + cane, perhaps the most grateful for the care bestowed, more + especially when we consider that more than ten times that quantity + might be obtained with a comparatively insignificant _outlay of + money_. + + If such, then, be the case, as stated in the above report (and it is + to be regretted that it is too near the truth), apathy on the part + of those whose interests are so much concerned is unwarrantable. It + is not enough to say that our fathers must have known the proper way + to plant cacao; this is but a lame excuse, and not sufficient to + dispense with any exertions of the present generation, beyond merely + collecting whatever fruit may come, as it were, fortuitously. + Moreover, at the time the present cacao plantations were established + in this island, its cultivation was comparatively little known; it + is therefore likely that they might have erred, as they undoubtedly + did, in cramming them so close together; but notwithstanding this, + by a proper system of thinning, the evils might have been easily + obviated, and large crops ensured. + + A few mornings ago, a cacao planter from Santa Cruz called on me, + and in conversation stated that the only place where he had anything + like a crop of cacao at present, was where the hurricane of the 11th + of October had devastated his estate most severely, and which he at + that time considered a ruinous visitation. I hope the lesson will + not be lost on him. + + In Jamaica it is found necessary to prune the coffee trees yearly, + which is done with as much care as gooseberry or currant bushes in + England; but, notwithstanding this, I remember a friend of mine in + Jamaica telling me of the extraordinary difference on his coffee + plantation under the management of a person who understood and + attended more particularly to the pruning of his trees. + + Lunan, in his 'Hortus Jamaicensis,' published in 1814, gives a very + elaborate article on the cacao, although its cultivation was almost + extinct in his day in that island. He, however, appears to have + derived his information chiefly from Blume, who wrote a short + account of Jamaica, in 1672, at which time cacao was the chief + export of the island. Lunan attributes its downfall to heavy + ministerial exaction, which was then, he says, upwards of 480 per + cent. on its marketable value. Speaking of the average weight of + cacao per tree, he has the following:--'The produce of one tree is + generally estimated at about 20 lbs. of nuts. The produce per acre + in Jamaica has been rated at 1,000 lbs. weight per annum, allowing + for bad years. In poor soils, and under bad management, the produce + of the tree rarely exceeds 8 lbs. weight.' He also says--'When the + cacao plants are six months old, the planter from this period must + not be too fond of cleaning the plantation from grass and herbage, + because they keep the ground cool; but all creeping, climbing + plants, and such weeds as grow high enough to overtop the cacao, + should be destroyed.' He gives the distance from tree to tree at 18 + feet. I have long since been of opinion that it is of less + consequence to clean the ground beneath the trees than to attend to + the top-pruning of the shade trees, as well as to the cacao + (although the former is very desirable, it is nevertheless a + subordinate consideration). Under the present mode of cultivation + the ground-cleaning is the only one at all attended to, and that + badly. + + A very important economy might also be made in the curing of the + cacao, by which much time would be saved, and consequently expense, + by adopting the same method as is used in Jamaica for drying coffee, + namely, floorings of cement, or, as they are called, barbecues. At + convenient distances in the centre of these floorings (which are + inclined planes) a slightly-raised circular ridge is formed with + cement, leaving an aperture at the lower side to allow the escape of + any water that may have lodged in them. The cacao is easily brought + together in these places in the event of rain, and at night covered + with portable wooden frames, which are readily removed by two men. + In this way the cacao would be dried in a fifth of the time much + more effectually, and of a brighter colour. + + Any experiments tending to bring about a proper system of + cultivation and manufacture of cacao, must be beneficial to the + island, as well as to individuals; for it cannot be denied that the + cultivation of cacoa will still prove advantageous in proportion to + the care bestowed on it. Indeed its cultivation is at present + languishing, not so much from inadequate prices, as from a want of + proper attention to its cultivation." + +In 1796, there were sixty plantations in Trinidad, which produced +96,000 lbs. In 1802 the plantations were reduced to fifty-seven, the +yield being about the same. In 1807, 355,000 lbs. of cacao were grown. +In 1831, there were 2,972 quarrees (each three acres and one-fifth +English) under cultivation in Trinidad with cacao, on which were +2,464,426 trees, which produced a crop of 1,479,568 lbs. In 1841 there +were 6,910 acres planted with cacao. + +The following have been the exports from this island from 1821 to +1844:-- + + lbs. + 1821 1,214,093 + 1822 1,780,379 + 1823 2,424,703 + 1824 2,661,628 + 1825 2,760,603 + 1826 2,951,171 + 1827 3,696,144 + 1828 2,582,323 + 1829 2,756,603 + 1830 1,646,531 + 1831 1,888,852 + 1832 1,530,990 + 1833 3,090,526 + 1834 3,363,630 + 1835 2,744,643 + 1836 3,188,870 + 1837 2,507,483 + 1838 2,571,915 + 1839 2,914,068 + 1840 2,007,494 + 1841 2,493,302 + 1842 2,163,798 + 1843 1,099,975 + (Mill's Trinidad Almanac). + +In a lecture delivered by Dr. Lindley before the Society of Arts, +alluding to the colonial products shown, at the Great Exhibition, he +said:-- + + "There was one sample which ought to be mentioned most especially; + namely, the cocoa of admirable quality which comes, or which may + come, from Trinidad. Cocoa--cacao, as we should call it--is an + article of very large consumption. Enormous quantities of it are now + used in the navy; and every one knows how much it is employed daily + in private life. It is, moreover, the basis of chocolate. But we + have the evidence of one of the most skilful brokers in London, who + has had forty years experience to enable him to speak to the + fact--that we never get good cocoa in this country. The consequence + is, that all the best chocolate is made in Spain, in France, and the + countries where the fine description of cocoa goes. We get here + cocoa which is unripe, flinty, and bitter, having undergone changes + that cause it to bear a very low price in the market. But it comes + from British possessions, and is, therefore, sold here subject to a + duty of only 18s. 8d. per cwt., whereas if it came from a foreign + country it would pay 56s.[3] The differential duty drives the best + cocoa out of the English market. Still it appears that we might + supply, from our own colonies, this very cocoa; because, as I have + said, there was exhibited, from Trinidad, a very beautiful sample, + quite equal to anything produced in the best markets of the + Magdalena, of Soconusco, or of other places on the Spanish main. It + had no bitterness, no flintiness, no damaged grain in it; but all + were plump and ripe, as if they had been picked. The cocoa from the + Spanish main goes into other countries, for the preparation of that + delicious chocolate which we buy of them. It is thrown out of our + market by the differential duty. But it is their own fault if our + own colonies do not produce fine cocoa, as Trinidad has conclusively + proved." + +The exports of cacao from St. Lucia, where there are now 300 acres +under cultivation, have been as follows:[4]--I have also added the +produce of St. Vincent and Grenada imported here:-- + + Grenada. St. Lucia. St. Vincent. + lbs. lbs. lbs. + + 1828 75,275 17,384 + 1829 300,051 93,793 12,216 + 1830 337,901 153,340 9,989 + 1831 368,882 98,090 7,861 + 1832 196,195 51,925 538 + 1833 312,446 91,048 1,005 + 1834 349,367 60,620 2,197 + 1835 276,359 49,218 5,876 + 1836 307,236 47,950 7,721 + 1837 351,613 48,591 2,525 + 1838 426,626 38,590 6,588 + 1839 327,497 54,639 760 + 1840 269,680 82,293 3,956 + 1841 372,008 78,225 3,874 + 1842 280,679 55,175 7,268 + 1843 296,269 48,279 55,867 + 1844 544,253 65,667 8,304 + 1845 342,092 31,000 6,450 + 1850 609,911 1,372 8,642 + 1852 604,299 9,428 5,287 + +A little cacao is now grown in Antigua, about 19,000 lbs. having been +exported from that island in 1843, and 2,000 in 1846. + +Dominica and British Guiana produce small quantities; our imports from +these quarters having been as follows:-- + + Dominica. Demerara. + lbs. lbs. + 1833 8,808 2,051 + 1834 4,767 86 + 1835 685 126 + 1836 279 1,121 + 1837 1,896 522 + 1838 1,054 + 1839 1,127 58 + 1840 2,366 2,376 + 1841 4,014 129 + 1842 667 98 + 1843 4,614 4,178 + 1844 1,746 10,209 + 1845 5,444 + +The cultivation of cacao in Cuba is of comparatively recent +introduction, but it is expected to increase, and, in some degree, to +supply the place of coffee, which is evidently on the decline there. +In 1827, the gross produce of Cuba amounted to 23,806 arrobas, and the +exports to 19,053. In the same year, 15,3013/4 arrobas were imported, so +that at that period the production was not adequate to the +consumption. The expectation of a great increase of production seems +not to have been realized, as the exports of cacao in 1837 were only +5871/4 arrobas, while the imports amounted to 40,8371/2 arrobas. + +There are now about sixty-nine cacao plantations in that island, +almost exclusively situate in the central and oriental departments, +which produced, in 1849, 3,836 arrobas, valued at 19,180 dollars. + +Hayti exported, in 1801, 648,518 lbs. of cacao; in 1826, 457,592 lbs., +and in 1836, 550,484 lbs. + +The French island of Martinique produces a considerable quantity of +cacao. In 1763, there were stated to be 103,870 trees in bearing. The +produce exported in 1769 was 11,731 quintals. In 1770 there were +871,043 trees. In 1820 there were 412 square acres under cultivation +with cacao, producing 449,492 lbs.; and in 1835, 492 hectares, which +yielded 155,300 kilogrammes. I have no later returns at hand. + +The beverage generally called _cocoa_ is merely the berries of +_Theobroma Cacao_, pounded and drank either with water or milk, or +with both. _Chocolate_ (of which I shall speak by and bye) is a +compound drink, and is manufactured chiefly from the kernels of this +plant, whose natural habitat would seem to be Guayaquil, in South +America, though it flourishes in great perfection in the West Indies. +It grows also spontaneously and luxuriantly on the banks of the +Magdalena, in South America; but the fruit of those trees that are +found in the district of Carthagena is preferred to all others, +probably from a superior mode of cultivation. Sir R. Schomburgk, in +his expedition into the interior of British Guiana, found the country +abounding in cacao, "which the Indians were most anxious to secure, as +the pulpy arillus surrounding the seed has an agreeable vinous taste." +Singular to say, however, they appeared perfectly ignorant of the +qualities of the seed, which possesses the most delightful aroma. Sir +Robert adds, they evinced the greatest astonishment when they beheld +him and Mr. Goodall collecting these seeds and using them as +chocolate, which was the most delicious they had ever tasted. These +indigenous cacao trees were met with in innumerable quantities on the +5th of June, 1843, and the following day; and thus inexhaustible +stores of a highly-prized luxury are here reaped solely by the wild +hog, the agouti, monkeys, and the rats of the interior.--(Simmonds's +Col. Mag. vol. i., p. 41.) + +The height of the cacao shrub is generally from eighteen to twenty +feet; the leaf is between four and six inches long, and its breadth +three or four, very smooth, and terminating in a point like that of +the orange tree, but differing from it in color; of a dull green, +without gloss, and not so thickly set upon the branches. The blossom +is first white, then reddish, and contains the rudiments of the +kernels or berries. When fully developed, the pericarp or seed-vessel +is a pod, which grows not only from the branches, but the stem of the +tree, and is from six to seven inches in length, and shaped like a +cucumber. Its color is green when growing, like that of the leaf; but +when ripe, is yellow, smooth, clear, and thin. When arrived at its +full growth, and before it is ripe, it is gathered and eaten like any +other fruit, the taste being subacid. If allowed to ripen, the kernels +become hard; and, when taken out of the seed-vessel, are preserved in +skins, or, more frequently, laid on the vijahua leaves, and placed in +the air to dry. When fully dry, they are put in leathern bags, and +sent to market: this is the Spanish mode of taking in the crop. A +somewhat different method is followed in Trinidad and Jamaica (in the +latter island it can scarcely be said to be cultivated now); but it +differs in no essential degree from the principle of gradual +exsiccation, and protection from moisture. + +_Chocolate_, properly so called, and so prized both in the Spanish +continent and in the West Indies, never reaches Great Britain except +as a contraband article, being, like nearly all colonial manufactured +articles, prohibited by the Custom-house laws. What is generally drank +under that name is simply the cacao boiled in milk, gruel, or even +water, and is as much like the Spanish or West India chocolate as +vinegar is to Burgundy. It is, without any exception, of all domestic +drinks the most alimentary; and the Spaniards esteem it so necessary +to the health and support of the body, that it is considered the +severest punishment to withhold it, even from criminals; nay, to be +unable to procure chocolate, is deemed the greatest misfortune in +life! Yet, notwithstanding this estimation in which it is held, the +quantity made in the neighbourhood of Carthagena is insufficient for +the demands of the population, and is so highly priced that none is +exported but as presents! The manner in which the Spaniards first +manufactured this veritable Theobroma--this food for gods (from +_Theos_, God, and _broma_, food)--was very simple. They employed the +cacao, maize, Indian corn (_Zea Mays_), and raw cane-juice, and +coloured it with arnatto, which they called _achiotti_ or _rocou_, but +which was known in Europe at that time by the name of _Terra +Orellana_. These four substances were levigated between two stones, +and afterwards, in certain proportions, mixed together in one mass, +which mass was subsequently divided into little cakes, and used as +required, both in the solid and fluid form. + +The Indians used one pound of the wasted nuts, half a pound of sugar, +and half a pound of ground corn (maize) each, and then added +rose-water to make it palatable. This the Mexicans called chocolate, +from two words in their language, signifying the noise made by the +instruments used to mill and prepare it in the water. Many other +ingredients were subsequently added; but with the exception of +Vanilla, in the opinions of most persons, they spoil, rather than +improve it. Chocolate, as used in Mexico, is thus prepared: --The +kernels are roasted in an iron pot pierced with holes; they are then +pounded in a mortar, and afterwards ground between two stones, +generally of marble, till it is brought to a paste, to which sugar is +added, according to the taste of the manufacturer. From time to time, +as the paste assumes consistency, they add long pepper, arnatto, and +lastly, vanilla. Some manufacturers vary these ingredients, and +substitute cinnamon, cloves, or aniseed, and sometimes musk and +ambergris--the two latter on account of their aphrodisiac qualities. +The following is the formula given by a late writer:--To six pounds of +the nut add three-and-a-half pounds of sugar, seven pods of vanilla, +one-and-a-half pounds of corn meal (maize ground), half-a-pound of +cinnamon, six cloves, one drachm of capsicums (bird pepper), and as +much of the rocou or arnatto as is sufficient to color it, together +with ambergris or musk, to enforce (as he says) the flavor, but in +reality to stimulate the system. There is another chocolate made of +filberts and almonds, but this is not considered genuine. In old Spain +it is somewhat differently made; two or three kinds of flowers, also +the pods of Campeche, almonds, and hazel-nuts, being mixed up with it, +while the paste is worked with orange-water. + +With regard to the manner in which chocolate is prepared in England +nothing need be said, as it is too well known to require description. +That which has appeared to me the best is "_Fry's Chocolate_," which +requires only to be rubbed up with a little boiling water, and scalded +milk added to it with sugar, according to the taste of the drinker; +there is a flavour, however, in this chocolate sometimes of _suet_, +which is probably added to give it a richness which the cacao employed +may not possess of itself. In the West Indies they rarely add anything +to cacoa but arnatto (sometimes a little fresh butter), though it is +often scented and sweetened, and sold in little rolls at five-pence +and ten-pence each, currency. It is always boiled with milk, which, +though very indigestible when boiled and taken alone, seems to lose +this quality when taken with chocolate. Chocolate thus made is much +drank, when cold, in the middle of the day, and is considered, both by +the negroes and the old settlers, as a most nutritive and salutary +beverage. + +The signs by which _good chocolate_ or cacao is known are these:--It +should dissolve entirely in water, and be without sediment; it should +be oily, and yet melt in the mouth; and if genuine, and carefully +prepared, should deposit no grits or grounds. That made in the West +Indies, and in some parts of Cuba, is dark; but that manufactured in +Jamaica is of a bright brick colour, owing to the greater quantity of +arnatto which is used in the preparation, and which, I think, gives it +a richer and more agreeable flavor. + +In an economical point of view, chocolate is a very important article +of diet, as it may be literally termed meat and drink; and were our +half-starved artisans, over-wrought factory children, and ricketty +millinery girls, induced to drink it instead of the innutritious +beverage called "tea," its nutritive qualities would soon develop +themselves in their improved looks and more robust constitution. The +price, too, is in its favour, cacao being eight-pence per pound; while +the cheapest black tea, such as even the Chinese beggar would despise, +drank by milliners, washerwomen, and the poorer class in the +metropolis, is three shillings a pound, or three hundred and fifty per +cent, dearer, while it is decidedly injurious to health. + +The heads of the naval and military medical departments in England +have been so impressed with the wholesomeness and superior nutriment +of cocao, that they have judiciously directed that it shall be served +out twice or thrice a week to regiments of the line, and daily to the +seamen on board Her Majesty's ships, and this wise regulation has +evinced its salutary effects in the improved health and condition of +the men. Indeed, this has been most satisfactorily established in +Jamaica among the troops; and the same may be asserted of the seamen +in men of war on the coast. + +But the excellent qualities of chocolate were known not only to the +Mexicans and Peruvians, from whom, as a matter of course, the +Spaniards acquired a knowledge of its properties; but European nations +also acknowledged its virtues. The Portuguese, French, Germans, and +Dutch, considered it an exceedingly valuable article of diet, and +Hoffman looked upon it both as a food and a medicine. In his +monograph, entitled _Potus Chocolati_, he recommends it in all +diseases of general weakness, macies, low spirits, and in +hypochondrial complaints, and what since his time have been termed +nervous diseases. As one example of the good effects of cacao, he +adduces the case of Cardinal Richelieu, who was cured of eramacausis, +or a general wasting away of the body, by drinking chocolate.[5] And +Edwards informs us that Colonel Montague James--the first white +person born in Jamaica after the occupation of the island by the +English--lived to the great age of 104; and for the last thirty years +of his life took scarcely any other food but chocolate. It is also +certain that those who indulge in excesses find their vigor more +speedily restored by the alternate use of chocolate and coffee than by +any other ingesta; and pigs, goats, and horses, which are fed even on +the spoiled berries, are observed to become very speedily fat, and in +good condition. + +But cacao has not only the property of rapidly restoring the invalid +to health, strength, and condition, but a very inconsiderable quantity +of it will sustain life for a long period. The South American Indians +perform extraordinary journeys, subsisting, daring these prolonged +travels, on an incredibly small quantity of chocolate--so small, +indeed, as to render the accounts of travellers upon the subject +almost marvellous. In this respect it resembles coffee, which also +possesses the estimable property of sustaining the powers of life, +while it modifies and restrains the passion of hunger. + +It is a curious fact, and how far this condition may be connected with +its powers of sustenance is worthy of inquiry, that chocolate recently +boiled, if the operation be performed in a tin pan, is highly +electrical; and this property may be frequently manifested by +repeating the process. + +Cacao, according to Bridges, "was the favourite staple of the Spanish +commerce, trifling as that commerce was; and when the English took +possession of the island of Jamaica, it was that which first engaged +their attention. The extensive plantations left by their predecessors, +who had made it their principal food and only support, soon, however, +began to fail. They were renewed; but whether it might be from the +want of attention, or of information in the new colonists, the plants +never succeeded under their management; so that, disgusted with the +troublesome and unprofitable cultivation, they soon substituted +indigo." Yet forests of cacao trees grow wild in Guiana, the Isthmus +of Darien, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Chiapa, and Nicaragua; while +in Cuba, St. Domingo, and Jamaica, it was once an indigenous plant. + +The following were the expenses of a cacao plantation in Jamaica +during the early period of British possession:-- + + L stg + Letters patent of five hundred acres of land 10 + Six negroes 120 + Four white persons, their passage and maintenance 80 + Maintenance of six slaves for six months 18 + Working implements 5 + ---- + L233 + +In four to five years the produce of one hundred acres would usually +sell for L4,240 sterling. This was a monstrous and most unlooked-for +return; but then, what was it to the profits of sugar, which, owing to +the prodigious increase of the slave trade, was fast coming into +active operation, and eating up and destroying all other sources and +springs of industry? How dearly have the West Indians paid for the +short-lived affluence which the sugar cane conferred! + +Blome, in his brief account of Jamaica, published in 1672, speaks of +cacao as being one of the chief articles of export. He states that +there were sixty cacao-walks or plantations, and many more planting; +but, for many years, no cacao plantation has existed in Jamaica, all +the chocolate used being made from imported berries, or the chance +growth of a munificent climate and redundant soil! A few scattered +trees, Edwards says (and as I my self know), here and there, are all +that remain of those flourishing and beautiful groves, which were once +the pride and boast of the country. They have withered with the indigo +manufactory, under the heavy hand of ministerial exaction. _The excise +on cacao, when made into cakes, rose to no less than L12 12s. per +cwt., exclusive of 11s. 111/2d. paid at the Custom-house, amounting +together to upwards of L840 per cent. on its marketable value!_ + +The mode of cultivating the cacao is given at some length by Edwards; +it is that of the Spaniards, a process strictly followed in Trinidad, +where, of all the West India islands, it constitutes a considerable +item of exports. It is thus described:--"A spot of level land being +chosen--preference is always given to a deep black mould, sheltered by +a hedge or thicket, so as to be screened by the wind, especially the +north, and cleared of all weeds and stumps of trees--a number of holes +are dug, at ten or twelve feet distance from each other, each hole +being about a foot in length, and six or eight inches deep. A very +important matter is the selection of the seeds for planting, and this +is done in the following manner: the finest and largest pods of the +cacao are selected when full ripe, and the grains taken out and placed +in a vessel of water. Those which swim are rejected; those chosen are +washed clean from the pulp, skinned, and then replaced in the water +till they begin to sprout; Banana (_Musa paradisiaca_), or some other +large leaves, those of the sea-side grape (_Coccoloba uvifera_), for +instance, are then taken, and each hole is lined with one of them, +leaving, however, the sides of the leaves some inches above ground; +after which the mould is rubbed in gently till the hole is filled; +three nuts are then selected for each hole, and they are set +triangularly in the earth, by making a small opening with the finger +about two inches deep, into which the nuts are put, with that end +downwards from which the sprout issues." They are then covered +lightly with mould, the leaf folded over, and a small stone placed on +the top, to prevent its opening; in eight or ten days the young shoots +appear above the ground; the leaves are then opened to give them light +and air, and a shelter from the sun, either in the shape of plantain +or banana leaves, is not forgotten; but the coco-nut and other species +of palm, on account of their fibrous structure and great durability, +are always preferred. This artificial shelter is continued for five or +six months. But, as a further security to the young plants, for they +are very delicate, other trees or shrubs are planted to the south-west +of the plants, that they may grow up with and shelter them, for young +cacao will grow and flourish only in the shade. For this purpose the +coral bean-tree (_Erythrina Corallodendrum_) is chosen. I should +presume there are other trees and plants equally eligible for this +purpose, and more useful; but my experience does not enable me to +speak positively upon the subject. Should the three seeds placed in +each hole spring up, it is thought necessary, when the plants are +fifteen or twenty inches high, to cut one of them down. The two +others, if they devaricate, are sometimes suffered to remain, but it +does not always happen that even _one_ of the three springs above the +earth; consequently this additional labor is not invariably requisite. + +On the fourth or fifth year the tree begins to bear, and attains +perfection by the eighth, continuing to produce two crops of fruit per +annum, yielding at each crop from 10 lbs. to 20 lbs., according to the +nature of the soil. It will continue bearing for twenty years; but, as +it is a delicate plant, it suffers from drought, and is liable to +blight. In these respects, however, it does not differ from many other +plants, which are even more subject to disease, though not half so +valuable. Besides, a proper system of irrigation, such as could be had +recourse to in many parts of Jamaica, would obviate and prevent these +evils. + +The whole quantity imported into the United Kingdom from the West +Indies and British Guiana during the last thirteen years, has been as +follows:-- + + lbs. + 1831 1,491,947 + 1832 618,090 + 1833 2,125,641 + 1834 1,360,325 + 1835 439,440 + 1836 1,611,104 + 1837 1,847,125 + 1838 2,147,816 + 1839 969,428 + 1840 2,374,233 + 1841 2,919,105 + 1842 2,490,693 + 1843 1,496,554 + 1844 3,119,555 + 1845 3,351,602 + 1846 1,738,848 + 1847 3,026,381 + 1848 2,602,309 + 1849 3,159,086 + 1850 1,987,717 + 1851 4,347,195 + 1852 3,933,863 + +Cacao is cultivated in the highlands as well as on the coasts of the +north-eastern peninsula of the large and rich island of Celebes, which +has within the last year or two been thrown open to foreign trade. The +plantations of it are even now considerable, and this branch of +industry only requires not to be impeded by any obstacles in order to +be still further extended. It forms a large ingredient in the local +trade, and furnishes many petty traders with their daily bread, not to +speak of the landowners, for whom the cultivation of the cacao affords +the only subsistence. The preparation of the product differs from that +adopted in the West Indies, but we have not been able to ascertain the +practice. We may reckon that 1,200 to 2,000 piculs of 133 lbs. are +yearly produced; the prices vary much, being from 50 to 75 florins per +picul.--("Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. ii., p. 829.) + +Bourbon now produces 15,000 to 20,000 kilogrammes of cacao annually. +Cacao is grown to a small extent in some of the settlements of Western +Africa, but as yet only a few puncheons have been exported, all the +produce being required for local consumption. + +The following figures give the imports and consumption of cacao into +the United Kingdom in the last five years:-- + + Imports. Consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1848 6,442,986 + 1849 7,769,234 3,233,135 + 1850 4,478,252 3,103,926 + 1851 6,773,960 3,024,338 + 1852 6,268,525 3,382,944 + +The home consumption is very steady at about 3,000,000 lbs., yielding +to the revenue L15,000 to L16,000 for duty. The produce of British +colonies pays 1d. per lb. duty, that from foreign countries 2d; cocoa +husks and shells half these amounts; when manufactured into chocolate +or cocoa paste the duty is 2d. per lb. from British possessions, and +6d. from other parts. The quantity imported in this form is to the +extent of about 14,000 lbs. weight. + + +COFFEE. + +The next staple I proceed to speak of is coffee--second only in +importance as a popular beverage to that universal commodity, tea. I +shall proceed, in the first instance, to take a retrospect of the +progress of the coffee trade, and glance at the present condition and +future prospects of produce and consumption. It will be seen, by +reference to the following figures, that the consumption of coffee in +the United Kingdom shows a successive decrease, from 1847 to 1850, of +6,414,533 lbs., and a loss to the revenue of L179,614. + +HOME CONSUMPTION AND REVENUE OF COFFEE FOR THE + Years lbs. L + 1824 8,262,943 420,988 + 1825 11,082,970 315,809 + 1828 17,127,633 440,245 + 1835 23,295,046 652,124 + 1839 26,789,945 779,115 + 1840 28,723,735 921,551 + 1844 31,394,225 681,610 + 1845 34,318,095 717,871 + 1846 36,793,061 756,838 + 1847 37,441,373 746,436 + 1848 37,106,292 710,270 + 1849 34,431,074 643,210 + 1850 31,226,840 566,822 + 1851 32,564,164 445,739 + 1852 35,044,376 438,084 + +I estimated, in a little treatise on coffee and its adulterations, +which I published in 1850, that not less than 18,000,000 lbs. of +vegetable matter of various kinds were sold annually under the +deceptive name of coffee. Three-fourths of these 18,000,000 lbs. of +pretended coffee were composed of chicory, and the remaining fourth of +other ingredients prejudicial to health, as well as a fraud upon the +revenue. The various substances used in adulterating both chicory and +coffee, when sold in the powdered state, have been specifically +pointed out and set forth from time to time in memorials from the +trade and the coffee-growers. Mr. M'Culloch and other competent judges +set down the actual consumption of chicory in the United Kingdom at +12,500 tons per annum. When we consider the vast difference of price +between chicory and coffee, as purchased by the wholesale dealer, the +temptation to its fraudulent use was obviously great, and there was no +penal restriction against it. + +It will be interesting and useful to trace the history of the trade in +chicory from its first introduction. + +The substitution of chicory for coffee occasioned a loss to the +revenue of three hundred thousand pounds sterling a-year, besides its +mischievous effect in adulterating and debasing a popular beverage +when used in such large and undue proportions for admixture, and sold +at the price of coffee. + +Since the prohibition of the admixture of chicory with coffee, when +sold to the public, and the compulsory sale by Treasury minute of the +two articles in separate packages, a large and rapid increase in the +consumption of coffee has taken place, and the trade is now placed in +a healthy position. Whilst the increase in the consumption of coffee +from the 1st of January, to 5th September, 1852, was but 142,267 lbs. +as compared with the same period of 1851; the increase in the +remaining four months of the year was to the amazing extent of +2,350,368 lbs. This increased consumption is likely to continue, and +our colonial possessions are furnishing us with larger proportionate +supplies, as may be seen by the following figures:-- + + TOTAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE IN + 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 + Produce of lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. + British + Possessions + 35,970,507 40,339,245 36,814,036 35,972,163 42,519,297 + Ditto foreign + countries 21,082,943 22,976,542 13,989,116 17,138,497 11,857,957 + ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- + Total 57,053,450 63,315,787 50,803,152 53,110,660 54,377,254 + +In the year 1832 chicory was first imported into England, subject to +a duty equivalent to that levied upon colonial coffee, and permitted +to be sold by grocers _separately_ as chicory; but notices were at the +same time issued, that the legal penalties would be rigidly enforced, +if discovered mixed with coffee. + +In 1840, in consequence of memorials from the grocers and dealers in +chicory, and also from the circumstance of exceedingly high rates then +ruling for coffee, together with the disruption of our commercial +relations with China, simultaneously advancing the price of tea (thus +rendering both these popular beverages excessively dear to the +consumer), an order was issued from the Treasury to the Excise Board, +authorizing the admixture of chicory with coffee; a duty, however, +being still maintained on the former of L20 per ton on the kiln-dried, +and 6d. per lb. on the powdered root, when imported from abroad. + +In the year 1845, the cultivation of chicory was introduced upon +British soil, and, being a home-grown commodity, was exempt from duty, +but nevertheless, by virtue of the said Treasury Order, was permitted +to enter into competition with a staple production of our own +colonies, contributing on its import a tax of 60 to 80 per cent. to +the revenue of the State. + +The result, as might have been foreseen, necessarily created and +stimulated a demoralizing system of fraud, unjust and destructive to +the interests of the coffee planter, and prejudicial to the national +revenue. + +The effects of so baneful a system being equally manifest upon both +consumption and revenue, they are here separately illustrated. + +In 1824, according to the following high scale of duties, viz., 1s. on +West India, 1s. 6d. on East India, and 2s. 6d. on foreign, the Customs +derived from coffee was L420,988; in the following year the rates were +reduced one-half, and in the short space of three years the amount +yielded had advanced to L440,245, an increase which steadily +progressed (partly aided by the admission of the produce of British +India at the low duty) until it reached L921,551 in 1840. These +satisfactory results justified a further reduction of the duties in +1842 to 4d. on colonial and 8d. (and in the subsequent year to 6d.) on +foreign, under which the revenue declined in 1844 to L681,616. In 1846 +it had again reached to L756,838, and was gradually recovering itself, +when this system of adulteration first began to extend itself +generally, and since that time the revenue has rapidly declined under +the _same scale of duties_ to L566,822 in 1850. + +In 1824 the quantity retained for home consumption was 8,262,943 lbs., +which was augmented to 11,082,970 lbs. in the first year of the +reduction of duty, and continued to exhibit an increase at a rate +rather exceeding two million pounds per annum until 1830, when coffee +would appear to have reached its limit of consumption without further +stimulus, and remained stationary until the modification of duties +allowing the admission of foreign coffee, _via_ the Cape, at the +colonial rate, when it advanced from 23,295,046 lbs. in 1835, to +28,723,735 lbs. in 1840; and consequent upon a further reduction of +duties in 1842, the elasticity of the trade experienced a still wider +development, and an increase of nine million pounds is exhibited in +the next five years. From that period, however, the general use of +chicory has not only checked the progressive increase of this healthy +demand, but an annual decline is observable to the extent of above six +million pounds in 1850, as compared with 1847. + +On the 15th of April, 1851, with the view of partly remedying the +grievance of the colonists on this head, the duties were equalized and +reduced to 3d. The results are, however, far from satisfactory, either +in a fiscal or commercial point of view. It is true that an increase +in consumption, of one-and-a-quarter million pounds has taken place, +but at the sacrifice of L121,000 of revenue. But this increase, it +will be seen, has not exceeded 41/4 per cent., whilst there has been a +diminution of 211/2 per cent. in the revenue receipts. Upon +investigation, moreover, it will be found that, notwithstanding the +_total_ increase exhibited, there has been an actual falling off of +894,778 lbs. of colonial coffee in 1851; the items for last year are, +however, much more favorable and encouraging for the planters. + +No reasonable cause can be assigned for this rapid and serious +diminution in the consumption of coffee, except the notorious +substitution of chicory and other substances. + +The arguments advanced to account for the falling off in the +consumption of coffee, by adducing the increase of tea and cacao for a +similar period are fallacious, and contrary to the commercial +experience of many years, which convincingly proves these kindred +articles to have always simultaneously increased, or diminished, in +ratio with the general prosperity of the kingdom, and the prevalence +of temperate habits among the community. + +I shall now proceed to trace the fluctuations in the consumption of +coffee. + +At the close of the last century the consumption of coffee was under +one million pounds yearly; the only descriptions then known in the +London market were Grenada, Jamaica, and Mocha--the two former +averaging about L5 per cwt., and the latter L20 per cwt. Grenada +coffee is now unknown, and Ceylon and Brazil are the largest +producers. In 1760, the total quantity of coffee consumed in the +United Kingdom was 262,000 lbs., or three quarters of an ounce to each +person in the population. In 1833 the quantity was 20,691,000 lbs., or +11/2 lb. to each person. When first introduced into England, about the +middle of the 17th century, coffee was sold in a liquid state, and +paid a duty of 4d. per gallon; afterwards, until the year 1733, the +duty was 2s. per lb.; it was then reduced to 1s. 6d., since which it +has paid various rates of duty; in the year 1824 it was settled at 6d. +per lb. All descriptions of coffee now pay but 3d. per lb. + +The consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom, for several years +previous to 1825, varied from seven millions and a half to eight +millions and a half pounds in round numbers, the duty being 1s. per +lb. on British plantation, 1s. 6d. per lb. on East India, and 2s. 6d. +per lb. on foreign. From the 5th of April of that year those rates +were each reduced to one half, and the immediate consequence was a +steady increase of the consumption until 1831, when it amounted to +23,000,000 lbs. The consumption continued, without any material +variation, at this rate, or to advance by very slow degrees, until +1836, when the duty on East India coffee was reduced to 6d. per lb.; +and this change had precisely the same effect as the previous one, for +the consumption again advanced to upwards of 26,000,000 lbs., which +was then considered, in a memorial of the London trade, to be as much +as our colonies were capable of producing! We now find, however, one +small island, Ceylon, producing a fourth more than this amount +annually. + +The Belgians, a population of 4,500,000, consume more than 33,000,000 +lbs. of coffee annually; quite as much as is used by the whole +35,000,000 French. The duty on 100 lbs. of coffee in France is more +than the common original cost--the Belgian duty not a tenth part; so +that the French do not use 1 lb. of coffee per head, while the +Belgians consume 7 lbs. each per annum. The proportion in England is +not more than 11/2 lb. per head to the population. The United States are +the largest consumers of coffee, as it is admitted into their ports +free of duty, and can therefore be sold for nearly the price per pound +which the British Government levies on it for revenue. The entire +consumption of the United States and British North America, calling +their population 23,000,000 and ours 30,000,000, exceeds ours, on an +estimate of population, by sixfold. Thus the average consumption of +coffee by each American, annually, is about 81/2 lbs., while the +quantity used by each person in the European States is less than 11/2 +lb. + +The changes in the sources of supply, within the last fifteen or +sixteen years, have been very remarkable. The British possessions in +the East have taken the place which our islands of the West formerly +occupied. The British West Indies have fallen off in their produce of +coffee from 30,000,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. Ceylon which, fifteen years +ago, had scarcely turned attention to coffee, now exports nearly +35,000,000 lbs. San Domingo, Cuba, and the French West India colonies +are gradually giving up coffee-cultivation in favor of other staples; +and it is only Brazil, Java, and some of the Central American +Republics that are able to render coffee a profitable crop. The export +crop of Brazil (the greatest coffee-producing country), grown in 1850, +for the supply of the year ending July, 1851, amounted to no less than +302,000,000 lbs., of this a large quantity remained in the interior to +supply the deficiency of the current year. + +It is scarcely thirty years ago that the coffee-plant was first +introduced into Bengal by two refugees from Manilla; and the British +possessions in the East Indies now yield 42,000,000 lbs. Sufficient +extent has not yet been given to enable it to be decided in what +district of _Continental_ India it may be most advantageously +cultivated. It is in the fine island of Ceylon, however, that +coffee-culture has made the most rapid progress. + +It is an important fact that the supply of coffee from Ceylon, even at +the present moment, and irrespective of land already planted but not +yet come into full bearing, is in excess of the whole consumption of +Great Britain, and the planter is thus compelled to carry the surplus +to continental markets. The exports of coffee from Ceylon have been +rather stationary the past three years, averaging about 300,000 cwt. +In the sixteen years ending with 1851, Ceylon had exported 130,083 +tons of coffee! + +The present _produce_ of the various coffee-growing countries in the +world, may be set down at the following figures: + + + SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. + Millions of lbs. + Costa Rica 9 + La Guayra and Porto Cabello 35 + Brazil 302 + British West Indies 8 + French and Dutch West Indies 7 + Cuba and Porto Rico 30 + St. Domingo 331/2 + + ASIA AND THE EAST. + + Java 140 + The Philippine Isles 3 + Celebes 11/2 + Sumatra 5 + Ceylon 34 + Malabar and Mysore 5 + Arabia (Mocha) 3 + --- + 616 = 275,000 tons. + +This I have computed as accurately as possible from the most recent +returns, but it falls much below the actual capabilities of +production, even with the trees at bearing, and land already under +cultivation; and also, in a great measure, excludes the local +consumption in the producing countries. In many quarters there has +been a considerable falling off in the production. The British West +Indies, as we have seen, formerly exported 30,000,000 lbs., the French +and Dutch West Indies 17,000,000, Cuba and Porto Rico 56,000,000, and +St. Domingo, in the last century, 76,000,000. The growth of coffee has +been transferred from the West to the East Indies, and to the South +American Continent, where labor is more abundant, certain, and cheap. +In the East the increase in production has been enormous and +progressive, with, perhaps, the exception of Sumatra, which has fallen +off from 15,000,000 lbs. to somewhere about one-third of that +quantity. + +The following statement may be taken as an approximate estimate of the +actual _consumption_ of coffee at the present time:-- + + Millions of lbs. + Great Britain 32 + Holland and Belgium 125 + France 33 + German Customs Union 95 + Other German Countries not included 46 + in the Union, and Austria + Switzerland 13 + Mediterranean Countries 20 + Russia 12 + Sweden and Denmark 20 + Spain and Portugal 15 + Cape of Good Hope and Australia 6 + United States and British America 170 + --- + 587 + +A calculation made in the _Economist_, a year or two ago, gave the +following as the probable consumption:-- + + + Millions of lbs. + Holland and Netherlands 108 + Germany and North Europe 175 + France and South of Europe 105 + Great Britain 37 + United States and British America 175 + --- + Total 600 + +But this estimate is too high in some of the figures. Great Britain we +know, from the official tables only, consumes 34,000,000 lbs. +annually; the United States and British America not so much as set +down by several millions; for the official returns of the imports of +coffee into the United States show an average for the three years +ending June, 1850, of less than 154,000,000 lbs.; although a writer in +a recent number of "Hunt's Merchant's Magazine," New York, (usually a +well-informed periodical,) assumes a consumption of 200,000,000 lbs., +for the North American States and Provinces. + +The quantity of coffee produced being greater than the consumption +thereof, the growth of it becomes less remunerative, and consequently +we may look for a decrease in the supply. Ceylon, as well as the West +Indies generally, British and foreign, are likely to direct their +attention to some more profitable staple. A diminished production may +further be expected in Brazil, consequent on the extermination of the +slave-trade and the more sparing exertion of the labour of the slaves. +In Cuba the want of labour is so much felt that large engagements have +been entered into for the importation of Chinese; and there are many +reasons for expecting a diminished production in Java, the next +largest coffee-producing country. The necessary consequence of this +expected decrease in the quantity of coffee produced will be, to bring +the produce as much below the wants of the consumers as it is now +above, and this must again result in an enhancement of prices in +process of time. + +If it were thought desirable to extend the production of coffee, there +are many new quarters, besides the existing countries in which it is +largely cultivated, where it could be extensively grown. We may +instance Liberia and the western coast of Africa generally, the +interior ranges of Natal, the mountain-ranges on the northern coast of +Australia, from Moreton Bay to Torres Straits, &c., &c. But the +present production is more than equal to the demand; and unless a very +largely increased consumption takes place in the European countries, +the present plantations (colonial and foreign) are amply sufficient to +supply, for many years to come, all the demands that can be made upon +their trees, a large proportion of which have yet to come into full +bearing. + +The coffee tree would grow to the height of fifteen or twenty feet if +permitted, but it is bad policy to let it grow higher than four or +five feet. It comes to maturity in five years, but does not thrive +beyond the twenty-fifth, and is useless generally after thirty years. +Although the tree affords no profit to the planter for nearly five +years; yet after that time, with very little labor bestowed upon it, +it yields a large return. + +Mr. Churchill, Jamaica, found that 1,000 grains of the wood, leaves, +and twigs of the coffee tree, yielded 33 grains of ashes, or 3.300 per +cent. The ashes consist of potass, lime, alumina, and iron in the +state of carbonates, sulphates, muriates, and phosphates, and a small +portion of silica. According to Liebig's classification of plants, the +coffee tree falls under the description of those noted for their +preponderance of lime. Thus the proportions in the coffee tree are-- + + Lime salts 77 + Potass salts 20 + Silica 3 + --- + 100 + +I shall now proceed to describe the cultivation of the tree and +preparation of the berry, as carried on in different countries. + +_Cultivation of Mocha_--In Arabia Felix, the culture is principally +carried on in the kingdom of Yemen, towards the cantons of Aden and +Mocha. Although these countries are very hot in the plains, they +possess mountains where the air is mild. The coffee is generally grown +half way up on their slopes. When cultivated on the lower grounds it +is always surrounded by large trees, which shelter it from the torrid +sun, and prevent its fruit from withering before their maturity. The +harvest is gathered at three periods; the most considerable occurs in +May, when the reapers begin by spreading cloths under the trees, then +shaking the branches strongly, so as to make the fruit drop, which +they collect and expose upon mats to dry. They then pass over the +dried berries a heavy roller, to break the envelopes, which are +afterwards winnowed away with a fan. The interior bean is again dried +before being laid up in store. + +The principal coffee districts are Henjersia, Tarzia, Oudein, Aneizah, +Bazil, and Weesaf. The nearest coffee plantations are three-and-a-half +days journey (about 80 miles) from Aden. + +The following information is derived from Capt. S.B. Haines of the +Indian Navy, and our political agent at Aden. A camel load is about +400 lbs = 25 frazlas or bales. + + G.C. Commassees. + The price of ditto inland 31 41 + At Mocha, duty to Dewla uncertain + Bake fee one butsha on each frazla 25 + Weighing and clerk's fee 20 + Packing 40 + Camel hire to the coast 12 50 + Cost from Sana to Mocha 44 15 + +Coffee is brought into the Sana market in December and January from +the surrounding districts. + +The varieties are-- + + 1. Sherzee, best--price 1 G.C. frazla 25 butsha. + 2. Ouceaime. + 3. Muttanee. + 4. Sharrazee. + 5. Hubbal from Aniss. + 6. Sherissee from ditto--price per frazla 1 G.C. 15 B. + +The nearest place to Sana where the coffee tree grows, is at Arfish, +half a day distant. Attempts have been made to introduce the shrub in +the garden of the Imaum at Sana, but without success, ascribed to +cold. Kesher is more prized at Sana; the best is Anissea, and is sold +at a higher price than other coffee, namely, g.c. 12 per 100 lbs.; +inferior, at from 4, 5, and 6. + +Rain falls in Sana three times in the year. 1st. In January, in small +quantities. 2nd. Beginning of June, when it falls for eight or ten +days. By this time the seed is sown, and the cultivators look forward +to the season with anxiety. 3rd. In July, when it falls in abundance. +A few farmers defer sowing till this period, but it is unusual when +they expect rain in June. + +The coffee plant is mostly found growing near the sides of mountains, +valleys, and other sheltered situations, the soil of which has been +gradually washed down from the surrounding heights, being that which +forms its source of support. This is afforded by the decomposition of +a species of claystone (slightly phosphoritic) which is found +irregularly disposed in company with a few pieces of trap-rocks, +amongst which, on approaching Sana from the southward, basalt is found +to preponderate. The clay stone is only found in the more elevated +districts, but the debris finds a ready way into the lower country by +the numerous and steep gorges which are conspicuous in every +direction. As it is thrown upon one side of the valley, it is +carefully protected by means of stone walls, so as to present to the +traveller the appearance of terraces. The plant requires a moist soil, +though much rain does not appear necessary. It is always found in +greater luxuriance at places where there is no spring. The tree at +times looks languid, and half withered; an abundant supply of water to +the root of the plant seems necessary for the full growth and +perfection of its bean. + +_Progress of Cultivation in India_.--There are said to be ten +varieties of the coffee, but only one is found indigenous to India, +and it is questionable if this is not the Mocha species introduced +from Arabia. The cultivation of this important crop is spreading fast +throughout the east, and has been adopted in many parts of Hindostan. +In the Tenasserim provinces, on the table land of Mysore, in Penang, +and especially in the islands of Bourbon and Ceylon, it is becoming +more and more an object of attention. It is known to have given good +produce in Sangar and the Nerbudda; also in Mirzapore, as well as +Dacca, and other parts of Bengal; Chota Najpore, Malabar, and +Travancore. From three to four million pounds of coffee are now +exported from the Indian presidencies annually. The highest quantity +was four and a quarter million pounds in 1845, but the progress of +culture, judging from the export, has been small. + +On the hilly districts on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, the +cultivation is carried on on a limited scale. The annual produce is +not much more than about 400 cwt., although it is understood to be +increasing. The quality of the berry is reckoned to be nearly equal to +Mocha, and it commands a high price in the English market. + +The soil recommended in India is a good rich garden land, the +situation high and not liable to inundation, and well sheltered to the +north-west, or in such other direction as the prevailing storms are +found to come from. + +A plantation, or a hill affording the shrubs shade, has been found +beneficial in all tropical climates, because, if grown fully exposed +to the sun, the berries have been found to be ripened prematurely. + +The spot should be well dug to a depth of two feet before the trees +are planted out, and the earth pulverised and cleared from the roots +of rank weeds, but particularly from the coarse woody grasses with +which all parts of India abound. + +The best manure is found in the decayed leaves that fall from the +trees themselves, to which may be added the weeds produced in the +plantation, dried and burnt. These, then, dug in, are the only manure +that will be required. Cow-dung is the best manure for the seed-beds. + +The seed reserved for sowing must be put into the ground quite fresh, +as it soon loses its power of germination. Clean, well-formed berries, +free from injury by insects, or the decay of the pulp, should be +selected. + +These berries must be sown in a nursery, either in small, well-manured +beds, or in pots in a sheltered spot, not too close, as it is well to +leave them where sown until they acquire a good growth; indeed, it is +better if they are removed at once from the bed where they are sown, +to the plantation. Here they should be planted as soon as they have +attained two years of age, for, be it remembered, that if they are +left too long in the nursery, they become unproductive and never +recover. The distance at which they should be put out in the +plantation need not exceed eight feet apart in the rows, between +which, also, there should be eight feet distance. The seedlings appear +in about a month after the seed is sown. + +The culture requisite is, in the first instance, to afford shade to +the young plants; many consider that this shelter should be continued +during the whole period of their culture; but this is somewhat +doubtful, as it has been found that plants so protected are not such +good bearers as those which are exposed. The best plants for this +purpose are tall, wide-branching trees or shrubs, without much +underwood. The other culture requisite is only to keep the ground +tolerably clean from weeds, for which one cooly on from five to ten +biggahs is sufficient. He should also prune off decayed or dead +branches. This treatment must be continued until the fourth year, when +the trees will first begin bearing, and, after the gathering of each +crop, the trees will require to be thinned out from the superabundant +branches, their extremities stopped, and the tops reduced to prevent +their growing above seven or eight feet in height; the stems, also, +should be kept free from shoots or suckers for the height of at least +one foot, as well as clear from weeds. + +Irrigation must be frequent during the first year that the plants are +removed to the plantation, and may be afterwards advantageously +continued at intervals during the dry and hot weather, as a very hot +season is found unfavorable to the plant, drying up and destroying the +top branches and the extremities of the side shoots; whilst, on the +other hand, a very long rain destroys the fruit by swelling it out and +rotting it before it can be ripened: hence it is necessary to attend +to a good drainage of the plantation, that no water be anywhere +allowed to lodge, as certain loss will ensue, not only of the crop of +the current year, but most frequently of the trees also, as their +roots require to be rather dry than otherwise. + +The crop will be ready to gather from October to January, when the +ripe berries should be carefully picked from the trees by hand every +morning, and dried in the shade, the sun being apt to make them too +brittle; they must be carefully turned to prevent fermentation, and +when sufficiently dry the husks must be removed, and the clean coffee +separated from the broken berries. After being picked out and put +aside, and then again dried, it is fit to pack. The first year's crop +will be less than the succeeding ones, in which the produce will range +from 1/2 a lb. to 1 lb. in each year.--(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," +vol. xv.) + +_Ceylon_.--Coffee is stated to have been introduced into this island +from Java, somewhere about the year 1730. It was extensively diffused +over the country by the agency of birds and jackalls. In 1821 its +cultivation may be said to have partially commenced, and in 1836, it +had become widely extended through the Kandyan provinces. + +In 1839 not a tree had been felled on the wide range of the Himasgaria +mountains. In 1840 a small plantation was, for the first time, formed. +In 1846 there were fifty estates, then averaging, each, 200 acres of +planted land, and yielding an average crop of 80,000 cwt. of coffee. +Every acre is now purchased in that locality, and in large tracts, or +there would have been twice the number of estates in cultivation. In +1848, the Galgawatte estate, situate in this range, at an elevation of +4,000 feet, containing 246 acres, of which 72 were planted, was +purchased by Mr. R.D. Gerard, for L1,600. + +The quantity of land which had been brought under cultivation with +coffee in this island in the ten years previous to the last reduction +of duty in 1844, was, in round numbers, 25,000 acres; but so rapid was +the subsequent increase, that in the succeeding three years, that +extent of land was doubled; so that, in 1847, there were upwards of +60,000 acres of land under cultivation with coffee, giving employment +to 40,000 immigrant coolies from the continent of India, and upwards +of two millions of capital were invested in the cultivation of this +staple. + +The quantity of land under culture with coffee by Europeans, was about +55,000 acres in 1851. Allowing 20,000 acres to produce the quantity of +native coffee exported, and 5,000 for that consumed in the island, the +total extent of coffee cultivation in Ceylon, European and native, +will be 80,000 acres. + +The produce exported in 1849 was 373,593 cwt., while in the year 1836, +when attention was first directed to this island as a coffee-producing +country, the crop was not more than 60,330 cwt. Large profits were +made by the first planters, more capital was introduced, until, +between the years 1840 and 1842, the influx of capitalists, to +undertake this species of cultivation, completely changed the face of +the colony, and enlarged its trade, and the produce of coffee in +sixteen years has increased sixfold. + +The general culture resembles the practice in Java. Of the Ceylon +coffee, that grown about Ramboddi fetches the highest price, from the +superiority of the make, shape, and boldness of the berry. The weight +per bushel, clean, averages 56 lbs.; 571/2 lbs. is about the greatest +weight of Ceylon coffee. The lowest in the scale of Ceylon plantation +coffee is the Doombera, which averages 541/2 lbs., clear, per bushel. +The following have been the prices of good ordinary Ceylon coffee in +the port of London for the last eight years in the month of January, +1853, 46s. to 48s.; 1852, 40s. to 42s.; 1851, 38s. 6d. to 40s. 6d.; +1850, 56s. 6d. to 57s. 6d.; 1849, 31s. to 32s. 6d.; 1848, 31s. 6d. to +33s.; 1847, 39s. 6d. to 41s. 6d.; 1846, 49s. to 50s. + +Forest lands are those usually planted in Ceylon, and the expense +attendant on clearing and reclaiming them from a state of nature, and +converting them into plantations, is estimated to average L8 per acre. +The lowest upset price of crown lands in the colony is L1 per acre. + +Coffee planting has failed over a considerable portion of the southern +province of the island, where the experiment was tried. The +temperature was found to be too equable, not descending sufficiently +low at any time to invigorate the plant; which, though growing +luxuriantly at first, soon became weak and delicate. Nurseries are +established for young plants. The districts in which the coffee is +principally cultivated, extend over nearly the whole of the hilly +region, which is the medium and connecting link between the +mountainous zone and the level districts of the coast. + +The mania for coffee planting has recently subsided, in consequence of +the barely remunerative returns at which that article has been sold, +ascribable partly to over-production, and in some measure, perhaps, to +the temporary glut of foreign coffee thrown on the British market by +the reduction of the duty. As regards the yield, some estates in +Ceylon have produced upwards of 15 cwt. per acre, but it is a good +estate that will average seven, and many do not give more than 4 cwt. +the acre. + +The shipments from Colombo for five years, are stated below, with the +class of coffee:-- + + Plantation. Native. Total. + cwt. cwt. cwt. + 1845 75,002 112,889 187,891 + 1846 91,240 70,991 162,231 + 1847 106,198 143,457 249,655 + 1848 191,464 88,422 279,886 + 1849 243,926 118,756 362,682 + 1850 198,997 56,692 255,689 + 1851 220,471 97,091 317,562 + +While, in 1839, the total value of the exports from Ceylon was only +L330,000, in 1850 the value of the single staple of coffee was no less +than L609,262, and in 1851 had still further increased. + +I append a memorandum of the quantities of coffee exported from Ceylon +since 1836:-- + + Quantity. Value. + cwt. L + 1836 60,329 + 1837 34,164 + 1838 49,541 + 1839 41,863 + 1840 68,206 + 1841 80,584 196,048 + 1842 119,805 269,763 + 1843 94,847 192,891 + 1844 133,957 267,663 + 1845 178,603 363,259 + 1846 173,892 328,781 + 1847 293,221 456,624 + 1848 280,010 387,150 + 1849 373,593 545,322 + 1850 278,473 609,262 + 1851 339,744 + --------- + Total in 16 years 2,600,832 + --------- + Average 162,552 (Ceylon Almanac for 1853.) + +The local export duty of two-and-a-half per cent., was abolished from +1st September, 1848. + +From these figures it appears that, in a period of sixteen years, +Ceylon exported two and a half millions of cwts. of coffee. The +consumption of coffee, although for a long time stationary in Britain, +now that adulteration is no longer legalised, is likely to increase as +rapidly as in other parts of the world; and it appears pretty evident +that, so long as anything like remunerative prices can be obtained, +Ceylon will do her part in supplying the world with an article which +occupies the position of a necessary to the poor as well as a luxury +to the rich. The exports of coffee from this colony have, within a few +thousands of hundredweights, been nearly quadrupled since 1843, when +only 94,000 cwts. were sent away. + +Dr. Rudolph Gygax, in a paper submitted to the Ceylon Branch of the +Royal Asiatic Society, offered remarks on some analyses, of the coffee +of Ceylon, with suggestions for the applications of manures. + + "Having had," he observes, "my attention drawn to an account of an + analysis of the Jamaica coffee berry, made by Mr. Herapath, the + Liverpool chemist, I have paid some little attention to the subject + of the coffee plant of this island, forming, as it does, so very + important a feature in the resources of this colony. The desire that + I thus felt for obtaining some information regarding the constituent + parts of the Ceylon tree and its fruit, was heightened by a + knowledge of the fact, that not a few of those coffee estates, which + once gave good promise of success, are now in a very precarious + state of production. + + I much regret that the means at my disposal have not allowed me to + carry out any _quantative_ analysis, but the result of my labours + are sufficiently accurate for my present purpose. I have analysed + the wood and fruit of trees from two different localities, as well + as the ashes of some plants sent me from the Rajawella estate near + Kandy, and they all tend to bear out the result of Mr. Herapath's + inquiries. Placing the substances traced in the coffee plant in the + order in which they occur in the greatest quantity, they will stand + thus:-- + + Lime, potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid, other acids. + + Of these lime is by far the most prominent, forming about 60 per + cent. of the whole. + + I cannot help, therefore, arriving at the conclusion that, to + cultivate coffee with any degree of success, the first-named + substance must be present in the soil; or, if not present, must be + supplied to it by some process. + + Now it is a singular fact that the rocks and soils of Ceylon are + greatly deficient in alkaline matter; and, taking this view of the + case, one no longer wonders that many estates cease to produce + coffee. That all, or nearly all the plantations did, in their first + year or two of bearing, produce liberally in fruit, may readily be + accounted for by the fact that the alkaline poverty of the soil was + enriched by the burning of the vast quantities of timber which lay + felled on all sides. Whilst this temporary supply lasted, all was + well with the planter. Heavy rains, and frequent scrapings of the + land with the mamotie, or hoe, soon dissipated this scanty supply, + and short crops are now the consequence. + + But nature, ever bountiful, ever ready to compensate for all + deficiencies, has provided to our hands a ready means of remedying + this evil of the soil, by scattering throughout most parts of the + interior supplies of dolomitic limestone. The dolomite of Ceylon is + not pure, far from it, being mixed freely with apatite or phosphate + of lime. Even in this very accidental circumstance the coffee + planter is aided; for the phosphoric acid thus combined with the + limestone is the very substance required in addition. Some of the + finest properties in the island are situated on a limestone bottom, + and these no doubt will continue to yield abundant crops for a very + long period. + + It has been urged against this opinion that in some districts where + coffee planting has proved a complete failure, dolomite is found + most abundantly; but I have very little doubt that the dolomite + here alluded to is only _magnesian_ limestone, and which is most + inimical to the coffee bush. + + I am aware that already several manures have been tried on coffee + with varying degrees of success. Guano has, I believe, quite failed, + and is besides very costly. Cattle manure is said to be effective, + and no doubt it is, but it is a costly and troublesome affair. + Bones, ground fine, are now being tried, though they cannot but + prove most expensive, especially when imported. + + A ton of bone dust contains of animal matter, 746 lbs,; phosphates + of lime, &c., 1,245 lbs.; carbonates of lime, &c., 249 lbs. + + The virtue of bones lies in the phosphates far more than in the + animal matter, and thus their action on soils is felt for many years + after their application. The Singalese cultivators of paddy about + Colombo and Galle, appear to have been long aware of the fertilizing + effects of this kind of manure, and import the article in dhonies + from many parts of the coast: they bruise them coarsely before + applying them. + + The partially decomposed husks of the coffee berry have been tried + for some years, and successfully, but they are difficult of + collection, and bulky to remove from one part of the estate to + another. + + In Europe it would appear that little is yet known as to the causes + of the fertilising effects of oil cake: some suppose them to arise + mainly from the oil left by the crushing process, but this is not at + all clear. I do not, however, see that we must look for much + assistance from Poonac as a manure for coffee: for the cocoanut tree + it is doubtless most valuable, but we have yet to learn that, beyond + supplying so much more vegetable matter, it helps the action of the + soil on the roots of the coffee bush, which, after all, is what is + really required. + + For the proper application of the dolomite to land as manure, it + should be freely burnt in a kiln, with a good quantity of wood, the + ashes of which should be afterwards mixed with the burnt lime, and + the whole exposed for several days to the action of the air, + sheltered of course from the weather. The mixture should be applied + just before the setting in of the monsoon rains: if the land be + tolerably level, the lime may be scattered broadcast on the surface, + though not quite near the plants. When the estate to be manured is + steep, then the substance to be applied should be placed in ridges + cut crossways to the descent of the slopes. + + About one cwt. to the acre would be ample for most lands; some may, + however, require more. The contents of the husk pits might + advantageously be mixed up with the burnt lime, when a sufficiency + of it has been saved. + +A planter in Ambagamoe states that he has tried the following remedy +for that destructive scourge, the coffee-bug, with great success. + +He applies saltpetre in a finely-powdered state, dusted over the tree +when wet with rain or dew. The operation is inexpensive, as a very +small quantity suffices, one cwt. being sufficient for nine or ten +acres. It can be applied through a bamboo-joint covered with a +perforated top, or any equally simple contrivance. + +Messrs. Worms' are reported to have found coco-nut oil an effectual +remedy. + +To sum up the question of manures:-- + +Poonac, the marc or cake, after the coco-nut oil is expressed, is +represented to be a stimulating manure; but is not durable. Lime is an +useful application, especially to stiff soils, as the coffee tree +contains 60 parts of lime. Bone-dust is an excellent fertiliser, but +in Ceylon it is found that it cannot be applied at a less expense than +L5 per acre. Cattle manure is the cheapest and most available. Guano +does not seem suitable. + +_Peeling, pulping, and winnowing._--The coffee-peeler, used for +separating the bean from the pellicle, was formerly a large wheel +revolving in a trough, the disadvantage of which was the flattening +more or less of the bean when not thoroughly dry. A new machine has +been recently introduced, the invention of Mr. Nelson, C.E., of the +Ceylon iron works, by which this evil is obviated; its principle being +not weight, but simple friction, of sufficient force to break the +parchment at first, and, when continued, to polish the bean free from +the husk. A very simple winnowing machine for cleaning the coffee as +it comes out of the peeler, is attached. From the winnowing machine it +runs into the separating machine, which sorts it into sizes, and +equalizes the samples, by which a vast amount of time and manual +labour are saved. The same principle is intended to be applied by Mr. +Nelson to pulping, which will obviate the injury now inflicted by the +grater upon the fresh berry. In spite of the greatest care numbers of +the beans in a sample, on close examination, will be found scratched +or pecked; and when the closest attention is not paid, or the person +superintending the process is devoid of mechanical skill, the injury +is proportionate. + +The ordinary pulping-mill in use, consists of a cylinder of wood or +iron, covered with sheet brass or copper, and punctured similarly to a +nutmeg grater. This cylinder, technically called the barrel, runs upon +a spindle, which turns a brass pick on each side of a frame. +Immediately in a line with the centre upon which it turns, and placed +vertical to each other, are two pieces of wood, frequently shod with +iron of copper, called "the chops," placed about half an inch apart, +or sufficient to allow the passage of "parchment" coffee between them. +The lower chop is placed so close to the barrel, yet without contact, +that all coffee must be stopped by it and thrown outwards. The upper +chop is adjusted to that distance only which will permit the cherry +coffee to come into contact with the barrel; but will not allow the +berries to pass on till they have been denuded of their red epidermis +by a gentle squeeze against its rough surface. The far greater portion +of the pulps are separated by being carried past the lower chops upon +the sharp points of the copper, and thrown out behind, and a few are +left with the parchment coffee. As from the different sizes of the +berries, and their crowding for precedence as they descend from the +hopper above to the gentle embrace of the barrel and upper chop, some +pass unpulped, the coffee as it comes from the lower chop is made to +fall upon a riddle, which separates the unpulped cherries. These are +put back again, and passed through a pulper with the upper chop set +closer. The secret of working-appears to be the proper setting of the +chops, and many have been the schemes proposed for reducing this to a +certainty. Perhaps, after all, few plans are better than the old +wedges, by tightening or loosening of which the chop is kept in the +required position. Within the last few years, the machine has been +considerably improved by being formed entirely of iron, cog-wheels +being substituted in the place of straps and drums to move the riddle, +and the riddle itself is now formed of two sieves, by which the chance +of unpulped berries reaching the parchment is lessened. On some +estates, water-wheels have been put up to drive several pulpers at one +time, which otherwise would require from two to four men each to work +them, but from the costly buildings and appurtenances which such +machinery renders necessary, they are rare. + +Although the operation of pulping is so simple, it is one which +requires the machine to be set in such a way that the greatest +quantity of work may be done, or, in other words, the smallest +quantity of unpulped berries be allowed to pass through. On the other +hand, the berries must not be subjected to injury from the barrel; for +if the parchment skin is pricked through, the berry will appear, when +cured, with an unsightly brown mark upon it. Several new coverings for +barrels, instead of punctured copper, have been tried; among others, +coir-cloth and wire net, but the old material is not as yet +superseded. After pulping, the coffee in parchment is received into +cisterns, in which it is, by washing, deprived of the mucilaginous +matter that still adheres to it. Without this most necessary +operation, the mucilage would ferment and expose the berry to injury, +from its highly corrosive qualities. + +As some portion of pulp finds its way with the coffee to the cistern, +which, if suffered to remain would, by its long retention of moisture, +lengthen the subsequent drying process, various methods have been +adopted to remove it. One mode is to pass the coffee a second time +through a sieve worked by two men; another to pick it off the surfaces +of the cistern, to which it naturally rises. + +In August, 1846, premiums were awarded by the Ceylon Agricultural +Society to Messrs. Clerihew and Josias Lambert for the improvements +they had introduced into coffee-pulpers, which, by their exertions, +had been brought to great perfection. The first improved complete +cast-iron pulper received in the island, was made for Mr. Jolly, from +drawings sent home by Mr. Lambert to Messrs. B. Hick and Son, +engineers. This pulper is one of the most perfect in every respect +that has yet been brought into use, the disadvantages belonging to the +old machine having been entirely remedied. The sieve crank has a +double eccentric action. The chops are regulated by set screws, and +the sieve suspended in a novel and secure manner, the whole combining +strength and efficacy, together with an elegance of form, which will +likewise be appreciated. + +Mr. W. Clerihew, of Ceylon, submitted to the Great Exhibition a model +of his approved apparatus for drying coffee (which has been patented +in the name of Robert R. Banks, Great George Street, Westminster), and +received the Isis gold medal for the same. The intention is to dry the +vegetable and aqueous moisture of the berry. Before this is required, +the coffee has previously undergone the process of pulping, or +removal from the soft fleshy husk. Here let Mr. Clerihew describe the +advantages for himself-- + + "When the coffee berry is picked from the tree it bears a closer + resemblance to a ripe cherry, both in size and appearance; and + several processes have to be gone through before the article known + in commerce as coffee is produced. In the first place, the pulpy + exterior of the cherry has to be removed by the process of pulping, + which separates the seed and its thin covering called the parchment, + from the husk. When the pulping process is completed, we have the + parchment coffee by itself in a cistern, and the next process + consists in getting rid of the mucilage with which it is covered." + +Having become assured, both by experiment and by Liebig's reasoning, +that the successive stages of decomposition were wholly ascribable to +the action of the stagnant air which occupies the interstices between +the beans, and taking into account that a mass of coffee presented a +medium pervious to air, it occurred to Mr. Clerihew that it was +possible, by means of fanners, working on the exhausting principle, so +to withdraw air from an enclosed space as to establish a current of +air through masses of coffee spread on perforated floors forming the +top and bottom of that space. The plan he carried into execution at +Rathgoongodde plantation in 1849. No sooner was the plan put in +operation than, instead of stagnant air occupying the interstices of +the beans and gradually acting on them, a stream of air was +established and flowing through the mass of coffee, each bean of it +became surrounded by a constantly renewed atmosphere of fresh air. + +_Java_.--When Arabia enjoyed the exclusive monopoly of coffee, it +could not be foreseen that one day the island of Java would furnish +for the consumption of the world from 125 to 130 millions of pounds +per annum. The cultivation was introduced by M. Zwaendenkroom, the +Governor-General of Batavia, who obtained seeds from Mocha, in 1723. +According to official statements the following are the exports. + +In 1839 there were exported 46,781,729 kilogrammes, valued at 48 +million florins. Eight years labor, 1833 to 1841, brought its produce +of coffee from 12 million kilogrammes annually, up to 55 millions. + +In 1846, the exports were 916,876 piculs, but, in 1850 they were only +14,801 piculs. The total coffee crop of Java was in 1850, 1,280,702 +lbs.; in 1851, 1,436,171 lbs.; in 1852, 1,229,349 lbs. + + 1840 1841 + Residences in which this produce has been + cultivated in 1840 and 1841 20 20 + Number of families destined for the labor 470,673 453,289 + Trees which have yielded a crop 916,193,894 216,085,600 + Trees which have produced the average quantity + of a picul of 125 lbs. Dutch 280 248 + Quantity of coffee furnished to the godowns + in piculs 706,258 877,444 + Trees according to the reckoning made in the + month of March, 1841 and 1842 336,922,460 329,898,936 + +The comparative result of this table shows--1st. That, in the year +1841, coffee had been gathered from 20,000,000 more trees than the +number in 1840, and that the crop had increased by 171,000 piculs. + +2nd. That, in the month of March, 1842, there were above 7 millions +less of coffee trees than in 1840. This diminution is merely nominal, +seeing that these trees have served to replace those which by their +small produce have to be suppressed in the lowlands of the residency +of Baylen. On the contrary, the increase of trees, planted from 1839 +to 1840, amount to very nearly the same number, of 7 millions. + +3rd. That, in the season of 1842, there was planted nearly 20 millions +of plants; of which 12 millions are to serve to replace the old trees, +and 8 millions are destined to extend this culture. It is calculated +that this island will very soon be in a condition to produce a million +of piculs or 125 millions more of Dutch pounds of coffee. Previous to +1830, Java scarcely exported as much as 40 millions of pounds. + +_Cultivation and Preparation of Coffee in Java_.--For the following +valuable details I am indebted to M. de Munnick, the inspector of the +agricultural department, Batavia, as contributed to my "Colonial +Magazine" (vol. xi. p. 46). + +_Soil and Situation_.--Elevated lands are found to be those best +suited for the growth of coffee in Java. Land situated between 1,000 +and 4,000 feet above the level of the sea may be generally said to be +adapted to the cultivation of coffee. It must not be taken for granted +that all ground of less elevation is unsuited. Suitable ground is to +be found lower down, but the cultivation on it is more difficult; the +tree gives less fruit, and the plant is less durable. Valleys lying +between high mountains are more especially fit for coffee plantations, +because the soil which is washed down from the heights affords fresh +food continually to the lowlands; the valleys themselves are moist, +since the hills surrounding them attract the rain; and they are shut +out from severe winds by the same protecting enclosure. The soils best +suited to the successful growth of coffee may be classed as follows:-- + +_Firstly_. Cleared forest lands, especially those in which the black +leafy, or vegetable mould is found to considerable depth. These are +the richest grounds, and will support the coffee plant for many years, +and they are also cultivated with the least trouble. + +_Secondly_. Dark brown soils, approaching to black, which, without +having much clay in them, appear to the eye to have a mixture of +coral. The greater the depth of this coral-like stratum, and of the +reddish or deep yellowish soil, the better is the ground for coffee. +This kind of land also has sufficient strength and substance to afford +nourishment for many years to the plant; but it entails more trouble +than the before mentioned soils, because the young plant does not so +speedily strike root into it, and sometimes dies, so that provision +has to be made against failures. + +_Thirdly_. Reddish and loose ground, such as is generally found in +the neighbourhood of volcanic lands. This kind is frequently found +well adapted for coffee; it flourishes on such land luxuriantly, but +does not last long, as the ground possesses less strength and +nourishing substance.[6] By digging in different places we become +better acquainted with the nature of the ground, but we may take it as +a rule, that rich old forest land on which many larger trees are +found, and plains covered with heavy underwood, most frequently offer +eligible sites for coffee plantations. + +Grounds in which loam is found, and stony soils, are unfit for coffee. +But I do not mean by "stony soils" land on which many stones are +lying, for on that very account it may be most suitable; but I mean +land which shows a pebbly stratum just below the surface, or such as +is of a porous, stony nature. In the choice of situation care must be +taken to select that which is as much as possible protected against +the south-east wind, because its dry influence is very injurious to +the coffee plant, and also prevents the growth of the _Erythrina_ +(known here locally as the Dadap tree) which is so necessary for its +shade. Flat grounds, or gentle declivities, are better than steep +slopes; yet the latter can be well employed if proper care is taken. + +_Cultivation_.--After the ground has been cleared in the dry +season--that is, after the bushes have been rooted out, the +undergrowth burnt off, and the thickets removed--ploughing is +commenced in September. When the ground has twice been deeply +ploughed, the weeds and roots must be brought together with the rake +and carefully burnt. The depth of the ploughing must be regulated by +the nature of the ground. In all kinds of cultivation, deep ploughing +is recommended, but in Java we ought not to plough deeper than the +stratum of fertile soil, as a kind of subsoil may be wrought uppermost +injurious to plants, and which, before it can become fertile, must for +a year at least have been exposed to the atmosphere. + +The ground having been turned up, should be left exposed for some days +to throw off the vapor arising from it; and must then be again +ploughed and cleared with the rake. After waiting for some days, it +should be ploughed for the fourth and last time, and made as clean and +friable as possible. In small plantations this is to be done with the +spade, but on large estates the roller must be used. This roller +consists of a heavy piece of round wood, eight or ten feet long, to +which a pole is fastened in the middle to have oxen harnessed to it. +It is drawn slowly over the ploughed land, and presses the clods to +earth. To give it greater force, the driver sits or stands upon it. + +Before the field has been properly ploughed and rolled in the above +way, the middle of October will have arrived, and we then begin to +open a path through the plantation from the highest to the lowest +point, about two roods broad, and the whole of the land is then +divided into separate parcels. Portioning off the estates into +divisions of equal size is a system to be much recommended. By this +means labor may be equally divided, superintended and inspected. Order +and regularity, which are necessary in all things, are most especially +required in cultivation on a large scale. + +The size of these parcels is regulated by the nature of the estate. On +flat or gently declining land they may be greater than on steep +grounds, because, in order to prevent the washing away of the soil on +precipitous land, the water must be led off by trenches, which of +themselves make the divisions of land smaller. On flat ground the +divisions may be each 625 square roods, each of which may contain, if +planted-- + + Trees. + 12 feet by 12 625 + 10 " 10 900 + 8 " 8 1406 + 6 " 6 2500 + + +The distance between the coffee bushes cannot be definitely laid down, +as it depends on the nature of the soil. On the most fertile forest +lands twelve feet by twelve is a good distance. Only on low and meagre +grounds, where the tree grows less luxuriantly and strong, can six +feet by six be reckoned a proper distance. + +Between the divisions a path should be left, one rood in breadth. +Along the middle paths and by the side of the divisions drains must be +cut, the former two feet in breath and depth, the latter one foot. The +drains along the divisions must be cut in such a way as to conduct the +rain-water to the larger drains which flank the middle paths. On +precipitous ground, when the coffee is planted, small ridges should be +raised between the rows, to prevent the rich earth from washing down +in the heavy rains. The steeper the land is, the closer these ridges +should be; and care should be taken to incline them, so as to break +the descent, the direction of which they should in some degree follow. +The first ridges may be made with the branches of the trees which have +been felled, or with the rubbish cleared from the ground on the first +raking of it. + +_Placing the pickets._--When the ground has been worked and divided in +the above manner, the pickets are placed. These are slips of bamboo +one-and-a-half to two feet long. First--two long canes (which do not +stretch like string), each one hundred feet long, are marked off in +feet according to the distance at which the planting is to take place; +heavy stakes are made fast to each end of them, by which they can be +well secured on the ground. At the places where they are marked off in +feet, strings are fastened so tightly that they cannot be displaced; +and then the canes are laid down and well fixed in the ground, one in +the length and the other in the breadth. + +Picketing does not give much trouble; it ensures regular planting, and +makes the daily inspection simple. The planting thus takes place in +straight lines, which give an ornamental appearance, and afterwards +renders the view over the whole plantation easy. At every place where +a string has been tied, a picket is stuck in the ground; then the cane +is removed to another place, and so on till all the estate is marked +out by pickets. After the picketing, a hole is made with the spade at +every mark; it should be a good foot broad and deep, and the earth +inside should be made very fine and clear. The earth is now ready to +receive the coffee plant, and the time has only to be waited for when +the first rains fully begin. + +_Nurseries_.--In the month of October, or earlier, if coffee trees are +near at hand, nurseries must be prepared in the neighbourhood of the +land about to be planted. This can be done in the ravines, or, if they +are too far from the spot where the plants are wanted, pieces of +ground most convenient can be selected. If the ravines are preferred, +places must be chosen which are shaded by trees not prejudicial to the +coffee plants. On ground where there is no trees, the nurseries may be +covered, at the height of four feet, with leaves of jack (_Artocarpus +integrifolia_), areca, or other palm trees, in a manner to admit the +air. + +The ground made loose and fine, coffee plants newly opening, or seeds +only, are planted or sown at a distance of four inches square; 500 +square roods will in this way furnish 648,000 plants, which are +sufficient for an estate of 300,000 trees. Transplanting from +nurseries is absolutely necessary in coffee cultivation, and the +trouble it costs is always doubly repaid. Having a choice of plants, a +person can be convinced he has taken none but healthy trees, and he +proceeds therefore with a confidence of success. After the first year, +all failures having been nearly replaced, the estate is fully planted, +the trees are of regular growth, and no useless clearing is +required--a thing which is always necessary in irregular plantations. +It is easy also to pick the berries from the trees which are planted +with regularity; the work goes on smoothly; and, when the estate has +lived its time, it may be abandoned altogether, without leaving +patches of living trees here and there, which renders superintendence +so very difficult. + +There should always be a plentiful supply of plants, to give an ample +choice and to make up for failures. When plants are placed in the +nurseries, they should not have more than two offshoots, or leaves, +above each other; and when the ball plants are transplanted, they +should not be higher than a foot, as large plants always give meagre +trees. + +At the end of November or beginning of December, if the nurseries are +kept free from weeds, and, if necessary, occasionally watered, the +plants will be about a foot high, and will have put forth 4 or 5 +leaves; they are then just fit to be transplanted. Then, the ground is +cloven with the spade, at a distance of an inch and a half round the +stem of the plant, to about three inches deep; the plant, with the +ball of earth adhering to it, is carefully lifted out of the ground, +and the ball is wrapped in a jack, plantain, or other leaf, and tied +to prevent the earth falling off; but, before the plants are thus +taken from the ground, it must be moistened to make the earth +adhesive. + +_Planting the coffee trees_.--The plants, which, after the above +operation are called "ball plants," are then placed in a bamboo wicker +frame, and are carefully carried by two men to the place where they +are to be put into the ground. They are then taken out of the frame +and placed in the holes next to the pickets. The pickets are removed, +and the plant is fixed upright; the leaf surrounding the ball is made +loose, but not taken away; the planter presses the plant down with his +hand and fills up the hole with fine loose earth, and the business of +planting the coffee tree is finished. + +_Planting the Dadap tree_.--This is a species of Erythrina, probably +_E. indica_, or _E. arborescens_; that used for the purpose in the +West Indies is _E. Corallodendrum_. In Java, as soon as the coffee is +planted, the operation of planting the dadap tree is commenced. The +best sort of dadap comes from Serp or Mienyak; it is smooth and +broad-leaved, and shoots up quickly. Thick young stems are chosen, +about three feet long, and the lower part is pointed off. If the dadap +is moist or juicy, it should be cut twenty-four hours before it is +planted. The dadap is planted uniformly by measuring the cane in the +same way as the coffee itself. Between every two rows of coffee one of +dadap is planted, not on a line with the coffee plants, but +alternately with them; thus, if the coffee is eight feet by eight, the +dadap is sixteen by sixteen. The dadap is planted to the depth of a +foot, with somewhat of a westerly inclination, in order that the +morning sun may fall on a larger surface of the stick. The ground must +be stiffly trodden round the bottom of the stem, and the upper part of +it should have some kind of leaf tightly bound around it to prevent +the sap from escaping. When the coffee and dadap plants have thus been +put out, every fifth day the young plantation should be carefully +inspected, and a picket placed wherever there is a failure, as a mark +to the planter that a new plant is there required. This operation of +replacing failures is carried on all through the wet season, and the +dadaps which have not succeeded are at the same time changed. + +_Keeping up the estate_.--In the first six months after planting, the +estate should be cleaned each fortnight with the hoe; the ground being +well moved and the weeds taken out. Those weeds which are too close to +the plants to be removed in this manner, must be pulled out with the +hand. When the plantation is thus wholly or partially cleaned, the +earth must be taken off the weeds, and they must be collected and +thrown on the pathways. + +The weeding in this manner gives at first a great deal of trouble, but +it is most advantageous in the long run, as the weeds are thus easily +kept down. + +Great care must be taken to do away with an old custom of burying the +weeds in large holes on the estates. It conduces to bad and slovenly +habits, such as cutting off the tops of the weeds by wholesale, and +thus giving the plantation an appearance of cleanliness, whilst it, in +fact, is as dirty as ever. This is soon discovered by the weeds +showing themselves again above ground in a very few days, and even if +they rot under ground, they breed insects which are very hurtful to +the bushes, and the seeds vegetate. + +After the first six months, this weeding will be sufficient if it +takes places once a month, but this must be persevered in till the +third year, when there may be a much greater interval between the +weeding. When the trees are coming to full growth, the hoe should be +less frequently used in cleaning; the hand must be used to the full +extent to which the branches reach, as the roots of the tree spread to +a like distance, and if they are injured the growth of the tree is +prejudiced. + +The well-being of an estate chiefly depends on frequent cleaning of +the plantation in the beginning. The idea of some persons that +cleaning in the dry season is of little consequence, must be given up, +as it is principally at that very time that it is extremely profitable +to remove and clear the ground round the trees in their growth. In the +first place, this destroys the weeds which take the nourishment away +from the trees; secondly, the ground is rendered more open to receive +the slight showers and dews which moisten it, and to benefit by the +influence of the air; the roots are thus considerably refreshed. The +dew falling on ground which has been recently moved, penetrates at +once into it, and does good to the plant; but if it falls on the +weeds, the first rays of the sun absorb it, and deprive the tree of +this source of refreshment. + +The dadap is to be taken care of whilst clearing goes on; it must be +cropped so as to cause it to grow upright, and to throw as much shade +as possible on the coffee without pressing upon it. + +In warm fertile ground, where the coffee plant grows rapidly, the +trees should be topped in the third year; but this should be done +sparingly, and as a general measure it is not to be recommended; it +should be resorted to only as a means to prevent the too rapid growth +of the tree, or its running up to a point. Topping and taking off +suckers are both necessary on meagre soils, where the trees run much +to wood; and it prevents the trees being injured in the picking +season, which often occurs without this precaution. The top or middle +stem is broken off at a height of six or seven feet, but care must be +taken not to tear the tree; when the top shoots out again it must be +cropped a second time, and it is seldom necessary to do this more than +twice. The cropping causes the tree to shoot out in breadth, and to +push forth a greater number of sprigs, and good strong ones. + +_Picking coffee_.--When the estate becomes productive, it must in the +picking season, just before the work begins, be kept exceedingly clear +of weeds, and be even swept clean with brooms, in order that the +berries which fall off may be gathered up. + +The picking should take place under proper superintendence, the trees +be picked row by row, and care taken that each berry is plucked off +separately, and not a heap together, by which the trees are torn and +the first offshoots prevented. In picking high trees, light ladders +should be used, made out of two or three bamboos tied together. + +_Customary preparation of the berry in the pulp_.--When the coffee is +picked and brought into the village, it is piled up in a heap in the +open air, and left in that manner for twenty-four hours. Thus heaped +up it gets warm, and this creates a certain fermentation of the juice +which is in the berry. That fermentation promotes the drying and +loosens the silvery pellicle which is attached to the bean inside the +parchment, and which cannot be entirely got rid of in any other way. +Coffee which still retains that pellicle is called in trade "grey +coffee," and is lower priced than good clean sorts. After the +fermentation, the coffee is spread out in rather thick layers, and +turned over twice a day. If it rains during this first spreading out, +the coffee does not require to be sheltered, as the washing causes the +juicy substance to evaporate, and this accelerates the drying +afterwards. + +In proportion as the coffee becomes dryer, the thickness of the layer +must be reduced, and the turning over must be more frequent till the +coffee is quite dry outside and the pulp has become hard. + +Then the coffee is laid out on drying floors, which can be easily and +speedily covered in rainy or damp weather, and is dried by the +powerful heat of the sun. + +This system of drying in the pulp requires six weeks or two months, as +it is advisable not to be over hasty with drying. + +When the coffee is entirely dry, it is either at once pounded or +placed in the stores to await that operation. In order to know if the +coffee be sufficiently dry, take a handful of it and shut your hand +close; shake it to your ear, and listen if the beans rattle freely in +the pulp. Or try them by biting the berry, and see if the bean and +pulp are both brittle and crisp, which shows that the fruit is dry +enough. + +_Preparation of the coffee in the parchment, or the West India +system_.--Only sound and fully ripe beans can be prepared in the West +India manner. In picking, therefore, all unripe, green, or unsound +beans must be taken away to dry in the pulp. As soon as the coffee is +brought in, it must be pulped. This operation is performed by means of +small peeling mills. These mills consist of two horizontal wooden +cylinders rubbing on a plank; they are covered with hoop-iron, and set +in motion by a water-wheel. The coffee is driven under the cylinder, +and kept constantly moist; by being turned through the mill, the pulp +is so bruised that the bean in the parchment falls from it into the +bamboo open frame, which is placed in front of the mill. The coffee is +then pressed with the hand, and falls through the frame into a basket. +The pulp, and beans not rid of the pulp, remain on the frame; the +first is cleared away, the rest passes a second time into the mill, +and this operation is continued till all the coffee is stripped of +the pulp, and the parchment beans are in the basket. When the +parchment coffee is thus separated from the outer skin, it is thrown +into the washing troughs, and remains there for twenty-four hours; +this drains from it the slimy substance adhering to it. After being +thus steeped, it is washed with pure water two or three times in the +basket, so that it becomes quite free from slimy matter. The parchment +coffee is then spread out on drying frames, and exposed for six or +eight days to the heat of the sun, till the outside is perfectly dry. +To do this equally it must be stirred about every hour. These frames, +which serve also to dry the coffee in the pulp, are made as +follows:--A bamboo roof is set up, resting on four wooden pillars, and +sloping considerably; it is covered closely with reeds; its length is +ten feet, its breadth six feet; the pillars are from nine to ten feet +high; a wooden framework is attached to this, about thirty feet long, +or three times the length of the space covered by the roof. On this +frame are brought out three platforms, one above the other, which are +pushed out by means of little rollers under them; they are ten feet +long by six broad, and six inches deep. The borders are of wood, and +the bottom of platted bamboo. In rainy weather, or when the drying +cannot go on, the three platforms are pushed under the covered space. +These drying places are set up near the overseer's dwelling, where +they stand free, and are not shaded by trees or buildings. After this +first drying on platforms, the parchment coffee is again dried inside +the house, and bamboo huts are for this purpose erected on each side +of the outhouse of the planters. These huts have trays, divided into +two or three compartments, one above the other, to keep the coffee +separate, according to the time of its having been picked. The +parchment coffee is spread out as thin as possible, and turned over +with a small wooden rake every hour. In proportion to the dryness of +the weather, from one to two months are required to dry the coffee +fully. In drying inside the houses, the greatest care must be taken to +prevent heating the coffee; this is the great object of the West +Indian system, as such heating is very prejudicial. On this account +the huts in which the platforms are placed must be very airy, so that +the wind may have good play among the trays, on which the coffee must +be thinly spread and frequently turned. + +_Pounding_.--Coffee in the pulp, as well as that in the parchment, +must, before being pounded, be exposed for some hours to the sun to +make it crisp and hard; but it must be allowed to cool again before +the pounding begins, or the beans will be liable to be broken. + +The pounding is done in small baskets of a conical form, two feet +high, at the top eighteen inches in diameter, and at the bottom one +foot. These baskets are, up to one-third of their height, thickly +woven round with coir, and fastened on the ground between four thick +bamboo poles, and with the bottom half an inch in the ground itself. +The coffee is pounded by small quantities at a time with light, wooden +pestles; the baskets must not be more than half full. When the coffee +is sufficiently pounded, the basket is lifted from between the poles +and the beans are thrown into sieves, on which it is cleaned from +skin, and white, black, or broken beans. According to the West Indian +system, the coffee must now be instantly put in bags, to preserve its +greenish colour, which is very peculiar. If the green coffee is not +instantly sent to the packing stores to be bagged, it must be put up +in a very dry place, and be turned over once every day, to prevent +heating, which damps and discolors the berry. + +Coffee is grown to some extent in Celebes--the average crop being from +10,000 to 12,000 piculs of 133 English pounds. The production has +rather fallen off than increased during the last few years. The whole +of the coffee grown must be delivered by the inhabitants to the +government exclusively, at twelve copper florins per picul. It is much +prized in the Netherlands, and maintains a higher price in the market +than the best Java coffee. As the treatment of the product in Java +differs wholly from that which is in vogue in Celebes, and this, in +our eyes, is much inferior, I know not whether the higher price is +ascribable to the name, or to an intrinsic superiority in quality. It +is certain that this cultivation is susceptible of much improvement, +and might be advanced to a much higher condition. + +From tables given by M. Spreeuwenberg ("Journal of the Indian +Archipelago," vol. ii. p. 829) of the quantity of coffee delivered +from each district of this island, for the years 1838 to 1842, it +appears that the average annual delivery of coffee was 1,288,118 lbs. + +Of the production of Sumatra I have no details, but a very fair +proportion is grown there--about five million pounds. + +_Production of America and the West Indies_.--The cultivation of the +coffee plant is largely carried on in South and Central America and +the West India Islands. + +Its culture has greatly increased within the last few years in +Venezuela, particularly in the valleys and on the sides of the hills. +The exports from La Guayra, in 1833, were about twelve millions of +pounds, being nearly double the quantity exported in 1830. The price +there is about ten dollars the 100 lbs., which is still too high to +enable it to enter into competition with the produce of Brazil or +Cuba. + +The total produce of coffee in Venezuela in 1839 was 254,567 quintals. +The quintal is about 10 lbs. less than the English cwt. + +_La Guayra_.--The exports of coffee from this port in 1796, were 283 +quintals. + + Quintals. + 1843 164,066 + 1844 141,934 + 1845 134,585 + 1846 175,346 + 1847 130,671 + 1850 179,537 + +The exports of coffee from La Guayra have been declining within the +past few years; the shipments were but 153,901 quintals in 1851, and +only 124,623 in 1852. + +Caracas coffee ranks in our market with good ordinary St. Domingo. + +The decline in the produce of coffee in the British West India +possessions has been very great. In 1838, we imported from the West +India Islands and British Guiana 171/2 million pounds of coffee, in 1850 +we only received 41/4 million pounds from thence. The shipments from +Jamaica have decreased from about 15 million pounds in 1836, to 4 +million pounds in 1850; Berbice and Demerara, from 5 million pounds in +1837, to about 8,000 pounds in 1850. + +_Production of coffee in the Brazils_.--Forty-two years ago the annual +crop of coffee in Brazil did not exceed 30,000 bags, and even in 1820 +it only reached 100,000 bags. About that time the high price of coffee +in England, superadded to the diminished production in Cuba, +stimulated the Brazilian planters to extend its cultivation, and in +1830 they sent to market 400,000 bags, or 64,090,000 lbs., and in +1847, the enormous quantity of 300,000,000 lbs. + +It would seem from the annexed figures that the production of coffee +in Brazil doubled every five years, up to 1840, since when it has +increased eighty per cent. The increase since 1835 has been upwards of +two hundred millions of pounds, and of that increase the United States +have taken one half. + + lbs. + 1820 15,312,000 + 1825 29,201,600 + 1830 62,685,600 + 1835 100,346,400 + 1840 170,208,800 + 1850 303,556,960 + +The sources from whence the United States derives its supplies of +coffee are shown in the following table:-- + + Years. Brazil. Cuba. St. Domingo. Java. Total + 1835 35,774,876 29,373,675 19,276,290 4,728,890 103,199,577 + 1840 47,412,756 25,331,888 9,153,524 4,343,254 94,996,095 + 1845 78,553,616 1,157,794 13,090,359 3,925,716 108,133,369 + 1850 90,319,511 3,740,803 19,440,985 5,146,961 144,986,895 + 1851 107,578,257 3,009,084 13,205,766 2,423,968 152,453,617 + +Coffee, up to 1830, paid a duty in the United States of five cents a +pound. Since 1832 it has been free. + +The population of the United States in 1840 was, in round numbers, +seventeen millions; the average consumption of coffee for the three +years ending 1841, 981/2 millions of pounds, which gave a consumption of +53/4 lbs. per head. The average for the three years ending 1850, was 143 +millions of pounds, and the population was twenty-three millions, +which gave a consumption of 61/4 lbs. per head. In 1830 the consumption +was only 3 lbs. per head; but the price ruled nearly double what it +was in the three years preceding 1850. + +In 1821 the consumption per head, to the inhabitants of the United +States, was 1 lb. 4 oz. In 1830, the proportion had increased to 3 +lbs. per head, the foreign price having fallen fifty per cent. The +importation in the year 1831 doubled, in consequence of the reduced +duty; and the consumption per head for the four years ending with +1842, averaged 6 lb. per head, having quadrupled to each inhabitant +since 1821. From 1820 to 1840, the Brazilian product increased 1,100 +per cent, or 155 million pounds. In the same time the consumption in +the United States increased 137 million pounds; leaving an increase of +eighteen million pounds of Rio coffee, besides the enhanced products +of all countries, to supply the increased consumption of England and +Europe. + +The consequence of the duty in England is, that while the United +States, with a population of seventeen millions, consumed, in 1844, +149,711,820 lbs. of coffee, Great Britain, with a population of +twenty-seven millions, consumed 31,934,000 lbs. only, or less than +one-fourth the consumption of the United States. In 1851 the figures +remained nearly the same, viz., 148,920,000 lbs. in the United States, +and 32,564,000 lbs. for Great Britain. + +The cultivation of coffee forms the present riches of Costa Rica, and +has raised it to a state of prosperity unknown in any other part of +Central America. It was begun about fifteen years ago; a few plants +having been brought from New Granada, and the first trial being +successful, it has rapidly extended. All the coffee is grown in the +plain of San Jose, where the three principal towns are situated--about +two-thirds being produced in the environs of the capital, a fourth in +those of Hindia, and the remainder at Alhajuela, and its vicinity. The +land which has been found by experience to be best suited to coffee is +a black loam, and the next best, a dark-red earth--soils of a brown +and dull yellow color being quite unsuitable. The plain of San Jose is +mostly of the first class, being, like all the soils of Central +America, formed with a large admixture of volcanic materials. Contrary +to the experience of Java and Arabia Felix, coffee is here found to +thrive much better, and produce a more healthy and equal berry on +plain land, than upon hills, or undulating slopes, which doubtless +arises from the former retaining its moisture better, and generally +containing a larger deposit of loam. + +I am inclined, in a great measure, to attribute the practice of sowing +coffee in sloping land in Java to this fact, that the plains are +usually occupied by the more profitable cultivation of sugar-canes. In +Arabia, the plains are generally of a sandy nature (being lands which +have, apparently, at no very distant geological period, formed the bed +of the sea), which may account for the plantations existing only upon +the low hills and slopes. + +A coffee plantation in Costa Rica produces a crop the third year after +it is planted, and is in perfection the fifth year. The coffee trees +are planted in rows, with a space of about three yards between each +and one between each plant, resembling in appearance hedges of the +laurel bay. The weeds are cut down, and the earth slightly turned with +a hoe, three or four times in the year; and the plant is not allowed +to increase above the height of six feet, for the facility of +gathering the fruit. The coffee tree here begins to flower in the +months of March and April, and the berry ripens in the plains of San +Jose in the months of November and December, strongly resembling a +wild cherry in form and appearance, being covered with a similar sweet +pulp. + +As soon as the crimson color assumed by the ripe fruit indicates the +time for cropping, numbers of men, women, and children are sent to +gather the berry, which is piled in large heaps, to soften the pulp, +for forty-eight hours, and then placed in tanks, through which a +stream of water passes, when it is continually stirred, to free it +from the outer pulp; after which it is spread out on a platform, with +which every coffee estate is furnished, to dry in the sun; but there +still exists an inner husk, which, when perfectly dry, is, in the +smaller estates, removed by treading the berry under the feet of oxen; +and in the larger, by water-mills, which bruise the berry slightly to +break the husk, and afterwards separate it by fanners. The entire cost +of producing a quintal (101 1-5 lbs. British) of coffee, including the +keeping of the estate in order, cleaning and fanning the plants, and +gathering and preparing the berries, is, at the present rate of wages +(two rials, or about a shilling per day), calculated at two and a half +dollars (equal to ten shillings); but the laborers are now hardly +sufficient for working all the estates which are planted, so that the +price may probably rise a little, though the present rate of payment +enables the natives to live much better than has been their wont. + +The coffee tree bears flowers only the second year, and its blossoms +last only 24 hours. The returns of the third year are very abundant; +at an average, each plant yielding a pound and a-half or two pounds of +coffee. + +The price of coffee in San Jose during the months of February, March +and April, after which none can generally be met with, was, in 1846, +about 5 dollars cash per quintal, the duty (which is collected for the +repairs of the road) one rial more, so that the speculator makes at +least ten rials, or about 20 per cent., by purchasing and sending the +coffee to the port, on his outlay and charges; but it is often +bartered for manufactured goods, and is also purchased before-hand, +half being paid in imports and half in cash to the grower. + +The largest coffee estates of Costa Rica are possessed by the family +of Montealegre and Don Juan Moira. The principal of these I have +examined. They appear to be very carefully and judiciously managed, +possessing good mills for cleaning and husking the coffee, worked by +water power; and annually producing 500 tons. The entire produce of +the year 1836, amounted to about 3,000 tons, and the crop of 1847 +exceeded 4,000 tons, near which quantity it will probably continue, +till the population gradually increases, the laborers, as already +mentioned, being barely sufficient for the present cultivation. As the +value at the present average price in the English market of 50s. a +cwt., will give L200,000, the produce of the district will appear +pretty considerable for a petty American State, possessing only 80,000 +inhabitants, and just emerging from a half-savage +condition.--(Dunlop's "Central America.") + +The cultivation of coffee on the plains of San Jose, in Costa Rica, +according to Stephens, has increased rapidly within a few years. Seven +years before, the whole crop was not more than 500 quintals, and in +1844 it amounted to 90,000. + +Don Mariano Montealegre is one of the largest proprietors there, and +had three plantations in that neighbourhood. One, which Mr. Stephens +visited, contained 27,000 trees, and he was preparing to make great +additions the next year. He had expended a large sum of money in +buildings and machinery; and though his countrymen said he would ruin +himself, every year he planted more trees. His wife, La Senora, was +busily engaged in husking and drying the berries. In San Jose, by the +way (he adds), all the ladies were what might be called good +business-men, kept stores, bought and sold goods, looked out for +bargains, and were particularly knowing in the article of coffee. + +The coffee at Surinam is suffered to grow in three stems from the +root, and when one of them does not produce plenty of berries, it is +cast away, and the best shoot in appearance next the root is allowed +to grow in its room. The trees are not permitted to rise higher than +about five feet, so that the negroes can very easily pluck the +berries, for gathering which there are two seasons, the one in May, or +the beginning of June, and the other in October or the beginning of +November. The berries are often plucked of unequal ripeness, which +must greatly injure the quality of the coffee. It is true when the +coffee is washed, the berries which float on the water are separated +from the others; but they are only those of the worst quality, or +broken pieces, while the half-ripe beans remain at the bottom with the +rest. Now, in the description I have given of the method of gathering +coffee in Arabia, it is seen that the tree is suffered to grow to its +natural height, and the berries are gathered by shaking the tree, and +making them fall on mats placed for them. By this way the Arabians +harvest only the beans perfectly ripe at the time, and which must give +the coffee a more delicate flavor. A tree will yield each time on an +average from 1 lb. to 11/2 lb. of coffee, when pulped and perfectly +dried. An acre of land planted with coffee, when favored by the +weather, becomes more profitable than when it is planted with sugar +canes; but its crops are always very precarious, as the blossoms, and +even the berries, are sometimes damaged by the heavy rains, which are +much less injurious to sugar canes; wherefore a planter feels himself +best secured in his revenue, as soon as he can cultivate them both. + +Nothing can exceed the beauty of the walks planted with coffee trees, +from their pyramidical shape and from their glossy dark green leaves, +shining with great brightness, amongst which are hanging the +scarlet-coloured berries. Mr. Baird, in his "Impressions of the West +Indies," thus speaks of a coffee plantation:-- + + "Anything in the way of cultivation more beautiful, or more + fragrant, than a coffee plantation, I had not conceived; and oft did + I say to myself, that if ever I became, from health and otherwise, a + cultivator of the soil within the tropics, I would cultivate the + coffee plant, even though I did so irrespective altogether of the + profit that might be derived from so doing. Much has been written, + and not without justice, of the rich fragrance of an orange grove; + and at home we ofttimes hear of the sweet odors of a bean-field. I + have, too, often enjoyed in the Carse of Stirling, and elsewhere in + Scotland, the balmy breezes as they swept over the latter, + particularly when the sun had burst out, with unusual strength, + after a shower of rain. I have likewise, in Martinique, Santa Cruz, + Jamaica, and Cuba, inhaled the gales wafted from the orangeries; but + not for a moment would I compare either with the exquisite aromatic + odors from a coffee plantation in full blow, when the + hill-side--covered over with regular rows of the tree-like shrub, + with their millions of jessamine-like flowers--showers down upon + you, as you ride up between the plants, a perfume of the most + delicately delicious description. 'Tis worth going to the West + Indies to see the sight and inhale the perfume." + +The decline in the quantities of coffee drawn from the "West Indies to +supply the great demand, is manifest in the following summary of +imports from those islands:-- + + lbs. + In 1828 they exported about 30,000,000 + 1831 the imports from British West Indies were 20,017,623 + 1841 Ditto Ditto 9,904,230 + 1850, the last year in which distinct accounts 4,262,225 + were kept + ----------- + Decrease from 1831 15,755,398 + +_Jamaica_.--The coffee plant was first introduced into Jamaica by Sir +Nicholas Lawes, in 1728, when it was cultivated on an estate called +Temple Hall, in Liguanea, not far from Kingston. In 1752 there were +exported 60,000 lbs.; and in 1775, 44,000 lbs. Until 1788 little +attention was paid to this product. In the four years ending 30th +September, 1794, the average exportation of coffee was 1,603,000 lbs.; +in 1804 it amounted to 22,000,000 lbs.; and during the three years +ending 30th September, 1807, the average annual exportation was more +than 28,500,000 lbs.; which, at L6 per cwt., its cost in Jamaica, +produced more than L1,700,000. It is calculated that L20,000,000 was +invested in coffee estates. The coffee plant thrives in almost every +soil about the mountains of Jamaica, and in the very driest spots has +frequently produced abundant crops. In 1844 there were 671 coffee +plantations in the island. Coffee is grown in the vicinity of the Blue +Mountain Peak at a height of 4,700 feet above the level of the sea, +and some of the finest and most productive plantations are in this +locality. The branches of a coffee tree, on Radnor estate, covered, in +1851, a space of thirteen feet in diameter, and the tree was about +thirteen years old. + +In 1789 Hayti exported 77,000,000 lbs. of coffee, but in 1826 it had +declined to 32,000,000 lbs., in 1837 it was 31,000,000 lbs., and the +shipments of this staple are now very inconsiderable. + +In the West Indies, I speak principally of Jamaica, where my +experience extended, the soil best adapted for the cultivation of +coffee is found to be loose gravelly or stony. A rich black mould will +produce a luxuriant bush, which will yield little fruit. Decomposing +sandstone, and slate, known in Jamaica as rotten rock, mixed with +vegetable mould, is one of the most favorable soils. The subsoil +should be also carefully examined by a boring augur, for a stiff moist +clay, or marly bottom retentive of moisture, is particularly injurious +to the plant. A dark, rusty-colored sand, or a ferruginous marl on a +substratum of limestone, kills the tree in a few years. In virgin +lands, after the wood has been felled and cleared, the land is lined +off into rows of from six to seven feet square, and at each square a +hole is made about eighteen inches deep, into which the young plant is +placed and the earth plied gently about it, leaving from six to eight +inches of the plant above ground. + +Nurseries for raising plants from seeds were formerly made, but for +many years this has been neglected, and plantations are set out now +from suckers which are drawn and trimmed of their roots, and cut about +two feet long. + +The young plants require to be kept well clear from weeds, and four +cleanings in the year may be deemed necessary, the plants which have +failed must be supplied in order to ensure uniformity of appearance. + +All manure, whether fluid or solid, in warm climates should be applied +in wet seasons, where it is not practicable to dig or turn it in to +prevent the escape of its volatile and nutritive principles. + +As respects situation, coffee thrives best on elevated situations, +where the morning sun has most influence; and on lower mountains, +where the temperature is higher, in situations facing the south-east, +or where the sun does not act with such intensity. Low mountains, in +which the thermometer ranges from 75 to 90 degrees Fahr., as well as +those exposed to sea breezes, are less suitable for the cultivation of +coffee than those districts where the temperature averages 65 to 80 +degrees Fahr., and situated at higher elevations in the interior. + +As a general rule, it may be asserted that the elevation best adapted +for coffee is at an altitude ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 feet, at a +temperature from 70 to 75 degrees Fahr. A west or south-west aspect is +the best, and the field should be well sheltered from the north +breezes. As a general rule in planting in light soils and high +temperatures, trees may be placed at the distance of four or five +feet, while in stronger soils and lower temperatures the average +distance would be from five to seven feet. + +_Topping_.--The young tree shoots out its lateral branches at each +joint, which follow in regular succession, till the tree attains the +height of about four feet six inches, when it is usual to top it down +to four feet. But care should be taken that the wood has ripened, +which is known by its assuming a brown and hard appearance, This +strengthens the vegetation of the branches, which begin to throw out +buds, and these shortly form collateral branches; in the course of +eighteen months after the tree will have arrived at its bearing point. +Trees, after being topped, throw off suckers, which are called +gormandizers, from each joint, but more especially at the head. They +should be plucked off with care, but not cut, as the sap would flow +more readily if cut. + +In pruning, one of the main objects is the admission of a free +circulation of air and light through the branches to the root of the +tree. No general rules can be laid down for pruning; much must depend +on judgment, experience, and a nice eye to appearance and preservation +of primary branches for bearing and ripening wood for the ensuing +year, as well as to regulate and proportion the size of the tree to +the functions of the roots in supplying sustenance, and the +convenience of picking the berries when ripe. Every old bough which +has seen its day, every wilful shoot growing in a wrong direction, +every fork, every cross branch or dead limb, must be cut away. + +_The blossoming, and ripening_ of the fruit varies according to the +situation and temperature of the plantation. In low and hot +situations, where the thermometer ranges from 78 to 90 degrees, the +tree shows its first blossoms when about two-and-a-half years old. In +higher and colder situations the tree will not blossom in profusion +until the fourth or fifth year. If there be light showers, the +blossoms will continue on the tree for a week or more, and by the +setting of the blossoms the planter can determine what germs will +become fruit. The trees will blossom in low situations as early as +March, but the April bloom is considered the most abundant. In higher +elevations, the trees will bloom even so late as August or September. +In warm climates the fruit advances as rapidly, and in a month will +have attained the size of a pea; in more elevated and colder +localities, it will take two months to arrive at this stage. The fruit +will be ripe in from six to eight months after the blossom has set; it +ripens in warm districts about the month of August, while in others +the crop will not be mature till February. An acre will usually +contain 1,200 trees in Jamaica, and the produce would be about 400 +lbs. of coffee an acre, or six ounces as the produce of each tree +annually. In some instances, but very seldom, one pound a tree may be +obtained. A bushel of cherry coffee will produce about ten or twelve +pounds of merchantable coffee. + +The coffee berry, after being pulped and soaked for a day and night to +free it from the mucilage, is spread out on barbacues to dry; in ten +or twelve days, if the weather has been good, it will be sufficiently +cured for the peeling mill. + +Mr. W.H. Marah, of Jamaica, in a Prize Essay on the Cultivation and +Manufacture of Coffee in that Island, published in my "Colonial +Magazine," makes some useful remarks:-- + + The manufacture of this staple commodity, with a view to its + improvement in quality, is a subject which demands our serious + attention; and when we observe the vast importance and pecuniary + advantage which accrue upon the slightest shade of improvement + either in colour or appearance, it becomes the more imperative on us + to use all those means which are available, in order to place + ourselves on a footing with the foreign grower. It is true that we + are unable to enter the contest with the East Indian or slave + cultivator, from the abundance and cheapness of labour which is + placed at their command; but by means of our skill and assiduity, we + can successfully compete with them by the manufacture of superior + produce. + + To this portion of plantation management I have given an attentive + inquiry, and shall shortly proceed to state my views on the system + best adapted to the curing and preparing for market of good quality + produce. + + The fruit should be gathered in when in a blood-ripe state, to all + appearance like cherries. The labourers are principally accustomed + to reap the crop in baskets, of which they carry two to the field; + and when the coffee is bearing heavily, and is at its full stage of + ripeness, the good pickers will gather in four bushels _per diem_, + and carry the same on their heads to the works. + + The fruit is then measured and thrown into a loft above the pulper + in a heap. It should be submitted to the first process of machinery, + the pulper, within twenty-four hours after, if not immediately; but + it not unfrequently happens that the manager is unable to pulp his + coffee for two and sometimes three days, by which time fermentation + ensues, and it becomes impossible after pulping to wash off the + mucilage, which rather adheres to the outer envelope of the berry, + and gives the produce what is termed a "red" or "blanketty" + appearance when spread out on the barbacues. The produce is let down + by means of a small hole cut into the floor of the loft, or a + floating box, into the hopper of the pulper, and by means of a + grater forcing the fruit against the chops, the berries are + dislodged from the pulp and fall upon a sieve, which being shaken by + the machinery, lets the berries fall into the cistern, whilst the + grater catches the pulp and carries it backwards at each evolution + of the roller, around which it is encircled. + + The fruit which might have passed through without being more than + half squeezed, and having only ejected one berry, is then returned + (after being shaken off by the sieve) into the hopper, to undergo + the process a second time. The pulped coffee is then permitted to + remain in the cistern for a day and a night, during which period it + undergoes a process of fermentation; it is then washed out in two or + three waters, and the whole of the mucilaginous stuff which had + risen from the berry by the fermentation is entirely washed off, and + the coffee presents a beautiful white appearance. From this the + produce is turned out to drain on a barbacue, sloped so as to throw + all the water to the centre, where a drain is placed to carry it all + off. + + In an hour or so after, the coffee may be removed to the barbacues + for curing; it is there spread out thinly and exposed to the sun, + which, if shining strong, will in eight or nine hours absorb all the + water, and the coffee be fit for housing that day. I say fit for + housing, because I have repeatedly seen coffee washed out early in + the morning and put up the same evening. I cannot say I approve of + the system, though in fine weather it has been attended with + success. From the time the coffee is first exposed to the sun till + the silver skin starts, is the stage, in my opinion, during which + the produce suffers most injury. In the first instance, it should be + kept constantly turned, in order to get the water absorbed as early + as possible; and after it has been housed, the greatest precaution + should be taken to prevent its heating: and it is for this reason + that I disapprove of early housing, for if wet weather should + intervene, and the coffee cannot be turned out, it is sure to get + heated. From this neglect I have seen a perfect steam issuing from + the house in the morning when the doors have been opened; and I have + known, as a natural consequence, the adhesion of the silver skin to + the berry so firm, that it could not be removed by a sharp penknife + without slicing the berry. + + In a succession of wet weather the produce has remained on the + barbacues for several weeks, without the slightest advance in + curing; and, unless it be frequently turned while in this wet + state, it is sure to germinate; the berries first swell, then a thin + white spire issues from the seam, and on opening the berry the young + leaves will be actually seen formed inside, so rapid is the course + of vegetation. + + I am of opinion that coffee should not be housed till the silver + skin begins to start, when no danger can ensue; for if a few wet + days should intervene, by turning the coffee over in the house, and + allowing a current of air to pass through it, it will keep for + weeks. It is at this stage that the parchment skin begins to show + itself, for at first it adheres to the inner kernel, but the heat of + the sun starts it from its hold and it separates; thus, on shaking a + handful of the produce it will be heard to rattle, a sure indication + that the silver skin has risen from the bean, without even threshing + it to ascertain the fact. The bean is perfectly white till the + silver skin starts; it then begins gradually to assume the dark, or + what is called the half-cured appearance. A good day's strong sun + will then half cure it, and by subsequent exposure the produce takes + another stage, and gradually loses the half-cured, and assumes a + blue colour; and when the produce is properly cured and fit for the + mill, not the slightest dark spot will be perceptible in the bean, + but it will exhibit a horny blue colour. + + It is within my observation that coffee has been gathered from the + field on the Monday, and prepared for market on the Saturday, in a + spell of dry weather; but I have known it also to lie on the + barbacues for as many weeks in contrary weather, before it had gone + through the same ordeal. With good weather and smooth terraces + whereon to cure, nothing but gross ignorance and unpardonable + carelessness can produce a bad quality of coffee. The difficulty + arises in wet weather, when one's skill and assiduity is called into + action to save the produce from being spoiled. After coffee has been + half-cured, the putting it up hot at an early period of the day has + the effect of curing it all night. I have noticed produce housed in + this manner, and requiring another day's exposure to fit it for the + mill, found perfectly cured next morning. + + The barbacues should be kept in good order--all ruts and holes + neatly patched every crop, for to them and other roughnesses is to + be attributed the peeling of the berries, their being scratched, and + various injuries which the produce sustains. And while on the + subject of "Works," I cannot help noticing the extreme carelessness + and inattention which, on visiting properties, the works and + buildings present to our view. It is utterly impossible to + manufacture good produce unless the machinery and buildings are kept + in good order; and the parsimony which is thus displayed in this + necessary outlay is fallacious, when one thinks of the result of one + or two shillings per 100 lbs. lost on a crop through this neglect. + + When the coffee is perfectly cured--which is generally ascertained + by threshing out a few berries in one's hands, and seeing if it has + attained its horny blue colour--it is then fit for milling, which is + the second process of machinery which it has to undergo. Here the + parchment and silver skins are dislodged from the berry, by means of + the friction of a large roller passing over the produce in a wooden + trough. It is then taken out of the trough, and submitted to the + fanner or winnowing machine, when the trash is all blown away, and + the coffee, passing through two or three sieves, comes away + perfectly clean and partially sized. From this it is again sieved in + order to size it properly, hand-picked, put into bags, and sent on + mules' backs to the wharf. It is then put into tierces and sold in + the Kingston market, or shipped to Britain. + + A variety of circumstances tend to injure the quality of the coffee, + which it is beyond human agency to control. Dry weather intervening + at the particular period when the berry is getting full, subjects it + to be stinted and shrivelled; and strong dry breezes happening at + the same period, will cause an adhesion of the silver skin which the + ordinary process of curing and manufacture will not remove. Late + discoveries in the latter have, however, shown the possibility of + divesting the produce of that silvery appearance, when brought about + under the foregoing circumstances. It is almost, unnecessary to + state that this improvement in manufacture refers to the inventions + of Messrs. Myers and Meacock, whose respective merits have already + undergone public revision. In reference to Mr. Myers' plan of + immersing coffee in warm water, I may be allowed to state that it + has come under my own observation, that produce which had previously + been heated through some carelessness in the curing, subsequently + was exposed to a slight sprinkling of rain, and when ground out and + fanned, was found to have lost its silvery appearance. + + To the invention of Mr. Meacock, a preference has, however, been + given, in consequence of the impression that the produce thus + immersed in water will absorb a portion of the liquid, which will + deteriorate its quality in its passage across the Atlantic. Several + gentlemen have shipped coffee submitted to this process to England, + but I have not learnt the result. + + It appears very manifest that a great deal might be done in the way + of machinery, to relieve produce of that silvery or foxy appearance + which is so prejudicial to its value in the British market, and + which appearances might accrue from a variety of incidents to which + all plantations are more or less subject. + + A manifest preference is given in the leading European markets to + coffee which has gone through the pulping and washing process; but, + strange to say, the consumers of this beverage are totally ignorant + of the fact, that the produce which is cured in the pulp furnishes a + stronger decoction than an equal quantity of the same which has + undergone the other process. Many persons are of opinion that the + mucilaginous substance which is washed off in pulping is absorbed by + the bean when cured in the pulp, and which gives strength to the + produce and enhances its aromatic flavour. On most properties it has + been customary to cure the remnants of the crop in this way, for the + use of the plantation; and it has been well noticed by great + epicures in the flavour of the decoction, that the coffee thus cured + produced the strongest and best beverage." + +_Trinidad_.--The coffee plant does not succeed well in Trinidad, the +tree giving but little fruit, and perishing at the end of ten or +twelve years; though the article is always of a superior quality, and +has the advantage over that of Martinique and the other Antilles of +not requiring age to produce an agreeable beverage. It is from the +fault and obstinate attachment to old habits of the planters, that +this cultivation has not been more successful in Trinidad. Because +coffee trees thrive in St. Domingo, Guadalupe, Dominica, St. Lucia and +Martinique, on the hills, they had concluded that it would be the same +in Trinidad; without noticing that the hills of that island are +composed only of schistus covered with gravel, on which lies a light +layer of vegetative earth, that the rain washes away after some years +of cultivation; whilst the hills of the Antilles, much more high and +cool, are covered with a deep bed of earth, which is retained by +enormous blocks of stone, that at the same time maintain humidity and +freshness. + +Messrs. Branbrun, of Tacarigua, and Don Juan de Arestimuno, of +Cariaco, worthy and intelligent planters, some years ago adopted the +plan of planting coffee trees on the plains, in the manner cacao trees +are planted, that is, in the shade of the _Erythrina_, and this mode +of cultivation has perfectly succeeded. It is to be hoped that their +success will encourage the cultivation of this valuable tree in the +united provinces of Venezuela, and in those parts of Trinidad which +were deemed unfavorable to it from the too great dryness of the +climate. + +In 1796, the year preceding its capture, there were 130 coffee +plantations in Trinidad, which produced 330,000 lbs. of coffee. In +1802, the produce had slightly increased to 358,660 lbs., but there +were two plantations less. + +In the island of Grenada, according to the returns made to the local +Treasury of the staple products raised, while there were 64,654 lbs. +made-in 1829, the quantity had decreased to 13,651 lbs. in 1837. + +The colony of British Guiana was formerly noted for its produce of +coffee. The following figures mark the decline of the culture of this +staple, showing the exports in Dutch pounds:-- + + Demerara and Essequibo. Berbice. + + 1834 1,102,200 1,429,800 + 1835 1,299,080 1,979,850 + 1836 2,117,250 2,684,100 + 1837 1,849,650 2,217,300 + 1838 2,486,240 1,700,550 + 1839 747,450 1,255,800 + 1840 1,531,350 1,825,950 + 1841 568,920 519,750 + 1842 1,372,650 804,470 + 1843 428,800 999,300 + 1844 716,137 774,600 + +Thus the exports of the colony which in 1836 were 4,801,350 lbs. had +declined in 1844 to 1,490,737; whilst in 1831 we received from British +Guiana 3,576,754 lbs. of coffee, in 1850 we only received 8,472 lbs. + +There are about 500 acres under cultivation with coffee in St. Lucia. +The exports, which in 1840 were 323,820 lbs., had declined, in 1844, +to 58,834 lbs. + +The British West Indies exported to Great Britain, in 1829 and 1850, +the following quantities of coffee:-- + + 1829. 1850. + lbs. lbs. + Jamaica 18,690,654 4,156,210 + Demerara 4,680,118 17,774 + Berbice 2,482,898 698 + Trinidad 73,667 96,376 + Dominica 942,114 792 + St. Lucia 303,499 35 + +_Cuba_.--For the following valuable remarks and details of coffee +culture in Cuba, I am indebted to Dr. Turnbulls "Travels in the +West:"-- + + At the period of the breaking out of the French revolution, the + cultivation of coffee could scarcely be said to have reached the + South American continent; so that till that its cultivation was in a + great measure confined to Arabia and the Caribbean Archipelago. Its + extreme scarcity during the war enhanced its price so enormously, + that on the first announcement of peace in 1814, the plants were + multiplied to infinity, and coffee plantations were formed in every + possible situation--on the Coste Firme of South America, along the + Brazilian shores of that continent, and even at some points on the + coast of Southern Africa. To show the extreme rapidity with which + the cultivation has been extended, take the statistical returns of + La Guayra, the chief port of the State of Venezuela, from whence the + whole export of coffee in the year 1789 was not more than ten tons; + and of late years from that port alone, and in spite of the internal + disunions of the country, it has reached the enormous quantity of + 2,500 tons. In the Isle of Bourbon (now Reunion), and the Mauritius + and Ceylon, the planters have also applied themselves to this branch + of industry; it has been prosecuted successfully in our Eastern + Possessions, and the French government, not content with the + natural influence of the universal demand for it, have been + endeavouring to stimulate the production by means of premiums and + other artificial advantages. + + In forming a coffee plantation, the choice of situation and soil + becomes a consideration of the first importance. A very high + temperature is by no means a favourable condition. If a spot could + be found where the range of the Fahrenheit thermometer did not sink + below 75 degrees, nor rise above 80 degrees, and where the soil was + otherwise suitable, no planter could desire a more favourable + situation. In the mountainous islands of Jamaica and St. Domingo, + the nearest approach to this temperature is found where the + elevation is not less than 2,000, and not more than 3,000 feet above + the level of the sea; and it is most successfully cultivated in the + two islands I have named. The Island of Cuba being much less + mountainous, but at the same time being nearer the tropical limit, + the planter in seeking the degree of heat he requires is forced to + confine himself in a great measure to the northern side of the + island, where, accordingly, we find that the cultivation of coffee + is most successfully carried on. + + The vicinity of the _cafetal_ to a convenient place of embarcation, + enters largely, of course, into the consideration of the planter + when choosing a suitable locality. A compact form is also thought + desirable, in order to save the time and labour of the negroes; and + the ordinary extent is about six caballerias, or something less than + 200 English acres. + + The locality being finally chosen, such open places are formed or + selected, from distance to distance, as may be found most suitable, + in respect to shade and moisture, for the establishment of + convenient nurseries. The fruit which has been gathered in the + beginning of the month of October, and which has been dried in the + shade, is preferred for seed. The seed is sown in drills half a yard + asunder, and introduced, two beans together, by means of a dibble, + into holes two inches deep and ten or twelve inches apart. The + extent of one of these nurseries is generally about 100 yards + square, which, with such intervals as I have mentioned, ought to + contain about 60,000 plants. + + A quarter of a _caballeria_, or about eight English acres, is + visually set apart, in a central and convenient position, for the + site of the buildings, and for growing provisions for the use of the + labourers on the future plantation. In favourable seasons it is + found that heavier crops are obtained from coffee trees left wholly + unshaded; but, in the average of two years, it seems to be settled, + in the island of Cuba at least, that a moderate degree of protection + from the scorching rays of the sun produces a steadier, and, upon + the whole, a more advantageous return. + + The distribution of the land into right-angled sections, and the + planting of the trees in straight lines, is so contrived as to + favour the future supervision of the labourers much more than from + any strict attention to mere symmetry. The distance of the trees + from each other ought to be regulated by the quality of the soil, + and the degrees of heat and shade they are to enjoy. The ranges from + north to south are usually four yards apart, and those from east to + west not more than three; but the lower the temperature the wider + should be the interval, because in that case the vegetation is more + active and more rapid, and the tree requires a wider space over + which to extend itself. + + The best season for planting the trees is the middle of the month of + May, if there be then a sufficient degree of moisture; but the + operation is often performed successfully during the rainy month of + October; subject always to the risk, however, of serious injury to + the young plantation from the north winds which prevail at that + advanced season of the year. The holes prepared to receive the + plants are eighteen inches in diameter, and about two feet deep. + + In the island of Cuba there are two rival modes of planting the + coffee tree. The one is called "la siembra a la mota;" the other "la + siembra a la estaca." + + By the method "a la mota," a circle is formed around the plant in + the nursery, and care is taken to remove it without disturbing the + earth around the roots. The plants are then placed carefully in + willow baskets, prepared for the purpose, and carried to the holes + already opened for their reception; gathering up the earth around + the stem, and pressing it carefully down with the foot, in such a + manner as to form a basin or filter for the reception of the + rain-water, and for suffering it to percolate among the roots, and + also to provide a convenient place of deposit for the subsequent + application of manure. + + The "siembra a la estaca" is differently executed. Such plants are + selected from the nursery as are of the thickness of the little + finger, or from that to an inch in diameter. In withdrawing them + from the ground, great care is taken not to injure or compress the + bulbs or buttons within, eight or ten inches of the level of the + soil, because these are to serve for the production of fresh roots + when the "estaca" is afterwards planted more deeply in its permanent + position. The greater part of the capillary roots are cut away with + a knife; but a few, together with the principal root, are suffered + to remain from four to six inches long. In planting them, from three + to four inches of the trunk are left above ground. The little basin + of earth for the reception and filtration of the rain-water, is not + so large in the stake system of planting as in that with the clod of + earth "a la mota;" but if the soil be poor, it must be + proportionably enlarged to admit the application of the necessary + quantity of manure. + + The stake system, requiring much less labour than the other, is + generally preferred; but when there is abundance of shade to protect + the young plant from drought, and always, of course, in replacing + the decayed trees of an old plantation, it is considered more + desirable to remove the whole plant, its roots and branches entire, + with as much as possible of the adhering soil from the nursery, + according to the system "a la mota." + + In the third or fourth year of the plantation, the trees, according + to the best system of husbandry, are pruned down to the height of + three feet from the ground on the richest soil, and still lower in + proportion to its sterility. All the branches which are not as + nearly as possible at right angles with the trunk, are likewise + removed by the pruning-knife, so that in the following spring the + whole stem is covered with fresh shoots. By this operation the power + of nature seems to be exhausted, as for that year the trees in + general bear no fruit; but in subsequent seasons the loss is amply + repaid by a crop often greater than the branches can support, or + than the flow of nourishment is always able to bring to full size + and maturity. + + The machinery for removing the external pulp of the coffee-bean is + seldom of a very perfect description in this island, and the loss + sustained in consequence is often very considerable. It is almost + uniformly moved by the power of horses or oxen, working in a gin, + and the name it bears is that of the _Descerecador_. The Barbecues, + when the coffee is laid out to dry, are called indiscriminately + _Tendales_ or _Secadores_. They are more numerous and of smaller + dimensions than is customary in the British colonies, where a single + barbecue, laid down with tiles or plaster, is considered sufficient + for a whole estate. + + The warehouse for receiving the crop and preserving the coffee after + it is put into bags and ready for the market, is generally of such + limited dimensions as to be barely sufficient for the purposes for + which it is designed; so that, when the harvest has been abundant, + or when anything has occurred to interfere with the despatch of what + is ready for removal, the constant accumulation is attended with + serious inconvenience. In fact, the occupation of the coffee planter + has been for some time on the decline in the island, owing to the + superior rate of profit derived from the making of sugar; and + everything reminds you of it, the _moleno de pilar_, the + _aventador_, and the _separador_, down to the humblest implement of + husbandry on the estate. + + The gathering of the fruit commences in Cuba in August; but November + and December are the most active and important months of the + harvests. The labourers are sent out with two baskets each, one + large, the other small. Every labourer has a file of coffee trees + assigned to him; the large basket he leaves near the place where his + work is to begin; the other he carries with him to receive the + berries from the trees; and as often as it is full he empties it + into the large one. The baskets are made of rushes, willows, or + bamboo; and the large one is of such a size that three of them ought + to fill the barrel, without top or bottom, which serves the purposes + of a measure at the _Tendal_ or Secador. + + Three baskets, or one barrel-measure, of the newly-gathered coffee + berry, ought to produce thirty pounds after the process of drying, + the removal of the pulp, and the final preparation for the market. + When there is a sufficient number, or a sufficient space of + Barbecues or Secadors, sixty or seventy barrels only are put + together; but from want of room it often happens that the quantity + amounts to a hundred barrels. In either case, the whole is gathered + into two great heaps, and in this state it is allowed to remain for + four-and-twenty hours, in order to subject it to a certain degree of + fermentation. After this, it is spread out to dry over the whole + surface of the Barbecue, and until it is sufficiently so, it remains + there uncovered day and night. When the dessication is found to be + far enough advanced, it is no longer exposed during the night; nor + even during the day, if the weather be damp or unfavorable. The + subsequent operations are certainly not better, probably not so + well, conducted as in our own West India possessions. + + In the fourth year, it is presumed that the agricultural produce of + the land, and the first returns of coffee, should be sufficient to + meet all the current expenses. At the end of the fifth year there + ought to be forty thousand coffee trees four years old on the + estate, 60,000 of three years, and 100,000 of two and one year, the + produce of which ought to be at least 400 quintals, which, at a + moderate estimate, should be worth 2,400 dollars. Thus the + calculation goes on until we arrive at the end of the seventh year, + when the estate ought to be in full bearing. The returns are + estimated at 3,000 arrobas, or 750 quintals, which, at eight dollars + per quintal delivered free on board, make 6,000 dollars. The minor + products of the estate, such as Indian corn, pigs, and oil, are + given at 1,130 dollars, making the gross returns 7,130 dollars; and, + after deducting the annual expenses, leaving 5,300 dollars as the + regular return on the capital invested, which, having been about + 40,000 dollars, gives about thirteen per cent.; not certainly to be + considered extravagant in a country where twelve per cent, is the + regular rate of interest. The produce of coffee from each section is + given at 400 arrobas, or 3,500 arrobas for the whole of the nine + sections. The average price of coffee, free of the expense of + carriage, is assumed to be two dollars the arroba, or eight dollars + per quintal, which would give a return of 7,200 dollars, besides the + repayment of the rent by the colonists. + +The cultivation of coffee has been falling off in Cuba for several +years past, the crops it is asserted being too precarious there, and +the prices too low to encourage the continuance of planting. On the +northern side of the island is where this decrease is most +perceptible, several of the largest estates having been converted to +the growth of sugar and tobacco, others abandoned to serve as pasture +fields, and the very few remaining yielding less and less every year. +Henceforward the culture of this berry here is likely to be very +insignificant, and not many years will elapse before the amount +produced will merely suffice for the local consumption. About St. Jago +de Cuba the cultivation is more attended to, the article forming still +their principal export. Taking five quinquennial periods, the +following figures show the average annual exports of coffee:-- + + arrobas. + 1826 to 1830 1,718,865 + 1830 " 1835 1,995,832 + 1835 " 1840 1,877,646 + 1841 " 1846 1,887,444 + 1846 " 1851 768,244 + +The better to exhibit the decrease of production throughout the +island, I may state that the export from 1839 to 1841 inclusive, was +in the aggregate 1,332,221 quintals; 1842 to 1844, inclusive, was in +the aggregate 1,217,666 quintals; 1845 to 1847, inclusive, was in the +aggregate but 583,208 quintals. The exports of coffee for the whole +island, were, in 1840, 2,197,771 arrobas; in 1841, 1,260,9201/2 arrobas. + +In 1847 there were 2,064 plantations under cultivation with coffee in +Cuba, in 1846 there were only 1,670. The production of 1849 was +1,470,754 arrobas, valued at 2,206,131 dollars. From the year 1841 to +1846, the average yearly production was 45,236,100 lbs.; but from 1846 +to 1851, it was only 19,206,100 lbs.; showing a falling off of 72 per +cent.; the production still further decreased in 1851, it being only +13,004,350 lbs., or 1.52 per cent. less than the preceding year. This +enormous decline in the production of coffee has been caused by the +low price of the article in the markets of Europe and the United +States, coupled with the more remunerative price of sugar, during the +same period; causing capitalists rather to invest money in the +formation of new sugar estates. As a consequence, many coffee +plantations have been turned into cane cultivation; or, being +abandoned, the slaves attached thereto were sold or leased to sugar +planters. + +The following is private information from a correspondent:-- + + "We generally plant about 200,000 trees within a space of 500 feet, + choosing the strongest soil. I have adopted a different system from + the one generally in use here, for they usually plant the trees too + near each other. I find by giving them space and air, that the plant + develops itself and yields more beans. It is very important to + protect the trees from the rays of the sun, for which purpose I + plant bananas at intermediate rows; their broad leaves, like + parasols, shed a delightful shade round the coffee plant, and tend + to accumulate the moisture which strengthens the roots of the young + tree. + + When the tree is about two years old the top branches are lopped off + for the purpose of throwing the sap into the bean. Some planters cut + the trees so short, that they do not allow them to stand more than + five or six feet above the ground; but I allow mine to attain + greater height prior to lopping them, whereby they produce larger + crops. Nor do I allow my negroes to beat the trees, or force them to + pluck a certain quantity a day, for I discovered that they picked + the ripe and unripe beans indiscriminately--frequently injuring the + trees. I only allow them to shake the tree, and pick up the beans + that have fallen during the night." + +Coffee exports from the ports of Havana and Matanzas, in Cuba, for the +years ending December in + + Quintals. + 1839 344,725 + 1840 402,135 + 1841 212,767 + 1842 314,191 + 1843 223,265 + 1844 186,349 + 1845 42,409 + 1846 65,045 + 1847 106,904 + 1848 31,674 + 1849 92,974 + 1852 42,510 + +Porto Rico exported 85,384 cwt. of coffee in 1839. + +_Africa_.--Coffee will require some four years to grow before it will +give to the cultivator any income, but it should be known that after +that time the tree, with little or no labor bestowed on it, will yield +two crops a year. The quality of coffee grown in the republic of +Liberia, on the western coast of Africa, is pronounced by competent +judges to be equal to any in the world. In numerous instances, trees +full of coffee, are seen at only three years old. 214 casks and bags +of coffee were imported from the western coast of Africa in 1846. + +Coffee, it has been proved, can be cultivated with great ease to any +extent in the republic of Liberia, being indigenous to the soil, and +found in great abundance. It bears fruit from thirty to forty years, +and yields 10 lbs. to the shrub yearly! A single tree in the garden of +Colonel Hicks, a colonist at Monrovia, is said to have yielded the +enormous quantity of 16 lbs. at one gathering. Judge Benson, in 1850, +had brought 25 acres under cultivation, and many others had also +devoted themselves to raising coffee. It was estimated there were +about 30,000 coffee trees planted in one of the counties, that of +Grand Bassa, and the quality of the produce was stated to be equal to +the best Java. + +About the villages and settlements of the Sherbro river, and Sierra +Leone, wild coffee-trees are very abundant. In several parts of the +interior, the natives make use of the shrub to fence their +plantations. + +Coffee has been successfully grown at St. Helena, of an excellent +quality, and might be made an article of export. + +Portugal sent to the Great Exhibition, in 1851, a very valuable series +of coffees from many of her colonies; of ordinary description from St. +Thomas; tolerably good from the Cape de Verd islands; bad from Timor; +worse (but curious from the very small size of the berry) from +Mozambique; good from Angola; and excellent from Madeira. + +Aden, alias Mocha coffee, is, along with the other coffees of the Red +Sea, sent first to Bombay by Arab ships, where it is "garbelled," or +picked, previously to its being exported to England. + +An excellent sample of coffee, apparently of the Barbera (Abyssinia) +variety, was contributed to the Great Exhibition from Norfolk Island. +It was of good color, well adapted for roasting, and a most desirable +novelty from that quarter. + +Dr. Gardner, of Ceylon, has taken out a patent for preparing the +coffee leaf in a manner to afford a beverage like tea, that is by +infusion, "forming an agreeable refreshing and nutritive article of +diet." An infusion of the coffee-leaf has long been an article of +universal consumption amongst the natives of parts of Sumatra; +wherever the coffee is grown, the leaf has become one of the +necessaries of life, which the natives regard as indispensable. + +The coffee-plant, in a congenial soil and climate, exhibits great +luxuriance in its foliage, throwing out abundance of suckers and +lateral stems, especially when from any cause the main stem is thrown +out of the perpendicular, to which it is very liable from its great +superincumbent weight compared with the hold of its root in the +ground. The native planters, availing themselves of this propensity, +often give this plant a considerable inclination, not only to increase +the foliage, but to obtain new fruit-bearing stems, when the old ones +become unproductive. It is also found desirable to limit the height of +the plant by lopping off the top to increase the produce, and +facilitate the collecting it, and fresh sprouts in abundance are the +certain consequence. These are so many causes of the development of a +vegetation, which becomes injurious to the quantity of the fruit or +berry unless removed; and when this superabundant foliage can be +converted into an article of consumption, as hitherto the case in +Sumatra, the culture must become the more profitable; and it is +clearly the interest of the planters of Ceylon to respond to the call +of Dr. Gardner, and by supplying the leaf on reasonable terms, to +assist in creating a demand for an article they have in abundance, and +which for the want of that demand is of no value to them. It ought to +be mentioned also, that the leaves which become ripe and yellow on the +tree and fall off in the course of nature, contain the largest portion +of extract, and make the richest infusion; and I have no doubt, should +the coffee leaf ever come into general use, the ripe leaf will be +collected with as much care as the ripe fruit. + +The mode of the preparation by the natives is this. The ends of the +branches and suckers, with the leaves on; are taken from the tree and +broken into lengths of from twelve to eighteen inches. These are +arranged in the split of a stick or small bamboo, side by side, +forming a truss in such a manner, that the leaves all appear on one +side, and the stalk on the other, the object of which is to secure +equal roasting, the stalks being thus exposed to the fire together, +and the leaves together. The slit being tied up in two or three +places, and a part of the stick or bamboo left as a handle, the truss +is held over a fire without smoke, and kept moving about, so as to +roast the whole equally, without burning, on the success of which +operation the quality and flavor of the article must depend. When +successfully roasted, the raw vegetable taste is entirely dissipated, +which is not the ease if insufficiently done. When singed or overdone, +the extract is destroyed and the aroma lost. When the fire is smoky, +the flavor varies with the nature of the smoke. The stalks are roasted +equally with the leaves, and are said to add fully as much to the +strength of the infusion. By roasting the whole becomes brittle, and +is reduced to a coarse powder by rubbing between the hands. In this +state it is ready for use, and the general mode of preparing the +beverage is by infusion, as in the case of common tea. + +That it would soon become a most valuable article of diet amongst the +laboring classes, and on ship board particularly, if, once brought +into use, there can be no doubt. The coffee-tree can be grown to +advantage for the leaf in the lowlands of every tropical country, +where the soil is sufficiently fertile, whilst it requires a different +soil and climate to produce the fruit[7]. Dr. Hooker, in the Jury +Reports, observes upon the prepared coffee leaves, submitted by Dr. +Gardner, of Ceylon, to be used as tea leaves, that they are worthy of +notice as affording a really palatable drink when infused as tea is; +more so, perhaps, than coffee is to the uninitiated. That this +preparation contains a considerable amount of the nutritious +principles of coffee, is evident from the analysis; but as the leaves +can only be collected in a good state at the expense of the coffee +bush, it is doubtful whether the coffee produced by the berries be +not, after all, the cheapest, as it certainly is the best. + + +TEA. + +The immense traffic in the produce of this simple shrub, the growth of +a remarkable country, hitherto almost entirely isolated from the +western nations, is one of the most remarkable illustrations of the +enterprise and energy of modern commerce. The trade in tea now gives +employment to upwards of 60,000 tons of British shipping, and about +ten millions sterling of English capital, producing a revenue to this +country of nearly six millions sterling. + +Every reflecting man will admit that articles of such vast consumption +as tea and coffee (amounting together to more than 343,500 tons +annually), forming the chief liquid food of whole nations, must +exercise a great influence upon the health of the people. + +There is scarcely any country in the world in which a dietetic drink +or beverage resembling tea, is not prepared, and in general use, from +some exotic or indigenous shrub. The two chief plants laid under +contribution are, however, the Chinese tea-plant, and a species of +holly peculiar to South America, producing the Paraguay tea. _Astoria +theiformis_ is used at Santa Fe as tea. The leaves of _Canothus +Americanus_, an astringent herb, have been used as a substitute, under +the name of New Jersey tea. + +It has been a matter of surprise why tea should be so much sought +after by the poorer classes, since by many it is looked on more as a +luxury than of use to the human system. The manner in which it acts, +and the cause why it is so much in demand by all classes, is +satisfactorily explained by Liebig; and the benefit, therefore, which +will be conferred by selling it at a low rate, and thus placing it +within the means of all, has at last come to be duly appreciated. +Liebig says, without entering minutely into the medical action of +caffeine, theine, &c., it will surely appear a most striking fact, +even if we were to deny its influence on the process of secretion, +that the substance, with the addition of oxygen and the elements of +water, can yield taurine, the nitrogenised compound peculiar to +bile:-- + + Carbon. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. Oxygen. + 1 atom caffeine or theine = 8 2 5 2 + 9 atoms water = -- -- 9 9 + 9 atoms oxygen = -- -- -- 9 + __ __ __ __ + = 2 atoms taurine 8 2 14 20 + = 2 4 9 10 + +To see how the action of caffeine, theobromine, theine, &c., may be +explained, we must call to mind that the chief constituent of the +bile contains only 3.8 per cent. of nitrogen, of which only the half, +or 1.9 per cent., belongs to the taurine; bile contains, in its +natural state, water and solid matter, in the proportion of ninety +parts by weight of the former, to ten of the latter. If we suppose +these ten parts, by weight of solid matter, to be chloric acid, with +3.87 per cent. of nitrogen, then 100 parts of theine would contain +0.171 of nitrogen in the shape of taurine. Now this quantity is +contained in 0.6 parts of theine, or 2 grains 8/10ths of theine can +give to an ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of +taurine. + +Although an infusion of tea contains no more than the one-tenth of a +grain of theine, still, if it contribute in point of fact to the +formation of bile, the action even of such a quantity cannot be looked +upon as a nullity. Neither can it be denied, that in the case of an +excess of non-azotised food, and a deficiency of motion, which is +required to cause the change of matter of the tissues, and thus to +yield the nitrogenised product which enters into the composition of +the bile, that in such a condition the health may be benefited by the +use of compounds which are capable of supplying the place of the +nitrogenised substances produced in the healthy state of the body, and +essential to the production of an important element of inspiration. In +a chronical sense, and it is this alone which the preceding remarks +are intended to show, caffeine, or theine, &c., are, in virtue of +their composition, better adapted to this purpose than all +nitrogenised vegetable principles. The action of these substances in +ordinary circumstances is not obvious, but it unquestionably exists. +Tea and coffee were originally met with among nations whose diet was +chiefly vegetable. + +Considerable discussion has taken place regarding the tea plants; some +say that there is only one species; others that there are two or +three. Mr. Fortune, who visited the tea districts of Canton, Fokien, +and Chekiang, asserts that the black and green teas of the northern +districts of China are obtained from the same species or variety, +known under the name of _Thea Bohea_. Some make the Assam tea a +different species, and thus recognise three: _T. Cantoniensis_ or +_Bohea_, _T. Viridis_, and _T. Assamica_. The quality of the tea +depends much on the season when the leaves are picked, the mode in +which it is prepared, as well as the district in which it grows. The +green teas include Twankay, Young Hyson, Hyson, Gunpowder, and +Imperial; while the black comprise Bohea, Congou, Souchong, Oolong, +and Pekoe. The teas of certain districts, such as Anhoi, have peculiar +characters. + +The first tea imported into England was a package of two pounds, by +the East India Company, in 1664, as a present to the king; in 1667, +another small importation took place, from the company's factory at +Bantam. The directors ordered their servants to "send home by their +ships 100 pounds weight of the best _tey_ they could get." In 1678 +were imported 4,713 lbs.; but in the six following years the entire +imports amounted to no more than 410 lbs. According to Milburn's +"Oriental Commerce," the consumption in 1711 was 141,995 lbs.; 120,595 +lbs. in 1715, and 237,904 lbs. in 1720. In 1745 the amount was 730,729 +lbs. For above a century and a half, the sole object of the East India +Company's trade with China was to provide tea for the consumption of +the United Kingdom. The company had the exclusive trade, and were +bound to send orders for tea, and to provide ships to import the same, +and always to have a year's consumption in their warehouses. The teas +were disposed of in London, where only they could be imported, at +quarterly sales. The act of 1834, however, threw open the trade to +China. + +From a Parliamentary return, showing the quantity of tea retained for +home consumption in the United Kingdom, in each year, from 1740 to the +termination of the East India Company's sales, and thence to the +present time, it appears that in 1740, 1,493,695 lbs. of tea were +retained for home consumption. Two years afterwards, the quantity fell +to 473,868 lbs., and in 1767 only 215,019 lbs. were retained. Next +year the amount increased to 3,155,417 lbs.; in 1769 it was 9,114,854 +lbs.; in 1795, 21,342,845 lbs.; in 1836, 49,842,236 lbs. + +The return in question also specifies the quantity of the various +kinds of tea, with the average sale prices. + +According to the annual tea reports of Messrs. W.J. Thompson and Son, +and Messrs. W.E. Franks and Son, the total imports of tea during the +last fifteen years were as follows, reckoned in millions of lbs.:-- + + Years. Black. Green. Total. Home Consumption. + 1838 26,786 8,215 35,001 36,415 + 1839 30,644 7,680 38,324 36,351 + 1840 21,063 7,161 28,224 31,716 + 1841 24,915 6,303 31,218 36,811 + 1842 31,915 9,729 41,644 37,554 + 1843 39,513 7,340 46,853 39,902 + 1844 39,644 8,749 48,393 41,176 + 1845 39,518 11,790 51,338 44,127 + 1846 44,017 12,486 55,503 47,534 + 1847 46,887 8,368 55,255 46,247 + 1848 37,512 7,611 45,123 48,431 + 1849 43,234 9,156 52,400 50,100 + 1850 39,873 8,427 48,300 51,000 + 1851 62,369 9,131 71,500 54,000 + 1852 55,525 9,175 64,700 54,724 + +The duty on tea was gradually raised from 9d. per lb. in 1787 to 3s. a +lb. in 1806. It was 2s. 2d. per lb. until May, 1852, when 4d. per lb. +was taken off, and further annual reductions are to be made. Down to +the year 1834 the duty was an _ad valorem_ one of 96 per cent. on all +teas sold under 2s. a lb., and of 100 per cent. on all that were sold +at or above 2s., charged on the prices which they brought at the East +India Company's sales. The _ad valorem_ duties ceased on the 22nd of +April, 1834, and under the act 3 and 4 William IV. c. 100, all tea +imported into the United Kingdom for home consumption was charged +with a customs as follows:-- + + Bohea 1s. 6d. per lb. + Congou, twankay, hyson skin, orange + pekoe, and campoi 2 2 " + Souchong, flowery pekoe, hyson, young + hyson, gunpowder, imperial, and + other teas not enumerated 3 0 " + +In 1836, the uniform duty of 2s. 1d. per lb. on all descriptions of +tea was imposed, which, with the additional 5 per cent, imposed in +1840, made the total duty levied per lb. 2s. 2d. and a fraction. + +During the years from 1831 to 1841, in spite of an increase of nearly +three millions in the population of the country, and notwithstanding +the impetus given to the tea-trade by the abolition of the East India +Company's monopoly in 1833, the increased consumption was only +6,675,566 lbs. Great as the increase has been of late years, however, +it is very far short of what we might expect to see were the duty +reduced to a moderate per centage on the value of the article as it +comes from the Chinese merchant. In Jersey and Guernsey, where there +is no duty on tea, the average consumption is 41/2 lbs. per head per +annum. The same rate for the United Kingdom would require an annual +importation of nearly 150 million lbs. I asserted, many months ago, if +the duty could be gradually reduced from its present exorbitant amount +to 1s. per lb., the revenue would not suffer much, whilst the comfort +of the people would be much increased, and our trade with China +greatly improved. + + Years. Teas Imported, lbs. Entered for Home Consumption, lbs. + 1843 42,779,265 35,685,262 + 1844 50,613,328 41,176,00 + 1845 53,570,267 44,127,000 + 1846 57,584,561 46,554,787 + 1847 55,255,000 50,921,486 + 1848 47,774,755 48,735,696 + 1849 53,460,751 50,024,688 + 1850 50,512,384 51,178,215 + 1851 71,466,421 53,965,112 + 1852 66,361,020 54,724,615 + +Amount of duty received on tea:-- + + L Prices of Sound Common Congou per lb. + 1841 3,973,668 1s. 7d. to 2s. 0d. + 1842 4,088,957 1 7 1 10 + 1843 4,407,642 1 0 1 2 + 1844 4,524,093 0 10 1 0 + 1845 4,833,351 1 0 1 91/2 + 1846 5,112,005 0 9 0 91/2 + 1847 5,066,860 0 81/2 0 91/2 + 1848 5,330,515 0 8 0 81/2 + 1849 5,471,641 0 81/2 0 91/2 + 1850 5,597,708 0 101/2 1 1 + 1851 5,902,433 0 8 0 81/2 + 1852 5,986,482 0 71/2 2 2 + +Mr. Montgomery Martin, in his work on China, published in 1847, gave +the average annual consumption of tea, the produce of China, as +follows:-- + + lbs. + Great Britain and Ireland 45,000,000 + British North America and West Indies 2,500,000 + Australasia, Cape of Good Hope, &c. 2,500,000 + British India and Eastern Islands 2,000,000 + ---------- + Total used throughout the British Empire 52,000,000 + ---------- + + United States of North America * 7,000,000 + Russia 10,000,000 + France and Colonies 500,000 + Hanse Towns, &c. 150,000 + Holland and its Colonies 1,000,000 + Belgium 200,000 + Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 250,000 + The German States 500,000 + Spain and Portugal 100,000 + Italian States 50,000 + South American States 500,000 + ------- + Total consumption in foreign countries 20,250,000 + +[* This is only one-third the actual consumption.] + +According to this statement, it would seem that the English consume +twice the quantity of tea that is used by all the other countries +excepting China and Japan. + +The consumption of tea in Europe and America I estimated a year or two +ago as follows:-- + + lbs. + Russia 15,000,000 + United States of America 18,000,000 + France 2,000,000 + Holland 2,800,000 + Other countries 2,000,000 + Great Britain 50,000,000 + ---------- + Total 89,800,000 + +The estimated consumption, at the rate of consumption found where +taxation is favorable (as for instance 11/2 pounds--the average of this +country) would give the following:-- + + cwts. + England 400,000 + France 510,000 + Germany 400,000 + Austria 500,000 + Prussia ... + Belgium 63,000 + Russia 900,000 + Rest of Europe 750,000 + +The total exportation of tea by sea from China, was estimated by Mr. +Martin in 1847 at 76 millions of pounds, viz.:-- + + England 50,000,000 + United States 20,000,000 + All other countries 5,000,000 + ---------- + 75,000,000 + +which, at 20 taels per picul (133 lbs.) amounts to 11,280,000 taels of +silver at 80d. per tael, L3,760,000. The present Chinese duty of two +taels five mace, does not include shipping and other charges; the old +duty was five taels, and included all charges paid the Hong merchants. +The export by sea is now about 97 millions of lbs. + +The following was the returned value of the tea exported from the five +Chinese ports in 1844 and 1845:-- + + 1844. 1845. + Canton L2,910,474 L3,429,790 + Shanghae 67,115 462,746 + Ningpo 2,000 2,000 + Amoy 544 + Foo-chow-foo 638 + --------- --------- + L2,979,589 L3,895,718 + +The average cost of tea in China at the ship's side is 10d. per pound, +while it is confidently asserted that it could be produced in many +parts of America at 5d. the pound. The great cost in China is owing to +the expensive transportation, the cultivation of the fuel used, the +absence of all economy of machinery, &c. It is only by adulteration +that tea is sold in China as cheap as 10d. In America the beating and +rolling of the leaves (one half of the labor) could be done by the +simplest machinery, fuel could be economised by flues, &c. + +The Russian teas, brought by caravans, are the most expensive and best +teas used in Europe. The Chinese themselves pay 71/2 dollars per pound +for the "Yen Pouchong" teas. + +Full chests were exhibited in 1851, by Mr. Ripley, of various Pekoe +teas, some of which fetch 50s. per lb. in the China market; whilst 7s. +is the very highest price any of the sort will fetch in England, and +this only as a fancy article. The plain and orange-scented Pekoes now +fetch little with us; but as caravan teas, are purchased by the +wealthier Russian families. The finest, however, never leave China, +being bought up by the Mandarins; for though the transit expenses add +3s. to 4s. per lb. to the value when sold in Russia, the highest +market price in St. Petersburg is always under 50s. Among these +scented teas are various caper teas, flavoured with chloranthus +flowers and the buds of some species of plants belonging to the orange +tribe, _magnolia fuscata_, olea flowers, &c. The Cong Souchong, or +Ning-young teas, are chiefly purchased for the American market. Oolong +tea is the favourite drink in Calcutta, though less prized in England, +its delicate flavor being injured by the length of the voyage. For +delicacy, no teas, approach those usually called "Mandarin teas," +which being slightly fired and rather damp when in the fittest state +for use, will bear neither transport nor keeping. They are in great +demand among the wealthy Chinese, and average 20s. per lb in the +native market.--(Jury Reports.) + +The consumption of tea in the United Kingdom may now be fairly taken +at fifty-four million pounds yearly, and sold at an average price to +the consumer of 4s. 6d., per pound. The money expended for tea is +upwards of twelve millions sterling. + +The expenditure of this sum is distributed as follows, in round +numbers:-- + + Net cost of 54,000,000 pounds, average 1s. per pound L2,700,000 + Export duty in China of 11/2d. a lb. 337,500 + Shipping charges, &c., in China 25,000 + Freight, &c., China to England, about 2d. per lb. 450,000 + Insurance, 1/2d. per lb. 112,500 + Commission, about 1/4d. per lb. 56,250 + Tasting charges, &c., about 1/8 of a penny per lb. 28,125 + Interest for 6 months on L3,709,375 at 5 per cent. 92,734 + --------- + Total outlay in China L3,802,109 + Profit to exporters in China,(about 12 per cent.) 445,116 + Landing charges, &c., in England 39,000 + ---------- + Cost price in bond in England L4,286,225 + Duty received by government at 2s. 21/2. per lb., about 5,985,482 + ---------- + L10,271,707 + Profit divided among tea-brokers, wholesale and retail + dealers, &c 1,878,293 + ---------- + Total outlay by British public for tea, at 4s. 6d. per lb. L12,150,000 + +The tea imported into England in 1667 was only 100 lbs., while for the +year ending June 30, 1851, the export from China to Great Britain was +64,020,000 lbs., employing 115 vessels in its transportation; and to +the United States, during the same time, 28,760,800 lbs., in +sixty-four vessels. Within the last five years, the export has +increased 10,000,000 lbs. to the United States, and 17,000,000 to +Great Britain. These statistics will show the immense importance of +this article to commerce, and the vast amount of shipping it supports. +But let us follow out the statistics a little more in detail. + +The population of the Chinese provinces, as quoted by Dr. Morison, +from an official census taken in 1825, was 352,866,012, and we may +fairly conclude that during the last twenty-eight years this +population has extensively increased. If we assume the annual +consumption of tea at four lb. per head on the above population; and +this is no unreasonable assumption in a country, where, to quote from +Murray's valuable work on China, tea "is the national drink, which is +presented on every occasion, served up at every feast, and even sold +on the public roads;" we shall have a tolerably accurate result as to +the total consumption in the empire. Indeed this computation falls +short of the actual relative consumption in the island of Jersey, +where, as we have seen, nearly five lbs. is the annual allowance of +each individual. + +If we multiply the population of China by four, we have-- + + lbs. + Total consumption of tea in China 1,411,464,048 + Export of Great Britain and Ireland, for the year ending + June 30, 1851. 64,020,000 + Export to the United States, same period 28,760,800 + Export to Holland, returned at 2,000,000 in Davis's + "China" 3,000,000 + + Inland trade to Russia 15,000,000 + Export to Hamburg, Bremen, Denmark, Sweden, &c., + seven cargoes, about 3,000,000 + Export to Sydney, and Australasian Colonies, at least 6,000,000 + Export to Spain and France, four cargoes 2,000,000 + --------- + Total lbs. 1,533,244,848 + +The above is exclusive of the heavy exportation in Chinese vessels to +all parts of the east where Chinese emigrants are settled, such as +Tonquin, Cochin China, Cambodia, Siam, the Philippines, Borneo, and +the various settlements within the Straits of Malacca. In comparison +with such an enormous quantity, the 54 million lbs. consumed in the +United Kingdom sink into insignificance. + + L + The cost of tea to America, at the ship's side in China, + say 29,000,000 lbs., at an average of 1s. per lb., + would be 1,450,000 + The cost to England, 64,000,000, at the same price 3,200,000 + The cost to other places, say 25,000,000 1,250,000 + Russia, 15,000,000 750,000 + ---------- + Total L6,650,000 + +It is therefore clear, that were the demand to be doubled from Great +Britain, it would make very little difference in the Chinese market; +since it would be only a question of letting us have six per cent, of +their growth of the article, instead of three. + +When we remember that the tea plant attains to maturity in three +years, and its leaves are then fit for picking; and that there is a +vast extent of country to which it is indigenous, growing in every +climate between the equator and the latitude of 45 degrees, it is +evident that, were there a necessity for it, the actual production of +tea in China could be increased to an almost unlimited extent in the +space of three or four years, an extent far more than compensating for +the extra three per cent., which might be, in the first instance, +required by the British. + +The certainty of an increased consumption following upon a reduction +in the price of tea to the actual consumers of it, is so obvious as to +require demonstration to those only who have not considered the +subject. The population of Great Britain and Ireland is, say in round +numbers 30,000,000, the actual consumption of tea is only 54,000,000 +lbs., or little more than one pound and three quarters for each +individual. In the neighbouring island of Jersey, there are nearly +five lbs. of tea consumed by every inhabitant yearly; and as we may +fairly infer from analogy that similar results would arise from a +similar cause, the consumption in the United Kingdom in the same ratio +would amount to no less than 150 millions of pounds annually. + +Tea, observes a most competent authority (Mr. J. Ingram Travers), is +the favourite drink of the people: all desire to have it strong and +good, and none who can afford it are without it. But in the +agricultural districts the laborers use but little; numbers of them +"make tea with burnt crusts, because the China tea is too dear." In +Ireland the consumption is greatly below that of England; there are +comparatively few people who do not, on company occasions, make their +tea stronger than for ordinary use, and the general economy in the use +of tea forms an exception to almost every other article of +consumption. As to the working classes in the manufacturing districts, +Mr. Bayley, President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, himself a +very extensive manufacturer, and therefore well qualified to speak to +the fact, says:--"The common calculation of two ounces per head per +week I should think is very much in excess of what the working classes +consume. Domestic servants, I believe, have that quantity allowed +them, but I should say that the working classes do not consume one +quarter of that." And yet it is these classes who are the great +consumers of everything cheap enough to be within their reach. It is +this consumption that, under better earnings, has sustained the steady +increase of nearly two million pounds of tea per annum for the last +eight years, and still there is such ample room for increase that +domestic servants are allowed at least four times as much per head as +those working people who value, more than any other class, the +cheerful refreshingness of tea, but who, stinted in its use by the +exorbitant duty, are tempted and almost driven to the use, instead, of +degrading drinks. + +And if the general consumption of the population should rise to even +half servants' allowance, or one ounce per head per week, the +consumption of tea would reach 97,500,000 lbs. per annum. And as to +what might be used if the taste for it had free scope, some idea may +be formed from the fact that the consumption of such people as have +found their way from these countries, where the consumption is 1 lb. 9 +ozs. per head, to Australia, has there risen to 7 lbs. per head, at +which rate the consumption of the United Kingdom would be about +210,000,000 lbs. per annum, and which, even at a 6d. duty, would +produce five millions and a half. There is nothing in the air of +Australia to give any especial impulse to tea drinking: on the +contrary; in this comparatively cold, damp climate, people would +naturally use a hot beverage more largely than in the dry warm climate +of Australia; and, after all, great as the Australian consumption +seems, it is scarcely more than a quarter of an ounce per head per +week above the allowance to English domestic servants. + +The consumption of tea, notwithstanding the dicta of Mr. Montgomery +Martin, is destined to a prodigious increase. Nor is it solely to an +increase in the consumption of tea, that we must look to prevent any +deficiency in the revenue, as there is no doubt that a reduction in +the price of the article would lead to a prodigious increase in the +quantity of sugar consumed, especially by the lower classes, who +seldom take the one without the other. + +It is not, however, merely that they would buy sugar in proportion to +the quantity of tea that they consume; the circumstance of a smaller +sum being requisite for their weekly stock of tea, would enable them +to spend a larger amount in other articles, among which sugar would, +undoubtedly, be one of the most important. The merchant, shipowner, +manufacturer, and all connected with the trade between Great Britain +and China, are in a position to see the prodigious advantages that +such a measure as an extensive reduction of the impost on tea would +occasion to the general trade of the country; and the public at large, +who are not practically familiar with the subject, only require it to +be brought before them in a distinct point of view, when the important +results of such a reduction cannot fail to be apparent to them. + +Tea is not now within the reach of the poor man. A person taking tea +once a day, will consume about 71/2 lbs. a year. + + lbs. +Say 500,000 persons take tea twice a day, or 15 lbs. a year, is 7,500,000 +Say 4,000,000 persons take tea once a day, or 71/2 lbs. a year, is 30,000,000 +Say 12,000,000 persons take tea once a week, or 1 lb. a year, is 12,000,000 + ---------- + 49,500,000 + +Which shows that, at present, only one person out of every sixty can +have tea twice a day; one of every seven only once a day; and that out +of the remaining 13,500,000 persons, only five millions and a half can +procure it once in the week. The exact state of the case shows that +only eight millions of the people of the United Kingdom enjoy the use +of tea, leaving the other twenty-two millions excluded. A Chinese will +consume thirty pounds of tea in the year. + +But it is said we must not, if our accumulated stocks be drank off +this year, expect the Chinese to meet at once so huge an increase in +the demand as to supply us with as much next year. + +Now on no point of the case is the evidence so clear as upon the +capacity of the Chinese to furnish, within any year, any quantity we +may require. The Committee of 1847, on Commercial Relations with +China, state--"That the demand for tea from China has been +progressively and rapidly rising for many years, with no other results +than that of diminished prices:"--a fact to be accounted for only upon +the supposition that our ordinary demand is exceedingly small in +proportion to the Chinese supply. Nor is it an unreasonable inference, +that if so much more than usual was to be had at a less price than +before, any rise of price, however trivial it might be, would bring +forward a much larger quantity:[8] a supposition which is completely +confirmed by a review of prices here, and exports from China within +the last four years; and in considering which it is important to bear +in mind--1st, that our tea trade year, on which our account of import, +export, home consumption, and stock on hand is taken, is from January +to January, and the Chinese tea year from July to July; 2nd, that a +rise at the close of the last months of the year in England, +influences the next year's exports from China; and 3rdly, that of late +years, since something of decrepitude has fallen upon the Chinese +Government, smuggling there, to escape the export duty, has been +carried on largely and at an increasing rate, so that the return is +considerably below the real export. + +In the Chinese tea year, July to July, 1848-9, the price of good +ordinary congou, the tea of by far the largest consumption here, and +which, in fact, rules the market, was 81/2d. to 9-1/3d., and the export +from China 47,251,000 lbs. The year closed with the higher price, and +the Chinese export from July 1849, to July 1850, was 54,000,000 lbs., +showing an increase of export on the year of 6,750,000 lbs. Throughout +1850, here, prices fluctuated a good deal. They were low in the +earlier part of the year, but in January went up from 91/2d. to 111/2d., +and from July 1850, to July 1851, the export from China rose to +64,000,000 lbs., being an increase of ten million pounds on a previous +increase of nearly seven million lbs. Prices here, during 1851, varied +very much: it was difficult to say whether any rise would be +established, but the export still went up and reached, from July 1851, +to July 1852, 67,000,000 lbs., giving a total increase in three years +of 19,750,000 lbs. Nor was it pretended that in any of those years the +Chinese market showed even the least symptoms of exhaustion. "We +know," say the Committee, "that the Chinese market has never been +drained of tea in any one year, but that there has been always a +surplus left to meet any extraordinary demand." But the effect of the +rise in price in 1850 is still more forcibly shown by a comparison of +our total imports in that and the following year. In 1850 we imported +48,300,000 lbs.; in 1851, 71,500,000 lbs., being an increase of +23,200,000 lbs. Doubtless the Chinese export, if made up totally with +our year, would not account for the whole quantity, part of which is +to be set down to Chinese export-smuggling, and part to arrivals from +America and the Continent. The probability is that the increase of +price referred to above never reached the Chinese tea farmers; the +supply came from the merchants' stock on hand. The rise was, besides, +uncertain, and from any established advance a much larger increase of +export might be looked for. + +But the mistake made in England in estimating what tea we may look for +from China goes upon the supposition that they grow expressly for us: +the fact being, as stated by Mr. Robt. Fortune, in his recently +published "Tea Districts of China," "that the quantity exported bears +but a small proportion to that consumed by the Chinese themselves." On +this point the report of the Parliamentary Committee is +explicit:--"There is a population in China, commonly assumed at above +three hundred millions, at all hours in the day consuming tea, which +only requires some change of preparation to be fit for exportation; +thus implying an amount of supply on which any demand that may be made +for foreign export can be, after a very short time, but slightly +felt." Mr. Fortune, in his evidence, says "that the Chinese drink +about four times as much as we do: they are always drinking it." Four +times as much is probably very much an under-estimate. With rich and +poor of all that swarming population, tea, not such as our working +classes drink, but fresh and strong, and with no second watering, +accompanies every meal. But even taking their consumption at four +times as much per head as ours, and their population at the lowest +estimate, at three hundred millions, their consumption, setting ours +at 55,000,000 lbs., will be no less than two thousand two hundred +millions of pounds per annum, or forty times the quantity used in the +United Kingdom. As reasonably might the few foreigners who visit the +metropolis in the summer expect to cause a famine of fruit and +vegetables in London, as we that a doubling of our demand for tea +would be felt in China. The further fifty-five million pounds would be +but another fortieth of what they use themselves, and would have no +more effect upon their entire market than the arrival of some thousand +strangers within the year in London would have upon the supply of +bread or butchers' meat. There is no need, therefore, to wait for the +extension of tea plantations, and so far from taking for granted the +statement of the late Chancellor of the Exchequer, "that time must be +given to increase production, and that the point of its taking three +or four years to make a tea-tree is to be considered in dealing with +the duties," we have the fact unmistakeably before us, that the +production is already so vast, that any demand from us could have no +appreciable effect. And as to future supplies, if we should come to +drink as much as the Chinese themselves, a matter not at all needful +to be considered at present, the Committee report that "the +cultivation of the plant may be indefinitely extended;" whilst Mr. +Fortune, who has been upon the spot, states "that there is not the +slightest doubt that there is a great part of the land which is nearly +uncultivated now, which, were there a demand for tea, could be brought +into cultivation. The cost would be very little indeed; they would cut +down a quantity of brushwood, and probably dig over the ground and +plant the bushes. They could clear and plant it in the same year, and +in about two years they could get something from it." As, however, +without this extension they have hitherto found enough for the +increase of their own vast population, for every extension of demand +from us and every other foreign customer, whether by land or water, +without the least tendency to an advance in price, there is no need +to do more than thus touch upon the undeveloped resources of tea +production.--_Travers on the Tea Duties_. + +The consumption of tea in Russia is very great, as the middling +classes make a more frequent use of that beverage than the rest. Every +year 60,000 chests of tea arrive at Maimiatchin and Kiakhta, of the +declared official value of L1,185,000 sterling; and to this may be +added L38,650 for inferior tea used by the people of the south, which +makes the total declared value of the tea introduced about one and a +quarter million sterling. The consumption of Russia may be assumed at +over fifteen millions of pounds, although we have no correct data, as +in the case of shipping returns, to calculate from. In 1848, however, +the Russians took 136,2171/2 boxes of fine tea of the Chinese, for which +they paid 5,349,918 silver roubles--one million sterling. The quantity +forwarded from Kiakhta into the interior consisted of-- + + Foods. + Flowery or Pekoe tea 69,677 + Ordinary tea 183,752 + Brick tea 116,249 + Equal to about fifteen million lbs. English. + +_Brick tea of Thibet._--A sample of this curious product was shown by +the East India Company in 1851. It is formed of the refuse tea-leaves +and sweepings of the granaries, damped and pressed into a mould, +generally with a little bullock's blood. The finer sorts are friable +masses, and are packed in papers; the coarser sewn up in sheep's skin. +In this form it is an article of commerce throughout Central and +Northern Asia and the Himalayan provinces; and is consumed by Mongols, +Tartars, and Tibetans, churned with milk, salt, butter, and boiling +water, more as a soup than as tea proper. Certain quantities are +forced upon the acceptance of the Western tributaries of the Chinese +Empire, in payment for the support of troops, &c.; and is hence, from +its convenient size and form, brought into circulation as a coin, over +an area greater than that of Europe.--_Dr. Hooker, in Jury Reports_. + +The quantity and value of the tea imported into the United States, +from 1821, is thus stated:-- + + Years. Pounds. Value, dolls. + 1821 4,975,646 1,322,636 + 1822 6,639,434 1,860,777 + 1823 8,210,010 2,361,245 + 1824 8,920,487 2,786,812 + 1825 10,209,548 3,728,935 + 1826 10,108,900 3,752,281 + 1827 5,875,638 1,714,882 + 1828 7,707,427 2,451,197 + 1829 6,636,790 2,060,457 + 1830 8,609,415 2,425,018 + 1831 5,182,867 1,418,037 + 1832 9,906,606 2,788,353 + 1833 14,639,822 5,484,603 + 1834 16,282,977 6,217,949 + 1835 14,415,572 4,522,806 + 1836 16,382,114 5,342,811 + 1837 16,982,384 5,903,054 + 1838 14,418,112 3,497,156 + 1839 9,439,817 2,428,419 + 1840 20,006,595 5,427,010 + 1841 10,772,087 3,075,332 + 1842 13,482,645 3,567,745 + 1843 12,785,748 3,405,627 + 1844 13,054,327 3,152,225 + 1845 17,162,550 4,802,621 + 1846 16,891,020 3,983,337 + 1847 14,221,410 3,200,056 + 1848 18,889,217 + +The annual reports of the Secretary to the Treasury, for the last +twenty years, show a considerable increase in the consumption of tea +in the United States, but not so great as in the article of coffee. +The establishment of tea shops, in all the large cities of America, is +a new feature in the retail trade, dating only some six years back. + +The average rate of duty, which previously ranged between thirty and +thirty-four cents. per pound, was reduced in 1832 to fourteen cents +(7d.) a pound. + +The proportion of green to black used is shown by the following return +of the imports:-- + + lbs. + 1844 Green 10,131,837 + Black 4,125,527 + ---------- + Total 14,257,364 + + + 1845 Green 13,802,099 + Black 6,950,459 + ---------- + Total 20,752,558 + +The large import of 1840, of 250,000 chests, of which 200,000 were +green, was in anticipation of the disturbances arising from the war +with Great Britain, and the blockade of the ports. + +In 1850, there were 173,317 chests of green tea, and 91,017 of black +tea exported from China to America; these quantities, with a further +portion purchased from England, made a total of about twenty-three +million lbs. of tea which crossed the Atlantic in 1850. + +The imports and exports of tea into the United States, in the years +ending Dec. 31st, 1848 and 1849, were as follows:-- + + IMPORTS. + 1849. 1848. + lbs. lbs. + Green 14,237,700 13,686,336 + Black 5,999,315 3,815,652 + ---------- ---------- + Total 20,236,916 17,503,988 + + EXPORTS. + Green 230,470 262,708 + Black 186,650 194,212 + ---------- ---------- + Total 417,120 456,920 + +The value of tea imported into the United States during the year +ending June 30th, 1851, amounted to 4,798,006 dollars (nearly +L1,000,000 sterling); of this was re-exported a little over 1,000,000 +dollars worth, leaving for home consumption 3,668,141 dollars. + +The quality of tea depends much upon the season when the leaves are +picked, the mode in which it is prepared, as well as the district in +which it grows. + +The tea districts in China extend from the 27th degree to the 31st +degree of north latitude, and, according to missionaries, it thrives +in the more northern provinces. Koempfer says it is cultivated in +Japan, as far north as 45 degrees. It seems to succeed best on the +sides of mountains, among sandstone, schistus, and granite. + +In 1834, the East India Company introduced the cultivation of tea in +Upper Assam, where it is said to be indigenous; and they now ship +large quantities of very excellent tea from thence. + +Mr. Boyer, director of the museum at Port Louis, Mauritius, has +succeeded in rearing 40,000 tea-trees, and expresses an opinion, that +if the island of Bourbon would give itself up to the cultivation, it +might easily supply France with all the tea she requires. + +The culture has also been commenced on a small scale, in St. Helena, +and the Cape Colony. + +The cultivation of the tea-tree might be tried with probability of +success in Natal, and the Mauritius. The plant grows in every soil, +even the most ungrateful; resists the hurricanes, and requires little +care. The picking of the leaves, like the pods of cotton, is performed +by women, children, and the infirm, without much expense. The +preparation is known to the greater part of the Chinese, of whom there +are so many in Mauritius; besides, it is not difficult. A Mr. Duprat +has, I am informed, planted a certain extent of land in the +neighbourhood of Cernpipe, in that island, but I have not yet learnt +with what success. + +The tea-plant has been successfully cultivated, on a large scale, in +the island of Madeira, at an elevation of 3,000 feet above the level +of the sea, by Mr. Hy. Veitch, British ex-Consul. The quality of the +leaf is excellent. The whole theory of preparing it is merely to +destroy the herbaceous taste, the leaves being perfect, when, like +hay, they emit an agreeable odor. But to roll up each leaf, as in +China, is found too expensive, although boys and girls are employed at +about two-pence or three-pence per day. Mr. Veitch has, therefore, +tried the plan of compressing the leaves into small cakes, which can +be done at a trifling expense. It is performed when the leaf is dry; +whereas, the rolling requires moisture, and subsequent roasting on +copper plates is necessary to prevent mustiness. In this process the +acid of the tea acts upon the copper, and causes that astringency +which we remark in all the China teas. + +The tea of Cochin China is considered inferior to that of China, being +less strong and pleasant in flavour. + +An inferior sort of tea, with a leaf twice or thrice as large as that +of Bohea, grows wild in the hilly parts of Quang-ai, and is sold at +from 12s. 6d. to 40s. the picul of 133lbs. + +The Dutch have devoted much attention to tea cultivation in Java, and +the plantations are in fine order. Nearly a million lbs. of tea were +shipped thence in 1848; but the tea is said to be of inferior quality, +and grown and manufactured at considerable expense. + +Japan produces both black and green tea. The Japanese prefer the +latter to the Chinese green tea. The black tea is very bad. The +Japanese tea-tree, is an evergreen, growing in the most sterile places +to the height of about six feet. It is described as above, by +Koempfer, as having leaves like the cherry, with a flower like the wild +rose; when fresh, the leaves have no smell, but a very astringent +taste. Tea grows in all the southern provinces of Japan, but the best +green is produced in the principality of Kioto, where it is cultivated +with great care. + +A few years ago, Messrs. Worms attempted the cultivation of tea in +Ceylon. The island, however, lies too far within the tropics to offer +a climate like Assam, which is situate without them. The plants may +thrive to appearance, but that is not a demonstration of their +quality. The tea-plant has reached upwards of six feet in height at +Pinang, and in as healthy a state as could be desired, but the leaf +had no flavor, and although thousands of Chinese husbandmen cultivate +spices, and other tropical productions on that island, no one thinks +it worth while to extend the cultivation of the tea-plant in Pinang. +The Chinese there laugh at the idea of converting the leaf into a +beverage. + +The cultivation of the tea-plant has been introduced into the United +States, and those planters who have tried the experiment have +succeeded beyond their highest expectations. Dr. Junius Smith had +successfully cultivated the plant on his property called Golden grove, +near Grenville, in South Carolina. His plants were in full blossom, +and as healthy and flourishing as those of China at the same stage of +growth. Everything connected with them looked favorable, and Dr. Smith +felt abundantly encouraged to extend the culture of the several +descriptions of tea upon his property. It is stated that his +expectations were so great, that he contemplated to place fresh tea on +the tea-tables of England and Paris in twenty days, from the +plantation. He had a large supply of plants, and tea seed enough for a +million more. The black descriptions blossomed earlier than the green +plant, but the latter also blossomed luxuriantly. + +He introduced at first about 500 plants of from five to seven years' +growth, overland from the north-west provinces of India, and some from +China direct. + +In the close of 1849, he writes me:-- + + "During the past year the tea-plant under my care has passed through + severe trials, from the injury received in transplanting, from the + heat generated in the packing-cases, from the want of shelter during + the severe frosts of February, from the excessive heat in June, and + from the drought of 58 days' continuance in July and August. The + plants were divested of their leaves and generally of their branches + and twigs in February, during my absence in New York. Knowing that + the plants were tender, and not fortified by age and mature growth + against severe weather, I had directed them to be covered in case a + material change of temperature should occur. But these orders were + neglected, and they consequently suffered from that cause. + + The plant is sufficiently hardy to resist any weather occurring in + this part of the country, when seasoned for one year. + + The plant has grown thrifty since April, and the quantity of + foliage, buds, and blossoms, show that the root has taken strong + hold, and is now fully equal to produce its fruit next autumn, which + always follows the year after the blossoms. I have a variety of both + black and green tea-plants. The buds and blossoms of the latter did + not appear until a fortnight after the black tea-plant. But the + blossoms were larger when they did appear in September, October, + November, and December. From present appearances, I think the + blossoms of some of the late plants will continue to unfold until + spring. It is not an unusual thing for the blossoms and the fruit to + appear at the same time upon the same plant. In this particular it + differs from any plant I have seen. As my chief object, at present, + is to cultivate and increase the tea-nut, it will be a year or two + perhaps before I attempt to convert the leaf into tea. The root + supports the leaf and fruit, and the leaf the root, so that neither + can be spared without detriment. + + This climate appears congenial to the growth of the plant, and the + soil is so diversified in this mountainous district, that there is + no difficulty in selecting that best adapted to seed-growing plants, + or that designed for the leaf only. Upon the plantation purchased + this summer, I have light-yellow, dark-brown, and red clay subsoil, + of a friable character, with a surface soil sufficiently sandy to + answer the demands of the plant. I do not see any reason to doubt, + from a year's experience, that the tea-plant in its varieties will + flourish in what I heretofore denominated the tea-growing district + of the United States, as well as in any part of China. + + The slowness of its growth requires patience. But when once + established, the tea-nuts will supply the means of extending + cultivation, and the duration of the plant for twenty years + diminishes the expense of labor. To illustrate the hardihood of the + plant, I may observe, that notwithstanding the zero severity of + February frost destroyed the leaves and branches of most of the + plants, and those now blooming in great beauty and strength are from + roots the growth of this summer, I have one green tea-plant the stem + and branches of which withstood the frost of February without the + slightest protection, and is now a splendid plant, covered with + branches and evergreen leaves, affording undeniable evidence not + only of its capability of resisting frost, but of its adaptation to + just such a degree of temperature. + + I have often remarked that the tea-plant requires for its perfection + the influence of two separate and distinct climates, the heat of + summer and the cold of winter. The thermometer in this vicinity + during the heat of summer generally ranges from 74 at 6 o'clock a.m. + to 82 at 3 o'clock p.m., only one day during the summer so high as + 86. + + This is a most agreeable temperature, nights always cool, which the + tea-plant enjoys, and the days hot and fanned with the mountain + breeze. + + The drought I found the most difficult point to contend with, owing + to the want of adequate means for irrigation. I lost 20 or 30 plants + through this, and learned that no tea plantation should he + established without irrigation. After two or three years there will + be little necessity for it, because the depth of the roots will + generally then protect the plant. + + My plantation at Golden Grove is well supplied with water, or I + should not have purchased it at any price. + + It is the first and most important point to secure a southern or + western aspect, a gentle declivity the second, salubrious air and + suitable soil the third. + + Our country is filled with natural tea plantations, which are only + waiting the hand of the husbandman to be covered with this luxuriant + and productive plant. + + I know the public is naturally impatient of delay. Like corn, it is + expected that the tea-nuts will be planted in the spring, and the + crop gathered in the autumn. But they forget that the tea-plant does + not interfere with any other crop, and when once planted it does not + soon require a renewal. + + I have sometimes felt this impatience myself, and longed for a cup + of tea of my own growing, but I have never had one. As a husbandman, + I must wait some time longer, and let patience have her perfect + work." + +Again, under date May 1, 1850, he states that he has succeeded +admirably in the culture. The plants bear the winter well, and their +physiology and general characteristics remain unchanged by the change +of climate and soil. The leaf puts out at the same period of the year +that it does in China. + +On the 27th of May, 1850, Dr. Smith received a further batch of +trees, fresh, green and healthful, as if still growing in the +plantations of China; after a passage of little more than five months. +These plants, together with the seedlings and nuts, were of the green +tea species, and obtained from a quarter situated about 700 miles from +Canton. + +In a letter, dated Grenville, S.C., June 17th, 1850, with which I have +been favored, he adds:-- + + "I never heard of the failure of the tea-crop. All vegetation may be + retarded, or lessened, or augmented, in its production, in a slight + degree, by excessive rains, or drought, or cold, or heat, or + atmospheric action; but the tea-plant is sure to produce its leaf. + From all I have observed, a decided drought is the most detrimental + to the health of the tea plant. The almost continued rains which + marked the advance of the past spring, seemed perfectly agreeable to + the tea-plant, and facilitated the germination of the tea-nuts. + Where any vitality remained in the nut, it was sure to germinate. + Curiosity, on this point should be restrained, and no picking and + pawing up of the nuts permitted. I have seedlings with tap roots + four inches in length, where no appearance of germination is visible + upon the surface of the ground. The chances are ten to one that the + seedling would be destroyed by the tamperings of idle curiosity. Let + nature have her own most perfect work, and see that the enemy, the + drought, is vanquished by an abundant supply of water. + + From experience, I notice that nothing is more congenial to the + germination of the tea-nut than a good stiff blue, clayed soil. The + marly colour of the soil is undoubtedly the result of a rich loam, + combined with the clay of a lighter hue. The adhesive nature of the + clay retains moisture in an eminent degree, and the fertilising + qualities of the loam are well known to every bottom land farmer. + + Plants put out three weeks ago, after a long voyage from China, are + now taking root, and look fresh and vigorous, notwithstanding the + recent heat and dryness of the atmosphere. But I have taken + unwearied pains in the cultivation. Every plant is sheltered from + the scorching influence of the sun, now from 70 deg. to 86 deg. of + temperature. Although the soil is naturally moist and clayey, and + half bottom land, from the work of gentle acclivities, rising on + either hand, yet I have given the plants a liberal watering in the + evening. By last summer's drought of fifty-seven days, I was taught + the absolute necessity of deep digging and deep planting. None of my + plants, of this season's planting, are more than two or three inches + above the surface of the ground. + + If any of the plants have leaves, as most of them have, below that + height, they are planted with the leaves retained; none are removed. + Some of the older plants have no leaves remaining, and looked like + dry sticks. Many of these are now beginning to break, and put forth + fresh leaves." + +In 1851, Mr. Frank Bonynge set on foot a subscription list of fifty +dollars each, to procure tea and various Indian plants for culture in +America. That tea can be grown successfully in Carolina, Georgia, and +Florida, is almost certain, because the experiment has been pretty +fairly tried, as above shown, by Dr. Smith. The thermometer at +Shanghai indicates the cold as more severe by thirteen degrees than at +Charleston, South Carolina. The cold winter of 1834-5, which destroyed +the oranges in Mr. Middleton's plantation, in Charleston, left his tea +plants uninjured. + +The question of cultivating tea in California has been seriously +discussed, and will no doubt be gone into when the gold digging mania +has a little subsided. There is the necessary labor and experience on +the spot, in some 12,000 or 14,000 Chinese, most of whom doubtless +understand the culture and manufacture. The climate, soil and surface +of California exactly answer the requirements for the growth of this +plant. The time may yet come when the vast ranges of hills that +traverse this State shall present terraces of tea gardens, cultivated +by the laborious Chinese, and adding millions to the value of its +products. + +A company for the cultivation of tea, under the title of the Assam +Company, was established in March, 1839; and which, with a called-up +capital of L193,337, has made up to the present time very profitable +progress; having now got its plantations into excellent cultivation, +and all its arrangements in admirable working order, it has sold teas +to the amount of L90,000, and has a steam-boat, a considerable plant +and machinery. + +In the report of the Company, at their annual meeting, held at +Calcutta, in Jan., 1850, it was stated, as the result of their +operations, that during the year 1849, the manufacturing season was +unusually cold and ungenial, in consequence of which the development +of leaf for manufacture was much checked. Although some loss was +sustained, there was considerable increase in the crop +notwithstanding, attributable to the continued improvements in the +culture which had been obtained, and improvements over the previous +season in some departments of the manufacturing process. The gross +quantity of unsorted tea manufactured in the southern division was +207,982 lbs., being 2,673 lbs. less than that of the previous season, +but the actual net out-turn was expected to reach 200,000 lbs. As much +as 157,908 lbs. of the crop had been already received and shipped to +England. These teas consisted chiefly of the finer qualities. Whilst +the crops have been thus sensibly advancing in quantity and quality, +and the value of the company's plantations permanently raised by +extended and improved culture, and some increase to the sowings, the +total outlay had been somewhat less than the previous year, the +expenditure being limited to L500 for a crop of 12,000 acres of tea. +With more extended gardens, the produce will be raised at a yet lower +rateable cost than at present. + +The number of acres in cultivation in 1849, was about 12,000; these +were not all in bearing, but would shortly be so, and the produce from +this extent might be estimated at 300,000 lbs., and the cost of +producing this would be about L11,000. 1,010 chests of the produce +were sold in London on the 13th of March, 1850, at a gross average of +1s. 111/2d. per lb. The produce of 1847, sold in England, was 141,277 +lbs., at a gross average of 1s. 8d. per lb.: that of 1848 was 176,149 +lbs. which sold at the average of 1s. 81/2d. per lb. The produce of 1849 +was 216,000 lbs., and there was every expectation of the average +prices realised being higher than those of the previous years. The +season was cold and unfavorable, or the crop would have been 10,000 +lbs. more. + +The exact amounts obtained for the Company's teas in the five years, +ending with 1851, will be seen from the following figures:-- + + Net produce, lbs. Average price. L + 1847 144,164 at per lb. ls. 7-1/16d. 11,513 + 1848 182,953 " ls. 81/4d. 15,436 + 1849 216,000 " ls. 91/2d. 19,350 + 1850 253,427 " ls. 6-1/8d. 18,153 + 1851 271,427 " ls. 81/2d. 22,152 + 1852 esmtd. 280,000 + +This exhibits a progressive increase in the aggregate value of the +Company's produce, and this has been effected, it is stated, without +any sensible increase of the current expenditure. It exhibits also a +rise in the value of the tea (157,942 lbs. having been sold at the +high average price of 1s. 111/4d.), a fact strongly indicative of its +increasing excellence. The details of the crop of the season of 1849 +showed a net produce of 237,000 lbs. of tea; so that the Company are +increasing their cultivation to the extent of nearly ten per cent, per +annum, and the increase will doubtless proceed with greater rapidity, +whenever the increase of capital enables the directors to extend their +operations. + +In a report submitted to the Directors, by Mr. Burkinyoung, the +managing director in Calcutta last year, he thus speaks of the +Company's field of operations and future prospects:-- + + "The box-making is especially worthy of notice for its effective + organisation and economical arrangement; the work is performed + chiefly by Assamese boys instructed at the factory: the number of + boxes required for the year's consumption will not be short of four + thousand, the whole of which will be made at the factory,--an + achievement that cannot be too highly estimated in a country so + destitute of mechanical labor. + + Notwithstanding the high standard of quality and strength to which + our teas have already attained, I am of opinion that, as experience + advances, and our knowledge and system of plucking and manufacturing + the crops become improved, and better organised, a higher standard + of quality and value may yet be realised; in this opinion the + superintendent concurs with me, and the attainment of this object is + one to which his attention's prominently directed. + + In the course of my enquiries and trials of different samples of tea + in Assam, my attention was directed to one description of black tea, + of rough strong flavor, made by a quicker process than that + ordinarily used in the manufacture of black tea: under this mode of + manipulation, a quality of tea is produced sufficiently distinctive + in its flavor and appearance to render it worthy of attention and + trial, and I think, when perfected in the process of manufacture, + calculated to come into popular estimation. Samples of this tea the + superintendent will forward to the board for trial. + + In conducting the operations in Assam, the chief difficulty of + importance which has not yet been effectually met is the paucity of + labor; this does not, however, exist to the extent of materially + checking any of the important operations connected with the + production of the tea, but it is felt in the arrear of various + descriptions of work, in providing bricks for building, and in the + preparation of a stock of seasoned timber and boards for building + and box-making; while the out factories would be benefited by a + larger proportion of agricultural labor. Great advance, however, has + been made by the superintendent in the employment of Assamese labor + in contract work: under the arrangement he has established, these + contracts are now, for the most part, fulfilled with much + punctuality, and there is reason to expect that this system of labor + will be further extended. The Kachorie Coolies are a valuable class + of laborers, but they do not appear to be sufficiently numerous, or + to emigrate in sufficient numbers to afford with the native Assamese + a supply of labor altogether equal to our wants, so as to render the + concern independent of Bengal labor. + + The tea lands are for the most part advantageously situated, within + convenient reach of water-carriage, either by the 'Dickhoo,' + 'Desang,' and 'Dehing' rivers, or by means of small streams leading + to them. The Plantations of the Satsohea and Rookang forests, and on + the banks of the Tingri in the Northern Division, are all valuable + centres of extension in each district. The lands suitable for tea + cultivation are ample in extent, and of the highest fertility; while + the Hill Factories of the Southern and Eastern Divisions, although + secondary in importance, are, as regards extent and quality of soil, + equally eligible as bases of extension. + + The prospects of the future, I entertain no doubt, will keep pace + with the satisfactory results that have hitherto been realised, + looking to the sound organisation that now exists in our + establishment at Assam, an organisation that has already taken + healthy root, and must in its growth gain strength and permanence. I + think we may safely calculate, after the current year, upon an + annual increase in our production of 40,000 lbs. of tea, until a + larger system of operations can be matured, of which the basis is + already laid down, in the new lands cleared and sown during the past + cold season, averaging 225 to 250 poorahs; and this extended basis + will be doubtless followed up by annual extensions of similar, if + not larger, area. The concern is now taking a position which will + place it on a scale of working commensurate with the objects + entertained upon the first incorporation of the company, the profits + now likely to be realised being adequate to all the outlay + necessary." + +The prices in the last two years in London have been fully maintained +at 1s. 3d. to 4s. 4d., according to sorts. Of Assam tea, the sales in +the London market in 1851 amounted to 2,200 packages, against 1,900 +packages in 1850, and all were freely taken (on account of their great +strength) at very full prices. Seventy-six packages of Kumaon tea, +both black and green, grown by the East India Company, in the +Himalayas, as an experiment, were also brought to sale. They were teas +of high quality; but being of the light flavored class, and not duly +esteemed in this market, they realised only about their relative value +as compared with China teas of similar grade. The Souchong and +Pouchong sold at 1s. 11/4d. to 1s. 31/2d.; the Hyson, Imperial, and +Gunpowder realised 1s. 73/4d. to 2s. 61/2d. + +Mr. Robert Fortune, who, in the service of the Horticultural Society +of London, gave such satisfaction by his botanical researches in +China, was, on his return to England, in 1848, engaged by the +Directors of the East India Company to proceed again to the Celestial +Empire, and procure and transmit to India such a quantity and variety +of the tea plant, that its cultivation in the north-western provinces +would be a matter of mere manual labor. Having penetrated about 300 +miles into the interior, he left Hong Kong in the middle of 1851 for +Calcutta, with a large quantity of choice plants, selected in the +green tea districts, and these have flourished as well as could +possibly be expected; so that, in the course of a few years, there is +every probability that tea will form a considerable article of export +from our Indian Presidencies. Mr. Fortune secured the services of, and +took with him, eight Chinese, from the district of Wei-chow, under an +agreement for three years, at the rate of fifteen dollars a month +each. Six of these are regular tea-manufacturers; the other two are +pewterers, whose sole business is that of preparing lead casings for +tea-chests. + +In the British portion of the Punjaub, it has been resolved to expend +L10,000 a year on the cultivation of the tea plant on the banks of the +Beas, as well as at Anarkullee, and Kotghur in the Simla jurisdiction. +Beyond the Beas there is a series of valleys on to Noonpoor, viz., the +Palklun, Kangra, Rillo, &c., from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level +of the sea, separated from each other by small ranges of hills. The +valleys are from three to four miles in breadth, and from sixty to +seventy in length: they are sheltered on the north by high mountains. +They are described as admirably suited for the cultivation of the +plant, now about to be attempted under the able management of Dr. +Jamieson. Should it prove successful, the benefits it will confer on +the country will be enormous. Tea is a favorite beverage everywhere +with the natives: at present their supplies come in scanty measure and +bad condition, at extravagant charges, across the frontier. + +The cultivation of the tea plant in the highlands of the Punjaub, is +likely to be successful, even beyond the hopes of its promoters. +Thousands of plants sown in 1849 have attained a height of four or +five feet, and there seems no reason why tea should not ultimately +become an important article of trade in the Punjaub, as well as in +Kumaon. The Indian teas are already becoming popular in the English +market, and the cultivators have the advantage of a demand which is +almost unlimited, and of prices which seldom fluctuate to any great +extent. + +The experiment of growing tea in the Madras Presidency has been often +successfully tried, on a small scale. A number of plants supplied by +government, through Dr. Wallich, were planted in the Shevaroy hills, +about twelve or fourteen years since, and have thriven well; but +though no doubt is entertained of the ease with which they could be +propagated over a wide extent of country, no attempt has been made to +give the cultivation a practical turn, or to make a cup of tea from +the southern Indian tree. In Coorg, too, the experiment has been +tested with like results, so that sufficient warranty exists to +justify trials on the largest scale. + +Tea plants grow in luxuriance in the open air, at the Botanical +Gardens, at Kew. Mr. Bonynge has seen this plant growing wild in N. +lat. 27 deg. 30 min. on hills from three to 500 feet in height, where +too, there was an abundance of frost, snow and hail. + +Those persons in England who possess tea plants, and who cultivate +them for pleasure, should always bear in mind that, even in the tea +districts of China, this shrub will not succeed if it be planted in +low, wet land; and this is, doubtless, one of the reasons why so few +persons succeed in growing it in this country. It ought always to be +planted on a warm sloping bank, in order to give it a fair chance of +success. If some of the warm spots of this kind in the south of +England or Ireland were selected, who knows but that our cottagers +might be able to grow their own tea? at all events, they might have +the fragrant herb to look upon. + +The Dutch made the first movement to break the charm of Chinese +monopoly, by introducing and cultivating the tea plant in their rich +and fruitful colony of Java. That island lies between the sixth and +eighth degrees of south latitude. + +In 1828, the first experiment in the cultivation of tea was made in +the garden of the Chateau of Burtenzorg, at Java, where 800 plants of +an astonishing vigor, served as an encouragement to undertake this +culture, and considerable plantations were made in many parts of the +island. The first trials did not answer to the expectations, as far as +regards the quality of the article, the astringent taste and feeble +aroma of which caused the conjecture that the preparation of the leaf, +and its final manipulation, are not exactly according to the process +used in China. At present tea is cultivated in thirteen Residencies: +but the principal establishment, where the final manipulation is made, +is in the neighbourhood of Batavia. The tea which Java now furnishes +yearly to the markets of the mother country, may be stated at from +200,000 to 300,000 pounds. It is intimated that the government intends +to abandon this culture to the industry of private individuals, under +the guarantee of equitable contracts. + +The mountain range, which runs through the centre of the island, is +the most productive, because the tea gardens, extending from near the +base, high up the mountains, reach an atmosphere tempered by +elevation. The plant escapes the scorching heats of the torrid zone, +and finds a climate, by height rather than by latitude, adapted to its +nature. But the plant is not confined to lofty ridges. In the plains, +the hedges and fences, if one may so call them, are all planted with +the tea shrub, which flourish in greater or less perfection throughout +the island. But, as has already been intimated, the equatorial +latitudes are not the most auspicious for the vigorous growth of a +plant that requires a temperature equally removed from the extremes of +heat and cold, and the quality of the tea is as much affected by the +climate as the growth of the plant. A considerable quantity of tea is +annually shipped from Java to Europe; but the extension of the +cultivation is no doubt checked by the exceeding fertility of the +soil, and its adaptation to the growth of the rich products of +tropical regions. + +Mr. Jacobson, inspector of tea culture in Java, has published at +Batavia a work in three volumes, upon the mode of cultivating this +plant, upon the choice of grounds, and the best processes for the +preparation and manipulation of the leaves. This book, the fruit of +many years of experience and care given to the subject, has been well +received by the cultivators who devote themselves to this branch of +industry. If, by means of careful experiments and experience, the +government succeed in conferring on the island of Java this important +branch of commerce, she may hope to obtain brilliant results; at all +events, it will open to the country a new source of prosperity and +riches. + +An interesting account of the tea plants, and the manufacture of tea, +will be found in Fortune's "Wanderings in China," in Ball's "Account +of the Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea," Boyle's "Illustrations of +Himalayan Botany," and his "Productive Resources of India." + +From Fortune's "Travels" I take the following extract:-- + + "There are few subjects connected with the vegetable kingdom which + have attracted such a large share of public notice as the tea-plant + of China. Its cultivation on the Chinese hills, the particular + species of variety which produces the black and green teas of + commerce, and the method of preparing the leaves, have always been + objects of peculiar interest. The jealousy of the Chinese government + in former times, prevented foreigners from visiting any of the + districts where tea is cultivated; and the information derived from + the Chinese merchants, even scanty as it was, was not to be depended + upon. And hence we find our English authors contradicting each + other; some asserting that the black and green teas are produced by + the same variety, and that the difference in colour is the result of + a different mode of preparation; while others say that the black + teas are produced from the plant called by botanists _Thea Bohea_, + and the green from _Thea viridis_, both of which we have had for + many years in our gardens in England. During my travels in China + since the last war, I have had frequent opportunities of inspecting + some extensive tea districts in the black and green tea countries of + Canton, Fokien, and Chekiang: the result of these observations is + now laid before the reader. It will prove that even those who have + had the best means of judging have been deceived, and that the + greater part of the black and green teas which are brought yearly + from China to Europe and America are obtained from the same species + or variety, namely, from the _Thea viridis_. Dried specimens of this + plant were prepared in the districts I have named, by myself, and + are now in the herbarium of the Horticultural Society of London, so + that there can be no longer any doubt upon the subject. In various + parts of the Canton provinces where I have had an opportunity of + seeing tea cultivated, the species proved to be the _Thea Bohea_, or + what is commonly called the black tea plant. In the green tea + districts of the north--I allude more particularly to the province + of Chekiang--I never met with a single plant of this species, which + is so common in the fields and gardens near Canton. All the plants + in the green tea country near Ningpo, on the islands of the Chusan + Archipelago, and in every part of the province which I have had an + opportunity of visiting, proved, without an exception, to be _Thea + viridis_. Two hundred miles further to the north-west, in the + province of Kiangnan, and only a short distance from the tea hills + in that quarter, I also found in gardens the same species of tea. + Thus far my actual observations exactly verified the opinions I had + formed on the subject before I left England, viz: that the black + teas were prepared from the _Thea Bohea_, and the green from _Thea + viridis_. When I left the north, on my way to the city of + Foo-chow-foo, on the river Min, in the province Fokien, I had no + doubt that I should find the tea hills there covered with the other + species, _Thea Bohea_, from which we generally suppose the black + teas are made; and this was the more likely to be the case as this + species actually derives its specific name from the Bohea hills in + this province. Great was my surprise to find all the plants on the + tea hills near Foo-chow exactly the same as those in the green tea + districts of the north. Here were, then, green tea plantations on + the black tea hills, and not a single plant of the _Thea Bohea_ to + be seen. Moreover, at the time of my visit, the natives were busily + employed in the manufacture of black teas. Although the specific + differences of the tea plant were well known to me, I was so much + surprised, and I may add amused, at this discovery, that I procured + a set of specimens for the herbarium, and also dug up a living + plant, which I took northward to Chekiang. On comparing it with + those which grow on the green tea hills, no difference whatever was + observed. It appears, therefore, that the black and green teas of + the northern districts of China (those districts in which the + greater part of the teas for the foreign market are made) are both + produced from the same variety, and that that variety is the _Thea + viridis_, or what is commonly called green tea plant. On the other + hand those black and green teas which are manufactured in + considerable quantities in the vicinity of Canton, are obtained + from the _Thea Bohea_, or black tea. + + In the green tea districts of Chekiang, near Ningpo, the first crop + of leaves is generally gathered about the middle of April. This + consists of the young leaf buds just as they begin to unfold, and + forms a fine and delicate kind of young hyson, which is held in high + estimation by the natives, and is generally sent about in small + quantities as presents to their friends. It is a scarce and + expensive article, and the picking off the leaves in such a young + state does considerable injury to the tea plantation. The summer + rains, however, which fall copiously about this season, moisten the + earth and air; and if the plants are young and vigorous, they soon + push out fresh leaves. In a fortnight or three weeks from the time + of the first picking, the shrubs are again covered with fresh + leaves, and are ready for the second gathering, which is the most + important of the season. The third and last gathering, which takes + place as soon as new leaves are formed, produces a very inferior + kind of tea, which is rarely sent out of the district. The mode of + gathering and preparing the leaves of the tea plant is very simple. + We have been so long accustomed to magnify and mystify everything + relating to the Chinese, that in all their arts and manufactures we + expect to find some peculiar practice, when the fact is, that many + operations in China are more simple in their character than in most + parts of the world. To rightly understand the process of rolling and + drying the leaves, which I am about to describe, it must be borne in + mind that the grand object is to expel the moisture, and at the same + time to retain as much as possible of the aromatic and other + desirable secretions of the species. The system adopted to attain + this end is as simple as it is efficacious. In the harvest seasons, + the natives are seen in little family groups on the side of every + hill, when the weather is dry, engaged in gathering tea leaves. They + do not seem so particular as I imagined they would have been in this + operation, but strip the leaves off rapidly and promiscuously, and + throw them all into round baskets, made for the purpose out of split + bamboo or ratan. In the beginning of May, when the principal + gathering takes place, the young seed-vessels are about as large as + peas. These are also stripped off and mixed with the leaves; it is + these seed-vessels which we often see in our tea, and which has some + slight resemblance to capers. When a sufficient quantity of leaves + are gathered, they are carried home to the cottage or barn, where + the operation of drying is performed." + +This is minutely described, and the author continues:-- + + "I have stated that the plants grown in the districts of Chekiang + produce green teas, but it must not be supposed that they are the + green teas which are exported to England. The leaf has a much more + natural color, and has little or none of what we call the 'beautiful + bloom' upon it, which is so much admired in Europe and America. + There is now no doubt that all these 'blooming' green teas, which + are manufactured at Canton, are dyed with Prussian blue and gypsum, + to suit the taste of the foreign 'barbarians;' indeed the process + may be seen any day, during the season, by those who give themselves + the trouble to seek after it. It is very likely that the same + ingredients are also used in dyeing the northern green teas for the + foreign market; of this, however, I am not quite certain. There is a + vegetable dye obtained from _Isatis indigotica_ much used in the + northern districts, and called _Teinsing_; and it is not unlikely + that it may be the substance which is employed. The Chinese never + use these dyed teas themselves, and I certainly think their taste in + this respect is more correct than ours. It is not to be supposed + that the dye used can produce any very bad effects on the consumer, + for, had this been the case, it would have been discovered before + now; but if entirely harmless or inert, its being so must be + ascribed to the very small quantity which is employed in the + manufacture." + +In short, the black and green teas which are generally exported to +England and the United States from the northern provinces of China, +are made from the same species; and the difference of color, flavor, +&c., is solely the result of the different modes of preparation. + +I shall make an extract, also, from Williams's "Middle Kingdom:"-- + + "The native names given to the various sorts of tea are derived for + the most part from their appearance or place of growth; the names of + many of the best kinds are not commonly known abroad. _Bohea_ is the + name of the Wu-i hills, (or Bu-i, as the people on the spot call + them,) where the tea is grown, and not a term for a particular sort + among the Chinese, though it is applied to a very poor kind of black + tea at Canton. _Sunglo_ is likewise a general term for the green + teas produced on the hills in Kiangsu. The names of the principal + varieties of black tea are as follows: _Pecco_, 'white hairs,' so + called from the whitish down on the leaves, is one of the choicest + kinds, and has a peculiar taste; _Orange Pecco_, called _shang + hiang_, or 'most fragrant,' differs from it slightly; _Hungmuey_, + 'red plum blossoms,' has a slightly reddish tinge; the terms + _prince's eyebrows_, _carnation hair_, _lotus kernel_, _sparrow's + tongue_, _fir-leaf pattern_, _dragon's pellet_, and _dragon's + whiskers_, are all translations of the native names of different + kinds of Souchong or Pecco. _Souchong_, or _siau chung_, means + _little plant_ or sort, as _Pouchong_, or _folded sort_, refers to + the mode of packing it; _Campoi_ is corrupted from _kan pei_ i.e. + carefully fired; _Chulan_ is the tea scented with the chulan flower, + and applied to some kinds of scented green tea. The names of green + teas are less numerous: _Gunpowder_, or _ma chu_, i.e. hemp pearl, + derives its name from the form into which the leaves are rolled; _ta + chu_ or 'great pearl,' and _chu lan_, or 'pearl flower,' denote two + kinds of _Imperial_; _Hyson_, or _yu tsien_, i.e. before the rains, + originally denoted the tenderest leaves of the plant, and is now + applied to _Young Hyson_; as is also another name, _mei pein_, or + 'plum petals;' while _hi chun_, 'flourishing spring,' describes + _Hyson_; _Twankay_ is the name of a stream in Chehkiang, where this + sort is produced; and _Hyson skin_, or _pi cha_, i.e. skin tea, is + the poorest kind, the siftings of the other varieties; _Oolung_, + 'black dragon,' is a kind of black tea with green flavor. Ankoi teas + are produced in the district of Nganki, not far from Tsiuenchau fu, + possessing a peculiar taste, supposed to be owing to the ferruginous + nature of the soil. De Guignes speaks of the Pu-'rh tea, from the + place in Kiangsu where it grows, and says it is cured from wild + plants found there; the infusion is unpleasant, and is used for + medical purposes. The Mongols and others in the west of China + prepare tea by pressing it, when fresh, into cakes like bricks, and + thoroughly drying it in that shape to carry in their wanderings. + + "Considering the enormous labor of preparing tea, it is surprising + that even the poorest kind can be afforded to the foreign purchaser + at Canton, more than a thousand miles from the place of its growth, + for 9d. and less a pound; and in their ability to furnish it at this + rate, the Chinese have a security of retaining the trade in their + hands, notwithstanding the efforts to grow the plant elsewhere. + Comparatively little adulteration is practised, if the amount used + at home and abroad be considered, though the temptation is great, as + the infusion of other plants is drunk instead of the true tea. The + poorer natives substitute the leaves of a species of Rhamnus or + Fallopia, which they dry; Camellia leaves are perhaps mixed up with + it, but probably to no great extent. The refuse of packing-houses is + sold to the poor at a low rate, under the name of tea endings and + tea bones; and if a few of the rarest sorts do not go abroad, + neither do the poorest. It is a necessary of life to all classes of + Chinese, and that its use is not injurious is abundantly evident + from its general acceptance and extending adoption; and the + prejudice against it among some out of China may be attributed + chiefly to the use of strong green tea, which is no doubt + prejudicial. If those who have given it up on this account will + adopt a weaker infusion of black tea, general experience is proof + that it will do them no great harm, and they may be sure that they + will not be deceived by a colored article; Neither the Chinese nor + Japanese use milk or sugar in their tea, and the peculiar taste and + aroma of the infusion is much better perceived without those + additions; nor can it be drunk so strong without tasting an + unpleasant bitterness, which the milk partly hides. The Japanese + sometimes reduce the leaves to a powder, and pour boiling water + through them in a cullender, in the same way that coffee is often + made." + +The following valuable details as to the cultivation and manufacture +of tea in British India, are from interesting reports by Dr. Jameson, +Superintendent of the Company's Botanical Gardens in the North West +Provinces, published in 1847 in the Journal of the Agricultural and +Horticultural Society of Calcutta;--and from Mr. Robert Fortune's +report to the Hon. East India Company:-- + + _The quantity manufactured_.--The quantity of tea manufactured from + five plantations, of 89 acres in all, amounted in 1845 to 610 lb. 2 + oz., and in 1846, on 115 acres, to l,023 lb. ll oz. The small + nursery of Lutchmisser, consisting of three acres of land, gave a + return in 1845 of 216 lb., or 2 maunds and 56 pounds; in 1846 the + return was 272 lbs., or 3 maunds and 32 pounds. + + The small plantation of Kuppeena, established in 1841-2, and then + consisting of three acres (but increased in 1844 to four), yielded + in 1845, 1 maund and 56 pounds, and in 1846, 2 maunds and 56 pounds. + Thus we have received from a plantation of only five years' + formation, and of four acres (one of these recently added), upwards + of 21/2 maunds of tea, and from another, Lutchmisser, of three acres, + which was established in 1835-6, 3 maunds and 30 pounds, equal to + 272 pounds. I have, in a former report, asserted that the minimum + return of tea for an acre of land may be estimated at 1 pucka maund, + or 80 lb. The only plantations that I can as yet bring forward in + favour of my assertion, are the two above-mentioned: Kuppeena has + not yielded the proportion mentioned, but it was only established in + 1841-42, and the tea-plants do not come into full bearing until the + eighth year; on the other hand, Lutchmisser has given more than the + average return. I think, therefore, that the returns already yielded + are highly favorable, and that though the data are small, they are + very satisfactory. + + _Soil best adapted for the tea-plant_.--The soil in which the + tea-plant is now thriving in the Himalayas and in the valley of + Deyrah Dhoon, varies exceedingly. At Bhurtpoor and Russiah it is of + a light silico-aluminous nature, and abounding with small pieces of + clay slate, which is the subjacent rock, and trap (green-stone), + which occurs in large dykes, cutting through and altering the strata + of clay slate; mixed with the stony soil, there is a small quantity + of vegetable matter. The clay slate is metamorphic, being almost + entirely composed of mica. In some places it is mixed with quartz, + forming mica slate. From the decomposition of these rocks, mixed + with a small quantity of vegetable matter, the soil is formed. At + Kuppeena and Lutchmisser, the soil is also very stony, formed from + the decomposition of clay slate, which, in many places, as at + Russiah and Bhurtpoor, passes into mica slate, or alternates with + it, and a little vegetable matter. The same remark applies to the + plantations of Guddowli, Kouth, and Rumaserai. At Huwalbaugh part of + the soil consists of a stiff clay, of a reddish-yellow colour, owing + to peroxide of iron. Here, too, the tea-plants, provided that the + ground around them is occasionally opened up, thrive well. In Mr. + Lushington's garden at Lobha, in Kumaon, and in Assistant + Commissioner Captain H. Ramsay's garden at Pooree, in Gurwahl, + plants are thriving well in a rich, black, vegetable mould. The soil + in the Deyrah Dhoon varies exceedingly from clayey and stiff soil to + sand and gravelly soil, or light and free. The soil at Kaolagir is a + compound of the two, neither clayey, nor free, nor light soil, but + composed partly of clay and sand, mixed with vegetable mould, and in + some places mixed with much gravel, consisting of limestone, marl, + sandstone, clay slate, and quartz rock, or of such rocks as enter + into the composition of the surrounding ranges of mountains, viz., + the Sewalick range to the south, and the Himalayas, properly so + called, to the north, From the above statement, we find that the + tea-plant thrives well both in stiff and free soils, and in many + modifications of these. But the soil which seems best adapted to its + growth may be styled free soil, as at Russiah, or a mixture of both, + as at Kaolagir, in the Deyrah Dhoon. + + In limestone districts, where the tea has been tried, if the + super-imposed soil has been thin and untransported, and this proved + from the decomposition of the subjacent rock, the plant has + generally failed; and this has been particularly the case where the + limestone, by plutonic action, has become metamorphic. These + districts, therefore, in forming plantations, are to be avoided. + + From the writings of various authors, it appears that the districts + where the tea-plant thrives best in China, have a geological + structure very similar to that met with in many parts of the + Himalayas, being composed of primitive and transition rocks. + + _Altitude above the sea best suited to the tea plant_.--To state + what altitude is best adapted to the growth of the tea-plant, and + for the production of the best kinds of tea, will require much more + observation. At present the tea-plant thrives equally well at + Kaolagir, in the Deyrah Dhoon; at Russiah, in the Chikata district; + at Huwalbaugh; at Kuppeena and Lutchmisser; and at Rumaserai, or at + heights ranging from 2,200 feet above the level of the sea to 6,000 + feet. + + Moreover, the tea manufactured from leaves procured from Kaolagir, + has been considered by the London brokers equal to that made from + leaves procured from Lutchmisser and Kuppeena. + + _On the method of preparing ground prior to forming a + plantation_.--In forming a plantation, the first object of + attention, both in the hills and in the Deyrah Dhoon, is a _fence_. + In the former, to prevent the depredations of wild animals, such as + wild hog, deer, &c., which abound in the hills, and though they do + not eat tea leaves, yet hogs, in search of tubers, in the space of a + single night will do much damage by uprooting young shrubs--in the + latter, to prevent the straying of cattle. The first thing to be + done, therefore, is to dig a trench three feet broad and two deep, + and to plant a hedge, if in the hills, of black thorn (_Cratoegus_); + if in the plains, the different species of aloe are best adapted for + the purpose. The fence being formed, all trees and shrubs are then + to be uprooted; this is very heavy work, both in the hills and + plains, from the vast number of shrubs, allowed by natives (from + indolence to remove them) to grow everywhere throughout their + fields. Roads are then to be marked off. + + After this has been accomplished, the land is to be drained, if + necessary, by open drains--under drainage, for want of means and the + expense, being impracticable--and then ploughed three or four times + over. The beds for young tea-plants are then to be formed; these + ought to be three feet in breadth, alternating with a pathway of two + feet in breadth. By arranging beds in this manner much time and + labour is saved in transplanting; in irrigation the water is + economised, and in plucking tea leaves a road is given to the + gatherer. In transplanting, each plant is allowed 41/2 feet; this is + at once gained, the beds and pathways being formed by placing in one + direction the plant in the centre of the bed. + + _Trenching_.--On the tea beds being marked off, they are to be + trenched to a depth of from two to three feet, in order to destroy + all the roots of weeds, which are to be carefully removed. The + trenching is to be performed by the _fowrah_, or Indian spade. + + In the hills, in many places the _fowrah_ cannot be used, owing to + the number of stones. The work is then to be done by the _koatlah_, + a flat-pointed piece of iron, of about eight inches in length, which + is inserted into a wooden handle. It is in form like the pick, and + is much used in hill cultivation for weeding and opening up the + ground. It is, however, not much to be commended for trenching + purposes, as natives, in using it, never penetrate the ground beyond + a few inches. For weeding, however, it is particularly useful, and + to such soil is much better adapted than most other implements. + + _Formation of roads and paths_.--In addition to the pathways of two + feet in breadth, recommended to be formed between each bed, there + ought, for general use, to be a four feet road carried round the + plantation, and one of 10 feet through the centre. This applies to a + limited plantation, that is, of from 200 to 400 acres. If, on the + other hand, it was on a more extensive scale, several hackery roads + of 10 feet in breadth would be necessary, in order to cart away + weeds, &c., or carry manure to seedling beds. + + _On seeds when ripe, and method to be adopted to ascertain it_.--In + all September and October the tea seeds ripen, but in the more + elevated plantations, as at Rumaserai, many do not ripen until + November. The seeds are contained in a capsule, and vary in number + from one to seven; to ascertain that they are ripe, open the + capsule, although green, and if their color is a nut-brown, they are + sure to be so. If they are not ripe, they are of a reddish-brown + above, mixed with white. If the seeds are allowed to remain a short + time on the bushes, after they are ripe, the capsules burst, and + they fall out; it is necessary, therefore, to remove them before + this takes place. + + _On the method of sowing seeds, and season, and on the treatment of + the young tea plants after they have germinated_.--The ground having + been first well trenched and manured, that is, from sixty to seventy + maunds of manure given to the acre, the seeds are, when ripe, to be + removed from the capsules, and immediately sown to the depth of one + inch, and very close, in drills 8 to 10 inches apart from each + other. The sooner that they are sown after being removed from the + capsules the better, as their germinating properties are apt to be + destroyed if they are kept for any length of time. Some germinate in + the space of a few weeks, others lie dormant until February and + March, and others do not germinate until the rains. + + The method of sowing seeds in China is thus described, being similar + to the native plan of sowing mangoes in India. "Several seeds are + dropped into holes four or five inches deep and three or four feet + apart, shortly after they ripen, or in November and December; the + plants rise up in a cluster when the rains come on. They are seldom + transplanted, but sometimes four to six are put quite close to form + a fine bush."[9] By this method nothing is gained, and the + expenditure of seeds great. + + If the plants germinate in November, which, as already stated, many + do, they ought to be covered with a _chupper_ made of bamboo and + grass. + + In the hills, everywhere at an elevation of 6,000 and 7,000 feet, + the ringal, a small kind of bamboo, of which there are several + species, is found in great abundance, and well adapted for the + purpose, and in the Deyrah Dhoon the bamboo occurs in vast quantity; + the market of the Upper Provinces being chiefly supplied from that + valley and other forests at the base of the Himalayas. Bamboos are + also met with to the height of six and seven thousand feet on the + Himalayas in the neighbourhood of Almorah. During the day, in the + cold weather, the _chuppers_ ought to be removed, and again replaced + at night; as the weather becomes hot, it is necessary to protect the + young plants from the heat of the sun, that is, in April and May, + and until the rains commence; the _chuppers_ at this time ought to + be put on about eight a.m., and removed again about four p.m. + + _Method of rearing plantations by layers, and by cuttings_.--The + best season for laying down is when the sap is dormant, or in cold + weather; or when in full action, as in the rains. "Laying," as + expressed by Dr. Lindley, "is nothing but striking from cuttings, + which are still allowed to maintain their connection with the mother + plant by means of a portion of their stem." There are various + methods of making layers, but the most simple and efficient is to + bend down a branch, and sink it into the earth after having made a + slit or notch in the centre of the embedded portion. By so doing, + the descent of the sap is retarded, and thus the formation of + radicles or young roots is promoted; about five or six inches or + more, of the branch, is to be allowed to remain above ground, and in + a position as perpendicular to the point where the plant is notched + as possible. In three or four mouths these layers are ready to be + removed and transplanted; the removal of the layers is to be + gradual, that is, they ought first to be cut half through, then a + little more, and finally altogether separated. + + The best season for propagating by cuttings is the cold weather, + that is, from November to February; they may also be propagated, + though not with the same success, during the rains; it is necessary + to protect them against frost in the cold weather, and from the rays + of the sun in the hot. Cuttings put in during the cold weather are + ready to transplant in the rains, and if put in during the rains, + they are generally fit for removal in February. + + _On the method of transplanting and season_.--In transplanting young + tea-plants care should be taken to lift them with a good large ball + of earth attached to their roots, as they throw out a long central + or tap root, which, if cut through, invariably destroys the plant. + On being placed in the ground, the earth around them is to be well + pressed down and watered; the watering is to be continued every + third or fourth day, until the plants have taken hold of the ground. + During the rains, grass springs up with great rapidity, so as to + render it impossible for one man to keep three acres (the quantity + assigned by us) clean. This, however, is not necessary, if care be + taken to make a golah round each plant, and keep it clear of weeds; + these golahs ought always, in hill plantations where the ground is + irregular, to be connected by small _khauls_ or channels, in order + to make irrigation easy; by so doing too, water, if the supply be + scanty, which often happens in the hills in the hot weather, will be + economised. + + +-----------------------------------------+ + | b b | + | a a a | a Tea plant. + Thus-- | X----------X----------X | b Bed + | c c | c Watercourse + | b b | + +-----------------------------------------+ + + We have already stated that 41/2 square feet ought to be assigned to + each plant. In China, according to Professor Royle, three to four + feet are given; this, however, is too small a space to allow the + plant to grow freely. After the tea plants are transplanted, it is + not necessary to protect them. + + The best seasons for transplanting are towards the end of February, + or as soon as the frost has ceased, and throughout March, and during + the rains, and until the end or middle of November, depending on the + season. + + In transplanting, four parties ought to be employed; viz., one + person to dig holes, a second to remove plants, a third to carry + them to the ground where they are required, and a fourth to plant. + By this means, not only time is saved, but the plants have a much + better chance, when thus treated, of doing well. When the seedling + beds are extensive, so many of the plants ought not to be removed, + that is, a plant left every 41/2 feet, and these beds added to the + plantation. + + _On pruning, best season and mode_.--The plants do not require to be + pruned until the fifth year, as the plucking of leaves generally + tends to make the plants assume the basket shape, the form most to + be desired to procure the greatest quantity of leaves; if, however, + the plants show a tendency to run into weed, from central branches + being thrown out, this ought to be checked by removing the central + stem. In the fourth year a quantity of the old and hard wood ought + to be removed, to induce the plants to throw out more branches. The + best season for pruning is from November to March. + + _On irrigation_.--To keep the tea-plants healthy, irrigation for two + or three years is absolutely necessary, and no land ought to be + selected for a tea plantation which cannot be irrigated. + + On the other hand, land liable to be flooded during the rains, and + upon which water lies for any length of time, is equally detrimental + to the growth of the plant. This applies to a small portion of the + Kooasur plantation, which receives the drainage of the adjoining + hills, and the soil being retentive, keeps the water. Deep trenches + have been dug in order to drain it off--these, however, owing to the + lowness of the surrounding country, act badly. Three successive + seasons plants have been put into the ground, and as often have been + destroyed on the setting in of the rains, showing the necessity of + avoiding such kind of land for tea plantation. + + To facilitate irrigation, &c., as already stated, in the Deyrah + Dhoon, I have limited the tea beds to three feet in breadth. This is + particularly requisite in land so constituted as that of the Deyrah + Dhoon, it being so porous, as mentioned by Major Cautley in his + "Notes and Memoranda of Watercourses." This is caused by the + superincumbent soil not being more than from one to three feet + thick, in some places more, but varying exceedingly. Beneath this + there is a bed of shingle of vast thickness, through which the water + percolates; it is this that renders the sinking of wells so + difficult in the Deyrah Dhoon, and which has tended so much to + retard individuals from becoming permanent residents; at present + there are many tracts of several thousand acres in that valley + unoccupied from want of drinking water, as for instance, at + Innesphaeel. + + Where the ground is very uneven, as is the case generally in the + hills, the _khaul_ system, already recommended, ought to be adopted. + + _On the tea-plant; season of flowering, its characters and species, + and on the advantages to be derived from importing seeds from + China_.--From the importance of tea, as an article of commerce, the + plant has attracted much attention; and from few qualified Europeans + having travelled in the tea districts of China, there is much + difference of opinion as to the number of species belonging to the + genus Thea. + + In the government plantations in Kumaon and Gurwahl, the plants + begin to flower about the end of August and beginning of September, + or, as the seeds of the former year begin to ripen. They do not all + come into flower at once, but some are in full blossom in September, + others in October, November, December and January. Some throw out a + second set of blossoms in March, April, and May, and during the + rains; so that from the same plant unripe or ripe seeds and flowers + may be collected at one and the same time. + + To the genus Thea, which belongs to the order Ternstraemiaceae, the + following characters have been ascribed: calyx persistent, without + bracts, five-leaved, leaflets imbricated and generally of the same + size. Petals of the corolla vary in number from five to nine, + imbricated, the inner ones much the largest. Stamens numerous, in + several rows adhering to the bottom of the petals. Filaments + filiform. Anthers incumbent, two-celled, oblong, with a thickish + connectivum. Cells opening longitudinally. Ovary free, three-celled; + ovules four in each cell, inserted internally into the central + angle, the upper ones ascending, the lower pendulous. Style trifid, + stigmas three, acute. Capsule spheroidal, 1-7-lobed with loculicidal + dehiscence, or with dessepiments formed from the turned-in edges of + the valves. Seeds solitary, or two in cells, shell-like testa, + marked with the ventral umbilicus. Cotyledons thick, fleshy, oily, + no albumen. Radicle very short, very near the umbilicus centripetal. + In the plantations there are two species, and two well marked + varieties. + + The first is characterised by the leaves being of a pale-green + colour, thin, almost membraneous, broad lanceolate, sinatures or + edge irregular and reversed, length from three to six inches. The + color of the stem of newly-formed shoots is of a pale-reddish + colour, and green towards the end. This species is also marked by + its strong growth, its erect stem, and the shoots being generally + upright and stiff. The flowers are small, and its seeds but sparing. + + In its characters this plant, received from Assam, agrees in part + with those assigned by Dr. Lettsom and Sir W. Hooker to the _Thea + viridis_, but differs in its branches being stiff and erect. The + flowers small, or rather much about the same size as the species + about to be described, and not confined to the upper axils of the + plant, and solitary, as stated by them.[10] By the Chinese + manufacturers it is considered an inferior plant for making tea, it + is not therefore grown to any extent. + + The second species is characterised by its leaves being much + smaller, and not so broadly lanceolate; slightly waved, of a + dark-green color, thick and coriaceous, sinature or edge irregular, + length from one to three inches and a half. In its growth it is much + smaller than the former, and throws out numerous spreading branches, + and seldom presents its marked leading stem. This species, + therefore, in the above characters, agrees much with those that have + been assigned to _Thea Bohea_ by authors. The characters have been + mixed up in an extraordinary manner. Thus it has been stated, that + the _Thea viridis_ has large, strong growing, and spreading + branches, and that _Thea Bohea_ is a smaller plant, with branches + stiff and straight, and stem erect. No doubt the _Thea viridis_ is a + much larger and stronger growing plant than the _Thea Bohea_, or + rather the plant now existing in the different plantations is so; + but in the former the branches are stiff and erect, and in the + latter inclined and branches. The marked distinguishing characters + between the two species are the coriaceous dark-green leaves in the + _Thea Bohea_, and the large pale-green monhanaeous leaves of the + _Thea viridis_. The manner, too, of growth is very striking, and on + entering the plantation the distinction is at once marked to the + most unobservant eye. This species of _Thea Bohea_ forms nearly the + whole of the plantations, and was brought from China by Dr. Gordon. + + In the plantations there is a third plant, which, however, can only + be considered a marked variety of _Thea Bohea_. Its leaves are + thick, coriaceous, and of dark-green color, but invariably very + small, and not exceeding two inches in length, and thinly + lanceolate; the serratures, too, on the edge, which are straight, + are not so deep. In other characters it is identical. This marked + variety was received from Calcutta at the plantation in a separate + despatch from the others. + + But in addition to these there are, no doubt, many more varieties, + and though it may be a fact that, in certain districts, green tea is + manufactured from a species differing from that from which black tea + is manufactured, yet, in other districts, green and black teas are + manufactured from one and the same plant. The Chinese manufacturers + now in Kumaon state that the plant is one and the same, and that it + can be proved by converting black tea into green. In manufacturing + teas now in the manufactory, if a large quantity of leaves are + brought in from the plantations, one half are converted into green, + and one half into black tea. This only shows that much of the green + and black teas of commerce are manufactured from one and the same + plant. The Assam plant is, from the characters given, quite a + distinct plant, and agrees, as already stated, most nearly with the + species described as _Thea viridis_. It would, therefore, be most + desirable to procure seeds of this so-called species, and also of + other varieties, of which, no doubt, there is a great variety. From + the northern districts of China in particular, seeds ought to be + imported, not, however, in large quantities, but in quantities of + two or three seers, so that they might, on arrival at Calcutta, be + sent up the country as quickly as possible, for, if the seeds are + kept long out of the ground, not one will germinate; such was the + fate of all the seeds contained in ten boxes imported by government + in 1845, not one having germinated, which was much to be regretted. + Had they been sent in small parcels, well packed in wax cloth, to + prevent them from being injured by moisture, and placed in an airy + part of the vessel in transmission from China to Calcutta, and, on + arrival there, sent by dawk banghay direct to the plantation, they + would, I am confident, have reached in good condition. It is well + worthy of a trial and seeds ought, if possible, to be obtained from + every district celebrated for its teas. It is in this manner, by + obtaining seeds of the finest varieties of plants, that the finest + teas will be procured. I do not mean to infer that the tea plants + now under cultivation are not the produce of fine varieties, for + that has been proved by the undoubted testimony of the London + brokers, but only that there are, no doubt, many others well worthy + of introduction. In confirmation of what I have stated, I may quote + the words of my late friend Dr. Griffith, who, in his report on the + tea plant of Assam, says--"I now come to the consideration of the + steps which, in my opinion, must be followed if any degree of + success in the cultivation of tea is to be expected; of these the + most important is the importation of Chinese seeds of + unexceptionable quality, and of small numbers of their sorts."[11] + Dr. Royle, too, who was the first person to point out that the + Himalayas were well adapted to tea cultivation, and to whom the + credit of recommending to government the introduction of the plant + into Northern India is due, strongly urges the necessity of + importing seeds from different localities in China celebrated for + their teas. + + _Method and season for plucking and gathering leaves_.--The season + for picking leaves commences in April and continues until October. + The number of gatherings varies, depending on the moisture[12] or + dryness of the season. If the season be good, as many as seven + gatherings may be obtained. If, however, the rains are partial, only + four or five. These, however, may be reduced to their general + periods for gathering--that is, from April to June, from July to + 15th August, and from September to the end of October. But few + leaves are collected after the 15th of the latter month. As soon as + the new and young leaves have appeared in April, the plucking takes + place, this being done by the Chinese, assisted by the Mallees. The + following is the method adopted:--A certain division of the + plantation is marked off, and to each man a small basket is given, + with instructions to proceed to a certain point, so that no plant + may be passed over. On the small basket being filled, the leaves are + emptied into another large one, which is put in some shady place, + and in which, when filled, they are conveyed to the manufactory. The + leaves are generally plucked with the thumb and forefinger. + Sometimes the terminal part of a branch, having four or five young + leaves attached, is plucked off. All old leaves are rejected, as + they will not curl, and therefore are of no use. + + As the season advances, and manufactory and plantation works become + necessary, the Mallees are assisted in gathering leaves by Coolies. + The process is simple, and thus every man, woman, and child of + villages could be profitably employed, on the plantations being + greatly extended. Certain kinds of leaves are not selected in the + plantation, in order to make certain kinds of tea, but all new and + fresh leaves are indiscriminately collected together, and the + different kinds separated on the leaves being fired. + + _Method of manufacturing black tea_.--The young and fresh leaves on + being picked (they only being used, the old ones being too hard, and + therefore unfit to curl), are carried to the manufactory, and spread + out in a large airy room to cool, and are there kept during the + night, being occasionally turned with the hand if brought in in the + afternoon; or, if brought in during the morning, they are allowed to + lie until noon. Early in the morning the manufacturers visit the + airing room, and pack up the leaves in baskets and remove them to + the manufacturing room. Each manufacturer takes a basketful, and + commences to beat them between the palms of his hands with a lateral + motion, in order to soften and make them more pliable for working, + and thus prevent them, when rolled, from breaking. This beating + process continues for about an hour, and it may either consist of + one or two processes; the Chinese sometimes finish the beating + process at once; at others, they allow the leaves, after being beat + for half an hour, to remain a time and then resume it. They now go + to breakfast, and in one hour and a half the leaves are ready for + the pan. The pans being heated by wood placed in the oven, so as to + feel hot to the hands, are filled to about two-thirds, or about + three seers of leaves are thrown in at a time--the quantity which a + manufacturer is capable of lifting with both hands. With the hands + the leaves are kept moving with a rotatory motion in the pan, and + when they become very hot, the motion is kept up with a pair of + forked sticks. This process is continued for three or four minutes, + depending on the heat of the pan, or until the leaves feel hot and + soft. They are then, with one sweep of a bamboo brush, swept into a + basket, and thrown on to the rolling-table, which is covered with a + coarse mat made of bamboo. Each manufacturer then takes as much as + he can hold in both hands, and forms a ball and commences to roll it + with all his might with a semicircular motion, which causes a + greenish yellow juice to exude. This process is continued for three + or four minutes, the balls being occasionally undone and made up + again. The balls are then handed to another party at the extremity + of the table, to undo them and spread the leaves out thinly on flat + baskets and expose them to the sun, if there is any; if not they are + kept in the manufactory. After all the leaves have gone through this + process, the first baskets are brought back, and the leaves again + transferred to the pan, worked up in a similar manner for the same + length of time, re-transferred to the table, and again rolled. This + being done, the leaves are again spread out on large flat baskets to + cool. On being cooled the leaves are collected together and thinly + spread out on flat wicker-worked sieve-baskets, which are placed in + others of a deep and of a double-coned shape. The choolahs being + lighted for some time, and the charcoal burning clear, they are now + ready to receive the coned baskets. The basket is placed over the + choolah and kept there for about five minutes. The leaves are then + removed, re-transferred to the flat baskets, and re-rolled for a few + minutes. This being done, the leaves are again brought together, + placed in the conical basket and kept over the charcoal fire for + about two minutes. The contents of the conical baskets are then all + collected together in a heap, and as much is placed in a conical + basket as it will hold, and it is again placed over the charcoal + choolah until the tea is perfectly dry. During this time the baskets + are frequently removed and the tea turned, in order to allow the + leaves to be completely and uniformly dried, and the basket too is + generally struck, on removal, a violent side blow with the hand, to + remove from the sieve any small particles that might otherwise fall + into the fire. Before removing the basket from the choolah, a flat + basket is always placed on the floor to receive it, and all the + particles which pass through, on the coned basket being struck, are + again replaced. On the conical basket being filled, before placing + it over the choolah, a funnel is made in the centre of the tea with + the hand, to allow the heated air to pass through. Sometimes a + funnel made of bamboo is made for this purpose. After the tea feels + perfectly dry, it is packed in boxes, and sent to the godown. + + Next day the different kinds of tea are picked, and on being + separated they are again placed in the conical baskets and heated. + During this process the baskets are frequently removed from the + choolah in order to turn the tea, so that the heating may be general + and uniform. In doing this a flat basket is always placed on the + floor, as on the former day (and a flat basket, too, is placed on + the top to confine the heat), to receive the conical one, which + receive one or two blows to open the pores of the sieve. What passes + through is replaced amongst the tea. When it is perfectly dry it is + ready for finally packing. + + The kinds of black tea at present manufactured are--Souchong, + Pouchong, Flowery Pekoe, and Bohea. The Flowery Pekoe is + manufactured in September. + + _Method of manufacturing Green Tea_.--On the young and fresh leaves + being plucked they are spread out on the ground of the airing room + and allowed to cool. After remaining for about two hours, or (if + brought in late in the afternoon) during the night, they are removed + to the green tea room. The pans being properly heated, the leaves, + as in the case with the black tea, are thrown into the pans and kept + either with the hand or two forked sticks in constant motion for + three or four minutes, and are then removed to the rolling table, + and then rolled in the same manner in balls as the black tea. They + are then scattered most sparingly on large flat baskets and exposed + to the heat of the sun. If there is no sun the baskets are arranged + in frames, which are placed over the choolah, heated with charcoal. + During the drying the leaves are frequently made into balls and + rolled in the flat baskets, in order to extract the juice. The + drying process continues for about two hours, and on the leaves + becoming dry, those contained in two baskets are thrown together, + and then four basketsful into one, and so on until they are all + collected together. In this state the leaves still feel soft, damp, + and pliant to the hand, and are now brought back to the tea + manufacturing-room. Opposite to each of the inclined pans, which + have been properly heated so as to feel warm to the hand by wood + supplied to the ovens underneath, one of the Chinese stations + himself, and puts as many leaves into it as it will hold. He then + moves them in a heap gently, from before backward, making these + perform a circle, and presses them strongly to the sides of the pan. + As the leaves become hot he uses a flat piece of wood, in order that + he may more effectually compress them. This process continues for + about two hours, the leaves being compressed into at least half of + their bulk, and become so dry that when pressed against the back + part of the pan in mass, they again fall back in pieces. The tea, as + by this time it has assumed this appearance, is now placed in a bag + made of American drill or jean (the size depending on the quantity + of tea), which is damped, and one end twisted with much force over a + stick, and thus it is much reduced in size. After being thus + powerfully compressed and beaten so as to reduce the mass as much as + possible, the bag is exposed to the sun until it feels perfectly + dry. If there is no sun it is placed in the heated pan, and there + retained until it is so. This finishes the first day's process. + + On the second day it is placed in small quantities in the heated + inclined pans, and moved up and down against the sides and bottom + with the palm of the hand, which is made to perform a semi circle. + This is continued for about six hours, and by so doing the colour of + the tea is gradually brought out. + + The third day it is passed through sieve baskets of different + dimensions, then exposed to the winnowing machine, which separates + the different kinds of green teas. The winnowing machine is divided + into a series of divisions, which receive the different kinds + according to their size and weight. 1st. Coarsest Souchoo. This tea, + owing to its coarseness, is not marketable. 2nd. Chounchoo. This is + a large, round-grained tea. 3rd. Machoo. This is also a + round-grained tea, but finer than the former. 4th. Hyson. 5th. + Gunpowder Hyson. 6th. Chumat. This kind of tea consists of broken + particles of other kinds of tea. + + On being separated, the different kinds are placed in baskets and + picked by the hand, all the old or badly curled and also + light-coloured leaves being removed, and others of different + varieties, which by chance may have become mixed. To make the bad or + light-colored leaves marketable, they undergo an artificial process + of coloring, but this I have prohibited in compliance with the + orders of the Court of Directors, and therefore do not consider this + tea at present fit for the market[13]. On the different teas being + properly picked, they are again placed in the heated inclined pans, + and undergo separately the process of being moved violently up and + down and along the bottom of the pan for three hours in the manner + already described. The color is now fully developed. If the tea + feels damp, it is kept longer than three hours in the pan. The tea + is now ready to be packed. + + _Packing_.--As soon as the tea is prepared, boxes lined with sheet + lead ought to be ready to receive it. On being packed it is to be + firmly pressed down, and the lead is then to be soldered. Before the + sheet lead box is placed in the wooden one it is covered with paper, + which is pasted on to prevent any air acting on the tea through any + holes which might exist in the lead. The box is then nailed, removed + to the godown, papered, stamped, and numbered. It is then ready for + sale. + + From what I have just stated, it will be perceived that box makers + and sheet lead makers are essential to form a complete tea + establishment. With reference to the box making it is unnecessary + for me to make any remark, further than that care is to be taken in + selecting wood for making boxes, as it ought to be free of all + smell. All coniferous (pine) woods are therefore unfit for the + purpose. In the hills the best woods are toon and walnut, and at + Deyrah the saul (_Shorea Robusta_). + + _Manufacture of sheet lead_.--Sheet lead making is a much more + complicated process, and therefore requires more consideration. To + make sheet lead, the manufacturer mixes 11/2 to 3 seers of block tin + with a pucka maund of lead, and melts them together in a cast metal + pan. On being melted, the flat stone slabs, under which it is his + intention to run the lead, are first covered with ten or twelve + sheets of smooth paper (the hill paper being well adapted to the + purpose), which are pasted to the sides, and chalked over. He then + places the under stone in a skeleton frame of wood, to keep it firm, + and above it the other stone. On the upper stone the manufacturer + sits, and gently raises it with his left hand, assisted by throwing + the weight of his body backwards. With his right hand he fills an + iron ladle with the molten matter, throws it under the raised slab, + which he immediately compresses and brings forward (it having been + placed back, and thus overlapping the under slab by about half an + inch) with his own weight. On doing so, the superabundant lead + issues in front and at both sides; what remains attached to the + slabs is removed by the iron ladle. The upper slab is now lifted, + and the sheet of lead examined. If it is devoid of holes it is + retained; if, on the other hand, there are several, which is + generally the case with the first two or three sheets run, or until + the slabs get warm, it is again thrown back to the melting pan. + After having run off a series of sheets the slabs are to be + examined, and, if the paper is in the least burnt, the first sheet + is to be removed, and the one underneath taking its place, and thus + securing an uniform smooth surface, is then to be chalked. According + to the size of the stone slabs used, so is the size of the sheet + lead. Those now in use are 16 inches square by 2 inches in + thickness, and are a composition, being principally formed of lime. + + To make sheet lead boxes, a model one of wood (a little smaller than + the box for which the lead is intended) is formed, which has a hole + in the bottom, and a transverse bar of wood to assist in lifting it + up, instead of a lid. The lead is then shaped on this model and + soldered. This being done, the model is removed by the transverse + bar, and by pressing, if necessary, through the hole. The lead box + is then papered over, in case there should be any small holes in it, + to prevent the action of air on the tea, and, when dry, transferred + to the wooden box for which it was intended. + + _The manufactory_.--The rooms of the manufactory ought to be large + and airy, and to consist of--1st, a black tea manufactory; 2nd, a + green tea manufactory; 3rd, winnowing room; and 4th, airing room. At + Almorah the black tea manufacturing room is 53 feet long by 20 + broad, and the other three, 20 by 24. The walls are 18 feet in + height. + + _Implements required in manufacturing_.--In the body of this report + I have noticed all the different kinds of implements required, I may + however, again briefly notice them, and give a short account of + each. Cast-iron Pans--In the manufactory there are two kinds in use, + one received from China, the other from England. Both are considered + equally good by the tea manufacturers, though in firing green tea + they prefer the Chinese ones, as they are thinner, and are thus by + them better able to regulate the heat. The Chinese pans are two feet + two inches in diameter, and 10 inches in depth, by about one-eighth + of an inch in thickness. + + The English pans are two feet two inches in diameter, and eight + inches in depth, and rather thicker than the Chinese. + + The oven for making black tea is made of kucha brick. In height it + is two feet nine inches, in length, three feet, and in breadth three + feet one inch. Door one foot five inches in height, and 11 inches in + breadth. The base of the oven is 10 inches elevated above the floor + of the manufacturing room. + + The oven with double pans for manufacturing green tea, is also built + of kucha bricks. It is three feet in height and three feet in + breadth; base of oven one foot in height. Door one foot six inches + in height, and 10 inches in breadth. The pans are placed + horizontally. + + A brush made of split bamboo, used in sweeping the tea leaves out of + the pans. + + A basket for receiving tea from the pan when ready to be rolled. It + is 2 feet long, and 11/2 feet broad, and gradually increases in depth + from before backwards to 6 inches. It is made of bamboo. + + The mat made of bamboo for placing on the table when the tea leaves + are about to be rolled. It is 8 feet long and 4 feet broad. + + A flat basket made of bamboo for spreading out the tea leaves when + they have been rolled on the mat. These flat baskets are of various + sizes, varying from 3 to 5 feet in diameter. + + A flat sieve basket of 2 feet in diameter, made of bamboo, upon + which the rolled tea leaves are placed, and which is deposited in + the centre of the double-coned basket. + + Double-coned baskets. The height of these baskets varies from 2 feet + 2 inches to 2 feet 6 inches, external diameter 2 feet 8 inches. In + the centre there are some pegs of bamboo to support the flat sieve + basket on which the tea rests. + + Forked sticks for turning leaves. + + Choolahs. These are formed of kucha bricks, and are 10 inches high, + 101/2 inches deep, and generally about 2 feet in diameter. + + Funnel made of bamboo to allow the heated air from the choolahs to + pass through the tea; it is seldom used; the Chinese tea + manufacturers preferring one made in the tea basket by the hand. + + Oven for firing green tea made of kucha bricks. The pans are + inclined at an angle of 50. In front the oven is 3 feet 2 inches in + height, behind 4 feet 8 inches, length 51/2 feet, breadth 3 feet. Door + 10 inches from the base, 1 foot 2 inches high, and 7 inches wide. + + Frames for placing baskets. The first being inclined. + + Baskets for collecting leaves. + + Shovel, &c., used in regulating the fire. + + Winnowing machine. This is a common winnowing machine, with a box 2 + feet 10 inches in length, 1 foot 2 inches in breadth, and 1 foot 3 + inches in depth, attached to the bottom of the hopper, and closely + fitted into the middle of the circular apartment which contains the + fanners. This box is entirely closed above (unless at the small + opening receiving the hopper) and at the sides. At the base there + are two inclined boards which project from the side of the machine 6 + inches, and are partly separated from each other by angular pieces + of wood. The end towards the fanners is open, the other is partly + closed by a semicircular box which is moveable. + + I shall now give the dimensions of the different parts of this + machine, which may be useful to parties wishing to make up similar + ones to those employed in the manufactories. + + External frame 7 feet 2 inches in length, 18 inches in breadth, and + 5 feet 8 inches in height. Hopper 2 feet 10 inches above, and 1 foot + 8 inches in depth. Frame of box for fanners 3 feet 9 inches in + diameter. Hopper frame 2 feet 7 inches. Semicircular box, in length + 2 feet 5 inches and 7 inches in depth. Inclined plane at base, first + 15 inches, second 13 inches. + + I may briefly state how this machine acts. With the right hand the + fanners are propelled by the crank, and with the left hand the + bottom of the hopper is opened by removing the wood. The flat piece + of wood (the regulator) is held in the hand to regulate the quantity + of tea that passes down. An assistant then throws a quantity of tea + into the hopper which escapes through the apartment, and there meets + the air. The first kind of tea falls down the inclined plane into + one box which has been placed to receive them, the second are + propelled further on, and fall into another box, and the lighter + particles are propelled on to the semicircular end, and fall into a + third box. + + _Note on the culture of the tea plant at Darjeeling, in 1847, by Dr. + A. Campbell, Superintendant_.--About six years ago I received a few + tea seeds from Dr. Wallich; they were of China stock, grown in + Kumaon. I planted them in my garden in November, 1841, and had about + a dozen seedlings in the month of May following, which were allowed + to grow where they had come up, and rather close together. The + plants were healthy from the commencement, and up to May, 1844, had + grown very well; at this period the ground passed into other hands + (Mr. Samuel Smith's), and I lost sight of them until last August, + when Mr. Macfarlane, from Assam, who was acquainted with the tea + plant in that province, arrived here. Being desirous of ascertaining + how far the climate and soil of Darjeeling were suitable to the tea, + I took him to examine the plants, and begged of him to record his + opinion on their growth and qualities, with reference to their age, + and his experience of the plant in Assam. The result was quite + satisfactory. Encouraged by this result, I determined to give an + extended trial to the plant, and through the kindness of Major + Jenkins and Captain Brodie, of Assam, I procured a supply of fresh + seed in October and November last, which was planted in November and + the early part of December. + + The seed was of excellent quality. It commenced germinating in + March, a few plants appeared above ground in the early part of May, + and now I have upwards of 7,000 fine healthy seedlings in the + plantation. + + For the information of those who may desire to try the tea culture + in this soil and climate, I have to state the mode of planting + pursued by me, and other particulars. The ground is a gentle sloping + bank, facing the north and west; the soil is a reddish clay mixed + with vegetable mould. After taking up a crop of potatoes, and + carefully preparing the ground, I put in the seeds in rows six feet + apart and six feet distance in the rows. The seeds were placed about + three inches under the surface, five in number, at each place about + four inches apart--thus : . : On an average, two out of five have + come up. The seedlings commenced appearing above ground early in + May, and continued to show until the end of July. The earliest were, + therefore, six months in the ground; the latest about eight months. + + The seed was of China stock, grown in Assam, and of the Assam plant + mixed. I am anxious to have the China stock only, and purpose + separating the plants of the Assam stock as soon as I can + distinguish them, which Captain Brodie informs me can be readily + done as they grow up; the China plants begin of a darker color, and + smaller than the Assam ones. + + I hope to have a supply of the seed of China stock from Kumaon next + November, and with it to cause the extension of the experiment at + this place. + + I think that it is reasonable to expect quite as good tea to be + produced here as in Kumaon.[14] I have not tasted the Kumaon tea, + but, from the opinion expressed on it in England, I am satisfied + that it is a very drinkable beverage, and that with similar success + here, the tea will be a valuable addition to our products. I have + recently tried two kinds of the Assam tea presented by Mr. Stokes to + a friend. They are excellent teas, and I shall be well content to + have an equally good article manufactured here. + +Mr. A. Macfarlane's report on the tea plants in Mr. Smith's ground is +annexed:-- + + "According to your request I have the pleasure of transmitting you + my opinion of the tea plants in your garden in this place. The two + larger plants have made very good progress, considering their + closeness to each other, which prevents them from throwing their + branches freely in every direction, but as they have attained so + great a size I would not recommend their being transplanted, because + let it be done ever so carefully, the roots must receive more or + less injury, and should the injury be great the death of the tree is + certain. + + The smaller ones on the contrary are much stunted; this is caused by + their confined situation, being completely choked up by the rose + trees, which prevents their receiving a proper supply of light and + air, so necessary to vegetation. They are also planted too closely, + and, as the plants are still small, by availing yourself of the most + favourable season, and using great care in the operation, they might + he transplanted with safety, and should then be placed at a distance + of not less than six feet apart. The difficulty of transplanting is + occasioned by the depth to which the root penetrates, as it + generally grows downwards, and in a large tree is principally in the + subsoil. The larger plants should be pruned of their lower branches + to allow a free current of air. This operation is generally + performed in November, but any time during the cold season or before + the rains, while the plant is at rest, would answer: as I have no + knowledge of this climate, I would leave it to more experienced + persons to judge of the proper season. To conclude, the plants are + in a very healthy condition, and had they been in the hands of a + cultivator, would now have been giving a very fair supply of + produce. + + The small sample I tried was of a very good flavor, but on account + of the defective manner of manufacture, for want of proper + materials, no proper judgment can be formed." (Simmonds's Col. Mag., + vol. xvi. p. 44.) + +Report upon the Tea Plantations of Deyra, Kumaon and Gurhwal, by +Robert Fortune, Esq., addressed to John Thornton, Esq., Secretary to +the Government, North Western Provinces, dated Calcutta, September +6th, 1851:-- + + KAOLAGIR TEA PLANTATION. + + 1. _Situation and extent_.--The Deyra Doon, or Valley of Deyra, is + situated in latitude 3 deg. 18 min. north, and in longitude 78 deg. + east. It is about 60 miles in length from east to west, and 16 miles + broad at its widest part. It is bounded on the south by the Sewalick + range of hills, and on the north by the Himalayas proper, which are + here nearly 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. On the west it is + open to the river Jumna, and on the east to the Ganges, the distance + between these rivers being about 60 miles. + + In the centre of this flat valley, the Kaolagir tea plantation has + been formed. Eight acres were under cultivation in 1847. There are + now 300 acres planted, and about 90 more taken in and ready for many + thousands of young plants raised lately from seeds in the + plantation. + + 2. _Soil and culture_.--The soil of this plantation is composed of + clay, sand, and vegetable matter, rather stiff, and apt to get + "baked" in dry weather, but free enough when it is moist or during + the rains. It rests upon a gravelly subsoil, consisting of + limestone, sandstone, clay-slate, and quartz rock, or of such rocks + as enter into the composition of the surrounding mountain ranges. + The surface is comparatively _flat_, although it falls in certain + directions towards the ravines and rivers. + + The plants are arranged neatly in rows 6 feet apart, and each plant + is about 41/2 feet from its neighbour in the row. A long, rank-growing + species of grass, indigenous to the Doon, is most difficult to keep + from over-topping the tea-plants, and is the cause of much extra + labor. Besides the labor common to all tea countries in China, such + as weeding, and occasionally loosening the soil, there is here an + extensive system of irrigation carried on. To facilitate this, the + plants are planted in trenches, from four to six inches below the + level of the ground, and the soil thus dug out is thrown between the + rows to form the paths. Hence the whole of the plantation consists + of numerous trenches of this depth, and five feet from centre to + centre. At right angles with these trenches a small stream is fed + from the canal, and, by opening or shutting their ends, irrigation + can be carried on at the pleasure of the overseer. + + 3. _Appearance and health of plants_.--The plants generally did not + appear to me to be in that fresh and vigorous condition which I had + been accustomed to see in good Chinese plantations. This, in my + opinion, is caused, 1st, by the plantation being formed on _flat + land_; 2nd, by the system of _irrigation_; 3rd, by too early + plucking; and 4th, by hot drying winds, which are not unfrequent in + this valley from April to the beginning of June. + + + GUDDOWLI PLANTATION (NEAR PAORIE). + + 1. _Situation and extent_.--This plantation is situated in the + Province of Eastern Gurhwal, in latitude 30 deg. 8 min. north, and + in longitude 78 deg. 45 min. east. It consists of a large tract of + terraced land, extending from the bottom of a valley or ravine to + more than 1,000 feet up the sides of the mountain. Its lowest + portion is about 4,300 feet, and its highest 5,300 feet above the + level of the sea; the surrounding mountains appear to be from 7,000 + to 8,000. The plantation has not been measured, but there are, + apparently, fully one hundred acres under cultivation. + + There are about 500,000 plants already planted, besides a large + number of seedlings in beds ready for transplanting. About 3,400 of + the former were planted in 1844, and are now in full bearing; the + greater portion of the others are much younger, having been planted + out only one, two, and three years. + + 2. _Soil and culture_.--The soil consists of a mixture of loam, + sand, and vegetable matter, is of a yellow colour, and is most + suitable for the cultivation of the tea-plant. It resembles greatly + the soil of the test tea districts in China. A considerable quantity + of stones are mixed with it, chiefly small pieces of clay-slate, of + which the mountains here are composed. Large tracts of equally good + land, at present covered with jungle, are available in this district + without interfering in any way with the rights of the settlers. + + I have stated that this plantation is formed on the hill side. It + consists of a succession of terraces, from the bottom to the top, on + which the tea bushes are planted. In its general features it is very + like a Chinese tea plantation, although one rarely sees tea lands + terraced in China. This, however, may be necessary in the Himalayas, + where the rains fall so heavily. Here, too, the system of irrigation + is carried on, although to a small extent only, owing to the + scarcity of water during the dry season. + + 3. _Appearance and health of plants_.--This plantation is a most + promising one, and I have no doubt will be very valuable in a few + years. The plants are growing admirably, and evidently like their + situation. Some of them are suffering slightly from the effects of + hard-plucking, like those at Kaolagir; but this can easily be + avoided in their future management. Altogether, it is in a most + satisfactory condition, and shows how safe it is in matters of this + kind to follow the example of the Chinese cultivator, who never + makes his tea plantations on _low rice land, and never irrigates_. + + + HAWULBAUGH PLANTATION (NEAR ALMORAH). + + _1st. Situation and extent_.--This tea farm is situated on the banks + of the river Kosilla, about six miles north-west from Almorah, the + capital of Kumaon. It is about 4,500 feet above the level of the + sea. The land is of an undulating character, consisting of gentle + slopes and terraces, and reminded me of some of the best tea + districts in China. Indeed, the hills themselves, in this part of + the Himalayas, are very much like those of China, being barren near + their summit and fertile on their lower sides. + + Thirty-four acres of land are under tea cultivation here, including + the adjoining farm of Chullar. Some of the plants appear to have + been planted in 1844; but, as at Paorie, the greater number are only + from one to three years old. + + 2_nd. Soil and culture_.--The soil is what is usually called a sandy + loam; it is moderately rich, being well mixed with vegetable matter. + It is well suited for tea cultivation. The greater part of the farm + is terraced as at Guddowli, but some few patches are left in natural + slopes in accordance with the Chinese method. Irrigation is + practised to a limited extent. + + 3_rd. Appearance and health of the plants_.--All the young plants + here are in robust health and are growing well, particularly where + they are growing on land where water cannot flood or injure them. As + examples of this, I may point out a long belt between Dr. Jameson's + house and the flower garden, and also a piece of ground a little + below the house in which the Chinese manufacturers live. Some few of + the older bushes appear rather stunted; but this is evidently the + result of water remaining stagnant about the roots, and partly also + of over plucking; both defects, however, admit of being easily + cured. + + + LUTCHMISSER AND KUPPEENA PLANTATIONS. + + 1_st. Situation and extent_.--These plantations are on the hill side + near Almorah, and about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. The + situation is somewhat steep, but well adapted to the growth of tea. + The former contains three acres, and the latter four acres under + cultivation. + + 2_nd. Soil and culture_.---The soil is light and sandy, and much + mixed with particles of clay-slate, which have crumbled down from + the adjoining rocks. I believe these plantations are rarely + irrigated, and the land is steep enough to prevent any stagnant + water from remaining about the roots of the plants. + + 3_rd. Appearance and health of plants_.--Most of the bushes here are + fully grown, and in full bearing, and generally in good health. On + the whole, I consider these plantations in excellent order. + + + BHEEMTAL PLANTATIONS. + + The lake of Bheemtal is situate in latitude 29 deg. 20 min. north, + and in longitude 79 deg. 30 min. east. It is 4,000 feet above the + level of the sea, and some of the surrounding mountains are said to + be 8,000 feet. These form the southern chain of the Himalayas, and + bound the vast plain of India, of which a glimpse can be had through + the mountain passes. Amongst these hills there are several _tals_ or + lakes, some flat meadow-looking land, and gentle undulating slopes, + while higher up we have steep and rugged mountains. It is amongst + these hills, that the Bheemtal tea plantations have been formed. + They may be classed under three heads, viz.-- + + 1_st. Anoo and Kooasur plantations_.--These adjoin each other, are + both formed _on low flat land_, and together cover about forty + acres. The plants do not seem healthy or vigorous; many of them have + died out, and few are in that state which tea plants ought to be in. + Such situations never ought to be chosen for tea cultivation. The + same objection applies to these as to those at Deyra, but in a + greater degree. No doubt, with sufficient drainage, and great care + in cultivation, and the tea plant might be made to exist in such a + situation; but I am convinced it would never grow with that + luxuriance which is necessary in order to render it a profitable + crop. _Besides, such lands are valuable for other purposes_. They + are excellent rice lands, and as such of considerable value to the + natives. + + 2_nd. Bhurtpoor plantation_.--This plantation covers about four and + a half acres of terraced land on the hill side, a little to the + eastward of those last noticed. The soil is composed of a light + loam, much mixed with small pieces of clay-slate and trap or + green-stone, of which the adjacent rocks are composed. It contains a + small portion of vegetable matter or _humus_. Both the situation and + soil of this plantation are well adapted to the requirements of the + tea shrub, and consequently we find it succeeding here as well as at + Guddowli, Hawulbaugh, Almorah, and other places where it is planted + on the slopes of the hills. + + 3_rd. Russia plantation_.--This plantation extends over seventy-five + acres, and is formed on sloping land. The elevation is somewhat less + than Bhurtpoor, and although terraced in the same way, the angle is + much lower. In some parts of the farm the plants are doing well, but + generally they seemed to be suffering from too much water and hard + plucking. I have no doubt, however, of the success of this farm, + when the system of cultivation is improved. I observed some most + vigorous and healthy bushes in the overseer's garden, a spot + adjoining the plantation, which could not be irrigated, and was + informed they "never received any water, except that which fell from + the skies." + + In the Bheemtal district, there are large tracts of excellent tea + land. In crossing over the hills towards Nainee Tal, with J.H. + Batten, Esq., Commissioner of Kumaon, I pointed out many tracts + admirably adapted for tea cultivation, and of no great value to the + natives; generally, those lands on which the mundoca is cultivated + are the most suitable. + + I have thus described all the Government plantations in Gurhwal and + Kumaon. Dr. Jameson, the superintendent, deserves the highest praise + for the energy and perseverance with which he has conducted his + operations. I shall now notice the plantations of the zemindars, + under the superintendence of the commissioner and + assistant-commissioner of Kumaon and Gurhwal. + + + ZEMINDAREE TEA PLANTATIONS. + + 1_st, at Lohba_.--This place is situated in eastern Gurhwal, about + 50 miles to the westward of Almorah, and is at an elevation of 5,000 + feet above the level of the sea. It is one of the most beautiful + spots in this part of the Himalayas. The surrounding mountains are + high, and in some parts precipitous, while in others they are found + consisting of gentle slopes and undulations. On these undulating + slopes, there is a great deal of excellent land suitable for tea + cultivation. A few tea bushes have been growing vigorously for some + years in the commissioner's garden, and they are now fully ten feet + in height. These plants having succeeded so well, naturally induced + the authorities of the province to try this cultivation upon a more + extensive scale. It appears that in 1844, about 4,000 young plants + were obtained from the Government plantations, and planted on a + tract of excellent land, which the natives wished to abandon. + Instead of allowing the people to throw up their land, they were + promised it rent-free upon the condition that they attended to the + cultivation of the tea, which had been planted on a small portion of + the ground attached to the village. + + This arrangement seems to have failed either from want of knowledge, + or from design, or perhaps partly from both of these causes. More + lately, a larger number of plants have been planted, but I regret to + say with nearly the same results. + + But results of this discouraging kind are what any one, acquainted + with the nature of the tea plant, could have easily foretold, had + the treatment, intended to be given it, been explained to him. Upon + enquiry, I found the villagers had been managing the tea lands just + as they had been doing their rice fields, that is, a regular system + of irrigation was practised. As water was plentiful, a great number, + indeed nearly all, the plants seem to have perished from this cause. + The last planting alluded to had been done late in the spring, and + just at the commencement of the dry weather, and to these plants + little or no water seems to have been given; so that, in fact, it + was going from one extreme to another equally bad, and the result + was of course nearly the same. + + I have no hesitation in saying that the district in question is well + adapted for the cultivation of tea. With judicious management, a + most productive farm might be established here in four or five + years. Land is plentiful, and of little value either to the natives + or to the Government. + + 2_nd, at Kutoor_.--This is the name of a large district 30 or 40 + miles northward from Almorah, in the centre of which the old town or + village of Byznath stands. It is a fine undulating country, + consisting of wide valleys, gentle slopes, and little hills, while + the whole is intersected by numerous streams, and surrounded by high + mountains. The soil of this extensive district is most fertile, and + is capable of producing large crops of rice, on the low irrigable + lands, and the dry grains and tea on the sides of the hills. From + some cause, however, either the thinness of population or _the want + of a remunerative crop_,[15] large tracts of this fertile district + have been allowed to go out of cultivation. Everywhere I observed + ruinous and jungle-covered terraces, which told of the more extended + cultivation of former years. + + Amongst some hills near the upper portion of this district, two + small tea plantations have been formed under the patronage and + superintendence of Captain Ramsey, Senior Assistant Commissioner of + Kumaon. Each of them cover three or four acres of land, and had been + planted about a year before the time of my visit. In this short + space of time the plants had grown into nice strong bushes, and were + in the highest state of health. I never saw, even in the most + favoured districts in China, any plantations looking better than + these. This result, Captain Ramsay informed me, had been attained in + the following simple manner:--All the land attached to the two + villages with which the tea farms are connected, is exempted from + the revenue tax, a sum amounting only to 525 Rs. per annum. In lieu + of this, the assamees (cultivators) of both villages assist with + manure, and at the transplanting season, as well as ploughing and + preparing fresh land. In addition to this, one chowdree and four + prisoners are constantly employed upon the plantations. The chief + reason of the success of these plantations, next to that of the land + being well suited for tea cultivation, may, no doubt, be traced to a + good system of management; that is, the young plants have been + carefully transplanted at the proper season of the year, when the + air was charged with moisture, and they have not been destroyed by + excessive irrigation afterwards. The other zemindaree plantation at + Lohba might have been now in full bearing had the same system been + followed. + + From the description thus given, it will be observed that I consider + the Kutoor plantations in a most flourishing condition. And I have + no doubt they will continue to flourish, and soon convince the + zemindars of the value of tea cultivation, providing three things, + intimately connected with the success of the crop are strongly + impressed upon their minds; viz., the unsuitableness of low wet + lands for tea cultivation; the folly of irrigating tea as they would + do rice, and the impropriety of commencing the plucking before the + plants are strong, and of considerable size. I am happy to add, that + amongst these hills there are no foolish prejudices in the minds of + the natives against the cultivation of tea. About the time of my + visit, a zemindar came and begged two thousand plants, to enable him + to commence tea growing on his own account. + + It is of great importance, that the authorities of a district, and + persons of influence, should show an interest in a subject of this + kind. At present the natives do not know its value; but they are as + docile as children, and will enter willingly upon tea cultivation, + providing the "Sahib" shows that he is interested in it. In a few + years the profits received will be a sufficient inducement. + + In concluding this part of my Report, I beg to suggest the propriety + of obtaining some of the _best varieties_ of the tea plant which + have been introduced lately into the government plantations from + China. Dr. Jameson could, no doubt, spare a few, but they ought to + be given to those zemindars only who have succeeded with the + original variety. + + Having described in detail the various government plantations, and + also those of the zemindars which came under my notice in the + Himalayas, I shall now make some general remarks upon the + cultivation of tea in India, and offer some suggestions for its + improvement. + + + GENERAL REMARKS. + + 1. _On land and cultivation_.--From the observations already made + upon the various tea farms which I have visited in the Himalayas, it + will be seen that I do not approve of _low flat lands_ being + selected for the cultivation of the tea shrub. In China, which at + present must be regarded as the model tea country, the plantations + are never made in such situations, or they are so rare as not to + have come under my notice. In that country they are usually formed + on the lower slopes of the hills, that is, in such situations as + those at Guddowli, Hawulbaugh, Almorah, Kutoor, &c., in the + Himalayas. It is true that in the fine green tea country of + Hwuy-chow, in China, near the town of Tunche, many hundred acres of + flattish land are under tea cultivation. But this land is close to + the hills, which jut out into it in all directions, and it is + intersected by a river whose banks are usually from 15 to 20 feet + above the level of the stream itself, not unlike those of the Ganges + below Benares. In fact, it has all the advantages of hilly land such + as the tea plant delights in. In extending the Himalaya plantation + this important fact ought to be kept in view. + + There is no scarcity of such land in these mountains, more + particularly in Eastern Gurhwal and Kumaon. It abounds in the + districts of Paorie, Kunour, Lohba, Almorah, Kutoor, and Bheemtal, + and I was informed by Mr. Batten, that there are large tracts about + Gungoli and various other places equally suitable. Much of this land + is out of cultivation, as I have already stated, while the + cultivated portions yield on an average only two or three annas per + acre of revenue. + + Such lands are of less value to the zemindars than low rice land, + where they can command a good supply of water for irrigation. But I + must not be understood to recommend poor worn out hill lands for tea + cultivation,--land on which nothing else will grow. Nothing is + further from my meaning. Tea in order to be profitable requires a + good sound soil,--a light loam, well mixed with sand and vegetable + matter, moderately moist, and yet not stagnant or sour. Such a soil, + for example, as on these hill sides produces good crops of mundooa, + wheat or millet, is well adapted for tea. It is such lands which I + have alluded to as abounding in the Himalayas, and which are, at + present, of so little value either to the Government, or to the + natives themselves. + + _The system of Irrigation_ applied to tea in India is never + practised in China. I did not observe it practised in any of the + great tea countries which I visited. On asking the Chinese + manufacturers whom I brought round, and who had been born and + brought up in these districts, whether they had seen such a + practice, they all replied, "_no, that is the way we grow rice: we + never irrigate tea_." Indeed, I have no hesitation in saying that, + in nine cases out of ten, the effects of irrigation are most + injurious. When tea will not grow without irrigation, it is a sure + sign that the land employed is not suitable for such a crop. It is + no doubt an excellent thing to have a command of water in case of a + long drought, when its agency might be useful in saving a crop which + would otherwise fail, but irrigation ought to be used only in such + emergent cases. + + I have already observed that good tea land is naturally moist, + although not stagnant; and we must bear in mind that the tea shrub + is _not a water plant_, but is found in a wild state on the sides of + hills. In confirmation of these views, it is only necessary to + observe further, that all the _best Himalayan plantations are those + to which irrigation has been most sparingly applied_. + + In cultivating the tea shrub, much injury is often done to a + plantation by _plucking leaves from very young plants_. In China + young plants are never touched until the third or fourth year after + they have been planted. If growing under favorable circumstances, + they will yield a good crop after that time. All that ought to be + done, in the way of plucking or pruning before that time, should be + done with a view to _form the plants_, and make them _bushy_ if they + do not grow so naturally. If plucking is commenced too early and + continued, the energies of the plants are weakened, and they are + long in attaining any size, and consequently there is a great loss + of produce in a given number of years. To make this more plain, I + will suppose a bush that has been properly treated to be eight years + of age. It may then be yielding from two to three pounds of tea per + annum, while another of the same age, but not a quarter of the size, + from over-plucking, is not giving more than as many ounces. + + The same remarks apply also to plants which become unhealthy from + any cause; leaves ought never to be taken from such plants; the + gatherers should have strict orders to pass them over until they get + again into a _good state_ of health. + + 2_nd. On climate_.--I have already stated that eastern Gurhwal and + Kumaon appear to me to be the most suitable for the cultivation of + the tea plant in this part of the Himalayas. My remarks upon climate + will therefore refer to this part of the country. + + From a table of temperature kept at Hawulbaugh from November 28th, + 1850, to July 13th, 1851, obligingly furnished me by Dr. Jameson, I + observed that the climate here is extremely mild. During the winter + months, the thermometer [Fahr.] at sunrise was never lower than 44 + deg., and only on two occasions so low, namely on the 15th and 16th + of February, 1851. Once it stood so high as 66 deg. on the morning + of February 4th, but this is full ten degrees higher than usual. The + minimum in February must, however, be several degrees lower than is + shown by this table, for ice and snow were not unfrequent; indeed, + opposite the 16th of February in the column of remarks, I find + written down _a very frosty morning_. This discrepancy no doubt + arises either from a bad thermometer being used, or from its being + placed in a sheltered verandah. We may, therefore, safely mark the + minimum as 32 deg. instead of 44 degrees. + + The month of June appears to be the hottest in the year. I observe + the thermometer on the 5th, 6th and 7th of that month stood at 92 + deg. at 3 P.M., and this was the highest degree marked during the + year. The lowest, at this hour, during the month was 76 deg., but + the general range in the 3 P.M. column of the table is from 80 deg. + to 90 degrees. + + _The wet and dry seasons_ are not so decided in the hills as they + are in the plains. In January, 1861, it rained on five days and ten + nights, and the total quantity of rain which fell, as indicated by + the rain gauge, during this month, was 5.25 inches; in February, + 3.84 fell; in March, 2.11; in April, 2.24; in May, none; and in June + 6.13. In June there are generally some days of heavy rain, called by + the natives Chota Bursaut, or small rains, after this there is an + interval of some days of dry weather before the regular "rainy + season" commences. This season comes on in July and continues until + September. October and November are said to be beautiful months with + a clear atmosphere and cloudless sky. After this fogs are frequent + in all the valleys until spring. + + In comparing the climate of these provinces with that of China, + although we find some important difference, yet upon the whole there + is a great similarity. My comparisons apply, of course, to the best + tea districts only, for although the tea shrub is found cultivated + from Canton in the south to Tan-chowpoo in Shan-tung, yet the + provinces of Fokein, Kainsee and the southern parts of Kiangnan, + yield nearly all the finest teas of commerce. + + The town of Tsong-gan, one of the great black tea towns near the far + famed Woo-e-shan, is situated in latitude 27 deg. 47 min, north. + Here the thermometer in the hottest months, namely in July and + August, rarely rises above 100 deg. and ranges from 92 deg. to 100 + deg., as maximum; while in the coldest months, December and January, + it sinks to the freezing point and sometimes a few degrees lower. We + have thus a close resemblance in temperature between Woo-e-shan and + Almorah, The great green tea district being situated two degrees + further north, the extremes of temperature are somewhat greater. It + will be observed, however, that while the hottest month in the + Himalayas is June, in China the highest temperature occurs in July + and August: this is owing to the rainy season taking place earlier + in China than it does in India. + + In China rain falls in heavy and copious showers in the end of + April, and these rains continue at intervals in May and June. The + first gathering of tea-leaves, those from which the Pekoe is made, + is scarcely over before the air becomes charged with moisture, rain + falls, and the bushes being thus placed in such favourable + circumstances for vegetating are soon covered again with young + leaves, from which the main crop of the season is obtained. + + No one, acquainted with vegetable physiology, can doubt the + advantages of such weather in the cultivation of tea for mercantile + purposes. And these advantages, to a certain extent at least, seem + to be extended to the Himalayas, although the regular rainy season + is later than in China. I have already shown, from Dr Jameson's + table, that spring showers are frequent in Kumaon, although rare in + the plains of India; still, however, I think it would be prudent to + adopt the gathering of leaves to the climate, that is to take a + moderate portion from the bushes before the rains, and the main crop + after they have commenced. + + _3rd. On the vegetation of China and the Himalayas_. One of the + surest guides from which to draw conclusions, on a subject of this + nature, is found in the indigenous vegetable productions of the + countries. Dr. Royle, who was the first to recommend the cultivation + of tea in the Himalayas, drew his conclusions, in the absence of + that positive information from China which we possess now, not only + from the great similarity in temperature between China and these + hills, but also from the resemblance in vegetable productions. This + resemblance is certainly very striking. In both countries, except in + the low valleys of the Himalayas (and these we are not considering), + tropical forms are rarely met with. If we take trees and shrubs, for + example, we find such genera as pinus, cypress, berberis, quercus, + viburnam, indigofera, and romeda, lonicera, deutzia, rubus, myrica, + spirae, ilex, and many others common to both countries. + + Amongst herbaceous plants we have gentiana, aquilegia, anemone, + rumex, primula, lilium, loutodon, ranunculus, &c. equally + distributed in the Himalayas and in China, and even in aquatics the + same resemblance may be traced, as in nelumbium, caladium &c. And + further than this, we do not find plants belong to the same genera + only, but in many instances the identical species are found in both + countries. The indigofera, common in the Himalayas, abounds also on + the tea hills of China, and so does _Berberis nepaulencis_, + _Lonicera diversifolia_, _Myrica sapida_, and many others. + + Were it necessary, I might now show that there is a most striking + resemblance between the geology of the two countries as well as in + their vegetable productions. In both the black and green tea + countries which I have alluded to, clay-slate is most abundant. But + enough has been advanced to prove how well many parts of the + Himalayas are adapted for the cultivation of tea; besides, the + flourishing condition of many of the plantations is, after all, the + best proof, and puts the matter beyond all doubt. + + _4th. Concluding Suggestions_.--Having shown that tea can be grown + in the Himalayas, and that it would produce a valuable and + remunerative crop, the next great object appears to be the + production of superior tea, by means of fine varieties and improved + cultivation. It is well known that a variety of the tea plant + existed in the southern parts of China from which inferior teas only + were made. That, being more easily procured than the fine northern + varieties, from which the great mass of the best teas are made, was + the variety originally sent to India. From it all those in the + Government plantations have sprung. + + It was to remedy this, and to obtain the best varieties from those + districts which furnish the trees of commerce, that induced the + Honourable Court of Directors to send me to China in 1848. Another + object was to obtain some good manufacturers and implements from the + same districts. As the result of this mission, nearly twenty + thousand plants from the best black and green tea countries of + Central China, have been introduced to the Himalayas. Six first-rate + manufacturers, two lead men, and a large supply of implements from + the celebrated Hwuy-chow districts were also brought round and + safely located on the Government plantations in the hills. + + A great step has thus been gained towards the objects in view. Much, + however, remains still to be done. The new China plants ought to be + carefully propagated and distributed over all the plantations; some + of them ought also to be given to the zemindars, and more of these + fine varieties might be yearly imported from China. + + The Chinese manufacturers, who were obtained some years since from + Calcutta or Assam, are, in my opinion, far from being first-rate + workmen; indeed, I doubt much if any of them learned their trade in + China. They ought to be gradually got rid of and their places + supplied by better men, for it is a great pity to teach the natives + an inferior method of manipulation. The men brought round by me are + first-rate green tea makers, they can also make black tea, but they + have not been in the habit of making so much black as green. They + have none of the Canton illiberality or prejudices about them, and + are most willing to teach their art to the natives. I have no doubt + some of the latter will soon be made excellent tea manufacturers. + And the instruction of the natives is, no doubt, one of the chief + objects which ought to be kept in view, for the importation of + Chinese manipulators at high wages can only he regarded as a + temporary measure; ultimately the Himalayan tea must be made by the + natives themselves; each native farmer must learn how to make tea + as well as how to grow it; he will then make it upon his own + premises, as the Chinese do, and the expenses of carriage will be + much less than if the green leaves had to be taken to the market. + + But as the zemindars will be able to grow tea long before they are + able to make it, it would be prudent, in the first instance, to + offer them a certain sum for green leaves brought to the government + manufactory. + + I have pointed out the land most suitable for the cultivation of + tea, and shown that such land exists in the Himalayas to an almost + unlimited extent. But if the object the government have in view be + the establishment of a company to develop the resources of these + hills, as in Assam, I would strongly urge the propriety of + concentrating, as much as possible, the various plantations. Sites + ought to be chosen which are not too far apart, easy of access, and, + if possible, near rivers; for, no doubt, a considerable portion of + the produce would have to be conveyed to the plains or to a + sea-port. + + In my tour amongst the hills, I have seen no place so well adapted + for a central situation as Almorah, or Hawulbaugh. Here the + government has already a large establishment, and tea lands are + abundant in all directions. The climate is healthy, and better + suited to a European constitution than most other parts of India. + Here plants from nearly all the temperate parts of the world are + growing as if they were at home. As examples, I may mention myrtles, + pomegranates, and tuberoses from the south of Europe; dahlias, + potatoes, aloes, and yuccas from America; Melianthus major and bulbs + from the Cape; the cypress and deodar of the Himalayas, and the + lagerstroemias, loquats, roses and tea of China. + + In these days, when tea has become almost a necessary of life to + England and her wide-spreading colonies, its production upon a large + and cheap scale is an object of no ordinary importance. But to the + natives of India themselves, the production of this article would be + of the greatest value. The poor _paharie_, or hill farmer, at + present has scarcely the common necessaries of life, and certainly + none of its luxuries. The common sorts of grain which his lands + produce will scarcely pay the carriage to the nearest market town, + far less yield a profit of such a kind as will enable him to + purchase some few of the necessary and simple luxuries of life. A + common blanket has to serve him for his covering by day and for his + bed at night, while his dwelling-house is a mere mud-hut, capable of + affording but little shelter from the inclemency of the weather. + Were part of these lands producing tea, he would then have a healthy + beverage to drink, besides a commodity which would be of great value + in the market. Being of small bulk compared with its value, the + expense of carriage would be trifling, and he would return home with + the means in his pocket of making himself and his family more + comfortable and more happy. + + Were such results doubtful, we have only to look across the + frontiers of India into China. Here we find tea one of the + necessaries of life, in the strictest sense of the word. A Chinese + never drinks cold water, which he abhors, and considers unhealthy. + Tea is his favorite beverage from morning until night; not what we + call tea, mixed with milk and sugar, but the essence of the herb + itself, drawn out in pure water. One acquainted with the habits of + this people can scarcely conceive the idea of the Chinese empire + existing were it deprived of the tea plant; and I am sure that the + extensive use of this beverage adds much to the health and comfort + of the great body of the people. + + The people of India are not unlike the Chinese in many of their + habits. The poor of both countries eat sparingly of animal food, and + rice, with other grains and vegetables, form the staple articles on + which they live; this being the case, it is not at all unlikely the + Indian will soon acquire a habit which is so universal in the sister + country. But in order to enable him to drink tea, it must be + produced at a cheap rate; he cannot afford to pay at the rate of + four or six shillings a pound. It must be furnished to him at four + _pence_ or six _pence_ instead; and this can be done easily, but + only on his own hills. If this is accomplished, and I see no reason + why it should not be, a boon will have been conferred upon the + people of India, of no common kind, and one which an enlightened and + liberal government may well be proud of conferring on its subjects." + +I shall now add a description of the Chinese method of making black +tea in Upper Assam, by Mr. C.A. Bruce, superintendent of tea +culture:-- + + "In the first place, the youngest and most tender leaves are + gathered; but when there are many hands and a great quantity of + loaves to be collected, the people employed nip off with the + forefinger and thumb the fine end of the branch, with about four + leaves on, and sometimes even more if they look tender. These are + all brought to the place where they are to be converted into tea: + they are then put into a large, circular, open worked bamboo basket, + having a rim all round, two fingers broad. The leaves are thinly + scattered in these baskets, and then placed in a framework of + bamboo, in all appearance like the sides of an Indian hut, without + grass, resting on posts, 2 feet from the ground, with an angle of + about 25 deg. The baskets with leaves are put in this frame to dry + in the sun, and are pushed up and brought down by a long bamboo with + a circular piece of wood at the end. The leaves are permitted to dry + about two hours, being occasionally turned; but the time required + for this process depends on the heat of the sun. When they begin to + have a slightly withered appearance, they are taken down and brought + into the house, when they are placed on a frame to cool for half an + hour; they are then put into smaller baskets of the same kind as the + former, and placed on a stand. People are now employed to soften the + leaves still more, by gently clapping them between their hands, with + their fingers and thumbs extended, and tossing them up and letting + them fall, for about five or ten minutes. They are then again put on + the frame during half an hour, and brought down and clapped with the + hands as before. This is done three successive times, until the + leaves become to the touch like soft leather; the beating and + putting away being said to give the tea the black color and bitter + flavor. After this the tea is put into hot cast-iron pans, which are + fixed in a circular mud fireplace, so that the flame cannot ascend + round the pan to incommode the operator. This pan is well heated by + a straw or bamboo fire to a certain degree. About two pounds of the + leaves are then put into each hot pan, and spread in such a manner + that all the leaves may get the same degree of heat. They are every + now and then briskly turned with the naked hand, to prevent a leaf + from being burnt. When the leaves become inconveniently hot to the + hand, they are quickly taken out and delivered to another man with a + close-worked bamboo basket, ready to receive them. A few leaves that + may have been left behind are smartly brushed out with a bamboo + broom: all this time a brisk fire is kept up under the pan. After + the pan has been used in this manner three or four times, a bucket + of cold water is thrown in, and a soft brick-bat and bamboo broom + used, to give it a good scouring out; the water is thrown out of the + pan by the brush on one side, the pan itself being never taken off. + The leaves, all hot in the bamboo basket, are laid on a table that + has a narrow rim on its back, to prevent these baskets from slipping + off when pushed against it. The two pounds of hot leaves are now + divided into two or three parcels, and distributed to as many men, + who stand up to the table with the leaves right before them, and + each placing his legs close together, the leaves are next collected + into a ball, which he gently grasps in his left hand, with the thumb + extended, the fingers close together, and the hand resting on the + little finger. The right hand must be extended in the same manner as + the left, but with the palm turned downwards resting on the top of + the ball of tea leaves. Both hands are now employed to roll and + propel the ball along; the left hand pushing it on, and allowing it + to revolve as it moves; the right hand also pushes it forward, + resting on it with some force, and keeping it down to express the + juice which the leaves contain. The art lies here in giving the ball + a circular motion, and permitting it to turn under and in the hand + two or three whole revolutions, before the arms are extended to + their full length, and drawing the ball of leaves quickly back + without leaving a leaf behind, being rolled for about five minutes + in this way. The ball of tea leaves is from time to time delicately + and gently opened with the fingers lifted as high as the face, and + then allowed to fall again. This is done two or three times to + separate the leaves; and afterwards the basket with the leaves is + lifted up as often, and receives a circular shake to bring these + towards the centre. The leaves are now taken back to the hot pans + and spread out in them as before, being again turned with the naked + hand, and when hot taken out and rolled; after which, they are put + into a drying basket and spread on a sieve, which is in the centre + of the basket, and the whole placed over a charcoal fire. The fire + is very nicely regulated; there must not be the least smoke, and the + charcoal should be well picked. + + When the fire is lighted it is fanned until it gets a fine red + glare, and the smoke is all gone off; being every now and then + stirred, and the coals brought into the centre, so as to leave the + outer edge low. When the leaves are put into the drying basket, they + are gently separated by lifting them up with the fingers of both + hands extended far apart, and allowing them to fall down again; they + are placed three or four inches deep on the sieve, leaving a passage + in the centre for the hot air to pass. Before it is put over the + fire, the drying basket receives a smart slap with both hands in the + act of lifting it up, which is done to shake down any leaves that + might otherwise drop through the sieve, or to prevent them from + falling into the fire and occasioning a smoke, which would affect + and spoil the tea. This slap on the basket is invariably applied + throughout the stages of tea manufacture. There is always a large + basket underneath to receive the small leaves that fall, which are + afterwards collected, dried, and added to the other tea; in no case + are the baskets or sieves allowed to touch or remain on the ground, + but always laid on a receiver, with three legs. After the leaves + have bean half-dried in the drying-basket, and while they are still + soft, they are taken off the fire and put into large open-worked + baskets, and then put on the shelf, in order that the tea may + improve in color. + + Next day the leaves are all sorted into large, middling, and small; + sometimes there are four sorts. All these, the Chinese informed me, + become so many different kinds of teas; the smallest leaves they + call Pha-ho, the second Pow-chong, the third Souchong, and the + fourth, or the largest leaves, Zoy-chong. After this assortment they + are again put on the sieve in the drying-basket (taking care not to + mix the sorts), and on the fire, as on the preceding day; but now + very little more than will cover the bottom of the sieve is put in + at one time; the same care of the fire is taken as before, and the + same precaution of tapping the drying basket every now and then. The + tea is taken off the fire with the nicest care, for fear of any + particles of the tea falling into it. Whenever the drying-basket is + taken off, it is put on the receiver, the sieve in the drying-basket + taken out, the tea turned over, the sieve replaced, the tap given, + and the basket placed again over the fire. As the tea becomes crisp, + it is taken out and thrown into a large receiving-basket, until all + the quantity on hand has become alike dried and crisp, from which + basket it is again removed into the drying-basket, but now in much + larger quantities. It is then piled up eight and ten inches high on + the sieve in the drying-basket; in the centre a small passage is + left for the hot air to ascend; the fire that was before bright and + clear has now ashes thrown on it to deaden its effect, and the + shakings that have been collected are put on the top of all; the tap + is given, and the basket, with the greatest care, is put over the + fire. Another basket is placed over the whole, to throw back any + heat that may ascend. Now and then it is taken off, and put on the + receiver; the hands, with the fingers wide apart, are run down the + sides of the basket to the sieve, and the tea gently turned over, + the passage in the centre again made, &c., and the basket again + placed on the fire. It is from time to time examined, and when the + leaves have become so crisp that they break by the slightest + pressure of the fingers, it is taken off, when the tea is ready. All + the different kinds of leaves underwent the same operation. The tea + is now, little by little, put into boxes, and first pressed down + with the hands and then with the feet (clean stockings having been + previously put on). + + There is a small room inside of the tea-house, seven cubits square, + and five high, having bamboos laid across on the top to support a + network of bamboo, and the sides of the room smeared with mud to + exclude the air. When there is wet weather, and the leaves cannot be + dried in the sun, they are laid out on the top of this room, on the + network, on an iron pan, the same as is used to heat the leaves; + some fire is put into it, either of grass or bamboo, so that the + flame may ascend high; the pan is put on a square wooden frame, that + has wooden rollers on its legs, and pushed round and round this + little room by one man, while another feeds the fire, the leaves on + the top being occasionally turned; when they are a little withered, + the fire is taken away, and the leaves brought down and manufactured + into tea, in the same manner as if it had been dried in the sun. But + this is not a good plan, and never had recourse to if it can + possibly be avoided." + +In 1810, a number of tea plants were introduced into Brazil, with a +colony of Chinese to superintend their culture. The plantation was +formed near Rio Janeiro and occupied several acres. It did not, +however, answer the expectations formed of it, the shrubs became +stunted, cankered and moss grown, and the Chinese finally abandoned +them. The culture was again tried in 1817. The plantations lie between +the equator and 10 deg. south latitude, nearly parallel with Java, and +of course are exposed to the same intemperate climate, and suffer in a +similar manner. In addition to these physical disabilities, the +enterprise has had to contend with the natural indolence of the +natives, the universal repugnance to labor, the crushing effect of +committing so important a work to the superintendence of slaves and +overseers, the amazing fertility of the soil, the extent of +unappropriated land, the ease with which subsistence can be obtained +and the low degree of personal enterprise. These are frowning +features, and would rather seem to indicate a failure, before the +attempt at cultivation was made. But, nevertheless, the plant does +nourish to some extent, even in Brazil, under all the disparaging +circumstances which surround it. From the Brazilian Consul General, I +learn that although the plant for some years after its introduction +received but little attention and was almost abandoned, yet within the +last few years the cultivation has revived and is now prosecuted with +energy and with a corresponding success. Some of the large and wealthy +land proprietors of Brazil have directed their attention to tea +culture, and one gentleman has given up his coffee plantation and +directed his attention exclusively to the cultivation of the tea +plant. The market of Rio Janeiro is said to be largely and almost +entirely supplied with tea of domestic growth, and the public mind is +awakened to the prominent fact, that no plant cultivated in Brazil is +more profitable and none is deserving more decided attention. + +_Experimental cultivation of the tea plant in Brazil_.--I now proceed +to notice the report of M. Guillemin, presented in 1839 to the French +Minister of agriculture and commerce, on the culture and preparation +of the tea plant in Brazil--in a climate of the southern hemisphere +just equivalent to that of Cuba in the northern. The report enters +very minutely into the incidents of temperature and cultivation, and +cannot fail to strike the attention when disclosing the important +fact, that the tea plant grows luxuriantly with the coffee and other +valuable plants of the equatorial regions, and even on low-lying +lands, on a level with the sea, and exposed to the full rays of a +burning sun. + + "As the tea shrub," says M. Guillemin, "is grown in several + plantations about two days' journey distant from Rio, in different + directions, I hired a lodging at St. Theresa, sufficiently + contiguous to all the establishments I meant to visit, and further + recommended by having a small garden attached to the house, where I + could deposit the growing plants of tea, and sow seeds. During the + month of November, except when hindered by slight indispositions + incidental to the Brazilian climate, I pursued my researches, and + principally in the charming valleys of the Tijuka and Gavia + mountains. There, together with coffee, their principal product, the + most valuable plants of the equatorial region are cultivated. + + In the middle of November I had an opportunity of observing the + method pursued when culling the tea, which is performed by black + slaves, chiefly women and children. They carefully selected the + tenderest and pale-green leaves, nipping off with their nails the + young leaf bud, just below where the first or second leaf was + unfolded. One whole field had already undergone this operation; + nothing but tea shrubs stripped of their foliage remained. The + inspector assured me that the plant received no injury from this + process, and that the harvest of leaves was to become permanent by + carefully regulating it, so that the foliage should have grown again + on the first stripped shrubs at the period when the leaves of the + last plant were pulled off. About 12,000 tea shrubs are grown in + this garden: they are regularly planted in quincunxes, and stand + about one metre distant from each other; the greater number are + stunted and shabby looking, probably owing to the aspect of the + ground, which _lies low, on the level of the sea, and exposed to the + full rays of a burning sun_; perhaps the quality of the soil may + have something to do with it, though this is apparently similar to + what prevails in the province of Rio Janeiro. This soil, which is + highly argillaceous, and strongly tinged with tritoxyde of iron, is + formed by the decomposition of gneiss or granite rocks. The flat + situation of this tea ground is unfavorable to the improvement of + the soil, for the heavy rains which wash away the superfluous sand + from slanting situations, of course only consolidate more strongly + the remaining component parts, where the land lies perfectly level, + and thus the tea plants suffer from this state of soil. + + The kindness of M. de Brandao, director of the Botanic Garden, + induced him to invite me, shortly after I had seen the above + described tea ground, that I might inspect all the operations for + the preparation of tea. I found that the picking of the leaves had + been commenced very early in the morning, and two kilogrammes were + pulled that were still wet with dew. These were deposited in a + well-polished iron vase, the shape being that of a very broad flat + pan, and set on a brick furnace, where a brisk wooden fire kept the + temperature nearly up to that of boiling water. A negro, after + carefully washing his hands, kept continually stirring the leaves in + all directions, till their external dampness was quite evaporated, + and the leaves acquired the softness of linen rag, and a small pinch + of them, when rolled in the hollow of the hand, became a little ball + that would not unroll. In this state the mass of tea was divided + into two portions, and a negro took each and set them on a hurdle, + formed of strips of bamboo, laid at right angles, where they shook + and kneaded the leaves in all directions for a quarter of an hour, + an operation which requires habit to be properly performed, and on + which much of the beauty of the product depends. It is impossible to + describe this process; the motion of the hands is rapid and very + irregular, and the degree of pressure requisite varies according to + circumstances; generally speaking, the young negro women are + considered more clever at this part of the work than older persons. + As this process of rolling and twisting the leaves goes on, their + green juice is drained off through the hurdle, and it is essential + that the tea be perfectly divested of the moisture, which is acrid, + and even corrosive, the bruising and kneading being especially + designed to break the parenchyma of the leaf, and permit the escape + of the sap. + + When the leaves have been thus twisted and rolled, they are replaced + in the great iron pan, and the temperature raised till the hand can + no longer bear the heat at the bottom. For upwards of an hour the + negroes are then constantly employed in separating, shaking, and + throwing the foliage up and down, in order to facilitate the + dessication, and much neatness and quickness of hand were requisite, + that the manipulators might neither burn themselves nor allow the + masses of leaves to adhere to the hot bottom of the pan. It is easy + to see that, if the pan was placed within another pan filled with + boiling water, and the leaves were stirred with an iron spatula, + much trouble might be obviated. Still, the rolling and drying of the + leaves were successfully performed; they became more and more crisp, + and preserved their twisted shape, except some few which seemed too + old and coriaceous to submit to be rolled up. The tea was then + placed on a sieve, with wide apertures of regular sizes, and formed + of flat strips of bamboo. The best rolled leaves, produced from the + tips of the buds and the tenderest leaves, passed through this + sieve, and were subsequently fanned, in order to separate any + unrolled fragments which might have passed through them; this + produce was called _Imperial_, or _Uchim Tea_. It was again laid in + the pan till it acquired the leaden grey tint, which proved its + perfect dryness, and any defective leaf which had escaped the + winnowing and sifting was picked out by hand. The residue, which was + left from the first fanning, was submitted to all the operations of + winnowing, sifting, and scorching, and it then afforded the _Fine + Hyson Tea_ of commerce; while the same operations performed on the + residuum of it yielded the _Common Hyson_; and the refuse of the + third quality again afforded the _Coarse Hyson_.--Finally, the + broken and unrolled foliage, which were rejected in the last + sittings, furnish what is called _Family Tea_, and the better kind + of which is called _Chato_, and the inferior _Chuto_. The latter + sort is never sold, but kept for consumption in the families of the + growers. + + Such is the mode of preparation pursued at Rio Janeiro, though I + must add that the process employed at the Botanic Garden being most + carefully performed in order to serve as a model for private + cultivators of tea, the produce is superior to the generality, so + that we dare not judge of all Brazilian tea by what is raised at the + garden of Rio. I was also assured, that at Saint Paul each grower + had his own peculiar method, influencing materially the quality of + the tea, which decided me to visit that province, where I hoped to + gain valuable information respecting the culture and fabrication of + tea, especially considered as an article of commerce. + + In the interim, the month of December proving excessively hot and + rainy, so as to forbid any distant excursions, I turned my attention + to the important object of procuring _tea plants_ in number and + state fit for exportation; and, observing that almost all the shrubs + I saw were too large for this purpose, I applied to M. de Brandao + for his help and advice. This gentleman, in the most courteous + manner, offered me either seeds or slips from his own tea shrubs. + The striking of the latter was, he owned, a hazardous and uncertain + affair, though it had the probable advantage of securing a finer + kind of plant than could with certainty be raised from seed. I, + however, began by asking him for newly gathered seeds, in order to + set them in my little nursery garden at Santa Theresa, and he + obligingly gave me a thousand of the seeds, perfectly ripe and + sound, which is easily known by the purplish-brown color of their + integument. M. Houlet immediately set about preparing the soil in + which to plant these seeds, and the earth being excessively + argillaceous and hard, much digging, manuring, and dressing were + needful; in a word, we neglected no precautions which could + contribute to the growth of our seeds. In the interim I allowed not + a single dry day to elapse without visiting the country house near + Rio, in all of which I saw something more or less interesting, + either in the culture of tea, or other vegetable productions of + commercial value. + + * * * * * + + I detected, growing not unfrequently in the environs of Rio, the + _Ilex Paraguayensis_ of M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, perfectly + identical with the tree which the Jesuits planted in the missions of + Paraguay, and whose foliage is an article of great importance + throughout Spanish America, and vended under the name of _Paraguay + Tea_. A living plant of this shrub was brought home by me, and + placed in the Royal Garden at Paris, as well as a species of + Vanilla, and many other rare and interesting plants. I also made a + valuable collection of woods employed for dyeing, building, and + cabinet work, with samples of their flowers, fruits, and leaves, to + facilitate botanical determination. + + Early in January, 1839, M. Houlet began anew sowing tea, not only in + the open ground in our little garden, but also in pans, in order to + facilitate the lifting of the young plants, and putting them into + the cases that I had brought for the purpose. The heat being + excessive, we purchased mats, that we might shelter them from the + sun, and we gave them water far more frequently. Many of the seeds + that we had sown a month previously, were already appearing above + the ground, but the soil being of too compact a nature, some did not + come up, which warned us to make choice in future of a lighter kind + of soil. + + The period now arrived when I was to visit the tea plantations in + the province of St. Paul; and hoping that the cultivators would give + me some of the young shrubs, I took M. Houlet with me, leaving the + charge of our collections and seedlings to M. Pissis, a French + geologist and engineer, with whom I had formed an intimate + acquaintance, and who most obligingly offered to attend to them + during my absence. Many were the influential persons at Rio Janeiro, + who gave me introductory letters to the proprietors and tea growers + of St. Paul. + + We started on the 15th January, by steam-boat, and in two days + reached Santos, the principal port in the province of St. Paul; + thence crossing the great chain of mountains, named the Serra do + Mar, in caravans drawn by mules, we reached the city of St. Paul on + the 20th January, where I experienced the warmest reception from the + governor, two ex-governors, and some other gentlemen. + + * * * * * + + Accompanied by M.J. Gomez and a M. Barandier, an historical painter, + whom the desire to visit a new country, and to see its inhabitants, + had induced to become _my compagnon de voyage_, we visited almost + immediately a M. Feigo, ex-Regent of the Empire, and now President + of the Provincial Senate. We found this venerable ecclesiastic at + his country-house, two leagues distant from the city, and here we + saw all the process pursued on the tea leaf, commencing by the + bruising, drying, and scorching of a large quantity of foliage + picked the preceding evening. The chief difference that struck me in + the mode here adopted, was, that the tender, flexible, and not + brittle leaves, were gathered with the petiole and tip extremity of + every bud, and that some water was put with them into the iron pan, + in which the negresses twisted, squeezed, broke and shook the masses + of foliage. The operation was, on the whole, more neatly performed + than at Rio. When the tea was perfectly dry and removed from the + pan, it was placed aside in a box, shaded from the air and light, + and was considered ready for present use, on the spot; but M. Feigo + informed me, that when sent to a distance, the cases were + hermetically closed, and the tea underwent an extra dessication over + the fire. + + The plantations belonging to M. Feigo, and surrounding his chagara, + are extensive, containing about 20,000 tea shrubs, of fine growth + and high vigor, most of them six or eight years old, set in regular + lines, a metre asunder from each other, and the lines with a metre + and a half between them. The soil is excellent, + argillaceo-ferruginous, as is generally the case near St. Paul. + + In the Botanic Garden at St. Paul, some squares are devoted to the + growth of tea; but I am not aware that the leaves are ever subject + to preparation. + + M. da Luz had invited us to inspect his tea-grounds near Nossa + Senhora da Penha, and I went thither, accompanied by Messrs. + Barandier and Houlet. The cultivation is admirable, the soil + excellent, and the tea-plants peculiarly vigorous. Each shrub was so + placed that a man can easily go all round it, and _young plants, + self-sown, were springing up below every old one_; of these offsets, + I was made welcome to as many as I could take away, and should have + had a great stock, but that the ground had been very recently + cleared. M. da Luz showed me his magazines of prepared tea, which + were extensive and well stocked. + + Hence I went to the property of a lady, Donna Gertrude Gedioze + Larceda, situated at the foot of Jarigur, a mountain famed for its + gold mines, and passed two days in exploring this celebrated + locality, and then visited the Colonel Anastosio on my way back to + St. Paul. These plantations are in the most prosperous condition, + situated on a sloping and well-manured tract behind the habitations. + The shrubs are generally kept low, and frequently cut, so as to, + make them branching, by which the process of picking the leaves is + rendered easier. There may be 60,000 or 70,000 plants, but a third + of them were only set a year before. Every arrangement is + excellently conducted here; the pans kept very clean, though perhaps + rather thin from long use and the fierceness of the fires. But the + general good order that prevails, speaks much in favor of the tea + produced in this neighbourhood. The colonel showed me his warehouse, + where the tea is stored in iron jars, narrow-necked and closed by a + tight fitting stopper. I ventured to put some questions to Colonel + Anastosio respecting the sale of the produce. He gave me to + understand that he was by no means eager to sell; but, confident of + the good quality, he waited till application was made to him for it, + as the tea is thought to improve by time, and the price is kept up + by there being a small supply. With respect to the cost of its + production in Brazil, he said, this was so great that, to make it + answer to the grower, a price of not less than 2,000 reis, about six + francs (5s.), must be got for each pound. The whole labor in Brazil + is done by slaves, who certainly do not cost much to keep, but who, + on the other hand, work as little as they can help, having no + interest in the occupation. The slaves, too, bear a high price, and + the chances of mortality, with the exorbitant value of money in + Brazil, augment their selling value. + + The Major da Luz kindly presented me with 300 young tea-plants, + which he had caused his negroes to pull up for me; and in an + adjoining farm, where an immense tract planted with tea is now + allowed to run to waste, being no object of value to the proprietor, + I was permitted to take all I could carry away; and in a single + day's time, M. Houlet and I, aided by some slaves, succeeded in + possessing ourselves of 3,000 young plants, which we carefully + arranged in bamboo baskets (here called cestos). To diminish the + weight, M. Houlet removed as little soil as possible; but carefully + wetted the roots before closing the baskets, and covered them with + banana leaves. In one garden, the largest I have seen devoted to the + growth of tea, but which is not particularly well kept, I saw that + the spaces between the shrubs were planted with _maize_, and the + bordering of the squares which intersect this vast plantation, and + the whole of which is inclosed with valleys of _Araucaria + Brasiliensis_, is formed of little dwarf tea-plants, which are kept + low by cutting their main shoots down to the level of the soil. + + On the 8th of February I again embarked in the steam-boat to return + to Rio Janeiro, and when we came in sight of St. Sebastian, I left + M. Houlet to proceed to the city alone, charging him to take the + very greatest care of our package of tea-plants, as well as of the + nursery-ground at St. Theresa, while I should visit the flourishing + colony of Ubatuba, inhabited by French families, who cultivate most + successfully _coffee_, and other useful vegetables. After a + delightful sail through an archipelago of enchanting islands, I + landed at Pontagrossa, where I was most kindly received, and spent a + week, obtaining much and varied information, both respecting + cultivated plants and the kinds of trees which grow spontaneously in + the virgin forests of this lovely land, and afford valuable woods + for building, cabinet work, and dyeing. Finally, I visited the tea + plantations of M. Vigneron, which are remarkably fine, though their + owner finds a much more profitable employment in the growth of + _coffee_, which is very lucrative. He kindly gave me a quantity of + young tea-plants and chocolate trees. Reluctantly quitting these + worthy colonists, I re-embarked in a Brazilian galliot, which took + me back to Rio Janeiro in the close of February. There I found the + tea-plants from St. Paul, set by M. Houlet, in our garden at St. + Theresa, and I added to them the stock I had brought from Ubatuba. + All the very young ones had perished on the way, from the excessive + heat, and M. Houlet had much difficulty in saving the others. + + * * * * * + + M. Guillemin concludes his interesting narration with this partially + discouraging fact;--that though the culture of the tea-shrub + succeeds perfectly well in Brazil; though the gathering of the + foliage proceeds with hardly any interruption during the entire + year; though the quality (setting aside the aroma, which is believed + to be artificially added) is not inferior to that of the finest tea + from China--still the growers have not realised any large profits. + They have manufactured an immense quantity of tea, to judge by what + he saw in the warehouses at St. Paul, but they cannot afford to sell + it under six francs for the half kilogramme (a pound weight), which + is higher than Chinese tea of equally good quality. This is, + however, precisely one of those commodities in which free labour, + that is, the labor of a free peasant's family, the wife and + children, the young and the old, can successfully compete with slave + labor, and considerably undersell it. It is manifest, from the + remarks of M. Guillemin, that the cost for plantation slaves, under + a system apparently so profitable as labor without wages, is a dead + weight on the Brazilian planter." + +_Paraguay Tea._--A species of holly (_Ilex Paraguensis_), which grows +spontaneously in the forest regions of Paraguay, and the interior of +South America, furnishes the celebrated beverage called _Yerba Mate_, +in South America. The evergreen leaf of this plant is from four to +five inches long; when prepared for use as tea it is reduced to +powder, and hence the decoction has to be quaffed by means of a tube +with a bulb perforated with small holes. + +The leaves yield the same bitter principle called theine, which is +found in the leaf of the Chinese tea-plant, the coffee berry, &c. +Various other species of Ilex are sometimes employed in other parts of +South America for a similar purpose. Although the leaves may not +contain as much of the agreeable narcotic oil as those of the China +shrub, in consequence of the rude way in which it is collected and +prepared for use, yet it is much relished by European travellers in +South America, and would doubtless enter largely into consumption if +imported into this country at a moderate rate of duty. + +The consumption in the various South American Republics is estimated +at thirty or forty millions of pounds annually. It is generally drank +without sugar or milk. + +There are no correct data for calculating the exports, but some +authorities state the amount sent to Santa Fe and Buenos Ayres at +eight millions of pounds. + +A great trade is carried on with it at Sta. Fe, where it is brought +from the Rio de la Plata. There are two sorts, one called "Yerba de +Palos," the other, which is finer, "Yerba de Carnini." Frezier tells +us that, in the earlier part of the 17th century, above 50,000 +arrobas, or more than 12,000 cwt. of this herb were brought into Peru +from Paraguay, exclusive of about 25,000 arrobas taken to Chile; and +Father Charleroix, in his "History of Paraguay," states the quantity +shipped to Peru annually at 100,000 arrobas, or nearly 2,500,000 lbs. + +My friend, Mr. W.P. Robertson, has favored me with some details as to +the production of Paraguay tea. His brother has graphically described +a visit he paid to the wastes or woods of the Yerba tree, with a +colony of manufacturers from Assumption. These woods were situated +chiefly in the country adjacent to a small miserable town called Villa +Real, about 150 miles higher up the river Paraguay than Assumption. +The master manufacturer, with about forty or fifty hired peons or +servants, mounted on mules, and a hundred bulls and sumpter mules, set +out on their expedition, and having discovered in the dense wood a +suitable locality, forthwith a settlement is established, and the +necessary wigwams for dwellings, &c., run up. The next step is the +construction of the "tatacua." This was a small space of ground, +about six feet square, of which the soil was beaten down with heavy +mallets, till it became a hard and consistent foundation. At the four +corners of this space, and at right angles, were driven in four very +strong stakes, while upon the surface of it were laid large logs of +wood. This was the place at which the leaves and small sprigs of the +yerba tree, when brought from the woods, were first scorched--fire +being set to the logs of wood within it. By the side of the tatacua +was spread an ample square net of hidework, of which, after the +scorched leaves were laid upon it, a peon gathered up the four corners +and proceeded with his burthen on his shoulders to the second place +constructed, the barbacue. This was an arch of considerable span, and +of which the support consisted of three strong trestles. The centre +trestle formed the highest part of the arch. Over this superstructure +were laid cross-bars strongly railed to stakes on either side of the +central supports, and so formed the roof of the arch. The leaves being +separated after the tatacua process, from the grosser boughs of the +yerba tree, were laid on this roof, under which a large fire was +kindled. Of this fire the flames ascended, and still further scorched +the leaves of the yerba. The two peons beneath the arch, with long +poles, took care, as far as they could, that no ignition should take +place; and in order to extinguish this, when it did occur, another +peon was stationed at the top of the arch. Along both sides of this +there were two deal planks, and, with a long stick in his hand, the +peon ran along these planks, and instantly extinguished any incipient +sparks of fire that appeared. + +When the yerba was thoroughly scorched, the fire was swept from the +barbacue or arch; the ground was then swept, and pounded with heavy +mallets, into the hardest and smoothest substance. The scorched leaves +and very small twigs were then thrown down from the roof of the arch, +and, by means of a rude wooden mill, ground to powder. + +The yerba or tea was now ready for use; and being conveyed to a larger +shed, previously erected for the purpose, was then received, weighed, +and stored by the overseer. The next and last process, and the most +laborious of all, was that of packing the tea. This was done by first +sewing together, in a square form, the half of a bull's hide, which +being still damp, was fastened by two of its corners to two strong +trestles, driven far into the ground. The packer then, with an +enormous stick, made of the heaviest wood, and having a huge block at +one end, and a pyramidal piece to give it a greater impulse at the +other, pressed, by repeated efforts, the yerba into the hide sack, +till he got it full to the brim. It then contained from 200 to 250 +pounds, and being sewed up, and left to tighten over the contents as +the hide dried, it formed at the end of a couple of days, by exposure +to the sun, a substance as hard as stone, and almost as weighty and +impervious too. + +Having described the process of making ready the yerba for use, we +will now accompany Mr. Robertson to the woods, to see how it is +collected. + + "After all the preparations which I have detailed were completed + (and it required only three days to finish them), the peons sallied + forth from the yerba colony by couples. I accompanied two of the + stoutest and best of them. They had with them no other weapon than a + small axe; no other clothing than a girdle round their waist and a + red cap on their head; no other provision than a cigar, and a cow's + horn filled with water; and they were animated by no other hope or + desire, that I could perceive, than those of soon discovering a part + of the wood thickly studded with the yerba tree. They also desired + to find it as near as possible to the colonial encampment, in order + that the labor of carrying the rough branches to the scene of + operations might be as much as possible diminished. + + We had scarcely skirted for a quarter of a mile the woods which shut + in the valley where we were bivouacked, when we came upon numerous + clumps of the yerba tree. It was of all sizes, from that of the + shrub to that of the full-grown orange tree; the leaves of it were + very like those of that beautiful production. The smaller the plant, + the better is the tea which is taken from it considered to be. + + To work with their hatchets went the peons, and in less than a + couple of hours they had gathered a mountain of branches, and piled + them up in the form of a haystack. Both of them then filled their + large ponchos with the coveted article of commerce in its raw state, + and they marched off with their respective loads. Having deposited + this first load within the precincts of the colony, the peons + returned for a second, and so on till they had cleared away the + whole mass of branches and of leaves cut and collected during that + day. When I returned to the colony I found the peons coming by two + and two, from every part of the valley, all laden in the same way. + There were twenty tatacuas, twenty barbacues, and twenty pies of the + yerba cut and ready for manufacture. Two days after that the whole + colony was in a blaze, tatacuas and barbacues were enveloped in + smoke; on the third day all was stowed away in the shed; and on the + fourth the peons again went out to procure more of the boughs and + leaves."--(_Letters on Paraguay_, vol. ii. p. 142-147). + +Each peon or laborer, going into the woods for six months, can procure +eight arrobas, or 200 lbs. of yerba a day. This, at the rate of two +rials, or 1s. for each arroba, would make his wages per day 8s.; and +this for six months' work, at six days in the week, would produce to +the laborer a sum of L57 12s. + +Wilcockes, in his "History of Buenos Ayres," published in 1807, +states:--"Though the herb is principally bought by the merchants of +Buenos Ayres, it is not to that place that it is carried, no more +being sent thither than is wanted for the consumption of its +inhabitants and those of the vicinity; but the greatest part is +dispatched to Santa Fe and Cordova, thence to be forwarded to Potosi +and Mendoza. The quantity exported to Peru is estimated at 100,000 +arrobas, and to Chile 40,000. The remainder is consumed in Paraguay, +Tucuman, and the other provinces. It is conveyed in parcels of six or +seven arrobas, by waggons, from Santa Fe to Jugui, and thence by mules +to Potosi, La Paz, and into Peru proper. About four piastres per +arroba is the price in Paraguay, and at Potosi it fetches from eight +to nine, and more in proportion as it is carried further." + + +SUGAR. + +Sugar is obtained from many grasses; and, indeed, is common in a large +number of plants. It is procured in Italy from _Sorghum saccharatum_; +in China, from _Saccharum sinense_; in Brazil, from _Gynerium +saccharoides_; in the West Indies, from _saccharum violaceum_; and in +many other parts of the world from _S officinarrum_. The last two are +commonly known as sugar canes, and they are generally considered as +varieties of a single species, _S. officinarum_, which is now widely +spread over different parts of the world. + +Some curious specimens of palm sugars were exhibited at the Great +Exhibition of 1851, among others,--gomuti palm sugar (_Arenga +saccharifera_) from Java; date palm sugar, from the Deccan; nipa +sugar, from the stems of _Nipa fruticans_, and sugar from the fleshy +flowers of _Bassia latifolia_,--an East Indian tree. + +Among the other sugars shown were beet root sugar, maple sugar, date +sugar, from Dacca, sugar from the butter tree (_Bassia butyracea_), +produced in the division of Rohekkund, in India; and sugar candy, +crystallized by the natives of Calcutta and other parts of India. + +Sugar and molasses from the grape, were also shown from Spain, Tunis +and the Zollverein. + +Sugar, or sugar candy, has been made in China from very remote +antiquity, and large quantities have been exported from India, in all +ages, whence it is most probable that it found its way to Rome. + +The principal impurities to be sought for in cane sugar are inorganic +matter, water, molasses, farina, and grape, or starch sugar. The +latter substance is occasionally, for adulterating purposes, added in +Europe to cane sugar; it may be detected by the action of concentrated +sulphuric acid and of a solution of caustic potassa; the former +blackens cane sugar, but does not affect the starch sugar, while +potassa darkens the color of starch sugar, but does not alter that of +cane sugar. But the copper test is far more delicate. Add to the +solution to be tested, a few drops of blue vitriol, and then a +quantity of potassa solution, and apply heat; if the cane sugar is +pure, the liquor will remain blue, while, if it be adulterated with +starch sugar, it will assume a reddish yellow color. + +Inorganic matter is determined by incineration, farina by the iodine +test, water by drying at 210 deg., and molasses by getting rid of it +by re-crystalization from alcohol, as also by the color and moisture +of the article. + +The natural impurities of sugar are gum and tannin; gum is detected by +giving a white precipitate with diacetate of lead, and tannin by +giving a black coloration or precipitate with persulphate of iron. + +An experienced sugar dealer easily judges of the value of sugar by the +taste, smell, specific gravity, moisture and general appearance. + +The value of molasses may be determined by drying at 220 degs., and by +the taste. + +The commercial demand for sugar is mainly supplied from the juice of +the cane, which contains it in greater quantity and purity than any +other plant, and offers the greatest facilities for its extraction. + +Although sugar, identical in its character, exists in the maple, the +coco-nut, maize, the beet root, and mango, and is economically +obtained from these to a considerable extent, yet it is not +sufficiently pure to admit of ready separation from the foreign matter +combined with it, at least by the simple mechanical means, the +ordinary producers usually have at command; unless carried onto a +large extent, and with suitable machinery and chemical knowledge and +appliances. + +The different species of commercial sugar usually met with in this +country, are four, viz:--brown, or muscovado sugar (commonly called +moist sugar); clayed sugar, refined or loaf sugar, and sugar candy; +these varieties are altogether dependent on the difference in the +methods employed in their manufacture. + +The cultivation of the sugar cane, and the manufacture of sugar, were +introduced into Europe from the East, by the Saracens, soon after +their conquests, in the ninth century. It is stated by the Venetian +historians, that their countrymen imported sugar from Sicily, in the +twelfth century, at a cheaper rate than they could obtain it from +Egypt, where it was then extensively made. The first plantations in +Spain were at Valencia; but they were extended to Granada, Mercia, +Portugal, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, as early as the beginning +of the fifteenth century. From Gomera, one of these islands, the sugar +cane was introduced into the West Indies, by Columbus, in his second +voyage to America in 1493. It was cultivated to some extent in St. +Domingo in 1506, where it succeeded better than in any of the other +islands. In 1518, there were twenty-eight plantations in that colony, +established by the Spaniards, where an abundance of sugar was made, +which, for a long period, formed the principal part of the European +supplies. Barbados, the oldest English settlement in the West Indies, +began to export sugar in 1646, and as far back as the year 1676 the +trade required four hundred vessels, averaging one hundred and fifty +tons burden. + +The common sugar cane is a perennial plant, very sensitive to cold, +and is, therefore, restricted in its cultivation to regions bordering +on the tropics, where there is little or no frost. In the Eastern +hemisphere its production is principally confined to situations +favorable to its growth, lying between the fortieth parallel of north +latitude and a corresponding degree south. On the Atlantic side of +the Western continent, it will not thrive beyond the thirty-third +degree of north latitude and the thirty-fifth parallel south. On the +Pacific side it will perfect its growth some five degrees further +north or south. From the flexibility of this plant, it is highly +probable that it is gradually becoming more hardy, and will eventually +endure an exposure and yield a profitable return much further north, +along the borders of the Mississippi and some of its tributaries, than +it has hitherto been produced. In most parts of Louisiana the canes +yield three crops from one planting. The first season is denominated +"plant cane," and each of the subsequent growths, "ratoons." But, +sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the +higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be replanted +every year. Within the tropics, as in the West Indies and elsewhere, +the ratoons frequently continue to yield abundantly for twelve or +fifteen years from the same roots. + +The cultivation of this plant is principally confined to the West +Indies, Venezuela, Brazil, Mauritius, British India, China, Japan, the +Sunda, Phillippine, and Sandwich Islands, and to the southern +districts of the United States. The varieties most cultivated in the +latter are the striped blue and yellow ribbon, or Java, the red +ribbon, violet, from Java, the Creole, crystalline or Malabar, the +Otaheite, the purple, the yellow, the purple-banded, and the grey +canes. The quantity of sugar produced on an acre varies from five +hundred to three thousand pounds, averaging, perhaps, from eight +hundred to one thousand pounds. + +Six to eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant, yield one +pound of raw sugar; from 16 to 20 cart-loads of canes, ought to make a +hogshead of sugar, if thoroughly ripe. The weight necessary to +manufacture 10,000 hhds of sugar, is usually estimated at 250,000 +tons, or 25 tons per hhd. of 15 or 16 cwt. + +The quantity of sugar now produced in our colonies is in excess of the +demands of the consumers, that is, of their demands cramped as they +are by the duties still levied on sugar consumed in Great Britain, +imposed for the purposes of revenue; the high duty on all other but +indigenous sugar, consumed all over the continent, imposed to promote +the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and the legal duty levied on all +other than indigenous sugar used in the United States, for the purpose +of protecting the sugar production of that country; and so long as +that excess exists---until a further reduction of duties shall +increase consumption and cause sugar to be used for many purposes +which the present high rates prohibit its being applied to--any +improvement which may be effected in the quality--any increase which +may take place in the quantity of colonial sugar--will only result +infinitely more to the benefits of the consumers than the producers. +In 1700 the quantity consumed in Great Britain and Ireland was only +about 200,000 cwt. In 1852, including molasses, &c., it was not less +than 8,000,000 cwt., a forty-fold increase in the century and a-half. +Taking the whole population last year, it was nearly 28 lbs. per +head. In 1832 the consumption in Great Britain alone was put down by +Mr. M'Culloch at 23 lbs.; and as my estimate includes Ireland, where +the consumption is notoriously small, we may infer that it has +increased in Great Britain since 1832 at least 5 lb. per head. As the +allowance to servants is from 3/4 lb. to 1 lb. per week, it may be +assumed that 50 lb. a year, at least, is not too much for grown +persons. In sugar-producing countries the quantity consumed is +enormous; the labourers live on it in the manufacturing season; and a +Duke of Beaufort, who died about 1720, consumed one pound daily for +forty years, and enjoyed excellent health till he was seventy years of +age. The consumption of sugar has increased considerably since it has +become cheap; and we may expect, therefore, that the consumption will +extend more rapidly than ever. The whole quantity consumed in Europe +last year, including beet-root sugar, was not less than 16,000,000 +cwt. If peace be preserved and prosperity continue, the market for +sugar will extend amazingly, and force the cultivation by free men in +all tropical countries. + + British East India and Total of B.P. + Years. Plantation Mauritius E.I. and Consumption + tons. tons Mauritius tons. + 1838-39 176,033 54,017 230,050 195,483 + 39-40 141,219 60,358 201,577 191,279 + 40-41 110,739 52,232 162,971 179,741 + 41-42 107,560 97,792 205,352 202,971 + 42-43 123,685 80,429 204,114 199,491 + 43-44 125,178 78,943 204,121 202,259 + 44-45 122,639 81,959 204,598 206,999 + 45-46 142,384 102,690 245,074 244,030 + 47-48 164,646 125,829 290,475 289,537 + 48-49 139,868 107,844 247,712 308,131 + 49-50 142,203 121,850 264,053 296,119 + 50-51 129,471 119,317 248,788 305,616 + 51-52 148,000 110,000 258,000 312,778 + +--The above figures refer to raw sugar only. + +At these periods, calculating from 1838-39, the duty on British sugar +ranged from 24s. down to 10s. per cwt., and foreign slave-grown sugar +from 63s. down to 14s. The greatest impetus was given to foreign sugar +when the duties were reduced, in 1846. + +The extension of sugar cultivation in various countries where the +climate is suitable, has recently attracted considerable attention +among planters and merchants. The Australian Society of Sydney offered +its Isis Gold Medal recently to the person who should have planted, +before May, 1851, the greatest number of sugar canes in the colony. I +have not heard whether any claim was put in for the premium, but I +fear that the gold fever has diverted attention from any new +agricultural pursuit, and that honorary gold medals are therefore +unappreciated. Moreton Bay and the northern parts of the colony of New +South Wales, are admirably suited to the growth of all descriptions of +tropical products. + +The Natal Agricultural Society is also making great exertions to +promote sugar culture in that settlement. Mr. E. Morewood, one of the +oldest colonists, has about 100 acres under cultivation with the cane, +and I have seen some very excellent specimens of the produce, +notwithstanding the want of suitable machinery to grind the cane and +boil the juice. Many planters from the East Indies and Mauritius are +settling there. His Royal Highness Prince Albert awarded, through the +Society of Arts, a year or two ago, a gold medal, worth 100 guineas, +to Mr. J.A. Leon, for his beautiful work descriptive of new and +improved machinery and processes employed in the cultivation and +preparation of sugar in the British colonies, designed to economise +labor and increase production. + +The centrifugal machines, recently brought into use, for separating +the molasses from the sugar, more quickly than the old-fashioned +method of coolers, have tended to cheapen the production and simplify +the processes of sugar making. The planters object, however, to the +high prices which they are charged for these machines, so simple in +their construction; and that they are not allowed, by the patent laws, +to obtain them in the cheaper markets of France and Belgium. + +Great loss has hitherto taken place annually, in the sugar colonies, +through the drainage of the molasses, resulting from the imperfect +processes in use; but this can now be obviated, by the use of the +centrifugal machine. It is a modification of the "hydro-extractor," +and is the invention of Mr. Finzel, of Bristol. + +The machine being filled with sugar, appropriately placed, is rapidly +revolved, and a powerful ceutrifugal force generated; the moisture is +speedily removed to the circumference of the revolving vessel, and +passes off through apertures adapted for the purpose. + +Various other improvements in the making of sugar have been carried +into effect within the last few years, by Dr. Scoffern, Messrs. Oxland +and M. Melsens, but the description of these would occupy too much of +my space, and those who are desirous of growing sugar on an extensive +scale, I must refer to Dr. Evans' "Sugar Planter's Manual," Mr. Wray's +"Practical Sugar Planter," Agricola's "Letters on Sugar Farming," and +other works which treat largely and exclusively of the subject. + +An announcement has recently been made, that a Mr. Ramos, of Porto +Rico, has discovered some new dessicating agent, to be used in sugar +making, which is to cost next to nothing, but improves most materially +the quality of the sugar made, and also increases considerably the +quantity obtained by the ordinary process. + +The average annual quantity of cane sugar produced and sent into the +markets of the civilised world, at the present time, may be taken at +1,500,000 tons, exclusive of the amount grown and manufactured for +local consumption in India, China, Cochin-China, and the Malay +Archipelago, of which no certain statistics exist, but which has been +estimated at about another million tons. + +So far back as 1844, the Calcutta "Star," in an article on sugar, +estimated the domestic consumption in India, at 500,000 tons. This is +considerably below the mark, even if India is taken in its limited +signification, as including only British subjects. On this estimate +the 94,000,000 of British subjects, men, women and children, would not +individually consume more than one pound avoirdupois by the month. A +fat, hungry Brahmin, at any of the festivals given by the great, will +digest for his own share four pounds, without at all embarrassing his +stomach. + +Assuming the million and a half of tons that find their way into +civilized markets, to represent an average value at the place of +production of L15 per ton, we have here the representation of +L22,500,000 sterling. But this value may fairly be increased by +one-fourth. + +The whole exportable production of the sugar-growing countries was +found to be, in 1844, about 780,000 tons, of which Cuba furnished +200,000 tons. In 1845, notwithstanding Cuba only produced 80,000 tons, +the increase from other sources was so considerable (namely:--the +British Colonial supply 40,000, United States 40,000, Porto Rico +15,000, Brazil 10,000 tons) that the total produce fell very little +short of the previous year--having reached 764,000 tons. + +The present SUPPLY of sugar to the markets of Europe, is nearly as +follows:-- + + Cwts. + England 8,000,000 + France 2,550,000 + German League 1,350,000 + Prussia 220,000 + Austria, (ten Provinces) 560,000 + Belgium 294,000 + Other States not defined. + +The present DEMAND, according to the estimated consumption per head +(28 lbs.), found to exist in England, where taxation is favorable, and +the price moderate, would be about 31/4; million tons, viz.:-- + + Cwts. + England 8,000,000 + France 8,875,000 + Germany 5,750,000 + Prussia 4,100,000 + Austria 8,642,857 + Belgium 1,250,000 + Russia 15,250,000 + Rest of Europe 12,500,000 + +The whole annual PRODUCTION of the world is estimated by another party +at 1,471,000,000 lbs., of which the United States produce 150,000,000 +lbs., including 40,000,000 lbs. of maple sugar. Of the whole amount of +sugar produced, Europe consumes about 648,700 tons, divided nearly as +follows:-- + + lbs. + Great Britain 803,360,096 + France 160,080,000 + Belgium 19,840,000 + Netherlands 42,000,000 + Russia 70,000,000 + Denmark and Sweden 22,000,000 + German Zollverein 101,300,000 + Other parts of Germany 160,000,000 + Austria 50,000,000 + ------------- + 1,428,580,096 + +The following figures show the quantities of raw sugar in general, in +tons, imported into the British markets for the last five years, +compared with consumption:-- + + Entire British + Years. Importations. Consumption. Surplus. + 1847 415,289 290,281 125,008 + 1848 354,834 309,424 45,410 + 1849 362,087 299,041 63,046 + 1850 332,470 310,391 22,089 + 1851 419,083 329,561 89,472 + 1852 360,033 358,642 1,391 + Deduced from Parliamentary Paper, No. 461, Session 1853. + +The consumption of sugar then in the whole world may be roughly +estimated at two and a half million tons, of which the United Kingdom +may now be put down for 350,000; the rest of Europe 420,000, and the +United States 300,000. + +The United States produce about 140,000 tons of cane and maple sugar, +which are exclusively used for home consumption, the remainder of +their requirements being made up by foreign importation. The American +consumption, which in 1851 amounted to 133,000 tons of sugar cane +reached last year a total of 321,000 tons, almost as much as England +consumed--358,000--and more than the consumption of 100,000,000 of +persons on the continent. + +The whole production of tropical sugar, is about one million and +a-half tons, while the consumption is probably two million tons; but +the manufacture of sugar from beet root, maple and other sources, +supplies the deficiency. + +The total quantities of sugar, and molasses as sugar, consumed in the +United Kingdom in the last six years, were, according to a +Parliamentary paper, No. 292, of the last session, as follows:-- + + Cwt. sugar. Cwt. molasses. + 1847 4,723,232 1,256,421 + 1848 5,003,318 865,752 + 1849 5,283,729 1,021,065 + 1850 5,570,461 752,027 + 1851 5,043,872 1,522,405 + 1852 7,203,631 799,942 + +The returns further specify that the annual average consumption of +_British colonial sugar_, in the five years ending 1851, was 5,124,922 +cwt.; and in the five years ending 1846, was 4,579,054 cwt.; the +average consumption of British colonial sugar, has, therefore, +exceeded in the five years since the duties were reduced, in 1846, the +average consumption for the five previous years by 545,868 cwt. per +annum; or in the aggregate in the five years, the excess has been +3,239,338 cwt. The quantity consumed in the year ending December, +1852, was 4,033,879 cwt.[16] There can be no doubt whatever, that the +consumption of sugar in Great Britain is capable of very large +increase; moderate cost, and the removal of restrictions to its +general use, being the main elements required to bring it about. The +question of revenue must of course be a material consideration with +Government; but recent experience certainly leads to the conclusion +that it would not suffer under a further reduction of duty. + +The revenue derived from sugar before the reduction of the duty, was +five millions per annum; in the past two years it reached nearly four +millions. + +The reduction in duties which took place in 1845, may be said to have +answered the expectations formed of it, as regards the increase of +consumption, which there is no doubt would have even gone beyond the +estimate, if the failure in the crop of sugar in Cuba--that most +important island, which usually yields one-fifth of the cane crop of +the whole world--had not driven up prices in the general market of the +continent, and, in consequence, diverted the supply of free labor +sugar from this country. As it was, however, the consumption of the +United Kingdom, which in 1844 was 206,472 tons, in 1845 was not less +than 243,000--Sir Robert Peel's estimate was 250,000 tons--the average +reduction in price to the consumer during the latter year having been +20 per cent. The large increase in subsequent years I have already +shown. + +The consumption of sugar we find, then, has been steadily and rapidly +increasing in this country, and if we add together to the refined and +raw sugar and molasses used, it will be seen that the consumption of +1852 amounted to 400,178 tons; which is at the rate of 29 lbs. per +head of the population per annum. Whilst the quantity retained for +home consumption in the United Kingdom, in 1844; was but 4,130,000 +cwt., the amount had risen in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwt. + +Sugar unrefined, entered for home consumption. + + Colonial Raw. Foreign Raw. Total. + Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. + 1848 5,936,355 1,225,866 6,162,221 + 1849 5,424,248 498,038 5,922,386 + 1850 5,201,206 911,115 6,112,321 + 1851 5,872,288 1,383,286 6,255,574 + 1852 6,241,581 687,269 6,928,850 + +To the foregoing should be added the following quantities of refined +sugar and molasses, entered for home consumption. + + Refined Sugar and Candy. Molasses. Total + Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. + 1848 46,292 637,050 683,342 + 1849 75,392 812,330 887,722 + 1850 116,744 917,588 1,034,362 + 1851 338,734 773,035 1,111,769 + 1852 274,781 799,942 1,074,723 + +The quantity of sugar refined by our bonded refiners, and exported, +is shown by the following figures. The increase in 1851, was +one-fourth in excess of the previous year. + + Cwt. + 1848 248,702 + 1849 222,900 + 1850 209,148 + 1851 258,563 + 1852 214,299 + +The following were the imports of sugar into Great Britain, in 1848 +and 1851, respectively--and the quarters from whence supplies were +derived:-- + + 1848--Tons. 1851--Tons. + West Indies 121,600 153,300 + Mauritius 43,600 50,000 + East Indies 65,200 78,286 + Java and Manila 11,000 20,850 + Havana, Porto Rico, and Brazil 76,900 76,526 + ------- ------- + 318,300 378,962 + +The production of sugar in the last four years, may be stated +comparatively as follows:-- + + +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + | CANE SUGAR. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | + +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | + | Cuba | 220,000 | 250,000 | 252,000 | 320,000 | + | Porto Rico | 43,600 | 48,200 | 49,500 | 50,000 | + | Brazil | 106,000 | 103,000 | 113,000 | 100,000 | + | United States | 98,200 | 120,400 | 103,200 | 110,000 | + | The West Indies | | | | | + | 1. French Colonies | 56,300 | 47,200 | 50,000 | 50,000 | + | 2. Danish Do. | 7,900 | 5,000 | 6,000 | 5,000 | + | 3. Dutch Do. | 13,800 | 14,200 | 15,000 | 20,000 | + | 4. British Do. | 142,200 | 129,200 | 148,000 | 140,000 | + | The East Indies | 70,403 | 67,300 | 66,000 | 60,000 | + | Mauritius | 50,782 | 57,800 | 55,500 | 65,000 | + | Java | 90,000 | 89,900 | 99,347 | 104,542 | + | Manila | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 | + +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + | | 919,182 | 952,200 | 977,547 | 1,044,542 | + +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ + + +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + |BEET ROOT SUGAR.| 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | + +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |Estmd. Tons.| + | France | 38,000 | 61,000 | 75,000 | 60,000 | + | Belgium | 5,000 | 6,000 | 8,000 | 9,000 | + | Zollverein | 33,000 | 38,000 | 49,000 | 50,000 | + | Russia | 13,000 | 14,000 | 15,000 | 16,000 | + | Austria | 6,500 | 10,000 | 15,000 | 18,000 | + +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | | 95,500 | 129,000 | 162,000 | 153,000 | + | Cane Sugar | 919,182 | 952,200 | 977,547 | 1,044,542 | + +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + | Total | 1,014,682 | 1,081,200 | 1,139,547 | 1,197,542 | + +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ + +The price of sugar has, however, fallen considerably, and like many +other things--corn, and cotton, and tea--has been lower for a long +period than ever was known before. + + Average price per London Gazette. + Year ending July 5, British West India. Mauritius. + 1842 37s. 0d. ----- + 1843 34s. 7d. 33s. 10d. + 1844 34s. 9d. 34s. 7d. + 1845 31s. 3d. 30s. 3d. + 1846 35s. 3d. 34s. 2d. + 1847 32s. 11d. 32s. 1d. + 1848 24s. 3d. 23s. 3d. + 1849 24s. 4d. 24s. 0d. + 1850 25s. 3d. 28s. 8d. + 1851 27s. 3d. 26s. 9d. + Half-year ending Jan. 5, + 1852 27s. 3d. 26s. 9d. + +Thus, it is equally clear that the fall in the price has been very +considerable since 1845, and that in 1849 and 1850 the price of sugar +was about 10s. per cwt., or nearly one-third less than in 1838. The +planters complain of the fall of price; and the only question in +dispute is whether the fall has been occasioned by the reduction of +the duties. Now the reduction of duties subsequent to 1846 and to +1851, was, on brown Muscovado sugar, from 13s. to 10s., or 3s.; and on +foreign, from 21s. 7d. to 16s. 4d., or 5s. 3d. At the same time there +was a very large increase of consumption, and the price, as of almost +all articles, would not have been reduced to the full extent of the +reduction of the duties, and certainly not reduced in a much greater +degree, had there not been other causes at work to reduce the price. +Between 1846 and 1851 freight from the Mauritius fell from L4 1s. 8d. +to L2 13s. 9d., or 35 per cent.; and that reduction of price was not +made from the planter. In the interval, too, great improvements were +made in the manufacture of sugar; and in proportion as the article was +produced cheaper, it could be sold cheaper, without any loss to him. + +I shall now take a separate review of the capabilities and progress of +the leading sugar producing countries. + +_Production in the United States_.--Sugar cultivation, in the United +States, is a subject of increasing interest. The demand is rapidly +advancing. Its production in the State of Louisiana, to which it is +there principally confined, is a source of much wealth. In 1840, the +number of slaves employed in sugar culture was 148,890, and the +product, 119,947 hhds. of 1,000 lbs. each; besides 600,000 gallons of +molasses. Last year, the crop exceeded 240,000 hhds., worth 12,000,000 +of dollars. The capital now employed, is 75,000,000 of dollars. The +protection afforded by the American tariff, has greatly increased the +production of sugar in the United States. From 1816 to 1850, this +increase was from 15,000 hhds. to 250,000 hhds. + +In 1843, the State of Louisiana had 700 plantations, 525 in +operation, producing about 90,000 hhds. In 1844, the number of +hogsheads was 191,324, and of pounds, 204,913,000; but this was +exclusive of the molasses, rated at 9,000,000 gallons. In 1845 there +were in Louisiana 2,077 sugar plantations, in 25 parishes; 1,240 sugar +houses, 630 steam power, 610 working horse power; and the yield of +sugar was 186,650 hhds., or 207,337,000 lbs. + +The introduction of the sugar cane into Florida, Texas, California, +and Louisiana, probably dates back to their earliest settlement by the +Spaniards or French. It was not cultivated in the latter, however, as +a staple product before the year 1751, when it was introduced, with +several negroes, by the Jesuits, from St. Domingo. They commenced a +small plantation on the banks of the Mississippi, just above the old +city of New Orleans. The year following, others, cultivated the plant +and made some rude attempts at the manufacture of sugar. In 1758, M. +Dubreuil established a sugar estate on a large scale, and erected the +first sugar mill in Louisiana, in what is now the lower part of New +Orleans. His success was followed by other plantations, and in the +year 1765 there was sugar enough manufactured for home consumption; +and in 1770, sugar had become one of the staple products of the +colony. Soon after the revolution a large number of enterprising +adventurers emigrated from the United States to Lower Louisiana, +where, among other objects of industry, they engaged in the +cultivation of cane, and by the year 1803 there were no less than +eighty-one sugar estates on the Delta alone. Since that period, while +the production of cane sugar has been annually increasing at the +south, the manufacture of maple sugar has been extending in the north +and west. + +Hitherto, the amount of sugar and molasses consumed in the United +States has exceeded the quantities produced--consequently there has +been no direct occasion for their exportation. In the year 1815 it was +estimated that the sugar made on the banks of the Mississippi amounted +to 10,000,000 lbs. + +According to the census of 1840, the amount of cane and maple sugar +produced in the United States was 155,100,089 lbs., of which +119,947,720 lbs. were raised in Louisiana. By the census of 1850, the +cane sugar made in the United States was 247,581,000 lbs., besides +12,700,606 gallons of molasses; maple sugar, 34,249,886 lbs., showing +an increase, in ten years, of 126,730,077 lbs. + +The culture and manufacture of sugar from the cane, with the exception +of a small quantity produced in Texas, centres in the State of +Louisiana--where the cane is now cultivated and worked into sugar in +twenty-four parishes. The extent of sugar lands available in those +parishes is sufficient to supply the whole consumption of the United +States. Sugar cultivation was carried on in Louisiana to a small +extent before its cession to the United States. In 1818 the crop had +reached 25,000 hogsheads. In 1834-35 it was 110,000 hogsheads, and in +1844-45 204,913 hogsheads. Each hogshead averaging 1,000 lbs. net, +and yielding from 45 to 50 gallons of molasses. + +The number of sugar estates in operation in 1830, was 600. The manual +power employed on these plantations, was 36,091 slaves, 282 +steam-engines, and 406 horse power. The capital invested being +estimated at 50 million dollars. In 1844 the estates had increased to +762, employing 50,670 slaves, 468 steam-engines, 354 horse power. + +The sugar-cane is now cultivated on both branches of the Mississippi +from 57 miles below New Orleans to nearly 190 miles above. The whole +number of sugar houses in the State is 1,536, of which 865 employ +steam, and the rest horse power. + +The crop of 1849-50 was 247,923 hhds. of 1,000 lbs., which, at an +average of 31/2 cents., amounted to nearly 91/2 million dollars. The +quantity of molasses produced was more than 12 million gallons, worth, +at 20 cents the gallon, about 2,400,000 dollars, giving a total value +of close upon 12 million dollars, or an average to each of the 1,455 +working sugar houses of 8,148 dollars. + +The overflow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers in 1850, shortened the +crop near 20,000 hhds., and was felt in subsequent years. Since 1846, +not less than 355 sugar mills and engines have been erected in this +State. The sugar crop of 1851-52 was 236,547 hhds., produced by 1,474 +sugar houses, 914 of which were worked by steam, and the rest by +horse-power. Texas raises about 8,000 to 10,000 hhds. of sugar, and +Florida and Georgia smaller quantities. + +In the year ending December, 1851, there were taken for consumption in +the United States about 132,832 tons of cane sugar, of which 120,599 +were foreign imported. The quantity consumed in 1850 was 104,071 tons, +of which 65,089 was foreign. + +_Production in Cuba_.--The average yearly production of sugar in Cuba +has been, in the five years from 1846 to 1850, 18,690,560 arrobas, +equal to 467,261,500 lbs., or 292,031 hhds. of 1,600 lbs. weight. The +crop of 1851 was estimated at twenty-one and a-half million arrobas, +equal to about 335,937 West India hhds. Thus, the increase from 1836 +to 1841, has been as 29 per cent.; from 1841 to 1846, as 25 per cent.; +and from 1846 to 1851, as 45 per cent. A portion of sugar is also +smuggled out, to evade the export duty, and by some this is set down +as high as a fourth of the foregoing amounts. + +In the three years ending 1841, the exports of the whole island were +2,227,624 boxes; in the three years ending 1844, 2,716,319 boxes; in +the three years ending with 1847, 2,805,530 boxes. + +Between 1839 and 1847, the exports had risen from 500,000 to 1,000,000 +boxes. The following table exhibits the quantity shipped from the +leading port of Havana, to different countries:-- + + Countries. Sugar boxes of about 400 lbs. each. + 1850. 1851. + Spain 81,267 101,762 + United States 146,672 199,204 + England 25,697 46,615 + Cowes and a market 221,385 270,010 + The Baltic 45,085 81,866 + Hamburgh and Bremen 29,271 33,165 + Holland 23,242 26,828 + Belgium 62,849 29,814 + France 44,947 46,517 + Trieste and Venice 38,627 14,832 + Italy 2,856 5,243 + Other places 13,888 16,601 + ------- ------- + Boxes 743,249 872,457 + +Our West India possessions have, owing to the want of a good supply of +labor and available capital to introduce various scientific +improvements, somewhat retrograded in the production of sugar; which, +from the low price ruling the past year or two, has not been found a +remunerative staple. + +The two large islands of Jamaica and Cuba, may be fairly compared as +to their production of sugar. From 1804 to 1808, Jamaica exported, on +the average, annually 135,331 hhds., and from 1844 to 1848, it had +decreased to 41,872 hhds. The exports from the single port of Havana, +which in the first named period were 165,690 boxes, rose during the +latter period to 635,185 boxes; so that the shipments of sugar from +Jamaica, which were in 1804 to 1808 double those of Havana--in the +period from 1844 to 1848, were five times less! + +Cuba will be able to withstand the crisis of the low price of sugars, +better than the emancipated British Colonies, for the following +reasons:-- + +1. It will find, in its present prosperity, a power of resistance that +no longer exists in the British sugar-growing colonies. + +2. Because it enjoys in the Spanish markets a protection for at least +16,955 tons of its sugar, or about eight-tenths of its total +exportation. + +3. Because it has secured a very strong position in the markets of the +United States; and both from its proximity to, and its commercial +relations with that country, as also from the better quality of its +sugar, will command the sale of at least 33,500 tons, or about 16 per +cent. of its total production. + +4. Because in 1854, after the duties shall have been equalized, it +will be enabled to undersell the British article in its own market. + +5. Because, not being an exclusively sugar-growing colony, as are +almost all British West India Islands, it may suffer from the present +depressed condition of the sugar market, but cannot be entirely +ruined, owing to its having commanding resources, and many other +valuable staples,--coffee, copper, cotton, &c. + +6. Because, by improving its agriculture and introducing useful +machinery, railroads, &c., for which it has large available capital, +it can produce sugar at a diminished cost. + +7. And lastly, because the proprietors have _continuous_ labour at +command, until slavery be abolished--of which there seems no present +prospect. The slave population numbers about 350,000, and the free +coloured population, about 90,000. + +The consumption of sugar, during 1847, very singularly tallied with +the production of the British Colonies that year--being exactly +289,000 tons; but as 50,000 tons of foreign sugar were consumed, an +accumulation of British plantation sugar necessarily remained on hand. + +The production of the French colonies was 100,000 tons, of which +France received nine-tenths. + +In 1836, Jamaica made 1,136,554 cwt. of sugar. In 1840, its produce +had fallen off to 545,600 cwt.; but in the same years, Porto Rico had +increased its sugar crop, from 498,000 cwt., to 1,000,000 cwt. In +1837, Cuba made 9,060,058 arrobas of sugar, equal to 132,765 hhds.; in +1841, it had increased to 139,000 hhds. The largest crop grown in the +West Indies, since 1838, was that of 1847, which amounted to 159,600 +tons. + +The annexed returns of the sugar crops of Barbados and Jamaica, for a +series of years may, be interesting:-- + +SUGAR CROPS OF THE ISLAND OF BARBADOS, FROM 1827 TO 1846 AND 1851. + + 1827 18,109 hhds. + 1828 28,533 " + 1829 23,486 " + 1830 26,360 " + 1831 28,174 " + 1832 19,761 " + 1833 28,099 " + 1834 28,710 " + 1835 25,371 " + 1836 26,358 " + 1837 31,670 " + 1838 33,058 " + 1839 28,213 " + 1840 13,589 " + 1841 17,801 " + 1842 21,607 " + 1843 24,587 " + 1844 23,147 " + 1845 24,767 " + 1846 21,936 " + 1851 48,000 " + +SUGAR CROPS OF THE ISLAND OF JAMAICA, FROM 1790 TO 1851. + + 1790 91,131 " + 1791 91,020 " + 1792 ... " + 1793 82,136 " + 1794 97,124 " + 1795 95,372 " + 1796 96,460 " + 1797 85,109 " + 1798 95,858 " + 1799 110,646 " + 1800 105,584 " + 1801 139,036 " + 1802 140,113 " + 1803 115,496 " + 1804 112,163 " + 1805 150,352 " + 1806 146,601 " + 1807 135,203 " + 1808 132,333 " + 1809 114,630 " + 1810 112,208 " + 1811 138,292 " + 1812 113,173 " + 1813 109,158 " + 1814 104,558 " + 1815 127,209 " + 1816 100,382 " + 1817 123,766 " + 1818 121,758 " + 1819 116,382 " + 1820 122,922 " + 1821 119,560 " + 1822 94,515 " + 1823 101,271 " + 1824 106,009 " + 1825 72,090 " + 1826 106,712 " + 1827 87,399 " + 1828 101,575 " + 1829 97,893 " + 1830 100,205 " + 1831 94,381 " + 1832 98,686 " + 1833 85,161 " + 1834 84,756 " + 1835 77,970 " + 1836 67,094 " + 1837 61,505 " + 1838 69,613 " + 1839 49,243 " + 1840 33,066 " + 1841 34,491 " + 1842 50,295 " + 1843 44,169 " + 1844 34,444 " + 1845 47,926 " + 1851 41,678 " + +The average of the five years ending 1851, being the first five of +Free trade, shows an annual export from Jamaica of 41,678 hhds. + +The quantity of unrefined sugar imported from the British West Indies +and Guiana in a series of years since the emancipation, is shown by +the following abstract:-- + + Cwts. Cwts. + Sugar. Molasses. + 1831 4,103,800 323,306 + 1832 3,773,456 553,663 + 1833 3,646,205 686,794 + 1834 3,843,976 650,366 + 1835 3,524,209 507,495 + 1836 3,601,791 526,535 + 1837 3,306,775 575,657 + 1838 3,520,676 638,007 + 1839 2,824,372 474,307 + 1840 2,214,764 424,141 + 1841 2,148,218 430,221 + 1842 2,508,725 471,759 + 1843 2,509,701 605,632 + 1844 2,451,063 579,458 + 1845 2,853,995 491,083 + 1846 2,147,347 477,623 + 1847 3,199,814 531,171 + 1848 2,794,987 385,484 + 1849 2,839,888 605,487 + 1850 2,586,429 470,187 + +_Mauritius_.--In the year 1813 the exports of sugar from this island +were but 549,465 lbs., and increasing gradually to 128,476,547 lbs. in +1849, or two-hundred fold in thirty-six years. + +The equalisation of the duties in 1825, and the admission of Mauritius +sugars into England on the same footing as those from the West Indies, +had the effect of stimulating the sugar trade of Mauritius, and +advancing it to its present remarkable success. Notwithstanding its +immense crops, scarcely more than three-fifths of the island is yet +under cultivation; but it has the advantage of a cheap and abundant +supply of labor, and much improved machinery has been introduced. The +planters first commenced introducing Coolies in 1835, and were for +some time restricted to the single port of Calcutta for their supply. + +The recent advices from Mauritius furnish some interesting information +regarding the progress making in the sugar production of that colony. +In reference to the cultivation of the cane, it is stated that by the +introduction of guano upon several estates in the interior, the +production has been very largely increased; but as the value and +economy of manure has not been hitherto sufficiently estimated, its +introduction has not been so general as could be desired. The +importance of free labor to the cultivation of the estates, has now +become fully appreciated by the planters; it being found that an equal +amount of work can be obtained by this means from a less number of +hands, and that at lower rates of wages than were current in previous +years, the average of which is shown in the following table:-- + + +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ + | | Number of | Aggregate | Average | + | Years. | Coolies | amount of wages |wages per head| + | | employed. | paid per week. | per week. | + +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ + | | | L | s. d. | + | 1846 | 47,733 | 33,484 | 14 0 | + | 1847 | 48,314 | 35,338 | 14 9 | + | 1848 | 41,777 | 26,627 | 12 9 | + | 1849 | 45,384 | 27,625 | 12 2 | + | 1850 | 47,912 | 31,664 | 12 3 | + | 1851 | 42,275 | 27,832 | 12 2 | + +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ + +In 1826, to make from 25 to 30,000,000 lbs. of sugar, it required +30,000 laborers (slaves); at the present time, with less than 45,000 +(from which number fully 5,000 must be deducted as absent from work +from various causes), 135,000,000 lbs. are produced, or about five +times the quantity under slavery. The coolies are found to be an +intelligent race, who have become inured to the work required, and by +whose labor this small island can produce the fifth part of the +consumption of the United Kingdom, and that with only about 70,000 +acres under cane cultivation. About 10,000 male immigrants, introduced +since 1843, are not now working under engagement, but are following +other occupations, and thus become permanent consumers. Some cultivate +land on a small scale, on their own account, but very few plant canes, +as it requires from eighteen to twenty months before they obtain any +return for their labor; but the most important fact established by +this and other official statements is, that only a small number of +immigrants leave the colony at the expiration of their industrial +residence. In the manufacture of sugar from the cane, considerable +improvement has been effected by the introduction of new methods of +boiling and grinding. The vacuum pan and the system of Wetsell are all +tending to economise the cost of production, and to save that loss +which for years amounted, in grinding alone, to nearly one-third of +the juice of the cane. The planters begin to find that they can +increase the value of their sugar 30 to 40 per cent. by these +improvements, and that their future prosperity depends upon carrying +them out. Unfortunately, however, here, as in many other of our +colonies, a very large number of planters do not yet appreciate the +advantages to be obtained by the adoption of improved machinery and +manufacture, or by improved cultivation, and still struggle on under +the old system of waste and negligence, which can only result in the +ruin and destruction of their property. + +In 1827, the number of sugar estates in operation in Mauritius, were +49 worked by water power, 50 by cattle or horses, and 22 by +steam--total 111; in 1836, this number had increased to 186, viz.--64 +moved by water power, 10 by horse, and 112 by steam. In 1839, the +number was 211, of which 138 were worked by steam power--70,292 acres +were then under cultivation with sugar. There are now about 490 sugar +estates, whereof only 231 have mills--42 are worked by water power, +the rest by steam. + +The annual Mauritius crops, as exported, for the last ten years, have +been as follows. The shipments frequently extend beyond a year, hence +a discrepancy sometimes between the year's crop and the year's +export:-- + + Tons, + 1842-43 24,400 + 1843-44 28,600 + 1844-45 37,600 + 1845-46 49,100 + 1846-47 64,100 + 1847-48 59,021 + 1848-49 50,782 + 1849-50 51,811 + 1850-51 55,000 + 1851-52 65,080 + +Besides its exports to Great Britain, Mauritius ships large +quantities of sugar to the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. + +Its local consumption is moreover set down at about 2,500 tons. + +The progressive increase in its exports is marked by the following +return of imports into Great Britain from the island:-- + + Cwt. + 1826 93,723 + 1827 186,782 + 1828 204,344 + 1829 361,325 + 1830 297,958 + 1831 485,710 + 1832 517,553 + 1833 521,904 + 1834 516,077 + 1835 553,891 + 1836 558,237 + 1837 497,302 + 1838 537,455 + 1839 604,671 + 1840 690,294 + 1841 545,356 + 1842 716,009 + 1843 696,652 + 1844 545,415 + 1845 716,173 + 1846 845,197 + 1847 1,193,571 + 1848 886,184 + 1849 893,524 + 1850 1,003,296 + 1851 999,337 + +_East Indies_.--Sugar is a very old and extensive cultivation in +India. It would probably be within the mark, to estimate the annual +produce of the country at a million of tons. An official return shows +that the quantity of sugar carried on one road of the interior, for +provincial consumption, is about equal to the whole quantity shipped +from Calcutta--some 50,000 or 60,000 tons. + +India is fast becoming a great sugar producing country, although its +produce and processes of manufacture are rude and imperfect. The +Coolies who return from time to time to the Indian ports, bring with +them much acquired knowledge and experience from the Mauritius. + +In 1825, the import of sugar from the East Indies was but 146,000 +cwt., and it fluctuated greatly in succeeding years, being +occasionally as low as 76,600 cwt. In 1837 the quantity imported was +just double what it was in 1827. In 1841, it had reached as high as +1,239,738 cwt., and subsequently kept steady for a few years at +1,100,000 cwt.--and for the last four years has averaged 1,400,000 +cwt. + +_Java_.--Attention has been withdrawn, in a great measure, from sugar +cultivation in Java, owing to coffee being found a more remunerative +staple. The following figures serve to show the extent of its exports +of sugar:-- + + Cwt. + 1826 23,565 + 1827 38,357 + 1828 31,301 + 1829 91,227 + 1830 129,300 + 1831 144,077 + 1832 292,705 + 1833 151,128 + 1834 443,911 + 1835 523,162 + 1836 607,336 + 1837 820,063 + 1838 873,056 + 1839 999,895 + 1840 1,231,135 + 1841 1,252,041 + 1842 1,105,856 + 1843 1,162,211 + 1844 1,260,790 + 1845 1,812,500 + 1848 1,798,612 + 1850 1,797,874 + 1851 1,987,957 + 1852 2,090,845 + +In 1840, we imported from Java 75,533 cwt.; in 1841, 87,342 cwt.; in +1842, 24,922 cwt.; in 1843, 35,161 cwt.; and in 1844, about 72,000 +cwt.; but most of this was only sent to Cowes, for orders, to be +transhipped to the Continent. + +_Philippines_.--The exports from Manila into this country in 1841, +were 133,482 cwt.; in 1842, 63,464 cwt.; and in 1843, 48,977 cwt. In +the fifteen years between 1835 and 1850, the export of sugar from the +Philippine Islands more than doubled:-- + + Tons. + 1835 11,542 + 1836 14,875 + 1837 12,293 + 1838 12,375 + 1839 15,631 + 1840 16,563 + 1841 15,321 + 1842 18,540 + 1843 22,239 + 1844 21,528 + 1845 24,500 + 1850 28,745 + +About a third of this is raw sugar, the rest is clayed or refined. It +is singular, that though these islands belong to Spain, the export of +this staple product to that country should be limited to about 600 +tons; America taking about one-sixth, and England and her colonies the +remainder. There is now an increased demand for the Australian +colonies, consequent upon the large influx of population to that +quarter. + +Export of sugar from Manila in 1850. + + Piculs. + To Great Britain 146,926 + " Continent of Europe 50,830 + " Australian Colonies 142,359 + " Singapore, Batavia, and Bombay 12,749 + " California and the Pacific 29,144 + " The United States 77,919 + ------- + 459,927 + +The sugar cane occurs in a wild state on many of the islands of the +Pacific, but in no part of the American continent, notwithstanding a +contrary opinion has been expressed. + +The following are the chief varieties cultivated in the West Indies, +Louisiana, the East Indies, and Mauritius:-- + +1. Common or creole cane, so called from being introduced from the New +World. + +2. Yellow Bourbon. + +3. Yellow Otaheite. + +4. Otaheite with purple bands. + +5. Purple Otaheite. + +6. Ribbon cane. + +My friend, Mr. L. Wray, in his "Practical Sugar Planter," considers +the Bourbon, and yellow, or straw-coloured Otaheite cane, as +identical, but merely altered by change of soil and climate. The yield +from these cane-plants seems to be about the same in either Indies, +viz., in good land about two-and-a-half tons of dry sugar per +acre--sometimes three tons. + +A very large species of red cane, grown at Gowhatty, in Assam, is +made favorable mention of for its strength of growth, early maturity, +and juiciness; and Mr. Wray strongly recommends the introduction into +the West Indies of another fine variety, generally grown in the +Straits' settlements, where it is known by the name of the Salangore +cane. He considers they would ratoon better than any other cane, and +the return from it is on the average 3,600 lbs. of dry sugar to the +acre. + + "For my own part, I have always reckoned as an average, 3,600 lbs. + of dry sugar to the acre as the return this cane will give, on + anything like good land, in the Straits, according to the present + imperfect mode of expressing and manufacture; but, considering the + surpassing richness of land in the West India Islands, Demerara, and + Mauritius, I should not be in any way surprised to find that it + would there give even three tons an acre. + + The Salangore cane grows firm and strong; stands upright much better + than the Otaheite; gives juice most abundantly, which is sweet and + easy of clarification, boils well, and produces a very fine, fair + sugar, of a bold and sparkling grain." + +Much discussion has arisen on the subject of raising the sugar cane +from seed, and the possibility has been universally denied among the +planters and agricultural societies of the West India colonies. Mr. +Pritchard, a sugar planter of Louisiana, in the "United States Patent +Report for 1850," however, states:-- + + "It is an error to suppose that the cane cannot be propagated from + the seed. This may be the case when the seed is obtained from plants + that have been produced for a number of years from buds, or eyes. + All plants that have been produced in this way for a series of + years, lose the faculty of forming prolific seeds; and the sugar + cane is governed by the same laws which govern the whole vegetable + kingdom. It cannot, therefore, be expected to produce seeds after it + has been cultivated for a great length of time." + +The sugar cane is composed of water, woody fibre, and soluble matter, +or sugar. In round numbers it may be stated that the proportions are +72 per cent. of water, 10 per cent. of woody fibre, and 18 per cent. +of sugar. + +The fluid contents of a cane, according to Dr. Evans, contain 90 per +cent. of the entire structure of the stem. + +1,000 grains of sugar cane, being burnt, gave 71/2 grains of ash, which, +on analysis, furnished the following components:-- + + Silica 1.78 + Phosphate of lime 3.41 + Red oxide of iron and clay .17 + Carbonate of potash 1.46 + Sulphate of potash .15 + Carbonate of magnesia .43 + Sulphate of lime 6 + ---- + 7.46 + +The following is the quantative analysis of a portion of soil taken +from the surface of a cane field, on the Diamond estate, in St. +Vincent, West Indies: -- + + Alumina soluble in acids 12.87 + Organic matter 11.26 + Gypsum .23 + Carbonate of lime 12.52 + ---- of magnesia .71 + Oxide of iron 8.51 + Oxide of manganese .33 + Insoluble silicious and aluminous matter 53.57 + ------ + 100.00 + +The sugar of the cane and grape sugar are distinguished by the +following difference in their elements, as proved by analysis:-- + + Cane sugar. Grape sugar. + Carbon 12 12 + Hydrogen 10 12 + Oxygen 10 12 + Water 1 2 + +There is a remarkable difference, however, between their fermentable +properties. When a solution is made of the same quantities of these +two sugars, in equal proportions of distilled water, it will be +necessary to add eight times as much of the same ferment to induce +alcoholic fermentation in the solution of cane sugar, as in that of +grape sugar. Under the action of a larger quantity of ferment, cane +sugar is transformed into grape sugar. + +If you cut a sugar cane in two, and examine the interior part of it +with a magnifying glass, you perceive the crystals of sugar as +distinct and as white as those of double-refined sugar. The object of +the operator should be then either to extract those crystals without +altering their color, or, if that be found impracticable, to separate +them from the impurities mixed with them, while the juice is in its +natural state, and yet contains but little coloring matter. Instead of +this, the juice is limed while all the impurities are in it. In +separating the feculencies from the juice and uniting them in large +flakes, lime dissolves a portion of them and forms with them coloring +matter, which we all know at once discolors the juice, when lime is +used in excess. Afterwards heat is applied, either in clarifiers or in +the grand copper, but most of the impurities found in the juice will +decompose, and burn at a degree of heat far below the boiling point, +say at 120 deg. of Fahrenheit. This is shown by the thick scales +continually forming in the grande. From that degree of heat the +decomposition goes on in the clarifier till the juice is drawn, and +continues in the grande so long as there are feculencies left. This +decomposition greatly increases the quantity of coloring matter, so +that, as the juice is being clarified, it loses in color what it gains +in purity. And here let me show the relative value of the "grande" and +of clarifiers as agents of clarification. In the grande, if it is well +attended to, the scummings are taken up as soon as they rise. A +portion of them is removed before they begin to decompose, and the +process goes on, so that before the juice reaches the boiling point +nearly all the feculencies are removed, and the source of coloring +matter is removed with them. Clarifiers reach the boiling point much +quicker, and cannot easily be scummed. The general practice is to +bring them to that point without scumming, to let the feculencies +separate from the juice by cooling and by rest, and to wash out the +clarifiers every second or third time they are filled. Heat and +alkalies acting in them upon the accumulated feculencies of one, two, +or three charges, dissolve a much larger portion of those feculencies +than they can possibly do in the grande. The formation of coloring +matter continues during the time of rest, and accordingly planters, +after repeated trials, generally agree that juice well clarified in +the grande, has a lighter and brighter color, and makes better sugar +than that obtained from clarifiers. + +The first object of research should be to find means of clarifying the +juice without creating coloring matter. It is said that presses +something like those used to press cotton, have lately been +successfully employed in the West Indies, instead of rollers; that the +juice obtained is much purer, and that a much larger quantity of it is +extracted from the cane. If so, this will be a great improvement, and +the first step of the process I should recommend. From juice thus +obtained, I have no doubt that all impurities less soluble than itself +may be separated by mechanical means before heat and alkalies are +applied, or at least with a very small quantity of alkalies. All other +liquids, all fatty substances and oils, except cotton seed oil, are +clarified by a very rapid process. Cane juice can no doubt be +clarified by similar means, and if this were accomplished the process +of sugar making would be very much simplified. + +The clarified juice might then be placed in an evaporator, heated by +the waste steam of the engine; then be limed and scummed if necessary, +and concentrated to fifteen or sixteen of the prese sirop; then +purified by filtration through animal charcoal, if white sugar was +wanted, or by rest for other qualities; and finally concentrated in +vacuum pans of great power, such pans as Mr. Thomas A. Morgan, of +Louisiana, now uses, and which, I am informed, are only made in +America. + +The superiority of the vacuum pan is not universally admitted, and we +are told that in France it is superseded by open pans, similar to +those called in America "Mape's Evaporators." However this may be, I +cannot help believing that the vacuum pan has many decided advantages +over all others. One is manifest; the sugar may be grained in the pan, +and the granulation is completely under the control of the operator. +He may accelerate or retard it at pleasure; he may carry it so far +that sugar will not run from the pan, and will have to be taken out of +it; he may so conduct the operation as to increase, almost at will, +the size and hardness of the crystals. This last is an indispensable +requisite if the practice of draining sugar in pneumatic pans should +be adopted. + +The atmospheric pressure is made too powerful for sugars boiled in any +other manner; it breaks and destroys the crystals, and in a very few +days sets the sugar to fermenting. + +The pneumatic draining of sugar has many things to recommend it--the +usual loss by drainage is avoided, sugar is got ready for market day +by day, as it is made, and it may be bleached by pouring white syrup +over it and forcing it through the mass. It is said that the process +is attended with considerable loss in weight, but as all that drains +from the pan may be boiled over once or twice, it is not easy to +conceive how the loss can occur. + +Cane juice contains many ingredients besides sugar, the principal of +which are albumen, gluten, gum, starch, resin, wax, coloring matter, +and certain salts, all of which, either collectively or individually, +have the power of preventing granulation, as may be proved by their +addition to a syrup of pure sugar, which will then defy all attempts +to make it crystallise. If, therefore, we want to make good sugar, we +must endeavour to free our cane juice as much as possible from those +substances. + +Now, cane juice is no more the sap of the cane, than apple juice is +that of the apple tree; it is the natural product of the cane, and, in +all probability, would contain but a small proportion of these foreign +matters if it could be expressed without being accompanied by the sap, +they being the natural constituents of the last-named fluid. A patent +has, I believe, been lately taken out for separating the cane juice +without the sap. However, in the absence of such an improvement, much +may be done by care and attention at the mill; the green bands and +trash which usually accompany the canes from the field, should, +therefore, be carefully removed before they are passed through, as +they contain no saccharine matter, abound in the deleterious +substances already mentioned, and communicate a bad color to the +juice; therefore, _the ripe cane only should pass through the mill_. +There are but few planters who have not had to contend with sour +juice, and they attribute the difficulty they experience in making +sugar therefrom, to the presence of acetic acid, or vinegar; but this +is quite an erroneous idea, as the acetic acid is very volatile, and +evaporates quickly on the application of heat, which may be proved by +throwing a gallon of strong vinegar into a pan of liquor; it will do +no harm, provided it be boiled before tempering; on the contrary, the +effect, if it be properly done, will be beneficial, as it will promote +the coagulation of the albumen; it is the gum which is always formed +during the acetous fermentation of sugar that prevents granulation; +hence, then, acidity is strictly to be guarded against, as +fermentation once commenced, it will be impossible to make good sugar, +it will continue throughout the process, and even in the hogshead; so +that canes should be ground as soon as possible after they are cut, +and all rat-eaten and broken ones carefully excluded. Canes may, +however, be kept some days without fermenting, provided they be not +broken or damaged, it being, as we said before, the mixture of the sap +and the cane juice that makes the liquid so prone to fermentation; and +the mill, gutters, and everything with which the juice is likely to +come in contact, should be kept carefully clean, and whitewashed +immediately after, and the whitewash removed before use, as acetate of +lime being an exceedingly soluble and deliquescent salt, will not +improve the quality of the sugar; whilst the gutter should be short, +and sheltered from the sun's rays, they having the effect of greatly +expediting chemical action. + +I shall say no more on this subject, but will proceed to consider the +mode of tempering and clarifying cane juice, and the action of lime on +the various substances contained therein. The expression "tempering" +has, I presume, been, adopted in consequence of the use of tempered +lime for the purpose of precipitating the feculencies, held in +solution in the cane juice, into a state of suspension; and +clarification is the process by which we afterwards clear the liquor +of these and other foreign matter. Now, as I before observed, +"fermentation should be most strictly guarded against;" our first +efforts should be directed to free the cane juice from those +substances most conducive to that process; and on inquiry we find +these to be albumen and gluten; so far, however, from getting rid of +them in cold tempering, we adopt a course which retains them +permanently in solution, as lime has the power of rendering them +permanently soluble, and of forming soapy compounds with resin, wax, +and chlorophyle, or the green coloring matter of leaves, forming an +insoluble compound with and precipitating only the starch, and +converting at the same time the green color of the chlorophyle (which +is, in all probability, attached to the resin), into a dark brown, of +a greater or less intensity, according to the composition of the cane +juice, and, consequently, the quantity of lime required; it follows, +therefore, as a matter of course, that if juice be tempered before +these substances have been removed, they must be permanently retained, +and they have all the power of preventing granulation. + +Albumen, and gluten are both coagulable by heat; if, therefore, we +raise the liquor to the boiling point prior to applying the lime, +taking care to remove the scum as soon as it shows signs of breaking, +and continuing the boiling until the scum thrown to the surface +becomes inconsiderable, we shall find that the albumen and gluten, in +coagulating and rising, have carried with them the small particles of +woody fibre, the wax, and a large proportion of the coloring matter, +and that the lime will now throw down the starch, and any other little +impurities remaining in suspension in the liquor, leaving it perfectly +clear and bright. Tempering is an exceedingly delicate chemical +operation, and I have no hesitation in saying, that on its proper +performance depends the quality of the produce. The following simple +experiments, which all have it in their power to try, will, if they +give themselves the trouble, fully satisfy them of two important +points--the superiority of the hot over the cold mode, and the +necessity for great attention to the operation of tempering. Let them +take a tumbler of cane-juice and a bottle containing lime water, add +the latter to the former by drops, pausing and stirring between each, +and they will find that, after the addition of a certain quantity, the +opaque gummy appearance of the liquor undergoes a change, and the +impurities contained in it separate into flakes, which increase in +size with each drop of lime added, until they become extinct, and the +supernatant liquor perfectly transparent; this is the precise point at +which the liquor is tempered, and each drop of lime added after this, +causes the flakes to diminish rapidly in size, at last entirely to +disappear (being re-dissolved), and the liquor to resume its former +gummy appearance; it is, therefore, evident that there should be no +such expressions as tempering high or low. + +The reason why some liquor is so difficult to clean is, that it is +either tempered high or low; if it be exactly tempered, the impurities +contained in it being entirely separated and thrown out of solution, +rise to the surface immediately on the application of heat, and are +easily removed; but if there be too little lime, a great portion +remains in solution, and if too much, a proportional quantity is +re-dissolved; and in either case cannot be removed by any mechanical +means. It is, therefore, necessary to have some precise test for the +application of lime. + +As regards the superiority of the hot over the cold tempering, let any +one take, in separate vessels, two gallons of cane-juice, and temper +one, adding the lime in small quantities--say, of three grains at a +time--and keeping an account of the quantity used; he will find that +the first portions produce no effect whatever, and that it is only +after the addition of a considerable quantity that the desired +precipitation of the impurities manifest itself. Why is this? Because +albumen, gluten, resin, and chlorophyle, being soluble in lime, lime +is equally so in them, and they must first be saturated before it will +produce any other effect. Let the liquor thus tempered, be then placed +on one side. Put the other gallon over a fire, and boil it, removing +the scum just before, and during, ebullition; let it then be taken off +the fire, and tempered in the same way as the other. The very first +quantity of lime added causes the appearance of the floccy +precipitate; and if the addition of the lime be continued until it be +precisely tempered, it will be found that the hot possesses the +following advantages over the cold-tempered liquor:--In a quarter of +an hour its impurities will have subsided to a sixteenth of its bulk, +leaving the supernatant liquor as bright and clear as pale brandy; +while those in the other have only sunk to one-quarter of its bulk. +The color of the former clear liquor will not be less than one-half +the intensity of that of the latter. The lime used in the hot has been +less by one-third than the quantity used in the cold tempering. + +Of course, on level estates there is little difficulty in tempering +liquor, but on hilly properties scarcely two pans will require the +same quantity. + +It is generally believed that the object of adding lime to cane-juice +is for the purpose of neutralising an acid, and it is to the reception +of this fallacious idea that it is indebted for its long and continued +use, and the present backward state of sugar manufacture is +attributable: I unhesitatingly assert that, if there be an acid +present in the cane-juice, the addition of lime to it will be +injurious instead of beneficial. There are only four acids that we +could expect to find in cane juice--mucous, saccholactic or saclactic, +oxalic, and acetic acids. The three first named of these, however, +have never been traced, even in the most minute quantities; and if the +latter be present, which, unfortunately, is but too often the case, +the addition of lime would only result in the formation of acetate of +lime, which is, as I have already observed, an exceedingly difficult +crystallisable, very soluble, and deliquescent salt. It has a bitter, +saline taste; 100 parts consist of 64.5 acid, 35.5 lime, and it is +easily recognisable by its taste in the molasses made from sour +cane-juice: so that, supposing the cane-juice sour, every pint of acid +present would require nearly half a pound of lime for its +neutralisation, independent of the quantity required for the tempering +or precipitation of the feculencies contained in it, and would result +in the formation of one-and-a-half pound of the above mentioned highly +deleterious salt. + +Suppose we boil the cane-juice prior to tempering it, we then drive +off a great portion of acetic acid, much less lime will be required, +and if we could, by filtration or subsidence, get rid of the +precipitated feculencies, we should make a tolerably good sugar; but +as, under the present plan, we have no means of so doing, the acetic +acid, which is forming during the whole process of evaporation (as +fermentation still goes on), unites with the lime before it can be +dissipated by the heat, and thus not only forms acetate of lime, but +causes the re-solution of the precipitated feculencies, thus rendering +it necessary to add a fresh portion of lime in the tache, a proceeding +always to be avoided, if possible, but generally necessary in boiling +down sour liquor. Take a small portion of cane-juice (hot or cold) in +a tumbler, and temper it with lime until the feculencies are +precipitated and the flakes perfectly visible, then add vinegar by +drops, and it will be found that the flakes will speedily disappear +and be re-dissolved, showing that lime has a greater affinity for +acetic acid than starch, and that, although when added to sour +cane-juice, it neutralises the acidity, still that result is a +consequence, not the cause, of the application, and is highly +injurious. Lime is one of the greatest known solvents of vegetable +matter; it dissolves albumen, gluten, gum and lignin, or woody fibre, +forming soapy compounds with wax, resin, and, chlorophyle. Ordinary +cane-juice contains about three parts of resin to every 100 of sugar, +and the projection of a small piece of soap into a tache full of +granulating syrup will soon convince any one of the effect likely to +result from the presence of that material. Although, by tempering hot, +we get rid of a very great quantity of the substances on which lime +acts injuriously, a considerable portion of them remain in suspension, +the quantity of albumen contained in the cane-juice not being +sufficient to carry them all off by coagulation; on the addition of +the lime, however, they are entirely dissolved and as the impurities +left behind consist chiefly of gluten, the liability of the liquor to +ferment is greatly increased by its retention, that being the +fermenting principle contained in wheat and other vegetable +productions prone to that process. + +One hundred parts of Albumen consist of Carbon, 52.88; Oxygen, 23.88; +Hydrogen, 7-54; Nitrogen, 15.70. Gluten, nearly same as Albumen. + + -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- + 100 parts | | | | | ||Excess! Excess + consist of |Carbon.|Oxygen.|Hydro- | Carbon. | Water.|| of | of + | | | gen. | | ||Oxygen|Hydrogen + -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- + Lignin, or | | | | | || | + Woody Fibre| 51.45 | 42.73 | 5.82 | or51.45 | 48.55 || | + Starch | 43.55 | 49.63 | 6.77 | 43.55 | 56.45 || | + Sugar | 42.47 | 50.63 | 6.90 | 42.47 | 57.53 || | + Gum | 42.23 | 50.84 | 6.93 | 42.23 | 57.77 || | + Alcohol | 51.98 | 34.32 | 13.70 | 51.98 | 38.99 || | 9.03 + Acetic Acid | 50.22 | 44.15 | 5.63 | 50.22 | 46.91 || 2.87 | + Resin | 75.94 | 13.34 | 10.72 | 75.94 | 15.16 || | 8.90 + Wax | 81.79 | 5.54 | 12.76 | 81.79 | 6.30 || | 11.01 + -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- + +By a reference to the foregoing table it will be easily understood how +slight a change in the proportion of the ingredients of any one of the +substances contained therein will convert it into an entirely +different one. In chemistry we are able, to a certain extent, to +imitate the operations of nature; but we must follow in the same +course laid down by her; thus, we can convert woody fibre, or sawdust +and starch, into sugar, gum, alcohol, and acetic acid; but we cannot +convert alcohol, acetic acid, or gum into sugar, starch or woody +fibre; and of such importance is a slight alteration of the +proportions of these elements--carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen--that the +abstraction of carbon from sugar, and the addition of a portion of the +prime support of life, vegetation and combustion, oxygen, changes the +harmless sugar into the most violent of poisons, oxalic acid, which +consists of 26.57 carbon, 70.69 oxygen, and 2.74 hydrogen. + +Let us now examine the action of lime on sugar, and we shall find it +equally, if not more, injurious than on the other substances. Sugar is +capable of dissolving half its weight of lime, by which its sweet +taste is destroyed, and it becomes converted into gum; the lime +abstracting carbonic acid from it to form a carbonate of lime or +chalk. It will be seen by the above table that-- + + 100 parts of sugar contain 42.47 carbon. + 100 parts of gum contain 42.23 ditto. + ----- + Difference 24 + +So that, if we extract 24-100ths of a grain of carbon from 100 grains +of sugar, we convert them into gum. Let us suppose that about two +ounces of lime, or say 1,000 grains, remain in solution in a pan, (say +200 gallons of liquor,) those 1,000 grains of lime will require 761 of +carbonic acid to convert them into carbonate of lime or chalk, 100 +grains of which consist of 56.2 lime and 43.8 carbonic acid. So that +1,761 grains of chalk consist of 1,000 lime and 761 carbonic acid. Now +100 grains of carbonic add consist of 27.53 carbon and 72.47 oxygen; +therefore 761 grains will consist of 209.50 carbon and 551.53 oxygen. + +Consequently, 1,000 grains of lime will require 209.50 grains of +carbon to convert them into carbonate of lime; and as we have seen +that the abstraction of 24 from 100 grains of sugar convert them into +gum, it follows, that the abstraction of 209.50 grains would have a +similar effect on 87,000 grains, or about 15 lbs. of sugar, which, +being converted into gum, would prevent the crystallisation of several +times its weight of sugar; and this is the cause of the formation of +molasses. The loss of sugar is not the only bad consequence of the use +of lime, as the greater the quantity of gum in the liquor, the more it +must be boiled--the more it is boiled the darker it gets--and the +higher the temperature at which the skip is struck, the smaller the +grain. The following is a good proof that lime dissolves albumen, and +becomes converted into chalk:--Take a spoonful of syrup out of the +tache of any estate on which the liquor is tempered cold; it will be +found filled with small flakes; these are albumen set free from its +solution in the lime by the conversion of the latter into carbonate of +lime, and coagulated by heat. It is perfectly possible to temper +liquor, so that scarcely any uncrystallisable sugar will remain; but +planters do not like this; they must have molasses for the +still-house; they could, however, boil low, by which the grain and +color would be improved, and plenty of uncrystallised, although not +uncrystallisable, syrup would be left to take the place of molasses. + +I think I have now fully proved the following facts, viz.:--That the +use of lime in sugar-making is not to neutralise an acid; that if +acidity be present, the application of lime is injurious; that its +action on gluten, albumen, wax, resin, and chlorophyle is equally so; +that by decomposing the sugar and forming gum, the quantity of +molasses or uncrystallisable sugar is much increased, whereby high +boiling is rendered necessary, with its consequent heightening of +color and injury to the grain of the produce, and that therefore it is +perfectly unfit for the purpose of tempering cane-juice. + +Messrs. Thomas Begg and Co., of London, have procured from E.F. +Telchemacher and J. Denham Smith, an analysis of one gallon of +ordinary plantain juice, and one gallon of Ramos' prepared plantain +juice "for the purpose of ascertaining whether any substance can be +used which, in conjunction with water, will answer as a substitute for +the plantain juice in the receipt which accompanied the samples." The +chemists say they find that one gallon of ordinary plantain juice +holds in solution;-- + + Extract similar to tannin 25.60 grains + Vegetable extract and fatty matter 57.70 " + Carbonate of potash 150.40 " + Muriate of potash 33.60 " + Muriate of soda 2.00 " + Silica 1.20 " + ------------- + Contents of one imperial gallon 270.50 grains + +--whilst one gallon of "Ramos' prepared plantain juice" contains, +besides vegetable extract, 226 grains of solid matter, consisting of +sulphuret and potash, in the following proportions:-- + + Sulphur 40 grains + Lime 156 " + Potash 30 " + ---------- + 226 grains + +They do not think it likely that the potash exists in fresh plantain +juice as carbonate, but rather that this salt is the product of +decomposition, arising from a compound of potash and a vegetable acid, +such as tartaric or oxalic acid present in the fresh juice; be this as +it may, any utility derivable from the plantain juice is evidently +owing to the potash it contains. + +They then give as a substitute for Ramos' liquid, and to be used in a +similar way, the following-- + +Take of subcarbonate of potash 2 ounces, avoirdupois; sulphur, 21/4 +ounces; best British lime slaked, 11/2 lb.; mix them into a paste in an +earthen pan or wooden tub, with one quart of water (warm) and when +thoroughly mixed, pour in ten gallons of boiling water--rain water is +the best to use--and stir from time to time until it has cooled, when +it may be drawn off from the sediment and kept for use. If rain water +cannot be obtained, the purest water obtainable may be used. + +One of the causes most fatal to West Indian prosperity, is that +exuberance of advantages which they enjoy from serenity of climate and +fertility of soil--causes which, in the absence of proper stimulus to +industry and improvement, have led to an improvident system of +cultivation, and to a blind and ignorant adherence to wasteful methods +of manufacture. + +The cane is believed to contain from 90 to 95 per cent. of its own +weight of saccharine juice; and yet (as Mr. Fownes, a Professor of +Practical Chemistry in University College, London, informs us, in an +excellent paper "On the Manufacture of Sugar in Barbados,"[17] from +which much of what follows has been borrowed) owing to the defective +construction of the mills, hardly so much as 50 per cent. is obtained, +although he believes it practicable, by an improvement in the mills, +to obtain from 70 to 75 per cent.; and of the remaining 10 or 15 per +cent. which he regards it as impossible to extract, much, if not the +whole, might, I conceive, be obtained, by macerating the pressed canes +or megass, as it issues from the mill, and repassing it through the +rollers; and, be it remembered, that from 40 to 45 per cent. of +saccharine juice is nearly, if not altogether, equivalent to a similar +per centage of sugar; so that by these initiatory improvements alone, +and with little additional trouble, the produce of sugar might be +nearly doubled from any given quantity of canes. + +From the action of lime-water when added in a slight excess to the +cane juice or raw liquor, as it is vernacularly termed, immediately on +issuing from the mill, as well as from the effect produced by ammonia +or potash, this liquid appears to contain a considerable quantity of +cane sugar, mixed with much glucose, or that saccharine matter which +is found in fruits; gum or dextrine, phosphates, and probably malates +of lime and magnesia, with sulphates and chlorides, potash and soda, +and a peculiar azotised matter, allied to albumen, which forms an +insoluble compound with lime, is not coagulable by heat or acids, and +runs readily into putrefactive fermentation. + +To free it from these constituents, and enable it to yield pure and +crystallisable sugar, the liquor, on entering the boiling-house, is +received into the first of three clarifiers, of the capacity of from +three hundred to a thousand gallons each. Here it is subjected to the +action of lime-water, which checks the tendency to fermentation, and +neutralises any free acid which it may contain. "The common defection +process," says Mr. Fownes, "in careful hands, seems susceptible of +little improvement. Many other substances than lime have been proposed +and tried with more or less success, some of which, in particular +states of the cane juice, may prove very useful; but, for general +purposes, nothing seems to answer so well as neutralisation by lime, +either in the form of lime-water or milk of lime, added until the +slightest possible tendency to alkalinity, as ascertained by delicate +reddened litmus paper, is perceived. The juice should be somewhat +heated before the lime is added, and afterwards raised quite to the +boiling point. The fire is then to be withdrawn, and the whole allowed +to rest a short time." Such is Mr. Fownes' description of the process +of clarification; to which I will venture to add, upon the authority +of those who have experienced its good effects, the joint use of the +mucilage of the _Guazuma ulmifolia_, or gun-stock tree, as it is +popularly termed in Nevis from the use to which its timber has been +applied. This is the bastard cedar of Jamaica, or Orme d'Amerique, and +Bois d'Orme of the French, which may be found described by Lunan, in +the first volume of his "Hortus Jamaicensis," page 59, under the name +of _Bubroma Guazuma_. + +This tree presents in the interval between its outer bark of sap-wood, +a mass of fibrous matter about half an inch in thickness, richly +impregnated with mucilage, which is obtained by macerating the fibrous +mass, conveniently divided into small shreds, for about twelve hours, +in warm water, in the proportion of about two handsful to eight +gallons of water. Of this solution, which is of a light, straw color, +and somewhat thickened, one gallon is to be added for every hundred +gallons of cane juice, after the clarifier has been charged with the +proper quantity of lime-water, and has become lukewarm. The mixture +should then be stirred, and afterwards allowed to settle till the scum +has risen to the surface. The fire must next be cautiously and +gradually raised to the point of boiling, when it must again be +slackened, and the whole left to stand for about forty minutes, by +which time the mass of feculencies will have risen to the surface, +when the clear liquor underneath may either be drawn off by a siphon +or cock; the whole may be filtered as Mr. Fownes recommends, by which +means the liquor would be more effectually clarified, and much, if not +all, the subsequent labour of skimming dispensed with. The matter +remaining on the filter may be employed, either as a ferment in the +still-house, or added to the manure heap. Much of the beneficial +effect of the mucilage of the _guazuma_ arises probably from an +admixture of tannin, or some other astringent; for I have often been +struck with the peculiar whiteness of the potted sugar in the +curing-house, in the immediate vicinity of the Banana stalks, +resulting, no doubt, from their powerful astringency; and tannin has +already been found useful in the manufacture of sugar from beet-root +in France, and is no doubt equally applicable to cane-sugar. + +The liquor, when clarified in the manner described, must be +concentrated, by regulated evaporation, to the degree requisite for +crystallisation. This Mr. Fownes advises to be done by steam of a +moderate pressure circulating in a spiral of copper-pipe laid at the +bottom of the evaporating vessels, which should be large and shallow, +and wholly unlike those in present use. Here it may be rapidly boiled +down till the heat rises to about 225 deg., without risk of burning. +When cold, it should have a density of about 1.38, and mark the 38th +degree of Baume's hydrometer; beyond which point of inspissation it +would be dangerous to go. The remaining concentration will be most +safely conducted in the vacuum pan, where a scarcity of water does +not, as in Barbados, militate against its use. + +Mr. Fownes exposes the absurdity of using shallow coolers, exposing a +large surface, and producing a rapid evaporation, for the process of +crystallisation. By the use of the shallow coolers formerly, and, I +believe, yet to be found on most estates, from the rapidity of the +evaporation, the sugar is obtained in a mass of confused and +imperfectly-formed crystals, entangling in their interstices a +considerable quantity of molasses, which impairs the color of the +product, and escaping slowly, and with difficulty, is, to a +considerable extent, lost on the homeward voyage by drainage into the +hold, occasioning much positive loss to the owner, and giving the +bilge-water a most offensive odor. He therefore recommends the use of +deep vessels, and avoidance of all agitation in this part of the +process, so as to enable the crystallisable portion of the syrup to +effect a more complete separation from the uncrystallisable portion or +the molasses. By this simple method, not only sugar of a finer and +whiter quality would be obtained, but a large per centage of loss both +of crystallisable and uncrystallisable sugar at present caused by the +leakage of the hogshead into the hold, would be prevented, not only to +the great advantage of the planter, but to the great comfort of the +captain, passengers, and crew of the vessel freighted with it. + +It is not improbable that, by re-boiling the molasses in the +vacuum-pan, and employing tannin in the manner adopted in the process +for making sugar from beet-root, from one to five per cent. of +crystallisable sugar could be recovered from it, and this per centage +might possibly even be found to admit of increase by the further +treatment with lime-water and the gun-stock tree s already suggested, +for the first clarification of the liquor received from the mill. With +this view, Mr. Fownes recommends the substitution of puncheons, or +casks, for the molasses cisterns ordinarily employed in the +curing-house, to receive the molasses as it drains from the new sugar, +and thus retaining it until after the busy period of crop time has +closed. + +Should sugar of a whiter quality than the ordinary muscovado of +commerce be desired, this advantage may be readily obtained, as Mr. +Fownes judiciously observes, by filtering the thin syrup, ready for +the vacuum-pan, through a bed of fine charcoal, as is done by the +sugar refiners, and afterwards washing the crystals of sugar with +white syrup, when the molasses has thoroughly drained from them. By +this process, which, however, is attended with some increase of +expense, and may not, in consequence, be always advisable, muscovado +sugar may be obtained, of a quality hardly inferior to that of refined +sugar. Mr. Fownes thus sums up the principal points to which he is +desirous of calling the attention of the intelligent and enterprising +planter. + +1. "To obtain, by the use of a properly-constructed mill, the greatest +possible amount of juice from the cane." + +By this, according to Mr. Fownes, a gain of from 20 to 30 per cent., +equivalent to as much marketable sugar, may be obtained without any +additional expense; but as, from Mr. Fownes' own showing, there is a +residuum of 10 to 15 per cent of liquor obstinately retained by the +megass, or cane trash, after the most powerful pressure to which it +can be subjected; much, if not all, even of this loss might be +prevented by subjecting the megass, on issuing from between the +rollers, to the action of water for a brief time, passing it once more +through the mill, and adding the saccharine solution so obtained, or +that obtained directly from the cane on its first crushing. The water +thus employed would serve for many successive portions of megass, +until at length it became so richly loaded with saccharine matter as +to be worth attention in the boiling-house; or, at all events, it +would be serviceable for the cattle, who would fatten rapidly upon it. +By this additional process a further gain of at least five per cent. +might be expected, raising the total gain from improvements in this +_first_ stage of the process, to from 25 to 35 per cent. + +2. "To clarify and filter this juice with expedition, and to evaporate +it rapidly, either over the open fire or by steam heat, as far as it +can be done with safety." + +By the use of steam, not only is a vast economy of fuel effected, but +the temperature is maintained at a uniform and sufficient standard, +and the liquor effectually guarded against the risks of carelessness +or ignorance. Coal may be obtained on far cheaper terms, in exchange +for produce, from the United States or from Cape Breton, than from +England; and as colliers from those quarters would find it their +interest to bring cargoes at their own risk, and take return cargoes +of sugar, rum, or molasses, at the market price, the planter will be +doubly a gainer by the system, obtaining his fuel at a reduced rate, +and having his trash and megass left free as manure for the use of his +cane fields. + +3. "To complete the concentration in a vacuum pan, or by other means, +at a moderate temperature, not hurtful to the sugar, and facilitate +the natural process of crystallisation, so as to obtain sugar of a +large and distinct grain." + +4. "To drain and dry the sugar perfectly, and to save all the +molasses." + +The advantages to be anticipated from these improvements, superadded +to an improvement in cultivation, cannot be estimated at less, upon a +moderate calculation, than from 150 to 200 per cent. of increase in +the production of sugar, with hardly an appreciable increase of labor +or expense; for we have, in the first place, a gain by improved +culture of, at least, two hogsheads an acre in sugar, equivalent to +100 per cent.; in the next, by employing improved mills and extracting +the residuum, 30 per cent.; by conducting the process of manufacture +more judiciously, 10 per cent.; and by the prevention of waste during +the transit to market, 10 per cent., making a total of at least 150 +per cent. + +The common sugar-mill consists of three cylinders, tightened either by +wedges, if in a wooden frame, or by screws in a cast-iron frame. If in +an iron frame, the above-mentioned noise is obviated, but the friction +and loss of power is the same, which is ascertainable by subsequent +investigation. The cylinders or rollers, which are moving either +horizontally or vertically, are from eighteen to twenty-four inches in +diameter, with bearings or shafts of one fourth of their diameter. If +the bearings or shafts of the cylinders were of less substance, they +could not resist the great strain to which they are subjected when in +operation. The whole of the prime mover (steam-engine, water-wheel, or +animals), minus the friction of intermediate machinery, is transmitted +to the plains of these rollers and resisted by their bearings; hence +the action is equal to a weight moving on low wheels of eighteen or +twenty-four inches in diameter, on axles of from four to six inches +thickness, which weight is equal to the force applied; consequently, +if the strain is greater than the resistance of the rollers or the +bearings, they must be wrenched off, or if greater than the force +applied, the mill will be stopped. The power necessary to move weights +upon wheels, on a smooth and level surface, is in proportion to the +respective diameters of wheels and axles. The same pull which moves +one ton at a given velocity upon a wheel of two feet, with an axle of +six inches, will move four tons, if on a wheel of four feet diameter, +with an axle of six inches. Consequently, cylinders of small diameter, +with strong and substantial bearings, are only admissible as working +machines, if no other mechanical means are applicable, as, for +instance, in rolling out metals, compressing the surface of various +bodies for a glossy appearance, or, generally speaking, to produce a +certain and equal form of the substance which is pressed and passed +between them. They compress the atoms of bodies, and for this reason +alone are ill suited to separate the fibres of the sugar canes, and to +express effectively the saccharine matter between them. A practical +proof of this demonstration is furnished by every sugar cane which has +gone through the mill. Fresh megass is at present better suited for +fattening animals than for fuel under the sugar pans. + +The loss of material thus sustained, which is, on an average, equal in +every mill, whether driven by steam, water, or animal power, is +entirely chargeable to the construction of the mill, and amounts to +about ten per cent. of the saccharine matter contained in the sugar +canes. + +M. Duprez, an agent of the French Government, having experimented on +the canes in Guadaloupe, found the quantity of juice in every 100 lbs. +crushed-- + + lbs. + 1 By mills having horizontal rollers; the + motive power not stated 61.2 + 2 By mills, motive power, steam 60.9 + 3 By mills, motive power, wind and steam 59.3 + 4 By mills, having vertical rollers 59.2 + 5 By mills, motive power, cattle 58.5 + 6 By mills, motive power, wind * 56.4 + + [* Dr. Evans' "Treatise on Sugar," p. 75.] + +The average of all these experiments being 56 per cent. only. The +result of M. Avequin, on Louisiana cane, was 50 per cent. Mr. +Thompson, of Jamaica, states 50 per cent. as the average throughout +the island of Martinique. Dr. Evans ventures 47 per cent. as the +lowest, and 61 per cent. as the highest in the West Indies. A mill in +Madeira gave 47.5 and 70.2 of juice--the larger yield being obtained +by bracing the horizontal rollers more than usually tight, and +introducing only a few canes at a time, the motive power being cattle. + +The three roller mill has the disadvantage of re-absorbing a part of +the cane juice in the spongy megass, (or trash as it is termed in the +West Indies), and a loss of power. + +Those with five rollers have been used in Cuba, Bourbon and the +Mauritius, which gave 70 per cent., but a great increase of motive +power is necessary. Four roller mills, two below and two above, +requiring little more motive power than three rollers, have given 70 +to 75 per cent of juice. + +Some years since, the East India Company instituted inquiries relative +to the cultivation of the sugar cane in Hindostan, and the information +obtained was published in a large folio volume. The Reports furnished +by their officers, from almost every district, concur in stating that +there were three kinds cultivated:--1. The purple. 2. The white. 3. A +variety of the white, requiring a large supply of water. The epitome +of the Reports affords this information:-- + +1. The purple colored cane yields a sweeter, richer juice, than the +yellow or light colored, but in less quantity, and is harder to press. +Grows on dry lands. Scarce any other sort in Beerbhoom, much in +Radnagore, some about Santipore, mixed with light colored cane. Grows +also near Calcutta; in some fields separate, in others mixed with +pooree or light colored cane. When eaten raw, is more dry and pithy in +the mouth, but esteemed better sugar than the pooree, and appears to +be the superior sort of cane. Persons who have been West Indian +planters do not know it as a West Indian cane. + +2. The light colored cane, yellow, inclining to white; deeper yellow +when ripe, and on rich ground, it is the same sort as that which grows +in the West India Islands; softer, more juicy than the Cadjoolee, but +juice less rich, and produces sugar less strong; requires seven maunds +of pooree juice to make as much goor or inspissated juice as is +produced from six of the Cadjoolee. Much of this kind is brought to +the Calcutta markets, and eaten raw. + +3. The white variety, which grows in swampy, lands, is light colored, +and grows to a great height. Its juice is more watery, and yields a +weaker sugar than the Cadjoolee. However, as much of Bengal consists +of low grounds, and as the upland canes are liable to suffer from +drought, it may be advisable to encourage the cultivation of it, +should the sugar it produces be approved, though in a less degree than +other sugars, in order to guard against the effects of dry seasons. +Experience alone can determine how far the idea of encouraging this +sort may answer. + +Besides the foregoing, several kinds are now known to the Indian +planter. One of them, the China sugar cane, was considered by Dr. +Roxburgh to be a distinct species, and distinguished by him as +_Saccharum sinensis_. It was introduced into India in 1796, by Earl +Cornwallis, as being superior to the native kinds. It is characterised +by a hardness which effectually resists most of the country rude +mills; but this hardness is importantly beneficial, inasmuch as that +it withstands the attack of the white ants, hogs, and jackals, which +destroy annually a large portion of the common cane.[18] Dr. Buchanan +found that four kinds are known in Mysore. Two of these are evidently +the purple and white generally known; but as this is not distinctly +stated, I have retained the form in which he notices them. _Restali_, +the native sugar of the Mysore, can only be planted in the last two +weeks of March and two first of April. It completes its growth in +twelve months, and does not survive for a second crop. Its cultivation +has been superseded by the other. + +_Putta-putti_.--This was introduced from Arcot, during the reign of +Hyder Ali. It is the only one from which the natives can extract +sugar; it also produces the best _Bella_ or _Jaggery_. It can be +planted at the same season as the other, as well as at the end of July +and beginning of August. It is fourteen months in completing its +growth; but the stools produce a second crop, like the ratoons of the +West Indies, which ripen in twelve months. + +_Maracabo_, _Cuttaycabo_.--These two are very small, seldom exceeding +half an inch in diameter; yet in some districts of Mysore, as about +Colar, the last-named is the variety usually cultivated; but this +arises from its requiring less water than the larger varieties. + +The best varieties are those introduced from the Islands of Otaheite +and Bourbon. Hindostan is indebted for their introduction to Captain +Sleeman, who brought them hither from the Mauritius in 1827. He +committed them to Dr. Wallich, under whose care, at the Botanic +Garden, they have flourished, and been the source from whence the +benefit has been generally diffused. Their superiority over those +which have been usually cultivated by the natives has been completely +established. The largest of the Hindostan canes, ripe and trimmed +ready for the mill, has never been found to exceed five pounds; but it +is not uncommon for an Otaheite cane,[19] under similar circumstances, +to weigh seven pounds. The extra weight arises proportionately from an +increased secretion of superior sap. The sugar is more abundant, +granulates more readily, and has less scum. Other superior qualities +are, that the canes ripen earlier, and are less injured by the +occurrence of protracted dry weather. + +Of the history of the sugar cane a popular tradition obtains amongst +the natives, that, in very ancient times, a vessel belonging to their +country chanced by accident to leave one of her crew, under a +desperate fit of sickness, at a desert island, at a considerable +distance in the Eastern Seas, and that, returning by the same route, +curiosity prompted them to inquire after the fate of their companion, +when, to their utter astonishment, the man presented himself to their +view, completely recovered from his sickness, and even in a state of +more than common health. With anxiety they inquired for the physic he +had so successfully applied, and were conducted by him to the sugar +cane, on which he acquainted them he had solely subsisted from the +time of their departure. Attracted by such powerful recommendation, +every care and attention was bestowed, we may suppose, to convey such +an invaluable acquisition to their own lands, where the soil and +climate have mutually since contributed to its present prosperity. + +_Soil_.--The soil best suiting the sugar cane is aluminous rather than +the contrary, tenacious without being heavy, readily allowing +excessive moisture to drain away, yet not light. One gentleman, Mr. +Ballard, has endeavoured to make this point clear by describing the +most favorable soils about Gazepore as "_light clays_," called there +_Mootearee_, or _doansa_, according as there is more or less sand in +their composition.--_Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc._ i. 121. + +Mr. Peddington seems to think that calcareous matter, and iron in the +state of _peroxide_, are essential to be present in a soil for the +production of the superior sugar cane. There can be no doubt that the +calcareous matter is necessary, but experience is opposed to his +opinion relative to the peroxide. + +The soil preferred at Radnagore is there distinguished as the soil of +"two qualities," being a mixture of rich clay and sand, and which Mr. +Touchet believed to be known in England as a light brick mould. + +About Rungpore, Dinajpoor, and other places where the ground is low, +they raise the beds where the cane is to be planted four or five feet +above the level of the land adjacent. + +The experience of Dr. Roxburgh agrees with the preceding statements. +He says, "The soil that suits the cane best in this climate is, a rich +vegetable earth, which on exposure to the air readily crumbles down +into very fine mould. It is also necessary for it to be of such a +level as allows of its being watered from the river by simply damming +it up (which almost the whole of the land adjoining to this river, the +Godavery, admits of), and yet so high as to be easily drained during +heavy rains. Such a soil, and in such a situation, having been well +meliorated by various crops of leguminous plants, or fallowing, for +two or three years, is slightly manured, or has had for some time +cattle pent upon it. A favourite manure for the cane with the Hindoo +farmer is the rotten straw of green and black pessaloo (_Phaseolus +Mungo max_)."[20] Many accordant opinions might be added to the +preceding, but it seems only necessary to observe further, that "the +sugar cane requires a soil sufficiently elevated to be entirely free +from inundation, but not so high as to be deprived of moisture, or as +to encourage the production of white ants (_termes_)." + +The sugar cane is an exhausting crop, and it is seldom cultivated by +the ryot more frequently than once in three or four years on the same +land. During the intermediate period, such plants are grown as are +found to improve the soil, of which, says Dr. Tennant, the Indian +farmer is a perfect judge. They find the leguminous tribe the best for +the purpose. Such long intervals of repose from the cane would not be +requisite if a better system of manuring were adopted. + +Mr. J. Prinsep has recorded the following analysis of three soils +distinguished for producing sugar. They were all a soft, fine-grained +alluvium, without pebbles. No. 1 was from a village called Mothe, on +the Sarjee, about ten miles north of the Ganges, at Buxar, and the +others from the south bank of the Ganges, near the same place. There +is a substratum of _kunkar_ throughout the whole of that part of the +country, and to some mixture of this earth with the surface soil the +fertility of the latter is ascribed:-- + + 1 2 3 + Hygrometric moisture, on drying at 212 deg. 2.5 2.1 3.6 + Carbonaceous and vegetable matter, on calcination 1.8 2.1 4.0 + Carbonate of lime (No. 3 effervesced) 1.6 0.6 3.9 + Alkaline salt, soluble 1.0 1.1 0.3 + Silex and alumina 94.1 94.1 88.2 + ----- ----- ----- + 100.0 100.0 100.0 + +The earths unfortunately were not separated. Mr. Prinsep says the two +first were chiefly of sand, and the third somewhat argillaceous. The +former required irrigation, but the other was sufficiently retentive +of moisture to render it unnecessary.--(Journ. Asiatic Soc., ii. 435.) + +_Manures_.--The sugar cane being one of the most valued crops of the +ryot, he always devotes to it a portion of the fertilising matters he +has at command, though in every instance this is too small. + +In the Rajahmundry district, previously to planting, the soil is +slightly manured, either by having cattle folded upon it, or by a +light covering of the rotten straw of the green and black pessalloo, +which is here a favourite fertiliser. In some parts of Mysore the mud +from the bottom of tanks is employed, and this practice is more +generally adopted in other places. Thus the fields being divided by +deep ditches in Dinajpoor, the mud from which is enriched by the +remains of decayed aquatic plants and animals, forms an excellent +manure for the sugar cane, and of this the ryots make use, spreading +it over the surface before the ploughing is commenced; and when that +operation is completed, the soil is further fertilised by a dressing +of oil-cake and ashes. + +Crushed bones would unquestionably be of the greatest benefit if +applied to the sugar cane crop. Not only would their animal matter +serve as food for the plants, but the phosphate of lime of the bones +is one of the chief saline constituents of the sugar cane. + +Salt is another valuable manure for this crop. Dr. Nugent, in a Report +made to the Agricultural Society of Antigua, observes that salt has +been found a valuable auxiliary in cultivating the sugar cane. Many +trials of it, he says, have been made during successive seasons, +applied generally to the extent of about nine or ten bushels per acre. +It destroys grubs and other insects, and gives the canes an increased +vigor and ability to resist drought. It is a singular remark of the +intelligent traveller, M. de Humboldt, while speaking of the practice +adopted in the Missions of the Orinoco, when a coco-nut plantation is +made, of throwing a certain quantity of salt into the hole which +receives the nut; that of all the plants cultivated by man there are +only the sugar cane, the plantain, the mammee, and the Avocado pear, +which endure equally irrigation with fresh and salt water. + +In the West Indies, when the cane is affected by what is called there +the _blast_, which is a withering or drying up of the plants, an +unfailing remedy is found to be watering them with an infusion of dung +in salt water.[21] _Preparation of soil_.--In the Rajahmundry +district, during the months of April and May, the ground is frequently +ploughed, until brought into a very fine tilth. About the end of May, +or beginning of June, the rains usually commence, and the canes are +then to be planted. If the rains do not set in so early, the land is +flooded artificially, and when converted into a soft mud, whether by +the rain or by flooding, the canes are planted. + +In Mysore the ground is watered for three days, and then, after drying +for the same period, ploughing commences, this operation being +repeated five times during the following eight days. The clods during +this time are broken small by an instrument called _colkudali_. The +field is then manured and ploughed a sixth time. After fifteen days it +is ploughed again, twice in the course of one or two days. After a +lapse of eight days it is ploughed a ninth time. Altogether these +operations occupy about forty-four days. + +For planting, which is done six days, an implement called _yella +kudali_ is employed. + +In Dinajpoor, "the field, from about the middle of October until about +the 10th of January, receives ten or twelve double ploughings, and +after each is smoothed with the _moyi_. During the last three months +of this time it is manured with cow-dung and mud from ponds and +ditches. On this account, the land fit for sugar cane is generally +divided into fields by wide ditches, into which much mud is washed by +the rain, and is again thrown on the fields when the country dries, +and leaves it enriched by innumerable aquatic vegetables and animals +that have died as the water left them. When the ploughing has been +completed, the field is manured with ashes and oil-cake." + +About Malda, "the land is first ploughed in the month of Cartick, +length and breadth ways, and harrowed in like manner; four or five +days after it is again ploughed and harrowed, as before, twice. In the +month of Aghun, the whole land is covered with fresh earth, again +twice ploughed, and harrowed in different directions, and then manured +with dung. Fifteen or twenty days afterwards it is to be twice +ploughed, as before; eight or ten days after which, it is to be +slightly manured with dung, and the refuse of oil, mixed together; +then twice ploughed and harrowed in different directions, so that the +clods of earth brought be well mixed together with the land. This +preparation continues until the 20th or 25th of the month Pows." + +In the vicinity of Dacca, during "Cautic or Augun (October, November) +the Ryots begin to prepare their ground. They first dig a trench round +their fields, and raise a mound of about three feet in height. If the +ground to be cultivated is waste, about nine inches of the surface +are taken off, and thrown without the enclosure. The ground is +ploughed to the depth of nine inches more. The clods are broken, and +the earth made fine. In Maug or Faugun (January, February) the sugar +cane is planted; a month afterwards earth is raised about the plants; +after another month this is repeated. The crop is cut in Poous and +Maug (December, January). If the ground be not waste, but cultivated, +the surface is not taken off. After cutting the crop, it is not usual +again to grow sugar cane on the same ground for eighteen months, on +account of the indifferent produce afforded by a more early planting. + +In the Zillah, North Mooradabad, the land is broken up at the end of +June. After the rains have ceased it is manured, and has eight or ten +ploughings. This clears it of weeds. In February it is again manured +and ploughed four or five times, and just before the sets are planted, +some dung, four cart-loads to each cutcha beegah of low land, and five +cart-loads to high land, are added. The land is well rolled after the +four last ploughings, and again after the cuttings are set. + +About Benares and the neighbouring districts, Mr. Haines says, that +owing to the hot winds which prevail "from March until the setting in +of the annual rains in June or July, the lands remain fallow till that +period. In the mean time, those fields that are selected for sugar +cane are partially manured by throwing upon them all manner of rubbish +they can collect, and by herding their buffaloes and cattle upon them +at night, though most of the manure from the latter source is again +collected and dried for fuel. + +When the annual rains have fairly set in, and the Assarree crops sown +(in some instances I have seen an Assarree crop taken from the lands +intended for sugar cane), they commence ploughing the cane lands, and +continue to do so four or five times monthly (as they consider the +greater number of times the fields are turned up at this period of the +season, the better the crop of cane will be), till the end of October, +continuing to throw on the little manure they can collect. + +Towards the end of October, and in November, their ploughs are much +engaged in sowing their winter (or rubbee) crops of wheat, barley, +grain, &c.; and at this period they make arrangements with the +shepherds who have large flocks of sheep, to fold them upon the fields +at night, for which they pay so much per beegah in grain. + +During the latter part of November, and early in December, the fields +are again ploughed well, and all grass, weeds, &c., removed with the +hoe; then the surface of the field is made as smooth as possible by +putting the hengah (a piece of wood eight to ten feet in length, and +five to six inches in breadth, and three or four inches in thickness, +drawn by two pairs of bullocks, and the man standing upon the wood to +give it weight), over several times for three or four days in +succession. This makes the surface of the field very even and somewhat +hard, which prevents the sun and dry west wind from abstracting the +moisture, which is of great importance at this period of the season, +for, should there be no rain, there would not be sufficient moisture +at the time of planting the cane to cause vegetation. + +In this state the land remains till the time of planting the cane +cuttings, which is generally the 1st to the 15th of February; but +should there have been a fall of rain in the mean time, or excess of +moisture appear, the field is again ploughed, and the hengah put over +as before. + +A day or two previous to planting the cane, the field is ploughed and +the hengah lightly put over."--(Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc. vi. 4, 5.) + +_Sets_.--When the canes are cut at harvest time, twelve or eighteen +inches of their tops are usually taken off, and stored, to be employed +for sets. Each top has several joints, from each of which a shoot +rises, but seldom more than one or two arrive at a proper growth. + +When first cut from the stem, the tops intended for plants are tied in +bundles of forty or fifty each, and are carefully kept moist. In a few +days they put forth new leaves: they are then cleared of the old +leaves, and separately dipped into a mixture of cow-dung, pressed +mustard seed, and water. A dry spot is prepared, and rich loose mould +and a small quantity of pressed mustard-seed; the plants are +separately placed therein, a small quantity of earth strewed amongst +them, and then covered with leaves and grass to preserve them from +heat. Ten or twelve days afterwards they are planted in the fields. + +In Burdwan, the tops, before they are planted, are cut into pieces +from four to six inches long, so that there are not more than four +knots in each. Two or three of these plant tops are put together in +the ground, and a beegah requires from 7,500 to 10,240 plants. + +In Rungpore and Dinajpoor, about 9,000 plants are required for a +beegah, each being about a foot in length. + +In Beerbhoom, 3,000 plants are said to be requisite for a beegah, each +cane top being about fifteen inches long. + +Near Calcutta, from 3,000 to 8,000 plants are required for a beegah, +according to the goodness of the soil, the worst soil needing most +plants. In Mysore an acre contains 2,420 stools, and yields about +11,000 ripe canes. + +Near Rajahmundry, about 400 cuttings are planted on a cutcha beegah +(one-eighth of an acre). In Zilla, North Mooradabad, 4,200 sets, each +eight inches long, are inserted upon each cutcha beegah of low land, +and 5,250 upon high land. + +In the district of Gollagore the Ryots cut a ripe cane into several +pieces, preserving two or three joints to each, and put them into a +small bed of rich mould, dung, and mustard-seed from which the oil has +been expressed. At Radnagore, when the time of cutting the canes +arrives, their tops are taken off, and these are placed upright in a +bed of mud for thirty or forty days, and covered with leaves or straw. +The leaves are then stripped from them, and they are cut into pieces, +not having less than two nor more than four joints each. These sets +are kept for ten or fifteen days in a bed prepared for them, from +whence they are taken and planted in rows two or three together, +eighteen inches or two feet intervening between each stool. + +_Planting_.--The time and mode of planting vary. In the Rajahmundry +Circar, Dr. Roxburgh says, that "during the months of April and May +the land is repeatedly ploughed with the common Hindoo plough, which +soon brings the loose rich soil (speaking of the Delta of the +Godavery) into very excellent order. About the end of May and +beginning of June, the rains generally set in, in frequent heavy +showers. Now is the time to plant the cane; but should the rains hold +back, the prepared field is watered or flooded from the river, and, +while perfectly wet, like soft mud, the cane is planted. + +"The method is most simple. Laborers with baskets of the cuttings, of +one or two joints each, arrange themselves along one side of the +field. They walk side by side, in as straight a line as their eye and +judgment enable them, dropping the sets at the distance of about +eighteen inches asunder in rows, and about four feet from row to row. +Other laborers follow, and with the foot press the set about two +inches into the soft, mud-like soil, which, with a sweep or two with +the sole of the foot, they most easily and readily cover."--(Roxburgh +on the Culture of Sugar.) + +About Malda, in the month of Maug (January, February), the land is to +be twice ploughed, and harrowed repeatedly, length and breadth ways; +after which it is furrowed, the furrows half a cubit apart, in which +the plants are to be set at about four fingers' distance from each +other, when the furrows are filled up with the land that lay upon its +ridges. The plants being thus set, the land is harrowed twice in +different directions; fifteen or twenty days afterwards the cane +begins to grow, when the weeds which appear with it must be taken up; +ten or twelve days after this the weeds will again appear. They must +again be taken up, and the earth at the roots of the canes be removed, +when all the plants which have grown will appear. + +At Ghazepore the rains set in at the beginning of March, and planting +then commences. Near Calcutta the planting takes place in May and +June. In Dinajpoor and Rungpore the planting time is February. + +About Commercolly it is performed in January. The field is divided +into beds six cubits broad, separated from each other by small +trenches fourteen inches wide and eight inches deep. In every second +trench are small wells, about two feet deep. The irrigating water +flowing along the trenches fills the wells, and is taken thence and +applied to the canes by hand. + +Each bed has five rows of canes. The sets are planted in holes about +six inches in diameter, and three deep; two sets, each having three +joints, are laid horizontally in every hole, covered slightly with +earth, and over this is a little dung. + +When, the canes are planted in the spring, the trenches must be +filled with water, and some poured into every hole. At the other +season of planting the trenches are full, it being rainy weather; but +even then the sets must be watered for the first month. + +Mr. Haines says that in Mirzapore and the neighbouring districts, "in +planting the cane they commence a furrow round the field, in which +they drop the cuttings. The second furrow is left empty; cuttings +again in the third; so they continue dropping cuttings in every second +furrow till the whole field is completed, finishing in the centre of +the field. The field remains in this state till the second or third +day, when for two or three days in succession it is made even and hard +upon the surface with the hengah, as before stated."--(Trans. +Agri-Hort. Soc. vi. 5.) + +Mr. Vaupell, in describing the most successful mode of cultivating the +Mauritius sugar cane in Bombay, says, that "after the ground is +levelled with the small plough, called 'paur,' in the manner of the +cultivators, pits of two feet in diameter, and two feet in depth, +should be dug throughout the field at the distance of five feet apart, +and filled with manure and soil to about three inches of the surface. +Set in these pits your canes, cut in pieces about a foot and a half +long, laying them down in a triangular from, thus /\. Keep as much of +the eyes or shoots of the cane uppermost as you can; then cover them +with manure and soil; beds should next be formed to retain water, +having four pits in each bed, leaving passages for watering them. The +cutting should be watered every third day during hot weather, and the +field should always be kept in a moist state."--(Ibid. iii. 43.) + +About Benares, the sets require, after planting, from four to six +waterings, until the rains commence, and as many hoeings to loosen the +surface, which becomes caked after every watering. The moister nature +of the soil renders these operations generally unnecessary in Bengal. + +_After-culture._--In Mysore, the surface of the earth in the hollows +in which the sets are planted is stirred with a stick as soon as the +shoots appear, and a little dung is added. Next month the daily +watering is continued, and then the whole field dug over with the hoe, +a cavity being made round each stool, and a little dung added. In the +third month water is given every second day: at its close, if the +canes are luxuriant, the ground is again dug; but if weakly, the +watering is continued during the fourth month, before the digging is +given. At this time the earth is drawn up about the canes, so as to +leave the hollows between the rows at right angles with the trenches. +No more water is given to the plants, but the trenches between the +beds are kept full for three days. It is then left off for a week, and +if rain occurs, no further water is requisite; but if the weather is +dry, water is admitted once a week during the next month. The digging +is then repeated, and the earth levelled with the hand about the +stools. + +The stems of each stool are ten or twelve in number, which are +reduced to five or six by the most weakly of them being now removed. +The healthy canes are to be tied with one of their own leaves, two or +three together, to check their spreading; and this binding is repeated +as required by their increased growth. + +In the absence of rain, the trenches are filled with water once a +fortnight. + +When the _Putta-putti_ is to be kept for a second crop, the dry leaves +cut off in the crop season are burnt upon the field, and this is dug +over, and trenches filled with water, and during six weeks the plants +watered once in every six or eight days (unless rain falls), and the +digging repeated three times, dung being added at each digging. The +after-culture is the same as for the first crop. + +In the Upper Provinces, Dr. Tennant says, if moderate showers occur +after planting, nothing more is done until the shoots from the sets +have attained a height of two or three inches. The soil immediately +around them is then loosened with a small weeding iron, something like +a chisel; but if the season should prove dry, the field is +occasionally watered; the weeding is also continued, and the soil +occasionally loosened about the plants. + +In August, small trenches are cut through the field, with small +intervals between them, for the purpose of draining off the water, if +the season is too wet. This is very requisite, for if the canes are +now supplied with too much moisture, the juice is rendered watery and +unprofitable. If the season happens to be dry, the same dikes serve to +conduct the irrigating water through the field, and to carry off what +does not soak into the earth in a few hours. Stagnant water they +consider very injurious to the cane, and on the drains being well +contrived depends in a great measure the future hope of profit. +Immediately after the field is trenched, the canes are propped. They +are now about three feet high, and each set has produced from three to +six canes. The lower leaves of each are first carefully wrapt up +around it, so as to cover it completely in every part; a small strong +bamboo, eight or ten feet long, is then inserted firmly in the middle +of each stool, and the canes tied to it. This secures them in an erect +position, and facilitates the circulation of the air. + +Hoeing cannot be repeated too frequently. This is demonstrated by the +practice of the most successful cultivators. In Zilla, N. Mooradabad, +in April, about six weeks after planting, the earth on each side of +the cane-rows is loosened by a sharp-pointed hoe, shaped somewhat like +a bricklayer's trowel. This is repeated six times before the field is +laid out in beds and channels for irrigation. There, likewise, if the +season is unusually dry, the fields in the low ground are watered in +May and June. This supposes there are either nullahs, or ancient pucka +wells, otherwise the canes are allowed to take their chance, for the +cost of making a well on the uplands is from ten to twenty rupees--an +expense too heavy for an individual cultivator, and not many would dig +in partnership, for they would fight for the water. + +In the vicinity of Benares, as the canes advance in growth, they +continue to wrap the leaves as they begin to wither up round the +advancing stem, and to tie this to the bamboo higher up. If the +weather continue wet, the trenches are carefully kept open; and, on +the other hand, if dry weather occurs, water is occasionally supplied. +Hoeing is also performed every five or six weeks. Wrapping the leaves +around the cane is found to prevent them cracking by the heat of the +sun, and hinders their throwing out lateral branches. + +In January and February the canes are ready for cutting. The average +height of the cane is about nine feet, foliage included, and the naked +cane from one inch to one inch and a quarter in diameter. + +Near Maduna, the hand-watering is facilitated by cutting a small +trench down the centre of each bed. The beds are there a cubit wide, +but only four rows of canes are planted in each. + +It is deserving of notice, that the eastern and north-eastern parts of +Bengal are more subject to rain at every season of the year, but +especially in the hot months, than the western; which accounts for the +land being prepared and the plants set so much earlier in Rungpore +than in Beerbhoom. This latter country has also a dryer soil +generally; for this reason, so much is said in the report from thence +of the necessity of watering. + +The Benares country is also dryer than Bengal, therefore more +waterings are requisite. + +At Malda, ten or fifteen days after the earth has been removed from +the roots of the canes and the plants have appeared, the land is to be +slightly manured, well cleared of weeds, and the earth that was +removed again laid about the canes; after which, ten or fifteen days, +it must be well weeded, and again twenty or twenty-five days +afterwards. This mode of cultivation it is necessary to follow until +the month of Joystee. The land must be ploughed and manured between +the rows of canes in the month of Assaar; after which, fifteen or +twenty days, the canes are to be tied two or three together with the +leaves, the earth about them well cleaned, and the earth that was +ploughed up laid about the roots of the canes something raised. In the +month of Saubun, twenty or twenty-five days from the preceding +operation, the canes are tied as before, and again ten or fifteen days +afterwards; which done, nine or ten clumps are then to be tied +together. + +In the Rojahmundry Circar, on the Delta of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh +states, "that nothing more is done after the cane is planted, if the +weather be moderately showery, till the young shoots are some two or +three inches high; the earth is then loosened for a few inches round +them with the weeding iron. Should the season prove dry, the field is +occasionally watered from the river, continuing to weed and to keep +the ground loose round the stools. In August, two or three months from +the time of planting, small trenches are cut through the field at +short distances, and so contrived as to serve to drain off the water, +should the season prove too wet for the canes, which is often the +case, and would render their juices weak and unprofitable. The farmer, +therefore, never fails to have his field plentifully and judiciously +intersected with drains while the cane is small, and before the usual +time for the violent rains. Immediately after the field is trenched, +the canes are all propped; this is an operation which seems peculiar +to these parts. + +In Dinajpoor, in about a month after planting, "the young plants are +two or three inches high; the earth is then raised from the cuttings +by means of a spade, and the dry leaves by which they are surrounded +are removed. For a day or two they remain exposed to the air, and are +then manured with ashes and oil-cake, and covered with earth. Weeds +must be removed as they spring; and when the plants are about a cubit +high, the field must be ploughed. When they have grown a cubit higher, +which is between the 13th of June and 14th of July, they are tied +together in bundles of three or four, by wrapping them round with +their own leaves. This is done partly to prevent them from being laid +down by the wind, and partly to prevent them from being eaten by +jackals. During the next month three or four of these bunches are tied +together; and about the end of September, when the canes grow rank, +they are supported by bamboo stakes driven in the ground. They are cut +between the middle of December and the end of March." + +If the canes grow too vigorously, developing a superabundance of +leaves, it is a good practice to remove those leaves which are +decayed, that the stems may be exposed fully to the sun. In the West +Indies, this is called _trashing_ the canes. It requires discretion; +for in dry soils or seasons, or if the leaves are removed before +sufficiently dead, more injury than benefit will be occasioned. + +_Harvesting_.--The season in which the canes become ripe in various +districts has already been noticed when considering their cultivation. +In addition I may state, that in the Rajahmundry Circar, about the +mouth of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh adds, "that in January and +February the canes begin to be ready to cut, which is about nine +months from the time of planting. This operation is the same as in +other sugar countries--of course I need not describe it. Their height, +when standing on the field, will be from eight to ten feet (foliage +included), and the naked cane from an inch to an inch and a quarter in +diameter." + +In Malda, the canes are cut in January and February. In N. Mooradabad, +upon the low land, the canes are ripe in October, and upon the high +lands a month later. The fitness of the cane for cutting may be +ascertained by making an incision across the cane, and observing the +internal grain. If it is soft and moist, like a turnip, it is not yet +ripe; but if the face of the cut is dry, and white particles appear, +it is fit for harvesting.--(_Fitzmaurice on the Culture of the Sugar +Cane_.) + +_Injuries_.--1. _A wet season_, either during the very early or in the +concluding period of the cane's vegetation, is one of the worst causes +of injury. In such a season, the absence of the usual intensity of +light and heat causes the sap to be very materially deficient in +saccharine matter. But, on the other hand, + +2. _A very dry season_, immediately after the sets are planted, though +the want of rain may in some degree be supplied by artificial means, +causes the produce to be but indifferent. These inconveniences are of +a general nature, and irremediable. + +3. _Animals_.--In India not only the incursions of domesticated +animals, but in some districts of the wild elephant, buffalo, and hog, +are frequent sources of injury. Almost every plantation is liable, +also, to the attack of the jackal, and rats are destructive enemies. + +4. _White Ants_.--The sets of the sugar cane have to be carefully +watched, to preserve them from the white ant (_Termes fatalis_), to +attacks from which they are liable until they have begun to shoot. To +prevent this injury, the following mixture has been recommended:-- + + Asafoetida (hing), 8 chittacks. + Mustard-seed cake (sarsum ki khalli), 8 seers. + Putrid fish, 4 seers. + Bruised butch root, 2 seers; + or muddur, 2 seers. + +Mix the above together in a large vessel, with water sufficient to +make them into the thickness of curds; then steep each slip of cane in +it for half an hour after planting; and, lastly, water the lines three +times previous to setting the cane, by irrigating the water-course +with water mixed up with bruised butch root, or muddur if the former +be not procurable.[22] A very effectual mode of destroying the white +ant, is by mixing a small quantity of arsenic with a few ounces of +burned bread, pulverised flour, or oatmeal, moistened with molasses, +and placing pieces of the dough thus made, each about the size of a +turkey's egg, on a flat board, and covered over with a wooden bowl, in +several parts of the plantation. The ants soon take possession of +these, and the poison has a continuous effect, for the ants which die +are eaten by those which succeed them.[23] They are said to be driven +from a soil by frequently hoeing it. They are found to prevail most +upon newly broken-up lands. + +In Central India, the penetration of the white ants into the interior +of the sets, and the consequent destruction of the latter, is +prevented by dipping each end into buttermilk, asafoetida, and +powdered mustard-seed, mixed into a thick compound. + +5. _Storms_.--Unless they are very violent, Dr. Roxburgh observes, +"they do no great harm, because the canes are propped. However, if +they are once laid down, which sometimes happens, they become branchy +and thin, yielding a poor, watery juice." + +6. _The Worm_ "is another evil, which generally visits them every few +years. A beetle deposits its eggs in the young canes; the caterpillars +of these remain in the cane, living on its medullary parts, till they +are ready to be metamorphosed into the chrysalis state. Sometimes this +evil is so great as to injure a sixth or an eighth part of the field; +but, what is worse, the disease is commonly general when it +happens--few fields escaping." + +7. _The Flowering_ "is the last accident they reckon upon, although it +scarce deserves the name, for it rarely happens, and never but to a +very small proportion of some few fields. Those canes that flower have +very little juice left, and it is by no means so sweet as that of the +rest." + +In the Brazils, the fact of the slave trade being at an end must +influence the future produce of sugar, and attention has been lately +chiefly directed to coffee, cotton, and other staples. The exports of +that empire in 1842, were 59,000 tons; in 1843, 54,500; in 1844, +76,400; in 1845, 91,000; average of these four years 69,720. The +exports in the next four years averaged 96,150 tons, viz:--76,100, in +1846; 96,300, in 1847; 112,500, in 1848; and 99,700, in 1849. + +_Mode of Cultivation in Brazil_.--The lands in Brazil are never +grubbed up, either for planting the sugar cane, or for any other +agricultural purposes. The inconveniences of this custom are +perceivable more particularly in high lands; because all of these that +are of any value are naturally covered with thick woods. The cane is +planted amongst the numerous stumps of trees, by which means much +ground is lost, and as the sprouts from these stumps almost +immediately spring forth (such is the rapidity of vegetation) the +cleanings are rendered very laborious. These shoots require to be cut +down sometimes, even before the cane has found its way to the surface +of the ground. The labor likewise is great every time a piece of land +is to be put under cultivation, for the wood must be cut down afresh; +and although it cannot have reached the same size which the original +timber had attained, still as several years are allowed to pass +between each period at which the ground is planted, the trees are +generally of considerable thickness. The wood is suffered to remain +upon the land until the leaves become dry; then it is set on fire, and +these are destroyed with the brush wood and the smaller branches of +the trees. Heaps are now made of the remaining timber, which is +likewise burnt. This process is universally practised in preparing +land for the cultivation of any plant. I have often heard the method +much censured as being injurious in the main to the soil, though the +crop immediately succeeding the operation may be rendered more +luxuriant by it. I have observed that the canes which grew upon the +spots where the heaps of timber and large branches of trees had been +burnt, were of a darker and richer green than those around them, and +that they likewise over-topped them. After the plant-canes, or those +of the first year's growth, are taken from the lands, the field-trash, +that is the dried leaves and stems of the canes which remain upon the +ground, are set fire to, with the idea that the ratoons,--that is, the +sprouts from the old roots of the canes,--spring forth with more +luxuriance, and attain a greater size by means of this practice. The +ratoons of the first year are called in Brazil, _socas_; those of the +second year, _resocas_; those of the third year, _terceiras socas_, +and so forth. After the roots are left unencumbered by burning the +field-trash, the mould is raised round about them; indeed, if this was +neglected, many of those roots would remain too much exposed to the +heat of the sun, and would not continue to vegetate. + +Some lands will continue to give ratoons for five, or even seven +years; but an average may be made at one crop of good ratoons fit for +grinding, another of inferior ratoons fit for planting, or for making +molasses to be used in the still-house, and a third which affords but +a trifling profit, in return for the trouble which the cleanings give. + +I have above spoken more particularly of high lands. The low and +marshy grounds, called in Brazil, _varzeas_, are, however, those which +are the best adapted to the cane; and, indeed, upon the plantations +that do not possess some portions of this description of soil the +crops are very unequal, and sometimes almost entirely fail, according +to the greater or less quantity of rain, which may chance to fall in +the course of the year. The _varzeas_ are usually covered with short +and close brushwood, and as these admit, from their rank nature, of +frequent cultivation, they soon become easy to work. The soil of +these, when it is new, receives the name of _paul_; it trembles under +the pressure of the feet, and easily admits of a pointed stick being +thrust into it; and though dry to appearance requires draining. The +_macape_ marl is often to be met with in all situations; it is of a +greenish white color, and if at all wet, it sticks very much to the +hoe; it becomes soon dry at the surface, but the canes which have been +planted upon it seldom fail to revive after rain, even though a want +of it should have been much felt. The white marl, _barro branco_, is +less frequently found; it is accounted extremely productive. This clay +is used in making bricks and coarse earthenware, and also for claying +the sugar. Red earth is occasionally met with upon sides of hills near +to the coast; but this description of soil belongs properly to the +cotton districts. Black mould is common, and likewise a loose brownish +soil, in which a less or greater proportion of sand is intermixed. It +is, I believe, generally acknowledged that no land can be too rich for +the growth of the sugar cane. One disadvantage, however, attends soil +that is low and quite new, which is, that the canes run up to a great +height without sufficient thickness, and are thus often lodged (or +blown down) before the season for cutting them arrives. I have seen +rice planted upon lands of this kind on the first year to decrease +their rankness, and render them better adapted to the cane on the +succeeding season. Some attempts have been made to plant cane upon the +lands which reach down to the edge of the mangroves, and in a few +instances pieces of land heretofore covered by the salt water at the +flow of the tide, have been laid dry by means of draining for the same +purpose; but the desired success has not attended the plan, for the +canes have been found to be unfit for making sugar; the syrup does not +coagulate, or at least does not attain that consistence which is +requisite, and therefore it can only be used for the distilleries. + +The general mode of preparing the land for the cane is by holing it +with hoes. The negroes stand in a row, and each man strikes his hoe +into the ground immediately before him, and forms a trench of five or +six inches in depth; he then falls back, the whole row doing the same, +and they continue this operation from one side of the cleared land to +the other, or from the top of a hill to the bottom. The earth which is +thrown out of the trench remains on the lower side of it. In the +British West India colonies this work is done in a manner nearly +similar, but more systematically. The lands in Brazil are not +measured, and everything is done by the eye. The quantity of cane +which a piece will require for planting is estimated by so many +cart-loads; and nothing can be more vague than this mode of +computation, for the load which a cart can carry depends upon the +condition of the oxen, upon the nature of the road, and upon the +length of the cane. Such is the awkward make of these vehicles, that +much nicety is necessary in packing them, and if two canes will about +fit into a cart lengthways, much more will be conveyed than if the +canes are longer and they double over each other. + +The plough is sometimes used in low lands, upon which draining has not +been found necessary; but such is the clumsy construction of the +machine of which they make use, that six oxen are yoked to it. A +plough drawn by two oxen, constructed after a model which was brought +from Cayenne, has been introduced in one or two instances. Upon high +lands the stumps of the trees almost preclude the possibility of thus +relieving the laborers. The trenches being prepared, the cuttings are +laid longitudinally in the bottom of them, and are covered with the +greatest part of the mould which had been taken out of the trench. The +shoots begin to rise above the surface of the ground in the course of +twelve or fourteen days. The canes undergo three cleanings from the +weeds and the sprouts proceeding from the stumps of the trees; and +when the land is poor, and produces a greater quantity of the former, +and contains fewer of the latter, the canes require to be cleaned a +fourth time. The cuttings are usually 12 to 18 inches in length, but +it is judged that the shorter they are the better. If they are short, +and one piece of cane rots, the space which remains vacant is not so +large as when the cuttings are long, and they by any accident fail. +The canes which are used for planting are generally ratoons, if any +exist upon the plantation; but if there are none of these, the +inferior plant canes supply their places. It is accounted more +economical to make use of the ratoons for this purpose; and many +persons say that they are less liable to rot than the plant canes. In +the British sugar islands the cuttings for planting are commonly the +tops of the canes which have been ground for sugar. But in Brazil the +tops of the canes are all thrown to the cattle, for there is usually a +want of grass during the season that the mills are at work. In the +British colonies, the canes are at first covered with only a small +portion of mould, and yet they are as long in forcing their way to the +surface as in Brazil, though in the latter a more considerable +quantity of earth is laid upon them. I suppose that the superior +richness of the Brazilian soil accounts for this. Upon rich soils the +cuttings are laid at a greater distance, and the trenches are dug +farther from each other, than upon those which have undergone more +frequent cultivation, or which are known to possess less power from +their natural composition. The canes which are planted upon the former +throw out great numbers of sprouts, which spread each way; and, +although when they are young, the land may appear to promise but a +scanty crop, they soon close, and no opening is to be seen. It is +often judged proper to thin the canes, by removing some of the suckers +at the time that the last cleaning is given; and some persons +recommend that a portion of the dry leaves should also be stripped off +at the same period, but on other plantations this is not practised. + +The proper season for planting is from the middle of July to the +middle of September, upon high lands, and from September to the middle +of November in low lands. Occasionally, the great moisture of the soil +induces the planter to continue his work until the beginning of +December, if his people are sufficiently numerous to answer all the +necessary purposes. The first of the canes are ready to be cut for the +mill in September of the following year, and the crop is finished +usually in January or February. In the British sugar islands the canes +are planted from August to November, and are ripe for the mill in the +beginning of the second year. Thus this plant in Brazil requires from +thirteen to fifteen months to attain its proper state for the mill; +and in the West India islands it remains standing sixteen or seventeen +months. + +The Otaheitan, or the Bourbon cane, has been brought from Cayenne to +Pernambuco since the Portuguese obtained possession of that +settlement. I believe the two species of cane are much alike, and I +have not been able to discover which of them it is. Its advantages are +so apparent, that after one trial on each estate, it has superseded +the small cane which was in general use. The Cayenne cane, as it is +called in Pernambuco, is of a much larger size than the common cane; +it branches so very greatly, that the labor in planting a piece of +cane is much decreased, and the returns from it are at the same time +much more considerable. It is not planted in trenches, but holes are +dug at equal distances from each other, in which these cuttings are +laid. This cane bears the dry weather better than the small cane; and +when the leaves of the latter begin to turn brown, those of the former +still preserve their natural color. A planter in the _Varzea_ told me +that he had obtained four crops from one piece of land in three years, +and that the soil in question had been considered by him as nearly +worn out, before he planted the Cayenne cane upon it.--("Koster's +Travels in Brazil," vol. 2.) + +Mr. E. Morewood, of Compensation, Natal, who has paid much attention +to sugar culture in that colony, has favored me with the following +details, which will be useful for the guidance of others, as being the +results of his own experience:-- + + lbs. + Produce of one acre of sugar cane 72,240 + Juice expressed, (or 64 per cent.) 46,308 + Dry sugar 7,356 + Green syrup or molasses 2,829 + This syrup carrying with it a good deal of sugar out of the + coolers, contains fully 75 per cent. of crystalizable sugar, or 2,121 + Thus the total amount of sugar per acre is 9,477 + + The average density of the cane juice was 12 degrees Beaume, or 21 + per cent. All the improved cane mills are now constructed to give at + least 75 per cent. of juice. With such a mill, an acre would yield + 11,075 lbs. of sugar. With proper cultivation I have no doubt the + produce could be largely increased; for, as the numerous visitors + who have seen this place can testify, my cane fields were not + attended to. + + To enable me to show the cost of producing a crop of canes, you must + allow me to go into the expense of cultivating the land first. + + To keep one ploughman going, a person requires-- + + 20 Oxen at L3 L60 0 0 + 1 Plough 7 10 0 + 1 set Harrows 7 10 0 + Yokes, Trektows, Reins, &c. 5 0 0 + ---------- + L80 0 0 + + Then the expenses per month will be:-- + + Ploughman's wages L2 10 0 + Board 1 10 0 + 1 Driver, 10s., Leaders, 5s. 0 15 0 + Food for two natives 0 10 0 + Wear and tear of oxen and gear, + at 25 per cent. per annum 1 10 4 + --------- + L6 18 4 + + These two spans of oxen will comfortably plough and harrow twenty + acres per month, and the cost will thus be about 7s. per acre. + + Now, let us suppose that a person wishes to put in twenty acres of + canes, the expense would be about as follows:-- + + 4 Ploughings and harrowings, 80 acres at 7s. L28 0 0 + Drawing canefurrows, 4 acres per day, 5 days at 6s. 1 10 0 + 2,000 Cane tops per acre, at 50s. 100 0 0 + 4 Horsehoeings, at 2s. 6d. 10 0 0 + 4 Handweedings in the rows, at 2s. 6d. 10 0 0 + Cutting and carrying out canes, at 30s. 30 0 0 + Carriage to Mill, thirty tons per acre, at 2s. 60 0 0 + ---------- + L239 10 0 + + or L12 per acre. To this must be added the rent of land, say 10s. + per acre, with right of grazing cattle, for two years, when the + first crop will come in, would bring the expense to L13 per acre. + The cane yielding say only three tons of sugar per acre, of which + the planter would, most likely, have to give the manufacturer + one-third, he will receive forty tons of sugar, costing him L6 10s. + per ton, and worth on the spot, according to advices received from + England and the Cape, L15 per ton, at the lowest estimate, or L600. + + The greatest expense, you will perceive, is the article of tops for + planting; but this ought not to discourage persons. The plants which + I imported from the Mauritius some years ago, cost me, on account of + many of them not vegetating, at the rate of L30 per acre. Parties + who begin planting now have the great advantage that they can get + plants, every one of which, if properly treated, will grow, at + one-sixth of that price. + + How many crops cane will give on good soil in Natal, I am of course + unable to state, as the oldest cane I have got has been cut only + three times--the last yield (second ratoons) was much finer than the + preceding ones, and by adopting the improved manner of cane + cultivation, viz., returning all but the cane juice to the soil, I + am confident that replanting will be found quite unnecessary; the + expenses for the second and following years will therefore be very + trifling. + +Comparative Statement of the ruling Prices at Natal and the Mauritius +of Land, Live Stock, Implements, Labor, and other requirements +connected with the cultivation of the Sugar Cane. + + MAURITIUS NATAL + L s. d. | L s. d. + | + LAND, per acre, L3 10s. to 20 0 0 | LAND, per acre, 10s. + | to 1 0 0 + RENT OF LAND. It is not | RENT OF LAND, 6d. to 0 5 0 + customary to let land at | + the Mauritius, except on | + the system of an equal | + division of the produce. | + MANURE. Guano, commonly | CATTLE MANURE in + used in its dry state, | abundance, according to + also other manures or | distance, per load, + composts, per ton, L6 to 7 0 0 | 1s. to 0 2 6 + | (None required on + | virgin soil for the + | first three years of + | cultivation.) + | + LIVE STOCK. Mules, 5 of | Oxen, of which 12 are + which are required to each | required to each load, + load of 3,000 to 4,000 | L3 each 36 0 0 + lbs., L30 each 150 0 0 | Keep of oxen, on + Keep of Mules each, per | pasturage free. + annum 7 0 0 | + | + LABOR. Drivers, each, per | Colored driver, + month 1 0 0 | each, per month 0 15 0 + Coolies, including keep, | Kafir leader, ditto 0 10 0 + each 1 0 0 | Kafirs, including + White labor, each 4 0 0 | keep, ditto 0 10 0 + | White labor, each + | per month, L3 10s. to 4 0 0 + | + FUEL. Cane trash or wood | Cane trash or wood + MILL POWER. Steam or water | The same + | + IMPLEMENTS. All agricultural | All agricultural labor + labor is performed by the | is performed with the + hand-hoe, very expensive | plough, harrows, and + in its nature. | scarifier, with oxen + | so much less expensive + | than the hand labor at + | the Mauritius. + | + PRODUCE of the Cane. Average | From 2 to 3 tons + from 1 to 4 tons. | + CANE. Periodical renewal of | Not yet ascertained, + the cane, according to the | and depending on the soil + quality of the soil, every | + 3 to 10 years | + | + L. s. d. | L. s. d. + PROVISIONS, &c. Beef, | PROVISIONS, &c. Beef, + per lb. 6d. to 0 0 8 | per lb., 11/2d. to 0 0 21/2 + Bread, per loaf 0 0 6 | Bread, per loaf 0 0 6 + Butter, per lb., 1s. 3d. | Butter, per lb., 6d. to 0 0 9 + to 0 1 6 | + Rice, the food of the | Indian corn, (maize per + Coolies, per bag of | 180 lbs. 5s.) per 150 + 150 lbs., 12s. 6d. to 0 15 0 | lbs. 0 4 2 + Oats, per bag, of 100 | Oats, per 104 lbs., 10s. + lbs. 12s. 6d. to 0 15 0 | to 1 0 0 + Bran, ditto, 100 lbs. | Bran, not used. + 12s. to 0 13 9 | + Beans, ditto, 100 lbs. | Beans, per 180 lbs., 13s. + 22s. 6d. to 1 5 0 | to 20s., or per 100 lbs. + | 7s. 2d. to 0 11 0 + Coal, per ton, 40s. to 2 10 0 | The same + | + CHARGE OF MANUFACTURE. | The Mauritius principle + The manufacturer reaps | may be adopted in this + and carries to the mill | colony, with such + the canes of the grower, | modifications as may be + but the latter provides | called for by local + his own bagging, and | exigencies. + carts away his half of | + the sugar, the other | + half being the | + remuneration of the | + manufacturer | + +Analysis of the foregoing Statement, showing the total comparative +outlay for sundries connected with the cultivation of Sugar at Natal +and Mauritius, computed at the lowest ruling prices. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + | MAURITIUS | NATAL | Difference + | | | in + | | |favor of Natal + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | + Land, 100 acres |70s. 350 0 0 |10s. 50 0 0 | 300 0 0 + Manure, Guano 10 loads |L6 60 0 0 | | + Cattle Manure, 10 loads| | 1s. 0 10 0 | + Live Stock, 10 mules. |L30 300 0 0 |L15. 150 0 0 | 150 0 0 + ---- 10 oxen |L12 120 0 0 | L3. 30 0 0 | 90 0 0 + Two drivers per mouth | L1 2 0 0 | 1 5 0 | 0 15 0 + Coolies, 10 with keep | 10 0 0 | } | 2 10 0 + Kafirs, 10 ditto | |15s. 7 10 0} | + White men, 10 | L4 40 0 0 |L4. 40 0 0 | + Beef, 100 lbs. |at 6d. 2 10 0 |11/2d. 0 12 6 | 1 17 6 + Bread, 100 loaves | 6d. 2 10 0 |6d. 2 10 0 | + Butter,100 lbs. |1s.3d. 6 5 0 |6d. 2 10 0 | 3 15 0 + Rice, 100 lbs., food | 0 8 4 | } | + for Coolies, Indian | | } | 0 5 7 + Corn, 100 lbs., food | | 0 2 9} | + for Kafirs | | } | + Oats | 0 12 6 | 0 10 0 | 0 2 6 + Beans, 100 lbs. | 1 2 6 | 0 10 0 | 0 12 6 + Coals | 2 0 0 | 2 0 0 | + | | | + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + | L897 8 4 | L288 0 3 | L554 18 1 + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The immense saving obtained by ploughing, &c., over the Mauritius hand +labor with the hoe, is not shown in the above figures. + +Table showing the cost of producing Muscovado sugar, and the quantity +produced or available in the several countries mentioned, as made up +from the evidence given before the Committee on Sugar and Coffee +Plantations; by T. Wilson. + + -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ + | | | | | |Excess | + | | | | | |of cost| + | | | | |Excess |of free| + | | | | |of cost| over | + | | | | Cost |of free| SLAVE | + | | Average | Average |of pro-|labour | TRADE | + | |available|available|ducing | over | labor,| + | | produce | produce | one | slave |taking |In- + |Average| under | during |cwt. of|or com-| the |crease + |cost of| slavery |the last | sugar |pulsory|cost in|of cost + |produc-| or com- | three | at | labor,|Brazil |in the + | tion | pulsory |years of |present| per | at |British + COUNTRY. | under | labor, | freedom,| date, | cwt., |7s. 6d.|planta- + |slavery| for the | for the |exclu- |taking | per |tions + |or com-|supply of|supply of|sive of| the | cwt. | since + |pulsory| Europe | Europe |inter- |average|making |emanci- + | labor.| and the | and the |est on |cost of| the |pation. + | | United | United | capi- | the |average| + | | States,| States.| tal, |latter | of | + | | | | etc. |at 11s.| slave | + | | | | | per | trade | + | | | | | cwt. | labor | + | | | | | |8s. per| + | | | | | | cwt. | + -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ + _British | s. d.| Tons. | Tons. | s d. | s. d. | s. d.| s. d. + Plantations_. | | | | | | | + Antigua | 7 6 | 7,767 | 8,963 | 16 6 | 5 6 | 8 6 | 9 0 + Barbados | 6 0 | 17,174 | 16,378 | 15 6 | 4 6 | 7 6 | 9 6 + Grenada | 11 0 | 9,634 | 3,779 | 17 6 | 6 6 | 9 6 | 6 6 + St. Kitts | 5 0 | 4,382 | 5,558 | 19 0 | 8 0 | 11 0 | 14 0 + St. Vincent | 5 6 | 10,056 | 6,636 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 + Tobago | 5 6 | 5,321 | 2,514 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 + St. Lucia, etc. | 5 6 | 9,600 | 8,650 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 + Jamaica | 10 0 | 68,626 | 30,807 | 22 6 | 11 6 | 14 6 | 12 6 + Guiana | 6 8 | 44,178 | 24,817 | 25 10 | 14 10 | 17 10 | 19 2 + Trinidad A* | 3 0 | 15,428 | 16,539 | 20 10 | 9 10 | 12 10 | 17 10 + Mauritius | | 35,000 | 50,000 | 20 0 | 9 0 | 12 0 | + Bengal | | | 62,000 | 23 0 | 12 0 | 15 0 | + Madras | | | 7,000 | 20 0 | 9 0 | 12 0 | + _Foreign | | | | | | | + Free Labor | | | | | | | + Country_. | | | | | | | + Europe | | | | | | | + (Beet-root) B* | | | 100,000 | 24 4 | 13 4 | 16 4 | + _Foreign Slave, | | | | | | | + or Compulsory | | | | | | | + Labor | | | | | | | + Countries_. | | | | | | | + Java C* | 15 0 | 88,000 | | 15 0 | | | + French Colonies | 15 0 | 90,000 | | 15 0 | Slave | | + Cuba (Muscovado)| 8 0 | 220,000 | | 8 0 |or com-| | + Porto Rico | 8 6 | 40,000 | | 8 6 |pulsory| | + Louisiana | 12 6 | 100,000 | | 12 6 | labor | | + Brazils D* | 11 11 | 90,000 | | 11 11 | | | + -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ + +[A* This cost, as taken from the averages given in Lord Harris's +despatches, is lower than the averages given by the witnesses before +the Committee.] + +[B* This beet-root sugar sells, in the continental markets, on account +of its inferior quality, at about 4s. to 6s. per cwt. below Colonial +Muscovado, so that Colonial Muscovado must be about 33s. per cwt. to +enable beet sugar to sell in this market for cost and charges, and +allowing no profit to the beet sugar maker.] + +[C* The cost of producing sugar in Java is taken at the average +between the Government contract sugar, and the free sugar, as given by +Mr. San Martin.] + +[D* The cost of producing sugar in Brazil is taken from the Consular +return: this return has given no credit for rum or molasses, and has +charged 6s. 5d. for manufacturing, fully 3s. 5d. more than the cost in +Cuba,--allowance for these two items would give 7s. 6d. as the nett +cost per cwt.] + + +BEET ROOT SUGAR. + +The rapid progress of the production of beet root sugar on the +continent, especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and +Russia, and its recent introduction and cultivation as an article of +commerce in Ireland, renders the detail of its culture and manufacture +on the continent interesting. I have, therefore, been induced to +bestow some pains on an investigation of the rise and progress of its +production and consumption in those countries. + +During the past three years, the smallest estimate which can be formed +of the quantity of cane sugar that has been replaced by beet root +sugar in the chief European countries, is about 80,000 tons annually, +with the certainty that, year after year, the consumption will become +exclusively confined to the former, to the greater exclusion of the +latter; unless some great change shall take place in the relative +perfection and manufacture of the two different descriptions of +produce. + +Although, observes the _Economist_, the beet root sugar produced in +France, Belgium, Germany, and other parts of the continent is not +brought into competition in our own markets with the produce of the +British colonies, yet it must be plain that the exclusion of so much +foreign cane sugar from the continent, which was formerly consumed +there, must throw a much larger quantity of Cuba and Brazilian sugar +upon this market; and by this means the increased production of beet +root sugar, even in those countries where it is highly protected, does +indirectly increase the competition among the producers of cane sugar +in our market. + +So early as 1747, a chemist of Berlin, named Margraf, discovered that +beet root contained a certain quantity of sugar, but it was not until +1796 that the discovery was properly brought under the attention of +the scientific in Europe by Achard, who was also a chemist and +resident of Berlin, and who published a circumstantial account of the +progress by which he extracted from 3 to 4 per cent. of sugar from +beet root. + +Several attempts have been made, from time to time, to manufacture +beet root sugar in England, but never, hitherto, on a large and +systematic scale. Some years ago a company was established for the +purpose, but they did not proceed in their operations. + +A refinery of sugar from the beet root was erected at Thames Bank, +Chelsea, in the early part of 1837. During the summer of 1839 a great +many acres of land were put into cultivation with the root, at +Wandsworth and other places in the vicinity of the metropolis. The +machinery used in the manufacture was principally on the plan of the +vacuum pans, and a fine refined sugar was produced from the juice by +the first process of evaporation, after it had undergone +discolorization. Another part of the premises was appropriated to the +manufacture of coarse brown paper from the refuse, for which it is +extensively used in France. + +A refinery was also established about this period at Belfast, in the +vicinity of which town upwards of 200 acres of land were put into +cultivation with beet root for the manufacture of sugar. + +The experience of France ought to be a sufficient guarantee that the +manufacture of beet root sugar is not a speculative but a great staple +trade, in which the supply can be regulated by the demand, with a +precision scarcely attainable in any other ease, and when, in +addition, this demand tends rather to increase than to diminish. That +the trade is profitable there can also be no doubt from the large +capital embarked in it on the Continent--a capital which is steadily +increasing even in France, where protection has been gradually +withdrawn, and where, since 1848, it has competed upon equal terms +with colonial sugars. + +The produce of France in 1851 was nearly 60,000 tons. The beet root +sugar made in the Zollverein in 1851 was about 45,000 tons. Probably +half as much more as is made in France and the Zollverein, is made in +all the other parts of the Continent. In Belgium, the quantity made is +said to be 7,000 tons; in Russia, 35,000; making a total of beet root +sugar now manufactured in Europe of at least 150,000 and probably +more, or nearly one-sixth part of the present consumption of Europe, +America, and our various colonies. In 1847 this was estimated at +upwards of 1,000,000 tons; and, as the production has increased +considerably since that period, it is now not less than 1,100,000 +tons. The soil of the Continent, it is said, will give 16 tons to the +acre, and that of Ireland, 26 tons to the acre. The former yields from +6 to 7 per cent.--the latter from 7 to 8 per cent. as the extreme +maximum strength of saccharine matter. The cost of the root in +Ireland--for it is with that, and not with the cost of the Continental +root, with which the West Indies will have to contend--is said to be +at the rate of 16s. per ton this; but will probably be 13s. next +season. The cost of manufacture is set down at L7 5s. per ton. +Calculating the yield of the root to be 71/2 lbs. to every 100 lbs., for +26 tons the yield would be nearly 2 tons of sugar, which would give +about L9 10s. per ton, putting down the raw material to cost 14s, 6d. +per ton, the medium between 16s. and 13s. Thus a ton of Irish-grown +and manufactured beet root sugar, would cost L16 15s. per ton. Mr. +Sullivan, the scientific guide to those who are undertaking to make +beet root sugar at Mountmellick, Queen's County, Ireland, estimates +the cost of obtaining pure sugar at from L16 17s. to L19 18s. per ton, +according to the quantity of sugar in the root. + +Beet root is a vegetable of large circumference, at the upper end nine +to eleven inches in diameter. There are several kinds. That which is +considered to yield the most sugar is the white or Silesian beet +(_Beta alba_). It is smaller than the mangel wurzel, and more compact, +and appears in its texture to be more like the Swedish turnip. For the +manufacture of sugar, the smaller beets, of which the roots weigh only +one or two pounds, were preferred by Chaptal, who, besides being a +celebrated chemist, was also a practical agriculturist and a +manufacturer of sugar from beet root. After the white beet follows the +yellow (_beta major_), then the red (_beta romana_), and lastly the +common or field beet root (_Beta sylvestris_). Margraf, as we have +seen, was the first chemist who discovered the saccharine principle in +beet root; and Achard, the first manufacturer who fitted up an +establishment (in Silesia) for the extraction of sugar from the root. +It was not before 1809 that this manufacture was introduced into +France. + +The manufacture sprung up there in consequence of Bonaparte's scheme +for destroying the colonial prosperity of Great Britain by excluding +British colonial produce. It having been found that from the juice of +the beet root a crystallizable sugar could be obtained, he encouraged +the establishment of the manufacture by every advantage which monopoly +and premiums could give it. Colonial sugar was at the enormous price +of four and five francs a pound, and the use of it was become so +habitual, that no Frenchman could do without it. Several large +manufactories of beet root were established, some of which only served +as pretexts for selling smuggled colonial sugar as the produce of +their own works. Count Chaptal, however, established one on his own +farm, raising the beet root, as well as extracting the sugar. The +roots are first cleaned by washing or scraping, and then placed in a +machine to be rasped and reduced to a pulp. This pulp is put into a +strong canvas bag and placed under a powerful press to squeeze out the +juice. It is then put into coppers and boiled, undergoing certain +other processes. Most of the operations are nearly the same as those +by which the juice of the sugar cane is prepared for use; but much +greater skill and nicety are required in rendering the juice of the +beet root crystallizable, on account of its greater rawness and the +smaller quantity of sugar it contains. But when this sugar is refined, +it is impossible for the most experienced judge to distinguish it from +the other, either by the taste or appearance; and from this arose the +facility with which smuggled colonial sugar was sold in France, under +the name of sugar from beet root. Five tons of clean roots produce +about 41/2 cwt. of coarse sugar, which give about 160 lbs. of double +refined sugar, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump sugar. The rest is +molasses, from which a good spirit is distilled. The dry residue of +the roots, after expressing the juice, consists chiefly of fibre and +mucilage, and amounts to about one-fourth of the weight of the clean +roots used. It contains all the nutritive part of the root, with the +exception of 41/2 per cent. of sugar, which has been extracted from the +juice, the rest being water. + +As the expense of this manufacture greatly exceeded the value of the +sugar produced, according to the price of colonial sugar, it was only +by the artificial encouragement of a monopoly and premiums that it +could be carried on to advantage. The process is one of mere curiosity +as long as sugar from the sugar cane can be obtained cheaper, and the +import duties laid upon it are not so excessive as to amount to a +prohibition; and in this case it is almost impossible to prevent its +clandestine introduction. + +Another mode of making sugar from beet root, practised in some parts +of Germany, is as follows, and is said to make better sugar than the +other process:--The roots having been washed, are sliced lengthways, +strung on packthread, and hung up to dry. The object of this is to let +the watery juice evaporate, and the sweet juice, being concentrated, +is taken up by macerating the dry slices in water. It is managed so +that all the juice shall be extracted by a very small quantity of +water, which saves much of the trouble of evaporation. Professor +Lampadius obtained from 110 lbs. of roots 4 lbs. of well-grained white +powder-sugar, and the residuum afforded 7 pints of spirit. Achard says +that about a ton of roots produced 100 lbs. of raw sugar, which gave +55 lbs. of refined sugar, and 15 lbs. of treacle. This result is not +very different from that of Chaptal. 6,000 tons of beet root it is +said will produce 400 tons of sugar and 100 tons of molasses. + +Beet root sugar in the raw state contains an essential oil, the taste +and smell of which are disagreeable. Thus the treacle of beet root +cannot be used in a direct way, whereas the treacle of cane sugar is +of an agreeable flavor, for the essential oil which it contains is +aromatic, and has some resemblance in taste to vanilla. But beet root +sugar, when it is completely refined, differs in no sensible degree +from refined cane sugar. In appearance it is quite equal to cane +sugar, and the process of refining it is more easy than for the +latter. Samples made in Belgium were exhibited at a late meeting of +the Dublin Society. It was of the finest appearance, of strong +sweetening quality, and in color resembling the species of sugar known +as crushed lump. The most singular part of the matter is, that it was +manufactured in the space of forty-five minutes--the entire time +occupied from the taking of the root out of the ground and putting it +into the machine, to the production of the perfect article. It was +said that it could be produced for 3d. per lb. An acre of ground is +calculated to yield 50 tons of Silesian beet, which, in France and +Belgium, give three tons of sugar, worth about L50; the refuse being +applied in those countries to feeding cattle. But from the superior +fitness of the Irish soil, as shown by experience to be the case, it +is confidently affirmed by persons competent to form an opinion, that +8 per cent. of sugar could be obtained there on the raw bulk. + +The following figures are given as illustrative of the expense of the +cultivation of one acre of beet-root in Ireland:-- + + Two ploughings and harrowing L1 1 0 + Expense of manure and carting 5 0 0 + Hoeing and seed 0 6 0 + Drilling and sowing 0 5 0 + Rent 2 0 0 + ------- + L8 12 0 + +An average produce of 20 tons, at L15 per ton, would leave a profit of +L6 8s. per acre, leaving the land in a state fit for the reception, at +little expense, of a crop of wheat, barley, or oats for the next year, +and of hay for the year ensuing; a consideration of no small +importance to the farmer. The following estimates, recently given, are +not by any means exaggerated:-- + + 61,607 tons of beet, at 10s. L30,803 10 0 + Cost of manufacture, at 11s. per ton. 33,883 17 0 + ------------- + 64,687 7 0 + Produce 7 per cent of sugar, at 28s. per cwt. 136,767 10 0 + ------------- + Estimated profit L72,080 3 0 + +The quantity of sugar made from beet-root in France in 1828, was about +2,650 tons; in 1830, its weight was estimated at 6 million +kilogrammes[24] (5,820 tons); in 1834, at 26 million kilogrammes +(24,000 tons); in 1835, 36,000 tons; in 1836, 49,000 tons. At the +commencement of the year 1837, the number of refineries at work or +being built was 543; on an average 20 kilogrammes of beet-root are +required for the production of one kilogramme of sugar. The sugar +manufactured from the beet-root in France a few years ago was stated +to amount to 55,000 tons, or one half of the entire consumption of the +kingdom. The _Courrier Francais_ calculated that the beet-root sugar +made in France in 1838 amounted to 110 million lbs., and the journal +added, there is no doubt that, in a few years, the produce will be +equal to the entire demand. The cultivation then extended over 150,000 +acres, and in the environs of Lille and Valenciennes it has sometimes +been as high as 28,000 lbs. per acre. + +From returns of the produce and consumption of beet-root sugar +published in the _Moniteur_, it appears that on the 1st Dec. 1851, +there were 335 manufactories in operation, or 81 more than in the +corresponding period of 1850. The quantity of sugar made, including +the portion lying over from the previous year, amounted to 19,625,386 +kilogrammes, and that stored in the public bonding warehouse to +10,556,847. At the end of June, 1852, 329 manufactories were at work, +or two more than at the same period in 1851. The quantity sold was +62,211,663 kilogrammes, or 9,167,018 less, as compared with the +corresponding period of the previous year. There remained in stock in +the manufactories 91,434,070 kilogrammes, and in the entrepot +4,597,829 kilogrammes, being an increase of 2,568,662 kilogrammes in +the manufactories, and a decrease of 1,292,962 in the entrepots. The +manufacture of beet-root sugar is every year assuming in France +increased importance, and attracts more and more the attention of +political economists as a source of national wealth, and of +government, as affording matter of taxation. Thirty new factories, got +up upon a very extensive scale, are enumerated as going into operation +this year. They are located, with but two exceptions, in the north of +France; fifteen of them are in the single department of Nord. Indeed, +the manufacture of beet-root sugar is confined, almost exclusively, to +the five northern adjacent departments of Nord, Pas de Calais, Somme, +Aisne, and Oise. The best quality retails at 16 cents the pound. + +I take from a table in the _Moniteur_ the following statement of the +number of factories and their location, with the amount of production +up to the 31st May, 1851. At that date the season is supposed to end. +A separate column gives the total production in the season of 1842, +showing an increase in ten years of more than double, viz., of +41,582,113 kilogrammes, or, in our weight, of 93,559,754 pounds. + + Number of Kilogrammes Kilogrammes + Departments. Factories. Prod. 1850-1. Prod. 1843. + + Aisne 30 5,307,754 3,103,178 + Nord 155 44,142,224 15,334,063 + Oise 8 1,589,939 751,746 + Pas-de-Calais 70 16,665,084 5,856,944 + Somme 23 3,404,776 2,683,421 + Scattered about 18 2,707,190 3,505,602 + ------ ------------ ------------ + 304 73,817,607 30,234,954 + +This information was given by M. Fould, Minister of Finance, upon the +introduction of a bill making an appropriation for the purchase of 455 +_saccharometers_, which had become necessary by reason of the late law +ordering that from and after the 1st of January, 1852, the beet sugars +were to be taxed according to their saccharine richness. The Minister +declared that at that date there would be in active operation in +France 334 sugar factories and 84 refining establishments. + +The _Moniteur Parisien_ has the following:-- + + "Notwithstanding the advantages accorded to colonial sugar, and the + duties which weigh on beet-root sugar, the latter article has + acquired such a regular extension that it has reached the quantity + of 60,000 tons--that is to say, the half of our consumption. France + (deducting the refined sugar exported under favour of the drawback) + consumes 120,000 tons, of which 60,000 are home made, 50,000 + colonial, and 10,000 foreign. The two sugars have been placed on the + same conditions as to duties, but it is only from the 1st inst. + (Jan. 1852), that the beet-root sugar will pay a heavier duty than + our colonial sugar. In spite of this difference we are convinced + that the manufacture of beet-root sugar, which is every day, + improved by new processes, will be always very advantageous, and + will attain in some years the total quantity of the consumption. In + Belgium the produce of the beet-root follows the same progress. The + consumption of sugar there was, in 1850, 14,000 tons, of which 7,000 + was beet-root, made in 22 manufactories. This year there are 18 new + ones, and although their organisation does not allow of their + manufacturing in the same proportion as the 22 old ones, they will + furnish at least 3,000 tons. The quantity of foreign sugar in that + market does not reckon more than 4,000 tons. This conclusion is the + more certain, as in 1848-1849, the beet-root only stood at 4,500 + tons in the general account. It may therefore be seen from these + figures what progress has been made. The same progressive movement + is going on in Germany. In 1848 it produced 26,000 tons, and in + 1861, 43,000. The following table shows the importance of this + improvement. It comprises the Zollverein, Hanover, and the Hanse Towns:-- + + Cane Sugar. Beet-root. Totals. + Tons. Tons. Tons. + 1848 60,500 26,000 86,500 + 1849 54,000 34,000 88,000 + 1851 45,000 43,000 88,000 + + Thus we find that in the period of four years cane sugar has lost + 15,000 tons and it will lose still more when new manufactories shall + have been established. The consumption of Russia is estimated at + 85,000 tons, of which 35,000 is beet-root, and what proves that the + latter every day gains ground is, that the orders to the Havana are + constantly decreasing, and prices are getting lower. In 1848 Austria + consumed 40,000 tons, of which 8,000 were beet-root. Last year + (1851,) she produced 15,000 tons. The production of the continent + rising to 200,000 tons, and the consumption remaining nearly + stationary, it is evident that Brazilian and Cuban sugars will + encumber the English market, independently of the refined sugar of + Java, which Holland sends to Great Britain. When the continental + system was established by the decrees of Milan and Berlin, the + Emperor Napoleon asked the savans to point out the means of + replacing the productions which he proscribed: it is to the active + and useful impulse which his genius impressed on all minds, that + France and Europe owe this fresh manufacture--a creation the more + valuable as its fortunate development required the co-operation of + chemical science and agricultural improvement." + +The quantity of sugar extracted from beet-root in the commencement of +the process, amounted to only 2 per cent.; but it was afterwards made +to yield 5 per cent., and it was then supposed possible to extract 6 +per cent. On this calculation the fiscal regulations for the +protection of colonial sugars in France were founded; but recent +experiments have been made, by means of which as much as ten and a +half per cent. of sugar has been obtained. The following notice of the +improved process is given in a number of the _Constitutionnel_:-- + + "It appears that a great improvement is likely to be made in the + manufacture of beet-root sugar. Those who are acquainted with the + process of this manufacture, are aware that M. de Dombasle has the + last six years exclusively devoted himself to bring to perfection + the process of maceration, of which he is the inventor. Adopting + recent improvements, this process is materially altered, and has now + arrived at such a point of perfection that it could scarcely be + exceeded. The Society for the Encouragement of National Industry + recently appointed committees to examine the effect produced in the + manufactory of Roville. They witnessed the entire progress of the + work, every part of which was subjected to minute investigation. + Similar experiments have been made in the presence of many + distinguished manufacturers. We have not the least intention to + prejudge the decision which may be made on this subject by the + society we have alluded to; but we believe we are able to mention + the principal results that have regularly attended the works of the + manufactory this year. The produce in coarse sugar has been more + than eight per cent. of the first quality, and more than two per + cent. of the second quality, in all nearly ten and a half per cent. + of the weight of beet-root used; and the quality of these sugars has + been considered by all the manufacturers superior to anything of the + kind that has hitherto been made, and admits of its being converted + into loaf-sugar of the first quality. The progress of these + operations is as simple as possible, and the expenses attending the + manufacture are considerably less than that of the process hitherto + adopted." + +The cultivation of the beet in France appears likely to prove still +more advantageous, in consequence of the discovery that the molasses +drawn from the root may be, after serving for the manufacture of +sugar, turned to farther advantage. It appears that potash may be made +from it, of a quality equal to foreign potash. A Monsieur Dubranfaut +has discovered a method of extracting this substance from the residue +of the molasses after distillation, and which residue, having served +for the production of alcohol, was formerly thrown away. To give some +idea of the importance of the creation of this new source of national +wealth (remarks the _Journal des Debats_), it will be sufficient to +say that the quantity of potash furnished by M. Dubranfaut's process +is equal to l/6th of the quantity of sugar extracted from the beet. +Thus, taking the amount of indigenous sugar manufactured each year at +seventy million kilogrammes (each kil. equal to 2 lbs. 2 oz. avoird.), +there may besides be extracted from this root, which has served for +that production, twelve million kilogrammes of saline matter, +comparable to the best potash of commerce; and this, too, without, the +loss of the alcohol and the other produce, the fabrication of which +may be continued simultaneously. According to the present prices, the +twelve millions of kilogrammes represent a value of from fourteen to +fifteen million francs. + +The States composing the German Union possessed towards the close of +1838, 87 manufactories of beet-root sugar in full operation, viz., +Prussia, 63; Bavaria, 5; Wurtemburg, 3; Darmstadt, 1; other states, +15; besides 66 which were then constructing. + +The only returns given for Prussia and Central Germany are 1836 to +1838, and the annual production of sugar was then estimated at eleven +million pounds. The quantity now made is, of course, much greater. + +At the close of 1888, Austria produced nine million pounds; she now +makes fifteen thousand tons. + +The growth of beet-root in Hungary, during the years 1837 and 1838, +was extremely favorable, and the manufacture of sugar from it has +become very extensive. It has been greatly encouraged by the Austrian +government. It was estimated that fifty millions of pounds were +manufactured in Prussia and Germany in 1839. In Bohemia there were, in +1840, fifty-two factories of beet-root sugar, and nine for the making +of syrup out of potato meal. In 1838, the number was as high as +eighty-seven. + +The Dutch papers state that in a single establishment in Voster Vick, +in Guilderland, about five million pounds' weight of the beet-root are +consumed in the manufacture of sugar. + +The following is a Comparative Statement of the number of Sugar +Manufactories, and the Quantity of Beet-root upon which duty was paid +for the Manufacture of Sugar in the Zollverein during the years ending +the 31st of August, 1846 and 1847:-- + + -------------------+-------------+------------------------------------- + | |Quantity of Beet-root upon which duty + | |was paid for the Manufacture of Sugar. + | +---------+---------+----------------- + | Number of | | | Comparison in + Name of the State |Manufactories| | | 1846-7 with the + of the Zollverein | | 1845-6 | 1846-7 | preceding year. + +------+------+ | +---------+------- + | | | | | More in |Less in + |1845-6|1846-7| | | 1846-7 |1846-7 + -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + Prussia | | |Cwts. ** | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. + Eastern Prussia | 2 | 2 | 12,393| 29,941| 17,548| -- + Western Prussia | -- | -- | -- | -- | --- | -- + Posen | 7 | 8 | 101,422| 121,914| 20,492| -- + Pomerania | 5 | 4 | 89,865| 121,061| 31,196| -- + Silesia | 16 | 22 | 590,545| 711,632| 121,087| -- + Brandenburg | 3 | 3 | 140,421| 148,066| 7,645| -- + Prussian Saxony | 38 | 42 |2,676,084|3,547,891| 871,817| -- + Duchies of Anhalt | 4 | 5 | 266,345| 288,082| 21,737| -- + Westphalia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + Rhenish Provinces | 2 | -- | 2,479| -- | -- | 2,479 + -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + Total in Prussia | 77 | 86 |3,879,554|4,968,587|1,079,043| + -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + Luxemburg | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + Bavaria, Kingdom of| 8 | 7 | 50,952| 46,142| -- | 4,810 + Saxony, " | 1 | 2 | 20,887| 34,230| 13,343| -- + Wurtemburg, " | 2 | 2 | 59,521| 141,366| 81,845| -- + Baden, Grand Duchy | 2 | 2 | 316,968| 328,608| 11,640| -- + Hesse, Electorate | 2 | 3 | 25,376| 23,529| -- | 1,847 + Hesse, Grand Duchy | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + Thuringia | 2 | 3 | 36,127| 38,218| 2,091| -- + Brunswick, Dukedom | 2 | 2 | 65,707| 52,796| -- | 12,911 + Nassau, Dukedom | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + Frankfort, FreeCity| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- + +------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + Total, exclusively } | | | | | + of Prussia } 19 | 21 | 575,538| 664,889| 89,351| + +------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + Total in the | | | | | | + Zollverein | 96 | 107 |4,455,092|5,633,476|1,168,394| + -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- + [** Prussian cwts. are equal to 80 English cwts.] + +This statement proves that the cultivation of the beet-root, and the +subsequent manufacture into sugar, has greatly increased in the +Zollverein. Eleven manufactories had been added to the number in the +previous year, and an increase of 26 per cent. took place in the +quantity of beet-root which was manufactured into sugar. Each +manufactory used, upon an average, the following quantity during the +undermentioned years:-- + + 1841-2 1844-5 1846-7 + Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. + In Prussia generally 38,161 50,384 57,774 + In the province of Saxony 55,412 70,423 84,473 + In the province of Silesia 33,595 36,909 32,347 + In the Zollverein, on an average + in each manufactory 27,237 46,407 52,634 + +The increase is chiefly evident in the province of Saxony, where, in +1846-7, an augmentation of 1,087,851 cwt. of beet-root; in comparison +to the preceding year, took place. If we compare the quantity of +beet-root employed in Saxony with that of the whole Zollverein, we +find that the former province requires 63 per cent, of the whole +quantity used for the manufacture of sugar. The great activity in that +province (chiefly in the district of Magdeburg) is rendered more +apparent by the following table:-- + +Comparative Statement of the Number of Manufactories, and their +Machinery and Utensils, employed for the Manufacture of Beet-root +Sugar in the Prussian Province of Saxony during the years 1841-2 and +1846-7 respectively. + + ------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------- + | |In the neighbourhood + |Province of Saxony | of Magdeburg + +---------+---------+---------+---------- + | 1841-2 | 1846-7 | 1841-2 | 1846-7 + +---------+---------+---------+---------- + | No. | No. | No. | No. + Manufactories | 40 | 39 | 15 | 15 + Apparatus for grating | 58 | 65 | 27 | 32 + Hydraulic presses | 136 | 209 | 72 | 93 + Clarifying pans, with open | | | | + firing | 81 | 68 | 24 | 24 + Ditto, by steam | 50 | 76 | 33 | 42 + Evaporating pans, with open | | | | + firing | 130 | 123 | 55 | 54 + Ditto, by steam | 46 | 71 | 28 | 32 + Clarifiers, with open firing | 23 | 21 | 14 | 10 + Ditto, by steam | 23 | 28 | 19 | 21 + Boiling pans, with open firing| 76 | 61 | 33 | 24 + Ditto, by steam | 20 | 35 | 12 | 17 + Of which there are vacuum pans| 8 | 21 | 3 | 9 + Steam-engines | 19 | 40 | 12 | 20 + Horse-power | 210 | 457 | 153 | 267 + Cattle mills | 19 | 9 | 4 | 2 + Cattle employed | 79 | 38 | 19 | 12 + | | | | + | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. + Quantity of beet-root used} | | | | + for manufacture } |2,349,774|3,387,280|1,433,293|1,889,463 + Or on an average in each} | | | | + manufactory } | 58,744| 86,853| 95,553| 125,964 + ------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------- + +The increase of power by machinery is surprising, chiefly by steam and +hydraulic presses, which has not only effected a greater produce, but +likewise a much larger increase of the quantity of beet-root required +for manufacture. The works where draught cattle are employed have +decreased, and are only in use where the manufacture of beet root +sugar is combined with a farm. + +In Russia, in 1832, there existed only 20 manufacturers of beet root +sugar, but this number subsequently increased to 100, and they +annually produced the twelfth of the total quantity of sugar which +Russia receives from foreign parts. The number of those manufactories +in 1840, was 140, and the importation of sugar, which reached to +1,555,357 lbs. in 1837, amounted to only 1,269,209 lbs. in 1839. The +production of indigenous sugar is now set down at 35,000 tons. + +In France, for many years past, the production of beet-root sugar has +been rapidly increasing, in spite of a gradual reduction of the +protection which it enjoyed against colonial and foreign sugar, until +it has reached a quantity of 60,000 tons, or fully one half of the +entire consumption. Independent of the refined sugar exported under +drawback, the consumption of France may be now estimated at 120,000 +tons, of which 60,000 tons are of beet-root, 60,000 tons of French +colonial, and 10,000 tons at the outside of foreign sugar. The +beet-root and the French colonial sugars are now placed on the same +footing as regards duty, and a law was recently passed, subjecting +beet-root sugar, from the 1st of January, 1852, to even a higher duty +than French colonial sugar. Nevertheless, it is admitted that the +manufacture of beet-root sugar is highly profitable and rapidly +increasing, so that it is likely in a very short time to exclude +foreign sugar from French consumption altogether. + +In Belgium, the production of beet-root sugar is also rapidly +increasing; in 1851 the entire consumption of sugar was estimated at +14,000 tons, of which 7,000 tons were of beet-root, and 7,000 tons of +foreign cane sugar. The number of beet-root factories to supply that +quantity was _twenty-two_, but this number has, already increased in +the present year to _forty_. Many of these will be but imperfectly at +work during this season, but it is estimated that of the entire +consumption of 14,000 tons, at least 10,000 tons will consist of +beet-root, and only 4,000 tons of foreign cane sugar. And from present +appearances the manufacture of beet-root is likely to increase so much +as to constitute nearly the entire consumption. So lately as 1848 and +1849 the production of beet-root sugar was only 4,500 tons. + +In Austria, the consumption of sugar in 1841 was 40,000 tons, of which +8,000 tons were of beet-root, and 32,000 tons of foreign cane sugar. +But the production of beet-root has increased so fast that it is +estimated to produce in the present year 15,000 tons; and as no +increase has taken place in the entire consumption, the portion of +foreign cane sugar required in the present year will be reduced from +32,000 tons to 25,000 tons. + +The following information, with regard to the state of the manufacture +of beet-root sugar on the Continent last year, has been furnished by +Mr. C.J. Ramsay, of Trinidad. + + "My first start was for Paris, where I remained a week, procuring + the necessary letters of introduction, to enable me to see some of + the sugar works in the provinces. Whilst there I called upon Messrs. + Cail and Co., the principal machine makers in France, mentioned the + subject of my visit, and requested their assistance. Nothing could + have been more liberal than the way in which they treated me. I was + at once asked to look over their establishment and requested to call + the next day, when letters of introduction to their branch + establishments at Valenciennes and Brussels would be ready for me. + This I of course did, and received not only these letters but some + others, to sugar manufacturers in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes. + Thus provided, and with letters from Mr. D'Eickthal, a banker in + Paris, to Mr. Dubranfaut, the chemist, to Mr. Grar, a refiner of + Valenciennes, to Mr. Melsens of Brussels, and to another sugar maker + near Valenciennes, whose name I forget, and who was the only man + from whom I did not receive the greatest politeness, I started for + Valenciennes. My first essay was upon the latter personage, who + evidently with a considerable grudge showed me a simple room in his + works where four centrifugal machines were at work--raised the cry + of ruin, if the French improvements were introduced in the West + Indies, and informed me he had nothing else worth seeing. I returned + to Valenciennes, thinking if this is the way I was to be treated, I + might as well have stayed at home. That this was a solitary instance + of illiberality, you will presently see. I next called upon Mr. + Grar, by whom I was received in a very different manner; he at once + offered to show me over his works, and especially that part of them + where a new process, discovered by Mr. Dubranfaut, was carried on, + every part of which was fully explained, Mr. Dubranfaut's laboratory + is connected with these works, and having inspected the working part + of the establishment Mr. G. then took me there, and introduced me to + that gentleman, with whom I passed the remainder of the afternoon, + receiving a full explanation of his new process, which is this:--a + solution of hydrate of barytes is made in boiling water--the + saccharine solution to be treated is heated to the same degree, and + the two mixed together in the proportions of 46 parts of hydrate of + barytes to every 100 parts of sugar contained in the solution, which + has previously been ascertained by polariscopic examination. A + saccharate of barytes is immediately formed in the shape of a + copious precipitate; this, after being thoroughly washed and thus + freed from all soluble impurities, is transferred into large, deep + vats, and a stream of carbonic acid gas forced into it, which + decomposes the saccharate of barytes, forming carbonate of barytes, + and liberating the sugar in the shape of a perfectly pure solution + of sugar in water, of the density of 20 to 23 degrees Baume; the + carbonate of barytes being thoroughly washed is again converted into + caustic barytes by burning, so that there is little loss in the + operation. The whole process is certainly very beautiful, and its + economic working has been tried for a year, on a sufficiently large + scale to leave no doubt as to the economy of the process in refining + molasses, which is the only purpose it has yet been applied to. + + The Messrs. Grar were so thoroughly satisfied with it, that when I + was there they had taken down their original apparatus, and were + re-erecting it on such a scale as to work up all the molasses by it, + equal to almost five tons of sugar daily. Owing to this + circumstance, I had not an opportunity of seeing the process on a + working scale, but was shown the whole proceedings in the + laboratory. + + The only difficulties I see in applying this process at once to the + cane juice, are the large quantity of barytes required, the expense + of re-burning it and the entire change in works that would be + necessary before it could be introduced. The advantage would be, the + obtaining the whole sugar contained in the juice, free from all + impurities, consequently white, and in the shape of a syrup marking + 20 to 23 degrees instead of 8 or 10 degrees, thus saving fully half + the evaporation now required. The sugar made in this way, I was + told, contains no trace of barytes. + + To show you the degree of economy practised in such establishments + in France, I may mention that the washings of the saccharate of + barytes are sold to the makers of potash and soda, who make a profit + by boiling them down to obtain what salts they contain. + + The carbonic acid is obtained by the combustion of charcoal in a + closed iron furnace into which air is forced by an air pump, + requiring, I believe, about one horse power. From the top of the + furnace a pipe leads into a washing vessel, from which the gas is + led into the bottom of the vats by pipes. + + At Valenciennes I met with Mr. Cail, who, beside being an engineer + and machine-maker, is interested in sugar-making, both in France and + in the West Indies, and most thoroughly understands the subject. He + invited me to accompany him to Douai, to see a new set of works + which had been set agoing this month. I was of course too glad to + accept his invitation, and started with him at six next morning, + reached Douai at eight, and then proceeded to the works, which are a + few miles out of town. In this work a new process is also employed; + it is that of Mr. Rouseau, and is said to answer well. The beet root + juice, as soon as possible after expression, is thrown up by a + montjus into copper clarifiers with double bottoms, heated by steam + at a pressure of five atmospheres. To every hundred litres of juice + (=22 gals.) two kilogrammes of lime are added (about four and a half + pounds English weight). The lime is most carefully prepared and + mixed with large quantities of hot water till it forms a milk + perfectly free from lumps. The steam is turned off, and the juice + heated to 90 deg. A complete defecation has taken place, the steam + is shut off, and the juice left a short time, to allow the heavier + impurities to subside. It is then run off in the usual manner, + undergoes a slight filtration through a cotton cloth placed over a + layer of about four inches thick of animal charcoal, and runs into a + second set of copper vessels placed on a lower level than the + clarifiers; these vessels are heated by means of a coil of steam + piping sufficient to make them boil. A second pipe passes into them, + making a single turn at the bottom of the vessel; this is pierced on + the lower side with small holes, through which a stream of carbonic + acid gas is forced. + + This decomposes the saccharate of lime, which has been formed in + consequence of the large excess of lime added to the clarifiers. + + The lime is precipitated as carbonate. When precipitation has + ceased, steam is turned on, and the whole made to boil; this expels + any excess of carbonic acid; the liquor is then run off, undergoes a + similar partial filtration to that mentioned above, and is then + passed through the charcoal filters to be decomposed. The sugar made + by this process, directly from the beet-root juice, is nearly white. + The molasses is re-boiled as often as six times; each time + undergoing a clarification and filtration through animal charcoal. + And the proceeds of the last re-boiling is certainly in appearance + not worse than a great deal of muscovado I have seen shipped from + Trinidad. + + In this work there are about 150 people employed. The work goes on + night and day, one gang replacing the other. The whole evaporation + is done by two vacuum pans, each 61/2 feet in diameter, 80,000 + kilogrammes of beet-root are used daily, from which about 6,000 + kilogrammes of sugar are obtained, equal to about 6 tons English + weight. + + In these and every other works I visited--eight in all--the + centrifugal machines were in use, and had in most cases been so for + two years; those lately made have been much simplified in + construction, and work admirably. Cail & Co., of Paris, are the + makers; their charge is 3,000 francs for each machine (L120 stg.). + They require about one and a half horse power each. As they are + wrought in France, one machine is about equal to work off a ton and + a half of sugar daily, working all the 24 hours. Mr. Cail recommends + a separate engine for those machines; so that they can be used at + any time, independent of the other machinery. The charge put into a + machine is about 80 kilogrammes, from which about 30 to 35 + kilogrammes of dry sugar is obtained; the calculation is, I believe, + 40 per cent. I weighed some of the baskets of sugar taken out after + drying, and found them 35 kilogrammes. Sugar intended for the + machine is never concentrated beyond 41 degrees Baume; that made + from the juice direct is allowed 18 to 34 hours to crystallize, and + is put into the machine in a semi-liquid state; the motion at first + is comparatively slow; in about three minutes the sugar appears + nearly dry; about three-fourths of a gallon of brown syrup is then + poured into the machine whilst in motion, and the speed brought up + to its highest, about 1200 revolutions a minute; in 3 or 4 minutes + more the machine is stopped, the sugar scooped out and thrown into + baskets, the inside of the revolving part, and especially the wire + cloth, carefully washed with a brush and water, and a fresh charge + put in. The whole time betwixt each charge is about 15 minutes. From + the large proportion of molasses you will see very plainly that + those who do not intend to re-boil, need not think of centrifugal + machines. The sugar dried in this way is not altogether white, but + has a slight greyish yellow tinge. + + Of the other sugar works which I visited, the only one of peculiar + interest was that of Mr. Dequesne, near Valenciennes. Here the roots + are first cut into small pieces by an instrument similar to a turnip + slicer, then dried in a species of kiln, and stored up till + required. In this way I was told beet-root could be preserved with + very little deterioration for a full year, and this enables Mr. + Dequesne to go on making sugar all the year round. When the sugar is + to be extracted, the dried cuttings are put into a series of closed + vessels connected by pipes, and by a system of continuous filtration + of warm water through these vessels the solution of sugar is + obtained, of a density equal, I believe, to 25 degrees Baume; it is + a good deal colored, and requires filtration through animal + charcoal. Mr. Dequesne informed me that for five years he had been + unable to make this mode of sugar-making cover its expenses, owing + to the loss occasioned by fermentation taking place in the + beet-root; but that he has now entirely overcome that difficulty; by + what means I was not told. + + The number of macerating vessels is fourteen, ten of which are + working at a time, the other four filling and emptying. + + A greater number of vessels, Mr. Dequesne thinks, would be + advantageous, as cold instead of hot water could then be employed. + He thinks a similar plan might be introduced in the West Indies with + great advantage, and that by employing the proper means to prevent + fermentation the sun's heat would be quite sufficient to dry the + cane slices. + + Mr. Dubranfaut and Mr. Rouseau's processes are patented in England. + The terms for the use of the former would, I was told, be made so + moderate, as to offer no obstruction to its being used in the + colonies. What Mr. Rouseau's terms are I could not learn. + + There are now 288 works making beet root sugar in France, and over + 30 in Belgium. The same manufacture is rapidly spreading in Germany + and Russia, and is now being introduced in Italy. Whilst at + Valenciennes, I learned that two English gentlemen had just preceded + me in visiting the works in that neighbourhood, mentioning that they + had in view introducing the beet root sugar manufacture in Ireland. + + The sugar crop of France was last year over 60,000,000 of + kilogrammes (60,000 tons). For two years _Belgium has been + exporting_ to the Mediterranean. One maker told me that he had last + year exported a considerable part of his crop. It would therefore + appear, that even beet root sugar can compete in _other than the + producing country_ with the sugar of the tropics--a most significant + hint that, unless the cane can be made to yield more and better + sugar than is now generally got from it, there is some risk of its + being ultimately beaten by the beet root, the cultivation of which + is now carried on with so much profit that new works are springing + up every year, in almost every country of the continent. + + In going through the French works, I made inquiries as to how far + the procede Melsens had been adopted, and was everywhere told it was + a total failure. I, however, determined to see Mr. Melsens and judge + for myself how far it might be applicable to the cane, even if a + failure with regard to the beet root. I, therefore, went on to + Brussels, enclosed my letters of introduction and card, and received + in return a note, appointing to meet me next morning. I found him + one of the best and most obliging of men. He immediately offered to + go over some experiments on beet root juice with me at his + laboratory, where I accordingly spent the greater part of two days + with him, and went over a variety of experiments; and from what I + saw and assisted in doing, I feel strongly inclined to think that, + notwithstanding the French commission at Martinique report + otherwise, some modification of Mr. Melsens' process may be most + advantageously employed in making cane sugar if not as a defecator, + at least to prevent fermentation, and, probably, also as a + decolorising agent. + + Mr. Melsens showed me letters he had received from Java from a + person with whom he had no acquaintance, stating that he had used + the bisulphate of lime with complete success; and whilst I was with + him he again received letters from the same person, stating that by + its use he had not only improved the quality of sugar, but had + raised the return to 9 per cent. of the weight of cane. From the + letters which I saw, the process appears to have been tried on a + very large scale, with the advantage of filters and a vacuum pan. + Where the old mode of leaving half the dirt with the sugar, and + boiling up to a temperature of 340 degrees or thereby, is continued, + I fear there is not much chance of either bisulphate or anything + else making any very great improvement. + + The use of bisulphate of lime is patented in England and the + colonies, but I believe I may state the charge for the right of + using it will be made extremely moderate. + + The points which appeared to me worthy of remark in visiting the + beet-root sugar works are, the extreme care that nothing shall be + lost--the great attention paid to cleanliness in every part of the + process, besides the particular care given to defecation. No vessel + is ever used twice without being thoroughly washed. Such a thing as + the employment of an open fire in any part of the manufacture is + quite unknown. Everything is done by steam, of a pressure of from 4 + to 5 atmospheres. In the more recently started works, the + evaporation is entirely carried on in vacuum. In some of the older + works copper evaporators, heated by coils of steam piping, and + having covers, with chimneys to carry off the vapor, are still used; + but of the eight works I visited I only saw them in use in one of + them, and they are nowhere used excepting to evaporate to the point + when the second filtration takes place. + + The coolers I saw were invariably made of iron, and varied in depth + from 2 to over 6 feet. These very deep vessels are used for the + crystallization of sugar, made of the fourth, fifth and sixth + re-boilings of molasses, which requires from three to six months. + + One thing struck me forcibly in going over the French and Belgian + works; it was the extreme liberality with which I was allowed to go + over every part of them; to remain in them as long as I pleased; had + all my inquiries answered, and every explanation given; in most + striking contrast to the grudging manner in which I have been + trotted over some of the refineries in England, as if those who + showed them were afraid I should gain any information on the subject + of their trade. + +Mr. H. Colman, speaking of the agriculture of the Continent, gives +some information he obtained on the comparative cost of producing beet +and cane sugar. A hectare (two and a half acres) produces, in the Isle +of Bourbon, about 76,000 kilogrammes (a kilogramme is nearly two and +one-fifth pounds) of cane, which will give 2,200 kilogrammes of sugar, +and the cost for labor is 2,500 francs. A hectare of beet root +produces 40,000 kilogrammes of roots, which yield 2,400 kilogrammes of +sugar, and the expense of the culture is 354 francs. The cost of the +cane sugar in this case is 27 centimes, and of the beet sugar 14 +centimes only, per kilogramme. + +These are extraordinary statements, and will be looked at by the +political economist and the philanthropist with great interest. There +are few of the northern states of Europe, or of the United States, +which might not produce their own sugar; and when we take into account +the value of this product, even in its remains after the sugar is +extracted, for the fattening of cattle and sheep, and of course for +the enrichment of the land for the succeeding crops, its important +bearing upon agricultural improvement cannot be exaggerated. + +According to M. Peligot, the average amount of sugar in beets is 12 +per cent.; but, by extraction, they obtain only 6 per cent. The cane +contains about 18 per cent. of saccharine matter, but they get only +about 71/2. The expense of cultivating a hectare of beets, according to +Dombasle, is 354 francs. An hectare of cane, which produces 2,200 +kilogrammes of sugar, in the Island of Bourbon, and only 2,000 in +French Guiana, demands the labor of twelve negroes, the annual expense +of each of whom is 250 francs, according to M. Labran.--(Commission of +Inquiry in 1840.) + +Sugar has become not only an article of luxury, but of utility, to +such a degree, that a supply of it constitutes an important article +of importation, and is of national consequence. For sugar the world +has hitherto relied on the cane, with the exception of some parts of +India, where the sugar palm yields it much more cheaply. The sugar +cane is, however, a tropical plant, and, of course, its cultivation +must of necessity be limited to such hot countries. France, during the +wars of Napoleon, shut out from her Indian possessions or deprived of +them, commenced making sugar from beets, and it proving unexpectedly +successful and profitable, it has as we have just seen, extended not +only over that empire, but nearly the whole of continental Europe, +where it forms an important item in their system of cultivation and +profit. The manufacture has been attempted in the United States; but +though the facts of the ease and certainty with which the beets may be +grown and their great value for stock has been fully ascertained, +still little progress in the production of sugar from them has been +made there. + + +MAPLE SUGAR. + +There are few trees in the American forest of more value than the +maple (_Acer saccharinum_). As an ornamental tree, it is exceeded by +few; its ashes abound in alkali, and from it a large proportion of the +potash of commerce is produced; and its sap furnishes a sugar of the +best quality, and in abundance. It likewise affords molasses and an +excellent vinegar. In the maple the sugar amounts to five per cent. of +the whole sap. There is no tree whose shape and whose foliage is more +beautiful, and whose presence indicates a more generous, fertile, and +permanent soil than the rock maple: in various cabinet-work its timber +vies with black walnut and mahogany for durability and beauty; and as +an article of fuel its wood equals the solid hickory. Its height is +sometimes 100 feet, but it usually grows to a height varying from +forty to eighty feet. It is bushy, therefore an elegant shade tree. +The maple is indigenous to the forests of America, and wherever there +has been opportunity for a second growth, this tree attains to a +considerable size much sooner than might be imagined. In the course of +ten or fifteen years the maple becomes of a size to produce sugar. The +trees which have come up since the first clearing, produce sap that +yields much more saccharine than the original forest maples. + +The whole interior of the northern part of the United States have +relied, and still rely, more on their maple woodlands for sugar than +on any other source; and as a branch of domestic manufacture and home +production, the business is of no little consequence. The time +occupied too in the manufacture is very limited, and occurs at a +season when very little other labor can be performed. + +Hitherto but comparatively little attention has been bestowed upon +this important branch of industry in Canada. The inhabitants of that +province might doubtless manufacture a sufficient quantity of maple +sugar to supply the demand or consumption in this article for the +whole population of the country. This variety of sugar may be refined, +and made as valuable for table use as the finest qualities of West +India sugar. On the south shore of Lake Huron, and the islands of +that inland sea, there are forests of sugar + +maple unsurveyed capable of producing a supply for the whole +population. The Indians upon those islands have lately turned their +attention pretty largely to the manufacture of sugar from the maple; +and many tons have been exported from this source. If the Indians +could obtain a fair value for their sugar, say seven or eight dollars +per 100 lbs., they would extend their operations upon a large scale. +Upon these islands alone, there are upwards of a million of full-grown +maple trees, capable of yielding each from two and a half to three +pounds of excellent sugar per annum; and if proper attention were +given to this branch of production in that quarter, I see no reason +why a most profitable business could not be carried on. Every farmer +who has a grove of sugar maple, should endeavour to manufacture at +least sufficient for the consumption of his own family. In most cases +150 trees of medium growth would yield an amount of sap that would +make 300 lbs. of sugar, twenty-five gallons of molasses, and a barrel +of vinegar. The labor required to manufacture this amount of sugar, +molasses, and vinegar, would scarcely be felt by the well-organised +cultivator, as the season for the business is at the close of the +winter, and opening spring, when no labor can be done upon the land. +In proportion to the amount of labor and money expended in the +production of maple sugar, it is as capable of yielding as large a +return of profits as any other branch of farm business. It is +certainly an object of great national interest to the inhabitants of +our North American Colonies, that they should supply their own market +with such products as their highly-favored country is capable of +producing. Sugar is an article which will ever find a ready sale at +highly-remunerating prices, provided that it be properly manufactured +and brought into market in good condition. It requires a little outlay +at first to purchase buckets, cisterns, and boilers, to stock a sugar +bush; but by carefully using the above necessary apparatus, they will +last for a very long period. A farmer can supply himself with the +suitable materials for performing the sugar business without any cost +further than his own labor. The spring is the season of the year that +everything should be put in readiness,--even the wood should be +chopped and drawn to the spot, so that when the sap commences to run, +there may be no impediments in the way to hinder the complete success +of the business. + +Large tracts of land in the Ottawa district are covered with the true +sugar maple. It is found in great numbers in the eastern townships of +Lower Canada, where considerable forests of miles in extent contain +nothing else, and in other places it is mixed with various trees. +There is scarcely a spot in Lower Canada where it is not to be met +with. Capt. Marryatt has stated that there were trees enough on the +shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, to supply the whole world with +sugar. In the United States, the manufacture of the sugar was first +attempted about the year 1752, by some farmers of New England, as a +branch of rural economy. This gradually spread wherever the tree was +known. Now it forms an article of food throughout a large portion of +the country. Almost every farmer prepares sugar enough from the trees +in his neighbourhood for the consumption of his family during the +year, and has often a surplus for sale. It is much cheaper than +muscovado, being sold at from 2d. to 31/2d. per pound, whilst common +muscovado cannot be bought for less than 41/2d. to 5d. per pound. + +The province of Canada produced nearly ten million pounds in 1852, +6,190,694 being made in Lower Canada, and 3,581,505 in Upper Canada. +The quantity made in Lower Canada in 1849 was only about 1,537,093 +lbs. The maple sugar product of the Canadas in 1848 was officially +stated as follows:-- + + lbs. + Upper Canada 4,160,667 + Lower Canada 2,303,158 + --------- + 6,463,835 + +This product is therefore of immense importance to the British North +American provinces, all of which, under a judicious system, might be +made to produce vastly increased quantities of this wholesome and +valuable commodity. + +The importation of sugar in Canada may very safely be computed at +L40,000 per annum, and the whole of this amount of money could be +retained in the country if the people would only look well to the +matter. + +In tapping the tree, the gouge is the best implement that can be used, +provided it is an object to save the timber. It is usual, when using +the gouge, to take out a chip about an inch and a half in diameter; +but this system is objectionable where the maple is not abundant, as +it subjects the timber to decay; it is a better course to make an +incision by holding the gouge obliquely upwards an inch or more in the +wood. A spout, or spile, as it is termed, about a foot long, to +conduct off the sap, is inserted about two inches below this incision +with the same gouge. By this mode of tapping, the wound in the tree is +so small that it will be perfectly healed or grown over in two years. +A boiler, of thick sheet-iron, made to rest on the top of an arch, by +which the sides would be free from heat, and only the bottom is +exposed, is doubtless a secure and rapid process of evaporation. The +sides and ends of the boiler may be made of well-seasoned boards, +which will answer the same purpose as if made solely of sheet-iron. +When the sap is boiled down into syrup or thin molasses, it must be +taken out of the boiler and strained through a flannel cloth into a +tub, where it should settle about twenty-four hours. The clear syrup +should be separated from the sediment, which will be found in the +bottom of the tub. The pure syrup must be boiled down into sugar over +a slow fire. A short time, however, before the syrup is brought to a +boiling heat, to complete the clarifying process, the whites of five +eggs well beaten, about one quart of new milk, and a spoonful of +saleratus, should be all well mixed with a sufficient amount of syrup, +to make 100 lbs. of sugar. The scum which would rise on the top must +be skimmed off. Caution is to be observed in not allowing the syrup to +boil until the skimming process is completed. To secure a good +article, the greatest attention must be bestowed in granulating the +syrup. The boxes or tubs for draining should be large at the top and +small at the bottom. The bottom of the tubs should be bored full of +small holes, to let the molasses drain through. After it has nearly +done draining, the sugar may be dissolved, and the process of +clarifying, granulating, and draining repeated, which will give as +pure a quality of sugar as the best refined West India article. + +The greatest objections that are advanced against maple sugar are, +that the processes made use of in preparing the sugar for market are +so rude and imperfect that it is too generally acid, and besides +charged with salts of the oxide of iron, insomuch that it ordinarily +strikes a black color with tea. These objections may be removed +without any comparative difficulty, as it has been proved to +demonstration, by the application of one ounce of clear lime-water to +a gallon of maple sap, that the acidity will be completely +neutralised, and the danger of the syrup adhering to the sides of the +boiler totally removed. The acid so peculiar to the maple sugar, when +combined with lime in the above proportion, is found to be excessively +soluble in alcohol; so much so, that yellow sugar can be rendered +white in a few minutes by placing it in an inverted cone, open at the +top, with small holes at the bottom, and by pouring on the base of the +cone a quantity of alcohol. This should filtrate through until the +sugar is white; it should then be dried and re-dissolved in boiling +water, and again evaporated until it becomes dense enough to +crystallise. Then pour it into the cones again, and let it harden. By +this process a very white sample of sugar may be made, and both the +alcohol and acids will be thoroughly dispelled with the vapor. + +The process of making maple sugar it will be seen is very simple and +easily performed. The trees must be of suitable size, and within a +convenient distance of the place where the operations of boiling, &c., +are to be performed. When gathered, the sap should be boiled as early +as possible, as the quality of the sugar is in a great degree +dependent on the newness or freshness of the sap. There is a tendency +to acidity in this fluid which produces a quick effect in preventing +the making of sugar; and which, when the sap is obliged to be kept for +many hours in the reservoirs, must be counteracted by throwing into +them a few quarts of slaked lime. During the time of sugar making, +warm weather, in which the trees will not discharge their sap, +sometimes occurs, and the buckets become white and slimy, from the +souring of the little sap they contain. In this case they should be +brought to the boiler and washed out carefully with hot water, and a +handful of lime to each. + +In reducing the sap, the great danger to be apprehended is from +burning the liquid after it is made to the consistence of molasses, +since, when this is done, it is impossible to convert it into sugar; a +tough, black, sticky mass, of little value, being the result. Indeed, +constant care and attention is required to produce a first-rate +article: for though sugar may be made in almost any way where the sap +can be procured, yet unless the strictest care is observed in the +processes, in gathering and boiling the sap, clarifying the syrup, and +in converting the syrup to sugar, a dirty inferior article will be +made, instead of the beautiful and delicious sweet which the maple, +properly treated, is sure to yield. + +The quantity of sugar produced in a year varies considerably from the +same trees. The cause of this difference is to be found in the depth +of snow, continued cold, or a sudden transition from cold to warm, +thus abridging the period of sugar-making. A sharp frost at night, +with clear warm days, is the most favorable to the sugar-maker. +Perhaps four pounds of sugar from a tree may be a pretty fair average +of seasons generally, although we have known the growth to exceed six +pounds, and sink as low as three. A man will take care of one hundred +trees easily, during the season of sugar, which usually lasts from +about the middle of March into April, perhaps employing him twenty +days in the whole. Dr. Jackson, in his Report of the Maine Geological +Survey, gives the following instances of the production of sugar in +that State:-- + + Lbs. of Sugar. + At the Forks of the Kennebec, twelve persons made 3,605 + On No. 1, 2d range, one man and a boy made 1,000 + In Farmington, Mr. Titcomb made 1,500 + In Moscow, thirty families made 10,500 + In Bingham, twenty-five families made 9,000 + In Concord, thirty families made 11,000 + +A cold and dry winter is followed with a greater yield of sugar from +the maple than a season very moist and variable. Trees growing in wet +places will yield more sap, but much less sugar from the same +quantity, than trees on more elevated and drier ground. The red and +white maple will yield sap, but it has much less of the saccharine +quality than the rock or sugar maple. + +The work begins usually about the first of March. The tree will yield +its sap long before vegetation appears from the bud: frequently the +most copious flow is before the snow disappears from the ground. + +Some persons have a camp in their maple orchards, where large +cauldrons are set in which to boil down the sap to the consistency of +a thick syrup: others take the liquid to their houses, and there boil +down and make the sugar. + +The process begins by the preparation of spouts and troughs or tubs +for the trees: the spouts or tubes are made of elder, sumach, or pine, +sharpened to fit an auger hole of about three-fourths of an inch in +diameter. The hole is bored a little upward, at the distance +horizontally of five or six inches apart, and about twenty inches from +the ground on the south or sunny side of the tree. The trough, cut +from white maple, pine, ash, or bass wood, is set directly under the +spouts, the points of which are so constructed as completely to fill +the hole in the tree, and prevent the loss of the sap at the edges, +having a small gimlet or pitch hole in the centre, through which the +entire juice discharged from the tree runs, and is all saved in the +vessels below. The distance bored into the tree is only about one-half +an inch to give the best run of sap. The method of boring is far +better for the preservation of the tree than boxing, or cutting a hole +with an axe, from the lower edge of which the juice is directed by a +spout to the trough or tub prepared to receive it. The tub should be +of ash or other wood that will communicate no vicious taste to the +liquid or sugar. + +The sap is gathered daily from the trees and put in larger tubs for +the purpose of boiling down. This is done by the process of a steady +hot fire. The surface of the boiling kettle is from time to time +cleansed by a skimmer. The liquid is prevented from boiling over by +the suspension of a small piece of fat pork at the proper point. Fresh +additions of sap are made as the volume boils away. When boiled down +to a syrup, the liquor is set away in some earthen or metal vessel +till it becomes cool and settled. Again the purest part is drawn off +or poured into a kettle until the vessel is two-thirds full. By a +brisk and continual fire, the syrup is further reduced in volume to a +degree of consistence best taught by a little experience, when it is +either put into moulds to become hard as it is cooled, or stirred +until it shall be grained into sugar. The right point of time to take +it away from the fire may be ascertained by cooling and graining a +small quantity. The sediment is strained off and boiled down to make +molasses. + +The following is from a Massachusetts paper:-- + + The maple produces the best sugar that we have from any plant. + Almost every one admires its taste. It usually sells in this market + (Boston) nearly twice as high as other brown sugar. Had care been + taken from the first settlement of the country to preserve the sugar + maple, and proper attention been given to the cultivation of this + tree, so valuable for fuel, timber, and ornament, besides the + abundant yield of saccharine juice, we could now produce in New + England sugar enough for our own consumption, and not be dependent + on the labour of those who toil and suffer in a tropical sun for + this luxury or necessary of life. But, for want of this friendly + admonition, + + "Axeman, spare that tree," + + the sturdy blows were dealt around without mercy or discretion; and + the very generation that committed devastation in the first + settlements in different sections of our country, generally lived to + witness a scarcity of fuel; and means were resorted to for the + purchase of sugar, that were far more expensive than would have been + its manufacture, under a proper mode of economy in the preservation + of the maple, and the production of sugar from its sap. + + Those who have trees of the sugar maple, should prepare in season + for making sugar. In many localities, wood is no object, and a rude + method of boiling is followed; but where fuel is very scarce, a + cheap apparatus should be prepared that will require but little + fuel. In some sections, broad pans or kettles have been made of + sheet-iron bottoms, and sides of plank or boards, care being taken + (continued) to allow the fire to come into contact with the iron + only. These pans cost but a trifle, and, owing to their large + surface, the evaporation is rapid. + + Another cheap construction for boiling with economy is, to make a + tight box of plank, some four or five feet square--the width of a + wide plank will answer, and then put into it, almost at the bottom, + a piece of large copper funnel, say ten or twelve inches at the + outer part, and then smaller. This funnel, beginning near one end, + should run back nearly to the opposite side, then turn and come put + at the opposite end, or at the side near the end, as most + convenient, being in only two straight parts, that the soot may be + cleared out. Each end should be made tight, with a flange nailed to + the box. At the mouth of the large part there should be a door, to + reduce the draught; here make the fire, and at the other end have a + funnel to carry off the smoke. In this case, there is only sheet + copper between the fire and the sap which surrounds the funnel, so + that the heat is readily taken up by the liquid, and very little + escapes. This is an economical plan for cooking food for stock, + steaming timber, &c. + + For catching the sap, various kinds of vessels are used. The + cheapest are made of white birch, which last one season, or less. + Troughs of pine, or linden or bass wood, may be made for a few cents + each, and they will last for a number of years, if inverted in the + shade of trees. But these are inconvenient; and, after the first + year, they become dirty, and clog the sap. Pails with iron hoops are + the best, and, eventually, the cheapest. By painting and carefully + preserving them, they will cost, for a course of years, about one + cent each for a year. + +Mr. Alfred Fitch, in the "Genesee Farmer," says:-- + + In clarifying, I use for 50 lbs. of sugar one pint of skimmed milk, + put into the syrup when cold, and place it over a moderate fire + until it rises, which should occupy thirty or forty minutes; then + skim and boil until it will grain; after which I put it into a tub, + and turn on a little cold water, and in a few days the molasses will + drain out, and leave the sugar dry, light, and white. + +Mr. E.W. Clark, of Oswego, furnishes the following:-- + + _On Fining Maple Sugar_.--The sweet obtained from the maple tree is + undoubtedly the purest known; but from mismanagement in the + manufacture it frequently becomes very impure. Its value is + lessened, while the expense of making it increases. I am sensible + that the method which I shall recommend is not altogether a new one, + and that it is more by attending to some apparently minute and + trivial circumstances, than to any new plan, that my sugar is so + good. Much has been written upon, and many useful improvements been + made in, that part of the process which relates to tapping the + trees, and gathering and evaporating the sap, &c.; but still, if the + final operation is not understood, there will be a deficiency in the + quality of the sugar. I shall confine myself to that part of the + operation which relates to reducing the syrup to sugar, as it is of + the first importance. My process is this:--When the syrup is reduced + to the consistence of West India molasses, I set it away till it is + perfectly cold, and then mix with it the clarifying matter, which is + milk or eggs. I prefer eggs to milk, because when heated the whole + of it curdles; whereas milk produces only a small portion of curd. + The eggs should be thoroughly beaten and effectually mixed with the + syrup while cold. The syrup should then be heated till just before + it would boil, when the curd rises, bringing with it every impurity, + even the coloring matter, or a great portion of that which it had + received from the smoke, kettles, buckets, or reservoirs. The + boiling should be checked, and the scum carefully removed, when the + syrup should be slowly turned into a thick woollen strainer, and + left to run through at leisure. I would remark, that a great + proportion of the sugar that is made in our country is not strained + after cleansing. This is an error. If examined in a wine-glass, + innumerable minute and almost imperceptible particles of curd will + be seen floating in it, which, if not removed, render it liable to + burn, and otherwise injure the taste and color of it. + + A flannel strainer does this much better than a linen one. It is, + indeed, _indispensable_. As to the quantity of eggs necessary, one + pint to a pailful of syrup is amply sufficient, and half as much + will do very well. I now put my syrup into another kettle, which has + been made perfectly clean and _bright_, when it is placed over a + quick but solid fire, and soon rises, but is kept from overflowing + by being ladled with a long dipper. When it is sufficiently reduced, + (I ascertain this by dropping it from the point of a knife, while + hot, into one inch of cold water--if done, it will not immediately + mix with the water, but lies at the bottom in a round flat drop,) it + is taken from the fire, and the foaming allowed to subside. A thick + white scum, which is useable, is removed, and the sugar turned into + a cask, placed on an inclined platform, and left undisturbed for six + weeks or longer, when it should be tapped in the bottom and the + molasses drawn off. It will drain perfectly dry in a few days. + + The sugar made in this manner is very nearly as white as lump sugar, + and beautifully grained. We have always sold ours at the highest + price of Muscovadoes; and even when these sugars have sold at + eighteen cents, ours found a ready market at twenty. Two hands will + sugar off 250 lbs. in a day. From the scum taken off in cleansing, I + usually make, by diluting and recleansing, one-sixth as much as I + had at first, and of an equal quality. + + It is not of much consequence as regards the quality of the sugar, + whether care be taken to keep the sap clean or not. The points in + which the greatest error is committed, are, neglecting to use a + flannel strainer, or to strain after cleansing--to have the sugar + kettle properly cleaned--and to remove the white scum from the + sugar. + +An important process of manufacturing maple sugar, which produces a +most beautiful article, is also thus described in a communication by +the gentleman who gained the first premium at the State Fair at +Rochester in 1843, to the Committee on Maple Sugar of the New York +State Agricultural Society. + + In the first place, I make my buckets, tubs, and kettles all + perfectly clean. I boil the sap in a potash kettle, set in an arch + in such a manner that the edge of the kettle is defended all around + from the fire. I boil through the day, taking care not to have + anything in the kettle that will give color to the sap, and to keep + it well skimmed. At night I leave fire enough under the kettle to + boil the sap nearly or quite to syrup by the next morning. I then + take it out of the kettle, and strain it through a flannel cloth + into a tub, if it is sweet enough; if not, I put it in a cauldron + kettle, which I have hung on a pole in such a manner that I can + swing it on or off the fire at pleasure, and boil it till it is + sweet enough, and then strain it into the tub, and let it stand till + the next morning. I then take it and the syrup in the kettle, and + put it altogether into the cauldron, and sugar it off. I use, to + clarify say 100 lbs. of sugar, the whites of five or six eggs well + beaten, about one quart of new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, + all we'll mixed with the syrup before it is scalding hot. I then + make a moderate fire directly under the cauldron, until the scum is + all raised; then skim it off clean, taking care not to let it boil + so as to rise in the kettle before I have done skimming it. I then + sugar it off, leaving it so damp that it will drain a little. I let + it remain in the kettle until it is well granulated. I then put it + into boxes made smallest at the bottom, that will hold from fifty to + seventy lbs., having a thin piece of board fitted in, two or three + inches above the bottom, which is bored full of small holes, to let + the molasses drain through, which I keep drawn off by a tap through + the bottom. I put on the top of the sugar, in the box, a clean damp + cloth; and over that, a board, well fitted in, so as to exclude the + air from the sugar. After it has done draining, or nearly so, I + dissolve it, and sugar it off again; going through with the same + process in clarifying and draining as before. + +The following remarks from Dr. Jackson, of Boston, may be of interest +to the sections of the country where maple sugar is made:-- + + The northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, + have dense forests of the sugar maple, and at present only very rude + processes are made use of in preparing the sugar for market, so that + it is too generally acid and deliquescent, besides being charged + with salts of the oxide of iron, insomuch that it ordinarily strikes + a black color with tea. To remedy these difficulties was the object + of my researches; while, at the same time, I was engaged in + ascertaining the true composition of the sap, with a view to the + theory of vegetable nutrition. + + I received several gallons of freshly-drawn maple sap from + Northampton, Warner, and Canterbury, and made analyses of each lot, + separating the acids, salts, and the sugar. I also analysed the sap + of the yellow and white birch, which do not give any crystallisable + sugar, but an astringent molasses. + + I shall now communicate to you the process by which I manufactured + sugar maple sap, received from the Shakers of Canterbury, who + collected it with care in a clear glass demijohn, and sent it + forthwith, so that it came to me without any change of composition, + the weather being cold at the time. The evaporation was carried on + in glass vessels until the sap was reduced to about one-eighth its + original bulk, and then it was treated with a sufficient quantity of + clear lime-water to render it neutral, and the evaporation was + completed in a shallow porcelain basin. The result was, that a + beautiful yellow granular sugar was obtained, from which not a + single drop of molasses drained, and it did not deliquesce by + exposure to the air. Another lot of the sap, reduced to sugar + without lime-water, granulated, but not so well, was sour to the + taste, deliquesced by exposure, and gave a considerable quantity of + molasses. + + Having studied the nature of the peculiar acid of the maple, I found + that its combinations with lime were excessively soluble in alcohol, + so that the yellow sugar first described could be rendered white in + a few minutes, by placing it in an inverted cone open at the bottom, + and pouring a fresh quantity of alcohol upon it, and allowing it to + filtrate through the sugar. The whitened sugar was then taken and + re-dissolved in boiling water and crystallised, by which all the + alcoholic flavour was entirely removed, and a perfectly fine + crystallised and pure sugar resulted. Now, in the large way, I + advise the following method of manufacturing maple sugar. Obtain + several large copper or brass kettles, and set them up in a row, + either by tripods with iron rings, or by hanging them on a + cross-bar; clean them well, then collect the sap in buckets, if + possible, so that but little rain-water will be mixed with the sap, + and take care not to have any dead leaves in it. For every gallon of + the maple sap _add one measured ounce_ of clear lime-water, pass the + sap into the first kettle and evaporate; then, when it is reduced to + about one-half, dip it out into the second kettle, and skim it each + time; then into the next, and so on, until it has reached the last, + where it is reduced to syrup, and then may be thrown into a trough, + and granulated by beating it up with an oar. + + As soon as the first kettle is nearly empty, pour in a new lot of + the sap, and so continue working it forward exactly after the manner + of the West India sugar-boilers. The crude sugar may be refined + subsequently, or at the time of casting it into the cones made of + sheet iron, well painted with white lead and boiled linseed oil, and + thoroughly dried, so that no paint can come off. These cones are to + be stopped at first, until the sugar is cold; then remove the + stopper and pour on the base of the cone a quantity of strong + whiskey, or fourth proof rum. Allow this to nitrate through, until + the sugar is white; dry the loaf, and redissolve it in boiling hot + water, and evaporate it until it becomes dense enough to + crystallise. Now pour it into the cones again, and let it harden. If + any color remains, pour a saturated solution of refined white sugar + on the base of the cone, and this syrup will remove all traces of + color from the loaf. + + One gallon of pasture maple sap yielded 3,451 grains of pure sugar. + One gallon of the juice of the sugar cane yields, on an average, in + Jamaica, 7,000 grains of sugar. Hence, it will appear that maple sap + is very nearly half as sweet as cane juice; and since the maple + requires no outlay for its cultivation, and the process may be + carried on when there is little else to be done, the manufacture of + maple sugar is destined to become an important department of rural + economy. It is well known, by the Report of the Statistics of the + United States, that Vermont ranks next to Louisiana as a sugar + state, producing (if I recollect correctly) 6,000,000 of pounds in + some seasons, though the business is now carried on in a very rude + way, without any apparatus, and with no great chemical skill; so + that only a very impure kind of sugar is made, which, on account of + its peculiar flavor, has not found its way into common use, for + sweetening tea and coffee. It would appear worth while, then, to + improve this manufacture, and to make the maple sugar equal to any + now in use. This can be readily accomplished, if the farmers in the + back country will study the process of sugar-making, for cane and + maple sugar are, when pure, absolutely identical. It should be + remarked, that forest maples do not produce so much sugar as those + grown in open fields or in groves, where they have more light, the + under-brush being cleared away. + + In Farmington, on the Sandy River, in Maine, I have seen a very fine + grove of maples, but thirty years old, which produced a large yield + of very good sugar. A man and two boys made 1,500 lbs. of sugar from + the sap of these trees in a single season. The sap was boiled down + in potash kettles, which were scoured bright with vinegar and sand. + The sugar was of a fine yellow color, and well crystallised. It was + drained of its molasses in casks, with a false bottom perforated + with small holes--the cask having a hole bored at the bottom, with a + tow plug placed loosely in it, to conduct off the molasses. This + method is a good one, but the sap ought to be limed in boiling, as I + have described; then it will not attach to the iron or copper + boilers. The latter metal must not be used with acid syrup, for + copper salts are poisonous. + +There are several towns in the northern sections of Maine, New +Hampshire, and Vermont, that produce more than sufficient sugar for +the consumption of their inhabitants. A lot of good sugar trees will +average four pounds to the tree, in a favorable season. Many farmers +have orchards that will yield five hundred to a thousand pounds of +sugar in a year. As this is made at a season interfering very little +with the general business of the farm, the sugar that the farmer makes +is so much clear gain. + +There is, on almost every hill-farm, some place favorable for the +growth of a maple orchard--some rocky spots yielding little grass, and +impervious for the plough. Such spots may be favorably chosen for the +growth of a maple orchard; and whether the increase be used for +manufacturing sugar or molasses, or for timber or fuel, the proprietor +of the land will find a profit better than money at interest in the +growth of this beautiful tree, which will spontaneously propagate +itself in many positions. + +Its great excellence consists in yielding sap for the manufacture of +vast quantities of maple sugar in the country during the months of +spring. An open winter, constantly freezing and thawing, is a +forerunner of a bountiful crop of sugar. The orchard of maple trees is +almost equal to a field of sugar cane of the same area, in the +production of sugar. This tree reaches an age of 200 years. + +Vermont is the second sugar-producing State in the Union. The amount +of maple sugar produced there in 1840 was over 2,550 tons, being more +than 173/4 pounds to each inhabitant, allowing a population of 291,948. +At five cents a pound, this is worth. 255,963 dols. 20 cents. + +The Statistics of the United States census for 1850, show that about +thirty-five millions of pounds (15,250 tons) of maple sugar were +manufactured in that year:-- + + Maine 97,541 + New Hampshire 1,392,489 + Massachusetts 768,596 + Vermont 5,159,641 + Connecticut 37,781 + New York 10,310,764 + New Jersey 5,886 + Pennsylvania 2,218,641 + Maryland 47,740 + Virginia 1,223,908 + North Carolina 27,448 + South Carolina 200 + Georgia 50 + Alabama 473 + Mississippi 110 + Louisiana 260 + Arkansas 8,825 + Tennessee 159,647 + Kentucky 388,525 + Ohio 4,528,548 + Michigan 2,423,897 + Indiana 2,921,638 + Illinois 246,078 + Missouri 171,942 + Iowa 70,684 + Missouri 661,969 + Minnesota 2,950 + ----------- + Total 32,776,671 + +There is a balance of about two million pounds produced by Rhode +Island, Texas, Oregon, California, Utah, New Mexico, Delaware, and +Florida. The above statement does not include the sugar made by the +Indians, east of the Mississippi river, which may be set down at +10,000,000 lbs., and west of that river 2,000,000 lbs. + +Besides the above sugar crop, there was a yield by the sugar maple in +the United States in 1850, of 40,000,000 gallons of maple molasses. + +_Maize Sugar_.--The stem and branches of Indian corn, during the time +that its grain is filling, abounds with sugar, even when grown in this +country; so much so, that it might be turned to account by those of +the peasantry who have small plots of ground attached to their +cottages; and I applied a simple method by which a rich syrup may be +obtained from it, equal in sweetness to treacle, and superior to it in +flavor. The proper time for cutting down the plant (which should be +done within an inch of the ground), is when the corn in the ear is +small and full of a milky juice. All the large and old leaves should +be stripped off, leaving only the young and tender ones; they should +then be cut into short lengths, thoroughly bruised, and the juice +entirely pressed out from them. Where the means cannot be obtained for +expressing the juice by this method, the following may be +employed:--After the plants have been cut into small pieces, put them +into a large pot or copper, with only just sufficient water to extract +the juice; boil for one hour, and then strain off the liquor; to each +gallon of this liquor add a wine-glass full of lime-water whilst warm; +but if it be the expressed juice, obtained as above mentioned, add +double the quantity of lime-water. When the liquor is cold, for every +three gallons beat up an egg with some of the liquor; put altogether +into a boiler, and boil gently till the syrup acquires the consistence +of treacle. Whilst this is going on, the liquor should every now and +then be well stirred, and the scum which rises to the surface taken +off. This syrup, which will be found a better substitute for sugar +than treacle, and more wholesome, should be kept in lightly-covered +vessels, in a dry place. + +My own observations, twelve years ago, acquainted me with the fact, +that when the grain in the ear has acquired one half of the full size, +the quantity of sugar in the sap has passed its maximum, or begun to +decrease, and continues to do so until it disappears entirely. Lopping +off the young ears makes shorter work of it. It is like taking the +young from an animal giving suck, in which case the milk soon ceases +to flow into the breast, and that which produced it is elaborated into +other fluids necessary to the nourishment of the different parts of +the body of the parent. In the corn-stalk, when deprived of its ears, +the elements of sugar are dissipated by increasing the size of the +plant. + +Sugar may also be obtained from the carrot and the parsnip, as well as +from all sweet fruits. It is abundant throughout the vegetable +kingdom; it forms the first food of plants when they germinate in the +seed; when the first little sprout is projected from a grain of corn, +a portion of the farina, or starch, is changed into sugar, which may +be called the blood of the plant, and from it is drawn the nourishment +necessary to its expansion and appearance above the surface of the +earth. In the latter growth of many plants an inverse process is +carried on, as in the Indian corn, which I have just spoken of. In +this instance, as also numberless others, sugar is formed in large +quantities in the body of the plant, and elaborated into farina, or +starch, in the ear. The elements of which sugar and starch are +composed are the same; the only difference is in their proportions. +Chemists, being aware of this, have converted starch into sugar; and +could do it with certainty to any extent, were any advantage to be +gained by it; but hitherto starch has been higher in price than sugar. + + + + +SECTION II. + +THE GRAIN CROPS, EDIBLE ROOTS, AND FARINACEOUS PLANTS FORMING THE +BREAD STUFFS OF COMMERCE. + + +The vegetable substances, from which man derives his principal +sustenance, such as the nutritious cereal grains, the tuberous rooted +plants and the trees yielding farina, are very widely diffused, and +necessarily occupy the main attention of the cultivator; their +products forming the most important staples of domestic and foreign +commerce. The cereal grasses and roots, cultivated in temperate +regions, such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and the potato, are so well +known, and have been so fully described by agricultural writers that I +shall not go much into details as to their varieties, culture, &c., +but confine myself chiefly to their distribution, produce, statistics, +and commercial importance. The food plants may be most conveniently +arranged under three heads. Firstly--the Grain crops and legumes, +which comprises the European cultivated grasses, wheat, barley, oats, +&c.; and the tropical ones of rice, maize, millet, Guinea corn, &c. +Secondly--Palms and other trees yielding farina, including the sago +palms, plantain and banana, and the bread fruit tree. And Thirdly--the +edible Root crops and Starch producing plants, which are a somewhat +extensive class, the chief of which, however, are the common potato, +yams, cocos or eddoes, sweet potatoes, the bitter and sweet cassava or +manioc, the arrowroot and other plants yielding starch in more or less +purity. + +There is a great diversity of food, from the humble oak bark bread of +the Norwegian peasant, or the Brahmin, whose appetite is satisfied +with vegetables, to the luxurious diet of a Hungarian Magnate at +Vienna. + +The bread stuffs, as they are popularly termed, particularly wheat and +wheat flour, maize, and rice, form very important articles of +commerce, and enter largely into cultivation in various countries for +home consumption and export. Russia, India, and the United States, +carry on a very considerable trade in grain with other countries. Our +local production being insufficient for food and manufactures, we +import yearly immense quantities of grain and flour. In the four years +ending 1852, the annual quantity of corn, of various, kinds, imported +into the United Kingdom, exclusive of flour and meal, rice, sago, &c., +averaged 8,085,903 quarters. + +The flour and meal imported, omitting sago, arrowroot and other +starches, averaged in the same period 4,143,603 cwts. annually. + +The annual imports of breadstuffs for food, taking the average of the +four years ending with 1852, may be thus summed up-- + + Tons. + Corn and grain, 8,085,903 quarters, at 60 lb. the bushel 173,270 + Flour and meal 207,180 + Rice 40,817 + Potatoes 42,440 + Sago, arrowroot, &c. 5,000 + ------- + Total 468,707 + +Some portion of this quantity is doubtless consumed in the arts--as +starch for stiffening linens, &c., and for other purposes not coming +under the term of food, but I have purposely left out in the +calculation about 30,000 to 40,000 quarters of rice in the husk +annually imported. + +Ireland took, in 1849, of foreign grain 2,115,129 quarters; 1,683,687 +quarters in 1850; and 2,504,229 in 1851; as well as 256,837 cwts. of +various kinds of meal and flour in 1849; 220,107 cwts. in 1850; and +341,680 cwts. in 1851. England also supplied her with about 500,000 +quarters of grain and 350,000 cwts. of meal in each of those years. + +The comparative returns of the importations of grain into the United +Kingdom for the last four years, are as follows, in quarters:-- + + 1852. 1851. 1850. 1849. + Wheat 3,068,892 3,812,009 3,738,995 3,845,378 + Barley 656,737 829,564 1,035,903 1,381,008 + Oats 995,480 1,198,529 1,154,473 1,267,106 + Rye 10,023 24,609 98,836 240,566 + Beans 371,250 318,502 443,306 457,933 + Peas 107,017 99,399 181,419 234,366 + Maize 1,479,891 1,807,636 1,277,071 2,224,459 + Other sorts 8,085 3,432 868 1,150 + --------- --------- --------- --------- + Quarters 6,667,375 8,124,280 7,930,871 9,651,966 + +The meal and flour imported in the same years, in cwts., were as +follows:-- + + 1852. 1851. 1850. 1849. + Wheat 3,889,583 5,314,414 3,819,440 3,349,839 + Barley 212 34 108 224 + Oats 521 2,525 5,999 40,230 + Rye 92 6,493 964 18,468 + Indian corn 742 9,561 11,334 101,683 + Other sorts 54 343 163 1,396 + --------- --------- --------- --------- + Cwts. 3,891,195 5,323,370 3,838,008 3,511,840 + +Before the famine in Ireland the imports seldom reached 20 millions of +bushels of grain and meal of all kinds. In 1848 our imports were +about 60 millions; in 1849, 85 millions; in 1850, 68 millions; in +1851, 751/2 millions; in 1852, 69 millions, with good wheat harvests; +showing the great shock received and the slowness of recovery. + +With a rapidly increasing population in all parts of the civilized +world, the production of bread is obviously the first object to be +sought after, alike by the statesman and the peasant. I scarcely dare +give the calculation of the immense amount which would be realised in +any great country, by the single saving of a bushel to an acre, in the +quantity of seed ordinarily sown. The same result would follow if an +additional bushel could be produced in the annual average yield of the +wheat crop. + +According to Mr. H. Colman, the annual amount of seed for wheat sown +in France is estimated at 32,491,978 bushels. If we could suppose a +third of this saved, the saving would amount to 10,863,959 bushels per +year. Suppose an annual increase of the crops of five bushels per +acre, this would give an increase of production of 54,319,795 bushels. +Add this, under improved cultivation, to the amount of seed saved, and +the result would be 65,183,754 bushels--I believe under an improved +agriculture this is quite practicable. + +An eminent agricultural writer placed the average yield in England at +eighteen bushels per acre; some years since a man of sanguine +temperament rated it at over thirty bushels. In France it is stated, +in the best districts, to average twenty-two bushels. These evidently +are wholly conjectural estimates. In England Mr. Colman states that +fifty bushels per acre were reported to him on the best authority, as +the yield upon a large farm in a very favorable season. More than +eighty bushels have been returned, upon what is deemed ample +testimony, to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, as the +product of a single acre. In France Mr. Colman had, upon credible +authority, reports of forty, forty-four and seventy-two bushels. It +would be of immense importance to any government to know the exact +produce grown in any county, or district, or in the whole country; and +this might be obtained by compelling, on the part of the owner or +cultivator, an actual return of his crop; but it is of little use to +found such returns on estimates purely conjectural. + +From the best statistical accounts that can be obtained, the wheat +annually produced in the United Kingdom. + + England, Scotland, Ireland is 111,681,320 bushels. + In France it is 198,660,000 " + United States 100,503,899 " + +The amount of seed ordinarily sown to the acre in France is from two +to three bushels. The return of crop for the seed sown is represented +as in the best districts averaging 6.25 for one; in the least +productive 5.40 for one. My readers may be curious to know the +calculations which have been made in some other countries in regard to +this matter. + + CENTRAL EUROPE + Increase + Countries. Year. for seed sown. + Spain 1828 6 for one + Portugal 1786 10 " + Tuscany 10 " + Plains of Lucca 15 " + Piedmont--Plains of Marengo 4 to five + Bologna 15 " + Roman States--Pontine marshes 20 " + Ordinary lands 8 " + Kingdom of Naples--best districts 20 " + Ordinary lands 8 " + Malta--the best lands 38 to 64 " + Ordinary lands 22, 25, 30 " + + NORTHERN EUROPE. + + Sweden and Norway 1838 4.50 for one + Denmark 1827 6 " + Russia, a good harvest 1819 5 " + ---- province of Tambof 1821 4.50 " + ---- provinces north of 50 deg. latitude 1821 3 " + Poland 1826 8 " + England 1830 9 " + Scotland 1830 8 " + Ireland 1825 10 " + Holland 1828 7.50 " + Belgium 1828 11 " + Bavaria 1827 7 to 8 " + Prussia 1817 6 " + Austria 1812 7.05 " + Hungary 1812 4 " + Switzerland, lands of an inferior quality 1825 3 " + Of a good quality, 8; of the best quality 12 " + France, inferior lands, 3; best lands 6 " + + (Statistique des Cereales de la France par Moreau de Jonnes.) + + +STATISTICS OF WHEAT CULTURE. + +As wheat forms the principal nutritious food of the world, claiming +the industrious application of labor over the greater part of Europe, +throughout the temperate regions of Asia, along the northern kingdoms +of Africa, and extending far into the northern and southern regions of +the American continents; as it has been cultivated from time +immemorial, and has produced in various climates and soils many +varieties; it is surprising that so little is generally known of the +distinct varieties best adapted to particular climates--and that in +Great Britain and the United States we have yet to learn the variety +which will yield the largest and best amount of human food! + +At the Industrial Exhibition in 1851, twenty-six premiums only were +distributed for specimens of wheat; of these, five were awarded to +British farmers, three to France, three to Russia, three to Australia, +three to the United States, and one each or severally to other +nations. Some beautiful specimens of wheat were exhibited from South +Australia, weighing seventy pounds a bushel; which were eagerly sought +after for seed wheat by our farmers and the colonists of Canada and +the United States. But as is well observed by Professor Lindley, it +has no peculiar constitutional characteristics by which it may be +distinguished from other wheats. Its superior quality is entirely +owing to local conditions; to the peculiar temperature, the brilliant +light, the soil, and those other circumstances which characterise the +climate of South Australia. + +All kinds of wheat contain water in greater or lesser quantities. Its +amount is greater in cold countries than in warm. In Alsace from 16 to +20 per cent.; England from 14 to 17 per cent.; United States from 12 +to 14 per cent.; Africa and Sicily from 9 to 11 per cent. This +accounts for the fact, that the same weight of southern flour yields +more bread than northern, English wheat yields 13 lbs. more to the +quarter than Scotch. Alabama flour, it is said, yields 20 per cent. +more than that of Cincinnati. And in general American flour, according +to one of the most extensive London bakers, absorbs 8 or 10 per cent. +more of its own weight of water in being made into bread than the +English. The English grain is fuller and rounder than the American, +being puffed up with moisture. + +Every year the total loss in the United States from moisture in wheat +and flour is estimated at four to five million dollars. To remedy this +great evil, the grain should be well ripened before harvesting, and +well dried before being stored in a good dry granary. Afterwards, in +grinding and in transporting, it should be carefully protected from +wet, and the flour be kept from exposure to the atmosphere. The best +precaution is kiln-drying. By this process the wheat and flour are +passed over iron plates heated by steam to the boiling point. From +each barrel of flour 16 or 17 pounds of water are thus expelled, +leaving still four or five per cent. in the flour, an amount too small +to do injury. If all the water be expelled, the quality of the flour +is deteriorated. + +The mode of ascertaining the amount of water in flour is this; take a +small sample, say five ounces, and weigh it carefully; put it into a +dry vessel, which should be heated by boiling water; after six or +seven hours, weigh it; its loss of weight shows the original amount of +water. + +The next object is to ascertain the amount of gluten. Gluten is an +adhesive, pasty mass, and consists of several different principles, +though its constitution has not yet been satisfactorily determined. It +is chiefly the nutritious portion of the flour. The remaining +principles are mostly starch, sugar and gum. On an average their +relative amount in 100 parts are about as follows:-- + + Average. Kobanga wheat, the best. + Water 13 12 + Gluten 12 16 + Starch 67 60 + Sugar and Gum 8 8 + --- --- + 100 97 + +Professor Beck examined thirty-three different samples from various +parts of the United States and Europe, and he gives the preference to +the Kobanga variety from the south of Russia. There would probably be +a prejudice against it in this country, from the natural yellowish hue +of its flour and bread. + +The value of the vegetable food, grain, potatoes, rice and apples +exported from the United States within the past few years is thus set +down:-- + + Dollars. + 1847 57,970,356 + 1848 25,185,647 + 1849 25,642,362 + 1850 15,822,273 + +To this has to be added nine or ten million dollars more for tobacco, +72 million dollars for cotton, and 180,000 dollars for hops and other +minor agricultural staples--making the value of the raw vegetable +exports about 98 million dollars. There is further the value of the +products of the forest, timber, ashes and bark, tar, &c., which are +equal to nearly seven millions more, as shown by the following +figures:-- + + Dollars. + 1847 5,248,928 + 1848 6,415,297 + 1849 5,261,766 + 1850 6,590,037 + +It appears from an official document of the American Treasury +Department, that the average value of the breadstuffs and provisions +annually exported from the United States from 1821 to 1836 inclusive, +was 12,792,000 dolls.; in 1837 and 1838, about 9,600,000 dolls.; from +1839 to 1846, 16,176,000 dolls.; and for the last seven years as +follows:-- + + Dollars. + 1846 27,701,121 + 1847 68,701,921 + 1848 37,472,751 + 1849 38,155,507 + 1850 26,051,373 + 1851 21,948,651 + 1852 25,857,027 + +Out of the wheat crop in the United States in 1846 of 110 million +bushels raised, 10 millions were used for seed, starch, &c.; 72 +consumed for food, and 28 million exported. The 460 million bushels of +Indian corn raised, were thus disposed of; exported to foreign +countries 22 million bushels; sold to and consumed by non-producers, +100 million; consumed on the farms and plantations of the producers +for human and animal food, seed, &c., 338 million bushels. + +The United States now produce about 120 million bushels of wheat, and +nearly 600 million bushels of corn. Their surplus of wheat, for +export, may be taken at 20 million bushels, and of Indian corn an +almost unlimited quantity. They export about one and a quarter million +barrels of flour, and about one million of bushels of wheat to other +markets besides those of Great Britain or her North American colonies, +viz., to Europe, Asia, Africa, the West Indies and South America, +California and Australia, manufactured flour being the article +required for these latter markets. Nearly four million bushels of +Indian corn, and 300,000 barrels of corn meal, are exported from the +United States to the West Indies and other foreign markets. + +From the abstracts of statistical returns prepared at the American +Census office, it appears that Pennsylvania, in 1850, was the largest +wheat producing State of the Union. I have had the curiosity to +compare the most prominent States in respect to this crop, and give +them below, with the crop of each, as shown by the returns:-- + + Bushels. + Pennsylvania 15,482,191 + Ohio 14,967,056 + Virginia 14,516,900 + New York 13,073,000 + Michigan 4,918,000 + Maryland 4,494,680 + +That the United States could export 6,000,000 bushels of wheat, and +its equivalent in flour in 1845; 13,000,000 in 1846, 26,000,000 in +1847, and then fell back to 13,000,000 in 1848, and 6,000,000 in 1849, +with their production of wheat constantly increasing throughout this +period, shows a wonderful elasticity, and extensive home market. If +the price of wheat is higher in proportion than for corn, the +Americans export the former and consume the latter; if the demand for +corn be also great, they kill their hogs and export corn, for the pork +will keep. If there be no great demand for either, they eat their +surplus wheat, feed their hogs with the corn, and export pork as +having the greatest value in the least bulk. + + DESTINATION OF FLOUR SHIPPED FROM THE UNITED STATES. + -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + WHERE TO. | 1847 | 1849 | 1850 | 1851 + -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + Swedish West Indies | 7,366| 7,573| 8,757| 5,315 + Danish ditto | 52,150| 49,568| 44,802| 60,102 + Dutch East Indies | 1,150| 4,625| 1,600| 1,873 + Dutch West Indies | 11,387| 17,221| 18,354| 19,217 + Holland and Belgium | 73,871| 727| 1,177| 594 + England |2,475,076| 953,815| 369,777|1,004,783 + Gibraltar | 23,974| 6,265| 2,543| 195 + British East Indies | 3,034| 791| 1,646| 1,600 + British West Indies | 320,363| 303,551| 250,776| 294,731 + British American Colonies| 272,299| 294,891| 244,072| 252,380 + France | 612,641| -- | -- | -- + French West Indies | 28,966| 5,554| 5,480| 7,902 + Hayti | 40,257| 10,903| 31,504| 43,867 + Cuba | 50,046| 7,154| 5,584| 5,611 + Spanish West Indies | 17,780| 6,429| 7,074| 2,285 + Madeira | 4,856| 4,358| 6,321| 7,006 + Cape de Verds | 1,634| 501| 455| 838 + Mexico | 5,928| 11,633| 9,736| 14,964 + Honduras | 10,686| 4,125| 4,725| 5,912 + Central America | 550| 4,180| 746| 2,573 + Columbia | 39,403| 32,251| 41,072| 47,477 + Brazil | 270,473| 328,129| 295,415| 374,711 + Argentine Republic | 10,684| 6,599| 4,901| 22,612 + Chili | 5,977| 5,129| 2,848| 4,327 + South America | 2,128| -- | 40| 200 + West Indies | 4,902| 3,984| 1,702| 4,079 + Africa | 25,728| 4,617| 5,524| 5,430 + North-west Coast | 764| 1,180| 858| 2,593 + Other ports | 29,866| 35,017| 18,949| 19,158 + |---------|---------|---------|--------- + Total--Barrels |4,382,496|2,108,013|1,385,448|2,202,335 + |---------|---------|---------|--------- + Average price | 5.95| 5.35| 5.00| 4.77 + -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- + +Wheat, where the soil and the climate are adapted to its growth, and +the requisite progress has been made in its culture, is decidedly +preferred to all other grains, and, next to maize, is the most +important crop in the United States, not only on account of its +general use for bread, but for its safety and convenience for +exportation. It is not known to what country it is indigenous, any +more than any other cultivated cereals, all of which, no doubt, have +been essentially improved by man. By some, wheat is considered to have +been coeval with the creation, as it is known that upwards of a +thousand years before our era it was cultivated, and a superior +variety had been attained. It has steadily followed the progress of +civilisation from the earliest times, in all countries where it would +grow. In 1776 there was entailed upon America an enduring calamity, in +consequence of the introduction of the Hessian or wheat fly, which was +supposed to have been brought from Germany in some straw, employed in +the debarkation of Howe's troops on the west end of Long Island. From +that point the insect gradually spread in various directions, at the +rate of twenty or thirty miles a year, and the wheat of the entire +regions east of the Alleghanies is now more or less infested with the +larva, as well as in large portions of the States bordering on the +Ohio and Mississippi, and on the great Lakes; and so great have been +the ravages of these insects that the cultivation of this grain has in +many places been abandoned. + +The geographical range of the wheat region in the Eastern Continent +and Australia, lies principally between the 30th and 60th parallels of +north latitude, and the 30th and 40th degrees south, being chiefly +confined to France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, +Russia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, Prussia, Netherlands, +Belgium, Great Britain, Ireland, Northern and Southern Africa, +Tartary, India, China, Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and Japan. Along +the Atlantic portions of the Western Continent, it embraces the tract +lying between the 30th and 50th parallels, and in the country +westward of the Rocky Mountains, one or two more degrees further +north. Along the west coast of South America, as well as in situations +within the torrid zone, sufficiently elevated above the level of the +sea, and properly irrigated by natural or artificial means, abundant +crops are often produced. + +The principal districts of the United States in which this important +grain is produced in the greatest abundance, and where it forms a +leading article of commerce, embrace the States of New York, New +Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, +Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The chief +varieties cultivated in the Northern and Eastern States are the white +flint, tea, Siberian, bald, Black Sea, and the Italian spring wheat. +In the middle and Western States, the Mediterranean, the Virginia +white May, the blue stem, the Indiana, the Kentucky white bearded, the +old red chafet, and the Talavera. The yield varies from ten to forty +bushels and upwards per acre, weighing, per bushel, from fifty-eight +to sixty-seven pounds. + +It appears that on the whole crop of the United States there was a +gain during the ten years ending 1850, of 15,645,373 bushels. The crop +of New England decreased from 2,014,000 to 1,078,000 bushels, +exhibiting a decline of 936,000 bushels, and indicating the attention +of farmers has been much withdrawn from the culture of wheat. Grouping +the States from the Hudson to the Potomac, including the district of +Columbia, it appears that they produced, in 1849, 35,085,000 bushels, +against 29,936,000 in 1839. In Virginia there was an increase of +1,123,000 bushels. These States embrace the oldest wheat-growing +region of the country, and that in which the soil and climate seem to +be adapted to promote the permanent culture of the grain. The increase +of production in the ten years has been 6,272,000 bushels, equal to +15.6 per cent. The area tilled in these States is 36,000,000 acres, +only thirty per cent. of the whole amount returned, while the +proportion of wheat produced is forty-six per cent. In North Carolina +there has been an increase of 170,000 bushels, but in the Southern +States generally there was a considerable decrease. Indiana, Illinois, +Michigan, and Wisconsin contributed to the general aggregate under the +sixth census only 9,800,000 bushels; under the last they are shown to +have produced upwards of 25,000,000 bushels, an amount equal to the +whole increase in the United States for the period. + +When we see the growth of wheat keeping pace with the progress of +population in the oldest States of the Union, we need have no +apprehension of a decline in the cultivation of this important crop. + +The amount of flour exported from New Jersey in 1751, was 6,424 +barrels. From Philadelphia in 1752,125,960 barrels, besides 85,500 +bushels of wheat; in 1767, 198,816 barrels, besides 367,500 bushels of +wheat; in 1771, 252,744 barrels. From Savannah, in 1771, 7,200 lbs. +From Virginia, for some years annually preceding the revolution, +800,000 bushels of wheat. The total exports of flour from the United +States: + +in 1791 were 619,681 barrels, besides 1,018,339 bushels of wheat; +in 1800, 653,052 barrels, besides 26,853 bushels of wheat; +in 1810, 798,431 barrels, besides 325,924 bushels of wheat; +in 1820-21, 1,056,119 barrels, besides 25,821 bushels of wheat; +in 1830-31, 1,806,529 barrels, besides 408,910 bushels of wheat; +in 1840-41, 1,515,817 barrels, besides 868,585 bushels of wheat; +in 1845-46, 2,289,476 barrels, besides 1,613,795 bushels of wheat; +in 1846-47, 4,382,496 barrels, besides 4,399,951 bushels of wheat; +in 1850-51, 2,202,335 barrels, besides 1,026,725 bushels of wheat. + +In the London Exhibition very little wheat was exhibited equal to that +from the United States, especially that from Genessee county, in the +State of New York--a soft white variety, to the exhibitor of which a +prize medal was awarded by the Royal Commissioners. The red +Mediterranean wheat exhibited from the United States attracted much +attention. The wheat from South Australia was probably superior to any +exhibited, while much from the United States fell but little behind, +and was unquestionably next in quality. + +From the Second Report on the Breadstuffs of the United States, made +to the Commissioner of Patents, by Lewis C. Beck, M.D., I am induced +to make some extracts. He states:-- + + The analyses of several samples, the growth of various foreign + countries, have afforded me an opportunity of comparing the American + and foreign wheats and flours. With a few exceptions of peculiar + varieties, it will be seen from the results that with ordinary care + the wheat of this country will compare advantageously with that of + any other. Indeed, on reviewing my analyses, I question whether + there is any part of the world where this grain is generally of a + finer quality than it is in the United States. But all the + advantages which we possess in this respect will be of little avail + so long as inferior and damaged breadstuffs are shipped from our + ports. + + In addition to the analyses which I have executed of the various + samples of wheat and wheat flour according to the mode heretofore + pursued, I have performed a series of experiments for the purpose of + settling the important question in regard to the relative value of + the fine flour of wheat, and the "whole meal." I have also consulted + every work within my reach which could throw any light upon the + different points that have presented themselves during the progress + of the investigation. + + The large number of samples of wheat and wheat flour which have been + placed in my hands for examination, have left me no time for the + analysis of our other breadstuffs. + + It cannot be denied that the amount shipped to foreign ports during + 1849 is considerably less than for the two preceding years. In the + meantime, however, a new and important market has been opened in our + territories on the Pacific. It may also be safely affirmed that the + causes for foreign demand, and which must hereafter operate, still + remain. These are the cheapness of land in this country, and the + peculiar adaptation of our soil and climate to the growth of the two + important cereals, wheat and maize. + + Another fact, it seems to me, is of sufficient interest in + connection with this subject, to be here noticed. The failure of the + potato crop in various parts of the world for several years past has + engaged the attention of scientific and practical men. + Unfortunately, the nature of the blight which has seized upon this + tuber has eluded the most careful inquiries; but it has been shown + by well-conducted analyses that potatoes at their late prices are + the most expensive kind of farinaceous food. This will be evident + from the following statement:-- + + "Potatoes contain from about seventy to seventy-nine per cent. of + water, while the proportion in wheat flour is from twelve to + fourteen per cent; and while the gluten and albumen in potatoes + scarcely rise to one per cent., in wheat flour the range may be set + down at from nine to thirteen per cent. Again, the non-nitrogenous + principles are as about seventy-five per cent. in wheat flour + against fifteen or sixteen in potatoes. In short, whilst potatoes + supply only twenty per cent. of heat-forming and nutritious + principles, taken together, wheat supplies more than seventy per + cent. of the former, and more than tea of the latter. The value of + wheat to potatoes, therefore, is at least four to one; or, if wheat + sells at fifteen shillings sterling per cwt., potatoes to be equally + cheap, ought to sell at between three and four shillings." + + The preceding results, for which I am principally indebted to Dr. + Daubeny, Professor of Chemistry at Oxford,[25] show that unless a + great change occurs in the culture of the potato, there must be an + increased demand for other kinds of farinaceous food. And it is + worthy of notice that while this blight is one of the causes which + bring to our shores the starving population of Europe, the raising + of the cereals not only furnishes profitable employment to the + emigrant, but enables him to make the best return to those who are + still obliged to remain. + + _Adaptation of the soil and climate of the United States to the + culture of the cereals_.--That the soil and climate of many portions + of the United States are well adapted to the cultivation of the more + important cereals, is fully shown by the results of all the + researches which have thus far been prosecuted. I have indeed seen + it asserted that the climate of England is the best for the + cultivation of wheat, and preferable to any in our country; its + humidity being the peculiarity to which this superiority is + ascribed.[26] But this is undoubtedly the testimony of a too partial + witness. A recent statement by an English author is the result of a + more correct knowledge of the facts. He acknowledges that there is + no ground for the expectation which has been entertained concerning + the advantageous growth of maize in England. "Nor is ours," says he, + "the most favorable country for wheat, but skill in husbandry has + overcome great difficulties."[27] The mistake on this subject may + have originated from the occurrence of a larger and plumper grain in + the more humid climate; but analysis shows that the small grain + raised in the hotter and drier air oftentimes greatly surpasses the + former in its nutritious value. + + Russia is said to be the great rival of this country in the growth + of wheat, but I think it doubtful whether she possesses superior + natural advantages; and I am sure she will find it difficult to + compete with the industry and skill which here characterize the + operations of husbandry, and the manufacture and shipment of + breadstuffs. + + _Export of sophisticated and damaged flour_.--It is a matter of deep + regret that circumstances have occurred which must have a most + injurious influence upon the trade in breadstuffs between this + country and Great Britain. I refer to the mixtures of damaged, + inferior, and good kinds of flour, which it appears on authentic + testimony have been largely exported during the past year. Whether + this fraudulent operation, which is said to have been principally + confined to New York, is the result of the change in the inspection + laws, as some assert, I am unable to say. But it requires no great + foresight to predict that, if continued, it will create a distrust + of our breadstuffs in foreign ports which it will be very difficult + to remove. It cannot but excite the indignation of the many + honorable dealers, that the unworthy cupidity of a few individuals + should lead to such disastrous consequences. + + I have as yet been unable to obtain samples of these sophisticated + flours, and the only information which I have in regard to them is + the general fact above stated, and concerning the truth of which + there can be little doubt. No means should be left untried to + devise some mode by which these frauds can be easily and certainly + detected. + + _Injury sustained by breadstuffs during their transport and + shipment._--During the past year, I have had abundant means of + determining the nature of the injuries which are often sustained by + our breadstuffs in their transport from the particular districts in + which they are grown and manufactured to our commercial depots, and + in their shipment to foreign ports. As this is one of the most + important points connected with these researches, I have devoted + much time to its investigation. From the results of numerous + analyses, I think it may be safely asserted, that of the wheat flour + which arrives in England from various ports of the United States, a + large proportion is more or less injured during the voyage. The same + remark may be made in regard to many of the samples sent from the + Western States to the city of New York. Their nutritive value is + considerably impaired, and without more care than is usually + exercised, they are entirely unfit for export. + + In my former report, I adverted to one of the great causes of the + deterioration which our breadstuffs often suffer during their + transport and shipment. This was the undue proportion of the great + disorganizing substance, water, under the influence of what usually + occurs, viz., an elevation of temperature above the ordinary + standard. My recent investigations have served only to strengthen + these views. There is no doubt that these are the conditions which + cause the change of the non-nitrogenous principles into acids (the + lactic or acetic), while a portion of the gluten is thus also + consumed. + + I have tried a series of experiments in reference to the action of + moisture upon various samples of wheat and wheat flour. The samples + were placed for twelve hours in the oven of a bath with a double + casing, containing a boiling saturated solution of common salt, the + temperature of which was about 220 deg. Fahr. Subjected to this + test, + + 100 grains of Milwaukie wheat lost 12.10 grains. + " " Guilderland (Holland) wheat lost 9.35 " + " " Polish Odessa red wheat " 10.55 " + " " Soft Russian wheat " 8.55 " + " " Kobanga wheat " 8.15 " + + After an exposure of the dried samples to the air for two or three + days, they increased in weight from one to three grains in the + hundred originally employed. + + Nineteen different samples of wheat flour, which lost by exposure to + the above heat from ten to fourteen grains in the one hundred, when + similarly exposed to the air for eighteen hours, again increased in + weight from 8.40 to 11.60 in the hundred grains originally employed. + + These experiments show, what might indeed have been predicted as to + the general result, that wheat in grain, if not less liable to + injury than flour, yet if once properly dried, suffers much less + from a subsequent exposure to air and moisture. + + It is now ascertained that in presence of a considerable proportion + of water, wheat flour under the influence of heat undergoes a low + degree at least of lactic fermentation, which will account for the + _souring_ of the ordinary samples when exposed to warm or humid + climates. The same result will inevitably follow from their careless + exposure in the holds of vessels. That this is particularly the case + with many of the cargoes of wheat flour shipped to Great Britain, + there is little reason to doubt. This may be partly owing to the + great humidity of the English climate, as the deterioration is + observed as well in the flour which is the produce of that country + as in that which is received from abroad. + + It is stated by Mr. Edlin, quoted in an article on Baking, in the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, that, "as a general rule, the London + flour" is decidedly bad. The gluten generally wants the adhesiveness + which characterizes the gluten of good wheat." + + I have observed that, in the analyses of some of the samples of + damaged flour, the proportions of what is set down under the head of + glucose and dextrine are unusually large. This is perhaps due to the + change produced in the starch by the action of diastase, and which + may under certain circumstances be formed in wheat flour. It would + seem, according to M. Guerin, that starch may thus be acted on even + at slightly elevated temperatures. In one of his experiments, at a + temperature no higher than 68 deg. Fahr., a quantity of starch, at + the end of twenty-four hours, was converted into syrup, which + yielded seventy-seven per cent. of saccharine matter.[28] It may be + thought that I have overrated the importance of this subject, but it + is believed that a careful examination of the facts will relieve me + from this charge. I am now satisfied that, if the proportion of + water in our exported breadstuffs could be reduced to about five or + six per cent., one of the great causes of complaint in regard to + them would be completely removed. + + _Kiln-drying of breadstuffs, and exclusion of air_.--The injury + which our breadstuffs sustain by the large proportion of water can + of course be prevented only by careful drying before shipment, and + by the employment of barrels rendered as impervious as possible to + the influence of atmospheric moisture. + + In my first report, I have spoken favorably of the process of drying + by steam, according to the plan patented by Mr. J.R. Stafford. I + still think this mode possesses great advantages over those + previously followed, and which almost always injured the quality of + the grain or flour: but from some trials which I have made during + the past year, it is inferred that the exposure to the heat is + perhaps usually not sufficiently prolonged to answer the purpose + intended by the operation. I have often observed that samples of + wheat flour, after being exposed to the heat of the salt water-bath + oven (220 deg. Fahr.) for two or three hours, lost weight by a + further continuance of the heat. An apparatus has been patented by + Mr. J.H. Tower, of Clinton, N.Y., consisting of a cylinder of square + apartments or tubes, into which the grain or flour is introduced, + and subjected to heat while in rapid revolution. I examined samples + which had been subjected to this operation, and ascertained that + wheat flour, originally containing 14.80 per cent. of water, had the + proportion reduced to 10.25 per cent., while in wheat the proportion + of water was reduced from 14.75 to 8.55 per cent. + + Now it is probable that by either of the above modes, and perhaps by + many others, the various kinds of breadstuffs may be brought to that + degree of dryness which, with ordinary care, shall protect them from + subsequent injury; but in order to secure this advantage, the + operation must be carefully performed, and experiments must be made + to ascertain how long an exposure to heat is necessary to bring the + sample to the proper degree of dryness, and to determine whether in + any respect its quality is impaired. It has already been stated that + absolute desiccation is not necessary, even were it attainable; but + any process in order to be effective should reduce the proportion of + water to about six, or at most seven per cent. + + I have heretofore adverted to the great care employed in the drying + of grain in various foreign countries, and to which the preservation + of it for a great number of years is to be ascribed. + + The operation is not conducted in the hurried manner which is here + thought to be so essential, but is continued long enough to effect + the intended object. Thorough ventilation, as well as the proper + degree of drying, and which is equally important, is thus secured. + + It is said that in Russia the sheaves of wheat, carried into the + huts, are suspended upon poles and dried by the heat of the oven. + The grain shrinks very much during this process, but it is supposed + to be less liable to the attacks of insects, and preserves its + nutritive qualities for many years. During the winter, it is sent to + market.--("The Czar, his Court and People." By John S. Maxwell, p. + 272.) + + With all the necessary attention which may be paid to the proper + drying of our breadstuffs intended for export, another point is of + equal importance, viz., the shipment in vessels rendered as + impervious as possible to the influence of atmospheric moisture. For + however carefully and thoroughly the drying, especially of wheat + flour or maize meal, may have been performed, it will be nearly + useless if the shipment is afterwards made in the barrels commonly + employed.[29] And it is very certain that the transport and shipment + of grain in bulk, as usually conducted, are attended with great + loss. This difficulty might be removed at a trifling expense by + adopting the plan suggested in the preceding report, and to which I + would again respectfully call the attention of those who are engaged + in this branch of trade. + + I might here adduce a mass of testimony showing the importance of + the matters just referred to, but will only advert to the following + statements, which although made in allusion principally to maize, + are equally applicable to our other breadstuffs. Maize meal, if kept + too long, "is liable to become rancid, and it is then more or less + unfit for use. In the shipments made to the West Indies, the meal is + commonly kiln-dried, to obviate as much as possible this tendency to + rancidity." "When ground very fine, maize meal suffers a change by + exposure to the air. It is oxygenated. It is upon the same principle + that the juice of an apple, after a little exposure to the air, is + oxygenated, and changes its character and taste. If the flour could + be bolted _in vacuo_, it would not be changed." "Intelligent writers + speak of the necessity of preparing corn for exportation by + kiln-drying as indispensable. Without that process, corn is very + liable to become heated and musty, so as to be unfit for food for + either man or beast. The kiln-dried maize meal from the Brandywine + Mills, &c., made from the yellow corn, has almost monopolized the + West India trade. This process is indispensable, if we export maize + to Europe. James Candy says that from fifty years experience he has + learned the necessity of this process with corn intended for + exportation." "I have often found the corn from our country when it + reached its destination, ruined by heating on the voyage. It had + become musty and of little or no value. Kiln-drying is absolutely + necessary to preserve it for exportation. We must learn and practice + the best mode of kiln-drying it.[30]" + + _The nutritious value of the "whole meal" of Wheat, as compared + with that of the fine flour_.--The question whether what is + called the whole meal of wheat, or that which is obtained by the + mixture of the bran, contains more nutritious matter than the + fine flour, is one of great importance. In my former report, I + adverted to the statement made in regard to it by Professor + J.F.W. Johnston, and which seemed to be almost conclusive in + favor of the value of the whole meal. During the past year, + however (1849), M. Eug. Peligot, an eminent French chemist, in an + elaborate article "On the Composition of Wheat," to which more + particular reference will be made hereafter, combats the opinion + that the bran is an alimentary substance. He observes that "the + difficulty of keeping the bran in flour intended for the + manufacture of bread of good quality appears to result much less + from the presence of the cellulose (one of the constituents of + woody matter) contained in wheat than that of the fatty matter. + This is found in the bran in a quantity at least triple of that + which remains in the flour, and the bolting separates it from the + ground wheat not less usefully than the cellulose itself."[31] M. + Millon objects entirely to the views of M. Peligot on this point, + and states some facts which are especially worthy of + consideration. He asserts that, according to the views of the + last named chemist, the separation at most of one part of fatty + matter sacrifices fifteen, twenty, and even twenty-five per cent. + of substances which are of the highest nutritive value. This + abstracts from wheat, for the whole amount raised in France, the + enormous sum of about two hundred millions of pounds annually. + + It seems that in France the question whether the bolting of flour is + advantageous has always been decided in the most arbitrary manner. + An ordinance of Louis XIV., issued in 1658, prohibited, under a very + heavy penalty, the regrinding of the bran and its mixture with the + flour; this, with the mode of grinding then in use, caused a loss of + more than forty per cent.--(Comptes Rendus, February 19th, 1849.) + + In large cities and elsewhere, there seems for some time to have + been a growing prejudice against the use of brown bread; and it is + said that now nearly all the peasantry of France bolt their flour. + The increase of this practice, according to M. Millon, threatens + the nation with an annual loss of from two to three hundred millions + of francs. If the bran was entirely valueless, there would be a loss + of more than one million a day. + + It is quite difficult to determine the precise amount of bran which + may have been removed from wheat, for various samples contain such a + different proportion of bran that in the one case a removal of ten + per cent, leaves more bran in the flour than a bolting of five per + cent. in another. + + The following is an analysis of bran by M. Millon; the sample being + a soft French wheat grown in 1848:-- + + Starch, dextrine and sugar 53.00 + Sugar of liquorice 1.00 + Gluten 14.90 + Fatty matter 3.60 + Woody matter 9.70 + Salts .50 + Water 13.90 + Incrusting matter and aromatic principles (by difference) 3.40 + ------ + 100. + + The conclusion to be drawn from this analysis is, that bran is an + alimentary substance. If it contains six per cent. more of woody + matter than the rough, flour, it has also more gluten, double that + of fatty matter, besides two aromatic principles which have the + perfume of honey, and both of which are wanting in the fine flour. + Thus by bolting, wheat is impoverished in its most valuable + principles, merely to remove a few hundredths of woody matter. + + The economical suggestion which springs from these views is, that + the bran and coarse flour should be reground and then mixed with the + fine flour. Millon states that he has ascertained, by repeated + experiments, that bread thus made is of superior quality, easily + worked, and not subject to the inconvenience of bread manufactured + from the rough flour, such as is made in some places, and especially + in Belgium. + + Opinions similar to those above noticed are entertained by Professor + Daubeny. "The great importance attached to having bread perfectly + white is a prejudice," he says, "which leads to the rejection of a + very wholesome part of the food, and one which, although not + digestible alone, is sufficiently so in that state of admixture with + the flour in which nature has prepared it for our use." After + quoting the remarks of Professor Johnston on the same side of the + question, he adds, "that according to the experiments of Magendie, + animals fed upon fine flour died in a few weeks, whilst they thrived + upon the whole meal bread." Brown bread, therefore, should be + adopted, not merely on a principle of economy, but also as providing + more of those ingredients which are perhaps deficient in the finer + parts of the flour.--("Gardeners' Chronicle," January 27th, 1849, p. + 53.) + + The remarks of Dr. Robertson may also be here introduced. "The + advantage," he observes, "of using more or less of the coverings of + the grain in the preparation of bread has often been urged on + economical principles. There can be no doubt that a very large + proportion of nutritive matter is contained in the bran and the + pollard; and these are estimated to contain about one-fifth part of + the entire weight of the wheat grain. It is, unquestionably, so far + wasteful to remove these altogether from the flour; and in the case + of the majority of people, this waste may be unnecessary, even on + the score of digestibility."[32] This subject can also be rendered + apparent to the eye. If we make a cross section of a grain of wheat, + or rye, and place it under the microscope, we perceive very distinct + layers in it as we examine from without inwards. The outer of them + belong to the husk of the fruit and seed, and are separated as bran, + in grinding. But the millstone does not separate so exactly as the + eye may by means of the microscope, not even as accurately as the + knife of the vegetable anatomist, and thus with the bran is removed + also the whole outer layer of the cells of the nucleus, and even + some of the subjacent layers. Thus the anatomical investigations of + one of these corn grains at once explains why bread is so much the + less nutritious the more carefully the bran has been separated from + the meal.[33] There can therefore be little doubt that the removal + of the bran is a serious injury to the flour; and I have presented + the above array of evidence on this point in the hope of directing + public attention to it here, as has been done in various foreign + countries. + + After this, it will easily be inferred that I am not disposed to + look with much favor upon the plan proposed by Mr. Bentz for taking + the outer coating or bran from wheat and other grains previously to + grinding.[34] Independently of the considerations which have already + been presented, it is far from being proved, as this gentlemen + asserts, that the mixture of the bran with the meal which results + from the common mode of grinding is the chief cause of the _souring_ + of the flour in hot climates. On the contrary, the bran is perhaps + as little liable to undergo change as the fine flour, and then the + moistening to which, as I am informed, the grain is subjected + previously to the removal of the husk, is still further + objectionable, and must be followed by a most carefully-conducted + process of kiln-drying. + + _Nutritious properties of various articles of food_.--There seems to + be some difference of opinion in regard to the nutritious properties + of various kinds of food. It is generally, however, agreed that + those which contain the largest proportion of nitrogenous matters + are the most nutritious. It is on this account that haricots, peas, + and beans, form, in some sort, substitutes for animal food. Tubers, + roots, and even the seeds of the cereal grasses, are but moderately + nutritious. If we see herbivorous animals fattening upon such + articles, it is because, from their peculiar organisation, they can + consume them in large quantities. It is quite doubtful whether a man + doing hard work could exist on bread exclusively. The instances + which are given of countries where rice and potatoes form the sole + articles of food of the inhabitants, are believed to be incomplete. + Boussingault states that in Alsace, for example, the peasantry + always associate their potato dish with a large quantity of sour or + curdled milk; in Ireland with buttermilk. "The Indians of the Upper + Andes do not by any means live on potatoes alone, as some travellers + have said they do: at Quito, the daily food of the inhabitants is + _lorco_, a compound of potatoes and a large quantity of cheese. Rice + is often cited as one of the most nourishing articles of diet. I am + satisfied, however, after having lived in countries where rice is + largely consumed, that it is anything but a substantial, or, for its + bulk, nutritious article of sustenance."--("Rural Economy," Amer. + edition, p. 409.) These statements are further confirmed by the + observations of M. Lequerri, who, during a long residence in India, + paid particular attention to the manners and customs of the + inhabitants of Pondicherry. "Their food," he states, "is almost + entirely vegetable, and rice is the staple; the inferior castes only + ever eat meat. But all eat _kari_ (curry), an article prepared with + meat, fish, or vegetable, which is mixed with the rice, boiled in + very little water. It is requisite to have seen the Indians at their + meals to have any idea of the enormous quantity of rice which they + will put into their stomachs. No European could cram so much at a + time; and they very commonly allow that rice alone will not nourish + them. They very generally still eat a quantity of bread."[35] In + regard to the proportion of nutritious matter contained in grains of + various kinds, it may be remarked that the tables which have been + constructed as the results of various experiments are liable to an + objection, which will be more particularly adverted to under another + head. For example, two substances, by the process of ultimate + analysis, may exhibit the same proportion of nitrogenous matter, and + still differ very materially in their value as articles of food. + Much depends on the digestibility of the form in which this matter + is presented to the digestive organs. A strong illustration is + afforded in the case of hay, the proportion of nutritive matter of + which, about 9.71, would certainly not represent its power of + affording nourishment to the human system. It is in truth quite + impossible to arrive at any other than approximate results from the + operations of chemistry, as to the amount of nutriment contained in + a given quantity or weight of any article of food.[36] It is perhaps + not irrelevant to notice in this place some of the researches which + have recently been made upon fermentation, and particularly its + effects in the manufacture of bread. It appears that when this + process is brought about by the addition of yeast or leaven to the + paste or dough, the character of the mass is materially altered. A + larger or smaller proportion of the flour is virtually lost. + According to Dr. William Gregory the loss amounts to the very large + proportion of one-sixteenth part of the whole of the flour. He says, + "To avoid this loss, bread is now raised by means of carbonate of + soda, or ammonia and a diluted acid, which are added to the dough, + and the effect is perfectly satisfactory. Equally good or better + bread is obtained, and the quantity of flour which will yield + fifteen hundred loaves by fermentation, furnishes sixteen hundred by + the new method, the sugar and fibrin (gluten) being + saved."--("Outlines of Chemistry," p. 352.) + + Another author, Dr. R.D. Thomson, states, as the results of his + experiments upon bread produced by the action of hydrochloric acid + upon carbonate of soda, "that in a sack of flour there was a + difference in favor of the unfermented bread to the amount of thirty + pounds thirteen ounces, or in round numbers, a sack of flour would + produce one hundred and seven loaves of unfermented bread, and only + one hundred loaves of fermented bread of the game weight. Hence it + appears that in the sack of flour by the common process of baking, + seven loaves, or six-and-a-half per cent, of the flour are driven + into the air and lost."--("Experimental Researches on the Food of + Animals," &c., p. 183.) + + The only objection to the general introduction of this process seems + to be the degree of care and accuracy required in properly adjusting + the respective qualities and quantities of acid and alkali, and + which could seldom be attained even by those who are largely engaged + in the manufacture of bread. + + I cannot leave this subject without adverting to a practice which + has prevailed in England and France, and perhaps also in this + country, of steeping wheat before sowing it in solutions of arsenic, + sulphate of copper, and other poisonous preparations. + + The result has been that injurious effects have often followed, both + to those who are employed in sowing such grain, and to those who + have used the bread manufactured from it. The great importance of + the subject led to the appointment of a commission at Rouen, in + France, in December, 1842, having for its object to determine the + best process of preventing the smut in wheat, and to ascertain + whether other means less dangerous than those above noticed were + productive of equally good results. The labors of this commission + extended over the years 1843-'44-'45, and the experiments were + repeated two years following on the farm of Mr. Fauchet, one of the + commission, at Boisquilaume, in the department of the Seine + Inferieure. + + The results arrived at by this commission are--1st. That it is not + best to sow seed without steeping. 2nd. That it is best to make use + of the sulphate of soda and lime process, inasmuch as it is more + simple and economical, in no way injurious to the health, and yields + the soundest and most productive wheat. 3rd. That the use of + arsenic, sulphate of copper, verdigris, and other poisonous + preparations, should be interdicted by the government.--("Gardeners' + Chronicle," January 6th, 1849, pp. 10 and 11.) + + _Composition of wheat and wheat flour, and the various modes of + determining their nutritive value_.--In my former report it was + stated that the analyses of the various samples of wheat, the + results of which were there given, had been chiefly directed to the + determining the amount of rough _gluten_ which they contained. My + reasons for adopting this plan, and the arguments in favor of its + general accuracy, as compared with other modes of analysis, and + especially that by which the ultimate composition is ascertained, + were also detailed. A more full examination of this subject has + served only to strengthen the opinion already expressed, that for + the great purpose to be answered by these researches, the process + which I have adopted is, to say the least, as free from objection + as any other, and if carefully and uniformly carried out, will truly + represent the relative values of the several samples of wheat flour. + As this is a matter of much consequence in a practical point of + view, I trust I shall be excused for introducing some additional + facts in regard to it. + + The term _gluten_ was originally applied to the gray, viscid, + tenacious, and elastic matter, which is obtained by subjecting wheat + flour to the continuous action of a current of water. But it appears + that this is a mixture of fibrine and caseine, with what is now + called _glutine_, and a peculiar oily or fatty matter. Now these + substances may be separated from each other, but the processes + employed for this purpose are tedious, and to insure accuracy the + various solvents must be entirely pure--a point which, especially in + the case of alcohol and ether, is not ordinarily easy to be + attained. This will be rendered still more evident by a reference to + a French process, which will hereafter be noticed. + + But were it much less difficult in every case accurately to separate + the constituents of gluten, it would not, in my opinion, be of the + least practical utility. It is to the peculiar mechanical property + of this gluten that wheat flour owes its superior power of detaining + the carbonic acid engendered by fermentation, and thus communicating + to it the vesicular spongy structure so characteristic of good + bread.[37] It may also be added, that the results of more than one + hundred trials have satisfied me that a diminution or loss of + elasticity in the gluten is the surest index of the amount of injury + which the sample of flour has sustained. Whether, therefore, the + sample contains a certain proportion of nitrogen, or whether it + contains albumen, fibrine, and caseine in sufficient quantity, it + may still want the very condition which is essential to the + manufacture of good bread. My objection, therefore, to the mere + determination, however accurate, of the proportion of nitrogen + contained in wheat flour, or of the various principles which form + the gluten, is, that it does not represent the value of the various + samples for the only use to which they are applied, viz., the making + of bread. The remarks of Mulder, the celebrated Dutch chemist, upon + the subject of manures, are so applicable to this point that I + cannot refrain from quoting them. "It has," he says, "become almost + a regular custom to determine the value of manures by the quantity + of nitrogen they yield by ultimate analysis. This method is entirely + erroneous; for it is based upon the false principle, that by + putrefaction all nitrogeneous substances are immediately converted + into ammonia, carbonic acid, and water! But these changes sometimes + require a number of years. Morphine, for example, is prepared by + allowing opium to putrefy; and the process for preparing leucin, a + substance which contains 10.72 of nitrogen, is to bring cheese into + putrefaction. Cheese, therefore, does not perhaps in a number of + years resolve itself into carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, but + produces a crystalline substance, which contains no ammonia. Hence + the proportion of nitrogen yielded by manures is not a proper + measure of their value, and therefore this mode of estimating that + value ought to be discontinued."[38] We infer, therefore, that the + proportion of nitrogen furnished by food of various kinds is not the + true measure of their nutritious value, and cannot for practical + purposes take the place of that process by which the amount of rough + gluten is determined. + + No better illustration can be given of the uncertainty which attends + the inferences drawn from the ultimate composition, than the fact + heretofore stated in regard to hay, the nutritive value of which is + placed in the tables containing the results of these analyses, at a + figure nearly the same as that of ordinary wheat flour.[39] In the + paper on the "Composition of Wheat," by M. Peligot--(" Comptes + Rendus," February 5th, 1849)--to which I have already referred, the + author gives the results of the various analyses which he has made, + and details the process he adopted. + + Aware of the complex and difficult nature of the examination as + conducted by him, he seems to doubt in regard to some of the results + given in his tables In the fourteen samples which he analysed, the + proportion of water ranges from 13.2 to 15.2, which is a rather + higher average than is yielded by our American samples, especially + those which have not been shipped across the Atlantic. Of the + nitrogenous matter, soluble and insoluble, the proportions range + from 9.90 per cent, to 21.50 per cent.; the former being from a + sample of very soft and white French wheat; the latter from a very + hard wheat with long grains, from Northern Africa, cultivated at + Verrieres. Another sample from Egypt yielded 20.60 per cent, of + these nitrogenous matters, both of which are very remarkable + proportions. + + In describing the process for ascertaining the amount of insoluble + nitrogenous matters, this author adverts to their estimation either + by the quantity of nitrogen gas furnished, or of ammonia formed, the + last being preferred for substances, which, like wheat, contain only + a few hundredths of nitrogen. The results which he obtained by this + method were compared with those yielded by the direct extraction of + the gluten by softening the farina under a small stream of water. + "These results," says he, "differ but little from each other when we + operate upon wheat in good condition, although the gluten which we + thus obtain holds some starch and fatty matter, while the starch + which is carried away by the water contains also some gluten." The + loss and gain, as I have already explained, and as has been proved + by these and other comparisons, are nearly balanced, and the amount + of rough gluten will therefore afford a fair exhibit of that of the + insoluble nitrogenous matters in this grain. + + The salts in the samples of wheat analysed by M. Peligot, were + either wanting or were in small proportion; while the amount of + fatty matter ranged from 1.00 to 1.80 and 1.90 per cent. + + These results agree very well with those which I have obtained. But + it is probable that the proportion is liable to great variation, + inasmuch as it is inferred that the fatty matter originates from + starch through its exposure to the general deoxidising influence + which prevails in plants.[40] There are also many difficulties + attending the accurate determination of this matter, and which are + probably the cause of the higher proportion often given. It is + properly remarked by M. Peligot that the ether employed in this + process should be free from water, and that the flour ought also to + be very dry. By neglecting these precautions, we separate not only + the fatty matter, but also a certain amount of matters soluble in + the water, which is furnished as well by the wheat as by the ether. + + It would not, I think, be difficult to point out some incorrect + views entertained by this chemist, and more especially those which + relate to the fatty matter. Some of his processes for the separation + of various substances, if not faulty, require so many conditions for + success as to render the results, at least in other hands, + exceedingly uncertain. + + But the capital error which he has committed is that concerning the + bran, already adverted to, which he considers injurious to the + flour, chiefly in consequence of the large proportion of fatty + matter which it contains. + + In regard to the soluble nitrogenous matter usually called albumen, + from its resemblance to the animal substance of the same name, I + have to remark that in my trials the proportion has been found to be + considerably less than that often given in tables of the composition + of wheat. In one sample it was found to be as low as 0.15 per cant., + in another it did not rise above 0.20 per cent. The amount was + usually so inconsiderable, that I did not think it worth while to + retard the progress of the work by following out processes which + could add little to the utility of these investigations. + + Although much time and labor have been expended upon the analyses of + the ash of plants, I have but slight confidence in the results + heretofore given. The difficulties which attend the obtaining the + ash in a proper condition, and the fact that the products of all the + organs and parts of the plants have been analysed together, must + necessarily impair the accuracy of the experiments, and render the + inferences drawn from them of uncertain value. Much, indeed I may + say almost everything, still remains to be done in this department + of agricultural chemistry. + + _Weight of wheat as an index to its value_.--Much has been said in + regard to the relative weights of the bushel of wheat of different + varieties or under different modes of culture. + + As ordinarily determined, this weight ranges from fifty-six to + sixty-five or sixty-six pounds, being in a few cases set down + somewhat higher. It is said also that the bushel of wheat weighs + less in some years than it does in others, and that the difference + often amounts to two, or three, or even four pounds. Though this may + seem of comparatively little consequence for a few bushels, yet, for + the aggegate of the wheat crop of the United States, or for a State, + or even a county, it makes a great difference. Thus, were we to + estimate the product of one year in the United States at one hundred + and ten million bushels, weighing fifty-six pounds to the bushel, + and another year at one hundred and eight million bushels, weighing + sixty-two pounds, the difference in favor of the latter, though the + least in quantity, would amount to five hundred and thirty-six + million pounds in weight, or more than one million and a quarter of + barrels of flour.--(Report of the American Commissioner of Patents + for 1847, p. 117.) + + It may be remarked, however, that it is not after all so easy to + determine with accuracy the weight of a bushel of wheat, nor to + decide upon the circumstances which have an influence in increasing + the density of a grain of wheat. If the microscopical + representations of wheat are to be relied on, it is probable that + the increase in the density of wheat depends upon the increase in + the proportion of gluten. I have found in several cases that, the + proportion of water being the same, those samples of wheat which + contain the largest proportion of gluten exhibit the highest + specific gravity, or, in other words, will yield the greatest number + of pounds to the bushel. But the weight of wheat will be influenced + by the proportion of water which it contains; the drier the grain, + the greater is its density; a fact which may account for the + difference which has been observed in the weight of wheat in + different seasons. If this is the cause, the calculation above given + in reference to the United States is fallacious--but if the amount + of gluten is _actually_, instead of _relatively_, increased by + peculiarities in seasons, it is no doubt correct. + + I have devised a series of experiments to test the accuracy of the + statements made upon this point, but have not yet had leisure to + complete them. + + _General conditions from the analyses of wheat flour_.--The large + number of analyses which I have made, and the uniformity of the + processes pursued, enable me to draw some general conclusions which + it may be useful to present in a connected form. + + 1. In the samples from the more northern wheat-growing States, there + seems to be little difference in the proportion of nutritive matter + that can be set down to the influence of climate. Thus, the yield of + the wheat from Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, is scarcely inferior to + that from New York, Indiana, and Illinois, although the two latter + are somewhat farther south. Local causes, and more especially the + peculiarities of culture and manufacture, have more influence, + within these parallels of latitude, than the difference of mean + temperature. + + 2. The samples from New Jersey, Lower Pennsylvania, the southern + part of Ohio, Maryland (probably Delaware), Virginia, the Carolinas, + and Georgia,[41] contain less water and more nutritive matter than + those from the States previously enumerated. That the samples from + Missouri, which is included within nearly the same parallels of + latitude as Virginia, do not exhibit so high an average of nutritive + matter as those from the latter State, must be ascribed principally + to a want of care in the management of the crop, and perhaps also in + the manufacture of the flour. Virginia flour, for obvious reasons, + maintains a high reputation for shipment. + + 3. The difference in the nutritive value of the various samples of + wheat depends greatly upon the variety, and mode of culture, + independently of climate. The correctness of the former statement is + shown by the much larger proportions of gluten yielded by many of + the samples of _hard_ wheat from abroad, the Oregon wheat in + Virginia, and a variety of Illinois wheat, &c. And in regard to the + effect of particular modes of culture, the various analyses of + Boussingault may be referred to, and that in my table of a sample + from Ulster county, New York. + + 4. The deterioration of many of the samples of wheat and wheat flour + arises in most cases from the presence of a too large per centage of + water. This is often the result of a want of proper care in the + transport, and is the principal cause of the losses which are + sustained by those who are engaged in this branch of business. + + 5. There seems to be little doubt that a considerable portion of the + wheat and wheat flour, as well as of other breadstuffs, shipped from + this country to England, is more or less injured before it reaches + that market. It is also shown that this is mostly to be ascribed to + the want of care above noticed, and to the fraudulent mixture of + good and bad kinds. The remedy in the former case is the drying of + the grain or flour before shipment, by some of the modes proposed, + and the protection of it afterwards as completely as possible from + the effect of moisture. The frauds which are occasionally practised + should be promptly exposed, and those who are engaged in them held + up to merited reproach. + + 6. It has been fully shown, by the results of many trials, that the + flour obtained by the second grinding of wheat, or the whole meal, + contains more gluten than the fine flour. Hence the general use of + the latter, and the entire rejection of the bran, is wasteful, and + ought in every way to be discouraged. + + 7. It cannot but be gratifying to us that the average nutritive + value of the wheat and wheat flour of the United States is shown by + these analyses to be fully equal to, if not greater than, that + afforded by the samples produced in any other part of the world. And + it will, in my opinion, be chiefly owing to a want of proper care + and of commercial honesty, if the great advantages which should + accrue to this country from the export of these articles are either + endangered or entirely lost. + + TABLE EXHIBITING THE PER CENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS SAMPLES OF + AMERICAN AND FOREIGN WHEAT FLOUR, BY LEWIS C. BECK, M.D. (1849). + ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+-------------- + | |Gluten | | Glucos | + Kind of Wheat Flour, and from | | and | |dextrine,| + whence obtained |Water|albumen|Starch| &c. |Bran + ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+---------+---- + Country Mills, New Jersey |12.75| 11.55 | 65.95| 8.10 | .65 + West Jersey Wheat |12.80| 12.32 | 69.48| 5.90 | .50 + White Wheat, New Jersey |11.55| 12.60 | 66.85| 8.50 | .50 + Pennsylvania Wheat |11.90| 13.16 | 66.20| 7.25 | .75 + ditto ditto |13.35| 12.73 | 66.90| 6.50 | .52 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.35| 14.72 | 71.28 | .65 + Pelham Wheat, Ulster Co., N.Y. |10.79| 13.17 | 67.74| 7.60 | .70 + "Pure Genesee" Wheat |13.20| 11.05 | 75.20 | .55 + Ohio Wheat, "fine" |12.85| 12.25 | 73.90 |1.00 + Ohio Wheat, "superfine" |13.00| 9.10 | 77.80 | .10 + Winter Wheat, Ohio |13.10| 11.56 | 66.84| 7.90 | .60 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.05| 12.69 | 73.61 | .65 + Michigan Wheat, "superfine" |13.25| 11.10 | 74.80 | .85 + Michigan Wheat |12.25| 10.00 | 67.70| 8.75 | .75 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.75| 11.20 | 66.00| 8.50 |1.05 + Illinois Wheat |12.73| 14.61 | 65.20| 6.45 | .80 + Magnolia Mill, St. Louis, Mo. |13.13| 10.27 | 69.75| 6.15 | .35 + Mound Mill, St. Louis |13.48| 10.53 | 67.35| 8.15 | .20 + Walsh's Mill, St. Louis |12.70| 10.63 | 69.40| 6.65 | .40 + Washington Mill, St. Louis |12.88| 11.00 | 68.65| 7.27 | .20 + Missouri Mill, St. Louis |13.00| 10.46 | 67.79| 8.35 | .40 + O'Fallan's Mill, St. Louis |12.85| 11.25 | 68.24| 7.00 | .66 + Phoenix Mill, St. Louis |13.22| 10.10 | 68.70| 7.30 | .15 + Nonantum Mill, St. Louis |12.10| 11.02 | 68.60| 7.93 | .35 + Franklin Mill, St. Louis |12.25| 10.29 | 69.85| 7.26 | .35 + Eagle Mill, St. Louis |11.00| 10.15 | 69.50| 8.65 | .20 + Winter Wheat, Missouri |14.00| 9.30 | 70.05| 6.30 | .35 + Wisconsin Wheat |12.80| 13.20 | 68.90| 6.50 | .70 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.80| 13.46 | 72.54 |1.20 + Maryland Wheat |13.00| 12.30 | 66.65| 7.10 | .65 + Richmond City Mill |11.70| 13.00 | 67.50| 6.90 | .50 + Haxall and Co., Richmond, Va. |11.40| 12.80 | 68.50| 6.60 | .35 + Virginia Wheat, "superfine" |12.05| 12.95 | 74.50 | .50 + Haxall and Co., "best brand, '49" |11.40| 13.25 | 68.20| 6.25 | .60 + Haxall and Co., "2nd brand, '49" |11.00| 13.20 | 75.60 | .20 + Richmond City Mill, '49 |11.90| 10.50 | 70.00| 7.10 | .50 + Oregon White Wheat, Va. |12.80| 14.80 | 71.30 |1.10 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.85| 14.50 | 65.15| 5.90 | .60 + Gallego Mill, Richmond, Va. |11.50| 13.50 | 68.35| 6.00 | .65 + Ship Brandywine, Liverpool |13.38| 10.62 | 67.60| 7.75 | .65 + Ship Fanchon, Liverpool |13.83| 11.38 | 67.45| 6.34 |1.00 + Ship New World, Liverpool |13.65| 11.60 | 65.80| 7.70 | .65 + Ship Juniata, Liverpool |12.50| 14.14 | 64.20| 8.36 | .80 + Ship Stephen Lurman, Liverpool |11.65| 13.18 | 64.50| 9.55 | .68 + Ship Leila, Liverpool |13.22| 13.18 | 64.65| 8.00 | .95 + Ship Oxenbridge, Liverpool |13.90| 10.13 | 68.42| 7.30 | .25 + | |& bran | | | + Ship Italy, Liverpool |12.94| 10.60 | 68.56| 7.90 | + Ship West Point, Liverpool |14.30| 12.30 | 63.00| 9.45 | .95 + Ship W.H. Harbeck, Liverpool |13.53| 10.18 | 66.95| 8.80 | .30 + Ship Princeton, Liverpool |13.40| 11.52 | 65.60| 7.90 | .85 + Ship Columbus, Liverpool |13.50| 10.45 | 66.45| 8.50 |1.03 + Ship Russell Glover, Liverpool |13.45| 10.47 | 66.20| 8.83 |1.05 + Ship South Carolina, Liverpool |13.80| 9.00 | 70.80| 5.95 | .38 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.30| 9.45 | 76.90 | .35 + Ship Cambridge, Liverpool |14.50| 8.52 | 70.60| 5.40 | .40 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |14.10| 9.10 | 70.55| 5.45 | .20 + Ship Columbus, Liverpool |14.85| 8.47 | 76.48 | .20 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |14.15| 9.00 | 76.60 | .25 + Ship Ashburton, Liverpool |13.55| 11.68 | 69.22| 5.30 | .25 + Wheat grown in Canada West |12.80| 7.23 | 74.12| 5.10 | .75 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.60| 8.45 | 78.55 | .40 + Chilian Wheat |12.44| 9.45 | 67.80| 8.37 |1.30 + Chilian Wheat |12.85| 8.65 | 71.60| 6.10 | .60 + | |& bran | | | + Valparaiso Wheat |12.50| 14.55 | | | + French Wheat |13.20| 9.85 | 69.00| 7.65 | .30 + Spanish Wheat |13.50| 10.30 | 68.90| 7.00 | .30 + Canivano Wheat |11.33| 16.35 | 63.10| 6.50 |2.30 + Canivano Wheat |11.15| 15.40 | 67.25| 5.70 | .60 + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.60| 18.70 | 67.00 |1.70 + Hard wheat, grown near Malaga |10.87| 12.15 | 64.38| 12.60 | + | | | |& lactic acid + ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |10.00| 14.50 | 60.20| 15.30 | + ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+---------+---- + + There is no crop, the skilful and successful cultivation of which on + the same soil, from generation to generation, requires more art than + is demanded to produce good wheat. To grow this grain on fresh land, + adapted to the peculiar habits and wants of the plant is an easy + task. But such fields, except in rare instances, fail sooner or + later to produce sound and healthy plants, which are little liable + to attacks from the malady called "rust," or which give lengthened + ears or "heads," well filled with plump seeds. + + Having long resided in the best wheat-growing district in the Union, + the writer has devoted years of study and observation to all the + influences of soil, climate, and constitutional peculiarities, which + affect this bread-bearing plant. It is far more liable to smut, + rust, and shrink in some soils than in others. This is true in + western New York, and every other section where wheat has long been + cultivated. As the alkalies and other fertilizing elements become + exhausted in the virgin soils of America, its crops of wheat not + only become smaller on an average, but the plants fail in + constitutional vigor, and are more liable to diseases and attacks + from parasites and destructive insects. Defects in soil and improper + nutrition lead to these disastrous results. Soils are defective in + the following particulars: + + 1. They lack soluble silica, or flint in an available form, with + which to produce a hard glassy stem that will be little subject to + "rust." Soluble flint is never very abundant in cultivated soils; + and after they have been tilled some years, the supply is deficient + in quantity. It is not very difficult to learn with considerable + accuracy the amount of silica which rain-water as it falls on the + earth will dissolve out of 1,000 grains of soil in the course of + eight or ten days. Hot water will dissolve more than cold; and water + charged with carbonic acid more than pure water which has been + boiled. The experiments of Prof. Rogers of the University of + Virginia, as published in Silliman's Journal, have a direct bearing + on this subject. The researches of Prof. Emmons of Albany, in his + elaborate and valuable work on "Agriculture," as a part of the + Natural History of New York, show that 10,000 parts of soil yield + only from one to three parts of soluble silica. The analyses of Dr + Jackson, as published in his Geological Survey of New Hampshire, + give similar results. Earth taken from an old and badly exhausted + field in Georgia, gave the writer only one part of soluble flint in + 100,000. + + What elements of crops rain water, at summer heat, will dissolve out + of ten or twenty pounds of soil, in the course of three months, is a + point in agricultural science which should be made the subject of + numerous and rigid experiments. In this way, the capabilities of + different soils and their adaptation to different crops may be + tested, in connection with practical experiments in field culture, + on the same kind of earth. + + Few wheat-growers are aware how much dissolved flint an acre of good + wheat demands to prevent its having coarse, soft, and spongy stems, + which are anything but a healthy organization of the plant. In the + Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. 7, there + is an extended "Report on the Analysis of the Ashes of Plants, by + Thomas Way, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Agricultural + College, Cirencester," which gives the result of sixty-two analyses + of the ash of wheat, from as many samples of that grain, mostly + grown on different soils and under different circumstances. + + In this report are given the quantity of wheat per acre, the weight + of straw cut close to the ground to the acre, and also that of the + chaff. These researches show, that from ninety-three to one hundred + and fifty pounds of soluble flint are required to form an acre of + wheat; and I will add from my own investigations, that three-fourths + of this silica is demanded by nature during the last sixty days + preceding the maturing of the crop. This is the period in which the + stem acquires its solidity and strength, and most of its + incombustible earthy matter. The quantity of this varies from three + to fifteen per cent. of the weight of the straw. Prof. Johnston and + Sir Humphry Davy give instances in which more than fifteen per cent. + of ash was found; and Prof. Way gives cases where less than three + per cent. were obtained. The mean of forty samples was four and a + half per cent. Dr. Sprengel gives three and a half as the mean of + his analyses. M. Boussingault found an average of seven per cent. As + flint is truly the _bone_ of all the grass family, imparting to them + strength, as in cane, timothy, corn, oats, rye, rice, millet, and + the proportion of this mineral varies as much in wheat-straw, as + bone does in very lean and very fat hogs or cattle. + + A young growing animal, whether a child or a colt, that is kept on + food which lacks _bone-earth_, (phosphate of lime,) will have soft + cartilaginous bones. Nature cannot substitute _iron_ or any other + mineral in the animal system, out of which to form hard strong + bones; nor can any other mineral in the soil perform the peculiar + function assigned to silica in the vital economy of cereal plants. + To protect the living germs in the seeds of wheat, corn, oats, rye, + barley, &c, the cuticle or bran of these seeds contains considerable + flint. The same is true of chaff. + + The question naturally arises,--How is the farmer to increase the + quantity of soluble silica or flint in his soil? This is a question + of the highest practical importance. There are three principal ways + in which the object named may be attained. First, by keeping fewer + acres under the plough. Land in pasture, if well managed, will gain + its fertility, and in the process accumulate soluble silica in the + surface soil. In this way more wheat and surer crops may be made by + cultivating a field in wheat two years than four or six. If the + field in the mean time be devoted to wool-growing, butter or + cheese-making, or to stock-raising, particular care must be taken to + make great crops of grass or clover to grow on the land, and have + all the manure, both solid and liquid, applied to its surface. + + There are many counties in England that yield an average of + thirty-two bushels of wheat per acre for ten crops in succession. + There are but few of the old counties in the United States which + average the half of that quantity: and yet America has greater + agricultural capabilities than that of Great Britain. + + Another way to increase soluble silica in the soil, is to grow such + crops, in rotation with wheat culture, as will best prevent the loss + of dissolved flint, at any time by leaching and washing, through the + agency of rain water. This remark is intended to apply more + particularly to those large districts devoted to cotton and tobacco + culture, plants that take up no considerable amount of silica, and + which by the constant stirring of the earth, and the clean tillage + which they demand, favor the leaching of the soil. To keep too much + of a plantation of these crops, is to lessen its capabilities for + producing good crops of corn, wheat, and barley, at a small expense. + Corn plants, well managed, will extract more pounds of silica in + three or six months from the soil, than any other. As not an ounce + of this mineral is needed in the animal economy of man or beast, it + can all be composted in cornstalks, blades, and cobs, or in the dung + and urine derived from corn, and be finally reorganized in the stems + of wheat plants. Corn culture and wheat culture, if skilfully and + scientifically conducted, go admirably together. Of the two, more + bread, more meat, and more _money_ can be made from the corn than + from the wheat plant in this country. But so soon as what is called + "high farming" in England, shall be popular in the United States, + the crops both of wheat and corn grown here will demonstrate how + little we appreciate the vast superiority of our climate for the + economical feeding and clothing of the human family, over that of + our "mother country." In several counties in England, it takes from + twelve to fourteen months to make a crop of wheat, after the seed is + put into the ground. At or near the first of December, 1847, Mr. + M.B. Moore, of Augusta, Ga., sowed a bushel of seed wheat on an acre + and a half of ground, which gave him over thirty bushels by the + middle of May following. This ground was then ploughed, and a fine + crop of hay made and cut in July. After this, a good crop of peas + was raised, and harvested in October, before it was time to seed + with wheat again, as was done. While the mean temperature of England + is so low, that corn plants will not ripen, in Georgia one can grow + a crop of wheat in the winter, and nearly two crops of corn in + succession in the summer and autumn, before it is time to sow wheat + again. No writer, to my knowledge, has done full justice to the vast + agricultural resources of the southern portion of the American + confederacy. But there is much of its soil which is not rich in the + elements of bread. Nothing but the careful study of these elements, + and of the natural laws by which they are governed, can remedy + defects in wheat culture anywhere, but especially on very poor land. + + All alkaline minerals, such as potash, soda, lime, ammonia, and + magnesia, hasten the solution of the several insoluble compounds of + silica in the soil. This fact should be remembered by every farmer. + To undertake an explanation of the various ways in which alkalies, + oxides, and acids act and re-act upon each other in the surface of + the earth, when subject to tillage, would be out of place in this + outline view of wheat-growing in the United States. I may state the + fact, however, as ascertained by many analyses, that a cubic foot of + good wheat soil in the valley of the Genesee, contains twenty times + more lime than do the poorest soils in South Carolina and Georgia. + The quantity of gypsum, bone-earth, and magnesia, available as food + for plants, varies in an equal degree. Not only lime, but phosphoric + acid, potash, and magnesia are lacking in most soils, if one desires + to raise a large crop of wheat, and have the seeds of the grain + weigh as much as the straw. In a number of the specimens of wheat + analyzed by Prof. Way, when cut close to the roots, the dry wheat + outweighed the dry straw. + + Having secured the growth of a bright, hard, glassy stem, the next + thing is to develop a long, well-filled ear. To this end, available + ammonia or nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, and magnesia are + indispensable. Ammonia (spirits of hartshorn) is necessary to aid in + forming the combustible part of the seed. The other ingredients + named are required to assist in making the incombustible part of the + grain. In 100 parts of the ash of wheat, there are the following + substances, viz.:-- + + Silica 2.28 + Phosphoric acid 45.73 + Sulphuric acid 0.32 + Lime 2.06 + Magnesia 10.94 + Peroxide of iron 2.04 + Potash 32.24 + Soda 4.06 + Chloride of sodium 0.27 + ----- + Total 99.94 + + The quantity of ash in wheat varies from 11/4 to 21/2 per cent.; the + average is about 1.69. The amount of phosphoric acid in any given + quantity of the ash of wheat varies from forty to fifty per cent. of + the same. + + Seeds that have a thick cuticle or bran, and little gluten, contain + a smaller per centage of phosphoric acid, and more silica. About + one-third of the ash is potash; in nearly all cases magnesia varies + from nine to fourteen per cent.; lime from one and a half to six per + cent. Peroxide of iron is seldom as abundant as in the ash above + given, and the same is true of soda. Chloride of sodium is common + salt, and exists in a small quantity. Salt is beginning to be much + used as a fertilizer on wheat lands in western New York. It operates + indirectly to increase the crop. + + The following may be taken as about the average composition of the + ash of wheat-straw. It is "Specimen No. 40," in the tables of Prof. + Way, and I copy verbatim all that is said upon the subject: [Soil, + sandy; subsoil, stone and clay; geological formation, silurian; + drained; eight years in tillage; crop, after carrots, twenty tons + per acre; tilled December, 1845; heavy crop; mown, August 12th; + carried, August 20th; estimated yield, forty-two bushels per acre; + straw long, grain good, weight sixty-two pounds to the bushel.] + Length of straw, forty-two inches. + + + _Relation of Grain, Straw and Chaff_. + + Actual quantities. Per centage. + Grain 1633 lbs. 45.15 + Straw 1732 47.89 + Chaff 250 6.96 + ---- + Total 3615 lbs. + + + Specific gravity of grain 1.396 + Weight of grain per acre 2604 lbs. + " " straw " " 2,775 3/10ths. + " " chaff " " 401 1/6th. + + _Mineral Matter in an Acre._ + Wheat 44 1/2 lbs. + Straw 113 + Chaff 47 1/6th. + ----------- + Total 204 7/10ths. + + + _Analysis of the Ash of the Grain_. + Per centage. Removed from an acre. + lbs. ozs. + Silica 5.63 2 8 + Phosphoric acid 43.98 19 8 + Sulphuric acid .21 0 1 1/6th. + Lime 1.80 0 12 8/10ths. + Magnesia 11.69 5 3 2/10ths. + Peroxide of iron .29 0 2 + Potash 34.51 15 5 6/10ths. + Soda 1.87 0 13 3/10ths. + ----- --- ---------- + Total 99.98 44 6 l/10ths. + + + _Analysis of Straw with its proportion of Chaff._ + Per centage. Removed per acre. + lbs. ozs. + Silica 69.36 111 1 7/10ths. + Phosphoric acid 5.24 8 6 7/10ths. + Sulphuric acid 4.45 7 2 2/10ths. + Lime 6.96 11 2 2/20ths. + Magnesia 1.45 2 5 + Peroxide of iron .29 1 2 + Potash 11.79 18 14 + Soda none none. + Chloride of sodium " " + ----- --- ----------- + Total 99.54 160 1 l/10ths. + + If we subtract the 111 pounds of silica from 160 pounds of minerals + in the straw and chaff, the difference between what are left and + those in wheat, is not great. As the stems and leaves of wheat + plants grow before their seeds, if all the phosphoric acid, potash, + and lime available in the soil is consumed before the organization + of the seeds begin, from what source is nature to draw her supply of + these ingredients to form a good crop of wheat? If the farmer could + reverse the order of nature, and grow a good supply of seeds first, + and make straw afterwards, then many a one would harvest more wheat + and less straw. But the cultivator must grow the stems, roots, and + leaves of wheat, corn, and cotton, before nature will begin to form + the seeds of these several plants: and every one should know that + the atoms in the soil, which are consumed in organizing the bodies + of cultivated plants, are, in the main, identical in kind with those + required to make their seeds. The proportions, however, differ very + considerably. Thus, while 100 parts of the ash of wheat contain an + average of 45 parts of phosphoric acid, 100 of the ash of the wheat + straw contain an average of only 5 parts. The difference is as 9 to + 1. In magnesia the disparity is only a little less striking. + + In what are called the organic elements of wheat (the combustible + part) there are seven times more nitrogen in 100 pounds than in a + like weight of straw. Hence, if the farmer converts straw into + manure or compost, with the view ultimately of transforming it into + wheat, it will take 7 pounds of straw to yield nitrogen enough to + form one pound of wheat. Few are aware how much labor and money is + annually lost by the feeding of plants on food not strictly adapted + to the peculiar wants of nature in organizing the same. It is true, + that most farmers depend on the natural fertility of the soil to + nourish their crops, with perhaps the aid of a little stable and + barn-yard manure, given to a part of them. As the natural resources + of the land begin to fail, the supply must be drawn from other + quarters than an exhausted field, or its cultivator will receive a + poor return for the labor bestowed. + + In Great Britain, where the necessity for liberal harvests and + artificial fertilizing is far greater than in this country, the + yield of wheat is said to be governed in a good degree by the amount + of ammonia available as food for growing plants. This opinion is + founded not at all on theory, but altogether on the teachings of + experience. But in England, limeing and manuring are so much matters + of constant practice, that few soils are so improverished as many + are in the United States, With land as naked and sterile as is much + that can be found in the whole thirteen colonies between Maine and + Alabama, English farmers could hardly pay their tithes and poor + rates, to say nothing of other taxes, rent, and the coat of + producing their annual crops. + + The first step towards making farming permanently profitable in all + the older States, is to accumulate in a cheap and skilful manner the + raw material for good harvests in the soil. + + Over a territory so extensive as the United States, it is extremely + difficult to lay down any rule that will be applicable even to a + moiety of the republic. There are, however, many beds of marl, + greensand, gypsum, limestone, saline and vegetable deposits + available for the improvement of farming lands, in the Union. In + addition to these, there are extraneous resources, the ocean with + its fish, its shells, its sea-weeds, and its fertilizing salts, + which will yield an incalculable amount of bread and meat. In the + subsoil and the atmosphere, every agriculturist has resources which + are not duly appreciated by one in a thousand. + + As a general rule, the soil must be _deepened_ before it can be + permanently improved. One acre of soil 12 inches deep is worth more + to make money from, by cultivating it, than four acres 6 inches in + depth. Thus, admit that a soil 6 inches deep will produce 14 bushels + of wheat, and that 12 bushels will pay all expenses and give 2 for + profit. Four acres of this land will yield a net income of only 8 + bushels. Now double the depth of the soil and the crop: making the + latter 28 bushels, instead of 14 per acre, and the former 12 inches + deep, in the place of 6. Fifteen bushels instead of twelve, will now + pay all annual expenses, and leave a net profit not of _two_ but of + _thirteen_ bushels per acre. If small crops will pay expenses, large + ones will make a fortune; provided the farmer knows how to enrich + his land in the most economical way. It is quite as easy to pay too + dear for improving lands, as to lose money at any other business + whatever. + + The first thing for the operator to do is to acquire all the + knowledge within his reach, from the experience of others who have + done for their soils what he proposes to accomplish for his. Twenty + or fifty dollars, invested in the best agricultural works in the + English language, may save him thousands in the end, and double his + profits in two years. The Agricultural Journals of the United States + abound in information most useful to the practical farmer: and the + back volumes, if collected and bound, will form a library of great + value. + + _Rotation of Crops in connexion with Wheat Culture_.--A system of + tillage and rotation which will pay best in one locality, or on one + quality of soil, and in a particular climate, will be found not at + all adapted to other localities, different soils and latitudes. + Hence, no rule can be laid down that will meet the peculiar + exigencies of a farming country so extensive as the thirty States + east of the Rocky Mountains. There are soils in Western New York, + known to the writer, which have borne good crops of wheat every + other year for more than twenty years, and produce better now than + at the beginning of their cultivation. The resources of the earth in + supplying the elements of wheat and corn are extremely variable. + There are friable shaley rocks in Livingstone county, N.Y., which + crumble and slake when exposed to the air, that abound in all the + earthy minerals necessary to form good wheat. These rocks are + hundreds of feet in thickness, and have furnished much of the soil + in the valley of the Genesee. The Onondaga Salt Group, and other + contiguous strata, which extend into Canada West, form soils of + extraordinary capacity for growing wheat. Indeed, the rocks and + "drift" of a district give character to its arable surface. + + Nothing is more needed at this time than a good geological map of + the United States, accompanied by an accurate and popularly arranged + work on agricultural geology. The writer had hoped to give such a + map in this report; but it is thought best to devote another year to + the collection of geological surveys and facts, and to the making of + more critical and extended researches before publishing. + + In the matter of rotation of crops in connection with wheat culture, + clover and corn are generally preferred in all the Northern, and + most of the Middle States. In New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, + Michigan, Wisconsin, Northern Indiana, and Illinois, so far as the + writer is acquainted, a crop of wheat is made in rotation, either + every third, fourth, or fifth year. Wherever wool growing is united + with wheat culture, clover and wheat are the staple crops of the + farm. Wool and superfine flour are exported; farmers taking nearly + all the bran and shorts of the millers who purchase their wheat. + + The offal of wheat makes not a little feed with chaff and cut straw. + Many agriculturists grow peas, beans, turnips, beets, and carrots in + large quantities, as well as clover, corn, oats, and barley. Peas + and beans, both stems and pulse, when well cured, are excellent feed + for sheep; and on good land they are easily grown. They prepare the + soil well for wheat. + + All the manure derived from sheep is husbanded with extreme care by + the farmers who are gradually enriching their lands. On a deep, + rich, arable soil, quite a number of sheep may be kept per acre, if + highly cultivated; and their manure prepares the land for producing + generous crops of wheat at a small expense. Of all business men, + farmers should be the closest calculators of _profit_ and _loss_. + + Great care should be taken to sow good and clean seed on clean land. + Previous to putting the seed in the ground (drilling is preferable + to sowing broadcast), wheat should be soaked five or six hours--not + longer--in strong brine. After this, add a peck or more of recently + slaked lime to each bushel, and shovel it over well, that the lime + may cover each seed. It is now ready to commit to the earth. Most + good farmers roll the earth after seeding: some before. + + In the Southern States, planters are in the habit of permitting + their wheat to remain too long in the field after it is cradled, and + in small shocks. Good barns are too scarce in all the planting + States, and in some others. + + _Summer fallowing_ is generally abandoned, except in cases where old + pastures and meadows, new prairie, or bushy bad fields are to be + subdued. As a general rule, friable soils need not be ploughed long + before the intended crop is expected to begin to grow. Among + fertilizers, wood ashes, salt, bones, lime, guano, and poudrette + have been used in wheat culture with decided advantage. In Great + Britain, manure derived from the consumption of turnips and other + root crops by sheep and neat cattle, is much used in preparing land + for wheat. Sheep, clover and peas, corn and hogs, rotate well to + insure the economical production of this staple. Manure is usually + applied to the crop preceding wheat. + + It may be interesting to some readers to see in this place the mean + result of several organic analyses of wheat made by M. Boussingault. + Wheat, dried at 230 deg. _in vacuo_, was found to contain: + + Carbon 46.1 + Oxygen 43.4 + Hydrogen 5.8 + Nitrogen 2.3 + Ash 2.4 + ----- + Total 100.0 + + Charcoal may be regarded as a fair representative of carbon, and + water as the representative of both oxygen and hydrogen. It will be + seen by the above figures, that over 95 per cent. of wheat is made + up of elements which greatly abound in nature in an available + condition; and the same is true of all other plants. It is doubtless + owing to this circumstance, that a comparatively small quantity of + guano and other highly concentrated fertilizers are able to produce + crops five, ten, and fifty times greater than their own weight. + Azote, or nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, or nitric acid, (aqua + fortis), and the incombustible part of plants are the elements which + least abound in soils, and should be husbanded with the greatest + care. + +The Hon. C.P. Holcomb, of Delaware, furnishes some interesting remarks +on the wheat crop of the United States:-- + + A short wheat crop in England, Mr. Webster says, affects the + exchanges of the civilized world. In the vast increase of population + in the absence of long wars and famines, the importance of this + staple is constantly increasing. Its cultivation is the most + attractive and pleasant of all descriptions of husbandry; and its + rewards are generally remunerating, when the soil and climate are + favorable, and the markets are not too distant. + + It is important to know what our relation is to this staple of the + world, and what is, and what is likely to be, our contribution to + the great aggregate of production. Beyond feeding our own great and + rapidly increasing population, it probably will not soon, if ever, + be very great. It is a mistake, I apprehend, to suppose our country + is naturally a great wheat-producing country. The wheat district at + present, in comparison to the whole extent of our territory, is + limited. It is confined, so far as any appreciable amount is grown, + to about ten degrees of latitude and twenty degrees of longitude, + and embracing about one half the number of the States. The crop of + 1848 is estimated by the Commissioner of Patents at one hundred and + twenty-six millions, and our population at twenty-two millions. This + gives a less number of bushels, per head, to our population than the + consumption of Great Britain, which is generally set down at one + hundred and sixty millions, or six bushels to each inhabitant. But + with us Indian corn is a great substitute; so are potatoes and oats + in Ireland and Scotland. Still our consumption of wheat, including + the black population, is undoubtedly less, per head, than theirs. + But in the absence of any certain data, to ascertain either the + actual production, or our consumption, our only safe course is to + take the actual excess, or the amount exported, after supplying our + own wants. This, for the fiscal year 1848, being the crop of 1847, + amounted, in flour and wheat, to twelve millions two hundred and + ninety-four thousand one hundred and seventy-five bushels, although + Mr. Burke's figures would show a surplus of some forty millions! + That there was not, and never has been any such surplus in the + country is very evident, for the foreign demand was all the time + good, and drew away all we had to part with. + + The crop of 1848 was, undoubtedly, one of the best and largest we + have ever grown; yet I have ascertained, by application at the + registrar's office, that the exports for the fiscal year 1842, + amounted in wheat to but 1,527,534 bushels, and in flour to + 2,108,013 barrels, or less by 226,676 bushels than the exports of + 1848. Twelve millions is comparatively a small surplus in a + favorable season, for a country with a population of twenty-two + millions of inhabitants. The loss of a small per cent. in an + unfavorable season would at once sink this excess. + + Let us now notice more in detail the different sections of our + country as adapted to the growth of wheat. + + The New England States, some of them aided in their recent + enterprises by bounties offered by the state governments, have + failed to insure such success as is likely to encourage them to + continue the culture of wheat; or, at all events, to induce them to + aim at increasing their product to any considerable extent, since, + as one of their own farmers candidly states, "the attempt to grow a + crop of wheat is an experiment." + + The States south of North Carolina, and inclusive of a part of + Delaware, have never heretofore succeeded in growing wheat to any + considerable extent, though there were periods in their + history--before the general introduction of the culture of + cotton--when, if it had been practicable to make the cereal one of + their staples, they would certainly have done so. Besides the common + dangers from rust and blight, the fly, and sometimes the frost--as + the past season--they have a most formidable enemy in the weevil. In + Upper Georgia, in the Cherokee country in particular, wheat will + probably be cultivated to some extent, and a limited cultivation of + it by the planters for their own use will probably continue in + several of the southern states. But the cotton, rice, and sugar + states, like the manufacturing states of New England, will not soon, + if ever, add much to the supply of wheat; the rich staples of the + former, and the varied husbandry and grazing of the latter, suited + to supply the immediate wants of a manufacturing population, will be + likely to receive their attention in preference. + + Kentucky and Tennessee, though their agricultural history dates back + beyond the settlement of the north-western states, have already been + out-stripped by at least two of them. In neither of these states has + the culture of wheat ever been put forward, and regarded as one of + their best staples, or as very favorably adapted to their soil and + climate. Still, notwithstanding the formidable danger from rust, the + production of Tennessee is estimated to be equal to nine bushels to + each person, and Kentucky about seven and a half bushels. Missouri + may be classed with Kentucky and Tennessee, which she much resembles + in soil, climate, and productions, except that she raises much less + wheat than either, her crop being placed by the Commissioner of + Patents at only two millions, or less than four bushels to each + resident of the state. But, besides that the experience of the past + discourages the idea that these fine states are likely to become + great wheat-producing states, the fact that the staple of cotton may + be cultivated over a considerable portion of one of them, and that + hemp and tobacco are among the valuable products of the other two; + that Tennessee is the very largest corn-producing state in the + Union, showing her soil and climate are particularly adapted to this + description of grain, and that Kentucky and Missouri are unsurpassed + as grazing countries, and there is little ground to suppose that any + change in their husbandry will very greatly or suddenly augment the + production of wheat. Let us come now to the States of Indiana, + Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, and that _fabulous_ wheat district or + territory to the west of these again, from which, according to the + vaticinations of some, may be drawn supplies of wheat to feed the + population of both Europe and America, or fill warehouses that would + sustain our people through a longer famine than that which afflicted + the people of Egypt! I cannot help thinking that, to some extent, + this generally fertile district of country has, so far as the + production of wheat is concerned, been "shouted forth in + acclamations hyperbolical." My own impression in regard to it is, + including the states last named, derived in part from observation, + from intercourse and correspondence with intelligent agriculturists + of these states, and from a careful examination of a geological + survey of two of them, that the soil and climate of this whole + district of country are _not_ particularly favorable to the + production of wheat. The popular idea I know to be otherwise. I am + not going to dwell upon it, or to examine the subject at any length. + There is a single remark that may help to explain the reputation + that has gone abroad in reference to the wheat-producing qualities + of these lands. The prairie sod, when first broken up, generally + produces wheat well, often most abundantly, provided it escapes the + rust, insect, &c. But, when this ground has been much furrowed, + becomes completely pulverized by exposure to the atmosphere, the + light and friable mould, of which most of it is composed, drenched, + as a good deal of it is, at times, with surface water, fails to hold + or sustain the roots of the plant, it is thrown out, or + winter-killed; and "winter-killed," "winter-killed," + "winter-killed," we all know, is among the catalogue of disasters + that almost annually reach us. Sometimes, when escaping the winter, + the high winds of spring blow this light soil from the roots, + exposing them to such an extent, that, in a dry time in particular, + the wheat often perishes. When breaking up fresh prairies, there was + much encouragement and promise of hope, but which, I believe, has + not been, nor is likely to be, realized by their husbandmen, in the + degree that early experiments induced them to look for. + + As appears by the last report of the Commissioner of Patents, the + crop of Illinois, in reference to population and production, is + below that of Kentucky, and both Indiana and Illinois are below that + of Tennessee. The crop of Indiana is set down at 8,300,000, her + population at 1,000,000, or equal to 81/2 bushels a-head. The + production of Illinois is stated at 5,400,000, her population at + 800,000, or less than seven bushels to each inhabitant--and both + these "fair and fertile plains" are still farther behind the old + "battered moors" of Maryland and Virginia. + + Much of their wheat, too, is spring wheat, sown often on land where + the fall crop had winter-killed, increasing the number of bushels + much more than the value of the crop. I have heard it estimated + that full one-third of all the wheat shipped from Chicago was of + this description. Chicago is their great wheat depot. Several + millions of bushels are shipped from this point, _the contributions + from parts of three States_, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois; and + which concentration of their joint product at this new western city, + or something else, seems to have imparted to each and all these + states the reputation of great wheat-growing states, though they + are, in fact, with the advantage of a virgin soil, behind several of + the western states, and two at least of the eastern or Atlantic + States. The geological explorations of the Hon. Robert Dale Owen, + undertaken under the authority of Congress, throws much light on the + character of the soil of Wisconsin and Iowa, and the description + given undoubtedly characterizes much of that region of country. The + specific gravity of the soil, Mr. Owen states to be remarkably + _light_; but what he represents to be a "striking feature in the + character of the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, is the _entire absence, + in the most of the specimens of clay, and in a large proportion of + silex_." Again, he speaks of their being particularly adapted to the + growth of the sugar-beet, which he truly says, "flourishes best in a + _loose fertile mould_." Again, he detected no phosphates; but they + might be there, as the _virgin_ soil produced good wheat. So does + the virgin soil of most of the prairie land.--"The soil was rich in + geine," &c. But I submit that this does not describe a wheat soil, + hardly in any one particular. Liebig tells us, that "however great + the proportion of _humus_ in a soil, it does not necessarily follow + it will produce wheat"--and cites the country of Brazil. + + Again, he adds, "how does it happen that wheat does not flourish on + a sandy soil (which much of the soil of these states is described to + be), and that a calcareous soil is also unsuitable to its growth, + unless it be mixed with a considerable quantity of clay?" + + The late Mr. Colman, in his _European Agriculture_, states, that + "the soil preferred for wheat (in England) is a strong soil with a + large proportion of clay. But the question after all is, not whether + these States cannot grow wheat, and in comparatively large + quantities, for we know that while their lands are fresh, they can + and do--but whether, considering the hazard of the crop from + winter-killing, the rust, the fly--the risk from the two former + being equal to a large per cent. premium of insurance, they are not + likely to find their interest in grazing, in raising and feeding + stock, instead of attempting to extend their wheat husbandry. Lord + Brougham has said, that grazing countries are always the most + prosperous, and their population the most contented and happy. The + meat markets of Great Britain are likely to prove better and more + stable for us, than their grain markets. + + The Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, a distinguished citizen, and large + farmer of Indiana--distinguished throughout the Union for his zeal + in the cause of agriculture--thus expresses himself on this subject: + "After a full consideration of the subject, I am satisfied that + stock-raising at the West is much more profitable than raising + grain. Indeed, an examination of the north-western States shows a + vast difference in the wealth of the grazier over those who crop + with grain. The profits of wheat appear well in expectation on + paper, but the prospect is blasted by a severe winter, appearance of + insects, bad weather in harvesting, in threshing, for there are but + few barns at the West, or transporting to market, or last, a + fluctuation in the market itself." + + Such is the opinion of Mr. Ellsworth, the result of observation and + experience, himself largely interested in ascertaining the safest + and surest course to be pursued. The destiny he has indicated for + this beautiful fertile region of country, will undoubtedly be + fulfilled; it will become a great pastoral, stock-raising, and + stock-feeding country. + + Ohio stands now, as she did at the census of 1840, at the head of + all the wheat States, in the aggregate of production; her crop of + 1848 being estimated at 20,000,000, which is about equal to 101/2 + bushels per head of her population. The geological survey of this + State, and the character of the soil, as described in the Reports of + the Board of Agriculture, in a large range of her counties, as a + "clayey soil," "clayey loam," "clay subsoil," &c., shows Ohio to + possess a fine natural wheat soil, if indeed, alter thirty years of + a generally successful wheat husbandry, such additional testimony or + confirmation was necessary. + + Michigan has also been successful in the cultivation of wheat. Her + burr-oak openings are unsurpassed in producing wheat. They are + intervening ridges between low grounds, or marshes and bodies of + water, and their location not generally considered very healthy. A + doubt has also been suggested as to whether this soil, being a + clayey loam, resting on a sandy and gravelly subsoil, is likely to + wear as well as some other portions of the fertile soil of the + State. The Commissioner of Patents puts her crop for 1848 at + 10,000,000 of bushels, which is equal to 231/2 bushels to each + inhabitant! By the census of 1840, the population of Michigan was + 212,267; number of bushels of wheat, 2,157,108. Her population in + 1848 is estimated at 412,000. While she has barely doubled her + population, she has, according to the above estimate, more than + _quadrupled_ her production of wheat--increased it at the rate of + about one million bushels a year for eight consecutive years, making + the quantity she grows to each head of her population _more than + double_ that of any State in the Union. + + We can at least say, and appeal to the past history of the country + to show it, that for a period of more than one hundred years, the + supply of the Atlantic wheat States has generally been constant, and + for the most part abundant. They have furnished the "staff of life" + to several generations of men, and cotemporary with it, an annual + amount for export, that materially assisted in regulating the + exchanges of the country. + +England requires for her own consumption, upon the average of years, +somewhere about 32,000,000 bushels of wheat more than she produces. +The average annual entries of foreign wheat for consumption in the +United Kingdom, for the sixteen years ending with 1845, were about +nine and a half million bushels. Inasmuch as the average number of +acres in wheat crop were in 1846 about 4,600,000, the average produce +142,200,000 bushels, or over 30 bushels to the acre--an improvement in +the harvest to the extent of two bushels per acre, will destroy the +demand, and a deficiency to that extent will double it. Now as there +is an available surplus at the neighbouring ports in Europe, in the +Baltic and the Black Sea, of about 18,000,000 of bushels only, +whenever there is a demand for home consumption, for, say 20,000,000 +bushels, as was the case in each of the five years from 1838 to 1843, +larger shipments from America will take place; but whenever there are +good harvests, as in the six years from 1831 to 1837, in which the +deficiency only ranged from 230,000 to 1,000,000 bushels, the trade is +not worth notice. It must be remarked, however, that in a country like +Britain, where capital is abundant, consumption great, speculation +rife, the harvest so uncertain, and the stake so great that a cloudy +day transfers thousands from one broker to another, the importation +cannot be closely assimilated to the actual wants of the country. The +ordinary yield of grain in the United Kingdom after deductions for +seed, is about 400,000,000 bushels, and as nearly 100,000,000 bushels +of grain and meal were imported in 1847, there must have been a +general deficiency of nearly twenty-five per cent. + +In the "Statistics of the British Empire," the average extent of land +under grain culture, &c., in 1840, was estimated as follows:-- + + ENGLAND AND WALES. + Produce per Acre. Total Produce. + Wheat 3,800,000 31/4 quarters. 12,350,000 + Barley and rye. 900,000 4 " 3,600,000 + Oats and beans. 3,000,000 41/2 " 13,500,000 + + SCOTLAND. + Wheat 220,000 3 660,000 + Barley 280,000 31/2 980,000 + Oats 1,275,000 41/2 5,737,500 + +In Scotland, ten years ago, 150,000 acres were reckoned to be under +cultivation with wheat, 300,000 with barley, and 1,300,000 with oats, +which is the great crop and chief food of the people. + +Mr. Braithwaite Poole, in his "Statistics of British Commerce," 1852, +states--"The annual average production of all sorts of corn in the +United Kingdom has been estimated by competent parties at rather more +than 60,000,000 quarters, and L80,000,000 in value; but in the absence +of general official returns, we cannot vouch for its accuracy, +although, from various comparisons, there are reasonable grounds for +assuming this calculation to be as nearly correct as possible. Some +persons in the corn trade imagine the aggregate production to approach +almost 80,000,000 quarters; but I cannot find any data extant to +warrant such an extended assumption." + +The estimated produce of wheat, in quarters, and acreage, he states as +follows:-- + + Quarters. Acreage. + England 15,200,000 3,800,000 + Ireland 1,800,000 600,000 + Scotland 1,225,000 350,000 + ---------- --------- + Total 15,225,000 4,750,000 + +The average price of wheat per quarter in the last thirteen years, in +England and Wales, has been as follows:-- + + s. d. + 1840 66 4 + 1841 64 4 + 1842 57 3 + 1843 50 1 + 1844 51 3 + 1845 50 10 + 1846 54 8 + 1847 69 9 + 1848 50 6 + 1849 44 3 + 1850 40 4 + 1851 38 7 + 1852 41 0 + +The best wheat, as well as the greatest quantity, is raised in the +midland counties. From two and a half to three Winchester bushels per +acre are required for seed, and the average produce varies from +twenty-two to thirty-two bushels per acre. + + +THE CONTINENT. + +The quantity of wheat raised in France in 1835 was 71,697,484 +hectolitres, of which eleven millions was required for seed. The +average produce per hectare was stated at thirteen and a half +hectolitres. + +The total grain and pulse raised in that year was set down at +204,165,194 hectolitres. + + Hectolitres. + Maslin 12,281,020 + Barley 18,184,316 + Rye 32,999,950 + Buckwheat 5,175,933 + Maize and Millet 6,951,179 + Oats 49,460,057 + Peas and Beans 3,318,691 + +Oats, next to wheat is the largest crop grown in France, for the +support of two million horses and three and a half million mules and +asses. + +According to the "Annuaire de l'Economie Politique de la Statistique," +there were 13,900,000 hectares (each about 21/2 acres) under cultivation +with the cereals in France. + +The primary article of consumption is wheat. At the rate of three +hectolitres (1 qr. 1/4 bush.) to each individual, every family would +require thirteen to fourteen hectolitres, costing 210 to 280 francs +(L8 15s. to L11 10s.) according as the price varies, between its +present value fifteen francs, and its occasional cost twenty francs. +In the reign of Louis XVI, Arthur Young referred with horror to the +black bread eaten by the French. Since that time half a century has +passed, and whilst the agricultural produce in France has tripled in +value, the labourers who produce it continue, from custom and +necessity, to eat a detestable bread made from rye, barley, or peas +and potatoes; and, to make the matter still worse, it is badly baked, +without yeast, and being sometimes kept for weeks, it becomes covered +with mould, and altogether presents an appearance enough to turn the +stomach of a savage. + +According to Mr. McGregor's estimate some ten or twelve years ago, the +land under wheat culture was 13,808,171 acres, producing 191,000,000 +bushels; and 11,715 acres with spelt, or red wheat, the yield of which +was 374,000 bushels. + +The other crops were-- + + Acres Crops, bushels + Maslin 2,251,438 32,000,000 + Rye 6,369,879 76,000,000 + Barley 2,936,453 45,000,000 + Oats 7,416,297 134,000,000 + Maize 1,561,372 20,000,000 + +Wheat and oats are grown all over Russia, which is the greatest corn +land in the world. + +In Austrian Italy the yield of grain has been reckoned at three +million quarters, but this seems rather low. About one-half of this is +maize and rye, and a quarter wheat. + +It is reckoned that eight million quarters of grain are raised yearly +in Denmark, but this seems doubtful. In 1839, a million quarters of +grain, however, were shipped from that kingdom. + +BRITISH AMERICAN PROVINCES. + +According to the census return of 1852, the number of acres under +grain crops, and the produce in Canada, were as follows:-- + + Lower Canada--Produce. Upper Canada--Produce. + + Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels. + Lower Canada--Produce Upper Canada--Produce + Acres Bushels Acres Bushels + Wheat 427,111 3,075,868 782,115 12,692,852 + Barley 42,927 668,626 29,916 625,875 + Rye 46,007 341,443 38,968 479,651 + Oats 540,422 8,967,594 421,684 11,193,844 + Buckwheat 51,781 530,417 44,265 639,381 + Maize 22,669 400,287 70,571 1,666,513 + +Flour may be valued at 21s. the barrel. + +The grain crops in Lower Canada are taken in the minot, and not in the +bushel, except in the townships. In like manner, the acres are taken +in arpents. An arpent is about one-seventh less than an acre; and a +minot about one-eighth (some say one-twelfth) more than a bushel. + +During the years 1850-1, Western Canada exported upwards of two +million barrels of flour, and three million bushels of wheat, being +equivalent to 13,600,000 bushels of wheat. The value of the wheat and +flour exported in 1851 was L404,033. Canadian flour, like that of +Genessee, is of very superior quality. + + WHEAT.--UPPER CANADA. + Bushels. To each inhabitant. + Wheat crop of 1841 was 3,221,991 or 6.60 + Do. 1847 7,558,773 " 10.45 + Do. 1849 9,706,082 " 12.08 + Do. 1851 12,692,852 " 13.33 + +The quantity of land under wheat in "Upper Canada was 782,115 acres, +showing a yield of about sixteen and three quarter bushels to the +acre. The wheat produced in 1852 was valued at nearly two million +pounds sterling. + + LOWER CANADA. + Minots. + Wheat crop in 1843 was 942,835 or 1.36 + Do. 1851 3,075,868 " 3.46 + + UNITED STATES. + Bushels. + Wheat crop in 1839 was 84,832,272 or 4.96 + Estimated by patent office 1847 114,245,500 " 5.50 + Crop of wheat 1849 100,684,627 " 4.33 + +In order, however, to institute a fairer comparison, I will divide the +States into three classes, viz.:--1st. States growing over six million +bushels. + + Bushels. Population. Bush, per head. + Pennsylvania 15,367,691 2,311,736 6.65 + Ohio 14,487,351 1,980,408 7.32 + New York 13,131,498 4,148,182 3.16 + Virginia 11,232,616 1,421,661 7.90 + Illinois 9,414,575 851,471 11.06 + Indiana 6,214,458 988,416 6.28 + ---------- ---------- ----- + Total 69,847,189 11,701,924 5.97 + +2nd. States growing over one million and less than six million +bushels. + + Bushels. Population. Bush, per head. + Michigan 4,925,889 397,654 12.39 + Wisconsin 4,286,131 305,191 14.04 + Maryland 4,494,681 583,031 7.71 + Missouri 2,981,652 682,043 4.38 + Kentucky 2,140,822 982,405 2.15 + North Carolina 2,130,102 868,903 2.45 + Tennessee 1,619,381 1,002,525 1.61 + New Jersey 1,601,190 481,555 3.27 + Iowa 1,530,581 192,214 7.96 + Georgia 1,088,534 905,999 1.21 + South Carolina 1,066,277 668,507 1.60 + ---------- --------- ---- + Total 27,865,240 7,078,131 3.93 + +3rd. The remaining States and territories. + + 2,791,470 4,466,246 0.63 + +Total wheat crop in the United States, 100,503,899 bushels. +Population, 23,246,301. Bushels per head, 4.33. + + Increase:--U. States, 1839 84,823,272 bushels + " 1849 100,503,896 " + ----------- + 15,680,627 + + Or 18.49 per cent. in ten years. + + Upper Canada, 1841 3,221,991 " + " 1851 12,692,825 " + ---------- + 9,470,861 + +Or nearly quadrupling itself in ten years. + + Bushels. Population. Bush. per head. + Pr. Ed. Island 1847 219,787 62,678 3.50 + Newfoundland 1850 297,157 276,117 1.08 + New Brunswick 1850 206,635 193,800 1.06 + +The Eastern States in 1849 raised 1,090,896 bushels. Population +2,668,106, or 0.41 each. + +The population of Upper Canada is 952,904, and allowing five bushels +for each, 4,760,020 bushels; and for seed at one and a half bushels +per acre 1,173,173 bushels = 5,933,193; leaves for export 6,761,668 +bushels. More than sufficient to supply the consumption of the whole +of the Eastern States. + +"Were the population of Lower Canada to consume flour at the given +rate, it would require-- + + Bushels. + 890,261 at five bushels each 4,451,305 + Seed 640,000 + --------- + 5,091,305 + Grown 3,075,868 + --------- + 2,015,437 + +Leaving a surplus of wheat in Canada 4,746,231 bushels, or at four and +a half bushels for each, equal to 1,054,718 barrels of flour. + +Professor Johnston in his report on New Brunswick, furnishes some +valuable information as to the produce there. + +The following table of average weights indicates a capacity in the +soil and climate to produce grain of a very superior quality:-- + + ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------- + | | | | | Buck- | + COUNTIES | Wheat | Barley | Oats | Rye | Wheat | Maize + ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------- + Saint John |61 | -- |41 | -- | 50 | -- + Westmoreland |60 | 48 |351/2 | -- | 48 | 59 + Albert |58 | 50 |343/4 | 50 | 45 | -- + Charlotte |59 | 45 |39 | -- | 57 | 59 + King's |591/2 | 48 |37 | -- | 48 | 60 + Queen's |581/2 | 50 |361/2 | 53 | 43 | 61 + Sunbury |57 | 55 |38 | 53 | 47 | 57 + York |63 | 50 |38 | -- | 51 | 60 + Carleton |64 | -- |38 | -- | 52 | 65 + Kent |63 | -- |37 | -- | 50 | -- + Northumberland |62 | 53 |37 | -- | 45 | 57 + Gloucester |63 | 51 |39 | -- | -- | -- + Restigouche |63 | 48 |42 | -- | -- | -- + ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------ + +The general average weights for the whole Province are, for + + Wheat 60 11-13 lbs. + Barley 50 " + Oats 38 " + Rye 521/2 " + Buckwheat 48 8-11 " + Indian Corn 591/2 " + Potatoes 63 " + Turnips 66 " + Carrots 63 " + +The annexed statement shows not only the average yield per acre of +each description of crop, but affords an opportunity of contrasting it +with the like products in the State of New York:-- + + AVERAGE PRODUCE PER IMPERIAL ACRE. + + New Brunswick State of New York + Bushels Bushels + Wheat 20 14 + Barley 29 16 + Oats 34 26 + Rye 201/2 91/2 + Buckwheat 333/4 14 + Indian Corn 413/4 25 + Potatoes 226 90 + Turnips 460 88 + Hay 13/4 -- + +A possibility of error in striking the averages is suggested in the +report; and to guard against it the following statement of the +averages derived from the minimum returns is given, viz.:--Wheat 173/4 +bushels; Barley, 27; Oats, 33; Buckwheat, 28; Rye, 18; Indian Corn, +361/2; Potatoes, 204; Turnips, 389. The diminished averages scarcely +affect the question of productiveness, as in every particular they +exceed the averages for the favored Genesee Valley and the southern +shores of Lake Ontario. + +While the productiveness of the soil is thus proven by the statements +of most experienced farmers, the average prices appear to be equally +favorable to the Provincial growers. The following tables of averages +set this in a clear point of view:-- + + AVERAGE PRICES OF GRAIN PER BUSHEL AND PER QUARTER. + + Per Bushel Per Quarter + Wheat 7s. 6d. 60s. 0d. + Barley 4 21/2 33 8 + Oats 2 0 16 0 + Rye 4 10 38 8 + Buckwheat 3 9 30 0 + Indian Corn 4 8 37 4 + + + ROOT CROPS AND HAY. + + Potatoes 1s. 11d. per bushel. + Turnips 1 2 " + Eng. Hay 49 0 per ton. + Carrots 2 5 per bushel. + Man. Wurtzel 2 1 " + Marsh Hay 20 0 per ton. + + + AVERAGE MONEY VALUE OF AN ACRE OF EACH CROP. + New Brunswick Canada West State of Ohio + Wheat L 6 13 0 L2 4 7 L2 19 0 + Barley 5 13 71/2 1 19 41/2 2 4 0 + Oats 6 3 6 1 11 0 1 13 9 + Rye 4 7 0 1 5 101/2 1 12 4 + Buckwheat 5 5 0 3 5 0 1 16 3 + Indian Corn 8 10 4 2 14 41/2 2 15 0 + Potatoes 19 11 0 6 6 0 6 9 41/2 + +On a review of the foregoing and other tables, Professor Johnston has +drawn the following conclusions:-- + + "That grain and roots generally can be raised more cheaply in the + Province of New Brunswick than in New York, Ohio, or Upper Canada; + and that the Province ought to be able to compete with those + countries and drive them from its home markets." + +Such are the deductions of a skilful and scientific, practical and +theoretical agriculturist, from the statements furnished by the most +enterprising and successful of our colonists. Nevertheless, I cannot +conceal a doubt whether all the elements of comparison have been duly +weighed. The result, especially as regards wheat, is so contrary to +pre-conceived opinions, that further investigations should be made. Is +it not possible that, while an equality of expense in preparing the +land for a wheat crop appears to have been assumed, the great care and +expense necessary in New Brunswick to prepare the land, and an +occasional succession of minimum returns would, to a very considerable +extent, account for the supposed discrepancy? + +Wheat has, from time immemorial, been a staple crop in the plains of +Northern India, and especially in the Punjaub. The climate and soil +are well fitted for this cereal, but owing to defects and carelessness +in the agriculture and harvesting, the crops, though excellent, fall +short of what most corn-growing countries produce. Further--owing to +foul boats and granaries, and to the moist heat of the months +immediately succeeding harvest, the wheat reaches England in a state +too dirty and weevelled for market. The hard wheat is preferred by the +natives in India to the soft, probably for no better cause than that +the hardness of the grain more closely resembles their favorite food, +rice. + + +BARLEY. + +Oats, rye and barley, are the staple crops of northern and mountainous +Europe and Asia. In England barley is grown principally in the eastern +and some of the midland counties, and chiefly for malting. It is most +extensively cultivated in the Himalaya and Thibet, replacing in many +districts the wheat, and producing an admirable flour. + +Since the establishment of the studs at Buxar, Ghazepore, &c., oats +have been extensively cultivated. It is a winter crop. + +Although believed to have been indigenous to the countries bordering +on the torrid zone, this grain possesses the remarkable flexibility of +maturing in favorable seasons and situations on the eastern continent +as far north as 70 deg., and flourishes well in lat. 42 deg. south. +Along the Atlantic side of the continent of America, its growth is +restricted to the tract lying between the 30th and 50th parallels of +north latitude, and between 30 and 40 deg. south. Near the westerly +coast, its range lies principally between latitude 20 and 62 deg. +north. The barley chiefly cultivated in the United States is the +two-rowed variety which is generally preferred from the fulness of its +grain and its freedom from smut. Barley has never been much imported +from that country, as the Americans have been rather consumers than +producers. The consumption of barley there in 1850 in the manufacture +of malt and spirituous liquors amounted to 3,780,000 bushels, and +according to the census returns, the quantity of barley raised was +4,161,504 bushels in 1840, and 5,167,213 bushels in 1850. In this +country barley is extensively used for malting, distilling, and making +beer; large quantities are consumed in Scotland, or carried into +England. + +In Prussia, about ten and a half million hectolitres of barley are +annually raised. In the Canary Isles, about 354,000 bushels are +annually exported. In Van Diemen's Land in 1844, 174,405 bushels of +barley were grown on 12,466 acres. + +The quantity of barley made into malt in the United Kingdom in the +year ending 10th October, 1850, was 5,183,617 quarters, of which about +four million quarters were used by 8,500 maltsters. The quantity of +malt charged with duty in the year ending 5th January, 1851, was +636,641 tons; the average price per quarter, 26s. 2d. + +Barley is at present extensively cultivated in the temperate districts +and islands of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In Spain, Sicily, +the Canaries, Azores and Madeira, two crops are produced in a year. +In North America its growth is principally confined to Mexico, the +middle, western, and northern States of the Union, and to the British +North American provinces. The introduction of barley into the American +colonies may be traced back to the period of their settlement. By the +year 1648 it was raised in abundance in Virginia, but soon after its +culture was suffered to decline, in consequence of the more profitable +and increased production of tobacco. It has also been sparingly +cultivated in the regions of the middle and northern States for +malting and distillation, and has been employed, after being malted, +as a substitute for rice. + +Barley, like wheat, has been cultivated in Syria and Egypt for more +than 3,000 years, and it was not until after the Romans adopted the +use of wheaten bread, that they fed their stock with this grain. It is +evidently a native of a warm climate, as it is known to be the most +productive in a mild season, and will grow within the tropics at an +elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is one +of the staple crops of northern and mountainous Europe and Asia. It is +the corn that, next to rice, gives the greatest weight of flour per +acre, and it may be eaten with no other preparation than that of +boiling. It requires little or no dressing when it is sent to the +mill, having no husk, and consequently produces no bran. In this +country barley is chiefly used for malting and distilling purposes. In +the year 1850, 40,745,050 bushels of malt paid duty, the number of +maltsters in the United Kingdom being from 8,000 to 9,000. About one +and a half million quarters of barley were imported in 1849, and a +little over a million quarters in 1850, principally from Denmark and +Prussia. The counties in England where this grain is chiefly +cultivated are Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Herts, Leicester, +and Nottingham. The produce of barley on land well prepared, is from +thirty to fifty bushels or more per statute acre, weighing from 45 to +55 lbs. per bushel, according to quality. It is said to contain 65 per +cent. of nutritive matter, while wheat contains 78 per cent. + +The estimated average produce of barley in this country may be stated +as follows:-- + + Acres. Crop. + England 1,500,000 6,375,000 + Ireland 320,000 1,120,000 + Scotland 450,000 1,800,000 + -------- ----------- + 2,270,000 9,295,000 + +The average produce per acre, in the United Kingdom, is 41/4 quarters in +England, 31/2 in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. The prices of barley per +quarter have ranged, in England, from 36s. 5d. in 1840, to 27s. 6d. in +1842. In 1847 barley reached 44s. 2d., and gradually declined to 23s. +5d, in 1850. + + +OATS. + +Oats are principally in demand for horses, and the extraordinary +increase of the latter has occasioned a proportional increase in the +culture of oats. They are grown more especially in the north and +north-eastern counties; in the midland counties their culture is less +extensive, but it is prevalent throughout most parts of Wales. + +Nearly twice as much oats as wheat is raised in the United Kingdom, +but the proportion grown in Scotland is not so large as is supposed. +The following is a fair estimate of the comparative production:-- + + Acres. Produce. + England 2,500,000 12,500,000 + Ireland 2,300,000 11,600,000 + Scotland 1,300,000 6,500,000 + --------- --------- + Total 6,100,000 30,500,000 + +We import annually about l1/4 million quarters from foreign countries +and nearly three-fourths of a million quarters from Ireland. The +average produce per acre throughout the kingdom is five quarters. The +price within the last 10 years has ranged from 28s. 7d. per quarter +(the famine year) to 17s. 6d. + +The oat, when considered in connection with the artificial grasses, +and the nourishment and improvement it affords to live stock, may be +regarded as one of the most important crops produced. Its history is +highly interesting, from the circumstance that in many portions of +Europe it is formed into meal, and forms an important aliment for man; +one sort, at least, has been cultivated from the days of Pliny, on +account of its fitness as an article of diet for the sick. The country +of its origin is somewhat uncertain, though the most common variety is +said to be indigenous to the Island of Juan Fernandez. Another oat, +resembling the cultivated variety, is also found growing wild in +California. + +This plant was introduced into the North American Colonies soon after +their settlement by the English. It was sown by Gosnold on the +Elizabeth Islands in 1602; cultivated in Newfoundland in 1622, and in +Virginia, by Berkley, prior to 1648. + +The oat is a hardy grain, and is suited to climates too hot and too +cold either for wheat or rye. Indeed, its flexibility is so great, +that it is cultivated with success in Bengal as low as latitude +twenty-five degrees North, but refuses to yield profitable crops as we +approach the equator. It flourishes remarkably well, when due regard +is paid to the selection of varieties, throughout the inhabited parts +of Europe, the northern and central portions of Asia, Australia, +Southern and Northern Africa, the cultivated regions of nearly all +North America, and a large portion of South America. + +In the United States the growth of the oat is confined principally to +the Middle, Western and Northern States. The varieties cultivated are +the common white, the black, the grey, the imperial, the Hopetown, the +Polish, the Egyptian, and the potato oat. The yield of the common +varieties varies from forty to ninety bushels and upwards per acre, +and weighing from twenty-five to fifty pounds to the bushel. The +Egyptian oat is cultivated south of Tennessee, which after being sown +in autumn, and fed off by stock in winter and spring, yields from ten +to twenty bushels per acre. In the manufacture of malt and spirituous +liquors oats enter but lightly, and their consumption for this purpose +does not exceed 60,000 bushels annually in the United States. + +In 1840, Ireland exported 2,037,835 quarters of oats and oatmeal, but +in 1846, on account of the dearth, the grain exports fell off +completely. Most of the grain grown in Ireland requires to be +kiln-dried, and is, therefore, of lower value. + +The oat, like rye, never has entered much into our foreign commerce, +as the domestic consumption has always been nearly equal to the +quantity produced. The annual average exports from the United States +for several years preceding 1817, were 70,000 bushels. + +By the census returns of 1840, the total produce of the United States +was 123,071,341 bushels; of 1850, 146,678,879 bushels. + +In Prussia 43 million hectolitres of oats are annually raised. + +The quantity of oats imported into the United Kingdom, has been +declining within the last few years. In 1849, we imported 1,267,106 +quarters; in 1850, 1,154,473; in 1851, 1,209,844; in 1852, 995,479. In +1844, 221,105 bushels of oats were raised in Van Diemen's Land on +13,864 acres. + + +RYE. + +Rye (_Secale cereale_) is scarcely at all raised in this country for +bread, except in Durham and Northumberland, where, however, it is +usually mixed with wheat, and forms what is called "maslin,"--a bread +corn in considerable use in the north of Europe. + +Geographically rye and barley associate with one another, and grow +upon soils the most analogous, and in situations alike exposed. It is +cultivated for bread in Northern Asia, and all over the Continent of +Europe, particularly in Russia, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and +Holland; in the latter of which it is much employed in the manufacture +of gin. It is also grown to some extent in England, Scotland and +Wales. With us it is little used as an article of food compared with +wheat and oats, though in the north of Europe and in Flanders it forms +the principal article of human subsistence, but generally mixed with +wheat, and sometimes, also with barley; 100 parts of the grain consist +of 65.6 of meal, 24.2 of husk, and 10.2 of water. The quantity of rye +we import seldom reaches 100,000 quarters per annum. + +The straw is solid, and the internal part, being, filled with pith, +is highly esteemed for Dunstable work, for thatching and litter, and +it is also used to stuff horse collars. + +In Ireland there are 21,000 acres under culture with rye, producing +105,000 quarters. + +In North America rye is principally restricted to the Middle and +Eastern States, but its culture is giving place to more profitable +crops. + +In Bohemia, as in most parts of Germany, rye forms the principal crop, +the product being about 3,250,000 quarters annually. + +The three leading varieties cultivated in the United States are the +spring, winter, and southern; the latter differing from the others +only from dissimilarity of climate. The yield varies from 10 to 30 or +more bushels per acre, weighing from 48 to 56 pounds to the bushel. +The production of rye has decreased 4,457,000 bushels in the +aggregate, but in New York it is greater by the last decennial census +than in 1840, by about 40 per cent. Pennsylvania, which is the largest +producer, has fallen off from 6,613,373 to 4,805,160 bushels. Perhaps +the general diminution in the quantity of this grain now produced may +be accounted for, by supposing a corresponding decline in the demand +for distilling purposes, to which a larger part of the crop is applied +in New York. This grain has never entered largely into its foreign +commerce, as the home consumption for a long period nearly kept pace +with the supply. The amount exported from the United States in 1801, +was 392,276 bushels; in 1812, 82,705 bushels; in 1813, 140,136 +bushels. In 1820-1 there were exported 23,523 barrels of rye flour; in +1830-1, 19,100 barrels; in 1840-1 44,031; in 1845-6, 38,530 barrels; +in 1846-7, 48,892 barrels; in 1850-1, 44,152 barrels. During the year +ending June 1, 1850, there were consumed of rye about 2,144,000 +bushels in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors. + +According to the American census returns of 1840, the product of the +country was 18,645,567 bushels; in 1850, 14,188,637 bushels. We +imported 246,843 quarters of rye and rye meal, in 1849, equivalent to +49,368 tons; but in 1850 the imports were only 94,078 quarters and in +1851 they were but 26,323 quarters. About 20,000 acres are under +cultivation with rye in Ireland, the produce of which is 100,000 +quarters. + + +BUCKWHEAT. + +Buckwheat belongs to the temperate and arctic climates, and is +cultivated in Northern Europe, Asia, and America for the farinaceous +albumen of its seeds, which, when properly cooked, affords a delicious +article of food to a large portion of the human race. It also serves +as excellent fodder to milch cows, and the straw, when cut green and +converted into hay, and the ripened seeds, are food for cattle, +poultry, and swine. + +It is raised most abundantly in Central Asia and the Himalaya. In the +latter country the different varieties are grown at various +elevations, between 4,000 and 12,000 feet. The finest samples +exhibited in 1851 were from Canada, but some of excellent quality was +also shown by the United States, Russia, and Belgium. The common +variety grown in Europe is the _Polygonum fagopyrum_, and _P. +emarginatum_ is grown in China and the East. In this country the +produce varies from 2 to 4 quarters per acre. The quantity of seed +sown is 5 to 8 pecks the acre. Vauquelin found 100 parts of its straw +to contain 29.5 of carbonate of potash, 3.8 of sulphate of potash, +17.5 of carbonate of lime, 13.5 of carbonate of magnesia, 16.2 of +silica, 10.5 of alum, and 9 of water. + +It is believed to be a native of Central Asia, as it is supposed to +have been first brought to Europe in the early part of the twelfth +century, at the time of the crusades for the recovery of Syria from +the dominion of the Saracens; while others contend that it was +introduced into Spain by the Moors, four hundred years before. + +The cultivation of buckwheat, in one or other of its species, is +principally confined to Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy, +Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Russia, China, Tartary, Japan, Algeria, +Canada, and the middle and northern portions of the United States. + +In America from 30 to 45 bushels per acre may be considered as an +average yield in favorable seasons and situations, but 60 or more +bushels are not unfrequently produced. + +According to the census returns of 1840, the annual quantity raised in +the United States was 7,291,743 bushels; of 1850, 8,950,916 bushels. + +The average annual imports of buckwheat into this country have not +exceeded 1,000 quarters, until last year (1852), when they reached +8,085 quarters. A small quantity of the meal is also annually +imported. + + +MAIZE. + +Maize (_Zea Mays_), is the common well-known Indian corn forming one +of the most important of the grain crops, and has a greater range of +temperature than the other cereal grasses. It was found cultivated for +food by the Indians of both North and South America, on the first +discovery of that continent, and thence derived its popular name. +Maize succeeds best in the hottest and dampest parts of tropical +climates. It may be reared as far as 40 degrees north and south +latitude on the American continent; while in Europe it can grow even +to 50 degrees or 52 degrees of latitude, some of the numerous +varieties being hardy enough to ripen in the open air, in England and +Ireland. It is now cultivated in all regions in the tropical and +temperate zones, which are colonized by Europeans. It is most largely +grown, however, about the Republics bordering on the northern shores +of South America, California, the United States and Canada, the West +India islands and Guiana, on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and +partially in India, Africa, and Australia. We see the singular fact in +Mexico of land which, after perhaps thousands of years' culture, is so +little exhausted, that with a very little labor bestowed on it, a bad +maize harvest will yield two hundredfold profit, while a good crop +returns 600 fold. + +This grain adopts itself to almost every variety of climate, and is +found growing luxuriantly in the low countries of tropical Mexico, and +nearly equally well on the most elevated and coldest regions of the +table-land; in the rich valleys of the Cordilleras or the Andes, and +on the sandy heights of those mountains wherever a rill of water can +be brought to nourish its roots. In short, it ripens under the sun of +America, in every part of both continents. + +Though wheat is characterised as the most nutritious food for man in +all quarters of the world, yet the Indian corn crop of the United +States is not second in value to any product of the earth; cultivated +in the middle and Eastern States, nay, even in the rich cotton-growing +districts, Indian corn is fast rising in importance, and will soon +equal in value that important commercial staple. This indigenous grain +yields to the nation an annual average of five hundred millions of +bushels, and has, within the last five years, attracted much attention +as a life-sustaining food, more particularly at the period of +Ireland's severe suffering, in 1847, and the following years. Nations, +as well as statesmen and farmers, have found it an object worthy of +their consideration and esteem. + +When due regard is paid to the selection of varieties, and cultivated +in a proper soil, maize may be accounted a sure crop in almost every +portion of the habitable globe, between the 44th degree of north +latitude and a corresponding parallel south. Among the objects of +culture in the United States, it takes precedence in the scale of +cereal crops, as it is best adapted to the soil and climate, and +furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. Besides its production +in the North American Republic, its extensive culture is limited to +Mexico, the West Indies, most of the States of South America, France, +Spain, Portugal, Lombardy, and Southern and Central Europe generally. +It is, however, also cultivated with success in Northern, Southern, +and Western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, and the Sandwich +Islands, the groups of the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, and numerous +other oceanic isles. + +Maize is not a favorite grain as bread-corn with the European nations, +for although it abounds in mucilage, it is asserted to contain less +gluten, and is not likely to be much used by those who can procure +wheaten flour, or even rye bread. + +The large importations which were made by our Government during the +prevalence of the potato disease, brought it into more general use +among some classes, and the imports for home consumption are still +extensive, having been as follows in the last few years:-- + + 1848. 1849. + Indian corn, quarters 1,582,755 2,249,571 + " meal, cwts. 233,880 102,181 + + 1850. 1851. + Indian corn, quarters 1,286,264 1,810,425 + " meal, cwts. 11,401 + +The trade in maize, or Indian corn, is totally new since 1846. The +famine in Ireland in that year, and the potato rot in almost every +successive year since, have now fully established it. Like the gold +discoveries, the potato rot may be regarded as a providential means of +effecting a great change in the condition of society. Those +discoveries are not without their influence in the East, and, combined +with the potato rot, they have rapidly increased the commerce between +the East and West of Europe, while they are spreading broad paths +between all Europe and the lands in the Southern Ocean. The imports of +maize from all parts, in 1852, amounted to 1,550,000 quarters, of +which about 1,100,000 quarters arrived in vessels from the +Mediterranean, &c., calling at Queenstown or Falmouth for orders. The +balance consisted of imports from America, France, Portugal, &c., and +also of cargoes addressed direct to a port of discharge, without first +calling off the coast for orders. The quantities received in 1851 and +1852 from the Mediterranean were as follows:-- + + 1852. 1851. + Received from qrs. qrs. + Galatz 223,000 286,067 + Ibraila 362,600 211,779 + Salonica 35,640 95,377 + Odessa 219,170 74,065 + Egypt 50,960 86,260 + Italy 8,250 162,544 + Constantinople, Malta, + Trieste, and other + ports in the Mediterranean 190,720 286,358 + --------- --------- + 1,090,340 1,202,450 + +The various quarters from whence we derive supplies of this grain, are +shown in the following table of the imports for the last three years, +which I have compiled from the most recent Parliamentary returns. + + INDIAN CORN AND MEAL IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. + ------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. + |-----------------|----------------|--------------- + PLACES. | Corn. | Meal. | Corn. | Meal.| Corn. |Meal. + | qrs. | cwts. | qrs. | cwts.| qrs. |cwts. + ----------------------|---------|-------|---------|------|---------|----- + Russian Ports in | | | | | | + Black Sea | 25,519| | 19,721| | 98,176| + Denmark | 1,300| | 250| | 5| + Hanover | 1,344| | | | | + Belgium | 67| | | | | + France | 135,115| 510| 102,978| 26| 164,128| 29 + Portugal Proper | 61,446| | 67,518| 53| 21,922| + Azores and Madeira | 17,214| 7| 7,794| 6| 4,356| 1 + Spain and Bahama | | | | | | + Islands | 26,856| 48| 19,982| 48| 34,771| + Sardinian Territories | 13,357| | 25| 2| 1,302| 1 + Tuscany | 11,481| 95| 15,612| 94| 34,760| + Papal Territories | 8,927| | 1,876| | 75,588| + Naples and Sicily | 18| | 10,066| | 101,489| + Austrian Territories | 90,540| | 45,748| | 73,966| + Malta and Gozo | 18,198| | 4,969| | 11,002| + Ionian Islands | 5,390| | 7,324| | 5,967| + Greece | 57,520| | 8,712| | 3,252| + Egypt | 12,767| | 71,808| | 127,692| + Turkish dominions, | | | | | | + including Wallachia,| | | | | | + Moldavia and Syria | 563,799| | 348,456| | 748,180| + Morocco | 760| | | | | + West Coast of Africa | 889| | 2,322| | | + B.N.A. Colonies | 1,645| 164| 1,530| | 4,377| 7 + U.S. of America |1,170,154|100,859| 538,155|11,253| 295,978|9,522 + Brazil | 1,253| | 468| | 725| + Other places | | | 1,756| | | + | | | | | | 1 + ----------------------|---------|-------|---------|------|---------|----- + |2,225,459|101,683|1,277,070|11,482|1,807,636|9,561 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + (Parliamentary Paper, No. 14, Sess. 1852.) + +The many excellent properties of Indian corn, as a wholesome +nutritious food, and the rich fodder obtained from the stalk and leaf +for the nourishment of cattle, invite more earnest attention from the +farmer and planter in the Colonies to its better and extended +cultivation. + +Though the average quantity of grain from each acre in the United +States is not more than thirty or forty bushels, yet it is known that +with due care and labor 100 to 130 bushels may be obtained. + +In feeding cattle little difference is discoverable between the +effects of Indian corn meal and oil-cake meal; the preference rather +preponderates in favor of the latter. + +Corn cobs, ground with the grain, have advocates, but this food is not +relished, and swine decline it. + +Indian corn contains about the same proportion of starch as oats +(sixty per cent.), but is more fattening, as it contains about nine or +ten per cent. of oily or fatty ingredients. + +The following analysis of maize is given by Dr. Samuel David, of +Massachusetts:-- + + FLESH FORMING PRINCIPLES. + + Gluten, albumen, and casein 12.60 + + FAT FORMING PRINCIPLES. + + Gum, sugar, starch, woody fibre, oil, &c. 77.09 + Water 9.00 + Salts 1.31 + ----- + 100. + +Prof. Gorham, in "Thomson's Organic Chem.," published in London in +1838, gives another analysis:-- + + Fresh grain. Dried grain. + Water 9.00 + Starch 77.00 84.60 + Gluten 3.00 3.30 + Albumen 2.50 2.74 + Gum 1.75 1.92 + Sugar 1.45 1.60 + Loss 5.30 5.84 + ------ ------ + 100. 100. + +Professor Johnston supplies a table, which, he says, exhibits the best +approximate view we are yet able to give of the average proportion of +starch and gluten contained in 100 lbs. of our common grain crops as +they are met with in the market. + +From this table I extract the following:-- + + Starch, gum, &c. Gluten, albumen, &c. + Wheat flour. 55 lbs. 10 to 15 lbs. + Oats 65 " 18 lbs. + Indian corn 70 " 12 " + Beans 40 " 28 " + Peas 50 " 24 " + Potatoes 12 " 2-1/3 " + +The Professor remarks that the proportion of oil is, in 100 lbs. of + + Wheat flour 2 to 4 + Oats 5 " 8 + Indian corn 5 " 9 + Beans and peas 21/2 " 3 + Potatoes 01/4 " + +Maize is one of those plants in which potash preponderates, for +analysis of its ashes gives the following proportions:-- + + Salts of potash and soda 71.00 + ---- lime and magnesia 6.50 + Silica 18.00 + Loss 4.50 + ------ + 100. + +Dr. Salisbury has also furnished the proximate analysis of five +varieties of ripe maize or Indian corn:-- + + Proportions. + One hundred grains of each. Water. Dry. + + Golden Sioux corn, a bright, yellow, twelve-rowed} + variety, frequently having fourteen rows } 15.02 84.98 + Large eight-rowed yellow corn 14.00 86.00 + Small eight-rowed ditto 14.03 85.97 + White flint corn 14.00 86.00 + Ohio Dent corn, one of the largest varieties of } + maize } 14.50 85.50 + + + COMPARATIVE ORGANIC ANALYSIS. + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + | Golden | Ohio | Small | Large | White + | Sioux. | Dent | 8-rowed | 8-rowed | Flint + | | Corn. | Corn. | Corn. | Corn. + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Starch | 36.06 | 41.85 | 30.29 | 49.22 | 40.34 + Gluten | 5.00 | 4.62 | 5.60 | 5.40 | 7.69 + Oil | 3.44 | 3.88 | 3.90 | 3.71 | 4.68 + Albumen | 4.42 | 2.64 | 6.00 | 3.32 | 3.40 + Casein | 1.92 | 1.32 | 2.20 | 0.75 | 0.50 + Dextrine | 1.30 | 5.40 | 4.61 | 1.90 | 3.00 + Fibre | 18.50 | 21.36 | 26.80 | 11.96 | 18.01 + Sugar and extract | 7.25 | 10.00 | 5.20 | 9.55 | 8.30 + Water | 15.02 | 10.00 | 13.40 | 14.00 | 14.00 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Large quantities of starch are now made from this grain in Ohio; an +establishment near Columbus consume 20,000 bushels of corn annually +for this purpose. The offal of the grain is given to hogs, 500 to 600 +head being annually fattened therewith. The quality of the starch is +said to be superior to that of wheat, and commands a higher price in +New York. + +A corn plant, fifteen days after the seed was planted, cut on the 3rd +June close to the ground, gave of-- + + Water 86.626 + Dry matter 10.374 + Ash 1.354 + Ash calculated dry 13.053 + +By the above figures it will be seen that nearly 90 per cent, of the +young plant is water; and that in proportion to the dry matter, the +amount of earthy minerals which remain, as ash, when the plant is +burnt, is large. This excess of water continues for many weeks. Thus, +on the 5th July, thirty-three days from planting, the relations stood +thus:-- + + Water 90.518 + Dry matter 9.482 + Ash 1.333 + Ash calculated dry 14.101 + (Ash very saline.) + +Before green succulent food of this character is fit to give to cows, +oxen, mules, or horses, it should be partly dried. Plants that contain +from 70 to 75 per cent. of water need no curing before eaten. The +young stalk cut July 12, gave over 94 per cent. of water. Such food +used for soiling without drying would be likely to scour an animal, +and give it the cholic. + +The root at this time (July 12) gave of-- + + Water 81.026 + Dry matter 18.974 + Ash 2.222 + Ash calculated dry 11.711 + (Ash tastes of caustic potash.) + +Ash of the whole plant above ground, 6.77 grains. Amount of ash in all +below ground, 3.93 grains. + +So late as July 26, the proportion of water in the stalk was 94 per +cent.; and the ash calculated dry 17.66 per cent. The plant gained +21.36.98 grains in weight in a week preceding the 6th September. This +was equal to a gain of 12.72 grains per hour. + +The rapid growth of corn plants, when the heat, light, and moisture, +as well as the soil are favorable, is truly wonderful. A deep, rich, +mellow soil, in which the roots can freely extend to a great distance +in depth and laterally, is what the corn-grower should provide for his +crop. The perviousness of river bottoms contributes largely to their +productiveness of this cereal. A compact clay, which excludes alike +air, water, and roots, forbidding all chemical changes, is not the +soil for Indian corn. + +When farmers sell corn soon after it is ripe, there is considerable +gain in not keeping it long to dry and shrink in weight. Corn grown by +Mr. Salisbury, which was ripe by the 18th October, then contained 37 +per cent. of water, which is 25 per cent. more than old corn from the +crib will yield. The mean of man experiments tried by the writer has +been a loss of 20 per cent. in moisture between new and old corn. The +butts of cornstalks contain the most water, and husks or shucks the +least, when fully matured and not dried. The latter have about 30 per +cent, of dry matter when chemically desiccated. + + COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF THE LEAVES AT DIFFERENT STAGES. + + July 19. Aug. 2. Aug. 23. Aug. 30. Oct. 18. + Carbonic acid 5.40 2.850 0.65 3.50 4.050 + Silicia 13.50 19.850 34.90 36.27 58.650 + Sulphuric acid 2.16 1.995 4.92 5.84 4.881 + Phosphates 21.60 16.250 17.00 13.50 5.850 + Lime .69 4.035 2.00 3.88 4.510 + Magnesia .37 2.980 1.59 2.30 0.865 + Potash 9.98 11.675 10.85 9.15 7.333 + Soda 34.39 29.580 21.23 22.13 8.520 + Chlorine 4.55 6.020 3.06 1.63 2.664 + Organic acids 5.50 2.400 3.38 2.05 2.200 + ----- ------ ------ ----- ------ + 98.14 97.750 98.187 99.83 99.334 + +The above figures disclose several interesting facts. It will be seen +that the increase of silica or flint in the leaf is steadily +progressive from 131/2 per cent. at July 19, to 58.65 at October 18. + +Flint is substantially the _bone earth_ of all grasses. If one were +to analyse the bones of a calf when a day old, again when thirty days +of age, and when a year old, the increase of phosphate of lime in its +skeleton would be similar to that witnessed in the leaves and stems of +maize. In the early stages of the growth of corn, its leaves abound in +phosphates; but after the seeds begin to form, the phosphates leave +the tissues of the plant in other parts, and concentrate in and around +the germs in the seeds. On the 23rd of August, the ash of the whole +stalk contained 191/2 per cent. of phosphates; and on the 18th of +October, only 15.15 per cent. In forming the cobs of this plant, +considerable potash is drawn from the stalk, as it decreases from +35.54 per cent. August 16, to 24.69 October 18. When the plant is +growing fastest, its roots yield an ash which contains less than one +per cent. of lime; but after this development is nearly completed, the +roots retain, or perhaps regain from the plant above, over 41/2 per +cent. of this mineral. Soda figures as high as from 20 to 31 per cent. +in the ash obtained from corn roots. Ripe seeds gave the following +results on the analysis of their ash:-- + + Silica 0.850 + Phosphoric acid 49.210 + Lime 0.075 + Magnesia 17.600 + Potash 23.175 + Soda 3.605 + Sodium 0.160 + Chlorine 0.295 + Sulphuric acid 0.515 + Organic acids 5.700 + ------ + 99.175 + +The above table shows a smaller quantity of lime than is usually found +in the ash of this grain. It is, however, never so abundant as +magnesia; and Professor Emmons has shown that the best corn lands in +the State of New York contain a considerable quantity of magnesia. All +experience, as well as all chemical researches, go to prove that +_potash_ and phosphoric acid are important elements in the +organisation of maize. Corn yields more pounds of straw and grain on +poor land than either wheat, rye, barley, or oats; and it does +infinitely better on rich than on sterile soils. To make the earth +fertile, it is better economy to plant thick than to have the rows +five feet apart each way, as is customary in some of the Southern +States, and only one stalk in a hill. This gives but one plant to +twenty-five square feet of ground. Instead of this, three square feet +are sufficient for a single plant; and from that up to six, for the +largest varieties of this crop. + +Mr. Humboldt states the production of maize in the Antilles as 300 for +one; and Mr. H. Colman has seen in several cases in the New England +States of America, a return of 400 for one; that is to say, the hills +being three feet apart each way, a peck of Indian corn would be +sufficient seed for an acre. If 100 bushels of grain is in such case +produced by an acre--and this sometimes happens--this is clearly a +return of 400 for one. + +Of the whole family of cereals, _Zea Mays_ is unquestionably the most +valuable for cultivation in the United States. When the time shall +come that population presses closely on the highest capabilities of +American soil, this plant, which is a native of the New World, will be +found greatly to excel all others in the quantity of bread, meat, +milk, and butter which it will yield from an acre of land. With proper +culture, it has no equal for the production of hay, in all cases where +it is desirable to grow a large crop on a small surface. + +Although there has been much written on the Eastern origin of this +grain, it did not grow in that part of Asia watered by the Indus, at +the time of Alexander the Great's expedition, as it is not among the +productions of the country mentioned by Nearchus, the commander of the +fleet; neither is it noticed by Arian, Diodorus, Columella, nor any +other ancient author; and even as late as 1491, the year before +Columbus discovered America, Joan di Cuba, in his "Ortus Sanitatis," +makes no mention of it. It has never been found in any ancient +tumulus, sarcophagus, or pyramid; nor has it ever been represented in +any ancient painting, sculpture, or work of art, except in America. +But in that country, according to Garcilaso de la Vega, one of the +ancient Peruvian historians, the palace gardens of the Incas, in Peru, +were ornamented with maize, in gold and silver, with all the grains, +spikes, stalks, and leaves; and in one instance, in the "garden of +gold and silver," there was an entire cornfield, of considerable size, +representing the maize in its exact and natural shape; a proof no less +of the wealth of the Incas, than their veneration for this important +grain. + +In further proof of the American origin, it may be stated that this +plant is still found growing, in a wild state, from the Rocky +mountains in North America, to the humid forests of Paraguay, where, +instead of having each grain naked, as is always the case after long +cultivation, it is completely covered with glumes or husks. It is, +furthermore, a well authenticated fact, that maize was found in a +state of cultivation by the aborigines, in the island of Cuba, on its +discovery by Columbus, as well as in most other places in America, +first explored by Americans. + +The first successful attempt to cultivate this grain in North America, +by the English, occurred on James' river, in Virginia, in 1608. It was +undertaken by the colonists sent over by the Indian company, who +adopted the mode then practised by the natives, which, with some +modifications, has been pursued throughout this country ever since. +The yield, at this time, is represented to have been from two hundred +to more than one thousand fold. The same increase was noted by the +early settlers in Illinois. The present yield, east of the Rocky +Mountains, when judiciously cultivated, varies from 20 to 135 bushels +to an acre. + +The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, exhibiting every +grade of size, color, and conformation, between the "chubby reed" +that grows on the shores of Lake superior--the gigantic stalks of the +Ohio valley--the tiny ears, with flat, close, clinging grains, of +Canada--the brilliant, rounded little pearl--the bright red grains and +white cob of the eight-rowed haematite--the swelling ears of the big +white and the yellow gourd seed of the South. From the flexibility of +this plant, it may be acclimatised, by gradual cultivation, from Texas +to Maine, or from Canada to Brazil; but its character, in either case, +is somewhat changed, and often new varieties are the result. The +blades of the plant are of great value as food for stock, and is an +article but rarely estimated sufficiently, when considering of the +agricultural products of the Southern and Southwestern States +especially. + +To supply slaves on plantations with bread, including old and young, +requires from twelve to thirteen bushels of corn each a year. Taking +thirteen bushels as the average consumption of breadstuffs by the +22,000,000 of people in the United States, the aggregate is +286,000,000 bushels per annum. + +The increase of production, from 1840 to 1850, was 214,000,000 +bushels, equal to 56 per cent. + +The production of New England advanced from 6,993,000 to 10,377,000 +bushels, showing an increase of 3,384,000 bushels, nearly fifty per +cent. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland, +increased 20,812,000 bushels, more than fifty per cent. In the +production of this crop no State has retrograded. Ohio, which in 1840 +occupied the fourth place as a corn-producing State, now ranks as the +first. Kentucky is second, Illinois third, Tennessee fourth. The crop +of Illinois has increased from 2,000,000 to 5,500,000 bushels, or at +the rate of 160 per cent. in ten years. + +Of the numerous varieties some are best adapted to the Southern +States, while others are better suited for the Northern and Eastern. +Those generally cultivated in the former are the Southern big and +small yellow, the Southern big and small white flint, the yellow +Peruvian, and the Virginian white gourd seed. In the more Northerly +and Easterly States they cultivate the golden sioux, or Northern +yellow flint, the King Philip, or eight-rowed yellow, the Canadian +early white, the Tuscarora, the white flour, and the Rhode Island +white flint. + +The extended cultivation of this grain is chiefly confined to the +Eastern, Middle, and Western States, though much more successfully +grown in the latter. The amount exported from South Carolina, in 1748, +was 39,308 bushels; from North Carolina, in 1753, 61,580 bushels; from +Georgia, in 1755, 600 bushels; from Virginia, for several years +preceding the revolution, annually 600,000 bushels; from Philadelphia, +in 1765-66, 54,205 bushels; in 1771, 259,441 bushels. + +The total amount exported from America in 1770, was 573,349 bushels; +in 1791, 2,064,936 bushels, 351,695 of which were Indian meal; in +1800, 2,032,435 bushels, 338,108 of which were in meal; in 1810, +1,140,960 bushels, 86,744 of which were meal. In 1820-21, there were +exported 607,277 bushels of corn, and 131,669 barrels of Indian meal; +in 1830-31, 571,312 bushels of corn, and 207,604 barrels of meal; in +1840-41,535,727 bushels of corn, and 232,284 barrels of meal; in +1845-46, 1,286,068 bushels of corn, and 298,790 barrels of meal; in +1846-47 16,326,050 bushels of corn, and 948,060 barrels of meal; in +1850-51, 3,426,811 bushels of corn, and 203,622 barrels of meal. More +than eleven millions of bushels of Indian corn were consumed in 1850, +in the manufacture of spirituous liquors. + +According to the census of 1840, the corn crop of the United States +was 377,531,875 bushels; in 1850, 592,326,612 bushels. + +The increase in the production of corn in Ohio has been (in ten years) +66 per cent. I have also before me the auditor's returns for the crop +of 1850, as taken by assessors, and the number of acres planted. The +auditor's returns are:-- + + Seventy-three counties 55,079,374 + Darke county 524,484 + Twelve counties, average 8,400,000 + ---------- + Total 64,003,858 + +This is an advance of 15 per cent. on the crop of 1840, and it is +known that the crop of 1850 was better than that of 1849. The number +of acres planted, and the average production was:-- + +Acres planted 1,810,947 +Bushels produced 64,003,858 +Average per acre 35-3/8 bush. + +Considering how large a portion of hill land is planted, and how many +fields are ill cultivated, the average is high. Many persons have +believed that taking all years and all lands into view, the average of +corn lands was not more than thirty bushels. But the immense fertility +of _bottom_ lands on the rivers and creeks of Ohio make up for bad +cultivation and inferior soil. We may see something of the differences +in the production of corn, by taking the averages of different +counties, thus:-- + + Acres. Crop. Average. + Butler 62,031 2,646,353 421/2 + Warren 42,322 1,757,409 42 + Pickaway 65,860 2,627,727 40 + Ross 69,520 2,918,958 42 + +Compare the average of these counties, which embrace some of the best +lands in the State, with the following:-- + + Acres. Crop. Average. + Carroll 10,107 316,999 32 + Jackson 15,680 439,850 30 + Monroe 23,375 728,242 31 + Portage 10,426 329,529 32 + Vinton 11,413 345,470 30 + +The last counties contain but little bottom land, and hence the +average of corn is reduced one-fourth in amount. Of these counties, +two are full of coal and iron. The resources of the last are more slow +to develop, but in the end will be equally valuable. + +But a small quantity of the corn of Ohio is exported _as grain_. It is +first manufactured into other articles, and then exported in another +form. The principal part of these are hogs, cattle, and whiskey. It is +difficult to say exactly how much corn is _in this way exported_, but +the following is an approximation-- + + Bushels. + In Fat Cattle 4,000,000 + In Fat Hogs 10,000,000 + In Whiskey 2,500,000 + ---------- + Total 16,500,000 + +Taking into view the export of corn meal--about twenty millions of +bushels--the residue goes to the support of the stock animals on hand, +of which there are near three millions, exclusive of those fatted for +market. + +The exported corn in the shape of cattle, hogs, and whiskey, is worth +about thirty cents cash, while on the farm it is not worth +twenty--thus proving that it is more profitable to consume corn on the +farm, than to export it in bulk. This fact is well known to good +farmers, who seldom attempt to sell corn as a merchantable article. + +No mining in the world has ever been equal to mining in a fertile +soil, and no treasury is so reliable as a granary of surplus products. + +Indian corn and meal generally find a market in the West Indies, +Newfoundland, Spain, and Portugal. It commands a good price, and finds +a ready sale in the ports which are open to its reception. + +Deducting one-sixteenth for the amount exported, and one-tenth for +seed, the quantity of maize annually consumed for food in the United +States by a family of five persons is 85 bushels. + +Maize may be considered as the great staple of the agricultural +products of the States. It is exported in large quantities, in a raw +state, or when manufactured into meal. Before it is manufactured into +meal it is dried by a fire, in a kiln prepared for that purpose. By +this process the meal is much less liable to become sour on the +voyage, and can be preserved much longer in a warm climate. No +inconsiderable quantities have likewise been consumed in distillation; +and the article of kiln-dried meal for exportation is destined to be +of no small account to the corn-growing sections of that country. + +The improvement continually making in the quality of the seed augurs +well for the productiveness of this indigenous crop, as it has been +found that new varieties are susceptible of being used to great +advantage. + +The following was the produce of the different States in the years +named, as given in the Official Census Returns:-- + + -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + | 1840 | 1841 | 1843 | 1850 + | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. + -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Maine | 950,528 | 988,549 | 1,390,799 | + New Hampshire | 1,162,572 | 191,275 | 330,925 | + Massachusetts | 1,809,192 | 1,905,273 | 2,347,451 | + Rhode Island | 450,498 | 471,022 | 578,720 | + Connecticut | 1,500,441 | 1,521,191 | 1,926,458 | + Vermont | 1,119,678 | 1,167,219 | 1,252,853 | + New York | 10,972,286 | 11,441,256 | 15,574,590 | + New Jersey | 4,361,975 | 5,134,366 | 5,805,121 | + Pennsylvania | 14,240,022 | 14,969,472 | 15,857,431 | + Delaware | 2,099,359 | 2,164,507 | 2,739,982 | + Maryland | 8,233,086 | 6,998,124 | 6,205,282 | + Virginia | 34,577,591 | 33,987,255 | 45,836,788 | + N. Carolina | 23,893,763 | 24,116,253 | 27,916,077 | + S. Carolina | 14,722,805 | 14,987,474 | 18,190,913 | + Georgia | 20,905,122 | 21,749,227 | 26,960,687 | + Alabama | 20,947,004 | 21,594,354 | 24,817,089 | + Mississippi | 13,161,237 | 5,985,724 | 9,386,399 | + Louisiana | 5,952,912 | 6,224,147 | 8,957,392 | + Tennessee | 44,986,188 | 46,285,359 | 67,838,477 | 52,000,000 + Kentucky | 39,847,120 | 40,787,120 | 59,355,156 | 58,000,000 + Ohio | 33,668,144 | 35,552,161 | 38,651,128 | 59,788,750 + Indiana | 28,155,887 | 33,195,108 | 36,677,171 | 53,000,004 + Illinois | 22,634,211 | 23,424,474 | 32,760,434 | 57,000,000 + Missouri | 17,332,524 | 19,725,146 | 27,148,608 | + Arkansas | 4,846,632 | 6,039,450 | 8,754,204 | + Michigan | 2,277,039 | 3,058,090 | 3,592,482 | + Florida Territory| 898,074 | 694,205 | 838,667 | + Wisconsin | 379,359 | 521,244 | 750,775 | + Iowa T. | 1,406,241 | 1,547,215 | 2,128,416 | + D. of Columbia | 39,485 | 43,725 | 47,837 | + +-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + Total | 377,531,875 | 387,380,185 | 494,618,306 | 500,000,000 + -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- + +The Indian corn crop of 1850, for the whole of the United States, is +returned as over 500 million bushels, a gain of about 40 millions on +that of 1840. + +I give below the quantities of Indian corn and meal which were +exported from the United States in the following years:-- + + Corn, Bushels. Meal, Bushels. Value. Dolls. + 1790 1,713,241 + 1794 1,505,977 241,570 + 1798 1,218,231 211,694 + 1802 1,633,283 566,816 + 1806 1,064,263 108,342 1,286,000 + 1810 1,054,252 86,744 1,138,000 + 1814 61,284 26,438 170,000 + 1818 1,075,190 120,029 2,335,405 + 1822 509,098 148,288 900,656 + 1826 505,381 158,652 1,007,321 + 1829 897,656 173,775 974,535 + 1833 437,174 146,678 871,814 + + --(_Pitkin's Statistics of the United Stales, and Seybert's + Statistical Annals_.) + +_System of culture pursued in the United States_.--Maize, the _corn, +par excellence_, of America, is grown in every State in the Union. + +Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, and Indiana, are in their order +the greatest producers of this grain. In Illinois, North Carolina, +Georgia, Alabama, Missouri, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, +Maryland, Arkansas, and the New England States, it appears to be a +very favorite crop. In Massachusetts, the most Northern and least +favorable State on that account, being cold, a fair proportion is +grown, the aggregate produce being greater there than in any of the +grains, except oats; more, indeed, than might be expected, were not +labor somewhat cheaper than in more Southern States, where the climate +is more congenial. The ordinary produce is twenty-five bushels per +acre; forty bushels is often raised, and in prize crops the weight has +come up to 100 bushels per acre. In Ohio the average is fifty-five +bushels to the acre. The eight and twelve-rowed varieties of Indian +corn are those most usually grown in New York, and the average produce +of a good field in that State is from forty to sixty bushels; on +ordinary ground twenty-five to thirty is a fair crop. The same returns +appeared to be derived from ground in New Jersey. Mr. Doubleday, of +Binghampton, New York, estimates the produce of that neighbourhood at +forty bushels, and the expense of raising the crop as follows, +estimating the worth of the land at twenty-five dollars (say L5) per +acre:-- + + Dollars. Cents. + The interest of which is 1 16 + One ploughing with double team, and harrowing 3 50 + Seed and planting 1 00 + Plaster or gypsum, and putting on the hill 0 37 + Ploughing and hoeing twice, cutting + or stalking the corn 2 75 + Husking or thrashing 2 50 + ----------------- + 11 62 + +Average yield, forty bushels; cost of produce, twenty-nine cents. (1s. +41/2d.) per bushel. + +Nothing is here put down for manure or cartage, because the fodder, +cut up and saved, as usually adopted, is equal to the manure required. +It is looked upon that the preparation of ground for corn costs less +than wheat; the approved plan is to plant on sward ground, ploughing +at once, and turning the ground completely over, then harrowing +longitudinally until, a good tilth is obtained. Should the soil not be +rich enough, stable manure is first spread on the land. + +Now suppose the corn to sell at seventy-five cents the bushel, the +account would stand thus:-- + + Dollars. Cents. + Forty bushels, at seventy-five cents. 30 00 + Cost 11 62 + --------------- + Gain per acre 18 38 + +or L3 13s. 6d. British money profit per acre. + +In Lichfield, Connecticut, the cost of produce has been, for the +items as stated above, eighteen dollars twenty-five cents, or the cost +of each bushel thirty-six and one-half cents. The acre produce was +fifty bushels, so that it stood thus:-- + + Dollars. Cents. + Fifty bushels, at seventy-five cents 37 50 + Cost 18 25 + ----------------- + Gain 19 5 + +or L3 12s. per acre. + +The cost of producing maize varies somewhat in the other States, +thus:-- + + Per bushel. + Cents. + New Hampshire (Unity) the cost was 50 + Fayette county, Pennsylvania 16 1/4 + Donesville, Michigan, only 17 1/2 + Plymouth, Massachusetts 17 7/10 + +The cost on producing this crop was small, but it appears to have been +a small crop, and did not bring more than thirty cents per bushel. + +In Monroe county, the richest land in the State of New York, +estimating the land at fifteen dollars per acre, the producing cost +stood at:-- + + Dollars. Cents. + Interest at six per cent. 0 45 + One ploughing sward, cover or stubble 1 00 + Harrowing, furrowing, seed, and planting 0 871/2 + Cultivating three times and hoeing 1 00 + Husking the hill 1 00 + Shelling and cleaning 1 00 + --------------- + 5 821/2 + +This yielded fifty bushels, the cost of producing the bushel was +eleven and three-fifths cents. This low cost was owing to the fact of +no manure being used; and while it speaks volumes as to the natural +fertility of American soils, yet it reflects very disgracefully upon +the careless system adopted there, as under such treatment no land +could continue, after some years, to produce a crop which could come +into competition with those from newer and less exhausted lands; but +if under a good system of tillage the ground was yearly renewed with +manure, and those amendments which every soil requires, after a crop +has been raised from it, added to the soil in top-dressing and in +ploughing-in, we should never hear of the exhausted state of New +England land, or see the sons of the soil moving west and cultivating +newer soils, thus removing much of the capital and intelligence of a +country away from it. + +Supposing the corn of Monroe county sold at seventy cents per bushel, +the balance would appear thus:-- + + Dollars. Cents. + Fifty bushels, at seventy cents 35 00 + Cost of production 5 821/2 + -------------- + Gain 29 181/2 + +L6 1s. per acre profit. + +In Northern Ohio and in Illinois the cost of production averages +twenty cents per bushel. + +The mode of cultivation in Connecticut and the New England States has +been thus described to me by Mr. L. Durand, an experienced +agriculturist:--If the soil selected is light and mellow, it should be +ploughed and subsoiled in the spring, first spreading on the coarse +unfermented manure which is to be ploughed in. For marking the rows +for planting, a "corn marker" may be used to advantage. It is made by +taking a piece of scantling, three inches square and ten to twelve +feet long, with teeth of hickory or white oak inserted at distances of +two to four feet, according to the width designed for the rows. Then +an old pair of waggon-thills and a pair of old plough-handles are put +to it, and your marker is done. With a good horse to draw this +implement, the ground may be made ready for planting very rapidly. It +is better to leave the ground flat than to ridge it, for the latter +mode has no advantage, except when the ground is wet. The difference +in the two modes is chiefly this:--When the ground is ridged, the corn +being planted between the edges of the furrows, it comes immediately +in contact with the manure, springs up and grows rapidly the fore part +of the season. When the ground is left flat, and the manure turned +under the furrows, the corn will often look feeble at first, and in +growth will frequently be much behind that on the ridges; and the +inference early in the season is, that the ridged ground will give the +best crop, but as soon as the roots of the corn on the flat ground get +hold of the manure (say about the 20th of July), the corn will shoot +rapidly ahead, and the full force of the manure will be given to the +stalk just at the time of forming the grain. Corn cultivated in this +way, if the soil is deeply tilled, will often keep green, while that +on ridges is dried up. + +Many farmers, at planting, shell the corn off the cob, and plant it +dry. Others soak it a few days in warm water. But when the seed is +only treated in this way, it is very likely to be pulled up by birds +and injured by worms. The best way to prevent this is to first soak +the corn in a strong solution of saltpetre; then take a quantity of +tar, and having warmed it over a fire, pour it on the corn, and stir +with a stick or paddle till the grain is all smeared with the tar; +then add gypsum or plaster till the corn will separate freely, and no +birds will touch the grain. + +The time of planting, in the United States, varies with the season and +the section of the country. In New England it may generally be planted +from the 15th to the 25th May. Where the ground is flat, a light +harrow or a cultivator is much better to go between the rows than the +plough. Formerly a great deal of useless labor was spent in hilling up +corn; in dry seasons this was worse than useless. The earth hauled +round the stalk does not assist its growth, nor aid in holding it up; +the brace roots, which come out as the stalk increases in height, +support it; and it has been observed, that in a heavy storm and +thunder gust, corn that is hilled will be broken down more than that +which is not hilled. The ground which is kept level has also the +advantage of more readily absorbing rain, rendering the crop less +liable to suffer from drought. The field should have two or three +regular hoeings, and the weeds be carefully kept under. + +In harvesting the following will be found a good plan:--Let two hands +take five rows, cutting the corn close to the ground. A hill should be +left standing to form the centre of the shock, placing the stalks +round it, so that they may not lie on the ground. After the shock is +made of sufficient size, take a band of straw, and having turned down +the tops of the stalks, bind them firmly, and the work is done. + +Maize may be cut as soon as the centre of the grain is glazed, even if +the stalks are green. There will be sufficient nutriment in the stalk +to perfect the ear, and the fodder is much better than when it gets +dry before it is cut. If the shocks are well put up, they may stand +four or five weeks. The corn may then be knocked out, and the fodder +secured for winter use. + +The report of the Ohio Board of Agriculture for 1849, contains many +interesting statements in reference to maize culture, made by the +officers of numerous county agricultural societies. In Miami county, +2,030,670 bushels were grown, at an average yield of fifty-five +bushels per acre. Three varieties are cultivated: the common gourd +seed, for cattle; the yellow Kentucky, for hogs and distilling; and +the white, for grinding and exportation. According to the returns from +Green county, which produced 1,250,000 bushels of corn in 1849, "a +regular rotation of clover, corn, wheat, and clover again, is best for +corn; and no crop pays better for extra culture." The Harrison county +Agricultural Society reports the pork crop at 4,800,000 pounds; and it +gave its first premium for corn to Mr. S.B. Lukens, whose statement is +as follows:-- + + "The ground had been in meadow ten years, was ploughed six inches + deep about the middle of April, was harrowed twice over on the 9th + May, and planted on the 11th four feet by two feet. It came up well, + was cultivated and thinned when ten inches high; three stalks were + left in a hill. About two weeks afterward it was again cultivated, + and the suckers pulled off. About the last of June it was again + cultivated, making three times the same way, as it was laid off but + one way. + + d. c. + Expense of culture, gathering, and cribbing, was 17 10 + Produce of 374-3/8 bushels, at 311/4 cents 117 10 + ---------- + Profit on three acres 100 00 + + +The evidence on which a premium was awarded was such as should satisfy +any one that 374 bushels were grown on three acres of land, and at a +cost not exceeding 17 dollars 10 cents, delivered in the crib. This is +producing corn at less than 5 cents a bushel. + +Whether the statement be true to the letter or not, it shows +conclusively the great value of a _rich soil_ for making cheap corn. +The Board of Agriculture estimates the crop of Ohio last year at +70,000,000 of bushels. Taking the United States as a whole, probably +the crop of corn was never better than in the year 1849. One that has +rich land needs only to plough it deep and well, plant in season, and +cultivate the earth properly with a plough or cultivator, to secure +the growth of a generous crop. On poor soils the case is very +different. + +To raise a good crop of corn on poor land, and at the least possible +expense, requires some science and much skill in the art of tillage. +Take the same field to operate in, and one farmer will grow 100 +bushels of corn at half the cost per bushel that another will expend +in labor, which is money. It unfortunately happens that very skilful +farmers are few in number, in comparison with those who have failed to +study and practice all attainable improvements. To produce cheap corn +on poor land, one needs a clear understanding of what elements of the +crop air and water will furnish, and what they cannot supply. It +should be remembered that the atmosphere is precisely the same over +ground which yields 100 bushels of corn per acre, that it is over that +which produces only five bushels per acre. Now, the whole matter which +forms the stems, leaves, roots, cobs, and seeds of corn, where the +crop is 100 bushels per acre, is not part and parcel of the soil. A +harvest equal to fifty bushels per acre can be obtained without +consuming over ten per cent, of earth, as compared with the weight of +the crop. No plant can imbibe more of the substance of the soil in +which it grows, than is dissolved in water, or rendered gaseous by the +decomposition of mould. + +The quantity of matter dissolved, whether organic or inorganic, during +the few weeks in which corn plants organise the bulk of their solids, +is small. From 93 to 97 parts in 100 of the dry matter, in a mature, +perfect plant, including its seeds, cob, stems, leaves, and roots, are +carbon (charcoal) and the elements of water. It is not only an +important, but an exceedingly instructive fact, that the most +effective fertilisers known in agriculture are those that least abound +in the elements of water and carbon. The unleached dry excrements of +dunghill fowls and pigeons, have five times the fertilising power on +all cereal plants that the dry dung of a grass-fed cow has, although +the latter has five times more carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, per 100 +pounds, than the former. Although it is desirable to apply to the soil +in which corn is to grow as much of organised carbon and water as one +conveniently can, yet, where fertilisers have to be transported many +miles; it is important to know that such of the measure as would form +_coal_, if carefully burnt, can best be spared. The same is true of +those elements in manure which form vapor or water, when the +fertiliser decomposes in the ground. + +Carbonic acid and nascent hydrogen evolved in rotting stable manure +are truly valuable food for plants, and perform important chemical +offices in the soil; but they are, nevertheless, not so indispensable +to the economical production of crops, as available nitrogen, potash, +silica, magnesia, sulphur, and phosphorus. These elements of plants +being less abundant in nature, and quite indispensable in forming +corn, cotton, and every other product of the soil, their artificial +supply in guano, night soil, and other highly concentrated +fertilisers, adds immensely to the harvest, through the aid of a small +weight of matter. In all sections where corn is worth 30 cents and +over a bushel, great benefits may be realised by the skilful +manufacture and use of poudrette. This article is an inodorous +compound of the most valuable constituents of human food and clothing. +It is the raw material of crops. + +It is not necessary to restore to a cornfield all the matter removed +in the crop to maintain its fertility. A part of each seed, however, +ought to be carried back and replaced in the soil, to make good its +loss by the harvest. + +In every barrel of meal or flour sent to market (196 pounds), there +are not far from 186 pounds of carbon (coal), and the elements of +water. When a bird eats wheat or corn, I have reason to believe, from +several experiments, that over 80 per cent, of the food escapes into +the air through its capacious lungs in the process of respiration; and +yet the 20 per cent, of guano left will re-produce as much wheat or +corn as was consumed. Imported guano, which has been exposed to the +weather for ages, often gives an increase in the crop of wheat equal +to three pounds of seed to one of fertiliser; while it has given a +gain of seven to one of corn, and fifty to one of green turnips. + +Like other grains that have been long cultivated, Indian corn abounds +in varieties. In Spain they count no less than 130, and in the United +States the number is upwards of forty. The difference consists in +size, color, period of maturation, and hardness and weight of grain. +Of size there exists a considerable variety, from Zea Curagua of +Chili, and the Egyptian or chicken corn, both extremely diminutive, to +the large white flint, and ground seed corn of the United States. The +differences in color are the red, yellow, and white. The period of +maturation varies, apparently, very considerably; but it is +questionable whether this variation is real, and independent of +climate. In the Northern States of America, Indian corn ripens in a +shorter period of time than it does in the South, owing, possibly, to +the greater length of the summer day in those latitudes. + +In selecting varieties, some experienced and judicious farmers prefer +that which yields the greater number of ears, without regard to their +size, or number of rows. Others prefer that which furnishes one or two +larger ears, having from twelve to twenty-four rows. In the Northern +States of America the yellow corn bears the highest price in the +market, and is considered the most prolific and best suited to feed +cattle and hogs. For bread, the white Button is preferred at the +North, and the white ground seed is used for that purpose in other +quarters. Preference, however, is most frequently given to white flint +corn, which is unquestionably the heaviest, and contains the greatest +proportion of farina. + +In Mississippi many varieties are grown, principally those known as +flint and bastard flint. The gourd-seed varieties are very +objectionable in that climate, principally on account of their +softness rendering them unfit for bread, and open to the attacks of +insects in the field and the crib. They require a grain, _white_, +_hard_, and rather flinty--_white_ because of its great consumption in +bread and hommony, in the preparation of both of which their cooks +greatly excel. When meal is ground for bread, the mill is set rather +wide, that the flinty part of the grain may not be cut up too fine, +this being sifted out for "small hommony;" the farinaceous part of the +grain is left for bread. This hommony is a beautiful and delicious +dish. On most plantations the negroes have it for supper, with +molasses or buttermilk. A _hard flinty_ grain is necessary to head the +weevil, with which not only the cribs but the heads of corn in the +field are infested. These are the _Calandra oryzae_, the true rice +weevil, distinguished from his European cousin by the two reddish +spots on each _elytra_ or wing-cover, and known in America as the +"black weevil;" also a little brown insect, not a true weevil, but a +_Sylvanus_. This sylvanus, and another of the same genus, most +probably the _S. surinamensis_, attack the corn in the field before it +becomes hard, causing serious damage--but nothing to equal that +occasioned by the black weevil. + +I know of no generally successful method of staying or even checking +the injury caused by the insects, though much might be written in the +way of suggestion. + +In Michigan, the _dent_ variety in dry seasons produces the best crops +on sandy loam, as its roots run deeper than the common _eight-rowed_ +yellow or white. In moist seasons the latter varieties usually do +well. They are grown most generally in the Northern part of the State, +while in the Southern section the Ohio dent is principally raised. The +shuck and blade are much used as fodder for cattle, in the early part +of winter. + +Indian corn is very liable to change of character from soil and +climate, growing smaller the farther North it is raised. The mixing of +the eight-rowed yellow with the Ohio dent has, so far as my experience +goes, been beneficial in increasing the yield. Sandy loam, or clay, is +considered the soil best adapted to corn. It is usually planted in +May, and harvested in September. The blade is not taken off there as +at the South; some farmers cut up their corn when ripe, put it into +shocks, and husk it late in the fall; others cut the stalks, bind them +in sheaves, and stack them for winter in the fields, or put them away +in barns or sheds; while others husk the corn on the hill without +cutting the stalks, and late in the fall turn their cattle into the +field to eat the fodder. Of these different modes the preference is +usually given to cutting the stalks and putting them under cover +after being well cured, and busting the corn on the hill. The corn is +thought to ripen better in this way, and to keep better in the cribs. +The Ohio dent, having a smaller ear containing less moisture than +other varieties, ripens quicker and keeps better. This crop ranges +from 25 to 65 bushels per acre, and the difference in the yield is to +be attributed to the manner of cultivation. My experience shows that a +crop of 45 bushels per acre costs 13 cents a bushel, including +interest on land. Corn is principally raised in Michigan for home +consumption, and the stalks and shucks, if well cured, are worths +dollars per acre, compared with hay at 5 dollars per ton. + +As much as 134 bushels per acre have been obtained, in some instances, +in Massachusetts; till the last 20 years 35 bushels was considered an +average crop, but by a due rotation of crops, and ploughing in long +manure, at least 75 bushels to the acre are now raised. The kinds +preferred there, are an eight-rowed variety, procured originally from +Canada; the Cass corn, another eight-rowed variety, and the Dutton +corn, each of which averages about 60 lbs. to the bushel. + +Maize is a principal crop in the Connecticut River Valley, Western +Vermont, and along the Lake shore; but in the high dividing ridge, and +in the Northern counties bordering on Canada, the climate is too +severe for its profitable cultivation. + + "The kind mostly grown (observes Mr. Colburn, of Vermont) is the + yellow eight-rowed, though some prefer the twelve and sixteen-rowed, + known here by the name of the Button corn; but my experience in + cultivating the different kinds for the last twenty-four years, has + forced me to the conclusion that the common eight-rowed, mixed with + a kind called the Brown corn, does the best; the kernel of + the-latter bearing upon a chocolate hue, and the mixture of these + two kinds of seed imparting a deep rich color to the whole, when + they become blended, and enhancing the yield whenever the soil is in + high tilth. Of this kind, the writer has raised, the past season, + upon eleven acres on the Connecticut River alluvium, over eight + hundred bushels shelled corn, four acres of which, with extra + preparation, produced four hundred and sixteen bushels. + + It will never do to carry seed corn from South to North, as it will + not mature in a higher or colder climate than that from which it has + been taken. Even half a degree of latitude sensibly affects the + maturing of the blade, and renders it an uncertain crop in our high + northern latitudes. To insure an extra yield of this valuable grain, + the soil must be highly manured, deeply ploughed, thorough + cultivated and hoed, and top-dressed with lime, house ashes, and + plaster. This done, it is the most remunerative and profitable of + all grain crops." + +In Delaware there are many varieties, and everybody esteems his own +kind the best. The grain varies from pure "flint" to pure "gourd +seed"--of course the mixtures which are between these two varieties +are most common--it inclines more to gourd seed than to flint. Mint +weighs full standard fifty-six, the gourd seed from forty-nine to +fifty-two pounds, and the mixtures range between. Flint ripens from +ten days to two weeks earlier. It will not produce as many pounds per +acre as the lighter gourd seed. Soil exerts its influence over the +character of corn, a heavy soil tending to produce flint--light soil, +gourd seed. + +The corn is "cut up" in the fall, and after curing in the shuck, is +husked; the shuck remaining on the stalk with the blades. + +The average yield, on improved land, is fifty bushels; though crops +of one hundred and twelve, and one hundred and sixty bushels per acre +are reported to have been raised in the county, in 1849. The yield +increases from year to year. A general and rapid improvement of the +State is in progress, and in nothing is this seen more clearly than in +the corn crop. Mossy "old sedge" fields, which have been laid out for +years, are broken up, and will yield, if it be a good season, from +five to ten bushels per acre; fence them, lime them with twenty to +thirty bushels, and seed the oat crop with clover, and in two years +the clover sod will return eighteen to twenty bushels of corn. Another +dressing of lime, or its equivalent in marl, of which there is an +abundance in the lower half of Newcastle County, will show thirty +bushels of corn; and of wheat, if the farm manure be used on it, nine +to twelve bushels will not be too much to expect. + +In Arkansas, Indian corn is regarded as the "king of grains." It +constitutes the chief food of every animal, from man down to the +marauding rat, while its dried blade furnishes seven-tenths of the +long food for working animals. The _large white_ is the variety most +esteemed, and most generally cultivated, for the reasons that it +yields more grain and fodder, makes, when ground into meal, whiter and +sweeter bread, and is less liable to injury from the weevils. The +blade is usually esteemed the best long food for horses, exceeding in +price the best Northern hay; the average price may be stated at about +seventy cents per cwt. The shuck is fed to cows and young mules, they +eat it, but with less relish than they do the blades, which are +sweeter and more nutritious. The former are much used for mattresses, +being preferred to moss, as they are cleaner, and easier manufactured. +When mixed with coarse cotton, and properly prepared, they will make a +mattress but little inferior to curled hair: price about fifty cents +per cwt. The average price of this grain may be set down at forty +cents per bushel; and the yield on upland in some parts of the State +may be stated at thirty bushels per acre. + +Five varieties of maize are grown in Peru. One is known by the name of +_chancayano_, which has a large semi-transparent yellow grain; another +is called _morocho_, and has small yellow grain of a horny appearance; +_amarello_, or the yellow, has a large yellow opaque grain, and is +more farinaceous than the two former varieties; _blanco_, white--this +variety is large, and contains more farina than the former; and +_cancha_, or sweet maize. The last is only cultivated in the colder +climates of the mountains; it grows about two feet high, the cob is +short, and the grains large and white; when green, it is very bitter, +but when ripe and roasted, it is particularly sweet, and so tender +that it may be reduced to flour between the fingers. In this roasted +state it constitutes the principal food of the mountaineers of several +provinces. + +The natives remove the husk from the maize by putting it into water +with a quantity of wood ashes, exposing it to a boiling heat, and +washing the grain in running water, when the husk immediately +separates from the grain. + +In Jamaica I found maize to produce two crops in the year, and often +three. It is usually grown there on the banks or ridges of the cane +fields. It may be planted at any time when there is rain, and it +yields from fifteen to forty bushels per acre, according to the +richness of the soil, and the more or less close manner in which it is +planted. + +In the colony of New South Wales, including the district of Port +Phillip, there were 20,798 acres under cultivation with maize in 1844, +the produce from which was returned at 575,857 bushels; 27,058 bushels +of maize were exported from Sydney in 1848. + +_Culture in the East Indies_.--The growers on the hills of Nepaul +reckon three kinds of maize: a white grained species, which is +generally grown on the hill sides; a yellow grained one, grown in the +low and hot valleys; and a smaller one, called "Bhoteah," or "Murilli +Makii," which is considered the sweetest of the three, but from being +less productive is not generally grown on good lands. Maize thrives +best on a siliceous, well-drained, rich soil. A correspondent in my +"Colonial Magazine," vol. ii. p. 309, says the finest Indian corn he +ever saw was in the Himalayas of the Sikim-range, where the soil +consists of a substratum of decomposed _mica_ from the under or rocky +stratum, with a superstratum of from three to six inches of decayed +vegetable matter, from leaves, &c., of the ancient forests. + +Throughout Hindostan, June is the usual time for sowing. In Behar, +about two seers are usually sown upon a beggah; in Nepaul, twenty-four +seers upon an English acre; in the vicinity of Poonah, one and a-half +seer per beggah. Before the seed is sown the land is usually ploughed +two or three times, and no further attention given to the crop than +two hoeings. In Nepaul, where it is the principal crop cultivated, the +seed is sown, after one delving and pulverisation of the soil, in the +latter end of May and early part of June, in drills, the seeds being +laid at intervals of seven or eight inches in the drills, and the +drills an equal space apart. The drills are not raised as for turnip +sowing, but consist merely of rows of the plant on a level surface. +The seed is distributed in this manner with the view of facilitating +the weeding of the crop, not for the purpose of earthing up the roots, +which seems unnecessary. The Indian corn sowing resembles that of the +_gohya_ (or upland) rice, in the careful manner in which it is +performed; the sower depositing each grain in its place, having first +dibbled a hole for it five or six inches deep, with a small hand hoe, +with which he also covers up the grain. + +The after-culture of this crop is performed with great care in the +valleys, but much neglected in the hills, especially on new and strong +lands. In the former it undergoes repeated weeding during the first +month of its growth, the earth being loosened round the roots, at each +weeding, with the hand hoe. After the first loosening of the soil, +which is performed as soon as the plants are fairly above ground, a +top dressing of ashes or other manure is given. By this mode the crop +gets the immediate benefit of the manure, which otherwise, from the +extraordinary rapidity of its growth, could not be obtained by it. In +three months from the time of sowing, the seed is ripe. The crop is +harvested by cutting off the heads. In Nepaul these are either heaped +on a rude scaffolding, near the cultivator's house, or, more commonly, +they are suspended from the branches of the trees close by, where, +exposed to wind and weather, the hard and tough sheath of the seed +cones preserves the grain for many months uninjured. + +Cattle are voraciously fond of the leaves and stems, which are very +sweet, and even the dry straw, which Dr. Buchanan surmises may be the +reason why it is not more generally cultivated by the natives, as the +difficulty would be great to preserve the crop. So slow is the +progress of changes in the regions of India, that near Kaliyachak, +though the people give all other straw to their cattle, yet they burn +that of maize as unfit for fodder. In Nepaul the stalks, with the +leaves attached, often twelve feet long, cut by the sickle, are used +as fodder for elephants, bedding for cattle, and as fuel. The maize +crop within the hills of Nepaul suffers much from the inroads of +bears, which are very numerous in these regions, and extremely partial +to this grain. The average return from this crop is seldom below fifty +seers, ranging frequently far above it.[42] Maize is increasing in +cultivation in Java, and some of the Eastern islands. It is found to +have the advantage there over mountain rice, of being more fruitful +and hardy, and does not suffer from cold until the mean temperature +falls to 45 deg. of Fahrenheit, and no heat is injurious to it. +Several varieties of it are known, but for all practical purposes +these resolve themselves into two kinds: one, a small grain, requiring +five months to ripen, and a larger one, which takes seven to mature. +In some provinces of Java it yields a return of 400 or 500 fold. Mr. +Crawfurd found, from repeated trials, that in the soil of Mataram, in +Java, an acre of land, which afforded a double crop, produced of the +smaller grain 8481/2 lbs. annually. + + +RICE. + +This is one of the most extensively diffused and useful of grain +crops, and supports the greatest number of the human race. The +cultivation prevails in Eastern and Southern Asia, and it is also a +common article of subsistence in various countries bordering on the +Mediterranean. It is grown in the Japan Islands, on all the sea coasts +of China, the Philippine and other large Islands of the Indian +Archipelago, partially in Ceylon, Siam, India, both shores of the Red +Sea, Egypt, the shores of the Mozambique Channel, Madagascar, some +parts of Western Africa, South Carolina, and Central America. Three +species only are enumerated by Lindley:--_Oryza sativa_, the common +rice, a native of the East; _O. latifolia_, a species having its +habitat in South America; and _O. Nepalensis_, common in Nepaul. But +there are a host of varieties known in the East; these, however, may +for all practical purposes, be resolved into two kinds--the upland or +mountain rice (_O. Nepalensis_, the _O. mutica_, of Roxburgh), and the +lowland or aquatic species (_O. sativa_). + +_Zizania aquatica_ is exceedingly prolific of bland, farinaceous +seeds, which afford a kind of rice in Canada and North-West America, +where it abounds wild in all the shallow streams. The seeds contribute +essentially to the support of the wandering tribes of Indians, and +feed immense flocks of wild swans, geese, and other water fowl. +Pinkerton says, this plant seems intended to become the bread-corn of +the North. Two other species of Zizania are common in the United +States of America. + +Rice, the chief food, perhaps, of one-third of the human race, +possesses the advantage attending wheat, maize, and other grains, of +preserving plenty during the fluctuations of trade, and is also +susceptible of cultivation on land too low and moist for the +production of most other useful plants. Although cultivated +principally within the tropics, it flourishes well beyond, producing +even heavier and better filled grain. Like many other plants in common +use, it is now found wild [it is to be understood that the wild rice, +or water oat (_Zizania aquatica_), already referred to, which grows +along the muddy shores of tide waters, is a distinct plant from the +common rice, and should not be confounded with it], nor is its native +country known. Linnaeus considers it a native of Ethiopia, while others +regard it of Asiatic origin. + +The chief variety of this cereal is cultivated throughout the torrid +zone, wherever there is a plentiful supply of water, and it will +mature, under favorable circumstances, in the Eastern continent, as +high as the 45th parallel of north latitude, and as far south as the +38th. On the Atlantic side of the Western continent, it will flourish +as far north as latitude 38 degrees, and to a corresponding parallel +south. On the Western coast of America, it will grow so far north as +40 or more degrees. Its general culture is principally confined to +India, China, Japan, Ceylon, Madagascar, Eastern Africa, the South of +Europe, the Southern portions of the United States, the Spanish Main, +Brazil, and the Valley of Parana and Uruguay. + +In 1834, 29,583 bags of rice were shipped from Maranham, but I am not +aware what have been the exports since. + +At the Industrial Exhibition in London, in 1851, there were displayed +many curious specimens and varieties of rice, grown without +irrigation, at elevations of three thousand to six thousand feet on +the Himalaya, where the dampness of the summer months compensates for +the want of artificial moisture. Among these American rice received +not only honorable mention for its very superior quality, but the +Carolina rice, exhibited by E.I. Heriot, was pronounced by the jury +"magnificent in size, color, and clearness," and it was awarded a +prize medal. The jury also admitted that the American rice, though +originally imported from the Old World, is now much the finest in +quality. + +This grain was first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, +in 1647, who received half a bushel of seed, from which he raised +sixteen bushels of excellent rice, most or all of which was sown the +following year. It is also stated that a Dutch brig, from Madagascar, +came to Charleston in 1694, and left about a peck of paddy (rice in +the husk), with Governor Thomas Smith, who distributed it among his +friends for cultivation. Another account of its introduction into +Carolina is, that Ashley was encouraged to send a bag of seed rice to +that province, from the crops of which sixty tons were shipped to +England in 1698. It soon after became the chief staple of the colony. +Its culture was introduced into Louisiana in 1718, by the "Company of +the West." + +The present culture of rice in the United States is chiefly confined +to South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. +The yield per acre varies from twenty to sixty bushels, weighing from +forty-five to forty-eight pounds when cleaned. Under favorable +circumstances as many as ninety bushels to an acre have been raised. + +Judge Dougherty, who resides near the borders of Henderson county, +Texas, has raised a crop of several hundred bushels of upland rice. +The crop averages thirty bushels to the acre. He thinks rice can be +raised there as easily as Indian corn, and will be far more +profitable. + +Another variety is cultivated in America to a limited extent, called +Cochin-China, dry, or mountain rice, from its adaptation to a dry +soil, without irrigation. It will grow several degrees further north +or south than the Carolina rice, and has been cultivated with success +in the Northern provinces of Hungary, China, Westphalia, Virginia and +Maryland; but the yield is much less than that already stated, being +only fifteen to twenty bushels to an acre. It was first introduced +into Charleston, from Canton, by John Brodly Blake, in 1772. + +The American crop of rice in 1848, reached 162,058 tierces in market, +and of these 160,330 tierces were exported from South Carolina. The +largest rice crop grown in South Carolina for the past thirty years, +was in 1847, when 192,462 tierces were raised; 140,000 to 150,000 is +about the average, and it has only exceeded 170,000 on four occasions. + +The amount of rice exported from South Carolina in 1724, was 18,000 +barrels; in 1731, 41,957 barrels; in 1740, 90,110 barrels; in 1747-48, +55,000 barrels; in 1754, 104,682 barrels; in 1760-61, 100,000 barrels; +from Savannah, in 1755, 2,299 barrels, besides 237 bushels of paddy or +rough rice; in 1760, 3,283 barrels, besides 208 bushels of paddy; in +1770, 22,120 barrels, besides 7,064 bushels of paddy; from +Philadelphia, in 1771, 258,375 pounds. The amount exported from the +United States, in 1770, was 150,529 barrels; in 1791, 96,980 tierces; +in 1800, 112,056 tierces; in 1810, 131,341 tierces; in 1820-21, 88,221 +tierces; in 1830-31, 116,517 tierces; in 1840-41, 101,617 tierces; in +1845-46, 124,007 tierces; in 1846-47, 144,427 tierces; in 1850-51, +105,590 tierces. + +According to the census of 1840, the rice crop of the United States +amounted to 80,841,422 lbs.; in 1850, 215,312,710 lbs. + +Rice being an aquatic plant, is best grown in low moist lands, that +are easily inundated. + +The ground is ploughed superficially, and divided into squares of from +twenty to thirty yards in the sides, separated from each other by +dykes of earth about two feet in height, and sufficiently broad for a +man to walk upon. These dykes are for retaining the water when it is +required, and to permit of its being drawn off when the inundation is +no longer necessary. The ground prepared, the water is let on, and +kept at a certain height in the several compartments of the rice +field, and the seedsman goes to work. The rice that is to be used as +seed must have been kept in the husk; it is put into a sack, which is +immersed in the water until the grain swells and shows signs of +germination; the seedsman, walking through the inundated field, +scatters the seed with his hand, as usual; the rice immediately sinks +to the bottom, and many even penetrate to a certain depth in the mud. +In Piedmont, where the sowing takes place at the beginning of April, +they generally use about fifty-five pounds of seed per acre. The rice +begins to show itself above the surface of the water at the end of a +fortnight; as the plant grows, the depth of the water is increased, so +that the stalks may not bend with their own weight. About the middle +of June this disposition is no longer to be apprehended; the rice is +not so flexible as it was, so that the water can be drawn off for a +few days to permit hoeing; after which the water is again let on, and +maintained to the height of the plant. In July it is usual to top the +stalks, an operation which renders the flowering almost simultaneous. + +Rice generally flowers in the beginning of the month of August, and a +fortnight later the grain begins to form. It is at this period +especially that the stalks require to be supported, and this is +effectually done by keeping the water at about half their height. The +rice field is emptied when the straw turns yellow. The harvest +generally takes place at the end of September. In the Isle of France +rice is cultivated in very damp soils, upon which a great deal of rain +falls, but which are not flooded, as in other tropical countries: but +the process is not so certain nor the crop so great, as when +inundation is employed. In Piedmont the usual return of a rice field +is reckoned at about fifty for one. At Munzo, in New Granada, the +paddy fields which are not inundated, under the influence of a mean +temperature of 26 deg. centrigrade (79.0 deg. Fahrenheit), yield 100 +for 1.--(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," vol. xi., p. 92.) + +The rice now grown about New Orleans is as sweet, if not sweeter, +than that imported from South Carolina, but it is deficient in +hardness and brightness when ready for market, a defect owing entirely +to two causes, neither of which is beyond the control of the planter. +The one cause is the mode of culture, it being generally grown without +due attention to the seed--seeded at too late a period of the season, +and allowed to become _rare-ripe_ upon the stalk. The other cause is +the very imperfect mode of its preparation for market; this being +invariably accomplished by the primitive pestle and mortar, or the +old-fashioned "pecker mill." The same seed is planted in the same soil +from year to year, a system which, it is generally conceded, will +deteriorate the quality and production of any grain crop. A very large +proportion of the rice grown in Carolina is prepared for market at the +steam toll-mills, in the vicinity of Charleston; and a mill of this +description near New Orleans, would remedy the greatest defect in the +rice of the country, greatly increase the demand for the article, and +undoubtedly yield a large return for the investment. The toll mills at +and around Charleston are, and always have been, prosperous. The mills +of Mr. Lucas, in England, erected to clean "paddy," _i.e._ "rough +rice," sent there in bulk from Carolina, have succeeded also, and have +increased the consumption of the article in that country. The "rough +rice," "paddy," or grain, as it comes from the ear, is composed, +first, of a rough, silicious outer covering, impervious to water, +which is very useful in the neighbourhood of cities, for filling up +low lots or pools, for horse beds, and for packing crockery and _ice_, +being far better for the latter purpose than the sawdust used; second, +a brown flour or bran, lying directly under the outer covering; and +third, of the clean or white rice. There is no question that, as a +common diet, it is better adapted to the climate of Louisiana than +Indian corn; and it can be grown on the hitherto _waste lands of the +sugar plantations_; it is always substituted by the physician, when +practicable, as the food best adapted to the laborer, in seasons of +diarrhoea and other similar diseases, is _preferred_ before any other +grain by the negro; and if the clean rice be ground and bolted, a meal +is produced which can be made up into various forms of cake and other +bread, of unrivalled sweetness and delicacy. The outer flour, or brown +bran, which is separated from the chaff at the toll mill, is known as +"rice flour," and corresponds to the "bran" of wheat, it is a most +excellent food for horses, poultry, pigs and _milch cows_, and would +always command a ready sale in New Orleans. It is used extensively for +these purposes at and around Charleston, and is shipped thence, by the +cargo, to Boston and other Northern ports. + +No portion of the globe is better adapted to the growth of this grain +than the delta of the Mississippi. The river is _always_ "up and +ready" to do the all-important duty of irrigation in March, April, +May, and June, in which period of the year the crop ought to be made; +and I am informed, and doubt not, that _two_ cuttings can be obtained +from the same plants, between March and the killing frosts of the +succeeding November. + +An interesting report by Dr. E. Elliot, on the Cultivation of Rice, +was read before the Pendleton Farmer's Society, South Carolina, at a +recent annual meeting, from which I shall make an extract. + + In "Ramsay's History of South Carolina" it is stated:--"Landgrave + Thomas Smith, who was Governor of the Province in 1693, had been at + Madagascar before he settled in Carolina. There he observed that + rice was planted and grew in low moist ground. Having such ground in + his garden, attached to his dwelling in East Bay, Charleston, he was + persuaded that rice would grow therein, if seed could be procured. + About this time a vessel from Madagascar, being in distress, came to + anchor near Sullivan's Island. The master inquired for Mr. Smith, as + an old acquaintance. An interview took place. In the course of + conversation Mr. Smith expressed a wish to obtain some seed rice to + plant in his garden. The cook being called, said that he had a small + bag of rice suitable for the purpose. This was presented to Mr. + Smith, who sowed it in a low spot in Longitude Lane. From this small + beginning did one of the great staple commodities of South Carolina + takes its rise, which soon became the chief support of the colony, + and its great source of opulence." + + "Such is the historical account of the introduction of rice into + South Carolina; and from that day to this, it has constituted one of + her staple articles of production. Although the climate and soil + were found admirably suited to the plant, the planters encountered + incredible difficulty in preparing or dressing the rice for market. + From the day of its introduction, to the close of the Revolution, + the grain was milled, or dressed, partly by hand and partly by + animal power. But the processes were imperfect, very tedious, very + destructive to the laborer, and very exhausting to the animal power. + The planter regarded a good crop as an equivocal blessing, for as + the product was great so in proportion was the labor of preparing it + for market. While matters stood thus, the planters were released + from their painful condition by a circumstance so curious that it + deserves a place in the history of human inventions. A planter from + the Santee, whilst walking in King-street, Charleston, noticed a + small windmill perched on the gable end of a wooden store. His + attention was arrested by the beauty of its performance. He entered + the store and asked who the maker was. He was told that he was a + Northumbrian, then resident in the house--a man in necessitous + circumstances, and wanting employment. A conference was held; the + planter carried the machine to the Santee, pointed out the + difficulties under which the planters labored, and the result was + the rice pounding-mill. This man was the first Mr. Lucas, and to his + genius South Carolina owes a large debt of gratitude. For what the + cotton planter owes to Eli Whitney, the rice planter owes to Mr. + Lucas. His mills were first impelled by water, but more recently by + steam, and though much mechanical ingenuity and much capital have + been expended in improving them, the rice pounding-mill of this day, + in all essential particulars, does not differ materially from the + mill as it came from the hands of Mr. Lucas. + + This great impediment being removed, one formidable difficulty still + remained in the way of the rice planters, and that was the threshing + of the crop by flail. The labor requisite to accomplish this was so + great, that we once heard a distinguished planter say, while having + one large crop threshed out by flail, that he would regard another + large crop as a calamity. Previous to 1830 threshing mills had been + tried by various individuals, but with no apparent success. In that + year the attempt was renewed, and we were present and witnessed the + first trial of a thresher, constructed in New York, and which was + tested on Savannah river, under the auspices of General Hamilton. + The machinery was driven by apparatus similar to that employed for + driving the cotton gin. The result was not very satisfactory, but + there was ground for hope, and after an outlay of very large sums, + and after many disappointments, the happy expedient was thought of, + of testing the mill with steam instead of animal power. The + experiment was completely successful, and it was manifest at once + that the difficulties had not been in the imperfect construction, of + the thresher, but in the insufficiency of the moving power. + + It is now twenty years since we witnessed the working of the small + mill alluded to, and the rice threshing-mill, with steam-engine + attached, is now a splendid piece of operative machinery. The rice + in sheaf is taken up to the thresher by a conveyor, it is threshed, + the straw taken off, then thrice winnowed and twice screened, and + the result in some cases exceeds a thousand bushels of clean rough + rice, the work of a short winter day. + + Humanity rejoices at these inventions--at this transfer to water and + steam, of processes so slow and so exhausting to the human as well + as to the animal frame--and in this feeling we are confident every + planter deeply sympathises. Moreover, the relief they have afforded + in other respects has been perfectly indescribable. Previous to + these improvements all the finer portions of the winter were + appropriated exclusively to the milling and the threshing of the + crop with the flail, yet it is manifest they added not one particle + to the value of the property; indeed, while going on, all other + work, and all preparation for another crop had to be suspended, so + that the condition of the plantation was not progressive, but + retrograde. + + A short recapitulation will show what has been accomplished by the + enterprise of our planters in the last seventy years. At the close + of the Revolution it is believed the rice fields were poorly + drained, and when broken up were chiefly turned with the hoe, then + trenched with the hoe; then came three or four hoeings and as many + pickings. The rice was then cut with the sickle and carried in on + the head, then threshed with the flail, then milled and dressed, in + some cases wholly by human labor, and in others by a rude machine, + called a pecker mill. Now, in 1852, the hoeing, the pickings, and + the cutting with the sickle remain unchanged; but the lands are + better drained, and in the turning the plough has superseded the + hoe; the trenching, when, necessary, is done by animal power; the + rice, when cut, is carried in on a flat and wagon, then threshed and + milled by machinery, so perfect that it is difficult to imagine how + it can be surpassed. + + It is one hundred and fifty-nine years since the introduction of + rice into Carolina, and there are grounds for supposing that our + people have accomplished more during that period, in the cultivation + and preparation of this grain, than has been done by any of the + Asiatic nations who have been conversant with its growth for many + centuries. We had the rare opportunity, a few years since, of seeing + a Chinese book on rice planting, which contained many engravings. + The language we could not read, but we comprehended a sufficient + number of the engravings to institute a comparison between their + system and our own, and the result was, in our method of irrigation + we were their equals, while in economy of cultivation, and in the + preparation of the grain for market and for use, we are greatly + their superiors. Again, some six or seven years since the East India + Company, of London, sent an agent to this country to procure + American cotton seed, gins, and overseers, for the purpose of + testing the practicability of raising cotton by our method in India. + This agent, Captain Bayles, when in Savannah, was heard to say that + he had especial directions from the Company to inform himself + minutely of our system of rice culture. Here, then, was an embassage + from the banks of the Ganges, a spot where rice has been cultivated + probably for twenty centuries, to inquire into the method of + cultivation and preparation, of a people amongst whom the grain had + no existence one hundred and sixty years ago." + +The following is the mode of culture for rice in Carolina:--It is +sowed as soon as it conveniently can be after the vernal equinox, from +which period until the middle, and even the last of May, is the usual +time of putting it in the ground. It grows best in low marshy land, +and should be sowed in furrows twelve inches asunder; it requires to +be flooded, and thrives best if six inches under water; the water is +occasionally drained off, and turned on again to overflow it, for +three or four times. + +When ripe the straw becomes yellow, and it is either reaped with a +sickle, or cut down with a scythe and cradle, some time in the month +of September; after which it is raked and bound, or got up loose, and +threshed or trodden out, and winnowed in the same manner as wheat or +barley. + +Husking it requires a different and particular operation, in a mill +made for that purpose. This mill is constructed of two large flat +wooden cylinders, formed like mill-stones, with channels or furrows +cut therein, diverging in an oblique direction from the centre to the +circumference, made of a heavy and exceedingly hard timber, called +lightwood, which is the knots of the pitch pine. This is turned with +the hand, like the common hand-mills. After the rice is thus cleared +of the husks, it is again winnowed, when it is fit for exportation. + +A bushel of rice will weigh about sixty or sixty-six pounds, and an +acre of middling land will produce twenty-five bushels. + +Various machines have been contrived for cleaning rice, of which one +secured by patent to Mr. M. Wilson, in 1826, and thus described by Dr. +Ure, may be regarded as a fair specimen:--It consists of an oblong +hollow cylinder, laid in an inclined position, having a great many +teeth stuck in its internal surface, and a central shaft, also +furnished with teeth. By the rapid revolution of the shaft, its teeth +are carried across the intervals of those of the cylinder, with the +effect of parting the grains of rice, and detaching whatever husks or +impurities may adhere to them. A hopper is set above to receive the +rice, and conduct it down into the clean cylinder. About eighty teeth +are supposed to be set in the cylinder, projecting so as to reach very +nearly the central shaft, in which there is a corresponding number of +teeth, that pass freely between the former. + +The cylinder may also be placed upright, or horizontal if preferred, +and mounted in any convenient framework. The central shaft should be +put in rapid rotation, while the cylinder receives a slow motion in +the opposite direction. The rice, as cleaned by that action, is +discharged at the lower end of the cylinder, where it falls into a +shute, and is conducted to the ground. The machine may be driven by +hand, or by any other convenient motive power.[43] The growth of rice +in North America is almost wholly confined to two States; nine-tenths +of the whole product, indeed, being raised in the States of South +Carolina and Georgia. A little is grown in North Carolina, Louisiana, +and Mississippi. + +The aggregate crop, for 1843, amounted to 89,879,185 lbs., while in +1847 it had risen to 103,000,000 lbs. + +Besides the rice which is raised in the water, there is also the dry, +or mountain rice, which is raised in some parts of Europe on the sides +of the hills. It is said to thrive well in Cochin China, in dry light +soils, not requiring more moisture than the usual rains or dews +supply. By long culture the German rice, raised by the aid of water, +is stated to have acquired a remarkable degree of hardness and +adaptation to the climate. The upland rice of the United States is +thought by some to be only a modified description of the swamp rice. +It will grow on high and poor land, and produce more than Indian corn +on the same land would do, even fifteen bushels, when the corn is but +seven bushels. The swamp rice was originally cultivated on high land, +and is not so now, because it is more productive in the swamp, in the +proportion, as is said, of twenty to sixty bushels per acre; and the +use of water likewise, it is stated, makes it easier of cultivation, +by enabling the planter to kill the grasses. It is thought that on +rich high land, rice may be made to produce twenty-five or thirty +bushels to an acre in a good season. A letter from a gentleman in +North Carolina gives the following account of some rice raised there. +He says:-- + + "I have planted it the two past years with a view to private + consumption only; not, however, with the success of my neighbours, + who are famous, and have the things under their own management. They + make from forty to fifty, and some, sixty bushels to the acre, on + fine land that produces ordinarily from ten to fifteen bushels of + Indian corn or maize. It is a larger grain than the gold or swamp + rice, and very white; hence it is commonly called here the 'white + rice.' It is planted generally about the middle of March, or 1st of + April, in small ridges two-and-a-half feet apart, in chops at + intervals of about eighteen inches, on the top of the ridge, ten or + twelve seeds in each chop. A season that will make Indian corn, + will, if long enough, make this rice; but it requires about four or + five weeks more than the corn to mature. It ought to be cut before + quite ripe, as it threshes off very easily, and is liable to great + waste. Instead of the flail, we take the sheaf in the hand, and whip + it across a bench in a close room until the rice leaves the straw. + It does not stand the pestle as well as the swamp rice, but breaks a + good deal in the beating; this, however, I have heard attributed to + the dry culture." + +A new variety of rice is mentioned as having been discovered in South +Carolina, in 1838, called the big-grained rice. It has been proved to +be unusually productive. One gentleman, in 1840, planted not quite +half an acre with this seed, which yielded forty-nine and a half +bushels of clean winnowed rice. In 1842, he planted 400 acres, and in +1843, he sowed his whole crop with this seed. His first parcel when +milled, was eighty barrels, and netted half a dollar per cwt. over the +primest rice sold on the same day. Another gentleman also planted two +fields in 1839, which yielded seventy-three bushels per acre. The +average crop before from the same fields of fifteen and ten acres, had +only been thirty-three bushels per acre. + +The following were the returns of produce on some of the leading +estates of South Carolina, in 1848:-- + + -----------------+----------+-----------+---------+------------+---------- + | Barrels | | | | + | Shipped | Barrels | |Average Net |Net Income + Plantation |__________| of | | Produce | Amount + |Whole|Half|600 lbs.net| Weight |per barrel. | Dollars + -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- + 1. Prospect Hill |1,387| 10 | 1,4951/2 | 897,166|16 08-100ths| 24,001 + 2. Springfield | 737| 5 | 8011/2 | 480,937|16 60-100ths| 13,264 + 3. Brook Green |1,571| 15 | 1,716 |1,026,405|16 53-100ths| 28,261 + 4. Longwood |1,113| 4 | 1,2271/2 | 736,413|15 53-100ths| 19,021 + 5. Alderly | 484| 6 | 533 | 319,912|16 68-100ths| 8,851 + -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- + Total |5,292| 40 | 5,7731/2 |3,460,833| | 93,398 + -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- + +Nos. 2 and 3 were sown with long grain rice, the others with small +grain. These plantations were all on the river Waccamaw. The expenses +of a well supplied rice plantation may be stated at 33-1/3 per cent. on +the net income. + +A gentleman from the United States, named Colvin, proposes to +establish the cultivation of rice in the colony of Demerara. This is +no new experiment, rice having been already grown with success in +several parts of the colony--for instance, in Leguan, up the Canje +Creek, and elsewhere; and some of it is of superior quality, +preferable, indeed, to that imported. If Mr. Colvin's object be not +merely to demonstrate the practicability of rice being grown in +British Guiana, but to promote its cultivation on such a scale as may +tend to render it in time one of the staples of the colony, he is +deserving of support, and I hope that his efforts will be crowned with +complete success. + +The editor of the _Gazeta_, a local paper, has been shown some sprigs +of rice raised near Matanzas, in Cuba, the smallest of which contains +at least three hundred grains, perfectly opened, and of a larger size +than is usually produced on the island. He observes that this +phenomenon is not limited to a certain number of sprigs, but that the +whole crop is similar--that this excess of production is to be +attributed to the extraordinary abundance of rain this year. "Here we +have a specimen," says the editor, "of the enormous production that +could be raised in our fields of this excellent and nutritious grain, +if it were cultivated in places contiguous to the rivers, where it +could be flowed during drought." + +The experiment of cultivating rice in France appears to have succeeded +perfectly. A piece of ground of 100 hectares in extent (250 acres) was +sown with rice last year in the lands of Arcachon, near Bordeaux, and +the crop proved a highly satisfactory one. The seed is sown about the +middle of April, and almost immediately appears above ground. + +Rice may be kept a very long period in the rough--I believe a +lifetime. After being cleaned, if it be prime rice, and well milled, +it will keep a long time in this climate; only when about to be used +(if old) it requires more careful washing to get rid of the must, +which accumulates upon it. Some planters--the writer among the +number--prefer for table use rice a year old to the new. The grain is +superior to any other provisions in this respect. If a laborer in the +gold diggings, or elsewhere, takes with him two days' or a week's +provisions, in rice, and his wallet happens to get wet, he has only to +open it to the sun and air, and he will find it soon dries, and is not +at all injured for his purpose. Rough rice may remain under water +twenty-four hours without injury, if dried soon after. + +Passing eastward, rice begins to be found cultivated in Egypt, becomes +more general in Northern India, and holds undisputed rule in the +peninsulas of India, in China, Japan, and the East India +islands--shares it in the west coast of Africa with maize, which, on +the other hand, is the exclusively cultivated corn plant of the +greatest part of tropical America, with only some unimportant +exceptions. On the coast of Africa rice ripens in three months; they +put it under water when cut, where it keeps sound and good for some +time. + +Rice is now the staple commodity of Bourbon, and it produces about +26,000 quintals annually. It forms, together with maize and mandioc, +the principal article of food amongst the negroes and colored people. + +_The Bhull rice lands of Lower Sind_.--Like all large rivers which +flow through an alluvial soil, for a very lengthened course, the Indus +has a tendency to throw up patches of alluvial deposit at its mouth; +and these are in Sind called _bhulls_, and are in general very +valuable for the cultivation of the red rice of the country. These +_bhulls_ are large tracts of very muddy swampy land, almost on a level +with the sea, and exposed equally to be flooded both by it and the +fresh water; indeed on this depends much of the value of the soil, as +a _bhull_ which is not at certain times well covered with salt water, +is unfit for cultivation. They exist on both sides of the principal +mouths of the Indus, in the Gorabaree and Shahbunder pergunnas, which +part of the province is called by the natives "Kukralla," and was in +olden days, before the era of Goolam Shah Kalora, a small state almost +independent of the Ameers of Sind. On the left bank of the mouths of +the river these _bhulls_ are very numerous and form by far the most +fertile portion of the surrounding district. They bear a most dreary, +desolate, and swampy appearance--are intersected in all directions by +streams of salt and brackish water, and are generally surrounded by +low dykes or embankments, in order to regulate the influx and reflux +of the river and sea. Yet from these dreary swamps a very considerable +portion of the rice consumed in Sind is produced; and the Zemindars, +who hold them, are esteemed amongst the most respectable and wealthy +in Lower Sind. + +To visit a _bhull_ is no easy matter. Route by land there is none, and +the only way is to go by boat, in which it is advisable to take at +least one day's provisions and water, as the time occupied in the +inspection will be regulated entirely by the state of the tide and +weather. Very difficult is it too, to land on any of these places, the +mud being generally two or three feet deep, and it is only here and +there that a footing can be secured, in the embankment surrounding the +field. + +Let me now describe the mode of cultivating these anomalous islands, +floating as it were in the ocean, and deriving benefit both from it +and the mighty river itself, whose offspring they are. Should the +river during the high season have thrown up a _bhull_, the Zemindar +selecting it for cultivation, first surrounds it with a low bund of +mud, which is generally about three feet in height. When the river has +receded to its cold weather level, and the _bhull_ is free of fresh +water (for be it remembered, that these _bhulls_ being formed during +the inundation, are often considerably removed from the river branches +during the low season), he takes advantage of the first high spring +tide, opens the bund and allows the whole to be covered with the salt +water. This is generally done in December. The sea water remains on +the land for about nine weeks, or till the middle of February, which +is the proper time for sowing the seed. The salt water is now let out, +and as the ground cannot, on account of the mud, be ploughed, +buffaloes are driven over every part of the field, and a few seeds of +the rice thrown into every footmark; the men employed in sowing being +obliged to crawl along the surface on their bellies, with the basket +of seed on their backs; for were they to assume an upright position, +they would inevitably be bogged in the deep swamp. The holes +containing the seed are not covered up, but people are placed on the +bunds to drive away birds, until the young grain has well sprung up. +The land is not manured, the stagnant salt water remaining on it being +sufficient to renovate the soil. The rice seed is steeped in water, +and then in dung and earth for three or four days, and is not sown +until it begins to sprout. The farmer has now safely got over his +sowing, and as this rice is not as in other cases transplanted, his +next anxiety is to get a supply of fresh water; and for this he +watches for the freshes which usually come down the river about the +middle and end of February, and if the river then reaches his _bhull_, +he opens his bund, and fills the enclosure with the fresh water. The +sooner he gets this supply the better, for the young rice will not +grow in salt water, and soon withers if left entirely dry. + +The welfare of the crop now depends entirely on the supply of fresh +water. A very high inundation does not injure the _bhull_ cultivation, +as here the water has free space to spread about. In fact the more +fresh water the better. If, however, the river remains low in June, +July, and August, and the south-west monsoon sets in heavily on the +coast, the sea is frequently driven over the _bhulls_ and destroys the +crops. It is in fact a continual struggle between the salt water and +the fresh. When the river runs out strong and full, the _bhulls_ +prosper, and the sea is kept at a distance. On the other hand, the +salt water obtains the supremacy when the river is low, and then the +farmer suffers. In this manner much _bhull_ crop was destroyed in the +monsoons of 1851 and 1852, during the heavy gales which prevailed in +those seasons. The rice is subject to attacks also of a small black +sea crab, called by the natives _Kookaee_, and which, without any +apparent cause, cuts down the growing grain in large quantities, and +often occasions much loss. + +The crop when ripe, which, if all goes well will be about the third +week in September, is reaped in the water by men, either in boats, or +on large masses of straw rudely shaped like a boat, and which being +made very tight and close, will float for a considerable time. The +rice is carried ashore to the high land, where it is dried, and put +through the usual harvest process of division, &c.: and the _bhull_ is +then on the fall of the river again ready for its annual pickling. + +The process of preparing the field for rice culture, in the Kandian +country, Ceylon, is very simple. + +When the paddy is to be cultivated in mud, a piece of ground is +enclosed in a series of squares or terraces, by ridges raised with mud +and turf; a quantity of water is directed into the field from an +adjacent stream or tank, and is allowed to remain on it for fifteen +days; at the expiration of this time the field is ploughed with a yoke +of buffaloes, which operation is repeated at the end of fifteen days +more, when, by the rotting of the weeds and other matter, the field +has become manured. After another interval of fifteen days the field +is again ploughed and the broken ridges are repaired. Eight days after +the field is harrowed, and subsequently rolled or levelled; and when +the water has been let out the seed is sown, having in most instances +been previously made to germinate, by being spread on platforms and +kept wet. + +The water is turned in during night, to prevent crabs and insects from +destroying the seedlings, and let out during the day; and this they +continue to do till the plants attain the height of one foot. Water is +only retained in the field until the ears are half ripe, otherwise +they would ripen indifferently and be destroyed by vermin. A variety +of coast paddy, called "moottoo samboo," was introduced into the +Kandian province in 1832, which was found to produce a more abundant +crop, by one third, than the native. It is of six months growth. + +In Kashmir rice is the staple of cultivation, and the practice adopted +there is thus described by a writer in my "Colonial Magazine," vol. x. +p. 130. It is sown in the beginning of May, and is fit to cut about +the end of August. The grain is either sown broadcast in the place +where it is intended to stand till it is ripe, or thickly in beds, +from which it is transplanted when the blade is about a foot high. As +soon as the season will admit after the 21st of March, the land is +opened by one or more ploughings, according to its strength, and the +clods are broken down by blows with wooden mattocks, managed in +general by women, with great regularity and address; after which water +is let in upon the soil, which for the most part of a reddish clay, or +foxy earth, is converted into a smooth soft mud. The seed grain, put +into a sack of woven grass, is submerged in a running stream until it +begins to sprout, which happens sooner or later, according to the +temperature of the water and of the atmosphere, but ordinarily takes +place in three or four days. This precaution is adopted for the +purpose of getting the young shoots as quickly as possible out of the +way of a small snail, which abounds in some of the watered lands of +Kashmir, but sometimes proves insufficient to defend it against the +activity of this destructive enemy. When the farmer suspects, by the +scanty appearance of the plants above the water in which the grain has +been sown, and by the presence of the snail drawn up in the mud, that +his hopes of a crop are likely to be disappointed, he repeats the +sowing, throwing into the water some fresh leaves of the Prangos +plant, which either poison the snails or cause them to descend out of +the reach of its influence. The seed is for the most part thrown +broadcast into about four or five inches of water, which depth is +endeavoured to be maintained. Difference of practice exists as to +watering, but it seems generally agreed that rice can scarcely have +too much water, provided it be not submerged, except for a few days +before it ripens, when a dried state is supposed to hasten and to +perfect the maturity, whilst it improves the quality of the grain. In +general the culture of rice is attended with little expense, although +dearer in Kashmir than Hindostan, from its being customary in the +former country to manure the rice-lands, which is never done in the +latter. This manure, for the most part, consists of rice straw +rejected by the cattle, and mixed with cow-dung. It is conveyed from +the homestead to the fields by women, in small wicker baskets, and is +set on the land with more liberality than might have been expected +from the distance it is carried. Many of the ripe lands are situated +much higher than might be thought convenient in Hindostan, and are +rather pressed into this species of culture than naturally inviting, +but still yield good crops, through the facility with which water is +brought upon them from the streams which fall down the face of the +neighbouring hills. In common seasons the return of grain is from +thirty to forty for one, on an average, besides the straw. + +The rice of Bengal, by the exercise of some care and skill, has +recently been so far improved as nearly to equal that of the +Carolinas. Dr. Falconer has introduced into India the numerous and +fine varieties of rice cultivated in the Himalayas; of these some of +the best sorts were at his suggestion distributed to cultivators along +the Doab canal. + +A species of hill rice grows on the edge of the Himalaya mountains. +The mountain rices of India are grown without irrigation, at +elevations of 3,000 to 6,000 feet on the Himalaya, where the dampness +of the summer months compensates for the want of artificial moisture. +The small reddish Assamese rices, which become gelatinous in boiling, +and the large, flat-grained, soft, purple-black Ketana rice, of Java +and Malacca, shown at the Great Exhibition, were curious. + +The fertility of the province of Arracan is very great, its soil being +fit for the culture of nearly all tropical productions; rice, however, +is alone cultivated to any great extent; the low alluvial soil which +extends over the whole country, from the foot of the mountains to the +sea, being admirably suited for its growth. About 115 square miles are +under culture with rice. The export trade in rice of the district, is +seen by the following statistical return; and it gives employment to +from 400 to 700 vessels, aggregating 60,000 to 80,000 tons. + + QUANTITY OF PADDY AND RICE EXPORTED FROM AKYAB, THE PORT OF ARRACAN. + -------+---------+-------+---------+---------------------------------- + | | | |Average price per 100 baskets + | | | Total | of 12 seers, in Rupees + |Maunds of|Maunds | value +------------------+--------------- + | Paddy |of rice| Rupees | Rice | Paddy + -------+---------+-------+---------+------------------+--------------- + 1831-32| 380,600| 28,970| 130,591| 15.4 to 16.6 | 8 to 9 + 1832-33| 502,740|175,560| 232,915| 16 17 | 7.5 8 + 1833-34| 555,540|418,950| 430,830| 19 20 | 9 10 + 1834-35| 127,050|260,650| 176,717| 18 19 | 8 9 + 1835-36| 783,870|548,460| 354,791| 10 11 | 5 5.8 + 1836-37|1,737,841|641,010| 666,732| 10.8 12 | 5 6 + 1837-38|1,621,566|248,783| 650,385| 21 23 | 9 10.8 + 1838-39|1,364,100|332,380| 821,168| 24 25.1 | 8.8 11.12 + 1839-40|2,033,698|529,961|1,121,311| 21.8 23 | 9.8 10 + 1840-41|2,212,068|446,941|1,131,087| 20 21.8 |10 11 + 1841-42|1,265,388|270,000| 553,014| 19 20 | 8 9 + 1842-43|1,310,900|393,900| 472,889| 14 15 | 7.8 8 + 1843-44| 848,922|707,780| 633,710| 17 18 | 7 8 + -------+---------+-------+---------+------------------+---------------- + (" Colonial Magazine," vol. vi., p. 348.) + + + EXPORT OF RICE FROM MOULMEIN + + Baskets Value + 1840 67,318 38,708 + 1841 11,175 6,900 + 1842 64,055 40,034 + 1843 35,635 35,289 + 1844 71,822 44,529 + 1845 149,815 73,034 + 1846 193,267 101,465 + + --(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," vol. xii., p. 462.) + +From Tavoy and Mergui rice was also exported, equal in value to 41,000 +rupees, in 1846; 100 baskets of 12 seers each, are equal to 30 Bengal +maunds. The basket of rice named above, is equal to 551/2 lbs. English. + +Paddy means rice in the husk--rice, the grain when unhusked--a +distinction to be kept in mind. + +The daily average consumption of rice in a family of five, is rated in +the Straits' settlements at three and a quarter chupahs. + +The Burmese and Siamese are the grossest consumers of rice. A common +laboring Malay requires monthly 30 chupahs, or 56 pounds of rice, +value 3s. 9d. or 4s. The Burmese and Siamese about 34 chupahs, or 64 +pounds. Rice land in Penang yields a return which cannot be averaged +higher than seventy-five fold--or nearly thirty guntangs of paddy for +each orlong (1-1/3 acres); but it has been considered advisable to rate +it here at sixty fold only. + +The rice land of Province Wellesley gives an average return of 1171/2 +fold; the maximum degree of productiveness being 600 guntangs of paddy +to an orlong of well flooded, alluvial land, or 150 fold, equal to 300 +guntangs of clean rice, weighing nearly 4,520 English pounds. The +present average produce has been very moderately estimated at 470 +guntangs the orlong of paddy. The quantity of seed invariably allotted +for an orlong of land is four guntangs. In Siam forty fold is +estimated a good average produce. At Tavoy, on the Tenasserim coast, +the maximum rate of productiveness of the rice land was, in 1825, and +is still believed to be, nearly the same as the average of Siam; while +their _average_ was only twenty-fold.--(Low, on "Straits +Settlements.") + +Rice in Cochin-China is the "staff of life," and forms the main +article of culture. There are six different sorts grown; two on the +uplands, used for confectionery, and yielding only one crop annually; +the other sorts affording from two to five crops a year; but generally +two, one in April and another in October; or three when the +inundations have been profuse. + +The late Dr. Gutzlaff stated, at a meeting of the Statistical Society +of London, that the population of China was about 367,000,000, and the +returns of the land subject to tax as used in rice cultivation there, +gave nearly half an acre to each living person; and he further stated +that in the southern and well watered provinces, it is anything but +uncommon to take two crops of rice, one of wheat, and one of pulse, +from the same land in a single season. Rice is the only article the +Chinese ever offer a bounty for; the price fluctuates according to the +seasons, from one and three-quarter dollars to eight dollars per +picul. Siam and the Indian Islands, particularly Bali and Lombok, +supply the empire occasionally with large quantities. + +The price of rice in China varies according to the state of the canals +leading to the interior; if they are full of water the prices rise; if +on the contrary they are low, prices fall in proportion at the +producing districts. The amount of consumption is controlled, in a +considerable degree, by the cost of transit; when this is cheap prices +rise from the general demand; but when land-carriage to any extent has +to be resorted to, they fall; it raises prices so much at any great +distance, that rice must be used very sparingly, from its enhanced +price. It is obvious that if the waters are sufficiently high to allow +a boat to pass fully loaded, she does so at an expense of nearly 50 +per cent, less than she would do, if, from want of water, she could +only take half the quantity; when transport is cheap every one obtains +a full supply; when it is dear the rice districts have more than they +can consume. + +At home we are so much accustomed to the facilities of transit offered +by railroads, canal boats, &c., that we do not readily take into +consideration, that in China, except by water, all articles are +conveyed from one place to another on men's shoulders. Taking the +population of Canton at the usual estimate of a million, and allowing +to each a catty a day, the quantity of rice required for one day's +consumption alone in that city would be 10,000 piculs, of 133 lbs. +each = 1,340,000 lbs. + +Java is the granary of plenty for all the Eastern Archipelago; and the +Dutch East India Company occupies itself in this culture with +solicitude, well persuaded that a scarcity of rice might be fatal to +its power. Ordinances to encourage and increase this branch of +agriculture, have been promulgated at different times by an authority +called to watch over the physical well-being of many millions of +inhabitants. + +As an evident proof that the culture of rice, of which it would be +difficult to fix the quantity produced annually, increases +considerably, I may mention that the exportation from Java, in 1840, +was 1,488,350 piculs of 125 Dutch lbs. + +Rice is cultivated in Java in three systems. The name of _sawah_ is +given to the rice fields, which can be irrigated artificially; +_tepar_, or _tagal_, are elevated but level grounds; and _gagah_, or +_ladang_, are cleared forest grounds. The two last only give one crop; +a second crop may be obtained from the _sawah_, which then most +commonly consists of _katjang_, from which oil is extracted, in +_kapus_ or fine cotton, and in _ubie_, a kind of potato. + +There are, says Mr. Crawfurd, two distinct descriptions of rice +cultivated throughout the Indian islands, one which grows without the +help of immersion in water, and another for which that immersion is +indispensably requisite. In external character there is very little +difference between them, and in intrinsic value not much. The marsh +rice generally brings a somewhat higher price in the market. The great +advantage of this latter consists in its superior fecundity. Two very +important varieties of each are well known to the Javanese husbandman, +one being a large productive, but delicate grain, which requires about +seven months to ripen, and the other a small, hardy, and less fruitful +one, which takes little more than five months. The first we constantly +find cultivated in rich lands, where one annual crop only is taken; +and the last in well watered lands, but of inferior fertility, where +two crops may be raised. + +Both of these, but particularly the marsh rice, is divided into a +great number of sub-varieties, characterised by being awned or +otherwise, having a long or round grain, or being in color black, red, +or white. The most singular variety is the _O. glutinosa_, of +Rumphius. This is never used as bread, but commonly preserved as a +sweetmeat. The rudest, and probably the earliest practised mode of +cultivating rice, consists in taking from forest lands a fugitive +crop, after burning the trees, grass, and underwood. The ground is +turned up with the mattock, and the seed planted by dibbling between +the stumps of trees. The period of sowing is the commencement of the +rains, and of reaping that of the dry season. The rice is of course of +that description which does not require immersion. + +The second description of tillage consists also in growing mountain or +dry land rice. This mode is usually adopted on the common upland +arable lands, which cannot conveniently be irrigated. The grain is +sown in the middle of the dry season, either broadcast or by dibbling, +and reaped in seven or five months, as the grain happens to be the +larger or the smaller variety. + +The culture of rice by the aid of the periodical rains forms the +third mode. The grain being that kind which requires submersion, the +process of sowing and reaping is determined with precision by the +seasons. With the first fall of the rains the lands are ploughed and +harrowed. The seed is sown in beds, usually by strewing very thickly +the corn in the ear. From these beds the plants, when 12 or 14 days +old, are removed into the fields and thinly set by the hand. They are +then kept constantly immersed in water until within a fortnight of the +harvest, when it is drawn off to facilitate the ripening of the grain. + +The fourth mode of cultivating rice is by forcing a crop by artificial +irrigation, at any time of the year; thus, in one field, in various +plots, the operations of sowing, ploughing, transplanting, and reaping +may be seen at the same period. + +The fertile, populous, and industrious countries of the Eastern +Archipelago export rice to their neighbours. The most remarkable of +these are Java, Bali, some parts of Celebes, with the most fertile +spots of Sumatra, and of the Malay Peninsula. Rice is generally +imported to these western countries from those farther east, such as +the Spice Islands. Java is the principal place of production for the +consumption of the other islands, and the only island of the +Archipelago that sends rice _abroad_. The rice of the eastern +districts is generally superior to that of the western. The worst rice +is that of Indramayu, which is usually discolored. The subdivision of +the province of Cheribon, called Gabang, yields rice of fine white +grain, equal to that of Carolina. The rice of Gressie preserves best. +All Indian rice is classed, in commercial language, into the three +descriptions of table rice, white rice, and cargo rice. From the +limited demand for the first, it is only to be had in Java, in small +quantity. For the same reason the second is not procurable in large +quantity, unless bespoken some time before-hand; but the third may be +had at the shortest notice in any quantity required. Java rice is +inferior in estimation to that of Bengal or Carolina in the markets of +Europe. + +The following statistics show the extent and progress of the culture +in Java:-- + + In 1840. In 1841. + --------- ---------- + No. of Residencies in which rice is cultivated 18 18 + + " Regencies 69 68 + + " Districts 414 414 + + " Desas or villages 39,931 36,296 + + Amount of the population who take a part in it, + without distinction of caste 6,704,797 6,857,372 + + Number of families, &c. 1,466,845 1,475,675 + + " " families who devote themselves to the + cultivation 1,150,406 1,146,083 + + Number of men bound to obligatory service 1,321,767 1,325,746 + + Cleared grounds in _bahus_, of 71 decametres 1,470,047 1,540,054 + + Upon this extent the population had cultivated for + the government, in _bahus_ of 71 decametres 78,182 74,277 + + Extent of fields which the population had cultivated 1,286,139 1,381,216 + on their own account, in _bahus_, &c. + + Extent of land in fallow in _bahus_, &c. 105,726 84,561 + + Produce in piculs of fields cultivated by the + population on its own account 21,273,278 23,810,573 + + Average produce of a _bahu_ 161/2 17 + + Gross amount of the land tax of 1840 8,502,402 fl 9,030,761 fl. + + Extent of rice fields newly cultivated in + _bahus_ 10,328 13,561 + +This comparative summary shows that the culture of rice increases +yearly, and that the average produce of the fields is also continually +increasing. These results have been obtained by the attention paid to +the proper irrigation of the soil fit for this culture; and to the +hydraulic works which the Government executes on its own account in +the parts of the island where rice fields can be established, and +where they are required to feed a population whose number is still +increasing yearly. + +I have seen, continues Mr. Crawfurd, lands which have produced, from +time beyond the memory of any living person, two yearly crops of rice. +When this practice is pursued, it is always the five-months grain +which is grown. The rapid growth of this variety, has, indeed, enabled +the Javanese husbandman, in a few happy situations, to urge the +culture to the amount of six crops in two years and a half. Rice +cultivated in a virgin soil, where the wood has been burnt off, will, +under favorable circumstances, give a return of twenty-five and thirty +fold. Of mountain rice, cultivated in ordinary upland arable lands, +fifteen fold may be looked upon as a good return. In fertile soils, +when one crop only is taken in the year, marsh rice will yield a +return of twenty-five seeds. When a double crop is taken, not more +than fifteen or sixteen can be expected. In the fine province of Kadu, +an English acre of good land, yielding annually one green crop and a +crop of rice, was found to produce of the latter 641 lbs. of clean +grain. In the light sandy, but well watered lands of the province of +Mataram, where it is the common practice to exact two crops of rice +yearly without any fallow, an acre was found to yield no more than 285 +lbs. of clean rice, or an annual produce of 570 lbs. --("History of +the Indian Archipelago.") + +The low estimation of Java rice is not attributable to any real +inferiority in the grain, but to the mode of preparing it for the +market. In husking it, it is, for the want of proper machinery, much +broken, and, from carelessness in drying, subject to decay from the +attack of insects and worms. When in the progress of improvement more +intelligent methods are pursued in preparing the grain for the market, +it will equal the grain of any other country. Machinery must be +employed for husking the grain, and some degree of kiln drying will be +necessary to ensure its preservation in a long voyage. + +I know nowhere that rice is so cheap as in Java, except in Siam, +whence it is exported at one-third less cost. A great deal of rice is +exported from Siam to China by the junks, and also occasionally a +little from Java. + + The quantity exported from Java in 1830 was 13,521 coyans. + + " " 1835 " 25,577 " + + " " 1839 " 1,103,378 piculs + + " " 1841 " 676,213 " + + " " 1843 " 1,108,774 " + +Rice is grown to some extent in the Dutch portion of Celebes; it +yields at a minimum one hundred and fifty fold. The average annual +delivery of rice to the Government, from 1838 to 1842, was 3,390,119 +lbs. At present the Government pays sixty cents for a measure of forty +pounds. That which is sold for the consumption of the inhabitants may +be procured at the public warehouse for a guilder the 351/2 lbs.; and +that which is sold for export may be had at public auction for 125 +florins the coyan of 3,000 lbs. + +The following description of some varieties of rice cultivated in the +Philippine islands, is given by Mr. Rich, botanist to the United +States Exploring Expedition. The varieties are very numerous; the +natives distinguish them by the size and shape of their grain:-- + + _Binambang_.--Leaves slightly hairy; glumes whitish; grows to the + height of about five feet; flowers in December: aquatic. + + _Lamuyo_ greatly resembles the above; is more extensively + cultivated, particularly in Batangas, where it forms the principal + article of food of the inhabitants of the coast: aquatic. + + _Malagcquit_.--This variety derives its name from its being very + glutinous after bailing; it is much used by the natives in making + sweet or fancy dishes; and also used in making a whitewash, mixed + with lime, which is remarkable for its brilliancy, and for + withstanding rain, &c.: aquatic. + + _Bontot Cabayo_.--Common in Ilocos, where it is cultivated both + upland and lowland; it produces a large grain, and is therefore much + esteemed, but has rather a rough taste. + + _Dumali, or early rice_.--This rice is raised in the uplands + exclusively, and derives its name from ripening its grain three + months from planting; the seed is rather broader and shorter than + the other varieties; it is not extensively cultivated, as birds and + insects are very destructive to it. + + _Quinanda_, with smooth leaves.--This variety is held in great + estimation by the people of Batangas, as they say it swells more in + boiling than any other variety; it is sown in May, and gathered in + October: upland. + + _Bolohan_.--This variety has very hairy glumes; it is not held in + much esteem by the natives, but it is cultivated on account of its + not being so liable to the attacks of insects and diseases as most + of the other upland varieties. + + _Malagcquit_.--With smooth leaves, and red glumes (all the preceding + are whitish); possesses all the qualities of the aquatic variety of + the same name--that of being very glutinous after boiling. This rice + is said to be a remedy for worms in horses, soaked in water, with + the hulls on; it is given with honey and water. + + _Tangi_.--Leaves slightly hairy, glumes light violet color. This + upland variety is held in much esteem for its fine flavor. + +435,067 arrobas of rice were exported from Manilla in 1847. + +A simple but rude mill is in use in Siam, and many parts of India, for +hulling paddy, which is similar to those used 4,000 years ago. It +consists of two circular stones, two feet in diameter, resting one on +the other; a bamboo basket is wrought around the upper one, so as to +form the hopper. A peg is firmly set into the face of the upper stone, +half way between its periphery and centre, having tied to it by one +end a stick three feet long, extended horizontally, and attached by +the other to another stick pending from the roof of the shed under +which the mill is placed. This forms a crank, by which the upper stone +is made to revolve on the other set firmly on the ground. The motion +throws the rice through the centre of the stone, and causes it to +escape between the edges of the two. + +More starch is contained in this grain than in wheat. Braconnet +obtained from Carolina rice 85.07, and from Piedmont rice 83.8 per +cent. of starch. Vogel procured from a dried rice no less than 98 per +cent. of starch. There are several patent processes in existence for +the manufacture of rice-starch, which are accomplished chiefly by +digesting rice in solutions, more or less strong, of caustic alkali +(soda), by which the gluten is dissolved and removed, leaving an +insoluble matter composed of starch, and a white substance technically +called fibre. Under Jones's patent, the alkaline solution employed +contains 200 grains of real soda in every gallon of liquor, and 150 +gallons of this liquor are requisite to convert 100 lbs. of rice into +starch. In manufacturing rice-starch on a large scale, Patna rice +yields 80 per cent, of marketable starch, and 8.2 per cent. of fibre, +the remaining 11.8 per cent. being made up of gluten, gruff, or bran, +and a small quantity of light starch carried off in suspension by the +solution. + +Jones's process may be thus described:--100 lbs. of rice are macerated +for 24 hours in 50 gallons of the alkaline solution, and afterwards +washed with cold water, drained, and ground. To 100 gallons of the +alkaline solution are then to be added 100 lbs. of ground rice, and +the mixture stirred repeatedly during 24 hours, and then allowed to +stand for about 70 hours to settle or deposit. The alkaline solution +is to be drawn off, and to the deposit cold water is to be added, for +the double purpose of washing out the alkali and for drawing off the +starch from the other matters. The mixture is to be well stirred up +and then allowed to rest about an hour for the fibre to fall down. The +liquor holding the starch in suspension is to be drawn off and allowed +to stand for about 70 hours for the starch to deposit. The waste +liquor is now to be removed, and the starch stirred up, blued (if +thought necessary), drained, dried, and finished in the usual way.[44] +Rice is imported into this country in bags of 11/2 cwt., and tierces of +6 cwt., not only for edible purposes, but, when ground into flour, for +cotton manufactures, in aiding to form the weaver's dressings for +warps. Rice-meal is commonly used for feeding pigs. + + Imported. + British Retained for home + Plantation. Foreign. consumption of all kinds. + Bags. Bags. Bags. + 1843 136,319 35,125 60,965 + 1844 127,876 69,112 126,733 + 1845 173,794 5,713 114,933 + + Tons. Tons. Tons. + 1847 38,736 3,033 28,375 + 1848 21,226 4,631 15,468 + 1849 19,397 1,410 14,961 + + + Total imported. Re-exported. + 1849 976,196 cwts. 290,732 cwts. + " in the husk 31,828 qrs. + 1850 785,451 cwts. 248,136 " + " in the husk 37,150 qrs. + 1851 714,847 cwts. 345,677 " + " in the husk 31,481 qrs. + 1852 989,316 cwts. 414,507 " + " in the husk 23,946 qrs. + +The quantity of rice retained for home consumption, by the corrected +returns, in 1850, was 401,018 cwts. and 35,119 quarters; in 1851, +399,170 cwts. and 31,481 quarters; in 1852, 574,809 cwts. and 23,946 +quarters. The aggregate imports range from 40,000 to 80,000 tons +annually, of which about 500 to 800 tons are in the husk. + +Among culmiferous plants and legumes used in the East, are the +_Panicum italicum_, _P. miliaceum_, _Eleusine coracana_ (the meal of +which is baked and eaten in Ceylon under the name of Corakan flour), +and _Paspalum_ of several varieties. The pigeon pea (_Cytisus Cajan_), +and a very valuable and prolific species of bean, called the Mauritius +black bean (_Mucuna utilis_), growing even in the poorest soil, is +cultivated in India and Ceylon. _Sorghum vulgare_ is the principal +grain of Southern Arabia, and the stems are also used extensively for +feeding cattle. The plant bears its Indian name of joar, or juri, and +is cultivated throughout Western Hindostan. Job's tears (_Croix +lachryma_) is another cereal grass, native of the East Indies. + + +MILLET. + +Millet of different kinds is met with in the hottest parts of Africa, +in the South of Europe, in Asia Minor, and in the East Indies. It is a +small yellowish seed, growing in dense panicles or clusters, the +produce of a grassy plant with large and compact seeds, growing to the +height, in India, of seven or eight feet. + +The millets, known to Europeans as _petit mais_, are tropical or +sub-tropical crops. In India they hold a second rank to rice alone; +and in Egypt, perhaps, surpass all other crops in importance. In +Western Africa they are the staff of life. The red and white millets +shown by Austria, Russia, and the United States, at the Great +Exhibition, were beautiful, and Ceylon exhibited fair samples. Turkey +abounds in small grains. + +_Panicum miliaceum_ and _P. frumentaceum_ are the species grown in the +East Indies. Loudon says there are three distinct species of millet; +the Polish, the common or German, and the Indian. _Setaria Germanica_ +yields German millet. The plants are readily increased by division of +the roots or by seed, and will grow in any common soil. The native +West Indian species are _P. fascisculatwm_ and _oryzoides_. Millet +receives some attention in New South Wales. In 1844 there were 100 +acres of land under cultivation with it, and the amount grown in some +years in this colony has been about 3,500 bushels. + +In the United States millet is chiefly grown for making hay, being +found a good substitute for clover and the ordinary grasses. It is a +plant which will flourish well on rather thin soils, and it grows so +fast that when it is up and well set it is seldom much affected by +drought. It is commonly sown there in June, but the time of sowing +will vary with the latitude. Half a bushel of seed to the acre is the +usual quantity, sown broadcast and harrowed in. For the finest +quantity of hay, it is thought advisable to sow an additional quantity +of three or four quarts of seed. The ordinary yield of crops may be +put at from a ton to a ton and a half of hay to the acre. It should be +cut as soon as it is out of blossom; if it stands later, the stems are +liable to become too hard to make good hay. The variety known as +German millet is that most common in North America. It grows +ordinarily to the height of about three feet, with compact heads from +six to nine inches in length, bearing yellow seed. There are some +sub-varieties of this, as the white and purple-seeded. + +The Italian millet, _Setaria italica_, is larger than the preceding, +reaching the height of four feet in tolerable soil, and its leaves are +correspondingly larger and thicker. The heads are sometimes a foot or +more in length, and are less compact than the German, being composed +of several spikes slightly branching from the main stem. It is said to +derive its specific name from being cultivated in Italy, though its +native habitat is India. It is claimed by some that this variety will +yield more seed than any other, and the seed is rather larger, but the +stalk is coarser, and would probably be less relished by stock. + +If the greatest amount of seed is desired from the crop, it is best to +sow it in drills, two to two-and-a-half feet apart, using a seed drill +for the purpose. This admits of the use of a small harrow or +cultivator between the rows, while the plants are small, which keeps +out the weeds. The crop will ripen more uniformly in this way than +broadcast, and enables the cultivator to cut it when there will be the +least waste. The seed shatters out very easily when it is ripe, and +when the crop ripens unequally it cannot be cut without loss, because +either a portion of it will be immature, or, if left till it is all +ripe, the seed of the earliest falls out. It should be closely +watched, and cut in just about the same stage that it is proper to cut +wheat, while the grain may be crushed between the fingers. It may be +cut with a grain cradle, and, when dry, bound and shocked like grain; +but it should be threshed out as soon as practicable, on account of +its being usually much attacked by birds, many kinds of which are very +fond of the seed. In particular localities they assail the crop in +such numbers, from the time it is out of the "milk," till it is +harvested and carried off the field, that it is no object to attempt +to ripen it. This crop is sometimes sown in drills, when it is only +intended for fodder, being cut and cured in bundles, as the stalks of +Indian corn are. It is best to pass it through a cutting machine +before feeding it to stock; indeed, all millet hay will be fed with +less loss in this way, than if fed to animals without cutting. + +The seed is used in various European countries as a substitute for +sago, for which it is considered excellent. It is likewise a valuable +food for poultry, particularly for young chickens, which from the +smallness of the grain can eat it readily, and it appears to be +wholesome for them. + +In some countries millet seed is ground into flour and converted into +bread; but this is brown and heavy. It is, however, useful in other +respects, as a substitute for rice. A good vinegar has been made from +it by fermentation, and, on distillation, it yields a strong spirit. +Millet seed--the produce of _H. saccharatum_--is imported into this +country from the East Indies for the purpose chiefly of puddings; by +many persons it is preferred to rice. It is cultivated largely in +China and Cochin-China. The stalks, if subjected to the same process +that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice, from which +an excellent kind of sugar may be made. + +Millet will grow best on light, dry soils. The ground being first well +prepared, half a bushel of seed to the acre is ploughed in at the +commencement of the rains, in India. The crop ripens within three +months from the time of sowing. The usual produce is about 16 bushels +to the acre. The Canary Islands export annually about 212,400 bushels +of millet. + +_Great Indian Millet, or Guinea Corn_.--This is a native of India (the +_Sorghum vulgare_, the _Andropogon Sorghum_ of Roxburgh), which +produces a grain a little larger than mustard or millet seed. It is +grown in most tropical countries, and has peculiar local names. In the +West Indies, where it is chiefly raised for feeding poultry, it is +called Guinea corn. In Egypt it is known as Dhurra, in Hindostan and +Bengal as Joar, and in some districts as Cush. + +In Lower Scinde joar is very extensively cultivated, as well as bajree +(_H. spicatus_). It is harvested in December and January; requires a +light soil, and is usually grown in the east, after _Cynosurus +corocanus_. + +Guinea corn is extensively cultivated in some parts of Jamaica. I did +not, however, find it thrive on the north side of the island. It is +best planted in the West Indies between September and November, and +ripens in January. It ratoons or yields a second crop, when cut. The +returns are from 30 to 60 bushels an acre, but the crops are +uncertain. + +Mr. C. Bravo tried Guinea corn at St. Ann's, Jamaica, as a green crop, +sown broadcast, for fodder, and it answered admirably, the produce +being very considerable. It was weighed, and yielded 14 tons of fodder +per acre, and was found very palatable and nutritious for cattle. It +was grown on a very poor soil, which had, previously to ploughing, +given nothing but marigolds and weeds. The luxuriant growth of the +corn completely kept under the weeds. A great number of the stalks +were measured, and they averaged 10 feet from the root to the top of +the upper leaf. It had been planted 10 weeks, and had, therefore, +grown a foot a month. Mr. Bravo is of opinion, that sown broadcast it +would answer either as a grain crop, as fodder, or ploughed in to +increase the fertility of the soil. + +Dr. Phillips, of Barbados, being of opinion that it might be +advantageously employed as human food, requested Dr. Shier, the +analytical chemist, of Demerara, to determine in his laboratory its +richness in protein compounds (the muscle-forming part of vegetable +food) in comparison with Indian corn. He, therefore, caused a sample +of each to be burned for nitrogen, when the following results were +obtained:-- + + Indian corn. Guinea corn. + Water, per cent. 12.81 13.76 + In ordinary state-- + Nitrogen, per cent. 1.83 1.18 + Protein compounds 11.51 7.42 + In dry state-- + Nitrogen, per cent. 2.10 1.36 + Protein compounds 13.20 8.60 + +According to these results, the Guinea corn is less rich in nitrogen +or protein compounds than Indian corn, though not much less so than +some varieties of English wheat. + +Indian corn meal, analysed by Mr. Hereford, from two localities, gave +in the ordinary state of dryness 11.53 and 12.48 per cent. of protein +compounds--results which come very near to that obtained by Dr. Shier. + +_Sorghum avenaceum_, or _Holcus avenaceus_, is a native of the Cape. + +Several species and varieties of sorghum have been introduced, and +more or less cultivated in the United States. It is often popularly +termed Egyptian corn. It is closely allied to broom corn (_S. +saccharatum_), the head being similar in structure, and the seed +similar, except that in most varieties of sorghum, the outer covering +does not adhere as in broom corn. The plant bears a strong +resemblance, while growing, to maize or Indian corn. There is also +some similarity in the grain, and it is extensively used as food by +many oriental nations. + +A variety, under the name of African purple millet, was some years +since introduced into North America, and recommended for cultivation +as a soiling crop; but this, as well as other varieties, do not +possess any advantages over Indian corn. + +The natives of Mysore reckon three kinds, known as white, green, and +red. The red ripens a month earlier than the rest, or about four +months from the time of sowing. Near Bengal, Bombay, and elsewhere, in +Eastern India, sowing is performed at the close of May or early in +June. A gallon and a third of seed is sown per acre, and the produce +averages 16 bushels. This grain, though small, and the size of its +head diminutive, compensates for this deficiency by the great hulk +and goodness of its straw, which grows usually to the height of 8 or +10 feet. It is sometimes sown for fodder in the beginning of April, +and is ready to cut in July. It is said to be injurious to cattle, if +eaten as green provender, the straw is therefore first dried, and is +then preferable to that of rice. + +This grain is frequently fermented to form the basis, in combination +with goor or half made sugar, of the common arrack of the natives, and +in the hills is fermented into a kind of beer or sweet wort, drank +warm. + +_Holcus spicatus_, the _Panicum spicatum_ of Roxburgh, is cultivated +in Mysore, Behar, and the provinces more to the north. From one to +four seers are sown on a biggah of land, and the yield is about four +maunds per acre. It is sown after the heavy rains commence, and the +plough serves to cover the seed. The crop is ripe in three months, and +the ears only are taken off at first. Afterwards the straw is cut down +close to the surface of the soil, to be used for thatching, for it is +not much in request as fodder. Being a grain of small price, it is a +common food of the poorer class of natives, and really yields a sweet +palatable flour. It is also excellent as a fattening grain for +poultry. + +The _Poa Abyssinica_is one of the bread-corns of Abyssinia. The bread +made from it is called _teff_, and is the ordinary food of the +country, that made from wheat being only used by the higher classes. +The way of manufacturing it is by allowing the dough to become sour, +when, generating carbonic acid gas, it serves instead of yeast. It is +then baked in circular cakes, which are white, spongy, and of a hot +acid taste, but easy of digestion. This bread, carefully toasted, and +left in water for three or four days, furnishes the _bousa_, or common +beer of the country, similar to the _quas_ of Russia. + + +BROOM CORN. + +The production of broom corn is rapidly extending, and corn brooms are +driving broom sedge, as an article for sweeping floors, out of every +humble dwelling in the United States. There are about 1,000 acres of +it under culture in one county (Montgomery) alone, and it brings 30 +dollars per acre in the field. + +Messrs. Van Eppes, of Schenectady, have been engaged in the broom +manufactory business about eleven years. They have a farm of about 300 +acres, 200 of which are Mohawk flats. A large portion of the flats was +formerly of little value, in consequence of being kept wet by a +shallow stream which ran through, it, and which, together with several +springs that issue from the sandy bluff on the south side of the +flats, kept the ground marshy, and unfit for cultivation. By deepening +the channel of the stream, and conducting most of the springs into it, +many acres, which were formerly almost worthless, have been made +worth 125 dollars per acre. They have also, by deepening the channel, +saving the water of the springs, and securing all the fall, made a +water privilege, on which they have erected an excellent mill, with +several run of stones, leaving besides sufficient power to carry saws +for cutting out the handles of brooms, &c. + +They have about 200 acres of the flats in broom-corn. The cultivation +of this article has within a few years been simplified to almost as +great a degree as its manufacture. The seed is sown with a seed-barrow +or drill, as early in the spring as the state of the ground will +admit, in rows 31/2 feet apart. As soon as the corn is above ground, it +is hoed, and soon after thinned, so as to leave the stalks two or +three inches apart. It is only hoed in the row, in order to get out +the weeds that are close to the plants, the remaining space being left +for the harrow and cultivator, which are run so frequently as to keep +down the weeds. The cultivation is finished by running a small, double +mould-board plough, rather shallow, between the rows. + +The broom corn is not left to ripen, as formerly, but is cut when it +is quite green, and the seed not much past the milk. It was formerly +the practice to lop down the tops of the corn, and let it hang some +time, that the brush might become straightened in one direction. Now, +the tops are not lopped till the brush is ready to cut, which, as +before stated, is while the corn is green. A set of hands goes +forward, and lops or bends the tops to one side, and another set +follows immediately and cuts off the tops at the place at which they +are bent, and a third set gathers the cut tops into carts or waggons, +which take them to the factory. Here they are first sorted over, and +parcelled out into small bunches, each bunch being made up into brush +of equal length. The seed is then taken off by an apparatus with +teeth, like a hatchet. The machine is worked by six horses, and cleans +the brush very rapidly. It is then spread thin to dry, on racks put up +in buildings designed for the purpose. In about a week, with ordinary +weather, it becomes so dry that it will bear to be packed closely. + +The stalks of the corn, after the tops have been cut off, are five or +six feet high, and they are left on the ground, and ploughed in the +next spring. It is found that this keeps up the fertility of the soil, +so that the crop is continued for several years without apparent +diminution. It should be observed, however, that the ground is +overflowed every winter or spring, and a considerable deposit left on +the surface, which is undoubtedly equivalent to a dressing of manure. + +This may be inferred from the fact that some of the flats have been in +Indian corn every year for forty or fifty years, without manure, and +with good cultivation have seldom produced less than sixty bushels per +acre, and with extra cultivation from eighty to ninety bushels have +been obtained. + +In case of need, the stalks would furnish a large amount of good food +for cattle. They are full of leaves which are nutritive, and whether +cut and dried for winter, or eaten green by stock turned on the ground +where they grow, would be very valuable in case of deficiency of +grass. + +Messrs. Van Eppes employ twenty hands during the summer; and in +autumn, when the brush is being gathered and prepared, they have +nearly a hundred, male and female. They are mostly Germans, who come +to Schenectady with their families during the broom corn harvest, and +leave when it is over. + +The manufacture of brooms is carried on mostly in the winter season. +The quantity usually turned out by Messrs. Van Eppes is 150,000 dozen +per annum.--("Albany Cultivator.") + + +CHENOPODIUM QUINOA. + +About twenty-eight years ago this plant was introduced into Britain +from Peru, where the seeds are used as food, under the name of petty +rice. Attention was drawn to it by Loudon, in his "Gardener's +Magazine," in 1834, and in 1836 it was cultivated on a large scale by +Sir Charles Lemon. This plant and the lentil are two of the most +promising exotics that have been recommended for field culture. There +are two varieties of quinoa, the white and the red seeded; the red has +bitter properties, and is only used for medicine. In North America the +seeds of the former are used as a substitute for maize and the potato. +A white meal is obtained from it, having a tinge of yellow. It +contains scarcely any gluten, but, like oatmeal, makes very good +porridge and cakes. Its nutritive qualities are proved by the analysis +of Dr. Voelcker ("Journal of Agriculture of Scotland," October, 1850), +which states it to yield 3.66 per cent. of nitrogen, equal to 2.87 per +cent. of protein compounds. In this respect the meal appears to be +superior to rye, barley, rice, maize, the plantain, and potato. It has +long furnished the food of millions in South America; and in Scotland +and Ireland the plant would find a congenial climate and rich soil. + + +FUNDI OR FUNDUNGI. + +This is an hitherto undescribed species of African grain (probably the +_Paspalum exile_), much cultivated and esteemed in Sierra Leone, and +other places on the African coast, where it is known by the Foulahs, +Joloffs, and other native tribes, under the local name of Hungry rice. +It is a slender grass with digitate spikes, which have much of the +habit of _Digitaria_, but which, on account of the absence of the +small outer glume existing in that genus, Mr. Keppist, Librarian of +the Linnean Society, of London, refers to _Paspalum_. It produces a +semi-transparent cordiform grain, about the size of a mignionette +seed; the ear consists of two conjugate spikes, the grain being +arranged on the outer edge of either spike, and alternated; they are +attached by a peduncle to the husk. The epicarp, or outer membrane, is +slightly rugous. + +The ground is cleared for its reception by burning down the copse wood +and hoeing between the roots and stumps. It is sown in the months of +May and June, the ground being slightly opened, and again lightly +drawn together over the seeds with a hoe. In August, when it shoots +up, it is carefully weeded. It ripens in September, growing to the +height of about 18 inches, and its stems, which are very slender, are +bent to the earth by the mere weight of the grain. The patch of land +is then either suffered to lie fallow, or is planted with yams or +cassava in rotation. Experienced cultivators of this Lilliputian grain +assert that manure is unnecessary, as it delights in light soils, and +it is even raised on rocky situations, which are most frequent about +Kissy. When cut down, it is tied up in small sheafs and placed in a +dry situation within the hut; for if allowed to remain on the ground +and to become wet, the grains are agglutinated to their coverings. The +grain is trodden out with the feet, and is then parched or dried in +the sun, to allow the more easy removal of the chaff in the process of +pounding, which is performed in wooden mortars. It is afterwards +winnowed with a kind of cane fanner or mats. + +This grain could be raised in sufficient quantities to become an +article of commerce, and I have no doubt would prove a valuable +addition to the list of light farinaceous articles of food in use +among the delicate or convalescent. In preparing this delicious grain +for food, it is first put into boiling water, in which it is +assiduously stirred for a few minutes; the water is then poured off, +and the Foulahs, Joloffs, &c., add to it palm oil, butter, or milk; +but Europeans and negroes connected with Sierra Leone prepare it as +follows:--To the grain cooked as above mentioned, fowl, fish, or +mutton, with a piece of salt pork for the sake of flavor is added, the +whole being then stewed in a close saucepan. This makes a very good +dish, and thus prepared resembles "_Kous-kous_." The grain is +sometimes made into puddings, with the usual condiments, and eaten +either hot or cold, with milk. By the few natives of Scotland in the +colony, it is occasionally dressed as milk porridge. + +The negroes also eat it in the same way as they do rice, with palaver +sauce. Fundi ought to be well washed in cold water, and afterwards +rewashed in boiling water. If properly prepared it will be white, and +perfectly free from gritty matter. + +Canary-seed, obtained from _Phalaris canariensis_, is grown rather +largely in Kent, the Isle of Thanet, and other parts of the south of +England, as much as 500 tons being annually consumed here for feeding +singing birds. The produce is three to five quarters the acre, and it +is sold at about L25 the ton. We receive foreign supplies of the seed +from Germany and the Mediterranean, and the duty on imports is 2s. 6d. +per bushel. + + +PULSE. + +There are a variety of pulses and leguminous seeds extensively +cultivated as food for both man and cattle, and which form an +important article in the husbandry of tropical countries. The +importance of peas and beans is well appreciated, both by the +horticulturists and agriculturists in Europe and our temperate +colonies, where, however, they are comparatively of less importance +than the smaller pulses and grains are in various tropical countries, +such as haricots in the Brazils and West Indies; ground or earth nuts +in South America, and especially in Western Africa; beans of different +kinds amongst the miners of Peru; gram (_Ervum lens_), and dholl +(_Cajanus_), with innumerable varieties of beans and small lentils +among the natives of India and Egypt; and the Carob bean, or St. +John's bread (_Ceratonia siliqua_), in the Mediterranean +countries.--("Jury Reports.") + +Of leguminous grains there are various species cultivated and used by +the Asiatics, as the _Phaseolus Mungo_, _P. Max_ and _P. radiatus_, +which contain much alimentary matter; the earth-nut (_Arachis +hypogaea_), which buries its pods under ground after flowering. + +The gram (_Cicer arictinum_) which is mentioned by Dr. Christie +("Madras Journal of Science," No. 13) as exuding oxalic acid from all +parts of the plant. It is used by the ryots in their curries instead +of vinegar. It is the chick pea of England, and _chenna_ of Hindostan. + +Among the most commonly cultivated leguminous plants are the lentil +(_Ervum lens_), horse gram (_Dolichos biflorus_, Linn), various +species of _Cytisus_ and _Cajanus_, &c. Many of these are grown in +India as fodder plants; others for their seeds, known as gram, dholl, +&c. The _Cajanus flavus_, of Decandolle (_Cytisus Cajan_), is very +generally cultivated along the Western coast of Africa, and continues +to bear for three years. Several species of dolichos are used as food +in various countries, as _D. ensiformus_ in Jamaica, _D. tuberosus_ in +Martinique, _D. bulbosus_ and _D. lignosus_ in the East Indies. + +The vessels of the North bring to Shanghae a great quantity of a dry +paste, known under the name of tanping, the residuum or husk of a +leguminous plant called Teuss, from which the Chinese extract oil, and +which is used, after being pressed, as manure for the ground. Captain +H. Biggs, in a communication to the Agri.-Hort. Soc. of India, in +1845, states that of the esculents a large white pea forms the staple +of the trade of Shanghae, or nearly so, to the astonishing amount of +two and a-half millions sterling. This he gives on the authority of +the Rev. Mr. Medhurst, of Shanghae, and Mr. Thorns, British Consul at +Ningpo. These peas are ground in a mill and then pressed, in a +somewhat complicated, though, as usual in China, a most efficient +press, by means of wedges driven under the outer parts of the +framework with mallets. The oil is used both for eating and burning, +more for the latter purpose, however, and the cake, like large +Gloucester cheese, or small grindstones in circular shape, is +distributed about China in every direction, both as food for pigs and +buffaloes, as also for manure. + +We import on the average about 20,000 quarters of beans, peas, &c., +from Ireland, 450,000 quarters of beans and 200,000 quarters of peas +from foreign countries. + +The land under cultivation with pulse, and the crops raised, have been +estimated as follows:-- + + Acres. Quarters. + England 500,000 1,875,000 + Ireland 130,000 540,000 + Scotland 50,000 150,000 + ------- --------- + 680,000 2,565,000 + +This is of course exclusive of garden cultivation. The average produce +of beans per acre in England is 33/4 quarters, 31/2 in Ireland, and three +in Scotland. + +The price of beans per quarter in the last ten years has ranged from +39s. to 27s. the quarter; peas from 40s. 6d. to 27s. 6d. + +_Algaroba beans_.--The seed pods or bean of the carob-tree (_Ceratonia +siliqua_, or _Prosopis pallida_?) a tree common in the Levant and +South of Europe, are used as food. The pods contain a large proportion +of sweet fecula, and are frequently used by singers, being considered +to improve the voice. The name of St. John's Head has been applied to +them, from the supposition that they were the wild honey spoken of in +Scripture as the food of John the Baptist. About 40,000 quintals of +these carobs are annually exported from Crete. During the Peninsular +war, the horses of our cavalry were principally fed upon these +algaroba seeds. The pods of the West India locust tree, _Hymenaea +courbaril_, also supply a nutritious matter. + +That well known sauce, Soy, is made in some parts of the East, from a +species of the Dolichos bean (_Soja hispida_), which grows in China +and Japan. In Java it is procured from the _Phaseolus radiatus_. The +beans are boiled soft, with wheat or barley of equal quantities, and +left for three months to ferment; salt and water are then added, when +the liquor is pressed and strained. Good soy is agreeable when a few +years old; the Japan soy is superior to the Chinese. Large quantities +are shipped for England and America. The Dolichos bean is much +cultivated in Japan, where various culinary articles are prepared from +it; but the principal are a sort of butter, termed _mico_, and a +pickle called _sooja_. + +1,108 piculs of soy were shipped from Canton in 1844, for London, +British India, and Singapore. 100 jars, or about 50 gallons of soy, +were received at Liverpool in 1850. The price is about 6s. per gallon +in the London market. + + +THE SAGO PALMS, BREAD-FRUIT, &c. + +Sago, and starchy matter allied to it, is obtained from many palms. It +is contained in the cellular tissue of the stem, and is separated by +bruising and elutriation. From the soft stem of _Cycas circinalis_, a +kind of sago is produced in the East and West Indies. The finest is, +however, procured from the stems of _Sagus laevis_ (_S. inermis_, of +Roxburgh), a native of Borneo and Sumatra; and _Arenga saccharifera_, +or _Gomutus saccharifus_, of Rumphius. The _Saguerus Rumphii_, or +_Metroxylon Sagus_, which is found in the Eastern Islands of the +Indian Ocean, yields a feculent matter. After the starchy substance is +washed out of the stems of these palms, it is then granulated so as to +form sago. The last-mentioned palm also furnishes a large supply of +sugar. Sago as well as sugar, and a kind of palm wine, are procured +from _Caryota urens_. + +In China sago is obtained from _Rhapis flabelliformis_, a dwarfish +palm; and some sago is made from it for native use in Travancore, +Mysore, and Wynaad, and the jungles in the East Indies. + +The trunk of the sago palm is five or six feet round, and it grows to +the height of about 20 feet. It can only be propagated by seed. It +flourishes best in bogs and swampy marshes; a good plantation being +often a bog, knee deep. The pith producing the sago is seldom of use +till the tree is fourteen or fifteen years old; and the tree does not +live longer than thirty years. Mr. Crawfurd says there are four +varieties of this palm; the cultivated, the wild, one distinguished by +long spines on the branches, and a fourth destitute of these spines, +and called by the natives female sago. This and the cultivated species +afford the best farina; the spiny variety, which has a slender trunk, +and the wild tree, yield but an inferior quality of sago. The +farinaceous matter afforded by each plant is very considerable, 500 +lbs. being a frequent quantity, while 300 lbs. may be taken as the +common average produce of each tree. + +Supposing the plants set at a distance of ten feet apart, an acre +would contain 435 trees, which, on coming to maturity in fifteen +years, would yield at the before-mentioned rate 120,500 lbs. annually +of farinaceous matter. The sago meal, in its raw state, will keep good +about a month. The Malays and natives of the Eastern Islands, with +whom it forms the chief article of sustenance, partially bake it in +earthenware moulds into small hard cakes, which will keep for a +considerable time. In Java the word "saga" signifies bread. The sago +palm (_Metroxylon Sagus_) is one of the smallest of its tribe, seldom +reaching to more than 30 feet in height, and grows only in a region +extending west to Celebes and Borneo, north to Mindanao, south to +Timor, and east to Papua. Ceram is its chief seat, and there large +forests of it are found. The edible farina is the central pith, which +varies considerably in different trees, and as to the time required +for its attaining proper maturity. It is eaten by the natives in the +form of pottage. A farina of an inferior kind is supplied by the +Gomuti palm (_Borassus gomutus_), another tree peculiar to the Eastern +Archipelago growing in the valleys of hilly tracts. + +At so great a distance it is difficult to decide as to which of these +trees really produce the ordinary sagos of commerce, for there are +several kinds. Planche, in an excellent memoir on the sagos, has +described six species, which he distinguishes by the names of the +places from which they come. Preferring to classify them according to +their characters, M. Mayet distinguishes only three species. + +The first he denominates Ancient sago, which comes from different +parts, and varies much in color. It comprehends--1st, Maldivian sago +of Planche, in spherical globules, of two or three millimetres in +diameter, translucid, of an unequal pinkish white color, very hard and +insipid. 2nd, New Guinea sago, of Planche, in rather smaller globules, +of a bright red color on one side, and white on the other. 3rd. Grey +sago of the Moluccas or brown sago of the English; of unequal +globules, from one to three millimetres in diameter, opaque, of a dull +grey color on one side, and whitish on the other. This grey color +probably arises from long keeping and humidity. 4th. Large grey sago +of the Moluccas, exactly resembling No. 3, only that the globules are +from four to eight millimetres in diameter. 5th. Fine white sago of +the Moluccas; entirely resembling No. 3, only that it is purely white, +owing to the complete edulcoration of the fecula of which it is made. + +Whatever may be the places of origin of these sagos, they all possess +the following characters-- + +Rounded globules, generally spherical, all isolated, very hard, +elastic, and difficult to break or powder. The globules put into +water, generally swell to twice their original size, but do not adhere +together. + +_Second sage_.--This species corresponds with the pinkish sago of the +Moluccas of Planche. It is in very small globules, less regular than +those of the "first sago," and sometimes stuck together to the number +of two or three. Soaked in water, it swells to double its volume. + +Third Species.--_Tapioca sago_.---This name has been applied to a +species of sago now abundant in commerce, because it bears the same +relation to the ancient or first sago, and even to the preceding sago, +that tapioca bears to "Moussache," which is the fecula of the manioc, +_Janipha manihot (Manihot utilissima_). + +Whilst the two preceding species of sago, whatever may have been +stated to the contrary, have been neither baked nor submitted to any +heating process, as is proved by the perfect state of nearly all their +grains of fecula, this species has been subjected to the action of +heat while in a state of a moist paste. This sago is not in spherical +globules, like the two preceding species, or at least there are but +few of the globules of that form; it is rather in the form of very +small irregular tubercular masses, formed by the adherence of +different numbers of the primary globules. The facility with which +this sago swells and is divided by water, has occasioned it to be +preferred as an article of food to the ancient sago. It has been +described by Planche under the name of the white sago of the Moluccas, +and by Dr. Pereira under the name of pearl sago. + +Bennet, in his work on "Ceylon and its Capabilities," (1843), states +that sago is procured from the granulated pith of the talipot palm, +_Corypha umbraculifera_. + +The _Sagus Rumphii_, Willdenow, and _S. farinifera_, Gaertner.--Before +maturity, and previous to the formation of the fruit, the stem +consists of a thin hard wall, about two inches thick, and of an +enormous volume of tissue (commonly termed the _medulla_ or _pith_), +from which the farina or sago is obtained. As the fruit forms, the +farinaceous medulla disappears, and when the tree, attains full +maturity, the stem is no more than a hollow shell. Sago occurs in +commerce in two states, pulverulent and granulated. 1. The meal or +flour as imported in the form of a fine amylaceous powder. It is +whitish, with a buffy or reddish tint. Its odor is faint, but somewhat +unpleasant and musty. 2. Granulated sago is of two kinds, pearl and +common brown. The former occurs in small hard grains, not exceeding in +size that of a pin's head, inodorous, and having little taste. They +have a brownish or pinkish yellow tint, and are somewhat translucent. +By the aid of a solution of chloride of lime they can be bleached, and +rendered perfectly white. The dealers, it is said, pay L7 per ton for +bleaching it. Common sago occurs in larger grains, about the size of +pearl barley, which are brownish white. + +Sago is an article of exportation to Europe, and is also shipped to +India, principally Bengal, and to China. It is in its granulated form +that it is usually sent abroad. The best sago is the produce of Siak, +on the north coast of Sumatra. This is of a light brown color, the +grains large, and not easily broken. The sago of Borneo is the next in +value; it is whiter, but more friable. The produce of the Moluccas, +though greatest in quantity, is of the smallest estimation. The cost +of granulated sago, from the hands of the grower or producer, was, +according to Mr. Crawfurd, only a dollar a picul. It fetches in the +London market--common pearl, 20s. to 26s. the cwt., sago flour, 20s. +the cwt. The Chinese of Malacca and Singapore have invented a process +by which they refine sago, so as to give it a fine pearly lustre, and +it is from thence we now principally derive our supplies of this +article. The exports from Singapore in 1847 exceeded 61/2 million +pounds, but are now much larger. + +The following is a description of the manufacture of this important +article of commerce:--The tree being cut down, the exterior bark is +removed, and the heart, or pith of the palm, a soft, white, spongy and +mealy substance is gathered; and for the purpose of distant +transportation, it is put into conical bags, made of plantain leaves, +and neatly tied up. In that state it is called by the Malays _Sangoo +tampin_, or bundles of sago; each bundle weighs about 30 lbs. + +On its arrival at Singapore it is purchased by the Chinese +manufacturers of sago, and is thus treated:--Upon being carried to the +manufactory, the plantain-leaf covering is removed, and the raw sago, +imparting a strong acid odor, is bruised, and is put into large tubs +of cold spring water, where it undergoes a process of purification by +being stirred, suffered to repose, and again re-stirred in +newly-introduced water. When well purified thus, it is taken out of +the tubs by means of small vessels; and being mixed with a great deal +of water, the liquid is gently poured upon a large and slightly +inclined trough, about ten inches in height and width; and in the +descent towards the depressed end, the sago is deposited in the bottom +of the trough, whilst the water flows into another large tub, where +what may remain of sago is finally deposited. As the strata of +deposited sago increases in the trough, small pieces of slates are +adjusted to its lower end to prevent the escape of the substance. When +by this pouring process the trough becomes quite full of sago, it is +then removed to make room for a fresh one, whilst the former one is +put out into the air, under cover, for a short time; and on its being +well dried, the sago within is cut into square pieces and taken out to +be thoroughly dried, under cover, to protect it from the sun. It has +then lost the acid smell already noticed, and has become quite white. +After one day's drying thus, it is taken into what may be called the +manufactory, a long shed, open in front and on one side, and closed at +the other and in the rear. Here the lumps of sago are broken up, and +are reduced into an impalpable flour, which is passed through a sieve. +The lumps, which are retained by the sieve are put back to be +re-bruised, whilst that portion which has passed is collected, and is +placed in a long cloth bag, the gathered ends of which, like those of +a hammock, are attached to a pole, which pole being suspended to a +beam of the building by a rope, one end of it is sharply thrown +forward with a particular jerk, by means of which the sago within is +shortly granulated very fine, and becomes what is technically termed +"pearled." It is then taken out and put into iron vessels, called +_quallies_, for the purpose of being dried. These quallies are small +elliptical pans, and resemble in form the sugar coppers of the West +Indies, and would each hold about five gallons of fluid. They are set +a little inclining, and in a range, over a line of furnaces, each one +having its own fire. Before putting in the sago to be dried, a cloth, +which contains a small quantity of hog's-lard, or some oily substance, +is hastily passed into the qually, and the sago is equally quickly put +into it, and a Chinese laborer who attends it, commences stirring it +with a _pallit_, and thus continues his labor during the few minutes +necessary to expel the moisture contained in the substance. Thus each +qually, containing about ten pounds of sago, requires the attendance +of a man. The sago, on being taken off the fire, is spread out to cool +on large tables, after which it is fit to be packed in boxes, or put +into bags for shipment; and is known in commerce under the name of +"pearl sago." Thus the labor of fifteen or twenty men is required to +do that which, with the aid of simple machinery, might be done much +better by three or four laborers. A water-wheel would both work a +stirring machine and cause an inclined cylinder to revolve over a +fire, for the purpose of drying the sago, in the manner used for corn, +meal, and flour in America, or for roasting coffee and chicory in +England. But the Chinese have no idea of substituting artificial +means, when manual ones are obtainable. + +A considerable quantity of sago is exported from Singapore in the +state of flour. The whole quantity made and exported there exceeds, on +the average, 2,500 tons annually. The quantity shipped from this +entrepot is shown by the annexed returns, nearly all of which was +grown and manufactured in the settlement. The estimated value for +export is set down at 14s. per picul of 11/4 cwt. + + EXPORTS FROM SINGAPORE. + Piculs + 1840-41 Pearl sago 41,146 + " Sago flour 33,552 + 1841-42 Pearl sago 46,225 + " Sago flour 7,447 + 1842-43 Pearl sago 25,306 + " Sago flour 4,838 + 1843-44 Pearl sago 14,266 + " Sago flour 14,067 + 1844-45 Pearl sago 18,472 + " Sago flour 36,141 + 1845-46 Pearl sago 19,333 + " Sago flour 26,925 + 1846-47 Pearl sago 40,765 + " Sago flour 9,025 + +Imports of sago into the United Kingdom, and quantity retained for +home consumption:-- + + Imports. Home consumption. + Cwts. Cwts. + 1826 9,644 2,565 + 1830 2,677 3,385 + 1834 25,763 13,827 + 1838 18,627 28,396 + 1842 45,646 50,994 + 1846 38,595 45,671 + 1848 65,000 + 1849 83,711 72,741 + 1850 89,884 83,954 + + +THE BREAD-FRUIT TREE. + +_Artocarpus incisa_.--This tree is less cultivated than would be +supposed from its useful properties. In the West Indies and the Indian +Islands, where it has been introduced from its native place, the South +Sea Islands, it is held in very little consideration, the graminea, +tuberous roots, and farinaceous plants being more easily and readily +cultivated. There are two or three varieties known in the Asiatic +regions. The properties of this tree are thus enumerated by +Hooker:--The fruit serves for food; clothes are made from the fibres +of the inner bark; the wood is used for building houses and making +boats; the male catkins are employed as tinder; the leaves for table +cloths and for wrapping provisions in; and the viscid milky juice +affords birdlime. + +_A. integrifolia_is the Jack or Jacca, the fruit of which attains a +large size, sometimes weighing 30 lbs., but is inferior in quality to +the bread-fruit. + +The nuts or fruit of _Brosimum Alicastrum_, an evergreen shrub, native +of Jamaica, are nutritious and agreeable articles of food. When boiled +with salt fish, pork or beef, they have frequently been the support of +the negroes and poorer sorts of white people in times of scarcity, and +proved a wholesome and not unpleasant food; when roasted it eats +something like our common chesnut, and is called bread-nut. + +_Kafir Bread_.--According to Thunberg, the Hottentots being very +little acquainted with agriculture, or with the use of the cerealia, +and subsisting principally upon wild bulbs and fruits, obtain food +also from _Encephalartos caffer_, a species of _Zamia_, with a +cylindrical trunk, the thickness of a man's body, and about seven feet +high. Having cut down a tree, they took out the pith, that nearly +fills its trunk, and which abounds in mucilage and an amylaceous +fluid; after keeping this for some time buried under ground in the +skin of an animal, they reduced it by pounding and kneading into a +kind of paste; and then baked it in hot ashes, in the form of round +cakes, nearly an inch thick. The Dutch colonists, in consequence of +this practice of the natives, called the plant brood-boon, which +signifies literally bread tree. + +THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. + +The several varieties of the edible plantain which are known and +cultivated throughout the West Indies, Africa, and in the East are all +reducible to two classes, viz., the Plantain and the Banana (_Musa +Paradisiaca_and _sapientum_). The difference between these two plants +is even so slight as to be scarcely specific; it is therefore most +probable that there was originally but one stock, from which they +have, by cultivation and change of locality, been derived. + +The tiger plantain (_M. maculata_) and the black ditto (_M. +sylvestris_) are cultivated in Jamaica. The whole of the species and +varieties of the tribe are what are called polygamous monoecious +plants, each individual tree bearing the male and female organs of +reproduction. + +The plantain and its varieties invariably bear male, female and +hermaphrodite flowers within the same spathe, all of them being +imperfect and consequently unproductive of seed. An individual may, +even from excess of culture, moisture, &c., be entirely incapable of +flowering. During the prevalence of a disease or blight among the +plantain walks of Demerara in the years 1844 and 1845, it was +seriously proposed to introduce male plantains, or obtain fresh stock +by seed. + +It is, therefore, necessary to determine with exactness, if possible, +whether the Plantain or Banana, (whichever be the parent stock) exists +anywhere at present, or has been known to have existed as a perfect +plant, that is bearing fertile seeds; or, whether it has always +existed in the imperfect state, that is, incapable of being procreated +by seed, the only state in which it at present exists in our colonies. + +Whether Linnaeus be right in his conjecture (Spec. Plant, 1763) that +the "Bihai" (_Heliconia humilis_), a native of Caraccas, which +produces fertile seeds, is the stock plant of the plantain, it is +almost impossible to ascertain; but the absence of any description of +a wild seed-bearing plantain, renders it highly probable that the +cultivated species are hybrids produced long ago. The banana, from +time immemorial, has been the food of the philosophers and sages of +the East, and almost all travellers throughout the tropics have +described these plants exactly as they are known to us, either as +sweet fruit eaten raw, or a farinaceous vegetable roasted or boiled. +It is remarkable that the plantain and banana should be indigenous, or +at all events cultivated for ages both in the Old and New World. +Numerous South American travellers describe some one of these plants +as being indigenous articles of food among the natives, thus showing +(if the plantain and its varieties be hybrids) a communication between +the tropics of America, Asia and Africa, long before the time of +Columbus. The older writers on the colony of Guiana, as Hartsinck, +Bellin and others, consider the plantain to be a native. It is +remarkable that Sir R. Schomburgk, during his travels, found a large +species of edible plantain far in the interior. It appears, therefore, +from all the investigations that have been made, that the plantain is +either a hybrid, or its power of production from seed has been +destroyed long ago by cultivation, and that it is not known to exist +anywhere in a perfect state; in which case any attempt to improve the +present stock by the introduction of suckers from elsewhere, must be +totally futile. Mr. A. Garnett recommends the following system of +cultivation, as calculated to prevent the blight. The walk or +plantation is to be formed into beds 36 feet wide, divided by open +drains 30 inches deep. Two rows of plantains to be planted upon each +bed at 18 feet distance, both between and along the rows, to afford a +clear ventilation to the enlarging plants, and so soon as the +plantation has been established, the space of land between each row to +be shovel-ploughed 12 inches deep; the same to be repeated annually, +and upon the interspace may be planted maize, yams, sugar cane, or +eddoes, and the whole kept clear at all times. Thus, with the +conjoined principles of good tillage, free ventilation, and mixed +crops, the blight may yet be successfully combated. + +A great diminution in the cultivation of the plantain has been +occasioned in British Guiana by this blight or disease, which first +made its destructive appearance in Essequibo, upwards of thirty years +ago, where its ravages increased with such fatal intensity as to +render the profitable growth of the plant almost hopeless; and up to +this hour no one has been able to discover the immediate or remote +cause of this extraordinary vegetable endemic; whether arising from +the action of insects among the sheathes of the petioles of the +leaves, or in the soil, or from organic decay of the plant, remains +without solution. The last-named cause seems to be rejected, by the +fact that the fructification of the plant is as healthy and abundant +in parts of the colony where the blight does not prevail, both in +number and size of the fruit upon the spike, as at any former period. +On the east coast of Demerara, both the plantain and banana have been +grown for more than twenty years upon the same land, without any +attack of the disease, and without any extraneous manure or even lime +having been applied, and the plants still exhibit great luxuriance, +and produce their former weight of fruit. + +The foliage of the plantain affords food and bedding, and is used for +thatch, making paper, and basket making; and from its petioles is +obtained a fine and durable thread. The tops of the young plants are +eaten as a delicate vegetable; the fermented juice of the trunk +produces an agreeable wine. + +The abundance and excellence of the nutritive food which the plants of +this valuable genus supply are well known; but of the numerous uses to +which they are applied I may mention, the following:-- + +The fruit is served up both raw and stewed; slices fried are also +considered a delicacy. Plantains are sometimes boiled and eaten with +salt meat, and pounded and made into puddings, and used in various +other ways. In their ripe state these fruits contain much starchy +matter. From their spurious stems, the fibres of the spiral vessels +may be pulled out in such quantity as to be used for tinder. _M. +textilis_ yields a fibre which is used in India in the manufacture of +fine muslins, and the coarser woody tissue is exported in large +quantities from Manila, under the name of white rope or Manila hemp. +Horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals are fed upon the +fruit, leaves, and succulent trunks. + +The same extent of ground which in wheat would only maintain two +persons, will yield sustenance under the banana to fifty. That eminent +naturalist and elegant writer, the Baron Von Humboldt, states +("Political Essay on New Spain," vol. ii.) that an acre of land +cultivated with plantains produces nearly twenty times as much food as +the like space sown with corn in Europe. He refers to a place in +Venezuela, where the most careful tillage was rendered to a piece of +land, yielding produce supporting a humble population residing in +huts, each placed in the centre of an enclosure, growing the sugar +cane, Indian corn, the Papaw tree, and the Musa--a tropical +garden!--upon the elaborate culture of which a whole family relied for +subsistence. + +Although from the extensive plantain walks in our colonies--which are +seldom cultivated with a garden-like care--so large an average +proportion may not be obtained as twenty times the production of wheat +in Europe, yet I have had practical experience of the prodigious +quantity of farinaceous matter obtainable from an acre of tolerably +well-cultivated plantains, and no esculent plant requires less labor +in its culture upon land suitable for its production. They are readily +increased by suckers, which the old plants produce in abundance. + +Lindley enumerates ten species of Musa, some of which grow to the +height of 25 or 30 feet, but that valuable species _M. Cavendishii_, +does not grow more than four or five feet high. + +The bananas of the family of the Musaceae, appear to be natives of the +southern portion of the Asiatic continent (R. Brown, "Bot. of Congo," +p. 51). Transplanted at an unknown epoch into the Indian Archipelago +and Africa, they have spread also into the, New World, and in general +into all intertropical countries, sometimes before the arrival of +Europeans. + +According to Humboldt it affords, in a given extent of ground, +forty-four times more nutritive matter than the potato, and 133 times +more than wheat. These figures must be considered as only +approximative, since nothing is more difficult than to estimate the +nutritive qualities of different aliments. + +_Musa paradisiaca_ is cultivated in Syria, to latitude 34 deg. +Humboldt says it ceases to yield fruit at a height of 3,000 feet, +where the mean annual temperature is 68 deg., and where, probably, the +heat of summer is deficient. + +The banana seems, however, to be found no higher than 4,600 feet in a +state of perfection. + +No fruit is so easily cultivated as are the varieties of the plantain. +There is hardly a cottage in the tropics that is not partly shaded by +them; and it is successfully grown under other fruit trees, although +it is independent of shelter. Its succulent roots and dew-attracting +leaves render it useful in keeping the ground moist during the +greatest heats. The plantain may be deemed the most valuable of +fruits, since it will, in some measure, supply the place of grain in +time of scarcity. To the negroes in the West Indian Islands the +plantain is invaluable, and, like bread to the Europeans, is with them +denominated the staff of life. In Jamaica, Demerara, Trinidad, and +other principal colonies, many thousand acres are planted with these +trees. + +The vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line of thread be +drawn across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when +it begins to expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to +have grown nearly an inch. The fruit when ripe is of a pale yellow, +about a foot in length and two inches thick, and is produced in +bunches so large as each to weigh 40 lbs. and upwards. + +The soil best suited to the growth of the plantain is found in the +virgin land most recently taken in from the forest, having a formation +of clay and decomposed vegetable substances. A large portion of +organic matter is required, as well as clay or other ponderous strata, +to afford the greatest production of fruit. I have known good +plantains produced in the West Indies, upon land considerably +exhausted by the culture of cotton, but which was enriched by the +application of a quantity of the decomposed seed of that shrub near +the roots of the young plantains. + +In the Straits' settlements of the East, the following are the most +approved varieties:--The royal plantain, which fruits in eight months; +one which bears in a year, the milk plantain, the downy plantain, and +the golden plantain or banana. A species termed _gindy_ has been +lately imported from Madras, where it is in great request. It has this +advantage over the other kinds, that it can be stewed down like an +apple while they remain tough. + +The Malays allege that they can produce new varieties, by planting +three shoots of different sorts together, and by cutting the shoots +down to the ground three successive times, when they have reached the +height of nine or ten inches. + +About 144 suckers of the plantain are set on an orlong (1-1/3 acres), +each of which spreads into a group of six or eight stems, of about six +inches to one foot in diameter, which yield each a bunch of fruit, and +are then cut down, when fresh shoots succeed. In very rich soils the +plant will continue to bear for twenty years, but otherwise it is dug +up after the seventh or eighth year. The cost of cultivating 100 +orlongs of land exclusively with plantains, will be nearly 2,000 +Spanish dollars until produce be obtained. About 43,200 bunches may be +had afterwards yearly, which might give a return of 2,160 dollars, or, +deducting the cost of cultivation and original expenses, a profit per +annum of 1,450 dollars. + +The plantain has frequently been suggested as an article of export +from our colonies. A few bunches are occasionally brought over by the +Royal West India Mail Company's steamers running to Southampton, but +more as a curiosity than as articles of commerce. + +In its ripe state no unexceptionable and sufficiently cheap method of +preserving it has yet been suggested. + +In some districts of Mexico it is, indeed, dried in the sun, and in +this state forms a considerable article of internal commerce under the +name of "plantado pasado." + +It is sometimes so abundant and cheap in Demerara, Jamaica, Trinidad, +and other of our colonies, that it might, if cut and dried, in its +green state, be exported with advantage. + +It is in the unripe state that it is so largely used by the peasantry +of the colonies as an article of food. It has always been believed to +be highly nutritive, but Dr. Shier states that, in any sample of the +dried plantain which he analysed, he could not find a larger amount +than 88 per cent of nitrogen, which corresponds with about 51/2 per +cent. of proteine compounds. + +When dried, and reduced to the state of meal, it cannot, like wheat +flour, be manufactured into maccaroni or vermicelli, or at least the +maccaroni made from it falls to powder when put into hot water. The +fresh plantain, however, when boiled whole, forms a pretty dense firm +mass, of greater consistency and toughness than the potato. The mass, +beaten in a mortar, constitutes the _foo-foo_ of the negroes. The +plantain meal cannot be got into this state unless by mixing it up +with water to form a stiff dough, and then boiling it in shapes or +bound in cloths. + +Plantain meal is prepared by stripping off the husk of the plantain, +slicing the core, and drying it the sun. When thoroughly dry it is +powdered and sifted. It is known among the Creoles of the West Indies +under the name of _Conquin tay_. It has a fragrant odour, acquired in +drying, somewhat resembling fresh hay or tea. It is largely employed +as the food of infants, children, and invalids. As food for children +and convalescents, it would probably be much esteemed in Europe, and +it deserves a trial on account of its fragrance, and its being +exceedingly easy of digestion. In respect of nutritiveness, it +deserves a preference over all the pure starches on account of the +proteine compounds it contains. + +The plantain meal would probably be best and freshest were the sliced +and dried plantain cores exported, leaving the grinding and sifting to +be done in Europe. The flavor of the meal depends a good deal on the +rapidity with which the slices are dried; hence the operation is only +fitted for dry weather, unless indeed, when there was occasion for it, +resource were had to a kiln or stove. Above all, the plantain must not +be allowed to approach too closely to yellowness or ripeness, +otherwise it becomes impossible to dry it. The color of the meal is +injured when steel knives are used in husking or slicing, but silver +or nickel blades do not injure the color. On the large scale a +machine, on the principle of the turnip slicer, might be employed. The +husking could be greatly facilitated by a very simple machine. Were +the plantain meal to come into use in England, and bear a price in any +way approaching to that of Bermuda arrowroot, it would become an +extensive and very profitable export. Full-sized and well-filled +bunches give 60 per cent. of core to 40 of husk and top-stem, but in +general it would be found that the core did not much exceed 50 per +cent., and the fresh core will yield 40 per cent. of dry meal, so that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of meal is obtained from the plantain, or 5 +lbs. from an average bunch of 25 lbs.; and an acre of plantain walk of +average quality, producing during the year 450 such bunches, would +yield a ton and 10 lbs. of meal, which, at the price of arrowroot, +namely, 1s. per lb., would be a gross return of L112 10s. per acre. A +new plantain walk would give twice as much. Even supposing the meal +not to command over half the price of arrowroot, it would still form +an excellent outlet for plantains whenever, from any cause, the price +in the colony sank unusually low. + +In respect of the choice of a situation for establishing a plantain +walk, with a mill, boiling-house and drying ground, it will be +necessary to fix upon new land with plenty of moisture, and flat if +possible, in order that there may be no difficulty in making roads to +carry the trees; whilst a deep river traversing the land, where there +is no tide or danger of salt water--where facility would be afforded +in making the basins wherein to wash the fibre; where a sea port would +be near at hand for shipping the produce--where workmen, provisions, +and fuel would be readily obtained, and where the climate is +particularly healthy, should be especially sought after. + +The plantain grows in profusion between the tropics in all parts of +the world; but as it is an object to have the London market available +for the prepared fibre, the following places may be mentioned as best +calculated to produce a good and constant supply, viz:--the West India +Colonies, the British Colonies in Africa, the South American +Republics, along the Mosquito shore, and other places on the Continent +of America, including Porto Rico, Hayti, and Cuba. The advantages to +the paper manufacturer in employing the prepared fibre instead of +rags, will be numerous, for the fibre is equal in texture, clean, and +aromatic; whilst rags are dirty, full of vermin, and very often +pestilential. + +A large stock of the plantain can always be secured, without fear of +its being injured by keeping. The paper will be superior to that made +of rags, and the process of making it will be more economical, +inasmuch as the _sorting_ of the material will not be required. +Another advantage is, that a new article of commerce will be opened +for the benefit of the colonial shipping interests, and a stimulus +will be given to the cultivation of a fruit which is the favorite food +of large masses of the population. + +The following is a "specification" of articles requisite for making +three tons of prepared fibre in a day:-- + +Four wooden boilers lined with lead, in the form of coolers, 7 feet +deep by 6 in diameter. One hydraulic press, from 400 to 500 tons. One +stout screw press, to compress the fibre before it is submitted to the +hydraulic press. One iron mill with horizontal cylinders. Six waggons; +twenty mules. Utensils, such as spatulas, cutlasses, hoes, rakes, &c. +&c. One lever, to take out the fibre from the boilers. One steam +boiler, equal to 12-horse power, to steam the four wooden boilers. + +It being very desirable that the works should be in the immediate +neighbourhood of a river, the machinery should be worked by +water-power; but if this mode should be inconvenient, a steam engine +in addition must be obtained, of about 8 or 10-horse power; or if one +steam engine of 20-horse power were employed, it would be sufficient +for all purposes. Thirty men are required to make three tons of fibre +in a day. + +_Buildings_.--A store, 100 feet long by 25 feet broad, in wood, +covered with straw, to contain the dried fibre and the presses. One +open shed of the same dimensions, covered with straw for the boilers. + +_Capital required_.--It is ascertained that the following outlay will +be sufficient:-- + + The materials will cost L2,000 + Buildings 500 + Purchase of land 1,500 + Working capital 1,000 + ------ + L5,000 + +The estimated expense in cultivating one quarree, or 5 1-5th English +acres, in plantains, will be L30, as the work can be easily performed +by one laborer in 300 days, at 2s. sterling per day. + +A quarree will produce 18 tons of mill fibre, the cost of the +preparation of which is as follows:-- + + For workmen's wages, soda, lime, and fuel, at L3 per ton L54 + Freight to Europe at L4 per ton 72 + Managers 30 + Duty, insurance, office fees, &c., at L1 per ton 18 + ---- + L174 + +Thus, making the total expense of producing 18 tons of fibre L174, or +L9 13s. 4d. per ton. In 1848 Manila rope, or plantain fibre of good +quality, was worth L38 per ton. + +A correspondent in Jamaica, who has devoted much attention to the +subject, has furnished me with some very valuable detailed +information, the most complete and practical that has ever yet +appeared:-- + + _Cultivation_.--The first care of a planter in superintending the + cultivation of the banana tree, with the two-fold object of + collecting both fibre and fruit, will be to study the nature of the + tree to which he will give the preference. A number of experiments + have been made upon different species of the banana with a view of + obtaining therefrom the largest quantity and the best color of + fibre, as well as the finest fruit. Those experiments were very + tedious and minute, but were absolutely necessary, in order to + arrive at the most economical and advantageous method of rendering + the fibre into a state fit for shipment to Europe. At the same time, + it was of the utmost importance to find out the best description of + tree, for producing the strongest, the most abundant, and the most + silky fibre--for containing the least quantity of juice, for + producing the color sufficiently white to facilitate the operation + of bleaching, for bearing fruit of the most esteemed quality, and, + therefore, the most favorable for general consumption. + + A banana tree, which seemed at first sight to possess all those good + qualities--being of a large size, with whitish or flaxen colored + fibre, and producing very savoury fruit, only gave 2 per cent, of + fibre after preparation; that is to say, 100 lbs. in its raw state, + only gave two pounds of fibre after it was boiled. In endeavoring to + find out the cause of such a small result, it was discovered that + this specimen of banana (commonly called the "pig banana,") + contained a larger proportion of water than of fibre, compared with + other sorts--that the heart was too large, and that the inside + leaves were so tender that they almost dissolved in the process of + boiling. These were the greatest inconveniences of this species of + tree. There was also another disadvantage, in the quality of its + fruit, which was yellow in color, and not so useful as those + descriptions of banana which are generally eaten as a substitute for + bread. The results of several experiments made upon various + descriptions of banana, demonstrated the properties of each species, + both as regarded fibre and fruit. The most profitable in both + respects is undoubtedly the yellow banana, or common plantain. This + tree grows to the height of about fifteen feet, it is nine or ten + inches in diameter, its fibre is firm and abundant, and its fruit is + used both in a green and ripe state. This plantain abounds on the + continent of Spanish America and between the tropics, where the + natives cultivate it as producing the most nutricious fruit of its + kind. Cargoes of the fruit are frequently exported from Surinam and + Demerara. On the Spanish part of the American continent, land is + measured by _fanegas_, each fanega containing twelve _quarrees_, and + each quarree five and one-fifth English acres. A quarree measures + one hundred geometrical paces, or three hundred square feet. + + In the first instance, the suckers of the plantain (the tree being + propagated by cuttings or suckers which shoot up from the bulb), + should be set at ten feet distance from each other; this proposition + gives 300 plants on one line of trees, or 900 on the surface of one + quarree of land. Each plant propagates itself and gives upon an + average ten trees of the same size and bearing. On one quarree of + land, therefore there would be 9,000 trees, yielding four pounds of + fibre and one bunch of fruit each, which is 9,000 bunches of fruit, + and 36,000 lbs. nett of fibre, in the whole. In good ground the same + plant will last fifteen years without any further trouble. Flat + lands ought to be cultivated in preference to any other. The + plantain thrives with the root in the water, and the head to the + sun. On the borders of the river Orinoco it grows to the height of + twenty feet, is one foot in diameter, and the stalks of the branches + are three inches in circumference. + + _Cutting_.--The tree which has not produced its ripe fruit ought to + be cut, for two reasons--first, that the fruit be not lost; and + secondly, that the tree will not have arrived at its full growth and + ordinary size, and the fibres will be too tender. In cutting it + down, take it off six inches above the surface of the ground, then + divide it longitudinally into four parts, take out the heart, which + must be left to serve for manure, and if fermentation is decided + upon, leave the pieces at the foot of the tree, otherwise take them + to the mill to be crushed. The tree being very tender, may, on being + bent down, be cut asunder with a single stroke of a hatchet, + cutlass, or other convenient instrument. One man can cut down 800 + trees, and split them in a day. + + _Carrying_.--The trees being thus divided, may be immediately + carried to the mill to be crushed, or may remain until the + fermentation separates the juice of sap from the fibres and the + pith. By fermenting the trees, their weight will be so much reduced + as to render their carriage considerably lighter than if taken away + when first cut down. A wagon, with oxen or mules, can carry about a + ton per day, and one man can load the wagon and drive the cattle. + + _Crushing_.--If the tree is carried from the plantation without + being subjected to fermentation, it must be passed through a mill, + the rollers of which, if made about three feet in length, and one + foot in diameter, will be found a very convenient size. In this + operation, care should be taken, first of all, to separate the + tender from the harder or riper layers of fibre. The tree is + composed of different layers of fibre, which may be divided into + three sorts; those of the exterior, having been exposed to the + atmosphere, possess a great degree of tenacity--whilst those of the + interior, having been secluded from the air, are much more soft and + tender. If, therefore, the layers of the plantain are passed + indiscriminately through the mill, those which are hard or firm will + not be injured by the pressure, whilst those which are soft will be + almost reduced to pulp. Therefore, the rollers of the mill should be + always placed horizontally, and upon passing the trees lengthways + through the mill, the pressure will be uniform and the fibre + uninjured. In this manner, pass the different sorts of layers + separately, and the produce will be about four pounds of fibre from + each tree. The stalks of the branches of the plantain give the best + fibre, and a large quantity, as compared with the body of the tree; + 100 lbs. of the stalk will give 15 lbs. nett of fibre. In general, + if a tree will give 4 lbs. nett of fibre, the stalks will give 1 lb. + out of the 4 lbs. The stalks ought also to be crushed separately, + because they are harder than the exterior layers of the tree. About + 3,000 trees may be passed through the mill in a day. Whilst the + experiments were in progress it was ascertained that with a single + horse, 100 plantain trees on an average were crushed in twenty + minutes, giving five minutes rest for the horse. + + _Fermentation_.--This operation may be performed in several ways. If + the trees are allowed to ferment upon the spot after being cut, a + great saving will occur in respect of _carriage_; this matter ought + to be carefully studied, because, on an extensive scale of + manufacture, it is of serious importance. It is found that the trees + when cut and heaped up, are subject to a drainage of juice, which, + having a tanning property, discolors those pieces which lie at the + bottom; hence much time is consumed in afterwards restoring the + fibre to its natural color. The cut plants should be removed from + the stumps of the trees, and then placed in heaps, shaded from the + sun by laying the leaves over them. They will take several weeks to + ferment. To pursue this process in the immediate vicinity of the + establishment, would give rise to many inconveniences, in + consequence of the very large space of ground that would thereby be + occupied. Fermentation requires a mean temperature. A tree cut down + and exposed to the sun, would be nearly dry at about 30 deg. + centigrade, showing a result quite different to that which ought to + be obtained; whilst a tree placed on a wet soil, and open for the + fresh air to circulate between the plants, covered at the same time + with its own leaves, and shaded by the foliage of the plantation, + would be decomposed at the desired point of about 22 degrees. The + different modes of fermentation require the same proportions. If the + cut plants be covered with a thick layer of earth, they will not + decompose in six _months_; but if, on the contrary, they are covered + slightly, so that they may receive the freshness of the earth, and + the heat of the air, they will decompose in six _weeks_. It is the + same with the fermentation of alkaline baths. Baths at only _one_ + degree will produce decomposition, whilst baths at _three_ degrees + will not produce any decomposition. The stuff after being passed + through the mill, or after fermentation, will be put into the + chemical baths, or vats, or chemical liquor, and the persons in + charge of the mill and boilers will do this work. Fermentation may + be advantageously used, in cases where the trees are grown at a + distance from the establishment--but, where they are in the + immediate vicinity of the works, it will be best to crush them by + the mill. The principal saving that is occasioned by fermentation, + will be found in the carriage, as the substance will be much reduced + in weight by that process. In an establishment where the manufacture + is carried on upon a very large scale, trees cut down at a distance + can be fermented, whilst those produced near the mill can be + crushed. + + _Chemical Agents._--For decomposing the gluten in the trees during + the process of boiling, soda, carbonate of soda, and quick lime, are + used. The proportions herein given, are those requisite for making + three tons of fibre per day, upon which scale the cost price of the + fibre in a prepared state for bleaching, is subsequently calculated. + To make three tons of fibre per day, it is necessary to have four + boilers of 800 gallons each, and give five boilings in a day, or + 1,650 lbs. of nett fibre for each boiler, or 6,600 lbs. for the four + boilers per day. After having put into the boiler a sufficient + quantity of water to cover the material, wait until the water begins + to boil, and then add the chemical agents. + + lbs. + To the first boiling of a copper, put of soda 60 + To the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th boilings of the same + copper, 15 lbs., each making 60 + ----- + 120 + ----- + Therefore the four boilings will take of soda 480 + The same liquid will serve for two other days, by + adding 15 lbs. to each fresh boiling, say, in the + whole, 40 lbs., or 600 + It will consume in soda for nine tons made in three + days 1,080 + Or 360 lbs. for three tons made in one day. + + On the fourth day commence again in the same manner, and go on for + the two remaining days as above, producing eighteen tons in the six + days. The quick lime is to be employed in each of the boilings, in + the proportion of one-third less than the quantity of soda. Crude + soda may be used in the boilings, without previously discarbonising + it, and quick lime reduced to lime water; but, to render the action + of the chemical ingredients more quick and certain, it is better to + discarbonise the soda before it is put into the boiler. This may be + done by preparing in a small separate boiler the quantity of liquid + necessary for a day's consumption, which is prepared in about an + hour. The carbonisation is effected in the following manner:-- + + Ten parts of salt of soda. } + Six parts of quick lime. } In weight. + Seventy parts of water (never less.) } + + _Boiling_.--This is a most important operation. By it the gluten and + coloring matter are separated from the fibres, which separation is + absolutely necessary, in order to prepare the fibre to receive the + bleaching. It is necessary to observe that the three several sorts + of layers which are found in the tree, and which, under the head of + "crushing," are recommended to be _pressed_ separately, should be + also _boiled_ separately, because the outermost layer has more + coloring matter than the next under it, which again has more than + the innermost layer. As they are boiled so will they be dried and + shipped, and each sort will have a different price in the market; + that fibre which is lightest in color bearing the preference, in + consequence of its not requiring more than _six_ hours to + bleach--whilst the darkest will, probably from its greater tenacity, + take _twelve_ to _eighteen_ hours. It is advisable to place over + each boiler the means of lifting the mass of fibre when boiled, and + suffering it to drain into the boiler before it is carried away to + be washed. This is easily effected by a chain from the roof, to + which may be hung a lever, having at that end over the boiler some + hooks attached to it, whereby the mass is lifted out of the boiler, + and the liquor thus preserved for the next boiling. + + _Washing_.--It is absolutely necessary that the fibre should be well + washed after being taken out of the boiler, in order that all + extraneous matter may be separated therefrom. In choosing the site + for an establishment of this kind, care must always be taken to make + choice of a spot in the immediate neighbourhood of a large river, or + other plentiful supply of fresh clean water. The machinery necessary + for cleansing and washing the fibre may be of various descriptions; + but, perhaps a selection from one of the three following sorts will + be found to answer every purpose, viz., those used by paper + manufacturers in England, and by coffee planters and arrowroot + growers in the West Indies. + + _Drying_.--The washed fibre, when hung over lines made of the + twisted fibre, or any other convenient material, will be + sufficiently dry in a few hours to be taken down, when more can be + hung up, and then several batches can be dried in a day; and it will + be necessary to have the drying ground as near the water as + possible, in order to save weight in carriage. + + _Pressing_.--When the fibre is perfectly dry, it must be well + pressed, for the convenience of packing, carriage, and shipment. The + hydraulic press is the best machine that can be used for the + purpose; but in the absence of that, the lever and screw will make a + large amount of pressure available. A hydraulic press of from 400 to + 500 tons, will press bales of from four to five hundred weight each, + which will not be too large for shipment." + + +STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS INVESTIGATED. + +Starch is one of the constituent parts in all mealy farinaceous seeds, +fruits, roots, and other parts of plants, and is in large demand for +domestic use, the arts, &c. Our common starch is made from wheat, and +a good deal from potatoes. Pure fecula is separated by art from a +variety of plants. + +Of plants yielding starch we have the Indian arrowroot, which is the +fecula in the rhizomata of several species of the Marantaceae. In the +West Indies it is obtained from the _Maranta arundinacea_, _Allomyca_ +and _nobilis_, and also from various species of _Canna_ called _Tous +les mois_, and in the East Indies from species of _Curcuma_, and from +_Maranta ramossissima_ in Silhet. + +The bread fruit (_Artocarpus incisa_), already alluded to, yields a +large quantity of starch; as do the sweet potato (_Convolvulus +Batatas_, or _Batatas edulis_). The pith or farinaceous part of the +trunk of the _Caryota urens_, is almost equal to the finest sago. In +Assam the sago of this palm is much used. + +The two varieties of the Cassava afford a very superior fecula, which +is imported under the name of Brazilian arrowroot. 8,354 bags of +tapioca and farina were imported from Maranham in 1834. Some excellent +starch from Norfolk Island was shown at the Great Exhibition. + +The Cycadaceous family yields much starchy matter, along with +mucilage. From the soft stems of _Cycas revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_, +natives of China and the East Indies, a kind of sago is made. These +plants are propagated by suckers. _Zamia pumila_, a native of the Cape +of Good Hope, and other species of this remarkable genus of plants, +which is nearly related to both ferns and palms, supply an amylaceous +matter, which has been sold as arrowroot. A similar product is +obtained from _Alstroemeria pallida_, a perennial plant, with pink red +flowers, growing in Chili. From the nuts of the _Cycas circinalis_, +the Singalese prepare an inferior kind of starch, by pounding the +fresh kernels. These are cut in slices, and well dried in the sun +before they are fit for use, otherwise when eaten they are +intoxicating, and occasion vomiting and purging. + +The quantity of starch in a plant varies according to the period of +growth. The results of examination on the comparative yield of starch +in the potato, showed that while it abounded towards the latter part +of the season, it decreased when the tubers began to germinate in the +spring. It was found by Professor Balfour that 240 lbs. of potatoes +left in the ground, contained of starch-- + + lbs. Per cent. + In August 23 to 25 or 9.6 to 10.4 + September 32 " 38 " 13.3 " 16 + October 32 " 40 " 13.3 " 16.6 + November 38 " 45 " 16 " 18.7 + April 38 " 28 " 16 " 11.6 + May 28 " 20 " 11.6 " 8.3 + +The quantity of starch remained the same during the dormant state of +winter, but decreased whenever the plant began to grow, and to require +a supply of nourishment. + +Mr. Harris, of Jamaica, some years ago, made experiments upon the +nutritious qualities of the principal roots and vegetables of the West +Indies. These being well washed and scraped, were grated, in each case +into two gallons of clear rain-water, and the whole then filtered +through a clean linen strainer, after which it was left to settle; +when the amylaceous matter had wholly subsided the supernatant liquor +was carefully decanted, and fresh water added, which process was +repeated until every foreign substance appeared to be removed; the +produce of these several operations was then carefully collected and +dried with a temperature of about 110 deg. Fahrenheit, and, when dry, +weighed. In this manner the results given in the following table were +obtained:-- + + PRODUCE FROM FIVE POUNDS OF THE + Oz. Drms. Centes. prop. + Root of the sweet cassava (_Janipha + Loeflingii_) 14 1 17.27 + Root of ocoes or taniers (_Caladium + esculentum_) 11 17 14.29 + Root of the bitter cassava (_Janipha + manihot_), the Yucca amarga of the + Spaniards 11 2 13.90 + Full grown but unripe fruit of the plantain + (_Musa paradisiaca_) 11 1 13.82 + Root of the Guinea yam (_Dioscorea_ + _bulbifera_) 8 6 10.46 + Root of the sweet potato (_Batatas_ + _edulis_) 8 6 10.46 + Root of the arrowroot (_Maranta_ + _arundinacea_) 5 6 6.71 + The full-grown but unripe fruit of the banana + (_Musa sapientum_) 0 0 0.00 + +This table exhibits, no doubt, very unexpected results, since it +places the sweet cassava at the very top, and the banana at the lowest +place in the list, while the bitter cassava, which seems to be little +more than a variety of the sweet, notwithstanding its being the staple +material of West Indian bread, occupies two places lower down, and is +followed by the plantain. The sweet potato and the yam, both of which +are considered to be less nutritious than the arrowroot, rank above it +in the centesimal proportion of their amylaceous produce. Upon what, +then, do the nutritive properties of these various substances depend? +Is it upon a gluten which was overlooked by Mr. Harris, in his +experiments, or, if not, may we not suspect some inaccuracy in the +proportion of starch assigned by him to each? It is to be wished that +similar experiments were repeated with care in different quarters, and +the list extended to other tropical products applicable to human +sustenance, especially the roots which yield the farinaceous starch of +the South Sea islanders, to the achira of Choco, &c. + +I shall extract largely from a very valuable report drawn up by Dr. +John Shier, agricultural chemist, of Demerara, and submitted to the +Governor of that colony in 1847, on the starch-producing plants, which +is deserving of more widely extended publicity than the merely local +circulation it has received. The remarks and results of experiments +are worthy of deep consideration; and although they were meant to +apply specially to British Guiana, they are equally pertinent to the +West India colonies generally, our African and Australian settlements, +and many other of our foreign possessions. + +For many reasons it is desirable that the number of the staples of +cultivation and export of our colonies should be increased. It is the +general experience of British agriculturists, that the mixed system of +agriculture is more profitable to the farmer and safer for the land, +than the continued cultivation of any single crop, or indeed of +nearly allied crops; and although fewer valid objections can be urged +against the continued cultivation of the sugar cane, when properly +conducted, than against that of grain crops, it is nevertheless +certain that a well-arranged alternation or rotation of crops would be +better. When an efficient system of covered drainage is adopted in +British Guiana, there can be no doubt that the sugar cane will be +replanted at shorter intervals of time than at present, and that other +crops, such as provender crops for cattle, and provision crops for the +colonial and perhaps the home market, will be made to alternate in +cultivation with the cane. When the cane rows are as far apart as they +require to be, to admit of sufficient tillage with the plough and +other implements, it will also be possible to intercalate crops of +rapidly growing plants; and were this done, as it easily might, in +such a manner as to prevent undue exhaustion of the land, or +impoverishment of the sugar crop, the returns could not fail to be +materially increased. It would then probably be found that the +fluctuations in prices would be less felt, for they would not likely, +at the same time, affect different crops in the same manner. + +It has been ascertained, in regard to some plants at least, that a +much larger return can be obtained in the colonies than can be grown +in temperate countries, however fertile. This is partly owing to the +greater fertility of the soil under powerful tropical atmospheric +influences, and partly to the fact that vegetation is continuous +throughout the year, so that slow growing plants can do more within +the time, from their functions not being arrested by the chill of +winter; and of many rapidly growing plants, two successive crops can +be grown within the year. + +Starch is a substance easily manufactured, and being largely used in +several of the arts, as well as an article of diet, there consequently +exists a considerable demand for it in England. It may be obtained +from a great variety of plants, and many of the most productive of it +are natives of the tropics. + +The high prices commanded by grain and breadstuffs in Europe, renders +the present a remarkably favorable time to ascertain what can be done +in this branch of tropical agriculture; for should the potato disease +return, or this root be less extensively planted than hitherto, starch +must maintain a high price, and it will be worth ascertaining whether +some of the superior starch-producing plants of the tropics might not +be cultivated to such an extent as to supply the English market, and +thus be at once profitable to the colonies and advantageous to the +mother country. + +Before entering on such a cultivation, however, various points require +investigation. We ought to be able to answer such questions as the +following:-- + +1. What differences exist between the characters of starch produced by +different plants? + +2. What are the qualities or properties that lead +manufacturers--calico printers for example--to prefer one variety to +another? + +3. For culinary purposes, and as an article of diet, what qualities +or characters obtain a preference? + +4. Can the starches from different plants be distinguished from one +another by distinct and well marked characters, so that the +substitution of a less esteemed variety for a more esteemed one, or +the adulteration of a high priced variety with a cheaper one, could be +readily detected? + +5. What plants produce the most esteemed varieties? + +6. What plants produce it in the largest quantity? + +7. What plants produce the largest yield per acre? + +8. From what plants is it most easily manufactured? + +9. Is the process attended with any particular difficulties that ought +to deter the East and West India planters from engaging in it? + +In the following observations (continues Dr. Shier) I shall be able to +reply to several of these questions, especially those capable of being +settled in the laboratory. On other points, particularly those +relating to the returns per acre, I am at present but imperfectly +informed, in consequence of the limited extent to which these plants +have hitherto been cultivated in this colony (Demerara), and from the +total absence of authentic data regarding the amount of yield. + +_Characters of starch produced from different plants_.--Starches from +different plants are best distinguished from one another by +examination under a good miscroscope. The grains or globules may be +examined either as transparent or opaque objects; and although in the +same species there are considerable differences in size and form, the +different kinds are, on the whole, quite distinguishable. One of the +best ways of examining the form of the globules, under the microscope, +is to lay them on a plate of glass and cover them with a drop of +aqueous solution of iodine, which renders them gradually blue and +opaque. When the difference in size and form between the globules of +different species is considerable, as between the _Tous les mois_ +starch and cassava starch, or even between the arrowroot starch and +cassava starch frequently used to adulterate it, it is not difficult, +with a little practice, to detect the fraud. + + +TABLE ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE SIZE AND FORM OF THE STARCH GLOBULES OF +VARIOUS PLANTS. + +1. Tous-les-mois (_Canna coccinea_).--Grown in Grenada, 1-300 to +1-2,000 of an inch; general size, 1-500; form of the globules, large, +elliptical and ovate, and remarkably transparent. + +2. Ditto ditto (species unknown).--From a plant grown in the garden of +the Hon. J. Croal, Georgetown, but gathered before the root was fully +ripe; globules spherical, shortly ovate and elliptical; size, from +1-600 to 1-1,600; general size, 1-800. + +3. Buck Yam (_Dioscorea triphylla_).--Grown on the banks of the +Demerara River. Form of globules, elliptical, often truncated at one +end, so as to be mullar-shaped, some pear-shaped; length, twice the +width; size, 1-600 to 1-2,000; general size, 1-800. + +4. Common Yam (_D. sativa_).--Grown on No. 1 Canal, Demerara River. +Elliptical, some long elliptical; size, 1-700 to 1-2,000; general +size, 1-1,000. + +5. Guinea Yam (_D. aculeata_).--Grown in the same locality. Larger +globules, elliptical; smaller ditto, spherical, often truncated; some +shortly ovate, with the appearance of being flattened; general size +and range, same as No. 4. + +6. Barbados Yam, grown on banks of Demerara river. Globules, +pear-shaped and mullar-shaped; range, 1-700 to 1-1,600; general size, +1-1,000. + +7. Plantain (_Musa paradisiaca_).--Grown on the banks of the Demerara +river. Globules long and narrow, generally long elliptical, often more +acute at the ends than in any other species, some linear ended +abruptly; length, often three times the width; range, from 1-400 to +1-4,000 of an inch; general size, 1-800. + +8. Potato (_Solanum tuberosum_).--Irish tubers, from Belfast Sound. +Globules, 1-600 to 1-2,000; general size, 1-1,200. + +9. Potato (Commercial).--Locality unknown. Range from 1-600; globules +generally same as former, but a few stray ones as large as 1-40 of an +inch. + +10. Sweet Potato (_Convolvulus Batatas_).--Grown at the Lodge, +Demerara. Form of globules, spherical aggregated; range, 1-1,000 to +1-4,000; general size, 1-2,400. + +11. Arrowroot (_Maranta arundinacea_).--Specimens from Bermuda, where +the highest priced and best quality is prepared. Ovate and elliptical; +length in the larger globules, twice the width; range, from 1-800 to +1-2,400; general size, 1-1,400. + +12. Ditto ditto, grown on plantation Turkeyen, Demerara, by J.W. King. +Size and description same as No. 11. + +13. Ditto ditto, grown and prepared in Barbados. Characteristics the +same, but globules more uniform in size. + +14. Ditto ditto, grown on plantation Enmore; not quite so uniform in +size. + +15. Bitter Cassava (_Janipha Manihot_).--Grown on Haagsbosch +plantation. A few globules occur as large as the 1-1,000 of an inch; +these are ovate, the rest are spherical. The range is from 1-2,000 to +1-8,000; general size, 1-4,000. + +16. Sweet Cassava (_Janipha Loeflingii_).--Grown on No. 1 Canal, +Demerara River. + +17. Tannia (_Caladium sagittifolium_).--Grown at the Lodge. Globules +not so truly spherical as the foregoing, but range and size the same. + +18. Wheat (_Triticum sativum_).--Locality unknown. Form of globules, +spherical and slightly elliptical, some very small; range, 1-2,000 to +1-6,000, the former the general size. + +19. Maize (_Zea Mays_).--Grown in the colony, but locality uncertain. +Globules, approaching to spherical, much aggregated; range, 1-2,000 to +1-4,000; general size, 1-3,000. + + +From an inspection of this list, it does not appear that the species +would be easily distinguishable, and it is not easy briefly to +describe the differences; in practice, however, and especially when +the observer has a number of pure and authentic specimens before him, +to have recourse to as standards of comparison, the discrimination is +by no means difficult. + +_Specific gravity of starch derived from various plants_.--Of many +bodies the determination of the specific gravity is one of the best +modes of distinguishing the purity. With the view of ascertaining +whether the different varieties of starch have all the same density, +as has been asserted by some, trials were carefully made of as many +specimens as I could procure. The results are embodied in the +following table:-- + + TABLE No. I.--DENSITY OF STARCH DERIVED FROM VARIOUS PLANTS. + ------------------+-------+-------+----------------------------------------- + | |Tem. at| + Names of |Density|time of| Remarks + Plants | |Obs. F.| + ------------------+-------+-------+------------------------------------ + 1. Bitter cassava|1.4 3 | 87. |Grown in the colony and prepared in + | | | the Colonial Laboratory. + 2. Tannia |1.4773 | 87. |Ditto ditto + 3. Arrowroot |1.4772 | 86.25 |Ditto ditto + 4. Arrowroot |1.4748 | 86.25 |Ditto ditto + 5. Common yam |1.4733 | 83.25 |Ditto ditto + 6. Sweet potato |1.4718 | 85.75 |Ditto ditto + 7. Arrowroot |1.4717 | 82.75 |St. Vincent's, commercial + 8. Arrowroot |1.4701 | 84.75 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + 9. Tous les mois |1.4698 | 85.25 |Ditto ditto + 10. Sweet cassava |1.4692 | 86.5 |Ditto ditto + 11. Wheat starch |1.4632 | 85. |Commercial, of English manufacture + 12. Plantain |1.4615 | 85.75 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + 13. Tous les mois |1.4611 | 84.25 |Grenada, commercial + 14. Barbados yam |1.4607 | 83.5 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + 15. Irish potato |1.4589 | 84.75 |Tubers from Belfast; prepared in C.L. + 16. Guinea yam |1.4581 | 84.2 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + 17. Potato |1.4561 | 84. |Commercial + 18. Buck yam |1.4489 | 81.25 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + 19. Arrowroot |1.4443 | 85.5 |Barbados, commercial + 20. Arrowroot |1.4158 | 86.25 |Bermuda, ditto + 21. Maize |1.4109 | 85.5 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. + ------------------+-------+-------+---------------------------------------- + +From this it will be seen that the order of density does not +correspond with the order in any of the other tables. Probably those +specimens prepared from dry seeds, such as wheat and maize starch, +which, as commercial articles at least, are less pure than those +prepared from recently dug roots, have also the lowest density. + +_Hygroscopic properties of starch produced from different +plants_.--Such of the specimens as are marked in the following table, +as prepared in the colonial laboratory, were dried in the sun in +shallow trays, to which they had previously been transferred in the +wet state. When sun dried, the masses were broken down, and the +starches freely exposed to the air in the shade for ten days. Any +adherent masses were then rubbed to powder by light pressure in a +glazed mortar, and the whole sifted. Portions of each of these +starches, and of others for the sake of comparison, were then dried, +at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, in a current of dry air, and the loss +determined:-- + + TABLE No. II.--SHOWING THE HYGROSCOPIC WATER CONTAINED BY STARCH + PRODUCED FROM DIFFERENT PLANTS. + + Per centage of water. Remarks. + 1. Potato 20.27 Commercial, locality unknown + 2. Sweet potato 19.57 C., C.L.** + 3. Buck yam 19.43 C., C.L. + 4. Barbados yam 19.40 C., C.L. + 5. Arrowroot 18.81 Bermuda, commercial + 6. Irish potato 17.28 Tubers from Belfast, C.L. + 7. Guinea yam 17.14 C., C.L. + 8. Tous les mois 16.74 Grenada, commercial + 9. Arrowroot 16.43 Barbados, ditto + 10. Common yam 16.36 C., C.L. + 11. Plantain 16.23 C., C.L. + 12. Arrowroot 15.65 C., C.L. + 13. Arrowroot 14.84 C., Plantation Enmore + 14. Tous les mois 14.64 C., C.L. + 15. Tannia 14.60 C., C.L. + 16. Sweet cassava 14.30 C., C.L. + 17. Maize 14.22 C., C.L. + 18. Arrowroot 13.36 C., C.L. + 19. Bitter cassava 11.88 C., C.L. + 20. Wheat starch 11.16 Commercial, of English manufacture + + [** The initial C. throughout these tables indicates that the plant + was grown in the colony; C.L., that the starch was prepared in the + colonial laboratory.] + +That the extremes in this table should occur in the case of the +starches of commerce, was, perhaps, to be expected; nevertheless the +difference between the starch of the sweet potato and that of the +bitter cassava is nearly as great, and both these specimens were +prepared in the laboratory, by the same process, and subject to the +same temperature and exposure. + +_Characters of the jellies formed by various +starches._--_Tenacity_.--I have met with no very precise results on +this subject, except the well-known fact that it takes a much larger +quantity of some starches, the arrowroot for instance, to form a jelly +of equal tenacity with that formed by others, such as the _Tous les +mois_; and hence in the West Indies the latter is universally +preferred to the cassava starches. + +After trying various plans, the method which I found best fitted for +comparing the tenacity of different starch jellies, was the +following:--Of each of the kinds of starch, 24 grains were weighed out +and mixed with 400 grains of distilled water, in a porcelain capsule +of suitable size. The mixture was then heated and boiled briskly for +three minutes, with constant stirring, and was immediately poured into +a conical test-glass,[45] which the jelly nearly filled. The time at +which each glass was filled was noted, and exactly two hours were +allowed for the contents to cool in a current of air. The glass is +then set on a plate of glass, supported on a ring of a retort stand, +and the weight ascertained, which was necessary to force a metallic +disc, of ascertained size, through the jelly. The most convenient way +of doing this was by using a piece of apparatus of the form rudely +represented on the margin. The rectangular frame is of thin brass +wire, and the slightly cup-shaped disc, _d d_, is soldered to a wire, +attached to the upper short side of the rectangle. From the opposite +or lower side of the rectangle a small glass cup, _c._, is suspended, +into which weights are put as soon as the disc has been made to rest +on the surface of the jelly, _pp_ is the plate of glass on which the +test-glass is set. Whenever the disc tears the skin of the jelly and +begins to sink in it, no further addition, of weights is made, and +the weight of the disc, framework, and cup being known, we have an +estimate of the tenacity of the jelly. This process is but +approximative, and some practice is necessary before the operator +succeeds in getting uniform results from the same series of specimens. + + +--------------------+ + | | | + | | | + | | | + | d \_____/ d | + | | + | | + | | + | p--------------p | + | | + | | + +--------------------+ + | + | + | + | + --------- + c. + +The following statement shows the results on such specimens as I could +procure. The disc was exactly 7/10ths of an inch in diameter. + + TABLE NO. III.--TENACITY OF STARCH IN JELLIES. + + No. Names of specimens. Weight in grains required + to break the jelly. + 1. Tous les mois, C., C.L. 2,446* + 2. Tous les mois, Grenada, Commercial 1,742 + 3. Maize, C., C.L. 955 + 4. Barbados yam, C., C.L. 895 + 5. Irish potato, from Belfast, C.L. 756 + 6. Tannia, C., C.L. 630 + 7. Bermuda arrowroot, finest Commercial 627 + 8. Common yam, C., C.L. 657 + 9. Guinea yam, C., C.L. 571 + 10. Plantain, C., C.L. 467 + 11. Potato starch, Commercial 467 + 12. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 393 + 13. Sweet potato, C., C.L. 368 + 14. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 340 + 15. Arrowroot, C. 301 + 16. Arrowroot, St. Vincent's, Commercial 289 + 17. Barbados arrowroot, Commercial 273 + 18. Wheat starch, Commercial 183 + 19. Buck yam, C., C.L. 151 + 20. Bitter cassava, C., C.L. 150 + 21. Sweet cassava, C., C.L. 78 + +[* In this instance the weight stated detached the jelly from the side +of the glass, but the skin of the jelly was not torn as in the other +cases.] + + +From this list it is obvious that, in respect of tenacity, there is a +very great difference between the jellies prepared from the different +starches--greater, indeed, than exists in regard to any other +character. At first I thought it probable that the tenacity of the +jelly would bear some relation to the size of the globules, and it is +true that we find the Grenada Tous les mois, the largest globule, next +the top, and the cassava among the smallest, at the bottom of the +scale. But, on the other hand, we have the Buck yam starch, a large +sized globule, very high; together with many other exceptions. + +As an article of diet, the most tenacious varieties of starch are +preferred, on account of the economy of employing an article of which +a less quantity will suffice; and the same is true when applied to +starching linen, provided the jelly be not deficient in clearness. + +_Clearness of jellies_.--When starch jelly is used for the purpose of +starching, or glazing linen, or cotton goods, those varieties that are +most transparent are understood to be preferred, provided, at the same +time, they possess the requisite tenacity. This and other matters +will be best determined by practical men in England; but having had +occasion many times to prepare specimens for trying the tenacity, the +opportunity was always taken of arranging the specimen of jellies in +the order of their clearness, or, to speak more accurately, of their +translucency. In this respect also they exhibit considerable +differences, varying, when prepared according to the formula described +under the head of tenacity, from very translucent approaching to +opaque. The order is shown in the annexed list, which begins with the +clearest. + + TABLE NO. IV.--SHOWING THE ORDER OF CLEARNESS OR TRANSLUCENCY OF + UNIFORMLY PREPARED STARCH JELLIES. + + Order. Names of specimens. + 1. St. Vincent Arrowroot, Commercial + 2. Arrowroot, C., C.L. + 3. Sweet cassava, C., C.L. + 4. Bitter cassava, C., C.L. + 5. Bermuda arrowroot, Coml. + 6. Arrowroot, C., C.L. + 7. Irish potato, C.L. + 8. Potato starch, Coml. + 9. Buck yam, C., C.L. + 10. Arrowroot, C. + 11. Plantain, C., C.L. + 12. Tannia, C., C.L. + 13. Sweet potato, C., C.L. + 14. Common yam, C., C.L. + 15. Tous les mois, Grenada, Cml. + 16. Barbados arrowroot, Coml. + 17. Tous les mois, C., C.L. + 18. Barbados yam, C., C.L. + 19. Guinea yam, C., C.L. + 20. Wheat starch, Coml. + 21. Maize, C., C.L. + +On comparing this list with the former one, and taking a general view +of the subject, it will be seen that the jellies that are most +tenacious are generally the least translucent, and that the order of +the two lists is more nearly the converse than occurs in regard to any +other properties. + +_Percentage of starch yielded by different plants_.--On this point no +two writers do or can agree. The quantity of starch, even in the same +plants, the potato for instance, varies with the season, the soil, +climate, age, ripeness, length of time the roots have been out of the +ground, &c. + +In the following table I have given the result of a series of trials +made in the Colonial Laboratory, Demerara. The roots were all fresh +dug, and, with two exceptions, noticed in the remarks, were fair +average specimens. The process was the common one. The grater or +rasping machine was of copper, to avoid injuring the color of some of +the starches, which an iron grater is liable to do:-- + + TABLE NO. V.--PERCENTAGE OF STARCH YIELDED BY DIFFERENT PLANTS. + + No. Names of plants. Percentage of starch. + + 1. Sweet cassava 26.92 + 2. Bitter cassava 24.84 + 3. Another sample 20.26 + 4. A third 16.02 + 5. Common yam 24.47 + 6. Arrowroot (roots scarcely ripe) 21.43 + 7. Another sample 17.28 + 8. Barbados yam 18.75 + 9. Tannia 17.05 + 10. Another sample 15.35 + 11. Guinea yam 17.03 + 12. Plantain 16.99 + 13. Sweet potato 16.31 + 14. Buck yam 16.07 + 15. Another sample 15.63 + 16. A third, from a dark colored variety 14.83 + +From the foregoing list it appears that the sweet and bitter cassava +merit attention as starch-producing plants. They are occasionally +grown for this purpose in the colonies, and yield a large per centage +of starch; but there exists an opinion, whether well or ill founded, +that it is liable to rot linen, and the preference is given here to +the starch of arrowroot. It remains to be seen, however, what estimate +will be formed of this starch in England, for if it should prove an +esteemed variety, there can be no doubt of its proving a highly +profitable cultivation. Cassava grows readily in almost any soil, and +when the drainage is tolerable, two crops of the sweet variety can, it +is stated be grown in a year. I have seen it growing luxuriantly in +the light soils of the interior, as well as in the stiff clay soils of +the coasts. It is considered an excellent preparatory crop in new and +stiff land, on account of its tendency to loosen the soil. Were the +bitter variety fixed on, the preparation of _Casareep_ might be +combined with the preparation of starch; and as that substance is one +of the most esteemed bases for the preparation of various sauces, it +is probable that this might turn out the most profitable part of the +produce. At all events, bitter cassava would have this advantage over +all other starch-producing roots, that the juice of the roots could be +turned, to account as well as the starch. + +Of all the plants mentioned in the list, starch is most readily +separated from the arrowroot, in consequence of the tissue being more +fibrous, and yielding little or no cellular tissue requiring to be run +off the starch. Time and water are thus saved in the process, and were +the fibrous residue pressed and dried, it could probably be turned to +good account in the manufacture of paper. + +In respect of facility of preparation, the plantain starch, though of +excellent quality, ranks lowest, for the flesh-colored tissue in which +the starch is embedded is somewhat denser than the starch, and settles +down under it, and it is not a little difficult to arrange the process +so as completely to separate the finer parts of this matter from the +starch, and hence its color is never perfectly white. + +_Yield of starch-producing plants per acre_.--On this subject, as +already remarked, I do not at present possess sufficiently accurate +data. + +In England ten tons of potatoes are not unfrequently produced per +acre; now assuming 15 the per centage of starch, there would be a +yield of one-and-a-half tons per acre, which, at the-lowest quotation, +28s. a cwt., would give L42 per acre; and were the starch to rank with +that prepared from wheat, it would produce L40 per ton, or L60 per +acre. In the thorough drained land of Demerara, and under a good +system of cultivation, I have no doubt that ten tons of cassava could +easily be grown, and if it yielded 25 per cent. of starch, it would be +a return of 21/2 tons, or of L62 10s. per acre, reckoned at the price of +potato starch. + +Of the yield of the plantain we possess much more accurate +information. A new plantain walk in this colony (British Guiana) will +yield 450 bunches, of 50 lbs. each, of which, as nearly as possible, +50 per cent. will be of core, containing 17 per cent. of starch, thus +producing 17 cwt. of starch per acre. But an old plantain walk, even +when free from disease, could not be reckoned to yield more than half +this quantity, namely, 81/2 cwt. per acre. Considering the value that is +set on the plantain as an article of food, and the difficulties +incident to the process of making starch from it, it is by no means +probable that it will ever be used as a source from which to obtain +starch. + +Of the quantity of arrowroot that can be grown per acre, I have been +able (continues Dr. Shier) to procure no information; but from the +price it commands in the market, the facility with which it can be +grown, and the ease with which the process of separating the starch +can be carried on, it deserves a fair trial here. To cultivate it to +advantage it ought to be done on thorough-drained and well-tilled +land, planted at the proper season, and not dug till ripe and in dry +weather. + +Of the Tous les mois, I have only been able to procure a single plant, +for which I am indebted to the kindness of the Hon. John Croal. As the +root was immature, it would be unfair to deduce from the quantity of +starch obtained, the per centage generally contained by the plant. Its +immaturity was also indicated by the globules being smaller than in +the specimen obtained from Grenada; in other respects, however, such +as the tenacity of its jelly, it stands highest. It is altogether one +of the most promising starch-producing plants, and obviously deserves +a careful trial. It is a plant that expends a good deal of matter in +maturing a considerable quantity of dense and bulky seeds, but as it +propagates both by root and seed, it is probable that, as a root-crop, +it would be highly advantageous to procure a variety that does not +flower. + +Both the tannia and the sweet potato can be readily grown, and the +produce per acre is large; but from the foregoing tables it would +appear that there are other plants whose starch is likely to be held +in greater estimation. + +_Difficulties attendant on the process of preparing starch_.--Were the +manufacture of superior starch to be carried out in this colony +(British Guiana) on a large scale and profitably, recourse would +require to be had to all the well-known means of economising labor. In +the cultivation as much as possible would require to be done by cattle +and implement labor, and this would be the easier to accomplish, +inasmuch as, to grow roots to great advantage, the land would require +to be thorough drained. When the produce was brought to the buildings, +machinery similar to what is already in use in Europe, for the +purpose of washing and rasping roots, and of separating and washing +starch, would suffice with comparatively little manual labor. An +ordinary amount of judgment being exercised in determining the proper +period of ripeness of the roots, and in selecting seasons when the +weather is usually most suitable for conducting the process of +manufacture, it does not appear that any unusual difficulty would have +to be encountered by growers or manufacturers, unless as regards the +obtaining of a sufficient supply of good water; for that is essential +to the production of good starch. + +The creek water of the colony is generally too brown, and the trench +water too muddy, and contains often too much salt to produce starches +of the finest color, hence recourse would require to be had to rain +water, or Artesian water. The first is remarkably pure, and it +certainly does not appear that were sufficiently capacious reservoirs +built, or ponds dug, and protected from infiltration by the usual +well-known means, there would be great difficulty in getting a +sufficient supply of rain water. It is done in Bermuda, and why not +here? On the other hand, almost all the Artesian wells in the colony +contain a large quantity of oxide of iron held in solution by carbonic +acid, and which separates as an ochrey deposit on free exposure to the +air. Were this water used in the starch process, it would certainly +injure the color materially; but by a chemical process, exceedingly +simple, inexpensive, and easy of application, it is possible to purify +the Artesian water, and render it almost as fit as rain water for the +purpose of manufacturing starch. + +In some of the other colonies a great deal of the best starch is +produced by the holders of small lots of land, and many parts of the +labor being light, and suited for women and children, it is one of the +most desirable cultivations for small holders, and would be very +beneficial for Demerara, where the lands of the peasantry too +generally lie in a state of utter neglect; yet small holders could not +be expected to be able to compete with those who should grow starch on +the large scale, and prepare it with the best machinery. + +_Cassava meal, plantain meal, &c., as articles of export_.--It may +soon become an important question whether the plantain, or some of the +edible roots grown in the tropics, might not be sent to Europe in a +fresh state as a substitute for the potato. Many of them, the buck yam +and the cassava, for instance, ought to be used when fresh dug, for +every day they are out of the ground they deteriorate. This, however, +is not so much the case with some of the larger yams. It is worth +trying whether the finer sorts that deteriorate by keeping, might not, +after being sliced and dried in the sun, become articles of export, +either in that state or when ground to meal. For this purpose the +bitter cassava, the plantain, and the buck yam are the most promising. + +Of the bitter cassava mention has already been made as a substance +from which the starch and _casareep_ might be prepared. In this case, +however, the woody and cellular tissue, with the small quantity of +starch left in it by the ordinary starch process, would form far too +poor an article of diet to constitute part of the food of man. But the +roots might be used as a medium from which to prepare cassava meal, +_casareep_, and the very small quantity of starch which is expressed +along with the juice, leaving all the rest of the starch to form part +of the meal. It is of such meal that the cassava cakes of the Indians +are prepared; and although by no means so nutritive as Indian corn +meal[46], there can be little doubt that in the Scotch and Irish +markets the cassava meal would obtain a preference; and were it +exported in quantity it would probably come into extensive use among +all classes. + +The process would be as follows:--After washing in a revolving +apparatus, by which means the adherent earth would be got quit of, and +almost the whole of the thin dark colored cuticle become detached, the +roots could be reduced to pulp in a rasping-mill, without the use of +water; the pulp might be compressed in bags by hydraulic pressure, +whereby the juice, together with a small portion of the starch, would +be expressed. After allowing the starch to subside, the juice should +be concentrated to about the density of 1.4. The starch would be +washed, purified, and dried. The contents of the bags would then be +broken up and dried in the sun or in a current of air, after which the +meal would be sifted through a coarse sieve to separate the coarser +parts, which, if their amount was considerable, could be ground and +added to the rest. In this state of rough meal it is fit for making +the cassava cakes. If ground to flour it might be used to mix with +wheat, rye, or barley flour. + +The process is usually conducted as follows:--The squeezed pulp is +broken up, sifted, and exposed to the sun on trays or mats till it is +fully more than half dry. An iron hoop of the size and thickness of +the cake to be made is then laid on a griddle or hot plate, and the +space within the hoop is filled evenly with the somewhat moist meal, +no previous kneading or rolling having been employed. As soon as the +coarse meal coheres, the ring is lifted and the cake is turned and +heated on the opposite side. The heat should not be sufficient to +brown the cake. The cakes are finally dried by exposure to the sun. +From the dry cassava meal cakes may be prepared by sprinkling it with +as much cold water as to moisten it to the proper point, and then +proceeding as above. Hot water cannot be employed, neither can +kneading, or any considerable degree of compression be used, otherwise +the water does not evaporate readily enough; the starch gets too much +altered by the heat, and the cake becomes tough. + +If an acre of well-tilled thorough-drained land yield 10 tons of fresh +roots, and I have every reason to believe that such a return might be +obtained, I have ascertained that the produce would be 31/2 tons of +meal, 598 lbs. of _casareep_, and 2 cwt. of starch; and estimating the +meal at 1d. per lb., the _casareep_ at 1s. 5d. per lb., and the starch +at 40s. per cwt., the gross amount would be L78 13s. 4d. per acre. In +ascertaining these proportions, very simple machinery was employed, +and had the pulp been better pressed the quantity of _casareep_ would +have been considerably greater. + +From the table given in a former note it will be seen that the cassava +meal prepared in this way contains but a very small proportion of +matter nutritive in the sense of contributing to the formation of +blood, and that the expressed juice carries off fully one-half of the +proteine compounds contained in the plant. + +Lichenin is a variety of starch occurring in _Cetraria islandica_, or +Iceland moss. + +_Indian corn starch_.--The advance of science has recently brought to +our knowledge the preparation and use of another article, not only +important as food, but also essential in the arts. I have had occasion +to mention the high value of the Indian corn, and I might with +advantage allude to many of its uses and properties; at present I must +confine my remarks to a product from this valuable grain, known as +corn starch, and yet another as the fecula of maize. In the close of +1849, Mr. Willard and his associates, of Auburn, established extensive +works at Oswego, for the preparation of these important products, +their establishment covering an area of 49,000 square feet. As the +proprietors have to some extent held unrevealed the process by which +they produce a starch more pure than the starch of commerce, we may +not indulge in speculative curiosity; yet I can hardly doubt their +great success is mainly attributable to perfect machinery, guided by +science and talent. The rapid and extended demand for these new +products presents sufficient evidence of their character, as we are +told that about three millions of pounds of this corn starch are +demanded annually by the trade, notwithstanding the usual supply of +wheat starch is undiminished. A remarkable feature of maize starch is +the absence of impurities; upon being subjected to analysis, it is +found that only 2 76-100 parts in 1000 are of other matter than pure +starch. According to Dr. Ure, wheat yields only 35 to 40 per cent, of +good starch, a material extensively used in arts and manufactures. + +In addition to starch, the Oswego starch-factory produces from Indian +corn a fecula, peculiarly adapted to culinary purposes, presenting to +our domestic economy one of the most acceptable, pure, and nutritious +articles of food. Already has it become an indispensable household +article, and is consumed largely at home and abroad. The factory, +though in its infancy, consumes annually 150,000 bushels of corn, +equal to about nine millions of pounds in weight. Hitherto the +quantities of starch used for laundry purposes and in the +manufactories of America, have been produced from costly wheats, +though it may be found in many vegetable substances, such as potatoes, +the horse chesnut and other seeds. In England, where breadstuffs, +particularly wheat, have been raised in quantities inadequate to the +demand for food, attempts have been made to convert the viscid matter +of lichens into a gum, for the use of calico printers, paper-makers, +and ink makers; for the stiffening of silks, crapes, and the endless +variety of dry goods, which, by means of these gums or starch, are +made to appear of greater consistency. Most of these attempts had +partial success, yet the making of starch from wheat has not been +arrested. + +The Oswego starch factory has happily introduced the use of Indian +corn, as a grain producing a larger proportion of pure amylaceous +properties than any other known vegetable substance, proffering to the +American manufacturer another economic advantage, sustaining, in a +most legitimate matter, sound rivalry and competition with all the +world. I am not aware whether the Oswego factory has converted its +starch into gum--a process easily accomplished by heat, and thus +rendered soluble in cold water, which cannot be done while in its +condition of starch. Here is another result of vast importance +derivable from Indian corn; and we can well conceive that, in a short +period of time, the advantages now derived from the production of corn +starch, may have grown into a national benefit. + +Rice (according to Prof. Solly) contains on an average about 84 per +cent of starch; but till comparatively a few years ago, no starch was +manufactured from it, notwithstanding its low price, and the large +quantity of starch which exists in it. The reason of this was, that +the old process of fermentation, by means of which starch is procured +from grain, was not found to be applicable to rice; and hence the +latter only became available as a source of starch in 1840, when Mr. +Orlando Jones introduced his new process, for which he obtained a +patent. This process consisted in macerating the rice for about 20 +hours in a dilute solution of caustic potash, containing about 200 +grains of the alkali in every gallon; the liquor is then drawn off, +the rice dried, reduced to powder by grinding, then a second time +digested in a similar alkaline lye for 24 hours, repeatedly agitated. +After this it is allowed to settle, and well washed with pure cold +water. A prize medal was awarded for this rice starch at the Great +Exhibition. + +Mr. S. Berger, of Bromley, also received a prize medal. He adopts a +different mode of preparation. In place of employing a dilute solution +of caustic potash to dissolve the gluten and other insoluble matters +of the grain, Mr. Berger uses a solution of carbonate of soda, +containing half a pound to the gallon. The rice is steeped, in cold +water for 48 hours, levigated in a suitable mill, and the pulp thus +formed is treated with the solution of carbonate of soda for 60 or 70 +hours, being repeatedly stirred; it is then allowed to settle for some +hours, the alkaline liquor is drawn off, and the starch is washed and +purified. This process was patented by Mr. Berger, in December, 1841. +A third process was patented in February, 1842, by Mr. J. Colman; he +uses dilute muriatic acid for the same purpose as Messrs Jones and +Berger. + + +ARROWROOT, EAST AND WEST INDIAN. + +The genuine arrowroot of commerce is the produce of the tuberous +rhizomata of _Maranta arundinacea_, a native of South America, and _M. +indica_, indigenous to the West Indies, but also cultivated in the +East. The best West Indian arrowroot comes from Bermuda. Its globules +are much smaller and less glistening than those of _Tous-les-mois_, or +potato starch. + +The peculiar characteristics of the starch obtained from various +plants has been particularised and described already in the elaborate +investigation of the commercial yield and value of the +starch-producing plants. Amylaceous matter of a similar kind to +arrowroot is obtained from other species of Maranta, as from some +species of _Canna_, well known under the popular name of Indian shot, +from the similarity of their round black seeds. + +The arrowroot plant (_M. arundinacea_) is a perennial, its root is +fleshy and creeping, and very full of knots and numerous long white +fibres. Arising from the root are many leaves, spear-shaped, smooth on +the upper surface and hairy beneath. The length of the leaf is about +six or seven inches, and the breadth about three towards their base, +the color and consistence resembling those of the seed. From the root +arise slender petioles upon which the leaves stand, and several +herbaceous erect stalks come out between them, rising to the height of +about two feet. A loose bunch of small white flowers is succeeded by +three-cornered capsules, each containing one hard rough seed. + +The propagation and culture of this plant are of the simplest kinds. +The roots should be parted, and the most suitable soil is a rich loam. + +In the Bermudas, a deep rich soil, or one in which marsh or peat +prevail, is alone adapted for growing arrowroot in perfection. + +A correspondent from the Bermudas, (where arrowroot forms the great +staple crop of the islands), informs me that he ploughed up a small +piece of land, twenty rods (or the eighth part of an acre), with a +small plough and one horse. He ploughed it over three times, and the +third time planted the arrowroot as he ploughed it. The land had not +been turned up before for twenty years. + +The expenses and profits stand thus:-- + + EXPENSE. + L. s. d. + To the ploughman, harrowing and planting the + arrowroot 1 0 0 + Arrowroot plants 16 0 + Digging it up L1 0 0 + Deduct half, as the land was planted for the next + year 0 10 0 0 10 0 + Balance carried down, being net profit 5 14 0 + -------- + 8 0 0 + PRODUCE. + By 2,000 lbs. of root at 8s. per 100 lbs. 8 0 0 + By balance brought down as net profit 5 14 0 + +The above L5 14s. clear profit on the 20 rods, is at the rate of L45 +12s. profit for one acre. Now, if a small cultivator were to plant +three or four acres, and get only one-half of the above profit, it +would give a good return, and would be well worth the trial. + +Arrowroot requires a good rich red soil, of which there is still much +lying waste. The best time for planting it is in April, but it can be +planted in March, or indeed at any time after the first of the year, +till May: though if taken up and planted before Christmas, you may +depend it will not come to any perfection. Arrowroot can be planted in +many ways; either in holes made with a hoe, ploughed under, or in +drills like Irish potatoes. Now the way I prefer is to prepare the +land, then strike the line at two feet apart, and make holes with a +pointed stick or dibble six inches apart, putting in each hole one +strong plant or two small ones, then cover them up. This is more +trouble than the old way, but it gives an excellent crop. It can also +be planted like Irish potatoes in drills, two feet apart in the rows, +and six inches between the plants. It should be hand-weeded in the +spring, because if it is hoed, most likely you will cut some of it off +which may be springing under ground, and it will never come up so +strong again. Arrowroot requires very strong ground and plenty of +manure. Farm yard manure is the best; next to that green seaweed +dripping with salt water--this is an excellent manure, and should be +dug in the ground as the arrowroot is taken up. I have no doubt that +it would be of great advantage to the planter, if he were to put a +cask in a cart, fill it with salt water, and put it on the land a few +weeks before it is planted. Some people say that arrowroot does not +pay so well, because it has to stay in the ground a whole year; but +then if you have onions you can plant them over it, and so obtain a +crop which will pay much better than the arrowroot itself. If you have +a large piece of arrowroot ground, take up one half early, and plant +it out with Irish potatoes; then take up the other half later, and +with the plants set out your potato ground, that is if you have taken +up your potatoes; if not, plant the arrowroot between the rows, in +holes; so that when you take up the potatoes, you clean the arrowroot +and loosen the ground, which will give a good crop; or you can plant +Indian corn very thin over the arrowroot ground (if you have nothing +else), but be sure to cut it up before it ripens corn, or it will +injure your arrowroot crop; or you may plant a few melon seeds over +it, and you will have a fine crop of fruit. + +In 1845 I planted, in the months of January and February, a quarter of +an acre of good land, in arrowroot and onions. + +The expense and profit stand as follow.-- + + EXPENSE + L. s. d. + To digging the ground 1 0 0 + Planting arrowroot 0 6 0 + Twelve load of seaweed, at 1s. 0 12 0 + Rotten manure for onions, 10 loads, at 2s. 1 0 0 + One bottle onion seed 0 16 0 + Sowing onion seed and keeping the plants clean 0 10 0 + Planting out onions 1 0 0 + Cleaning onions after set out 0 15 0 + Tops and making basket 1 8 0 + Pulling, cutting, and basketing 0 18 0 + Carting and shipping 0 8 0 + Digging arrowroot 2 0 0 + -------- + 10 13 0 + Clear profit on quarter acre 22 13 9 + -------- + 33 6 9 + PRODUCE + By onions sold 20 16 0 + By arrowroot 12 10 9 + -------- + 33 6 9 + +This is at the rate of L90 15s. clear profit per acre, which is more +than double the worth of the land. I have not named the arrowroot +plants, because I have planted my land with them again, but they might +be fairly put to the credit of the account. The above statement shows +what may be done with good land and good management; but even if a man +can only clear L10 on an acre of land, he ought not to grumble. + +Dr. Ure gives a most interesting and lucid account of the mode of +manufacture in the island of St. Vincent, where the plant is now +cultivated with great success, and the root manufactured in a superior +manner. + +It grows there to the height of about three feet, and it sends down +its tap root from twelve to eighteen inches into the ground. Its +maturity is known by the flagging and falling down of the leaves, an +event which takes place when the plant is from ten to twelve months' +old. The roots being dug up with the hoe, are transported to the +washing-house, where they are thoroughly freed from all adhering +earth, and next taken individually into the hand and deprived, by a +knife, of every portion of their skins, while every unsound part is +cut away. This process must be performed with great nicety, for the +cuticle contains a resinous matter, which imparts color and a +disagreeable flavor to the fecula, which no subsequent treatment can +remove. The skinned roots are thrown into a large cistern, with a +perforated bottom, and there exposed to the action of a copious +cascade of pure water, till this runs off quite unaltered. The +cleansed roots are next put into the hopper of a mill, and are +subjected to the powerful pressure of two pairs of polished rollers of +hard brass; the lower pair of rollers being set much closer together +than the upper. The starchy matter is thus ground into a pulp, which +falls into the receiver placed beneath, and is thence transferred to +large fixed copper cylinders, tinned inside, and perforated at the +bottom with numerous minute orifices, like a kitchen drainer. Within +these cylinders, wooden paddles are made to revolve with great +velocity, by the power of a water-wheel, at the same time that a +stream of pure water is admitted from above. The paddle-arms beat out +the fecula from the fibres and parenchyma of the pulp, and discharge +it in the form of a milk through the perforated bottom of the +cylinder. This starchy water runs along pipes, and then through +strainers of fine muslin into large reservoirs, where, after the +fecula has subsided, the supernatant water is drawn off, and fresh +water being let on, the whole is agitated and left again to repose. +This process of ablution is repeated till the water no longer acquires +anything from the fecula. Finally, all the deposits of fecula of the +day's work are collected into one cistern, and being covered and +agitated with a fresh change of water, are allowed to settle till next +morning. The water being now let off, the deposit is skimmed with +palette knives of German silver, to remove any of the superficial +parts, in the slightest degree colored; and only the lower, purer, and +denser portion is prepared by drying for the market. + +On the Hopewell estate, in St. Vincent, where the chief improvements +have been carried out, the drying-house is constructed like the +hot-house of an English garden. But instead of plants it contains +about four dozen of drying pans, made of copper, 71/2 feet by 41/2 feet, +and tinned inside. Each pan is supported on a carriage having iron +axles, with _lignum vitae_ wheels, like those of a railway carriage, +and they run on rails. Immediately after sunrise, these carriages, +with their pans, covered with white gauze to exclude dust and insects, +are run out into the open air, but if rain be apprehended they are run +back under the glazed roof. In about four days the fecula is +thoroughly dry and ready to be packed, with German silver shovels, +into tins or American flour barrels, lined with paper, attached with +arrowroot paste. The packages are never sent to this country in the +hold of the ship, as their contents are easily tainted by noisome +effluvia, of sugar, &c. + +Arrowroot is much more nourishing than the starch of wheat or +potatoes, and the flavor is purer. The fresh, root consists, according +to Benzon, of 0.07 of volatile oil; 26 of starch (23 of which are +obtained in the form of powder, while the other 3 must be extracted +from the parenchyma in a paste, by boiling water); 1.48 of vegetable +albumen; 0.6 of a gummy extract; 0.25 of chloride of calcium; 6 of +insoluble fibrine; and 65.6 of water. + +Arrowroot is often adulterated in this country with potato flour and +other ingredients. + +Dr. Lankester asserts that the value of arrowroot starch, as an +article of diet, is not greater than that of potato starch, and that +the yield of starch is not greater from the arrowroot than from +potatoes; but this I must decidedly deny. Chemical analysis and +experience are proofs to the contrary. + +The analogy arrowroot has to potato starch, has induced many persons +to adulterate the former substance with it; and not only has this been +done, but I have known instances in which potato starch alone has been +sold for the genuine foreign article. There is no harm in this, to a +certain extent; but it certainly is a very great fraud upon the public +(and one for which the perpetrators ought to be most severely +punished), to sell so cheap an article at the same price as one which +is comparatively costly. There is, moreover, in potato starch, a +peculiar taste, bringing to mind that of raw potatoes, from which the +genuine arrowroot is entirely free. This fraud, however, can be +readily detected; arrowroot is not quite so white as potato starch, +and its grains are smaller, and have a pearly and very brilliant +lustre; and further, it always contains peculiar clotted masses, more +or less large, which have been formed by the adhesion of a multitude +of grains during the drying. These masses crush very readily when +pressed between the fingers, and as before stated, arrowroot is free +from that peculiar odor due to potato starch. This may be most readily +developed by mixing the suspected sample with hot water; if it be +genuine arrowroot, the mixture is inodorous, if potato starch, the +smell of raw potatoes is immediately developed. If a mixture of +arrowroot and potato starch be minutely observed by means of a good +microscope, the grains of arrowroot may be readily detected; they are +very small and exceedingly regular in shape, whilst those of potato +starch are much larger, and very irregular in shape. But the most +convenient and delicate test of all, is that proposed by Dr. +Scharling, of Copenhagen. After mentioning the test by the microscope, +he goes on to state that he has obtained more favorable results by +employing diluted nitric acid; and that, if arrowroot or potato starch +be mixed with about two parts of concentrated nitric acid, both will +immediately assume a tough gelatinous state. This mass, when potato +starch is employed, is almost transparent, and when arrowroot is used, +is nearly opaque, as in the case above mentioned, in which +hydrochloric acid is substituted. A mixture of nitric acid and water, +however, operates very differently on these two kinds of starch. The +glutinous mass yielded by the potato starch, becomes in a very brief +period so tough that the pestle employed for stirring the mixture is +sufficiently agglutinated to the mortar, that the latter may be lifted +from the table by its means. Arrowroot, on the other hand, requires +from twenty-five to thirty minutes to acquire a like tenacity. + +The _Lancet_ recently stated that, on a microscopical analysis of 50 +samples of arrowroot, purchased indiscriminately of various London +tradesmen, 22 were found to be adulterated. In 16 cases this +adulteration consisted in the addition of a single inferior product +much cheaper in price, such as potato flour, sago meal, or tapioca +starch, while in other instances there was a combination of these +articles, potato flour being usually preponderant. Ten of the mixtures +contained scarcely a particle of the genuine Maranta or West India +arrowroot, for which they were sold. One consisted almost wholly of +sago meal; two of potato flour and sago meal; two of potato flour, +sago meal, and tapioca starch; one of tapioca starch; and four of +potato arrowroot, or starch entirely. The worst specimens were those +which were done up in canisters especially marked as "Genuine West +India arrowroot," or as being "warranted free from adulteration;" and +one, which contained a considerable quantity of potato flour, was +particularly recommended to invalids, and certified as the finest +quality ever imported into this country. The profits to the vendors of +the inferior compounds are to be estimated from the fact that the +price of sago meal and potato starch is about 4d. per lb., while the +genuine Maranta arrowroot is from 1s. to 3s. 6d. per lb. + +The arrowroot of Bermuda has long borne a high reputation, being +manufactured on a better principle and being therefore of superior +quality to that produced in Antigua, St. Vincent, and other West +Indian islands. The process is tedious and requires a good deal of +labor. There is no doubt, however, that the quality of the water has a +great deal of influence on the fecula. Bermuda arrowroot is +necessarily made from rain water collected in tanks or reservoirs, and +the lime and the deposit from houses, &c., may alter its properties. +After the root is taken from the ground it is placed in a mill, and is +thereby cleansed of its exterior excrescences; it is then thoroughly +washed, when it is ready for the large machine, the principle of which +is similar to the "treadmill." A horse is placed on something like a +platform, and as he prances up and down, the machinery is set in play. +A person stands at the end, and places the root in the wheel of the +machine, which, after being ground, falls into a trough of water. +After going through this process, it is rewashed and then placed in +vessels to dry in the sun. It is packed in boxes lined with blue paper +or tin, and sent to the markets in England and America, where it +generally meets with ready sale. + +At a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Bermuda, held in May, +1840, Mr. W.M. Cox submitted a new arrowroot strainer which he had +invented. It consists of two cloth strainers fixed to hoops from 15 to +20 inches in diameter. The strainers working one within the other, are +kept in motion by a lever, moved by hand. The whole apparatus is not +an expensive one, and is well adapted for aiding the manufacture of +arrowroot upon an expeditious and economical plan. + +A simple method by which starch may be extracted from the fecula with +much purity consists in enclosing the flour in a muslin bag and +squeezing it with the fingers while submerged in clean water, by which +process the starch passes out in a state of white powder and subsides. +Two essential constituents of flour are thus separated from each +other; a viscid substance remains in the bag, which is called gluten, +and the white powder deposited is starch. + +The principal quarters from whence the supply is derived, are the +Bermudas, St. Vincent, Barbados and Grenada, in the West Indies; +Ceylon, and some other parts of the East--and a few of our settlements +on the West coast of Africa. The annual imports for home consumption +average 500 tons. + +The cultivation of arrowroot for the production of starch in St. +Vincent has increased enormously of late years. In 1835, the island +produced 41,397 lbs.; in 1845 it exported 828,842 lbs. The exports to +15th June, 1851, were, 2,934 barrels, 2,083 half barrels, 5,610 tins. +The culture is year by year extending, and as, unlike that of the +sugar cane, it may be carried on on a small scale with very little +outlay of capital, we may reasonably anticipate a still further +progressive extension for some years to come. Arrowroot, when once +established in virgin soil, produces several crops with very little +culture. In the first half of 1851, 25,027 lbs. were shipped from +Montego Bay, Jamaica. The quantity of arrowroot on which duty of 1s. +per cwt. was paid in the six years ending 1840, was as follows:-- + + Cwts. + 1835 3,581 + 1836 3,280 + 1837 2,858 + 1838 2,538 + 1839 2,264 + 1840 2,124 + +The imports in the last few years have been in + + Cwt. + 1847 8,040 + 1848 10,580 + 1849 9,252 + 1850 15,980 + 1851 + +About 500 cwt. are re-exported. + +East India arrowroot is procured in part from _Curcuma angustifolia_, +known locally as Tikoor in the East, and a similar kind of starch is +yielded by _C. Zerumbet_, _C. rubescens_, _C. leucorhiza_, and +_Alpinia Galanga_, the Galangale root of commerce. _C. angustifolia_ +grows abundantly on the Malabar coast, and is cultivated about the +districts of Patna, Sagur and the south-west frontier, Mysore, +Vizigapatam, and Canjam, Cochin and Tellicherry. It was discovered but +a few years ago growing wild in the forests extending from the banks +of the Sona to Nugpore. + +The particles of East India arrowroot are very unequal in size, but on +the average are larger than those of West India arrowroot. + +Dr. Taylor, in his Topography of Dacca, speaks of fecula or starch +being obtained from the Egyptian lotus (_Nymphaea lotus_), which is +used by the native practitioners as a substitute for arrowroot. + +Chinese arrowroot is said to be made from the root of _Nelumbium +speciosum_. + +The original Indian arrowroot is extracted at Travancore, according to +Ainslie, from the root of the _Curcuma angustifolia_. It is easily +distinguished by its form, which is sometimes ovoid, sometimes +elongated, of considerable size, rounded at one of the extremities, +and terminating in a point at the other, often resembling a grain of +rice. + +The manufacture of arrowroot on the southern borders of the +Everglades, at Key West, Florida, bids fair to become as extensive and +as profitable as at Bermuda, whence, at present, we receive the bulk +of our supplies. The wild root, which the Indians call Compti, grows +spontaneously over an immense area of otherwise barren land. It is +easily gathered, and is first peeled in large hoppers ingeniously +contrived, and thrown into a cylinder and ground into an impalpable +pulp. It is then washed and dried in the sun, baked and broken into +small lumps, when it is ready for the market. The article is +extensively used in the Eastern woollen and cotton establishments, as +well as for family use. Arrowroot is cultivated in the interior of +East Florida with great success. It is also cultivated to a +considerable extent in Georgia, and is, I understand, a profitable +crop. + +The following is the process of manufacture:--The roots, when a year +old, are dug up, and beaten in deep wooden mortars to a pulp; which is +then put into a tub of clean water, well washed, and the fibrous part +thrown away. The milky liquor being passed through a sieve or coarse +cloth, is suffered to settle, and the clean water is drawn off; at the +bottom of the vessel is a white mass, which is again mixed with clean +water, and drained; lastly the mass is dried in the sun, and is pure +starch. Arrowroot can be kept without spoiling for a very long time. + +A considerable quantity of arrowroot is now produced in the Sandwich +Islands. In 1841 arrowroot to the value of 3,320 dolls. was shipped, +and in 1843, 35,140 lbs., valued at L1,405, was exported, principally +to Tepic and San Blas, where it is used as starch for linen. + +A kind of arrowroot of very good quality was sent to the Great +Exhibition of 1851, by Sir R. Schomburgk, which is obtained in St. +Domingo from the stems of a species of Zamia, called there Guanjiga; +and the _Zamia Australis_, of Western Australia, yields even better +fecula. The taste was unpleasant and salt, as if it had been immersed +in lime. The other starch, from the Western Australian Zamia, in +quality rivalled arrowroot. This fecula hangs together in chains, +quite unlike the ordinary appearance of arrowroot when seen under the +microscope. + +The following figures show the exports of arrowroot from Bermuda:-- + + lbs. Value of the exports. + 1830 18,174 -- + 1831 77,153 -- + 1832 34,833 -- + 1833 44,651 -- + 1834 54,471 -- + 1835 65,500 -- + 1836 -- -- + 1841 91,230 -- + 1842 136,610 -- + 1843 151,757 L8,682 + 1844 173,275 10,974 + 1845 224,480 8,084 + 1847 -- 4,716 + 1848 -- 4,747 + 1849 -- 6,760 + 1850 854,329 -- + +In the spring of 1851, 201,130 lbs. were shipped from Bermuda. + +In 1843 the quantity of arrowroot in the rough state made in Bermuda +was 1,110,500 lbs. + + ARROWROOT EXPORTED FROM ANTIGUA TO + + Great Britain B.N. America B.W. Indies + Boxes Boxes Boxes + 1835 1,075 20 -- + 1836 581 43 -- + 1837 100 42 -- + 1838 472 20 -- + 1839 682 -- 32 + 1840 453 -- 30 + 1841 289 -- 10 + 1842 582 -- -- + 1843 744 -- -- + 1844 376 -- -- + 1845 402 5 -- + +Barbados exported in 1832, 16,814 lbs., value L469; in 1840, 387 +packages; in 1843, 302; in 1844, 790 packages; in 1851, 306 packages; +these average about 30 lbs. each. + +Ceylon now produces excellent arrowroot. In 1842, 150 boxes were +exported; in 1843, 200; in 1844, 300; in 1845, 600 boxes. + +From Africa we now import a large quantity: 250 boxes were received in +1846. Not unfrequently arrowroot from Africa has been sent to the West +Indies in the ships with the liberated Africans, and thence +re-exported to England, as of St. Vincent or Bermuda growth. The duty +on arrowroot, under the new tariff, is equalised on all kinds to 41/2d. +per lb. + +The imports and home consumption of arrowroot have increased very +largely, as may be seen from the following figures:-- + + Retained for home + Imports consumption + lbs. lbs. + 1826 318,830 358,007 + 1830 449,723 516,587 + 1834 837,811 735,190 + 1835 287,966 895,406 + 1838 404,738 434,574 + 1839 303,489 224,792 + 1840 408,469 330,490 + 1841 -- 454,893 + 1842 890,736 846,832 + 1846 905,072 981,120 + 1847 1,185,968 1,211,168 + 1848 906,304 933,744 + 1849 1,036,185 1,032,992 + 1850 1,789,774 1,414,669 + 1851 2,083,681 1,848,778 + 1852 2,139,390 2,024,316 + +SALEP is the prepared and dried roots of several orchideous plants, +and is sometimes sold in the state of powder. Indigenous salep is +procured, according to Dr. Perceval from _Orchis mascula_, _O. +latifolia_, _O. morio_, and other native plants of this order. On the +continent it is obtained from _O. papilionaceo_, and _militaris_. +Oriental salep is procured from other orchideoe. Professor Royle states +that the salep of Kashmir is obtained from a species of Eulophia, +probably _E. virens_. Salep is also obtained from the tuberous roots +of _Tacca pinnatifida_, and other species of the same genus, which are +principally natives of the East Indies and the South Sea Islands. + +The large fleshy tubers of tacca, when scraped and frequently washed, +yield a nutritious fecula resembling arrowroot. + +Salep consists chiefly of bassorin, some soluble gum, and a little +starch. It forms an article of diet fitted for convalescents when +boiled with water or milk. The price of salep is about eight guineas +per cwt. in the London market. A little is exported from +Constantinople, as I noticed a shipment of 66 casks in 1842; excellent +specimens from this quarter were shown in the Egyptian department of +the Great Exhibition in 1851. It was formerly a great deal used, but +has latterly been much superseded by other articles. + +Major D. Williams ("Journal of the Agri. and Hort. Soc. of India," +vol. iv., part I), states that the tacca plant abounds in certain +parts of the province of Arracan, where the Mugs prepare the farina +for export to the China market. + +After removing the peel, the root is grated on a fish-skin, and the +pulp having been strained through a coarse cloth, is washed three or +four times in water, and then dried in the sun. + +According to a recent examination of the plant by Mr. Nuttall +("American Journal of Pharmacy," vol. ix., p. 305), the Otaheite salep +is obtained from a new species of tacca, which he names _T. oceanica_. + +For many years we have obtained from Tahiti, and other islands of the +South Seas, this fecula, known by the name of Tahiti arrowroot, +probably the produce of _Tacca pinnatifida_. It is generally +spherical, but also often ovoid, elliptic, or rounded, with a +prolongation in the form of a neck, suddenly terminated by a plane. + +The tacca plant grows at Zanzibar, and is found naturalised on the +high islands of the Pacific. The art of preparing arrowroot from it is +aboriginal with the Polynesians and Feejeeans. + +At Tahiti the fecula is procured by washing the tubers, scraping off +their outer skin, and then reducing them to a pulp by friction, on a +kind of rasp, made by winding coarse twine (formed of the coco-nut +fibre) regularly round a board. The pulp is washed with sea water +through a sieve, made of the fibrous web which protects the young +frond of the coco-nut palm. The strained liquor is received in a +wooden trough, in which the fecula is deposited; and the supernatant +liquor being poured off, the sediment is formed into balls, which are +dried in the sun for twelve or twenty-four hours, then broken and +reduced to powder, which is spread out in the sun further to dry. In +some parts of the world cakes of a large size are made of the meal, +which form an article of diet in China, Cochin-Caina, Travancore, &c., +where they are eaten by the natives with some acid to subdue their +acrimony. + +Some twenty varieties of the Ti plant (_Diacaena terminalis_) are +cultivated in the Polynesian islands. There is, however, but one which +is considered farinaceous and edible. In Java the root is considered a +valuable medicine in dysentery. + +Within the last three or four years, considerable quantities of a +feculent substance, called Tous les mois, have been imported from the +West Indies. It is cultivated in Barbados, St. Kitts, and the French +islands, and is said to be prepared by a tedious and troublesome +process from the rhizomes of various species of _Canna Coccinea_, +_Achiras_, _glauca_, and _edulis_. It approaches more nearly to potato +starch than to any other fecula, but its particles are larger. Like +the other amylaceous substances, it forms a valuable and nutritious +article of food for the invalid. + +The large tuberous roots of the Canna are equal in size to the human +head. The plant attains in rich soils a stature of fourteen feet, and +is identical, it is supposed, with the Achira of Choco, which has an +esculent root highly esteemed; and my friend, Dr. Hamilton, of +Plymouth, has named it provisionally, in consequence, _Canna achira_. +The starch of this root, he asserts, is superior to that of the +_Maranta_. + + +ROOT CROPS. + +Amongst tuberous rooted plants, which serve as food for man in various +quarters of the globe, the principal are the common potato, yam, +cocoes or eddoes, sweet potatoes, taro, tacca, arrowroot, cassava, or +manioc, and the Apios (_Arracacha esculenta_). There are others of +less importance, which may be incidentally mentioned. The roots of +_Tropaeolum tuberosum_ are eaten in Peru, those of _Ocymum tuberosum_ +in Java. In Kamschatka they use the root of the _Lilium Pomponium_ as +a substitute for the potato. In Brazil the _Helianthus tuberosus_. The +rhizomae and seed vessels of the Lotus form the principal food of the +aborigines of Australia. As a matter of curious information, I have +also briefly alluded to many other plants and roots, furnishing +farinaceous substance and support in different countries. + +The comparative amount of human food that can be produced upon an acre +from different crops, is worthy of great consideration. One hundred +bushels of Indian corn per acre is not an uncommon crop. One peck per +week will not only sustain life, but give a man strength to labor, if +the stomach is properly toned to the amount of food. This, then, would +feed one man 400 weeks, or almost eight years! 400 bushels of potatoes +can also be raised upon an acre. This would give a bushel a week for +the same length of time; and the actual weight of an acre of sweet +potatoes (_Convolvulus batatas_) is 21,344 lbs., which is not +considered an extraordinary crop. This would feed a man (six pounds a +day) for 3,557 days, or nine and two-third years! + +To vary the diet we will occasionally give rice, which has been grown +at the rate of 93 bushels to the acre, over an entire field. This, at +45 lbs. to the bushel, would be 4,185 lbs.; or, at 28 lbs. to the +bushel when husked, 2,604 lbs., which, at two pounds a day, would feed +a man 1,302 days, or more than three-and-a-half years! + + +POTATOES. + +The common English or Irish potato (_Solanum tuberosum_), so +extensively cultivated throughout most of the temperate countries of +the civilised globe, contributing as it does to the necessities of a +large portion of the human race, as well as to the nourishment and +fattening of stock, is regarded as of but little less importance in +our national economy than wheat or other grain. It has been found in +an indigenous state in Chili, on the mountains near Valparaiso and +Mendoza; also near Monte Video, Lima, Quito, as well as in Santa Fe de +Bogota, and more recently in Mexico, on the flanks of Orizaba. + +The history of this plant, in connection with that of the sweet +potato, is involved in obscurity, as the accounts of their +introduction into Europe are somewhat conflicting, and often they +appear to be confounded with one another. The common kind was +doubtless introduced into Spain in the early part of the sixteenth +century, from the neighbourhood of Quito, where, as well as in all +Spanish countries, the tubers are known as papas. The first published +account of it we find on record is in "_La Cronica del Peru_," by +Pedro de Cieca, printed at Seville, in 1553, in which it is described +and illustrated by an engraving. From Spain it appears to have found +its way into Italy, where it assumed the same name as the truffle. It +was received by Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, in whose time it spread +rapidly in the South of Europe, and even into Germany. It is said to +have found its way to England by a different route, having been +brought from Virginia by Raleigh colonists, in 1586, which would seem +improbable, as it was unknown in North America at that time, either +wild or cultivated; and besides, Gough, in his edition of Camden's +"Britannia," says it was first planted by Sir Walter Raleigh, on his +estate at Youghal, near Cork, and that it was cultivated in Ireland +before its value was known in England. Gerarde, in his "Herbal," +published in 1597, gives a figure of this plant, under the name of +_Batata Virginiana_, to distinguish it from the _Batata edulis_, and +recommends the root to be eaten as a "delicate dish," but not as a +common food. "The sweet potato," says Sir Joseph Banks, "was used in +England as a delicacy, long before the introduction of our potatoes. +It was imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the +Canaries, and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed +vigor." It is related that the common potato was accidentally +introduced into England from Ireland, at a period somewhat earlier +than that noticed by Gerarde, in consequence of the wreck of a vessel +on the coast of Lancashire, which had a quantity on board. In 1663 the +Royal Society of England took measures for the cultivation of this +vegetable, with the view of preventing famine. + +Notwithstanding its utility as a food became better known, no high +character was attached to it; and the writers on gardening towards the +end of the seventeenth century, a hundred years or more after its +introduction, treated of it rather indifferently. "They are much used +in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be +propagated with advantage to poor people." + +The famous nurserymen, Loudon and Wise, did not consider it worthy of +notice in their "Complete Gardener," published in 1719. But its use +gradually spread as its excellencies became better understood. It was +near the middle of the last century before it was generally known +either in Britain or North America, since which it has been most +extensively cultivated. + +The period of the introduction of the common potato into the British +North American colonies, is not precisely known. It is mentioned among +the products of Carolina and Virginia in 1749, and by Kalm as growing +in New York the same year. + +The culture of this root extends through the whole of Europe, a large +portion of Asia, Australia, the southern and northern parts of Africa, +and the adjacent islands. On the American continent, with the +exception of some sections of the torrid zone, the culture ranges from +Labrador on the east, and Nootka Sound on the west, to Cape Horn. It +resists more effectually than the cereals the frosts of the north. In +the North American Union it is principally confined to the Northern, +Middle, and Western States, where, from the coolness of the climate it +acquires a farinaceous consistence highly conducive to the support of +animal life. It has never been extensively cultivated in Florida, +Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, probably from the greater +facility of raising the sweet potato, its more tropical rival. Its +perfection, however, depends as much upon the soil as on the climate +in which it grows; for in the red loam, on the banks of Bayou Boeuf, in +Louisiana, where the land is new, it is said that tubers are produced +as large, savory, and as free from water as any raised in other parts +of the world. The same may be said of those grown at Bermuda, Madeira, +the Canaries, and numerous other ocean isles. + +The chief varieties cultivated in the Northern States of America are +the carter, the kidneys, the pink-eyes, the mercer, the orange, the +Sault Ste. Marie, the merino, and Western red; in the Middle and +Western States, the mercer, the long red, or merino, the orange, and +the Western red. The yield varies from 50 to 400 bushels and upwards +per acre, but generally it is below 200 bushels. + +Within the last ten years an alarming disease, or "rot," has attacked +the tubers of this plant, about the time they are fully grown. It has +not only appeared in nearly every part of America, but has spread +dismay, at times, throughout Great Britain and Ireland, and has been +felt more or less seriously in every quarter of the globe. + +To the greater uncertainty attending its cultivation of late years, +must be attributed the deficiency of the United States crop of 1849, +as compared with that of 1839. This is one of the four agricultural +products which, by the last census, appears smaller than ten years +since.--("American Census Reports for 1850.") + +The crops in Ireland, where the potato is the principal object of +culture, vary from 11/2 to 101/2 tons per acre, according to the season; +but in the average of three years ending 1849, the annual growth of +Great Britain and Ireland amounted to nine million tons, which, at L3 +per ton, exhibits the value at L27,000,000 sterling. Ireland produced +in 1847 a little over two million tons, the yield being 71/4 tons per +acre. In 1848 the produce was 2,880,814 tons, averaging only four tons +to the acre. In 1849, 4,014,122 tons, averaging 51/2 tons to the acre. +In 1850, 3,954,990 tons; and in 1851, 4,441,022 tons; the average +yield per acre not stated. In many parts of Scotland 24 tons to the +acre are raised. The sales of potatoes in the principal metropolitan +markets exceed 140,000 tons a year, which are irrespective of the +sales which take place at railway stations, wharfs, shops, &c. The +imports into the United Kingdom average about 70,000 tons annually. +Potatoes are exported to the West Indies, Mediterranean, and other +quarters. For emigrant ships, preserved or dried potato flour is now +much used. + +The following quantities of potato flour were imported from France in +the last few years:-- + + Cwts. + 1848 17,222 + 1849 3,858 + 1850 12,591 + 1851 2,631 + +We also imported the following quantities of potatoes in the last +five years:-- + + Cwts. + 1848 940,697 + 1849 1,417,867 + 1850 1,348,867 + 1851 636,771 + 1852 773,658 + +Thoroughly dried potatoes will always produce a crop free from +disease. Such is the positive assertion of Mr. Bollman, one of the +professors in the Russian Agricultural Institution, at Gorigoretsky. +In a very interesting pamphlet[47] by this gentleman, it is asserted, +as an unquestionable fact, that mere drying, if conducted at a +sufficiently high temperature, and continued long enough, is a +complete antidote to the disease. + +The account given by Professor Bollman of the accident which led to +this discovery is as follows:--He had contrived a potato-setter, which +had the bad quality of destroying any sprouts that might be "on the +sets, and even of tearing away the rind. To harden the potatoes so as +to protect them against this accident, he resolved to dry them. In the +spring of 1850, he placed a lot in a very hot room, and at the end of +three weeks they were dry enough to plant. The potatoes came up well, +and produced as good a crop as that of the neighbouring farmers, with +this difference only, that they had no disease, and the crop was, +therefore, upon the whole, more abundant. Professor Bollman tells us +that he regarded this as a mere accident; he, however, again dried his +seed potatoes in 1851, and again his crop was abundant and free from +disease, while everywhere on the surrounding land they were much +affected. This was too remarkable a circumstance not to excite +attention, and in 1852 a third trial took place. All Mr. Bollman's own +stock of potatoes being exhausted, he was obliged to purchase his +seed, which bore unmistakable marks of having formed part of a crop +that had been severely diseased; some, in fact, were quite rotten. +After keeping them about a month in a hot room, as before, he cut the +largest potatoes into quarters, and the smaller into halves, and left +them to dry for another week. Accidentally the drying was carried so +far that apprehensions were entertained of a very bad crop, if any. +Contrary to expectation, however, the sets pushed promptly, and grew +so fast that excellent young potatoes were dug three weeks earlier +than usual. Eventually nine times the quantity planted was produced, +and although the neighbouring fields were attacked, no trace of +disease could be found on either the herbage or the potatoes +themselves. + +This singular result, obtained in three successive years, led to +inquiry as to whether any similar cases were on record. In the course +of the investigation two other facts were elicited. It was discovered +that Mr. Losovsky (living in the government of Witebsk, in the +district of Sebege), had for four years adopted the plan of drying his +seed potatoes, and that during that time there had been no disease on +his estate. It was again an accident which led to the practice of this +gentleman. Five years ago, while his potatoes were digging, he put one +in his pocket, and on returning home threw it on the stove (poele), +where it remained forgotten till the spring. Having then chanced to +observe it, he had the curiosity to plant it, all dried up as it was, +and obtained an abundant, healthy crop; since that time the practice +of drying has been continued, and always with great success. Professor +Bollman remarks that it is usual in Russia, in many places, to +smoke-dry flax, wheat, and rye; and in the west of Russia, experienced +proprietors prefer, for seed, onions that have been kept over the +winter in cottages without a chimney. Such onions are called _dymka_, +which may be interpreted smoke-dried. + +The second fact is this:--Mr. Wasileffsky, a gentlemen residing in the +government of Mohileff, is in the habit of keeping potatoes all the +year round, by storing them in the place where his hams are smoked. It +happened that in the spring of 1852 his seed potatoes, kept in the +usual manner, were insufficient, and he made up the requisite quantity +with some of those which had been for a month in the smoking place. +These potatoes produced a capital crop, very little diseased, while at +the same time the crop from the sets which were not smoke-dried was +extensively attacked by disease. Professor Bollman is of opinion that +there would have been no disease at all if the sets had been better +dried. + +The temperature required to produce the desired result is not very +clearly made out. Mr. Bollman's room, in which his first potatoes were +dried, was heated to about 72 degrees, and much higher. By way of +experiment he placed others in the chamber of the stove itself, where +the thermometer stood at 136 degrees, and more. He also ascertained +that the vitality of the potato is not affected, even if the rind is +charred. Those who have the use of a malt-kiln, or even a lime-kiln, +might try the effect of excessive drying, for a month seems to be long +enough for the process.--(Gardener's Chronicle.) + +A Mr. Penoyer, of Western Saratoga, Illinois, publishes the following, +which he recommends as a perfect cure and preventive of the potato +rot, having tested it thoroughly four years with perfect success; +while others in the same field, who did not use the preventive, lost +their entire crop by the rot. It not only prevents the rot, but +restores the potato to its primitive vigor, and the product is not +only sound, but double the size, consequently producing twice the +quantity on the same ground, and the vines grow much larger, and +retain their freshness and vitality until the frost kills them. Aside +from the cure of the rot, the farmers would be more than doubly +compensated for their trouble and expense in the increase and quality +of the crop. The remedy or preventive is as follows:--"Take one peck +of fine salt and mix it thoroughly with half a bushel of Nova Scotia +plaster or gypsum (the plaster is the best), and immediately after +hoeing the potatoes the second time, or just as the young potato +begins to set, sprinkle on the main vines, next to the ground, a +tablespoon full of the above mixture to each hill, and be sure to get +it on the main vines, as it is found that the rot proceeds from a +sting of an insect in the vine, and the mixture coming in contact with +the vine, kills the effect of it before it reaches the potato." I +cannot but consider Professor Bollman's as the most important of the +two remedies suggested. + +The potato crop of the United States exceeds 100 million bushels, +nearly all of which are consumed in the country; the average exports +of the last eight years not having exceeded 160,000 bushels per annum. + +According to the census returns of 1840, the quantity of potatoes of +all sorts raised in the Union, was 108,298,060 bushels; of 1850, +104,055,989 bushels, of which 38,259,196 bushels were sweet potatoes. + +Last year (1852) there was under cultivation with potatoes in Canada, +the following extent of land:-- + + Acres. Bushels. + Upper Canada 77,672 Produce 498,747 + Lower Canada 73,244 Produce 456,111 + +About 782,008 cwts. of potatoes are annually exported from the Canary +Islands. In Prussia, 153 million hectolitres of potatoes were raised +in 1849. In 1840 Van Diemen's Land produced 15,000 tons of potatoes, +on about 5,000 acres of land. + +The potato is not yet an article of so much importance in France, as +in England or the Low Countries, but within the last twenty years its +cultivation has increased very rapidly. It is mostly grown where corn +is the least cultivated. The quantity raised in 1818, was 29,231,867 +hectolitres, which had increased in 1835 to 71,982,814 hectolitres. +About 2,000,000 hectolitres of chesnuts are also annually consumed in +France, a portion of the rural population in some of the Central and +Southern Departments living almost entirely on them for half the year. + +In Peru dried potatoes are thus prepared:--Small potatoes are boiled, +peeled, and then dried in the sun, but the best are those dried by the +severe frosts on the mountains. In the Cordilleras they are covered +with ice, until they assume a horny appearance. Powdered, it is called +_chimo_. They will keep for any length of time, and when used required +to be bruised and soaked. If introduced as a vegetable substance in +long sea voyages, the potato thus dried would be found wholesome and +nourishing. A large and profitable business is now carried on, in what +is called "preserved potatoes," for ships' use, prepared by Messrs. +Edwards and Co., which are found exceedingly useful in the Royal Navy, +in emigrant ships, for troops and other services, from their +portability, nutritious properties, and being uninjured by climate. + +Few persons are probably aware of the quantity of potatoes used in +England, America and the Continent, in the manufacture of starch, +arrowroot, and tapioca, &c., A starch manufactory in Mercer, Maine, +United States, grinds from 16,000 to 24,000 bushels annually of +potatoes, and makes 140,000 to 240,000 lbs. of starch, which finds a +ready market at Boston, at four dollars the hundred pounds. The New +England manufacturers prefer it to Poland starch. Another starch +manufacturer, in Hampden, America, consumes 2,500 bushels per day. In +a single district in Bavaria, in Germany, 400,000 lbs. of sago and +starch are manufactured from potatoes; 100 lbs. of potatoes are said +to yield 12 lbs. of starch. From experiments made in America, with +three varieties of potatoes, the long reds, Philadelphia, and +pink-eyes, it was found that the former yielded the most starch, viz., +about 6 lbs. to the bushel. A bushel of potatoes weighs about 64 lbs. +The following table from Accum, gives the rate of starch and component +parts per cent. in different varieties:-- + + +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------+ + | Sort. |Fibrine.|Starch.|Vegetable| Gum. |Acids and|Water.| + | | | | Albumen.| | Salts. | | + +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------- + |Red potatoes | 7.0 | 15.0 | 1.4 | 4.1 | 5.1 | 75.0 | + |Ditto germinated | 6.8 | 12.2 | 1.3 | 3.7 | | 73.0 | + |Potato sprouts | 2.8 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 3.3 | | 93.0 | + |Kidney potatoes | 8.8 | 9.1 | 0.8 | | | 81.3 | + |Large red ditto | 6.0 | 12.9 | 0.7 | | | 78.0 | + |Sweet ditto | 8.2 | 15.1 | 0.8 | | 74.3 | + |Potato of Peru | 5.2 | 15.0 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 76.0 | + |Ditto of England | 6.8 | 12.9 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 77.5 | + |Onion potato | 8.4 | 18.7 | 0.9 | 1.7 | 70.3 | + |Voigtland | 7.1 | 15.4 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 74.3 | + |Cultivated in the | | | | | | + | environs of Paris| 6.8 | 13.3 | 0.9 | 3.3 | 1.4 | 73.1 | + +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------+ + +The first six varieties were analysed by Einhoff, the next four by +Lamped, and the last named by Henry. + + +YAMS. + +The different species of yams have a wide range. In the West Indies +there are several varieties, having distinctive names, according to +quality, color, &c., as the white yam, the red yam, the negro yam, the +creole yam, the afoo yam, the buck yam (_Dioscorea triphylla_), which +is found wild in Java and the East; the Guinea yam, the Portuguese +yam, the water yam, and the Indian yam, &c. The last is considered the +most farinaceous and delicate in its texture, resembling in size the +potato; most of the other sorts are coarse, but still very nutritive +and useful. The common yam (_Dioscorea sativa_) is indigenous to the +Eastern Islands and West Indies. The Guinea yam (_D. aculeata_) is a +native of the East. The Barbados or winged yam (_D. alata_?) has a +widely extended range, being common to India, Java, Brazil, and +Western Africa. The yam species are climbing plants, with handsome +foliage, of the simplest culture, which succeed well in any light, +rich, or sandy soil, and are readily increased by dividing the +tuberous roots. The Indian, Barbados, and red yams are planted in the +West Indies early in May, and dug early in the January following. If +not bruised, they will keep well packed in ashes, the first nine, and +the second and last twelvemonths. The Portuguese and Guinea yams are +planted early in January and dug in September. Creole yams and Tanias +are dug in January. Sweet potatoes from January to March. In most of +our colonies large crops of the finest descriptions of yams, cocos, +&c., could be obtained, but the planting of ground provisions is too +much neglected by all classes. From the tubers of yams of all sorts, +and particularly the buck yam, starch is easily prepared, and of +excellent quality. Some varieties of the buck yam are purple-fleshed, +often of a very deep tint, approaching to black, and although this is +an objection, because it renders more washing necessary, yet even from +these the starch is at last obtained perfectly white. + +As an edible root the buck yam, especially when grown in a light soil, +is equal to the potato, if not superior to it. It does not, however, +keep for any length of time, and therefore could not be exported to +Europe, unless the roots were sliced and dried. + +Yams and sweet potatoes thrive well in the northern parts of +Australia; indeed the former are indigenous there, and constitute the +chief article of vegetable food used by the natives. The yam was +introduced into Sweden, where it succeeded well, and bread, starch, +and brandy were made from it, but it prefers a warmer climate. + +Yams are occasionally brought to this country. When cooked, either by +roasting or boiling, the root is even more nutritious than the potato, +nor is it possessed of any unpalatable flavor, the pecularity being +between that of rice and the potato. Dressed in milk, or mashed, they +are absolutely a delicacy; and from the abundance in which they are +cultivated in the West Indies and other parts, they promise to become +a most economical and nutritious substitute for the potato. + +The yam frequently grows to the enormous size of forty or fifty pounds +weight, but in this large state it is coarse-flavored and fibrous. + +An acre of land is capable of producing 41/2 tons of yams, and the same +quantity of sweet potatoes, within the twelve months, or nine tons per +acre for both, being nearly as much as the return obtained at home in +the cultivation of potatoes; and I have the authority of all +analytical chemists for saying that in point of value, as an article +of food, the superiority is as two to one in favor of the tropical +roots. + +The kidney-rooted yam (_D. pentaphylla_), is indigenous to the +Polynesian islands, and is sometimes cultivated for its roots. It is +called _kawaii_ in the Feejee islands. _D. bulbifera_, a native of the +East, is also abundantly naturalised in the Polynesian islands, but is +not considered edible. + +There are seven or eight kinds of yams grown in India. Two are of a +remarkably fine flavor, one weighing as much as eighteen pounds, the +other three pounds. These are found in the Tartar country. + + +COCOS OR EDDOES + +_Arum esculentum_.--This root has not hitherto been considered of +sufficient importance to demand particular care in its cultivation, +except by those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, and derive +their subsistence from the production of the soil. But though the +cultivation of the root is almost unknown to the higher classes in +society, and little regarded by planters in the colonies, it is a most +valuable article of consumption. Amongst the laboring population it is +the principal dependence for a supply of food. Long droughts may +disappoint the hopes of the yam crop, storms and blight may destroy +the plantain walks, but neither dry or wet weather materially injure +the coco; it will always make some return, and though it may not +afford a plentiful crop, it will yield a sufficiency until a supply +can be had from other sources. For this reason the laborer in the West +Indies always takes care to put in a good plant of cocos to his +provision ground as a stand by, and knowing their value, is perhaps +the only person who bestows any degree of care or attention upon them. +Previous to their emancipation, whole families of negroes lived upon +the produce of one provision ground, and the coco formed the main +article of their support. Where the soil is congenial to the white and +black Bourbon coco, the labor of one industrious person once a +fortnight will raise a supply sufficient for the consumption of a +family of six or seven persons. The coco begins to bear after the +first year, and with common care and cultivation the same plant ought +to give annually two or three returns for several years. In Jamaica, a +disease something similar to that affecting the potato, has been found +injurious to the coco root. This disease, which has baffled all +inquiry as to its origin, affects the plants in and after the second +year of their being planted. The first indication of it is the change +in the leaves, which gradually turn to a yellow hue, have a sickly +appearance, and at length drop off at the surface of the earth. The +stock or "coco head," as it is called, below ground, having become +rotten, nothing but a soft pulpy mass remains. In some fields every +third or fourth root is thus affected, in others much greater numbers +are destroyed, so much so that the field requires to be almost +entirely replanted, by which not only an expense is entailed, but a +heavy loss sustained, from the field being thrown out of its regular +bearing. The black coco seems to suffer less than the white. + +Another species, the Taro (_Arum Colocasia_, _Colocasia esculenta_ and +_macrorhizon_), is an important esculent root in the Polynesian +islands. In the dry method of culture practised on the mountains of +Hawaii, the roots are protected by a covering of fern leaves. The +cultivation of taro is hardly a process of multiplication, for the +crown of the root is perpetually replanted. As the plant endures for a +series of years, the tuberous roots serve at some of the rocky groups +as a security against famine. It is also extensively cultivated in +Madeira and Zanzibar, and has even withstood the climate of New +Zealand. It is grown also in Egypt, Syria, and some of the adjacent +countries, for its esculent roots. A species is cultivated in the +Deccan, for the sake of the leaves, which form a substitute for +spinach. Farina is obtained from the root of _Arum Rumphii_ in +Polynesia. + + +SWEET POTATOES. + +The batatas, or camote of the Spanish colonies (_Convolvulus batatas_, +Linn; _Batatas edulis_, of Choisy, and the _Ipomaea Batatas_ of other +botanists), belongs to a family of plants which has been split into +several genera. It is a native of the East Indies, and of +intertropical America, and was the "potato" of the old English writers +in the early part of the fourteenth century. It was doubtless +introduced into Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia soon after their +settlement by the Europeans, being mentioned as one of the cultivated +products of those colonies as early as the year 1648. It grows in +excessive abundance throughout the Southern States of America, and as +far north as New Jersey, and the southern part of Michigan. The +varieties cultivated there are the purple, the red, the yellow, and +the white, the former of which is confined to the South. + +The amount of sweet potatoes exported from South Carolina in 1747-48, +was 700 bushels; that of the common potato exported from the United +States, 1820-21, 90,889,000 bushels; in 1830-31, 112,875,000 bushels; +in 1840-41, 136,095,000 bushels; in 1850-51, 106,342,000 bushels. + +The sweet potato is cultivated generally in all the intertropical +regions, for the sake of its roots, and as a legume in temperate +countries. In the Southern States of North America, the culture ceases +in Carolina under latitude 36 degs.; in Portugal and Spain it reaches +to latitude 40 and 42 deg.; and as a legume its cultivation is +attempted to the vicinity of Paris. In India it is a very common crop; +its tubers are very similar to the potato, but have a sweeter taste, +whence the common name; but it must not be confounded with the +topinambur (_Helianthus tuberosus_), a native of Brazil, which is less +cultivated. The root contains much saccharine and amylaceous matter. + +Several marked varieties of the sweet potato are raised in the +Polynesian groups. In some islands it forms the principal object of +cultivation. + +It is grown in the Northern districts of New Zealand, at Zanzibar, +Monomoisy, Bombay, and other parts of the East Indies. They are +raised on the bare surface of the rock in some parts of the Hawaiian +islands, and a sourish liquor is procured from them. It was early +cultivated on the Western Coast of Africa, for the Portuguese Pilot +(who set out on his voyages to the colony at St. Thomas, in the Gulf +of Guinea) speaks of this plant, and states that it is called "batata" +by the aboriginals of St. Domingo. They are abundant at Mocha and +Muscat. Sweet potatoes form a principal and important crop in the +Bermudas. + +A valuable addition has lately been made to the votaries of the sweet +potato in Alabama, supposed to be from Peru. A letter describing it +says:--"It is altogether different and equally superior to any variety +of this root hitherto known. It is productive, and attains a +prodigious size, even upon the poorest sandy land, and the roots +remain without change from the time of taking them out of the ground +until the following May. The plant is singularly easy of cultivation, +growing equally well from the slip or vine, the top or vine of the +full-grown plant being remarkably small; the inside is as white as +snow. It is dry and mealy, and the saccharine principle contained +resembles in delicacy of flavor fine virgin honey." + +There is in general a great error in cultivating this root, as most +people still plant in the old way, two or three sets in the hole, +which is a great deal too close. + +When a piece of land is to be planted in sweet potatoes, it should be +top-dressed with some manure, to be dug or ploughed under a week or +two before it is to be planted. Drills should be made two feet apart, +and the potatoes placed in the drill about one foot asunder. From +eight to twelve to the pound are the best size for planting. The +"white upright" kind, when intended for sets, should be taken up early +in March, and kept about a month, so as to be quite dry before +planting. Abundant crops can rarely be raised from the stem of the +"uprights;" the old potato, however, grows to a large size. I have +planted a potato weighing about an ounce, and dug it up in August, +weighing over two pounds. The drills can be made with a small plough +to great advantage, when a person understands it. + +The best manure for the sweet potato is anything green, such as fresh +seaweed, green oats, bushes, or anything of the kind, put in in +abundance. + +Care should be taken to get early and good strong slips. A slip with +about six joints is quite long enough; three or four joints to be put +under ground, and the rest above. For slips, the land must be prepared +as already described for the potatoes; this should be done before the +slips are ready to cut. + +The best way to plant slips is to drill, the same way as for the +potatoes, only a little closer; then put the end of the slip in, +leaving about two joints out of ground, placing them one foot apart. +The drills can be made in dry weather, so as not to have any delay +when it rains; by this means a great many can be planted in a day. + +The best land for sweet potatoes is the light sandy kind; a rich +friable black mould, or a rocky substratum; for hill sides, rocky +ravines, and places which would be called barren and unprofitable for +other crops, are found to yield a good return when planted with sweet +potatoes. The best time to plant slips to get stock from, is the +latter end of August or early in September, as the season may suit. + +The sweet potato of Java, says Mr. Crawfurd, is the finest I ever met +with. Some are frequently of several pounds weight, and now and then +have been found of the enormous weight of 50 lbs. The sweetness is not +disagreeable to the palate, though considerable, and they contain a +large portion of farinaceous matter, being as mealy as the best of our +own potatoes. In Java it is cultivated in ordinary upland arable, or +in the dry season as a green crop in succession to rice. + +A tuberous root (_Ocymum tuberosum_), an inhabitant of the hot plains, +is frequently cultivated in Java. It is small, round, and much +resembling in appearance the American potato, but has no great flavor. +Its local name is _kantang_. + + +CASSAVA OR MANIOC. + +Of this plant, which is a shrub about six feet high, extensively grown +for its farinaceous root, there are several species, nearly all +natives of America, principally of Brazil, whence it derives one of +its common names of Manihot or Mandioc. Two species of Manihot have +been found indigenous in South Australia. The varieties commonly +cultivated for their roots, are the sweet and the bitter. + +1. Sweet cassava (_Janiphi_ (or _Jatropha_,) _Loeflingii_, Kunth; +_Manihot Aipi_, of Pohl).--This species has a spindle-shaped root +brown externally, about six or seven ounces or more in weight, which +contains amylaceous matter, without any bitterness, and is used as +food, after being rasped and washed, so as to cleanse it from the +fibrous matter, in the same manner as arrowroot is prepared. It is +distinguished from the bitter cassava by a tough ligneous fibre, which +runs through the heart of the tuber. Manihot starch is sometimes +imported into Europe under the name of Brazilian arrowroot. The +cassava is known in Peru as _yucca_. + +A dry mixed soil is best suited to its culture. So exhausting is this +crop, that it cannot be raised more than two or three times +successively on the same land. The roots arrive at maturity in eight +or nine months after planting, but may be kept in the ground a much +longer time without injury. Sweet cassava might be sliced, dried in +the sun, and sent to Europe in that state. In dry weather the process +succeeds remarkably well, and the dried slices keep for a considerable +time. Dr. Shier ascertained that when these sliced and dried roots +were first steeped and then boiled, they return to very nearly their +original condition, and make an excellent substitute for the potato. + +The plant thrives on even the poorest soil; the mode of planting is +simple. It consists in laying cuttings a foot long in square pits a +foot deep, and covering them with mould, leaving the upper ends open. +From two to four pieces may be placed in each square. The planting +ought to be in the rainy season. The cuttings must be made from the +full-grown stem. A humid soil causes the root to decay, a dry soil is +therefore more adapted for its cultivation. As blossoms are +occasionally plucked from potato plants, so the manihot or cassava is +deprived of its buds to increase the size of its roots. The raw root +of the bitter species, when taken out of the ground, is poisonous--if +exposed, however, to the sun for a short time, it is innocuous, and +when boiled is quite wholesome. + +The starch of the root of the manioc is prepared in the following +manner, as described by Dr. Ure:--" The roots are washed and reduced +to a pulp by means of a rasp or grater. The pulp is put into coarse +strong canvas bags, and thus submitted to the action of a powerful +press, by which it parts with most of its noxious juice. As the active +principle of this juice is volatile, it is easily dissipated by baking +the squeezed cakes of pulp upon a plate of hot iron. The pulp thus +dried concretes into lumps, which become hard and friable as they +cool. They are then broken into pieces, and laid out in the sun to +dry. In this state they are a wholesome nutriment. These cakes +constitute the only provisions laid in by the natives, in their +voyages upon the Amazon. Boiled in water, with a little beef or +mutton, they form a kind of soup similar to that of rice. + +The cassava cakes sent to Europe are composed almost entirely of +starch, along with a few fibres of the ligneous matter. It may be +purified by diffusion in warm water, passing the milky mixture through +a linen cloth, evaporating the straining liquid over the fire, with +constant agitation. The starch, dissolved by the heat, thickens as the +water evaporates, but on being stirred it becomes granulated, and must +be finally dried in a proper stove. + +2. Bitter cassava (_Janipha Manihot_, of Kunth; _Jatropha Manihot_, of +Linnaeus; and _Manihot utilissima_, Pohl).--This species has a knotty +root, black externally, which is occasionally 30 lbs. in weight. In +the root there is much starchy matter deposited, usually along with a +poisonous narcotic substance, which is said to be hydrocyanic acid. +The juice of the plant, when distilled, affords as a first product a +liquor which, in the dose of thirty drops, will cause the death of a +man in six minutes. It is doubted whether this acid pre-exists in the +plant; some suppose it to be generated after it is grated down into a +pulp. It can be driven off by roasting, and then the starch is used in +the form of cassava bread. It is principally from the starch of the +bitter cassava that tapioca is prepared by elutriation and granulating +on hot plates. This serves to agglutinate it into the form of +concretions, constituting the tapioca of commerce. This being starch +very nearly pure, is often prescribed by physicians as an aliment of +easy digestion. A tolerably good imitation of it is made by beating, +stirring, and drying potato starch in a similar way. + +The grated starch of the roots, floated in water, is spontaneously +deposited, and when repeatedly washed and dried in the sun, forms +cassava flour, called "Moussache" by the French. + +The juice of the bitter cassava, mixed with molasses and fermented, +has been made into an intoxicating liquor, which is much relished by +the negroes and Indians. + +The concentrated juice of the bitter cassava, under the name of +cassareep, forms the basis of the West India dish, "pepper pot." One +of its most remarkable properties is its highly antiseptic power, +preserving meat that has been boiled in it for a much longer period +than can be done by any other culinary process. Cassareep was +originally an Indian preparation. + +The manioc or cassava is cultivated in America, on both sides of the +equator, to about latitude 30 degrees north and south. Among the +mountains of intertropical America, it reaches to an elevation of +3,200 feet. It is cultivated also in great abundance on the island of +Zanzibar, and among the negro tribes of Eastern Africa to the +Monomoesy, inclusive; on the west coast of Africa, in Congo and +Guinea. It appears not to have been introduced into Asia. The farina +of the manioc is almost the only kind of meal used in Brazil, at least +in the north, near the equator. An acre of manioc is said to yield as +much nutriment as six acres of wheat. Meyen states, "It is not +possible sufficiently to praise the beautiful manioc plant." The +Indians find in this a compensation for the rice and other cerealia of +the Old World. It has been carried from Brazil to the Mauritius and +Madagascar. + +The following quantities of Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca, were +imported in the undermentioned years:-- + + Cwts. + 1833 942 + 1834 888 + 1835 1,663 + 1836 3,735 + 1837 2,142 + 1838 462 + 1839 402 + 1840 983 + 1841 1,870 + 1843 2,325 + +St. Lucia grows a considerable quantity of manioc; it exported of +cassava flour in-- + + Barrels. + 1827 8 + 1828 814 + 1829 279 + 1830 99 + 1831 59 + 1834 713 + +The cassava root grows abundantly in most of the West India islands +and tropical America; the trouble of planting is inconsiderable, and +the profit arising from its manufacture, even by the common process of +hand-grating, is immense. I should be glad if I could induce the +enterprising of our colonial settlers to give this a fair trial, as +well as encourage the present growers to increase their crops and +improve the quality of the article, so as to render it suitable for +the English market. The manufacture of starch will one of these days +become a productive source of colonial wealth. Since cassava was first +grown in the West, its capabilities as a starch-producer have, to a +certain extent, been known, and for that purpose it has been in +limited use. + +Mr. James Glen, of Haagsbosch plantation, Demerara, has recently +tested its value as an article of export, and added it to the other +industrial resources of that colony. + +This gentleman, by erecting machinery on his plantation for grinding +the root and preparing the starch of the bitter cassava, has already +shipped the article in considerable quantities to Europe, and it has +been sold at a price which puts the profit upon sugar cultivation +completely to the blush. His agent in Glasgow writes, that any +quantity (like that already shipped) can command a ready sale at 9d. +per lb. Its use is co-extensive, or nearly so, with that of sugar. The +productive capabilities of the soil are not perhaps generally known; +nor is it necessary that, to pay the grower there, it should bring +even half that price. A sample of a ton, which was prepared at +Haagsbosch in 1841, was submitted for examination to Dr. Shier, at the +colonial laboratory, Georgetown, who admitted it to be a beautiful +specimen of starch, although it had undergone but _one_ washing. The +root from which it was made, was planted eight or nine months +previously, upon an acre of soil, which had never undergone any +preparation of ploughing, or been broken and turned up in any way. The +plants were never weeded after they had begun to spring, nor were they +tended or disturbed until they were ripe and pulled up. The expense of +planting the acre was five dollars, and reaping this crop would, I +suppose, amount to as much more, say L2 in all. The green cassava was +never weighed, but the acre yielded fully a ton of starch--equal, at +9d. per lb., to L84. + +The experimental researches of Dr. Shier have led him to believe that +the green bitter cassava will give one-fifth its weight of starch. If +this be the case the return per acre would, under favorable +circumstances, when the land is properly worked, be enormous. On an +estate at Essequibo, a short time ago, an acre of cassava, grown in +fine permeable soil, was lifted and weighed; it yielded 25 tons of +green cassava. Such a return as this per acre would enable our West +India colonies to inundate Great Britain with food, and at a rate +which would make flour to be considered a luxury. Dr. Shier is +convinced that, in thorough drained land, where the roots could +penetrate the soil, and where its permeability would permit of their +indefinite expansion, a return of 25 tons an acre might uniformly be +calculated upon. What a blessing, not only for those colonies, but for +the world, would the introduction be of this cheap and nutritious +substitute for the potato. + + +NEW TUBEROUS PLANTS RECOMMENDED AS SUBSTITUTES FOR THE POTATO. + +In the present disturbed state of the grain markets of Europe, the +advantage of cultivating plants which directly or indirectly can form +a substitute for the potato, admits of no doubt. It appears to me, +moreover, that when the way is once opened up, even under ordinary +circumstances, the tropical colonies of Great Britain, without +diminishing the quantity of sugar and coffee they produce, could +advantageously supply the British market with the purest starches, and +possibly also with various other articles of farinaceous food. +Anything that will lead the planters to a more varied cultivation than +the present uniform and persistent one, will be advantageous to our +colonies; and the growth of farinaceous root crops for exportation, +cannot fail to produce most beneficial effects on that class of the +peasantry in the British possessions, who are owners of small lots of +land, which at present they either totally neglect, or cultivate most +imperfectly. + +In 1846, Dr. A. Gesner, one of my correspondents, called attention, in +my "Colonial Magazine," to two indigenous roots of North America, +which he thought deserving special attention. These were _Apios +tuberosa_, and _Claytonia acutiflora_, _or Virginiana_. + +1. _A. tuberosa_ (Boerhave), or _Glycine Apios_.--This plant is common +throughout the Northern and Southern States of America, and is also +met with in the lower British North American Provinces. It is known +under the native name of _Saa-ga-ban_ by the Micmac Indians, by whom +the pear-shaped roots are used as an article of food. Like the +_Arachis hypogaea_, it belongs to the Leguminosae family. The fruit and +flower resemble those of the wood vetch. It is thus described in +Professor Eaton's "Manual of Botany for North America," published in +1836:--"Color of corolla, blue and purple; time of flowering, July +(and August in Nova Scotia), perennial; stem, twining; leaves, +pinnate, with seven lance-ovate leaflets; racemes shorter than the +leaves, axillary; root, tuberous. Root very nutritive; ought to be +generally cultivated." + +The average size of the tubers is that of cherries, but a few are +found of much larger dimensions. In their appearance they resemble the +common potato, having apparently the peculiar indentations called +eyes. The skin of the tuber is of a rusty or blackish brown color. The +interior is very white, and the root has the taste and odor of the +common potato. The Indians state that the roots, if kept either in a +dry or moist state, will not suffer any decay for a lengthened period. +They are very farinaceous, and contain a large per centage of starch, +which resembles that of wheat; by being dried the tuber shrinks a +little, but it immediately expands on being thrown into warm water. It +contains much nutritive matter, is wholesome, and I have no doubt, if +properly cultivated, it will prove to be very prolific. The tubers are +situated a few inches below the surface of the soil, and are strung +together like beads by a strong ligament. + +A similar kind of earth-nut, or tuberous root, probably the _Glycine +subterranea_ of Linnaeus, the Voandzou of Madagascar, is extensively +cultivated in various parts of Africa. + +2. _Claytonia acutiflora_ or _Virginiana_, the Musquash of the Micmac +Indians, is found throughout the Northern and Southern States of North +America. It is thus described by Prof. Eaton, "Man. Bot. N.A."--"Color +of corolla, white and red; situation, alpine, perennial; leaves, +linear, lance-ovate; petals, obovate, retuse; leaves of the calyx, +somewhat acute; root, tuberous. It blossoms in May. The seed is ripe +in June, when the plant disappears." + +These roots may be collected along the sea coasts and principal lakes +and rivers of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward's Island, +although they are not plentiful, for they are greedily devoured by +some of the wild animals, and wherever swine have been permitted to +run at large they have been destroyed. + +Dr. Gesner shipped several bushels of the saa-ga-ban to the principal +agricultural societies in Great Britain, also to Halifax, and Nova +Scotia. The ordinary potato of this country does not yield more than +14 per cent. of starch, and it contains 76 per cent. of water. From +the best saa-ga-ban Dr. Gesner obtained 21 per cent. of starch, and +the quantity of water is reduced to 50 per cent. It also contains +vegetable albumen, gum, and sugar. From these facts it is evident that +the saa-ga-ban is much more nutritive than the potato, and the weight +of the tubers, in their wild state, compared with the weight of the +slender vine in the best samples, is equal in proportion to the common +cultivated potato in its ordinary growth. The starch is very white, +and closely resembles that made from the arrowroot. It is not +improbable that the quantity of water in the tuber will be increased +by cultivation; yet the fibrous parenchyma will be reduced, and taken +altogether, the nutritive properties will be increased; if the plant +improve as much by cultivation as the potato and many others have +done, its success is certain. + +The North American Indians have several wild roots which they dig up +for sustenance when other food is exhausted. Among these are--1st, the +mendo, or wild sweet potato; 2nd, the tip-sin-ah, or wild prairie +turnip; 3rd, the omen-e-chah, or wild bean. The first is found +throughout the valleys of the Mississippi and St. Peter's, about the +basis of bluffs, in rather moist but soft and rich ground. The plant +resembles the sweet potato, and the root is similar in taste and +growth. It does not grow so large or long as the cultivated sweet +potato, but I should have thought it the same, were it not that the +wild potato is not affected by the frost. A woman will dig from a peck +to half a bushel a day. + +The Indians eat them, simply boiled in water, but prefer them cooked +with fat meat. + +The wild potato, of the north-west of America, is a general article of +food; it is called by them wabessepin; it resembles the common potato, +is mealy when boiled, and grows only in wet clay ground, about one and +a half feet deep. The crane potato, called sitchauc-wabessepin, is of +the same kind, but inferior in quality. The Indians use these for food +as well as the memomine, and another long and slender root called +watappinee. Probably it is the first of these that is referred to by +Nicollet, as the prairie potato. "All the high prairies (he says) +abound with the silver-leafed _Psoralia_, which is the prairie turnip +of the Americans, the _pomme des prairies_ of the Canadians, and +furnishes an invaluable food to the Indians." There are several +species of _Psoralia_, viz., _esculenta_, _argophylla_, _cuspidata_, +and _lanceolata_. + +The prairie turnip grows on the high dry prairies, one or two +together, in size from that of a small hen's egg to that of a goose +egg, and of the same form. They have a thick black or brown bark, but +are nearly pure white inside, with very little moisture. They are met +with four to eight inches below the surface, and are dug by the women +with a long pointed stick, forced into the ground and used as a lever. +They are eaten boiled and mashed like a turnip, or are split open and +dried for future use. In this state they resemble pieces of chalk. It +is said that when thus dried they may be ground into flour, and that +they make a very palatable and nutritious bread. M. Lamare Picot, a +French naturalist, has lately incurred a very considerable expense to +obtain the seed, which he has carried to France, believing that it is +capable of cultivation, and may form a substitute both for potato and +wheat. + +The wild bean is found in all parts of the valleys where the land is +moist and rich. It is of the size of a large white bean, with a rich +and very pleasant flavor. When used in a stew, I have thought it +superior to any garden vegetable I had ever tasted. The Indians are +very fond of them, and pigeons get fat on them in spring. The plant is +a slender vine, from two to four feet in height, with small pods two +to three inches long, containing three to five small beans. The pod +dries and opens, the beans fall to the ground, and in spring take root +and grow again. The beans on the ground are gathered by the Indians, +who sometimes find a peck at once, gathered by mice for their winter +store. + +There are also several kinds of edible roots growing in the ponds or +small lakes, which are gathered by the Indians for food. + +The _psui-cinh-chah_, or swamp potato, is found in mud and water, +about three feet deep. The leaf is as large as the cabbage leaf. The +stem has but one leaf, which has, as it were, two horns or points. The +root is obtained by the Indian women; they wade into the water and +loosen the root with their feet, which then floats, and is picked up +and thrown into a canoe. It is of an oblong shape, of a whitish +yellow, with four black rings around it, of a slightly pungent taste, +and not disagreeable when eaten with salt or meat. + +The _psui-chah_, with a stem and leaf similar to the last, has a root +about the size of a large hickory-nut. They grow in deep water, and +being smaller are much more difficult to get, but the Indians prefer +them; they have an agreeable taste, and are harder and firmer when +cooked. Both these roots are found in large quantities in the musk-rat +lodges, stored by them for winter use. + +The _ta-wah-pah_, with a stem, leaf, and yellow flower, like the +pond-lily, is found in the lakes, in water and mud, from four to five +feet deep. The Indian women dive for them, and frequently obtain as +many as they are able to carry. The root is from one to two feet in +height, very porous; there are as many as six or eight cells running +the whole length of the root. It is very difficult to describe the +flavor. It is slightly sweet and glutinous, and is generally boiled +with wild fowl, but is occasionally roasted. + +In his exploring expedition into the interior of Guiana, in the region +of the Upper Essequibo, Sir E. Schomburgk notices the discovery of a +variety of Leguminosae, whose tubers grow to an enormous size, fully +equal to the largest yam. These roots were not, at the time he was +there, in full perfection, but their taste was somewhat between the +yam and the sweet potato. The Taruma Indians called them Cuyupa. The +roots are considered fit for use when the herb above ground dies. Sir +Robert brought a few of the seeds of the plant with him on his return +to Demerara. + +Two interesting productions have been recently introduced into the +Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, from the Ecuador, by M. Bourcier, +formerly Consul-General of France in that country. One is the red and +yellow _ocas_, which is of the form of a long potato, and has the +taste of a chesnut; the other is the _milloco_, which has the taste +and form of our best potatoes. These two roots, which are found in +great abundance in the neighbourhood of Quito, grow readily in the +poorest land. The _oca_ is cultivated in the fields of Mexico, but +only succeeds in the warmer districts. From the bulbous roots of the +cacomite, a species of _Tigridia_, a good flour is also prepared +there. + +Stevenson ("Travels in South America," vol. ii., p. 55) says, a root +called the oca is cultivated in several of the colder provinces of +Peru. "This plant," he states, "is of a moderate size, in appearance +somewhat like the acetous trefoil; the roots yellow, each about five +or six inches long, and two in circumference. They have many eyes, and +the roots, several of which are yielded by one plant, are somewhat +curved. When boiled it is much sweeter than the camote or batata; +indeed it appears to contain more saccharine matter than any root I +ever tasted; if eaten raw it is very much like the chesnut. The roots +may be kept for many months in a dry place. The transplanting of the +oca (he adds) to England, where I am persuaded it would prosper, would +add another agreeable and useful esculent to our tables." + +The Brussels paper, _L'Emancipation_, mentions that a root has been +discovered by the Director of the Museum of Industry, in that place, +destined to take the place of the potato. It is the _Lathyrus +tuberosus_, called by the peasants the earth mouse, on account of its +form, and the earth chesnut on account of its taste. This plant exists +only in some localities of Lorraine and Burgundy. The Lathyrus has +never been cultivated, and it is thought that it will attain, with +cultivation, the size of the potato. The French peasants have a +prejudice against cultivating it, because they say it walks under +ground, and leaves the place it is planted in to go into the +neighbouring field. The fact is, that it grows in a chaplet, of which +the bulbs are arranged along a root running horizontally, of which the +two extremities are very rarely found, so that on taking up the +hinder tubercles it continues its growth in front, which gives rise to +the saying that if the plant had only time enough, it would make the +tour of the world. + +The bulb of _Gastrodia sesamoides_ (R. Brown), a curious herbaceous +species of orchis, native of New Holland, is edible, and preferred by +the aborigines to potatoes and other tuberous roots. Some of my +accredited informants believe it might be turned to profitable +account, but being a parasitic plant, it could scarcely be +systematically cultivated. It flourishes in its wild state on loamy +soil in low or sloping grounds. The first indication of its vegetation +in the spring, is the appearance of a whitish bulb above the sward, of +an hemispherical shape, and about the size of a small egg. The dusky +white covering resembles a fine white net, and within it is a pellucid +gelatinous substance. Again within this is a firm kernel, about as +large as a Spanish nut, and from this a fine fibrous root descends +into the soil. It is known in Van Diemen's Land, and other parts of +Australia, by the common name of native bread. Captain Hunter, in his +Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson on the first settlement of +the Convict Colony, speaks of finding large quantities of "wild yams," +on which the natives fed, but the roots were not bigger than a walnut; +therefore it was probably this plant. + +_Arracacha esculenta_, of Bancroft and Decandolle (_Conium +Arracacha_).--This perennial herb is a native of South America, which, +from its salubrious qualities, is extensively cultivated in the +mountains of Venezuela and other parts of tropical and Southern +America, for culinary purposes. It is propagated by planting pieces of +the tuberous root, in each of which is an eye or shoot. The late Baron +de Shack introduced it into Trinidad, from Caraccas, and it has thence +been carried to the island of Grenada. It throve there remarkably +well, but has been unaccountably neglected. He also sent roots of this +valuable plant to London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Although it bears +cold better than the potato, it requires a warmer and more equal +temperature than most of the countries of Europe afford. It would, +however, make an excellent addition to the culinary vegetables of many +tropical countries, uniting the taste of the potato and parsnip, but +being superior to both. + +The arracacha has been introduced into the South of Europe, not as a +substitute for, but as a provision against a failure of the potato +crop. It is highly recommended by the Rev. J.M. Wilson, in the "Rural +Encyclopaedia." + +Stevenson ("Travels in South America," vol. ii., p. 383) says the +yucas (cassava), camotes (sweet potatoes), and yams cultivated at +Esmeraldas and that neighbourhood, were the finest he ever saw. "It is +not uncommon for one of these roots to weigh upwards of twenty pounds. +At one place I saw a few plants of the yuca that had stood upwards of +twenty years, the owner having frequently bared the bottom of the +plants and taken the ripe roots, after which, throwing up the earth +again, and allowing a sufficient time for new roots to grow, a +continual succession of this excellent nutritious food was procured." + +The Aipi grows in Brazil, and according to T. Ashe, may be eaten raw, +and, when pressed, yields a pleasant juice for drink; or being +inspissated by the heat of the sun, is kept either to be boiled and +eaten, or dissolved and drank. The tapinambar grows in Chili, and is +used by the Indians. + +The tapioca, or bay rash, a plant which grows about the out-islands of +the Bahamas group, was found of great use as a food plant to the +inhabitants of Long Island, during a scarcity of food occasioned by +the drought in 1843. This root grows in the form of a large beet, and +is from twelve to sixteen inches in length. It is entirely +farinaceous, and, when properly ground and prepared, makes good bread. +It fetches there four to six cents a pound. + +The root of the kooyah plant (_Valeriana edulis_) is much used by some +of the North American Indians as food. The root is of a very bright +yellow color, with a peculiar taste and odor, and hence is called +"tobacco root." It is deprived of its strong poisonous qualities by +being baked in the ground for about two days. A variety of other roots +and tubers furnish them with food. Among these are kamas root +(_Camassia esculenta_), which is highly esteemed; the bulb has a sweet +pleasant flavor, somewhat of the taste of preserved quince. It is a +strikingly handsome bulbous plant, with large beautiful purple +flowers. Yampah root (_Anethum graveolens_) is a common article of +food with the Indians of the Rocky Mountains. + +The roots of a thistle (_Cersium virginianium_, or _Carduus +virginianus_), which are about the ordinary size of carrots, are also +eaten by them. They are sweet and well flavored, but require a long +preparation to fit them for use. + +The people of Southern India and Ceylon have for many hundred years +been in the habit of eating the bulb or root, which is the first shoot +from the Palmyra nut, which forms the germ of the future tree, and is +known locally as _Pannam kilingoes_. It is about the size of a common +carrot, though nearly white. It forms a great article of food among +the natives for several months in the year; but Europeans dislike it +from its being very bitter. Recent experiments have proved that a +farina superior to arrowroot can be obtained from it, prepared in the +same way; and 100 roots, costing 21/2d., yield one and a-half to two +pounds of the flour. + +From the boiled inner bark of the Russian larch, mixed with rye flour, +and afterwards buried a few hours in the snow, the hardy Siberian +hunters prepare a sort of leaven, with which they supply the place of +common leaven when the latter is destroyed, as it frequently is by the +intense cold. The bark is nearly as valuable as oak bark. From the +inner bark the Russians manufacture fine white gloves, not inferior to +those made of the most delicate chamois, while they are stronger, +cooler, and more pleasant for wearing in the summer. + +The fruit of the _Cycas angulata_ forms the principal food of the +Australian aborigines during a portion of the year. They cut it into +thin slices, which are first dried, afterwards soaked in water, and +finally packed up in sheets of tea-tree bark. In this condition it +undergoes a species of fermentation; the deleterious properties of the +fruit are destroyed, and a mealy substance with a musty flavor +remains, which the blacks probably bake into cakes. They appear also +to like the fruit of the _Pandanus_, of which large quantities were +found by Dr. Leichardt in their camps, soaking in water, contained in +vessels formed of stringy bark. + +The flour obtained from the seeds of Spurry (_Spergula sativa_), when +mixed with that of wheat or rye, produces wholesome bread, for which +purpose it is often used in Norway and Gothland. In New Zealand, +before the introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern were +largely consumed. + +Many species of _Bolitus_ are used as food by the natives in Western +Australia, according to Drummond. + +The thick tuberous roots of a climbing species of bean (_Pachyrhizus +angulatus_, or _Dolichos bulbosus_) are cultivated and eaten in some +parts of the Polynesian islands. The bulbous roots of some species of +Orchideae are eagerly sought after in New South Wales by the natives, +being termed "boyams," and highly esteemed as an article of food for +the viscid mucilage which they contain. The root of the Berar +(_Caladium costatum_) is eaten by the natives of the Pedir coast +(Achin), after being well washed. + +The pignons or edible seeds of _Pinus Pinea_ are consumed occasionally +in Italy. In Chili the cone or fruit of the _pehuen_, or _pino de la +tierra_, are considered a great delicacy. The _pinones_ are sometimes +boiled, and afterwards, by grinding them on a stone, converted into a +kind of paste, from which very delicate pastry is made. The pine is +cultivated in different parts of this province on account of its +valuable wood and the pinones. The seeds from the cones of the +Auracanean pine, collected in autumn, furnish the Pawenches (from +_pawen_ pine) and Auracanians with a very nutritious food. When +cooked, the flavor is not unlike that of the chesnut, and as they will +keep for some time, they constitute, when the gathering season has +been favorable, a great part of their diet. + +The seeds of the cones of the nut pine (_Pinus monophyllus_), a new +species described by Dr. Torrey, and alluded to by Col. Fremont in his +exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains, are largely used by the +North American Indians. The nut is oily, of a most agreeable flavor, +and must be very nutritious as it constitutes the principal +subsistence of many of the native tribes. + +The cone of another magnificent pine (_Auracaria Bidwillii_), +indigenous to the Eastern coast of Australia, about the Moreton Bay +district, is frequently met with twelve inches in diameter, and +containing 150 edible seeds as large as a walnut. The aborigines +roast these seeds, crack the husk between two stones, and eat them +hot. They taste something like a yam or hard dry potato. The trees +bear cones only once in four years, during a period of six months. +This season is held as a great festival by the aborigines of that +locality, called by them Bunga Bunga, and they congregate in greater +numbers than is known in any other part of Australia, frequently +coming from a distance of 300 miles. They grow sleek and fat upon this +diet. An Act has been passed by the legislature of the colony, +prohibiting, under heavy pains and penalties, the demolition of those +trees, being the natural food of the natives. + +The common people eat the seeds of the red sandal wood (_Adenanthera +Pavonina_) in the South of India. The pulp of the fruit of the +_Adansonia digitata_, or monkey bread, is also used as an article of +food. + +SINGHARA OR WATER NUTS.--The large seeds of _Trapa bicornis_, a native +of China, and of _T. bispinosa_ and _natans_, species indigenous to +India, are sweet and eatable, and the aquatic plants which furnish +them are hence an extensive article of cultivation. In Cashmere and +other parts of the East they are common food, and known under the name +of Singhara nuts. In Cashmere the government obtains from these nuts +L12,000 of annual revenue. Mr. Moorcroft mentions that Runjeet Sing +derived nearly the same sum. From 96,000 to 128,000 loads of this nut +are yielded annually by the lake of Ooller alone. The nut abounds in +fecula. In China the kernel is used as an article of food, being +roasted or boiled like the potato. The seeds of various species of +_Nelumbium_, natives of the East Indies, Jamaica, and the United +States, also form articles of food. The fruit of _N. speciosum_ is +supposed to be the Egyptian bean of Pythagoras. The petioles and +peduncles contain numerous spiral vessels, which have been used for +wicks of candles. The fruit of _Willughbeia edulis_, a native of the +East, as its name implies, is eatable. The kernel of the mango can be +reduced to an excellent flour for making bread. + +Not only from the Lichen tribe, but also from the Algae, fungi, mosses +and ferns man derives nutriment and valuable products. Some of the +cryptogamic plants form considerable articles of commerce, +particularly as food plants, affording gelatinous and amylaceous +matter, and being useful in medicine and the arts. + +_Nostoe eduli_ is used in China as food; _Gelidium corneum_ enters +into the formation of the edible swallows' nests of the Japanese +islands. Agar-agar moss is shipped from Singapore to the extent of +13,000 tons a-year. Irish moss, Iceland moss, Ceylon moss, and some +others, are also of some importance. Iodine and kelp are prepared to a +considerable extent from sea weeds; one species (_Fucus tenax_) +furnishes large supplies of glue to the Canton market, and the +orchilla weed is of great importance to the dyer. It is principally as +food that I have to speak of them in this section. + +In some of the islands off the Scotch coasts, sea-wrack (_Fucus +vesiculosus_) forms the chief support of horses and cattle in the +winter months. _F. serratus_ is similarly employed in Norway. + +The _Laminaria saccharina_ is interesting from the fact of its +containing sugar. It is highly esteemed in Japan, where it is +extensively used as an article of diet, being first washed in cold +water and then boiled in milk or broth. + +CARRAGEEN, or IRISH ROCK MOSS, _Sphaeroccus_ (_Chondus_) _crispus_, +abounds on the Western Coast of Ireland, round the Orkneys, Hebrides, +Scilly Islands, &c. It is purplish white, and nearly transparent, and +is largely imported to feed cattle and pigs in Yorkshire. It is also +used for dressing the warp of webs in the loom, and mixing with the +pulp for sizing paper in the vat. It swells up like tragacanth in +water; and, by long decoction, affords a considerable quantity of a +light, nutritious, but nauseous jelly. It is sometimes sold as pearl +moss, and is employed in the place of gelatine or isinglass for +preparing blanc-manges, jellies, &c. It fetches about L7 the ton. + +AGAR-AGAR, a sort of edible seaweed, or tripe de roche, is found +growing on the rocks about the eastern islands that are covered by the +tide. It is much used for making a kind of jelly, which is highly +esteemed both by Europeans and natives for the delicacy of its flavor. +The first quality is worth about 30s. the picul (133 lbs.). An +inferior kind is collected on the submerged banks in the neighbourhood +of Macassar (Celebes), by the Bajow Laut, or Sea Gipsies. It is also +collected on the rocks about the settlement of Singapore, for export +to China, where it is much used as a size for stiffening silks and for +making jellies. It constitutes the bulk of the cargoes of the Chinese +junks on their return voyage. The quantity shipped from Singapore is +about 10,000 piculs (12,500 tons) annually. + +ICELAND MOSS (_Cetraria islandica_) combines valuable alimentary and +medicinal properties. It is imported in bags and barrels from Hamburg +and Gothenburg, and is said to be the produce of Norway and Iceland. +The quantity consumed varies; in 1836, 20,599 lbs. paid duty; in 1840, +6,462 lbs. In Carniola, swine, oxen, and horses, are fattened on it. +Boiled in water or milk, and flavored to the palate with sugar, wine, +and aromatics, it forms a very agreeable diet for invalids. + +CEYLON MOSS (_Gracelaria_, or _Gigartina, lichenoides_), a small and +delicate fucus, is well known for the amylaceous property it +possesses, and the large proportion of true starch it furnishes. The +fronds are filiform; the filaments much branched, and of a light +purple color. It grows abundantly in the large lake or back-water +which extends between Putlam and Calpentyr, Ceylon. It is collected by +the natives principally during the south-west monsoon, when it becomes +separated by the agitation of the water. The moss is spread on mats +and dried in the sun for two or three days. It is then washed several +times in fresh water, and again exposed to the sun, which bleaches it, +after which it is collected in heaps for exportation. + +Professor O'Shaughnessy has given the best analysis of this moss, +which he described under the name of _Fucus amylaceus_; 100 grains +weight yielded the following proportions:-- + + Vegetable jelly 54.50 + True starch 15.00 + Ligneous fibre 18.00 + Sulphate and muriate of soda 6.50 + Gum 4.00 + Sulphate and phosphate of lime 1.00 + ----- + Total 99.00 + With a trace of wax and iron. + +I observe among the imports into New Orleans, 911 bushels of Spanish +moss in 1849, and 1,394 bushels in 1848. I do not know precisely its +use, or from whence derived, but I believe it is chiefly used for +stuffing cushions, mattresses, &c. + +FERN.--The rhizome of _Pteris esculenta_ is used as food in Australia, +and that of _Marattia alata_ in the Sandwich Islands. The trunks of +the _Alsophila_, or tree fern, of the western side of Van Diemen's +Land, and of the common tree fern, _Cibotium Billardieri_ (the +_Dicksonia antarctica_, of Labillardiere), contain the edible pith or +bread-fruit eaten by the natives. Many other species of ferns are +esculent. Typha bread is prepared in Scinde from the pollen of the +flowers of the _Typha elephantina_, and in New Zealand from another +species of bulrush (_Typha utilis_). + +"It must not be supposed, as some have believed, that the fern root, +wherever it grows, is fit for food. On the contrary, it is only that +found in rich loose soils which contains fecula in sufficient quantity +for this purpose: in poorer ground the root contains proportionally +more fibre. We were now encamped on an alluvial flat in the valley of +the river, thirty or forty feet below the general level of the plain; +and I observed that, even in this favourable spot, a great deal of +discrimination was used in selecting the best roots, which was +discoverable by their being crisp enough to break easily when bent: +those which would not stand this test being thrown aside. Here a +quantity sufficient for several days was procured, and was packed in +baskets, to last till another spot equally favourable could be +reached. + +"The process of cooking fern root is very simple; for it is merely +roasted on the fire, and afterwards bruised by means of a flat stone +similar to a cobbler's lap-stone, and a wooden pestle. The long fibres +which run like wires through the root are then easily drawn out; and +the remainder is pounded till it acquires the consistence of tough +dough, in which state it is eaten, its taste being very like that of +cassava bread. Sometimes it is sweetened with the juice of the 'tutu.' + +"The natives consider that there is no better food than this for a +traveller, as it both appeases the cravings of hunger for a longer +period than their other ordinary food, and renders the body less +sensible to the fatigue of a long march. It is in this respect to the +human frame, what oats or beans are to the horse. They have a song in +praise of this root, which I have once or twice heard chanted on +occasions of festivals, by a troop of young women who carry baskets of +the food intended for the guests."--("Shortland's New Zealand.") + +I ought not to omit noticing the _Tuber cibarium_, a plant of the +mushroom family, growing under ground, which furnishes the famous +truffle, so celebrated in the annals of cooking, of which immense +quantities are imported, chiefly from the South of France. It is +common also in Italy and Germany, and is often found in +Northamptonshire, and some other of our own counties. The "kemmayes," +a desert plant of the truffle kind, is a great favorite with the +Arabs. + +In Terra del Fuego the only vegetable food of the natives, besides a +few berries of a dwarf arbutus, is a species of globular bright yellow +fungus (_Cyttaria Darwinii_), which grows in vast numbers on the beech +trees. In its tough and mature state it is collected in large +quantities by the women and children, and eaten uncooked. It has a +slightly sweet mucilaginous taste, with a faint smell like that of a +mushroom. + + + + +SECTION III. + +SPICES, AROMATIC CONDIMENTS, FRAGRANT WOODS, &c. + + +The various spices and condiments which form so large an item in our +commercial imports, are obtained from the barks, the dried seeds, the +fruit, flower-buds, and root-stocks, of different plants. The chief +aromatic barks comprise the cinnamon, cassia lignea, cascarilla, and +canella alba. The medicinal barks will be noticed elsewhere. The seeds +and fruits include pepper, pimento, cardamoms, anise, nutmegs, +chillies. The flower-buds of some furnish cloves and cassia buds; the +roots supply ginger, galangale, turmeric, and ginseng. A few other +useful substances, such as vanilla, the costus, or putchuk, mace, soy, +and some of the odoriferous woods I have included under this section. + + +CINNAMON. + +The true cinnamon of commerce is obtained from the inner bark of +_Cinnamonum verum_, R. Brown; or _C. zeylanicum_; the _Laurus +cinnamonum_, of Linnaeus, a handsome looking tree, native of the East +Indies. The island of Ceylon is the chief seat of its cultivation, and +for a long time the Dutch depended solely for their supply of this +bark for the home market on the produce of the wild cinnamon trees in +the King of Kandy's territories there. At last, from the increasing +demand, they resorted to the growth and more careful culture of the +tree themselves. About the year 1794, the cultivation had succeeded so +well that they were enabled to meet the demand for the spice from +trees of their own growth, independent of any supplies from the +Kandian monarch's territory. + +In 1796, when this island fell into our hands, the local government +endeavoured, after the former fashion of the Dutch, to restrain the +production of this article of commerce within due bounds, by +destroying all above a certain quantity. + +General Maitland, in 1805, and his successors in the government, +seeing the folly of such a ridiculous policy, very wisely fostered and +promoted the extended cultivation of cinnamon plantations. + +In the island of Java, and in Cochin-China, cinnamon culture has +within the last few years made considerable progress. + +The leaves of the cinnamon tree are more or less acuminated, from five +to eight inches long, by about three broad, growing in pairs opposite +each other. They have three principal ribs, which come in contact at +its base, but do not unite. The leaves, when first developed, are of a +bright red hue, then of a pale yellow, and lastly of a dark shining +green; when mature, they emit a strong aromatic odor if broken or +rubbed in the hands, and have the pungent taste of cloves. The young +twigs of the true cinnamon tree are not downy, like those of the +cassia bark. The plant blooms in January and February, and the seeds +ripen in July and August. + +The blossoms grow on slender foot-stalks, of a pale yellow color, from +the axillae of the leaves and the extremity of the branches. They are +numerous clusters of small white flowers, having a brownish shade in +the centre, about the same size as the lilac, which it resembles. The +fruit is a drupe, about the size of a small hedge strawberry, +containing one seed, and of the shape of an acorn, which when ripe is +soft and of a dark purple color. + +The roots are fibrous, hard, and tough, covered with an odoriferous +bark; on the outside of a greyish brown, and on the inside of a +reddish hue. They strike about three feet into the earth, and spread +to a considerable distance. Many of them smell strongly of camphor, +which is sometimes extracted from them. + +The trees in their wild state will grow ordinarily to the height of 30 +feet. The trunk is about three feet in circumference, and throws out a +great number of large spreading horizontal branches, clothed with +thick foliage. When cultivated for their bark, the trees are not +permitted to rise above the height of ten feet. + +The true cinnamon tree (according to Mr. Crawfurd) is not a native of +the islands of the Eastern Archipelago; but Marshall, in his +description and history of the tree ("Annals of Philos," vol. x.) +assigns very extensive limits to its cultivation. He asserts that it +is found on the Malabar coast, in Cochin-China, and Tonquin, Sumatra, +the Soolo Archipelago, Borneo, Timor, the Nicobar and Philippine +Islands. It has been transplanted, and grows well in the Mauritius, +Bourbon and the eastern coast of Africa; in the Brazils, Guiana, in +South America, and Guadaloupe, Martinique, Tobago, and Jamaica; but +produces in the West a bark of very inferior quality to the Oriental. + +Rumphius has remarked, that the trees which yield cinnamon, cassia, +and clove bark (_Cinnamonum Culilaban_), though so much alike, are +hardly ever found in the same countries. + +The term clove bark has been applied to the barks of two different +trees belonging to the natural order _Laurineae_. One of these barks is +frequently called "Culilaban bark." It consists of almost flat +pieces, and is obtained from _Cinnamonum Culilaban_, a tree growing in +Amboyna, and probably other parts of the Moluccas. + +The other bark, known as clove bark, occurs in quills, which are +imported from South America. Murray says it is produced by the _Myrtus +carophyllata_, a tree termed by Decandolle _Syzgium carophyllaeum_. It +appears, however, that this is an error, for both Nees and Von Martius +declare it to be the produce of _Dicypellium caryophyllatum_; and the +last quoted authority states that this tree is the noblest of all the +laurels found in the Brazils, where it is called "Pao Cravo." It grows +at Para and Rio Negro. + +Cinnamon may be propagated by seeds, plants, or layers; roots also, if +carefully transplanted, will thrive in favorable localities, and yield +useful shoots in twelve months. It is usually cultivated from suckers, +which should not have more than three or four leaves, and require +continual watering. If raised from seed, the young plants are kept in +a nursery for a year or two, and then transplanted; but the trees from +seeds are longer arriving at maturity. The plants are kept well +earthed about the roots to retain the moisture, and coco-nut husks are +placed above them, which in time form an excellent compost. + +A cinnamon plantation, even in a favorable locality, seldom yields +much return until eight or nine years have elapsed. + +The mode of cultivation pursued by the natives differs from that +followed in the plantations of the Europeans. The native system is to +allow the cinnamon to grow large before cutting; the European practice +is to cut it young. The result is that the native produces quantity, +but coarse; the European produces quality, but less in quantity. I +have found, in conversation with the native growers, that they +consider the bush or tree decidedly weakened by its being kept down by +constant cutting twice a year; and that their plants are stronger and +better. It is not absolutely an original opinion, but I think the two +systems might be judiciously blended. In cutting the cinnamon sticks +for peeling, as the Europeans do it twice a year, there is always risk +of losing much valuable young wood, which is destroyed in slashing +into the bushes with _catties_ (bill-hooks) to take out that which is +in a fit state for peeling, all of which is so much loss from the next +cutting; and on this ground I should be inclined to advocate cutting +once a year. There are, I know, other considerations than the mere +growth of the sticks to be taken into account. Of these may be named +the time when the bark peels best from the stick, which of course must +depend upon age as well as season, the excited or unexcited state of +the shoots, and their several effects upon the quality of the spice. + +Weeding the plantations does not seem to be of so much consequence, if +the shrub gets plenty of free air all round it. + +Cinnamon land continues to yield abundantly crop after crop, not for +years, but for scores of years. The greater portion of the late +preserved plantations in Ceylon were planted by the Dutch, one hundred +years ago, and the bushes are stated to be as vigorous as ever, and +quite likely to go on yielding crops till the year 2000. This +productiveness can only be accounted for on Liebig's principle of +returning to the soil a portion of what we take from it. In the +operation of peeling cinnamon, the tops and lateral branches are cut +off, and left by the peelers on the ground close to the bushes. These, +no doubt, furnish a considerable quantity of manure to the plants. + +The general appearance of the plantation is that of a copse, with +laurel leaves and stems, about the thickness of hazel; occasionally a +tree may be seen which, having been allowed to grow for seed, has +reached a height of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk eighteen inches +in diameter. When in full bloom, the cinnamon bushes have a very +beautiful appearance, the small white petals affording a most +agreeable contrast with the flame-colored extremities of the upper, +and the dark green of the inferior foliage, with the blossoms of +various lovely parasitical plants. + +The cinnamon tree flourishes only in a small portion of the island of +Ceylon. It is chiefly confined to the south-west angle, formed by the +sea coast, from Tangalle in the south to Chilaw on the west. It is in +a climate of agreeable temperature, which is at once hot and moist; +hot from its tropical position, and moist from the frequency and +plentifulness of rains. The general level of the country is low, in +the midst of fresh-water lakes, divided from the sea by a narrow +riband of land. And the water in the soil of the cinnamon gardens is +of extraordinary purity, so as to be for that reason much in request +in the neighbouring city as a beverage. This exact combination of +influences does not occur anywhere else in the island, at least not in +the same degree. + +The cultivation principally centres round Colombo, the capital and +principal port. + +On the hills and valleys, in the neighbourhood of Kandy, which have a +temperate climate, the tree flourishes well; a rather elevated +situation, with shelter, contributing to the luxuriance of the plants. +The best soil for it appears to be a pure quartz sand, which in some +places rests on black moss or mould. From the surface to the depth of +a few inches, this sand is as fine in its nature and as pearly white +in its appearance as the best table salt; but below that depth, and +near the roots of the bushes, the sand is greyish. + +A specimen of this soil being carefully dried by Dr. Davy, was found +to consist of 98.5 silicious sand, 0.5 vegetable matter, and 1.1 +water--in 100 parts. This circumstance impresses one very strongly on +visiting the cinnamon gardens; it seems so strange to see a plain of +pure quartz sand whitened in the sun, and yet covered over with a +luxuriant growth of trees. In richer soils the aroma does not seem to +develop itself in the same concentrated form. + +A mixture of loam and peat, with sand, is said, however, to form a +good soil in some localities. These plantations may well suggest a +doubt as to the truth of the proposition so unqualifiedly laid down by +some authors, that "earth destitute of organic matter cannot sustain +vegetation." Certainly it is not organic matter which supports the +cinnamon trees of Colombo. + +_Peeling_.--The best cinnamon is obtained from the stalks or twigs, +which shoot up in a cluster of eight or ten together from the roots, +after the parent bush or tree has been cut down. These shoots are cut +once in about three years, close to the ground. Great care is +requisite, both as to the exact size and age; for if the bark is too +young, it has a green taste, if too old it is rough and gritty. These +shoots yield an incomparably fine cinnamon bark. When cut for peeling +they are of various sizes and lengths, depending on the texture of the +bark. These rods afford the hazel-like walking-sticks so much esteemed +by strangers, and which, though difficult to be procured during the +prevalence of the oppressive cinnamon regulations, may now be very +easily obtained from proprietors of grounds producing that spice. +Cinnamon is barked at two periods of the year, between April and +December. Those suckers which are considered fit for cutting, are +usually about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and five feet or +more long. The first operation is to strip them of the outside +pellicle of bark. The twigs are then ripped up lengthwise with the +point of a knife, and the liber or inner bark gradually loosened, till +it can be entirely taken off. While drying they are cut up into long +narrow rolls, called "quills," then stuck into one another, so as to +form pipes about three or four feet long, which are afterwards made up +in round bundles. + +During the first day the cinnamon is suspended under shelter upon open +platforms, and on the second day it is placed on wicker-work shelves, +and exposed to the sun until sufficiently dry to be examined and +sorted for shipment. + +It is brought home in bags or bales of 80 or 90 lbs. weight, and +classed before export into three sorts; first, second, and third +quality. The different kinds of cinnamon bark may be thus classified, +according to quality-- + +1. That which ranks above all others in quality, is known by the +Singhalese name of _penne_ or _rasse kuroondu_, sharp sweet, or honey +cinnamon. + +2. _Naya kuroondu_, snake cinnamon. + +3. _Kapoorn kuroondu_, camphorated cinnamon, from the very strong +smell of camphor which it possesses. This variety is principally +obtained from the plantations of the interior. + +4. _Kahate_ or _canalle kuroondu_, astringent cinnamon. In this +species the bark peels off very easily, and smells agreeably when +fresh, but it has a bitter taste. + +5. _Savel kuroondu_, mucilaginous or glutinous cinnamon. This sort +acquires a very considerable degree of hardness, which the chewing of +it sufficiently proves. It has otherwise little taste, and an +ungrateful smell; but the color is very fine, and it is often mixed +with the first and best sort; the color being much alike, excepting +only that in the good sort some few yellowish spots appear towards the +extremities. + +6. _Dawool kuroondu_, or drum cinnamon. The wood of this tree, when +grown hard, is light and tough, and the natives make some of their +vessels and drums of it. The bark is of a pale color. + +7. _Nika kuroondu_, wild cinnamon, whose leaf resembles that of the +nicasol (_Vitex Negundo_). The bark of this tree has neither taste or +smell when peeled, and is made use of by the natives only in physic, +and to extract an oil from to anoint their bodies. + +8. _Mal kuroondu_, flowering cinnamon, because this tree is always in +blossom. The substance of the wood never becomes so solid and weighty +in this as in the other named species, which are sometimes nine or ten +feet in circumference. If this ever-flowering cinnamon be cut or +bored, a limpid water will issue out of the wound; but it is of use +only for the leaves and bark. + +9. _Toupat kuroondu_, trefoil cinnamon, of which there are three +varieties, which grow in the mountains and valleys of the interior +about Kandy. + +10. _We kuroondu_, white ant's cinnamon. + +The first-named four of these are, however, alone varieties of the +_Cinnamonum verum_. + +Good cinnamon is known by the following properties:--It is thin and +rather pliable; it ought to be about the substance of royal paper, or +somewhat thicker. It admits of a considerable degree of pressure, and +bends before it breaks; the fracture is then splintering. It is of a +light color, approaching to yellow, bordering but little upon the +brown; it possesses a sweetish taste, at the same time it is not +stronger than can be borne without pain, and is not succeeded by any +after-taste. The more cinnamon departs from these characteristics, the +coarser and less serviceable it is esteemed; and it should be rejected +if it be hard, and thick as a half-crown piece; if it be very dark +colored or brown; if it be very pungent and hot on the tongue, with a +taste bordering upon that of cloves, so that it cannot be suffered +without pain. Particular care should be taken that it is not +false-packed, or mixed with cinnamon of a common sort. + +The following remarks, by Mr. Dunewille, of Malacca, as to the +suitability of the Straits' Settlements for cinnamon culture, are +interesting, although in some instances a repetition of previous +observations:-- + + It appears, from experience, that the soil of Ceylon is more + favorable to the growth of cinnamon than to that of any other + aromatic plant, and I find the climate of Ceylon, if at all, differs + but in a very slight degree from that of the Straits. I therefore + conclude that the spice, if cultivated in the Straits, will prove + superior to that of Ceylon, if one may judge from the various spices + that grow here almost wild, and it would moreover yield a better + return than in Ceylon. My supposition is confirmed from having seen + the spice which was prepared last year in Pringet by the Honorable + Resident Councillor of Malacca, and which I found to be equally as + good in every respect as that grown and cultivated in the maritime + provinces in Ceylon. + + A sandy soil is that which is generally selected for cinnamon, but + other soils may be chosen also, such as a mixture of sandy with red + soil, free from quartz, gravel, or rock, also red and dark brown + soils. Such land in a flat country is preferable to hilly spots, + upon which, however, cinnamon also grows, and are known by the name + of the "Kandyan Mountains." The soil that is rocky and stony under + the surface is bad, and not adapted for the cultivation of cinnamon, + as the trees would neither grow fast, nor yield a remunerative + return. + + When a tract of land of the above description is selected, the whole + of the ground should be cleared, leaving a few trees for shade, to + which the laborers might return for rest and relaxation; these may + be from 50 to 60 feet apart. The trees felled should be well lopped, + burnt and cleared away, the stumps should be removed with roots, + after which they may be allowed to remain, in order to save expense + of carriage, merely by observing some degree of order in the + disposition, by forming regular rows, of which the intervening + spaces are planted with cinnamon. The ground being thus cleared, + holes may be dug at eight to ten feet apart, and of one foot square; + the distance from each plant will depend upon the nature of the + soil--that is, the poorer the soil, the nearer to each other should + the trees be planted, and _vice versa_. + + When this operation is over, should the holes be intended for + cinnamon roots, or stumps, the latter must be carefully removed with + as much earth as can be carried up with them and placed in the + holes, taking care not to return the earth removed originally in + digging the holes, which are to be filled with the soil scraped from + the surface, which has been previously burnt, exposed, and formed + into manure. Should no rain have fallen after the placing of the + roots in the holes, the stumps should be well covered, and watered + morning and evening, until such time as the sprouts shoot out fresh + buds, which will be in a fortnight or so from the time they were + transplanted, when the watering may be discontinued. In a month the + new shoots will be three or four inches high; this much depends upon + the weather. + + If the holes be intended for young plants or seedlings, the plants + must be removed with boles of earth from the nurseries, and placed + in the holes, taking the same care as with the stumps, both in + watering and covering, in the event of its being dry weather. When + the seedlings take root, the coverings should not be removed until + the plants throw out a new pair of leaves from the buds, which is a + sign of their having taken root. + + When a plantation is formed of old stumps, all the branches should + be cut down within six inches from the ground; this should be done + with one stroke of a sharp instrument, in order to avoid the + splitting of the stem. From these stumps cinnamon may be cut and + peeled within eighteen months from the time of transplanting. Often + this is done after the lapse of twelve months from the time of + transplanting. + + From seedlings one cannot expect to gather a crop before two or + three years from the time the plants were transplanted, when there + will be but one or a single tree, which, when cut down as already + shown, four or six inches to the ground, ought to be covered with + fresh earth gathered from the space between the rows, and formed in + a heap round the plant. The next crop will be three or four times as + much as the first, from the number of sprouts the stem will throw + out, and so on every year, the crop increasing according to the + number of sprouts each stem will throw out yearly from the cuttings. + In the course of seven or eight years, the space left between the + rows will only admit the peelers and others to go round the bushes, + weed, clear and remove cuttings, as the branches from each bush will + almost touch each other at their ends. + + It is essentially necessary to take every care not to allow any + creepers or other weeds to grow, the former interfere with the + growth of the bushes by entangling, because it not only takes out so + much of the support feeding the cinnamon trees, but interferes with + the peelers during the cutting season, and prevents the branches + growing up straight with a free circulation of air. The plantation + ought to be kept clean and free from weeds; the cinnamon requires no + manuring, but when the plantation is weeding the bushes should be + covered with the surface soil and raising the ground round the bush + by making a heap of the earth, which answers well in lieu of manure. + This operation must be attended to as soon as the cinnamon sticks + are removed for peeling. The plantation requires weeding three or + four times a year during the first two or three years, then twice a + year will answer the purpose; as by that time the trees will form + into bushes and destroy the seeds of the weeds on the ground. + + The forming of a nursery is necessary, for which a space of ground, + say an acre, should be selected in a rich bit of soil free from + stones. Clear the whole brushwood, only leaving the large trees for + shade, remove all stones, stumps, and roots, dig the place well six + or eight inches deep, then form into long beds of three or four feet + wide, put the seeds down nine or twelve inches apart, cover them + eight or twelve inches above the ground by a platform, and water + them every other day until the seeds grow up and give one pair of + leaves, then leave off watering (unless great dry weather prevail, + then it ought to be continued) but not uncover until the plants grow + up six or eight inches high, and can bear the sun; these seedlings + will be ready for transplanting after three months from the time + they were sown. + + The forming of nurseries is done at the close of the year, before + December. When this is done first, the party commences clearing and + preparing the land during the dry season, which is from the + beginning of December up to the end of March following. April will + set in with heavy rain (it is generally so in Ceylon), and it will + continue wet weather till the end of August, very often till + September and October, and you have the benefit of four or five + months rain. + + The cinnamon seeds are to be gathered when they are fully ripe, they + must be heaped up in a shady place, to have the outside red pulp + rotted, when it turns quite black, then have the seeds trampled or + otherwise freed from the decomposed pulp, without injuring the + seeds, and well washed in water (just as is done to cherry coffee, + before they are made into parchment in the whole shell). Finally, + have the seeds[48] well dried in the air without exposing them to + the sun, and then put them in on the ground prepared for their + reception. In washing the seeds, those that float on the surface + should be rejected. + + There are five different sorts of cinnamon, viz.:-- + + 1st is called Panny Meers Carundoo. + 2nd Tittha " " + 3rd Kahatte " " + 4th Wallee " " + 5th Savell " " + + Of these, the first kind is the best of all, the 2nd and 3rd, + although inferior, are peeled likewise, the 4th and 5th are + spurious. + + The distinction in the cinnamon can be known both by taste, the + shape of the leaves on the tree, and an experienced "Challya" man + will judge the cinnamon by first sight. + + The quality of the bark depends upon its situation in the branch, + that peeled from the middle of the bush or branch being the _most + superior_, and classed as 1st sort, that taken from the upper end is + the 2nd quality, while the bark removed from the base of the branch, + or the thickest end, is the inferior, and called the 3rd sort. + + From the cinnamon bark refused in the sorting store of all kinds, in + separating the first, second and third qualities and in making bales + for exportation, the refuse is collected, and by a chemical process + cinnamon oil is extracted, which sells very high, with an export + duty of 3s. or l1/2 rupees on each ounce, exclusive of the British + duties payable in England for importation, which is at present one + shilling and three pence per pound.[49] Of the cinnamon roots + camphor is made, which sells well both in Ceylon and other parts of + the world. + +Cinnamon, as a medicine, is a powerful stimulant, but it is not much +used alone. It is generally united with other tonics and stimulants, +but its ordinary use is to mask the disagreeable odor and taste of +other medicines. The oil of cinnamon is prepared by being grossly +powdered and macerated in sea water for two days and two nights, and +both are put into the still. A light oil comes over with the water, +and floats on its surface; a heavy oil sinks to the bottom of the +receiver, four hours before the light oil separates from the water, +and whilst the heavy oil continues to be precipitated for ten, +twelve, or sometimes fourteen days. The heavy oil, which separates +first, is about the same color as the light oil, but sometimes the +portion which separates last has a browner shade than the supernatant +oil. The same water can be used advantageously in a second +distillation. Professor Duncan informs us that 80 lbs. of +newly-prepared cinnamon yield about 21/2 ozs. of oil, which floats upon +the water, and 51/2 of heavy oil. The same quantity of cinnamon, if kept +in store for many years, yields 2 ozs. of light oil and 5 ozs. of +heavy oil. + +Cinnamon oil is obtained from the fragments of bark which remain after +peeling, sorting, and packing. It is distilled over with difficulty, +and the process is promoted by the addition of salt water, and the use +of a low still. The oil thus obtained by distillation is at first of a +yellow color, but soon assumes a reddish brown hue. It has an odor +intermediate between that of cinnamon and vanilla, but possesses in a +high degree both the sweet burning taste and the agreeable aromatic +smell of cinnamon. It is heavier than water, its specific gravity +being 1.035. + +The ripe fruit of this tree yields a concrete oil called cinnamon +suet, which was formerly employed to make candles for the Kandian +kings. An oil, called clove oil, is also distilled from the leaf, +which is said to be equal in aromatic pungency to that made from the +clove at the Moluccas. + +The following were the quantities sold, and the average prices +realised during the Dutch rule in Ceylon:-- + + s. d. + 1690 3,750 bales sold at 4 8 all round. + 1709 3,750 " 4 6 " + 1710 3,500 " 4 4 " + 1720 5,000 " 4 4 " + 1740 4,000 " 9 3 " + 1760 5,000 " 8 5 " + 1780 2,500 " 12 6 " + 1784 2,500 " 17 4 " + +The last quotation appears to have been the highest ever obtained for +cinnamon, for 17s. 8d. average would give about 22s. for the first +sort. In later years we find the deliveries and prices to have been as +follows:-- + + s. d. + 1824 5,934 bales sold at 6 6 all round. + 1828 3,918 " 6 0 " + 1830 5,849 " 7 8 " + 1842 1,018 " --- " + 1845 3,245 " --- " + +The comparative exports of cinnamon from Ceylon in the first six +months of 1853, as compared with the same period last year, are as +follows:-- + + 1853. 1852. + lbs. lbs. + Quarter ending 5th January 99,778 93,291 + " 5th April 73,815 135,248 + ------- ------- + Total 173,593 228,539 + +The diminished export was caused by the prospective abolition of the +export duty, which came into operation on the 1st July last. The +quantity that will be sent to the English market by the close of the +year (1853) will be something prodigious compared with the average +consumption. From October 10, 1852, to July 22, 1853, the shipments +were 406,326 lbs. + + RETURN OF CINNAMON EXPORTED FROM CEYLON, SHOWING THE QUANTITY AND + VALUE. + + Quantity. Value. + Year. lbs. L + 1836 724,364 -- + 1837 558,110 -- + 1838 398,198 -- + 1839 596,592 -- + 1840 389,373 -- + 1841 317,919 24,857 + 1842 121,145 15,207 + 1843 662,704 66,270 + 1844 1,057,841 105,784 + 1845 408,211 40,821 + 1846 491,656 49,165 + 1847 447,369 44,736 + 1848 491,688 49,168 + 1849 733,782 73,378 + 1850 644,857 64,485 + 1851 500,518 50,051 + 1852 427,667 42,766 + +The question of the export duty on cinnamon has, during the last +twenty years, occupied a considerable space in Ceylon correspondence +and the Island journals. This duty was first imposed in 1832, on the +abolition of the Grovernment monopoly, and was then fixed at the rate +of 3s. per lb. on all qualities. From the 19th April, 1835, it was +fixed at 3s. per lb. on the best, and 2s. on the second quality. It +was reduced in January, 1837, to 2s. 6d. on the first and second +sorts, and 2s. on the third; and in June, 1841, to 2s. on all +qualities; in 1843, to 1s.; and in September, 1848, to 4d. per lb. +Such a rate of export duty could be maintained only on an article for +which there was a considerable demand, and which could not be supplied +from other places, and this was for a long time the case. The +circumstances are now different, and the abolition of the duty, which +has so repeatedly been brought under the notice of the Treasury, has +at length been determined on. The quantity of cinnamon, &c., taken for +consumption in the United Kingdom, scarcely amounts to 2,800 bales per +annum. The sale and consumption is nearly stationary, and cinnamon is +only in demand for those finer purposes for which cassia, its +competitor, cannot be used. Whilst we imported the large amount of +700,095 lbs. in 1850, only 28,347 lbs. went into consumption. The +consumption has declined in the last two years to about 21,500 lbs. +Cinnamon is now imported into the United Kingdom duty free. + +The land under cultivation with cinnamon in Ceylon is about 13,000 +acres, principally in the western and southern provinces. The number +of gardens being eleven at Kaderane, seven at Ekelli, seven at +Morotto, six at Marandham, and two at Willisene. Several enterprising +planters have recently commenced the cultivation of this spice at +Singapore and Malacca. The plants already promise well. Indeed there +can be little doubt of its thriving, as the tree has been long grown +in gardens and pleasure grounds in those settlements, as an ornamental +plant, and has always flourished. + +The Ceylon article is being supplanted in the continental markets by a +cheaper one, of China and Malabar growth. The Javanese, tempted by the +fatally high prices caused by the excessive duties on our Colonial +spice, smuggled a quantity of seed, and with it a cinnamon cultivator, +out of the island, and have since paid considerable attention to its +growth. The Dutch have at present more than five millions of plants, +equal to upwards of 5,000 acres, the greater part of which are in +tolerably full bearing. + +The cinnamon trees in Java begin to blossom in the month of March. +They do not all flower at the same time, but in succession. The fruit +begins to ripen in October in the same manner, so that the crop lasts +from October to February. In Ceylon the blossom begins to appear in +November. The seeds when plucked ought to be fully ripe, and after +being separated from the outer pulpy covering, should be dried in the +shade. They can be kept for two or three months in dry sand or ashes, +but must not be exposed to the sun, as they would split, and thus be +rendered useless. + +The plants in nurseries must be well sheltered from the sun and heavy +rains, but the plants are strengthened by the covers being removed at +night when heavy rains are not expected to fall, and in the day time +when only light rains prevail. The mode of planting out, cultivation, +preparing the bark, &c., appears to be the same in Java as that +practised in Ceylon. The only difference is, that while in Ceylon the +cinnamon, when ready for market, is packed in "gunny" or canvass bags, +in Java it is put into boxes, made of wood free from any smell or +flavor which would injure the spice. The inferior cinnamon, however, +is packed in straw mats. + +The following is a return of the extent of cinnamon culture in Java +:-- + + In 1840. In 1841. + Residencies in which cinnamon is cultivated 10 10 + Number of plantations 48 49 + " families devoted to this culture 7,901 9,688 + " paid _budjans_ 294 345 + Extent of ground occupied by the cultivation, + in _bahus_ of 71 decametres 1,690 1,880 + --------- --------- + Cinnamon trees of which the bark can be taken 1,106,566 1,407,213 + Young trees in the parks 2,478,427 2,565,774 + For renewing 307,000 86,800 + --------- --------- + Total 3,891,998 4,059,787 + --------- --------- + Cinnamon crop, in Dutch lbs. 57,074 38,219 + " refuse 23,283 82,803 + +The number of trees peeled in 1842 was taken at 1,824,599, and the +crop reckoned at 108,905 lbs. + +In the residency of Bantam, four trees suffice to produce a pound of +cinnamon, whilst in the other residencies eleven trees must generally +be stripped to furnish the same quantity; in 1839 one pound could +scarcely be obtained from thirteen trees. + +This cultivation increases each year, and the quality of the produce +improves, whilst the expenses diminish. However, the Dutch Government +has judged it proper not to extend it, although the soil of Java +appears favorable to this culture. + +From 200,000 to 300,000 lbs. of true cinnamon, not freed from its +epidermis, is exported annually from Cochin-China. + + JAVA CINNAMON SOLD IN HOLLAND. + + lbs. + In 1835 2,200 + " 1836 1,300 + " 1837 1,600 + " 1838 2,100 + " 1839 4,700 + " 1840 7,900 + " 1841 23,900 + " 1842 13,000 + " 1843 23,000 + " 1844 101,400 + " 1845 134,500 + " 1848 250,550 + + + STATISTICS OF PACKAGES IN LONDON. + + 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. + Imported 2,196 4,458 9,197 8,909 + Exported 3,661 3,964 6,712 6,081 + Duty paid 838 738 801 1,012 + Stock 2,709 2,622 4,230 5,549 + + +CASSIA BARK. + +_Cinnamonum Cassia_, or _aromaticum_, the _Laurus cassia_ of Linnaeus, +seems to be the chief source of the "cassia lignea" of commerce. It +differs from the true cinnamon tree in many particulars. Its leaves +are oblong-lanceolate; they have three ribs, which coalesce into one +at the base; its young twigs are downy, and its leaves have the taste +of cinnamon. + +Malabar cassia appears to be the produce of another species of +_Cinnamonum_, probably _C. eucalyptoides_, or _Malabatrum_. + +Dr. Wight, of the Madras Medical Service, in a report to the East +India Company, expresses his belief that the cassia producing plants +extend to nearly every species of the genus. "A set of specimens (he +observes) submitted for my examination, of the trees furnishing cassia +on the Malabar coast, presented no fewer than four distinct species; +including among them the genuine cinnamon plant, the bark of the older +trees of which, it would appear, are exported from the coast as +cassia. Three or four more species are natives of Ceylon, exclusive of +the cinnamon proper, all of which greatly resemble the cinnamon plant, +and in the woods might easily be mistaken for it and peeled, though +the produce would be inferior. Thus we have from Western India and +Ceylon alone, probably not less than six plants producing cassia; add +to these nearly twice as many more species of _Cinnamonum_, the +produce of the more eastern states of Asia, and the Islands of the +Eastern Archipelago, all remarkable for their striking family +likeness; all, I believe, endowed with aromatic properties, and +probably the greater part, if not the whole, contributing something +towards the general result, and we at once see the impossibility of +awarding to any one individual species the credit of being the source +whence the _Cassia lignea_ of commerce is derived; and equally the +impropriety of applying to any one of them the comprehensive specific +appellation of cassia, since all sorts of cinnamon-like plants, +yielding bark of a quality unfit to bear the designation of cinnamon +in the market, are passed off as cassia." + +The cassia tree, according to Mr. Crawfurd, is found in the more +northern portion of the Indian isles, as in the Philippines, +Majindanao, Sumatra, Borneo, and parts of Celebes. It is also grown on +the western coast of Africa. The principal seat of its culture is, +however, the Malabar coast, and the provinces of Quantong and Kingse, +in China. + +The famous cassia of China is incomparably superior in perfume and +flavor to any spice of its class. Its native place is unknown, though +supposed to be the interior provinces of China. The market price is +said to be L5 per lb. + +The Malabar sort brought from Bombay is thicker, darker colored, and +coarser than that from China, and is more subject to foul packing. A +small quantity of cassia is brought from Mauritius and Brazil, and a +large amount from the Philippine Islands. + +Cassia bark fetches from 80s. to 105s. per cwt. in the London market, +according to quality. The imports appear on the decline. In 1843 and +1844 we imported nearly two millions of pounds. The quantity imported +and retained for home consumption in the past four years are shown in +the following figures:-- + + Imported. Retained for consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1848 510,247 76,152 + 1849 472,693 83,500 + 1850 1,050,008 97,178 + 1851 267,582 82,467 + +The cheaper Indian barks, as well as the cinnamon of the East, seemed +at one time to be fast driving out of the market the superior class +cinnamon of Ceylon. + +In 1841 Java exported 400 cwts. of cinnamon; and the quantity of +cassia imported into the United Kingdom from India and the Philippine +Islands, in the five years ending with 1844, was-- + + lbs. + 1840 329,310 + 1841 1,261,648 + 1842 1,312,804 + 1843 2,470,502 + 1844 1,278,413 + +40,000 lbs. were received from India in 1848; and 3,795 arrobas of +cassia were exported from Manila in 1847. In 1852, 2,806 cwts. of +cassia were received at Singapore from China, and 1,380 cwts. exported +from that settlement to the Continent, against 903 cwts. shipped in +the previous year. + +What the Ceylon spice-grower wants, is an extended field of +operation--a larger class of consumers to take off his cinnamon, and +this can only be obtained by bringing it within the means of the great +mass of cassia buyers. + +Look at the quantity of cinnamon exported by the Dutch in the middle +of the eighteenth century. Eight or nine thousand bales a year were +exported, and now, after a lapse of a hundred years, Ceylon hardly +sends away half that quantity. Yet the consumption of spice must have +kept pace with the increased population of countries using it, and so +it has. But the difference is made up, and more than made up, by +cassia from China, Java, Sumatra, Malabar Coast, &c., and though the +new article is not equal to the cinnamon of Ceylon, yet the vast +difference in the price obtains for it the preference. Now what the +Ceylon planter wants, is to be allowed to produce a spice on equal +terms, and of a superior quality to cassia, which might be done under +an _ad valorem_ export duty of 5 per cent. Spice of this description +of course could not afford the high cultivation bestowed on the fine +qualities, neither would it be required. In fact little or no +cultivation need be given it. At present anything inferior to the +third sort is not worth producing, because it cannot stand the +shilling export duty. But under a more enlightened system of things, +with a low duty such as I suggest, myriads of bushes would spring up +on those low, sandy, and at present unprofitable wastes that skirt the +sea-coast of the western province, around Negombo and Chilaw. + +The difference of duty would be more than made up by the diffusion of +capital in planting, the employment of vast numbers of laborers, the +purchase from Government of many thousand acres of now valueless +flats, and all the attendant benefits arising out of the development +of a new field of operation for the colonial industrial resources.[50] +The cassia tree grows naturally to the height of 50 or 60 feet, with +large, spreading, horizontal branches. The peelers take off the two +barks together, and separating the rough outer one, which is of no +value, they lay the inner bark to dry, which rolls up and becomes the +_Cassia lignea_ of commerce. It resembles cinnamon in taste, smell and +appearance. The best is imported from China, either direct from +Canton, or through Singapore, in small tubes or quills, sometimes the +thickness of the ordinary pipes of cinnamon and of the same length; +but usually they are shorter and thicker, and the bark itself coarser. +It is of a tolerably smooth surface and brownish color, with some cast +of red, but much less so than cinnamon. The exports from China are +said to be about five million pounds annually; price about 32s. per +cwt. In 1850, 6,509 piculs of cassia lignea (nearly one million +pounds), valued at 87,850 dollars, were shipped from the single port +of Canton. Cassia bark is of a less fibrous texture, and more brittle, +and it is also distinguished from cinnamon by a want of pungency, and +by being of a mucilaginous or gelatinous quality. + +CASSIA BUDS are the dried flower buds (perianth and ovary) of the +cassia tree, and are mostly brought from China. They bear some +resemblance to a clove, but are smaller, and when fresh have a rich +cinnamon flavor. They should be chosen round, fresh, and free from +stalk and dirt. They are used chiefly in confectionery, and have the +flavor and pungency of cassia. The exports from Canton in 1844 were +21,500 lbs.; in 1850, 44,140 lbs., valued at 7,400 dollars. The +average quantity of cassia buds imported into the United Kingdom, in +each of the thirteen years ending with 1842, was 40,231 lbs.; the +average quantity entered for home consumption in these years was 6,610 +lbs., and the average annual amount of duty received was L312. + +Cassia bark yields a yellow volatile oil, called oil of cassia, the +finer kind of which differs but little in its properties from that of +cinnamon, for which it is generally substituted; it has a specific +gravity of 1071. The best is manufactured in China, where the wood, +bark, leaves and oil are all in request. The cassia oil is rated at +150 dollars per picul, and the trade in this article reaches about +250,000 dollars. + +CANELLA ALBA, or wild cinnamon, is a valuable and ornamental tree, +growing about fifteen feet high, which is cultivated in South America +and the West Indies for its pungent bark, which is shipped to this +country in bales or cases, in long quills and flat pieces, something +like cinnamon. Large old cuttings root readily in the sand. It is +grown chiefly in the Bahama Islands, from whence we derive our +supplies. + +By the Caribs, the ancient natives of the West Indies, and the +negroes, it was first employed as a condiment. In this country it is +chiefly used as an aromatic stimulant and tonic, ranking between +cinnamon and cloves. The bark possesses, however, no other quality +than its hot spicy flavor and strong aromatic odor when exposed to the +action of heat. + +CASCARILLA BARK is obtained chiefly from the _Croton cascarilla_, a +small shrub growing at St. Domingo, the Bahama Islands, and the +Antilles. The chief portion comes from Eleuthera. In Hayti a pleasant +kind of tea is made from the leaves. Other species of the family +supply some of the bark of commerce. + +From its strong and aromatic properties it has been found very +efficacious in all febrile diseases, and vies with the Jesuits' bark; +as a tonic it has very wholesome qualities, a pleasant and strong +bitterness, and was for some time held in considerable repute among +the faculty. + +About twenty years ago, large shipments were made from the Bahamas. +It was found, upon adulteration with hops, to reduce the cost of that +article, and for the encouragement of the hop grower a prohibitory +impost was laid upon it by the Home Government, consequently it became +an unsaleable product. + +The sea-side balsam, or sweet wood (_Croton Eleuteria_), from which +some cascarilla bark is obtained, grows in the Bahama Islands and +Jamaica, but almost all the bark imported comes from Nassau, New +Providence. In 1840, 15,000 lbs. were imported for home consumption. + +This bark produces the combined effect of an aromatic and of a +moderately powerful tonic; but it does not possess any astringency. It +has been employed as a substitute for cinchona. When burned it gives +out a musky odor, and is often used in pastiles. + +The value of this bark ranges, according to quality, from 17s. 6d. to +43 s. per cwt. + + +CLOVES. + +The cloves of commerce are obtained from the flower buds of +_Caryophyllus aromaticus (Eugenia caryophyllata_), which was +originally a native of the Moluccas, but is now cultivated in several +parts of the East and West Indies. They have the form of a nail, and +when examined are seen to consist of the tubular calyx with a roundish +projection, formed by the unopened petals. It is a very handsome tree, +growing to the height of about twenty feet. The trunk is straight, and +rises four or five feet before it throws out branches. The bark is +smooth, thin, of a grey color, and the wood of the trunk too hard for +ordinary cabinet work. + +The leaves are opposite, smooth, narrow, pointed, of a rupous color +above, and green on the under side. They have a very aromatic odor +when bruised between the fingers. The flowers produced in branched +peduncles, at the extremity of the bough, are of a delicate peach +color. The elongated calyx, forming the seed vessel, first changes to +yellow, and, when ripe, red, which is from October to December, and in +this state it is fit to gather. If left for a few weeks longer on the +trees, they expand, and become what are termed "mother cloves," fit +only for seed or for candying. The ground under the tree is first +swept clean, or else a mat or cloth is spread. The nearest clusters +are taken off with the hand, and the more distant by the aid of +crooked sticks. Great care should be taken not to injure the tree, as +it would prevent future bearing. + +The cloves are then prepared for shipment by smoking them on hurdles +near a slow wood fire, to give them a brown color, after which they +are further dried in the sun. They may then be cut off from the flower +branches with the nails, and will be found to be purple colored +within, and fit to be baled for the European market. In some places +they are scalded in hot water before being smoked, but this is not +common. The tree may be propagated either from layers or seed. Layers +will root in five or six months if kept moist. + +A strong dark loam, a gravelly, sandy, or clayey soil, but one not +retentive of moisture, seems that best suited for its successful +culture. + +It does not thrive well near the sea, nor in the higher mountains, the +spray of the sea and the cold being found injurious. The plants at +first require the shade of other trees, such as the mango, coco-nut, +&c. Although generally a hardy plant, it suffers from excessive +drought. They should be planted about twenty feet apart. In its native +country the tree begins to yield fruit in the sixth year, but a crop +can seldom be looked for in other quarters under eight years. It is +very long lived, sometimes attaining the age of 130 years. + +There appears, according to Mr. Crawfurd, to be five varieties of the +clove, viz.--the ordinary cultivated clove; a kind called the female +clove by the natives, which has a pale stem; the kiri or loory clove; +the royal clove, which is very scarce, and the wild clove. The three +first are equally valuable as spices, the female clove being +considered fittest for the distillation of essential oil. The wild +clove, having scarcely any aromatic flavor, is valueless. + +The produce which may be expected from the tree seems to be uncertain; +it may, however, be averaged at five or six pounds. A clove tree, well +weeded and taken care of, will produce from five to twenty pounds. On +the other hand, a tree that is neglected will not give above two or +three pounds. At intervals of from three to six years they usually +produce one extraordinary crop, but then a year now and then +intervenes, when they yield none at all; in others they will afford a +double harvest. + +The clove tree was originally confined to the five principal Molucca +islands, and chiefly to Machean. From these it was conveyed to +Amboyna, a very short time only before the arrival of the Portuguese. +By them the cultivation was strictly restricted to Amboyna, every +effort being made to extirpate the plant elsewhere. + +It has now, however, spread to Java, Singapore, and the Straits' +Settlements, Ceylon, the Mauritius and Seychelles, Bourbon, Zanzibar, +Cayenne, Dominica, Martinique, St. Kitts, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. + +Cloves contain a volatile oil, associated with resinous, gummy, and +astringent matter, which is yielded in larger proportion than by any +other plant. Neuman obtained by distillation two ounces and two +drachms from sixteen ounces of cloves. On an average cloves yield from +17 to 22 per cent. of oil, including the heavy and light oils. The oil +is aromatic and acrid, and has been used as a condiment and a +stimulant carminative. It is also extensively used by distillers and +soap makers. + +It is said that the clove does not thrive well on the soil of Java, +the plantations of which trial had been made not having succeeded to +the extent expected, although they were directed by skilled persons +from Amboyna; the places they made choice of did not differ materially +as to soil and climate from those of the Moluccas. + +M. Teysman, Director of the Botanical Gardens at Batavia, seems to +have bestowed much attention on the subject. The exports however from +the island have been considerable. In 1830, there were 803 piculs +shipped; in 1835, 4,566; in 1839, 2,334; in 1843, 2,027 piculs of 133 +lbs. + +M. Buee, who introduced the culture of the clove in the island of +Dominica, about 1789, thus describes the results of his experience, +which may be useful to other experimental cultivators. He obtained a +few plants from Cayenne, and raised 1,600 trees from seed, which, in a +year from the first sowing, were transplanted. The seeds were sown at +about six inches apart from each other, in beds; over these beds small +frames were erected about three feet from the ground, and plantain +leaves were spread on the top, in order to shelter the young plants +from the sun. The leaves were allowed gradually to decay, and at the +end of nine months the young plants, which by that time were strong, +were permitted to receive the benefit of the sun; but if not protected +from it when very young, they were found to droop and die. + +When transplanted, the trees were placed at sixteen feet apart from +each other. They grew very luxuriantly, and at the end of fifteen +months after their removal, attained the height of from three to four +feet. The ground wherein they were planted had been a coffee +plantation during forty years. The coffee trees had decayed, and an +attempt had been made to replace them; but they refused to grow; +whereas the clove plants flourished as if on congenial soil, and a +crop was gathered on some of them when they were not more than six +years old, which period is two or three years earlier than the usual +time for gathering. + +The cloves sent from St. Vincent to England in 1800, were obtained +from trees eight feet high, having a stem only two inches in diameter. +Trial was made in that island of the relative growth of the plant on +different soils; it grew sickly on land which was not manured, but on +land which had received this preparation it flourished. + +In Singapore, about ten years ago, there were then about 15,000 clove +trees planted out, a few of which only had come in bearing. If these +plantations had proved equally productive with those of the sister +settlement of Pinang, it would have been able to export 60,000 lbs. of +cloves, its own produce; but this expectation, it will be seen, has +not been realised. In the season of 1841-42, there was 1000 piculs of +cloves shipped from Pinang, but none were exported in the two previous +years. + +The quantity of land under cultivation with cloves there, in 1843, was +463 orlongs in Prince of Wales Island, and 517 in Province Wellesley. +The number of trees planted out in the former island was 72,779; in +the latter province 7,639. There were in the island 25,161 plants in +nursery. + +The trees in bearing were--In Prince of Wales Island, 28,739; not +bearing, 44,040; produce in 1843, 87 piculs, 50 catties; gross value, +3,399 dollars; estimated produce of cloves for 1844, 469 piculs. In +Province Wellesley--Trees in bearing, 1,073; not bearing, 6,566; +produce in 1843, 1 picul, 13 catties; gross value 45 dollars. + +The export of cloves from Pinang was, in 1849, 24,000 lbs.; in 1850, +52,400; in 1851, 27,866; in 1852, 45,087. + +From tabular statements drawn up in 1844, by Mr. F.S. Brown, Chairman +of the Pinang Chamber of Commerce, it appears that there were, in +1843, in that island and Province Wellesley adjoining, 96 clove +plantations, containing 80,418 clove trees; besides many young trees +in nurseries ready to be planted out. The produce of cloves there, in +1842, was 11,813 lbs., and this was a very short crop, it having that +year proved a complete failure; the average crop for some years +previous had been 46,666 lbs. Pinang only began to export this spice +in 1832. Of the clove trees in Pinang there were then only 29,812 in +bearing, leaving 75,767 in that settlement alone to come to maturity; +estimated to yield about 300,000 lbs. + +No success has attended repeated trials of cloves in Singapore. Until +the trees reach the age of bearing, they grow and look extremely well; +but any expectation of a crop that may have been raised by their +hitherto fine condition, ends in disappointment, for just then the +trees assume the appearance of sudden blight, as if +lightning-stricken, and then die. 125 clove plants and 350 seedlings +were sent to Singapore from Bencoolen, by Sir T. Raffles, in the close +of 1819; but although every care was paid them--while the nutmegs +which accompanied them throve amazingly well--little or no progress +has been made with clove culture. Two or three hundred-weight were +shipped in 1845, but since then hardly any mention is made of the +spice. + +In a petition presented by the spice planters of Pinang and Province +Wellesley, to the authorities at home, in 1844, praying that the duty +on British Colonial nutmegs, mace, and cloves might be reduced to 1s. +9d., 1s. 3d., and 3d. respectively, on importation into England, in +order to compete with foreign produce, it was stated that a few years +hence Prince of Wales Island might be expected to produce 600,000 lbs. +of nutmegs, 200,000 lbs. of mace, and 300,000 lbs. of cloves; whilst +Singapore, if equally successful in the culture of the same, would +yield yearly 137,000 lbs. of nutmegs, 45,000 lbs. of mace, and 60,000 +lbs. of cloves. In short, the planters needed only encouragement to +produce in the course of a few years a full supply of those valuable +spices for the whole consumption of Great Britain. + +Dr. Ruschenberger, who visited Zanzibar in 1835, thus speaks of the +clove plantations there:--"As far as the eye could reach over a +beautifully undulated land, nothing was to be seen but clove trees of +different ages, varying in height from five to twenty feet. The form +of the tree is conical, the branches grow at nearly right angles with +the trunk, and they begin to shoot a few inches above the ground. The +plantation contains nearly four thousand trees, and each tree yields +on an average six pounds of cloves a year; they are carefully picked +by hand, and then dried in the shade; we saw numbers of slaves +standing on ladders gathering the spice, while others were at work +clearing the ground of dead leaves. The whole is in the finest order, +presenting a picture of industry and of admirable neatness and beauty. +They were introduced into Zanzibar in 1818, from Mauritius, and are +found to thrive so well that almost everybody in the island is now +clearing away the cocoa nut to make way for them. The clove bears in +five or six years from the seed; of course time enough has not yet +elapsed for the value and quantity of Zanzibar cloves to be generally +known; they are worth, however, in the Bombay market, about 30s. the +Surat maund of 391/4 lbs.; the price for Molucca cloves in the Eastern +market is from 28 to 30 dollars per picul of 133 lbs.; for those of +Mauritius, 20 to 24 dollars per picul." + +The average annual consumption of cloves in the United Kingdom, in the +four years ending 1841, was 49,000 lbs. The largest quantity of cloves +imported during the past twenty-five years was 1,041,171 lbs., in +1847. The quantities imported and entered for home consumption in the +last five years have been as follows:-- + + Imports. Home consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1848 117,433 126,691 + 1849 274,713 133,713 + 1850 749,646 159,934 + 1851 253,439 138,132 + 1852 313,949 175,287 + +In 1848 we received 60,000 lbs. of cloves from British India. + + +THE NUTMEG. + +_Myristica moschata_, _M. officinalis_, or _aromatica_.--This tree is +of a larger growth than the clove, attaining a height of thirty feet, +and has its leaves broader in proportion to their length; the upper +surface of these is of a bright green, the under of a greyish color. +It is a dioecious plant, having male or barren pale yellow flowers upon +one tree, and female or fertile flowers upon another. The fruit is +drupaceous, and opens by two valves when ripe, displaying the +beautiful reticulated scarlet arillus, which constitutes mace. Within +this is a hard, dark brown, and glossy shell, covering the kernel, +which is the nutmeg of the shops. + +The kernels of _M. tomentosa_ are also used as aromatics, under the +name of wild or male nutmegs. + +Lindley describes two other species, _M. fatua_, a native of Surinam, +with greenish white flowers, and _M. sebifera_ or _Virola sebifera_, a +native of Guiana, with yellowish green flowers. + +By expression, nutmegs are made to yield a concrete oil, called +_Adeps Myristicae_, or sometimes erroneously oil of mace. A volatile +oil is also procured by distillation. Nutmegs and mace are used +medicinally as aromatic stimulants and condiments. In large doses they +have a narcotic effect. The fleshy part of the fruit is used as a +preserve. + +Dr. Oxley has given such an admirable account of the nutmeg and its +cultivation, as the result of 20 years experience in Singapore, that I +shall draw largely from his valuable paper, which is contained in the +second volume of "The Journal of the Indian Archipelago," page 641. + +The nutmeg tree, like many of its class, has a strong tendency to +become monoecious, and planters in general are well pleased at this +habit, thinking they secure a double advantage by having the male and +female flowers on the same plant. This is, however, delusive, and +being against the order of nature, the produce of such trees is +invariably inferior, showing itself in the production of double nuts +and other deformities. It is best, therefore, to have only female +trees, with a due proportion of males. + +The female flowers, which are merely composed of a tripid calyx and no +corolla, when produced by a tree in full vigor are perfectly +urceolate, slightly tinged with green at the base, and well filled by +the ovary, whereas the female flowers of weakly trees are entirely +yellow, imperfectly urceolate, and approach more to the staminiferous +flowers of the male. + +The shape of the fruit varies considerably, being spherical, oblong, +and egg-shaped, but the nearer they approach sphericity of figure, the +more highly are they prized. + +There is also a great variety in the foliage of different trees, from +elliptic, oblong and ovate, to almost purely lanceolate-shaped leaves. +This difference seems to indicate in some measure the character of the +produce; trees with large oblong leaves appearing to have the largest +and most spherical fruit, and those with small lanceolate leaves being +in general more prolific bearers, but of inferior quality. + +Whilst its congener the clove has been spread over Asia, Africa, and +the West Indies, the nutmeg refuses to flourish out of the Malayan +Archipelago, except as an exotic, all attempts to introduce it largely +into other tropical countries having decidedly failed. The island of +Ternate, which is in about the same latitude as Singapore, is said to +have been the spot where it was truly indigenous, but no doubt the +tree is to be found on most of the Moluccas. At present the place of +its origin is unproductive of the spice, having been robbed of its +rich heritage by the policy of the Dutch, who at an early period +removed the plantations to the Banda isles for better surveillance, +where they still remain and flourish. But although care was formerly +taken to extirpate the tree on the Moluccas, the mace-feeding pigeons +have frustrated the machinations of man, and spread it widely through +the Archipelago of islands extending from the Moluccas to New Guinea. +Its circle of growth extends westward as far as Pinang, or Prince of +Wales Island, where, although an exotic, it has been cultivated as a +mercantile speculation with success for many years. Westward of Pinang +there are no plantations, looking at the subject in a mercantile point +of view. The tree is to be found, indeed, in Ceylon, and the West +Coast of India, but to grow it as a speculation out of its indigenous +limits, is as likely to prove successful as the cultivation of apples +and pears in Bengal. + +In the Banda Isles, where the tree may be considered as indigenous, no +further attention is paid to its cultivation than setting out the +plants in parks, under the shade of large forest trees, with long +horizontal branches, called "Canari" by the natives. There it attains +a height of 50 feet and upwards, whereas from 20 to 30 feet may be +taken as a fair average of the trees in the Straits' Settlements; but +notwitstanding our pigmy proportions (adds Dr. Oxley), it does not +appear, from, all I could ever learn, that we are relatively behind +the Banda trees, either in quantity or quality of produce, and I am +strongly impressed with the idea that the island of Singapore can +compete with the Banda group on perfectly even terms. Our climate is +quite unexceptionable for the growth of the nutmeg, being neither +exposed to droughts or high winds; and although we may lose by +comparison of soils, we again gain by greater facilities of sending +our products to market, by the facility of obtaining abundant supplies +of manure, and any amount of free and cheap labor. + +A nutmeg plantation, well laid out and brought up to perfection, is +one of the most pleasing and agreeable properties that can be +possessed. Yielding returns, more or less daily, throughout the year, +there is increasing interest, besides the usual stimulus to all +agriculturists of a crop time, when his produce increases to double +and quadruple the ordinary routine. + +Trees having arrived at fifteen years growth, there is no incertitude +or fear of total failure of crop, only in relative amount of produce, +and this, as will be seen, is greatly in the planter's own power to +command. It is against reason to suppose that a tree in flower and +fruit will not expend itself if left to unaided nature: it must be +supplied with suitable stimuli to make good the waste, therefore he +who wants nuts must not be sparing of manure. + +The first requisite for the planter is choice of location. It is true +that the nutmeg tree, aided by manure, will grow in almost any soil +where water does not lodge, but it makes a vast difference in the +degree of success, whether the soil be originally good, or poor and +improved by art. The tree does not thrive in white or sandy soils, but +prefers the deep red and friable soils formed by the decomposition of +granite rocks and tinged with iron, and the deeper the tinge the +better. I am therefore inclined to think, that iron in the soil is +almost necessary for the full development of the plant. If under the +before-mentioned soil there be a rubble of iron-stone at four or five +feet from the surface (a very common formation in Singapore), forming +a natural drainage, the planter has obtained all that he can desire +in the ground, and needs only patience and perseverance to secure +success. The form of the ground ought to be undulating, to permit the +running off of all superfluous water, as there is no one thing more +injurious to the plant than water lodging around its roots, although, +in order to thrive well, it requires an atmosphere of the most humid +sort, and rain almost daily. Besides the form of the ground, situation +is highly desirable, particularly as regards exposure. A spot selected +for a nutmeg plantation cannot be too well sheltered, as high winds +are most destructive to the tree, independently of the loss occasioned +by the blowing off of fruit and flower. + +At present there is abundant choice of land in Singapore, the greater +portion of the island being as yet uncultivated, and much answering to +the above description. The land can be purchased from Government at +the rate of from 10s. to 20s. per acre in perpetuity. I would advise +the man who wishes to establish a plantation, to select the virgin +forest, and of all things let him avoid deserted gambier plantations, +the soil of which is completely exhausted, the Chinese taking good +care never to leave a spot until they have taken all they can out of +it. A cleared spot has a great attraction for the inexperienced, and +it is not easy to convince a man that it is less expensive to attack +the primitive forest, than to attempt to clear an old gambier +plantation, overrun with lalang grass; but the cutting down and +burning of large forest trees is far less expensive than the +extirpation of the lalang, and as the Chinese leave all the stumps of +the large trees in the ground, it is almost more difficult to remove +them in this state than when you have the powerful lever of the trunk +to aid you in tearing up the roots, setting aside the paramount +advantage that, in the one case you possess a fresh and fertile soil, +in the other an effete and barren one. + +Forest land, or "jungle," as it is called in the East, can be cleared +for about 25 to 30 dollars (L5 to L6) per acre, by contract, but the +planter had better be careful to have every stump and root of tree +removed, ere he ventures to commence planting, or the white ants, +attracted by the dead wood, will crowd into the land, and having +consumed the food thus prepared for them, will not be slow in +attacking the young trees. Whilst the planter is thus clearing the +ground, he may advantageously at the same time be establishing +nurseries; for these the ground ought to be well trenched and mixed +with a small quantity of thoroughly decomposed manure and burned +earth, making up the earth afterwards into beds of about three feet +wide, with paths between them for the convenience of weeding and +cleaning the young plants. Of course if the planter can obtain really +good plants, the produce of well-selected seed, it will be a great +saving of time and expense to him, but unless the seed be carefully +chosen, I would prefer beginning my own nurseries, and in the +selection of seed would recommend the most perfectly ripe and +spherical nuts. Oval long nuts are to be rejected, particularly any +of a pale color at one end. + +The planter having selected his seed, which ought to be put in the +ground within twenty-four hours after being gathered, setting it about +two inches deep in the beds already prepared, and at the distance of +twelve to eighteen inches apart, the whole nursery to be well shaded +both on top and sides, the earth kept moist and clear of weeds, and +well smoked by burning wet grass or weeds in it once a week, to drive +away a very small moth-like insect that is apt to infest young plants, +laying its eggs on the leaf, when they become covered with yellow +spots, and perish if not attended to speedily. + +Washing the leaves with a decoction of the Tuba root is the best +remedy I know of, but where only a few plants are affected, if the +spots be numerous, I would prefer to pluck up the plant altogether, +rather than run the risk of the insect becoming more numerous, to the +total destruction of the nursery. The nuts germinate in from a month +to six weeks, and even later, and for many months after germination +the seed is attached to the young plant, and may be removed apparently +as sound as when planted, to the astonishment of the unlearned, who +are not aware of the great disproportion in size between the ovule and +albumen, the former of which is alone necessary to form the plant. The +plant may be kept in nursery with advantage for nearly two years. +Should they grow rapidly, and the interspaces become too small for +them, every second plant had better be removed to a fresh nursery; and +set out at a distance of a couple of feet from each other. When +transplanted, either in this way or for their ultimate position in the +plantation, care should be taken to remove them with a good ball of +earth, secured by the skin of the plantain, which prevents the ball of +earth falling to pieces. The nurseries being established, the ground +cleared and ready, the next proceeding is to lay out and dig holes +about 26 or 30 feet apart, and as the quincunx order has so many +advantages, it is the form I would recommend for adoption. The holes +should be at least six feet in diameter, and about four feet deep, and +when refilled the surface soil is to be used, and not that which is +taken out of the hole. Each hole should be filled up about one foot +higher than the surrounding ground, to allow for the settling of the +soil and the sinking of the tree, which, planted at this height, will +in a few years be found below the level. Over each hole thus filled +up, a shed, made of Attap leaves or other shelter, closed on two +sides, east and west, and proportioned to the size of the plant, is to +be erected. It is not a bad plan to leave an open space in the centre +of the top of each shed, about twelve inches wide, by which the young +plant can obtain the benefit of the dew and gentle rains, which more +than compensates for the few rays of sun that can only fall upon it +whilst that body is vertical. After the sheds have been completed, +each hole should have added to it a couple of baskets of well +decomposed manure, and an equal quantity of burned earth, when all is +ready for the reception of the plant, which, having been set out, if +the weather be dry will require watering for ten days or a fortnight +after, in fact until it takes the soil. + +The planter having set out all his trees must not deem his labors +completed, they are only commencing. To arrive thus far is simple and +easy, but to patiently watch and tend the trees for ten years after, +requires all the enthusiasm already mentioned. About three months +after planting out, the young trees will receive great benefit if a +small quantity of liquid fish manure be given them. In the first six +years they ought to be trenched round three times, enlarging the +circle each time, the trenches being dug close to the extremities of +the roots, which generally correspond to the ends of the branches, and +each new trench commencing where the old one terminated. They must of +course greatly increase in size as the circle extends, requiring a +proportionate quantity of manure, but the depth ought never to be less +than two feet. + +The object of trenching is to loosen the soil and permit the roots to +spread, otherwise the tree spindles instead of becoming broad and +umbrageous. Manure is beyond all other considerations the most +important to the welfare of the estate; it is that which gives +quantity and quality of produce, and without it a plantation cannot be +carried on. The want of it must limit the cultivation in the Straits' +Settlements, and will arrest many a planter, who, having got his +plantation to look well up to the eighth year with very little manure, +thinks he can go on in the same manner. The nutmeg tree likes well all +sorts of manures, but that which is best suited for it seems to be +well-rotted stable and cow-yard manure, mixed with vegetable matter, +and when the tree is in bearing the outer covering of the nut itself +is about one of the very best things to be thrown into the dung-pit. +Dead animals buried not too near the roots, also blood, fish, and oil +cakes are beneficial. Guano is of no use. + +But although manuring is the chief element in successful cultivation, +there are many other matters for the planter to attend to during the +period that the trees are growing. All obnoxious grasses must be +carefully kept out of the plantation, at least from between the trees, +and the harmless grasses rather encouraged, as they keep the surface +cool. The trunk of the tree ought to be carefully washed with soap and +water once a year to keep it clear of moss; this has been ridiculed as +a work of supererogation, but let those who think so omit the +operation. + +Parasitical plants of the genus Loranthus are very apt to attach +themselves to the branches, and if not removed do great injury. + +The insect enemies of the tree are not very numerous, but it has a +few, white ants among the number. They seldom attack a vigorous plant; +it is upon the first symptoms of weakness or decay that they commence +their operations. Their nests may be dislodged from the roots of the +plant by a dose of solution of pig dung, to which they have a great +aversion. + +There are several species of insects which lay their eggs on the +leaves, and unless carefully watched and removed, they commit great +havoc amongst the trees. For this purpose it is necessary to wash the +leaves with a decoction of Tuba root, and syringe them by means of a +bamboo with lime and water, of the consistence of whitewash; this +adheres to the leaves, and will remain even after several heavy +showers. + +Another nuisance is the nest of the large red ant; these collect and +glue the leaves together, forming a cavity for the deposition of their +_larvae_. The best mode of destroying them is to hang a portion of some +animal substance, such as the entrails of a fowl, fish, &c., to the +end of a pole, thrust through and protruding from the branches; the +ants will run along the pole and collect in immense quantities around +the bait, when, by a lighted faggot, they can be burned by thousands. +This repeated once or twice a day for a week or so, will soon rid the +tree of the invaders. + +The number of men to be kept on an estate to preserve it in first-rate +order after it has come into bearing, must depend of course upon the +size of the plantation, but in general one man for every one hundred +trees will be found sufficient, provided there be some four or five +thousand trees. On a small scale the proportion must be greater. + +The nutmeg planter is under the necessity of keeping up nurseries +throughout the whole of his operations for the replacement of bad +plants and redundant males. Of the latter ten per cent. seems to be +about the best proportion to keep, but I would have completely +dioecious trees. No person can boast to get a plantation completely +filled up and in perfect order much sooner than fifteen years. Of the +first batch planted, not more than one-half will turn out perfect +females, for I do not take into account monoecious trees, which I have +already condemned. The tree shows flower about the seventh year, but +the longer it is before doing so, the better and stronger will it be. +I cannot refrain from a smile when a sanguine planter informs me with +exultation that he has obtained a nut from a tree only three or four +years planted out; so much the worse for his chance of success, too +great precocity being incompatible with strength and longevity. + +The best trees do not show flower before the ninth year, and one such +is worth a score of the others. This will be evident when it is stated +that I have seen several trees yield more than 10,000 nuts each in one +year, whereas I do not believe that there is a plantation in the +Straits' that averages 1,000 from every tree. This very great +disparity of bearing shows plainly that the cultivation of the plant +is not yet thoroughly understood, or greater uniformity would prevail, +and I think it clearly enough points out that a higher degree of +cultivation would meet its reward. + +The tree has not been introduced into the Straits' sufficiently long +to determine its longevity, but those introduced and planted in the +beginning of the present century, as yet show no symptoms of decay. +The experiment of grafting the trees, which at first view presents so +many advantages, both in securing the finest quality of nut and the +certainty of the sex, has still to be tried in this cultivation. Some +three years ago (continues Dr. Oxley), I succeeded in grafting several +plants by approach; these are not sufficiently old for me to decide +whether it be desirable or not, for although the plants are looking +well and growing, they as yet have thrown out their branches in a +straggling irregular manner, having no leaders, and consequently they +cannot extend their branches in the regular verticles necessary for +the perfect formation of the tree, without which they must ever be +small and stunted, and consequently incapable of yielding any quantity +of produce. The grafts have succeeded so far as stock and scion +becoming one, and in time a perpendicular shoot from the wood may +appear. If after that it should increase in size and strength, so as +to form a tree of full dimensions, the advantage gained would be worth +any trouble, the quality of some nuts being so far above that of +others, it would make a difference beyond present calculation; in +short, 1,000 such picked trees at the present prices would yield +something equivalent to L4,000 a year, for L4 per tree would be a low +estimate for such plants. If this ever does occur, it will change the +aspect of cultivation altogether, and I see no good reason why it +should not, except that those possessing trees of the quality alluded +to, would not very willingly permit others to graft from them, so it +is only the already successful planter who can try the experiment +properly. + +An acre of land contains on an average 92 trees, and it is calculated +an outlay of 300 dollars is required upon every acre to bring the tree +to maturity; but as not more than one-half of the trees generally turn +out females, and as many others are destroyed by accident and diseases +to which this plant is very liable, it makes the cost of each tree, by +the time it yields fruit, about eight dollars. The nutmeg tree begins +to bear when about eight years old, but it gives no return for several +years longer; and therefore to the expense of cultivation must be +added the interest of the capital sunk. The plant being indigenous in +the Moluccas, the expense of cultivation there is greatly less, and +this consequently forms a strong ground of claim to the British +planter for protective duties to their spices from the British +Government. + +The planter having his tree arrived at the agreeable point of +producing, has but slight trouble in preparing his produce for market. +As the fruit is brought in by the gatherers, the mace is carefully +removed, pressed together and flattened on a board, exposed to the sun +for three or four days, it is then dry enough to be put by in the +spice-house until required for exportation, when it is to be screwed +into boxes, and becomes the mace of commerce. The average proportion +of mace yielded in Singapore is one pound for every 433 nuts. + +The nutmeg itself requires more care in its curing, it being necessary +to have it well and carefully dried ere the outer black shell be +broken. For this purpose the usual practice is to subject it for a +couple of months to the smoke of slow fires kept up underneath, whilst +the nuts are spread on a grating about eight or ten feet above. The +model of a perfect drying-house is easily to be obtained. Care should +be taken not to dry the nuts by too great a heat, as they shrivel and +lose their full and marketable appearance. It is therefore desirable +to keep the nuts, when first collected, for eight or ten days out of +the drying-house, exposing them at first for an hour or so to the +morning sun, and increasing the exposure daily until they shake in the +shell. The nuts ought never to be cracked until required for +exportation, or they will be attacked and destroyed by a small +weasel-like insect, the larvae of which is deposited in the ovule, and, +becoming the perfect insect, eats its way out, leaving the nut bored +through and through, and worth less as a marketable commodity. Liming +the nuts prevents this to a certain extent, but limed nuts are not +those best liked in the English market, whereas they are preferred in +that state in the United States. When the nuts are to be limed, it is +simply necessary to have them well rubbed over between the hands with +powdered lime. By the Dutch mode of preparation, they are steeped in a +mixture of lime and water for several weeks. This no doubt will +preserve them, but it must also have a prejudicial effect on the +flavor of the spice. + +After the nuts are thoroughly dried, which requires from six weeks to +two months smoking, they cannot be too soon sent to market. But it is +otherwise with the mace; that commodity, when fresh, not being in +esteem in the London market, seeing that they desire it of a golden +color, which it only assumes after a few months, whereas at first when +fresh it is blood red; now red blades are looked upon with suspicion, +and are highly injurious to the sale of the article. + +This is one of those peculiar prejudices of John Bull, which somewhat +impugns his wisdom; but it must be attended to, as John is very ready +to pay for his caprice; therefore those who provide for him have no +right to complain, although they may smile. + +The nutmeg tree was sent from Bencoolen to Singapore, the latter end +of 1819, so that thirty-four years have elapsed since its first +introduction. Sir Stamford Raffles shipped to the care of the resident +commandant, Major Farquhar, 100 nutmeg plants, 25 larger ditto, and +1,000 nutmeg seeds, which were committed to the charge of Mr. Brooks, +a European gardener, who was specially engaged by the East India +Company to look after their embryo spice plantations here. Some of +these plants were set out in rather a bad soil and locality, but +several of them are at present, and have been for the last ten years, +fine fruitful trees. 315 of the trees in the Government garden +yielded, in 1848, 190,426 nuts, or at the average of 604 for each +tree; but of these not over 50 were of the old stock, most having been +planted since 1836; so that a planter may safely calculate on having a +better average than is here set forth, provided he attends to his +cultivation, and his trees are brought up to the age of fifteen +years. If a plantation be attended to from the commencement after the +manner I have endeavoured to explain, and the trees be in a good +locality, the planter will undoubtedly obtain an average of 10 lbs. of +spice from each tree from the fifteenth year; this, at an average +price of 2s. 6d. per lb., is 25s. per annum. He can have about seventy +such trees in an acre, so that there is scarcely any better or more +remunerative cultivation when once established. But the race is a long +one, the chances of life, and a high rate of interest in the country, +make it one of no ordinary risk, and it is one that holds out no +prospect of any return in less than ten years. + +A person commencing and stopping short of the bearing point, either by +death or want of funds, will suffer almost total loss, for the value +of such a property brought into a market where there are no buyers +must be purely nominal. Again, if the property has arrived at the +paying point, almost any person of common honesty can take charge of +and carry it on, for the trees after twelve years are remarkably +hardy, and bear a deal of ill treatment and neglect; not that I would +recommend any person to try the experiment. But it is some consolation +for the proprietor to know that stupidity will not ruin him, and that +even at the distance of thousands of miles he can give such +directions, as, if attended to, will keep his estate in a flourishing +and fruitful state. + +The total number of nutmeg trees in Singapore in 1848 was 55,925, of +which 14,914 only were in bearing. The produce of that year was +4,085,361 nutmegs, or 33,600 lbs. in weight. The greater number of the +trees, it will be perceived, have not come into full bearing, but the +produce is increasing rapidly, and in 1849 it amounted to fully 66,670 +lbs. + +Among the principal growers in that island are Dr. Oxley, Mr. C.R. +Prinsep, and Mr. W. Montgomerie, who have each large plantations, with +from 2,000 to 5,000 bearing trees on them. Others, as Sir. J. +d'Almeida, Mr. Nicol, and one or two more, have planted extensively, +but have not yet got their trees to the bearing point. + +A large supply of nutmeg and clove plants arrived at Pinang in 1802, +from the Molucca Islands. There were 71,266 nutmeg and 55,264 clove +plants; allowing one half of the former to have been male trees, there +would only have been 35,633 useful nutmeg plants. It is believed that +a mere fraction of these ever reached maturity, but they served to +introduce the cultivation permanently. Plants were likewise sent to +Ceylon and Cape Comorin. It does not appear that the climates of these +two localities suit the nutmeg tree, as it requires rain, or at least +a very damp climate throughout the year. The East India Company's +spice plantations in Pinang were sold in 1824, and the trees were +dispersed over the island. + +The spice cultivators of the Straits' Settlements have for some time +sought a further protective duty on nutmegs, and the extension of a +similar protection to mace and cloves, the produce of these +settlements; for singularly enough the present tariff affords no +protection to mace, the growth of British possessions. From tabular +statements, furnished by the Chamber of Commerce of Pinang, drawn up +apparently with great care, it appears that in 1843 there were 3,046 +acres cultivated with spice trees in Pinang and province Wellesley, +containing 233,995 nutmegs, and 80,418 clove trees, besides 77,671 +trees in nurseries ready to be planted out; and by a similar statement +from Singapore, which is however not so complete, that 743 acres are +cultivated, containing 43,544 nutmeg trees. The island of Pinang is +estimated to contain 160 square miles, nearly the whole of which, with +the exception perhaps of summits of the hills, is well adapted to +spice growing. Province Wellesley is of much greater extent, and the +soil of it has already been proved to be equally well fitted for that +kind of cultivation; and the settlements of Malacca and Singapore are +said to be admirably suited, in many places, for that species of +produce, the latter of which has already several plantations fast +approaching to maturity. + +The cultivation is capable of great extension; encouragement is only +required to be held out, and new plantations will be rapidly formed in +these settlements. The same tables show that the produce in 1842 was, +in Pinang and Province Wellesley, 18,560,281 nutmegs, 42,866 lbs. of +mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves[51]; and in Singapore, 842,328 +nutmegs, and 1,962 lbs. of mace. Thus making the produce from the two +settlements 19,408,608 nutmegs in number (or in weight 147,034 lbs.), +44,822 lbs. of mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves. Now the consumption of +these spices in Great Britain was, on an average of four years ending +1841, as follows:--Nutmegs, 121,000 lbs.; mace, 18,000 lbs.; cloves, +92,000 lbs. Showing, therefore, that the Straits' Settlements already +produce more than sufficient of the two former to supply the home +market. + +In the course of four or five years more, Pinang alone will more than +double the present quantity of nutmegs and mace produced in the +Straits, and the produce of cloves will be more than tripled. + +I have been able, from several elaborate papers in my "Colonial +Magazine," to condense details, showing the progress of spice +plantations in Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley. In the +close of 1843 there were 64,902 nutmeg trees in bearing in the island; +39,209 male trees, 103,982 not bearing; making a total of 208,093 +trees planted out, besides 52,510 plants in nursery. The quantity of +ground under cultivation was 2,282 orlongs. The produce in 1842 was +15,116,591 good nuts, 1,461,229 inferior nuts, and 38,260 lbs. of +mace. The gross value of the produce in 1843, reckoning the good nuts +at five dollars per thousand, and the inferior at one dollar, was +76,944 dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 12,458,762; +in 1844, 25,429,000. + +In Province Wellesley there were 247 orlongs under cultivation with +the nutmeg, on which were 10,500 bearing trees, 8,095 male trees, and +7,307 not yet bearing, making in all 25,902 trees planted out. The +produce was in 1842, 1,969,619 good nuts, 18,842 inferior ditto, and +4,500 lbs. of mace. The value of the produce of nutmegs was 9,867 +dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 1,980,000; in 1844, +2,958,000. There were in all 423 nutmeg plantations on the island and +main land. + +There were annually exported in the four years ending 1850, 48,000 +lbs. of nutmegs from Pinang, and 57,400 lbs. of mace. + +The French at an early period cultivated the nutmeg at the Mauritius, +and from thence they carried it to Cayenne. In Sumatra it appears to +have been grown successfully, and according to Sir S. Raffles, there +was in 1819 a plantation at Bencoolen of 100,000 nutmeg trees, +one-fourth of which were bearing. Attempts have been made in Trinidad +and St. Vincent to carry out the culture, but for want of enterprise +very little progress seems to have been made in the matter. + +Under the new duties which came into operation this year, nutmegs, +instead of standing at 1s. per pound all round, have been classified, +and the so-called "wild" nutmegs of the Dutch islands are to pay only +5d per pound. This deprives the Straits' produce of its last +protection against that of the Banda plantations, where the tree grows +spontaneously, while it gives the long Dutch nut a high protection. If +an alteration in this suicidal measure is not speedily obtained, the +Straits' planters will be ruined. The Dutch have the power of +inundating the market with the long aromatic nut. If the original plan +of putting all British and all foreign nutmegs on the same footing had +been adhered to, the Straits' planters would not have complained, as +they would have trusted to their superior skill and care to compensate +for the grand advantage the Dutch have in their rich soils. + +On observing this alteration of duty, Mr. Crawfurd and Mr. Gilman +immediately prepared the following memorandum for the Chancellor of +the Exchequer, which however failed to influence that Minister:-- + + "MEMORANDUM ON THE DUTIES ON NUTMEGS. + + "The duty proposed to be levied on nutmegs is 1s. per pound for + cultivated, and 5d. per pound for those commonly called wild. The + ground on which this distinction is founded, is said to be that the + market value of the one is but half that of the other, and that the + Customs can readily distinguish between them. + + Now it is admitted, on all sides, that there is but one species of + culinary nutmeg, the _Myristica Moschata_ of botanists, although at + least a score of the same genus, all unfit for human food. The + parent country of the aromatic nutmegs extends from the Molucca + Islands to New Guinea, inclusive. In this they grow with facility + and even in the Banda Islands, where there are parks of them, they + hardly undergo any cultivation, and may truly be said, even there, + to be a wild product. It is only when grown as exotics, as in the + British settlements of Pinang and Singapore, that they require + cultivation, and that a more careful and expensive one than any + other produce of the soil. + + Aromatic nutmegs are sometimes large and sometimes small--sometimes + round, sometimes oblong, and sometimes long, and this will be found + the case whether cultivated or uncultivated. How, then, the Customs + are able to distinguish them it is difficult to understand. In the + ordinary Prices Current no mention whatever is made of the wild and + cultivated, the lowest quality being quoted in the most recent at + 2s. per pound, and the highest at 3s. 10d.,--the best of what are + called wild fetching a higher price than the lower qualities of what + are called cultivated. + + But suppose the distinction could be made with the most perfect + certainty, to make it would be a palpable departure from the + principle adopted with every other commodity, of charging a + uniform rate of duty on quality. To give an example, the present + price of black pepper is 3-5/8d. to 4d. per pound, while that of + white pepper is 81/2d. to 1s. 2d. per pound, both paying the same + duty of 6d.; yet nothing can be more easily distinguished than + these two commodities, which, except as to curing, are the same + article. + + Tea is a still more striking example. The duty is the same on all + qualities, though prices range from 1l1/2d. to 3s. 6d. per pound. It + was the very circumstance of the difficulty of distinguishing + between the different kinds of tea, especially between Bohea and + Congou, which, after an eighteen months trial, overthrew the system + of rated duties of 1s. 6d., 2s., and 3s., adopted on the abolition + of the East India Company's monopoly in 1833. + + Unless the duty on nutmegs is equalised there will be no end of + trouble and disputes, and however expert the Customs may be, they + will certainly be outwitted, and long-shaped and small nutmegs, + although really cultivated, will be introduced at the lower duty, by + unscrupulous traders, as wild ones. + + It may be added that duties of 12d. and 5d. do not, even if a + departure from the principle of charging on quality were + justifiable, represent the just proportional rates which ought to be + levied upon what are supposed to be, respectively, cultivated and + wild, as they are represented in the ordinary Price Current by the + highest and lowest prices, which are 3s. 10d. and 2s. The just + proportional duty ought to be on the lowest, not 5d., but 7d. The + duty, as first proposed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, of 1s. + per pound on nutmegs, without distinction, was perfectly + satisfactory to the planters, merchants, and the trade in general. + + It is a mistake to suppose that a duty of 1s. would exclude the + so-called wild nutmegs. They would be imported in large quantities, + as the cost is low. In quantity it was 17 Spanish dollars per picul, + and there is no reason to suppose it would be more now. The finest + picked cost say 34 Spanish dollars. + + In Pinang and Singapore for cultivated the price is 65 to 70 + dollars. + + The planters for the most part do not sell on the spot, but consign + here for sale on their own account. + + London, May 23rd, 1853. + + + NUTMEGS IMPORTED AND EXPORTED TO AND FROM SINGAPORE. + + Value of the + Imported. Exported. Growth of native growth. + piculs. piculs. Singapore. L + 1841 2271/2 412 1841/2 3,323 + 1842 258 809 551 9,897 + 1843 1501/2 249 981/2 1,760 + 1844 52 282 230 4,131 + 1845 41 383 342 6,143 + 1846 79 331 252 4,526 + 1847 139 416 277 4,275 + + + NUTMEGS EXPORTED FROM JAVA. + + Nutmegs. Mace. + piculs. piculs. + 1830 1,304 177 + 1835 5,022 1,606 + 1839 5,027 1,581 + 1843 2,133 486 + + + IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. + NUTMEGS, WILD AND CULTIVATED. | MACE. + Imports. Home consump. | Imports. Consumption. + lbs. lbs. | lbs. lbs. + 1847 367,936 150,657 | 1847 60,265 18,821 + 1848 336,420 167,143 | 1848 47,572 19,712 + 1849 224,021 178,417 | 1849 45,978 20,605 + 1850 315,126 167,683 | 1850 77,337 21,997 + 1851 358,320 194,132 | 1851 77,863 21,695 + 1852 357,940 239,113 | 1852 61,697 21,480 + + + MACE EXPORTED--ACTUAL GROWTH OF SINGAPORE. + Quantity--piculs. Value--L + 1841 251/2 583 + 1842 72 1,616 + 1843 403/4 943 + 1844 161/2 359 + 1845 71 1,616 + 1846 8 179 + 1847 75 1,661 + +109 piculs of imported mace were also re-shipped in 1847. + +40,000 lbs. of mace were imported into the United Kingdom from India +in 1848. + + +GINGER, GALANGALE, AND CARDAMOMS. + +The rhizome of _Zingiber officinale_ (_Amomum Zingiber_), constitutes +the ginger of commerce, which is imported chiefly from the East and +West Indies. It is also grown in China. In the young state the +rhizomes are fleshy and slightly aromatic, and they are then used as +preserves, or prepared in syrup; in a more advanced stage the aroma is +fully developed, their texture is more woody, and they become fit for +ordinary ginger. The inferior sorts, when dried after immersion in hot +water, form black ginger. The best roots are scraped, washed, and +simply dried in the sun with care, and then they receive the name of +white ginger. The rhizome contains an acid resin and volatile oil, +starch and gum. It is used medicinally as a tonic and carminative, in +the form of powder, syrup, and tincture. + +The root stocks of _Alpinia racemosa_, _A. Galanga_, and many other +plants of the order, have the same aromatic and pungent properties as +ginger. + +The consumption of ginger is about 13,000 or 14,000 cwt. a year. Of +16,004 cwt. imported in 1840, 5,381 came from the British West Indies, +9,727 from the East India Company's possessions and Ceylon, and 896 +cwt. from Western Africa. + +The difference between the black and white ginger of the shops is +ascribed by Dr. P. Browne and others to different methods of curing +the rhizomes; but this is scarcely sufficient to account for them, and +I cannot help suspecting the existence of some difference in the +plants themselves. That this really exists is proved by the +statements of Rumphius ("Herb. Amb.," lib. 8, cap. xix., p. 156), that +there are two varieties of the plant, the white and the red. Moreover +Dr. Wright ("Lond. Med. Journal," vol. viii.) says that two sorts are +cultivated in Jamaica, viz., the white and the black; and, he adds, +"black ginger has the most numerous and largest roots." + +The rhizome, called in commerce ginger root, occurs in +flattish-branched or lobed palmate pieces, called _races_, which do +not exceed four inches in length. Several varieties, distinguished by +their color and place of growth, are met with. The finest is that +brought from Jamaica. A great part of that found in the shops has been +washed in whiting and water, under the pretence of preserving it from +insects. + +The dark colored kinds are frequently bleached with chloride of lime. +Barbados ginger is in shorter flatter races, of a darker color, and +covered with a corrugated epidermis. African ginger is in smallish +races, which have been partially scraped, and are pale colored. East +India ginger is unscraped; its races are dark ash colored externally, +and are larger than those of the African ginger. Tellichery ginger is +in large plump races, with a remarkable reddish tint externally. + +Jamaica black ginger is not frequently found in the shops. The Malabar +dark ginger is in unscraped short pieces, which have a horny +appearance internally, and are of a dirty brown color both internally +and externally. + +Ginger is imported in bags weighing about a hundred-weight. + +The Malabar ginger exported from Calicut is the produce of the +district of Shernaad, situated in the south of Calicut; a place +chiefly inhabited by Moplas, who look upon the ginger cultivation as a +most valuable and profitable trade, which in fact it is. The soil of +Shernaad is so very luxuriant, and so well suited for the cultivation +of ginger, that it is reckoned the best, and in fact the only place in +Malabar where ginger grows and thrives to perfection. Gravelly grounds +are considered unfit; the same may be said of swampy ones, and whilst +the former check the growth of the ginger, the latter tend in a great +measure to rot the root; thus the only suitable kind of soil is that +which, being red earth, is yet free from gravel, and the sod good and +heavy. The cultivation generally commences about the middle of May, +after the ground has undergone a thorough process of ploughing, +harrowing, &c. + +At the commencement of the monsoons, beds of ten or twelve feet long +by three or four feet wide are formed, and in these beds small holes +are dug at three-fourths to one foot apart, which are filled with +manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug out, +the good ones picked from those which are affected by the moisture, or +any other concomitant of a half-year's exclusion from the atmosphere, +and the process of clipping them into suitable sizes for planting +performed by cutting the ginger into pieces of an inch and a half to +two inches long. These are then buried in the holes, which have been +previously manured, and the whole of the beds are then covered with a +good thick layer of green leaves, which, whilst they serve as manure, +also contribute to keep the beds from unnecessary dampness, which +might otherwise be occasioned by the heavy falls of rain during the +months of June and July. Rain is essentially requisite for the growth +of the ginger; it is also however necessary, that the beds be +constantly kept from inundation, which, if not carefully attended to, +the crop is entirely ruined; great precaution is therefore taken in +forming drains between the beds, and letting water out, thus +preventing a superfluity. On account of the great tendency some kinds +of leaves have to breed worms and insects, strict care is observed in +the choosing of them, and none but the particular kinds used in +manuring ginger are taken in, lest the wrong ones might fetch in +worms, which, if once in the beds, no remedy can be resorted to +successfully to destroy them; thus they in a very short time ruin the +crop. Worms bred from the leaves laid on the soil, though highly +destructive, are not so pernicious to ginger cultivation as those +which proceed from the effect of the soil. The former kind, whilst +they destroy the beds in which they once appear, do not spread +themselves to the other beds, be they ever so close, but the latter +kind must of _course_ be found in almost all the beds, as they do not +proceed from accidental causes, but from the nature of the soil. In +cases like these, the whole crop is oftentimes ruined, and the +cultivators are thereby subjected to heavy losses. + +Ginger is extensively diffused throughout the Indian isles, it being +especially indigenous to the East, and of pretty general use among the +natives, who neglect the finer spices. The great and smaller varieties +are cultivated, and the sub-varieties distinguished by their brown or +white colors. There is no production which has a greater diversity of +names. This diversity proves, as usual, the wide diffusion of the +plant in its wild state. The ginger of the Indian Archipelago is +however inferior in quality to that of Malabar or Bengal. In the +cultivation of ginger great improvement may be adopted and expense +saved. The garden plough and small harrow should be used. + +The present mode of preparing the land for this crop in the West +Indies, is by first carefully hoeing off all bush and weeds from the +piece you intend to plant; the workmen are then placed in a line, and +dig forward the land to the full depth of the hoe, cutting the furrow +not more than from five to six inches thick. The land is then allowed +to pulverise for a short time; you then prepare it for receiving the +plants by opening drills with the hoe, from ten to twelve inches +apart, and the same in depth, chopping or breaking up any clods that +may be in the land. Two or three women follow and drop the plants in +the drills, say from nine to ten inches apart. The plants or sets are +the small knots or fingers broken off the original root, as not worth +the scraping. The plants are then covered in with a portion of the +earth-bank formed in drilling. It requires great care and attention in +keeping them clean from weeds until they attain sufficient age. It +throws out a pedicle or foot stalk in the course of the second or +third week, the leaves of which are of similar shape to that of the +Guinea grass. + +Ginger is a delicate plant, and very liable to rot, particularly if +planted in too rich a soil, or where it may be subject to heavy rains. +The general average of yield is from 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. per acre in +plants, although I have known as much as 3,000 lbs. of ginger cured +from an acre of land. The planting season generally commences in +Jamaica in February and March, and the crop is got in in December and +January, when the stalks begin to wither. The ginger is taken from the +ground by means of the hoe, each laborer filling a good-sized basket, +at the same time breaking off the small knots or knobs for future +planting. + +A good scraper of ginger will give you from 30 to 40 lbs. of ginger +per day. It is then laid on barbacues (generally made of boards) to +dry. It takes from six to ten days to be properly cured. The average +yield in weight is about one-third of what is scraped. When intended +for preserving, the roots must be taken up at the end of three or four +months, while the fibres are tender and full of sap. + +The ginger grown in the West Indies is considered superior in quality +to that of the East, doubtless because more care is paid to the +culture and drying of the root, but it is of less importance to +commerce. The quantities imported from these two quarters is however +becoming more equal, and Africa is coming into the field as a +producer, 1,545 casks and packages having arrived from the western +coast in 1846. The annual average export of ginger from Barbados +between the years 1740 and 1788, was 4,667 bags; between 1784 and +1786, 6,320 bags; in 1788, 5,562 cwt. were shipped; in 1792, 3,046 +bags and barrels. In 1738, so widely was the culture of this root +diffused in Jamaica, that 20,933 bags, of one cwt. each, and 8,864 +lbs. in casks were shipped. The exports may now be taken on an average +at 4,000 cwt.; but, like all the other staple products of the island, +this has fallen off one-half since the emancipation of the negro +population. + +In the three years which preceded the abolition of slavery, 5,719,000 +lbs. of ginger were shipped from Jamaica. In the three years ending +with 1848, the quantity shipped had decreased 2,612,186 lbs., as will +be seen by the following returns:-- + + GINGER SHIPPED. + lbs. lbs. + 1830 1,748,800 | 1846 1,462,000 + 1831 1,614,640 | 1847 1,324,480 + 1832 2,355,560 | 1848 320,340 + --------- | --------- + 5,719,000 | 3,106,820 + +In 1843 there were shipped from Jamaica 3,719 casks and bags; in 1844, +3,692 casks and 1730 bags; in 1845, 3,506 casks, valued at L4 10s. +each, and 1,129 bags, valued at L2 each, equal in all to L18,037. +From the island of Hayti 8,769 lbs. of ginger were exported in 1835, +and 15,509 lbs. in 1836. 39 packages of ginger were shipped from +Barbados in 1851. + +In Maranham and one or two other provinces of Brazil, ginger of an +excellent quality is grown, and a good deal is exported. It was very +early an article of culture in South America. According to Acosta, it +was brought to America by one Francisco de Mendoza, from Malabar, and +so rapidly did its cultivation spread, that as far back as 1547, +22,053 cwt. were shipped to Europe. Southey, in his "History of +Brazil" (vol. i., p. 320), says, "Ginger had been brought from the +island of St. Thomas, and throve so well that in the year 1573, 4,000 +arrobas of 25 lbs. each were cured; it was better than what came from +India, though the art of drying it was not so well understood. Great +use was made of this root in preserves, but it was prohibited, as +interfering with the Indian trade in that wretched species of policy +which regards immediate revenue as its main object." + +Ginger was worth in the London market 25s. to 60s. the cwt. in bond; +middling and fine qualities, 80s. to 160s. The duty is 5s. per cwt. + +Amount of imports of ginger into the United Kingdom, with the +quantities entered for home consumption:-- + + West India Entered for East India Entered for + ginger. home consumption. ginger. home consumption. + cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. + 1831 3,551 4,709 849 79 + 1832 5,947 6,795 2,508 213 + 1833 6,064 6,570 10,049 1,099 + 1834 9,913 9,918 10,004 1,638 + 1835 8,321 8,982 4,489 1,647 + 1836 10,226 6,304 13,589 3,524 + 1837 10,933 9,905 23,876 3,386 + 1838 13,366 9,944 25,649 1,431 + 1839 8,996 7,213 29,624 914 + 1840 5,381 7,935 9,719 1,568 + 1841 4,446 5,523 5,292 1,177 + 1842 4,671 5,068 3,680 1,956 + 1843 4,013 5,953 4,106 3,254 + casks, &c. casks. bags. bags. + 1844 4,619 3,128 5,101 6,964 + 1845 6,033 4,000 8,165 7,938 + + + + Total Retained for + ginger imported. home consumption. + cwts. cwts. + 1846 24,370 15,937 + 1846 20,010 15,163 + 1847 12,995 9,744 + 1848 13,748 10,454 + 1849 28,015 12,880 + 1850 33,953 16,543 + 1851 35,678 19,855 + 1852 20,297 18,691 + +GALANGALE ROOT is a good deal used in China, and forms an article of +commerce, fetching in the London market 12s. to 16s. per cwt. in +bond. It is the rhizoma of _Alpinia Galanga_. Its taste is peppery and +aromatic. Externally the color of the root-stocks is reddish brown, +internally pale reddish white. + +1,280 cwt. of galangale root, valued at 2,880 dollars, was exported +from Canton in 1850. + + +CARDAMOMS. + +Cardamoms are the production of various species of plants of the same +tribe as the ginger, and might be profitably cultivated with that +aromatic root, as well as the Turmeric (_Curcuma longa_), which see. + +Various species of _Alpiniae_, _Amomum_, _Elettaria_, _and Renealmia_, +appear to furnish the cardamoms of the shops, which consist of the +oval, trivalvular capsules containing the seeds. The bright yellow +seeds are used in medicine as aromatic tonics and carminatives; and +for curries, ketchups, soups, &c. Their active ingredient is a pungent +volatile oil. The least dampness injures the finer sorts. About 688 +cwts. of cardamoms, and 5,000 cwts. of bastard cardamoms are annually +exported from Siam, "We imported about 300 tons in 1849. The price +ranges from 1s. 6d. to 3s. the pound. The estimated value of the +cardamoms and pepper shipped from Ceylon in the past few years was as +follows:--1846, L208; 1847, L246; 1848, L205; 1849, L454; 1850, L960; +1851, L771; 1852, L590. The" following are some of the plants from +which cardamoms are procured. + +1. _Amomum Cardamomum_, a Java plant, supplies the round cardamoms. It +has pale brown flowers. The fruit varies in size from that of a black +currant to a cherry. + +_2. A. angustifolium_ (Pereira), a plant having red blossoms; +furnishes the large Madagascar cardamoms, and also supplies some of +the seeds called "Grains of Paradise," which are, however, larger than +those imported under that name. + +This species is found in Abyssinia, according to my friend Mr. Chas. +Johnston, author of "Travels in Abyssinia," who favored me with some +specimens. The seeds are pale olive brown, devoid of the fiery peppery +taste of the grains of paradise. + +3. _A. maximum_, the great winged amomum, produces the Java cardamoma +of the London market, and is also grown extensively in Ceylon, the +Malay islands, Nepaul, Sumatra, and other islands of the Eastern +Archipelago. There were exported from Ceylon in 1842, 5,364 lbs.; in +1843, 9,632 lbs.; 1844, 7,280 lbs.; and in 1845, 11,812 lbs. The pods +are large and long, and dark colored, approaching to black, the taste +nauseous and disagreeable, not the least resembling that of the +Malabar cardamoms. It is propagated by cuttings of the rhizoma. The +plants yield in three years, and afterwards give an annual crop. They +are not used here, but sent to the continent. + +4. _Alpinia Cardamomum_.--This is the source of the clustered +cardamoms, and furnishes the best known sort. Its produce is in great +request throughout India, fetching as much as L30 the candy of 600 +Lbs. About 192 candies are grown annually in Travancore, and the usual +crop in Malabar is reckoned at 100 candies annually. It flourishes on +the mountainous parts of the Malabar coast, and among the western +mountains of Wynaad. The bulbous plants, which grow three or four feet +high, are produced in the recesses of the mountains by felling trees, +and afterwards burning them, for wherever the ashes fall in the +openings or fissures of the rocks, the plant naturally springs up. In +the third year the plants come to perfection, bearing abundantly for a +year or two, and then die. In Soonda Balagat, and other places where +cardamoms are planted, they are much inferior to those grown in the +wild state. It may be propagated by cuttings or divisions of the +roots. Not more than one-hundredth part of the cardamoms raised in +Malabar are used in the country. They are sent in large quantities to +the ports on the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, up the Indus to +Scinde, to Bengal and Bombay. The price of Malabar cardamons at +Madras, in June, 1853, was about L3 the maund of 25 lbs. They fetch in +the Bombay market L4 10s. the maund of 40 lbs. Cardamoms form a +universal ingredient in curries, pillaus, &c. The seed capsules are +gathered as they ripen, and when dried in the sun are fit for sale. +They should be chosen full, plump, and difficult to be broken; of a +bright yellow color, and piercing smell; with an acrid bitterish, +though not very unpleasant taste, and particular care should be taken +that they are properly dried. + +_5. Amomum Grana-Paradisi_, which is indigenous to the islands of +Madagascar and Ceylon, yields an inferior sort of cardamoms, known by +the names of grains of paradise, or Meleguetta pepper. These are worth +in the English market only from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 4d. per pound, while +the long and Malabar cardamoms fetch 2s. 8d. to 3s. 3d. the pound. +This plant is a native of Guinea, and the western parts of Africa +about Sierra Leone. We imported from thence in 1841, 7,911 pounds. + +The taste of these Guinea grains is aromatic and vehemently hot or +peppery. They are imported in casks from Africa, and are principally +used in veterinary medicine, and to give an artificial strength to +spirits, wine, beer, &c. The average quantity on which duty was paid +in the six years ending with 1840, was 16,000 lbs. per annum. They are +esteemed in Africa the most wholesome of spices, and generally used by +the natives to season their food. + +Dr. Pereira, from a careful examination and close inquiry, is of +opinion that the _Amomum Grana-Paradisi_ of Smith, and the _Amamum +Melegueta_ of Roscoe, are identical species. + +In the second volume of the "Pharmaceutical Journal," Dr. Pereira +states that the term "grains of paradise," or Melegueta, has been +applied to the produce of no less than six scitamineous plants. At the +present time, and in this country, the term is exclusively given to +the hot acrid seeds imported into England from the coast of Guinea, +and frequently called Guinea grains; and by the Africans Guinea +pepper. + +_Elettaria Cardomomum_, Don.--The fruit of this species constitutes +the true, small, officinal Malabar cardamoms. It is an ovate oblong, +obtusely triangular capsule, from three to ten lines long, rarely +exceeding three lines in breadth, coriaceous, ribbed, greyish or +brownish yellow. It contains many angular, blackish or reddish brown +rugose seeds, which are white internally, have a pleasant aromatic +odor, and a warm agreeable taste. 100 parts of the fruit yield 74 +parts of seeds, and 26 parts of pericarpal coats. + +This seems to be identical with _Amomum Cardamomum_. + +_Elettaria major_, is a perennial, native of Ceylon, which grows in +shady situations in a rich mixed soil. The dried capsules are known in +commerce as wild or Ceylon cardamoms, and are of less value in the +market than those of Malabar (_Elettaria Cardamomum_, Maton). It is +chiefly grown about the Kandyan district; and in the eight years +ending with 1813, the average export was nine and a-half candies per +annum. The seeds in taste resemble our carraways, and are used for +seasoning various dishes. + +Ceylon cardamoms are now worth in the London market (Sept., 1853) 1s. +to 1s. 3d. per lb.; Malabar ditto, 2s. 3d. to 3s. + + +PEPPER. + +The black pepper of commerce is obtained from the dried unripe fruit +(drupes) of _Piper nigrum_, a climbing plant common in the East +Indies, and of the simplest culture, being multiplied with facility by +cuttings or suckers. The ripe fruit, when deprived of its outer fleshy +covering by washing, forms the white pepper of the shops. The dried +fruiting spikes of _P. longum_, a perennial shrub, native of Malabar +and Bengal, constitute long pepper. The fruit of _Xylopia aromatica_ +is commonly called Ethiopian pepper, from being used as pepper in +Africa. The seeds of some species of fennel-flower (_Nigella sativa_ +and _arvensis_), natives of the south of Europe, were formerly used +instead of pepper, and are said to be still extensively employed in +adulterating it. In Japan, the capsules of _Xanthoxylum piperitum_, or +_Fagara Piperita_, are used as a substitute for pepper, and so is the +fruit of _Tasmannia aromatica_ in Van Diemen's Land. According to Dr. +Roxburgh, _P. trioicum_ is cultivated in the East, and yields an +excellent pepper. + +The pepper vine rises about two feet in the first year of its growth, +and attains to nearly six feet in the second, at which time, if +vigorous and healthy, the petals begin to form the corolla or blossom. +All suckers and side shoots are to be carefully removed, and the vines +should be thinned or pruned, if they become bushy at the top. Rank +coarse weeds and parasitical plants should be uprooted. The vine would +climb, if permitted, to the elevation of twenty feet, but is said to +bear best when kept down to the height of ten or twelve feet. It +produces two crops in the year. The fruit grows abundantly from all +the branches, in long small clusters of from 20 to 50 grains; when +ripe it is of a bright red color. After being gathered, it is spread +on mats in the sun to dry, when it becomes black and shrivelled. The +grains are separated from the stalks by hand rubbing. The roots and +thickest parts of the stems, when cut into small pieces and dried, +form a considerable article of commerce all over India, under the name +of _Pippula moola_. + +Almost all the plants of the family _Piperaceae_ have a strong aromatic +smell and a sharp burning taste. This small group of plants is +confined to the hottest regions of the globe; being most abundant in +tropical America and in the East Indian Archipelago, but more rare in +the equinoctial regions of Africa. The common black pepper, _P. +nigrum_, represents the usual property of the order, which is not +confined to the fruit, but pervades, more or less, the whole plant. It +is peculiar to the torrid zone of Asia, and appears to be indigenous +to the coast of Malabar, where it has been found in a wild state. From +this it extends between the meridians of longitude 96 deg. and 116 +deg. S. and the parallels of latitude 5 deg. S. and 12 deg. N., beyond +which no pepper is found. Within these limits are the islands of +Sumatra and Borneo, with the Malay peninsula and part of Siam. Sumatra +produces by far the greatest quantity of pepper. In 1842, the annual +produce of this island was reckoned at 30,000,000 lbs., being more +than the amount furnished by all the other pepper districts in the +world. + +A little pepper is grown in the Mauritius and the West India Islands, +and its cultivation is making some progress on the Western Coast of +Africa, as we imported from thence 2,909 bags and casks in 1846, and +about 110,000 lbs. in 1847. + +Mr. J. Crawfurd, F.R.S., one of the best authorities on all that +relates to the commerce and agriculture of the Eastern Archipelago, +recently estimated the produce of pepper as follows:-- + + lbs. + Sumatra (West Coast) 20,000,000 + " (East Coast) 8,000,000 + Islands in the Straits of Malacca 3,600,000 + Malay Peninsula 3,733,333 + Borneo 2,666,667 + Siam 8,000,000 + Malabar 4,060,000 + ---------- + Total 50,000,000 + + If we add to this + + Western Coast of Africa and B.W. Indies 53,000 + Java 4,000,000 + Mauritius and Ceylon 80,000 + ---------- + It gives 54,133,000 + as the total produce of the world + +Black pepper constitutes a great and valuable article of export from +the Indian Islands; which, as we have seen, afford by far the largest +portion of What is consumed throughout the world. In the first +intercourse of the Dutch and English with India, it constituted the +most considerable and important staple of their commerce. The +production of pepper is confined in a great measure to the western +countries of the Eastern Archipelago, and among these to the islands +in the centre and to the northern quarter, including the Peninsula. It +is obtained in the ports on both sides of the coast of the latter, but +particularly the north-eastern coast. The principal quarters +(according to Mr. Crawfurd, my authority on this subject), are Patani, +Tringanu, and Kalantin. In the Straits a large quantity is produced in +the island of Singapore, and above all in Pinang, where the capital of +Europeans and the skill and industry of the Chinese have been +successfully applied to its culture. The western extremity of Sumatra, +and the north-west coast of that island, are the most remarkable +situations in it for the production of pepper, and here we have +Acheen, Tikao, Bencoolen, Padang, and the country of the Lampungs. The +production of the eastern extremity of Sumatra or Palembang is +considerable, but held of inferior quality. In the fertile island of +Java, the quantity of pepper grown is inconsiderable, nor is it +remarkable for the goodness of its quality. + +The province of Bantam has always furnished, and still continues to +produce, the most pepper; but the culture of this creeper is fast +giving place in Java to staples affording higher profits and requiring +less care. The exports were, in the following years:-- + + piculs. | lbs. + 1830 6,061 | 1843 3,737,732 + 1835 11,868 | 1848 461,680 + 1839 11,044 | 1851 95,037 + 1841 13,477 | 1852 135,690 + +The number of pepper vines in the district of Bencoolen, in the close +of last year, 1852, was as follows:--1,571,894 young vines; 2,437,052 +bearing ditto; total, 4,008,946. + +Up to the end of September there had been delivered to the Government +1,145 piculs white pepper, and 1,128 piculs black pepper, while of the +harvest of 1852 there were still probably to be received 330 piculs +white, and 4,967 piculs black pepper. + +The south, the west, and the north coasts of the great island of +Borneo produce a large quantity of pepper; as early as 1721 it was a +staple commodity of this island. Banjarmassin is the most productive +place on the south coast, and the State of Borneo Proper on the north +coast. The best pepper certainly does not grow in the richest soils, +for the peppers of Java and Palembang are the worst of the +Archipelago, and that of Pinang and the west coast of Sumatra are the +best. Care in culture and curing improves the quality, as with other +articles, and for this reason chiefly it is that the pepper of Pinang +is more in esteem than that of any other portion of the Archipelago. +From the ports and districts of Siam 3,500 to 4,000 tons are exported +annually. + +The duty at present levied on pepper in England is 6d. per lb., while +the wholesale price for that of Pinang, Malabar, and Sumatra is about +4d. per lb. White pepper ranges from 9d. to 1s. 6d. per lb. The prime +cost in Singapore is not more than 11/2d. per lb. + +About 70,000 or 80,000 piculs of pepper are annually exported from +Singapore, of which between 30,000 and 40,000 piculs have, until +within the last two years, gone on to Great Britain. More than +one-half of the pepper exported from Singapore is grown in the island +by Chinese settlers. + +The low selling price of the article in the English market, the high +duty levied upon it, and the large freight paid for its carriage to +Great Britain, now leave so small a price to the cultivator in +Singapore, that the cultivation ceases to be remunerative, and is +carried on at a loss; and has consequently within the last year or two +begun to decrease rapidly, involving the Chinese growers, who are +generally of the poorest class, and without capital, in great +distress. A reduction in the duty on pepper has always been followed +by a very large increase in the consumption of the article, as will +appear from the following table, showing the importation and +consumption in Great Britain during some of the first and last years +of the different rates of duty:-- + + Duty Singapore price + Year Quantity consumed s. d. s. d. s. d. + 1811 1,457,383 1 101/2 0 71/2 to 0 73/4 + 1814 941,569 1 101/2 0 11 " 1 1 + 1820 1,404,021 2 6 0 61/2 " 0 63/4 + 1824 1,447,030 2 6 0 43/4 " 0 51/2 + 1826 2,529,027 2 0 0 4 " 0 41/2 + 1836 2,749,491 1 0 0 0 " 0 0 + 1837 2,625,075 0 6 0 0 " 0 0 + 1845 3,210,415 0 6 0 21/4 " 0 43/4 + +In a memorial from the mercantile community of Singapore, sent home in +1848, it is asserted that a reduction in the duty of pepper being +always attended by a large increase in the consumption, would not lead +to any serious loss in the revenue, while it would confer a great boon +on the poorer classes, to whom it has now become a necessary article +of life. The reduction would also be of great advantage to British +manufacturers, as well as to our Indian possessions, by giving rise to +an increased demand or British goods and productions, and of the +highest benefit to the agricultural settlers in the island of +Singapore, by enabling them to procure for their labor an honest means +of livelihood. + +The pepper vines, which are allowed to climb poles or small trees, are +tolerably productive at Singapore; and pepper planting is esteemed by +the Chinese to be a profitable speculation, particularly if they are +enabled to evade the payment of quit-rent. An acre of pepper vines +will yield 1,161 lbs. of clean pepper. In Sumatra a full grown plant +has been known to produce seven pounds; in Pinang the yield is much +more. The average produce of one thousand vines is said, however, to +be only about 450 lbs. + +Colonel Low, in his "Dissertation on Pinang," published at Singapore +some years ago, gives an interesting account of the culture:-- + + "Pepper was, during many years, the staple product of Pinang soil, + the average annual quantity having been nearly four millions of + pounds; but previous to the year 1810, the above amount had + decreased to about two-and-a-half millions of pounds, which was the + result of the continental system. + + The price having fallen at length to three and three-and-a-half + dollars the picul--with only a few occasional exceptions of + rises--the cultivation of this spice was gradually abandoned, and + the total product at this day does not exceed 2,000 piculs. The + original cost, when pepper was at a high price, together with + charges of transporting it to Europe, amounted to L36,357 for every + five hundred tons, and the loss by wastage was estimated at L5,405. + In 1818 there remained on the island 1,480,265 pepper vines in + bearing, and the average value of exports of pepper from Pinang, + including that received from other places, was averaged at 106,870 + Spanish dollars. + + As might have been foreseen, the fall of prices has so greatly + diminished the cultivation of pepper to the eastward, that a + reaction is likely to take place; and has in fact partly shown + itself already. Some Chinese in Pinang and Province Wellesley seem + to be preparing to renew the cultivation. There is abundant scope + for the purpose on both sides of the harbour, and every facility is + at hand for carrying it on. + + The pepper plant or vine requires a good soil, the richer the + better, but the _red_ soil of the higher hills is not congenial, the + Chinese think, to it. The undulations skirting the bases of the + hills, and the deep alluvial lands, where not saturated with water, + or liable to be overflowed, are preferred. + + The Chinese have always been the chief cultivators, and when the + speculation flourished they received advances from the merchants, + which they paid back in produce at fixed rates. + + When pepper was extensively cultivated on Prince of Wales Island, + the European owner of the land had the forest cleared by contract, + and the vines planted by contract, and when the vines came into + bearing the plantation was farmed to the Chinese from year to year, + on payment of a specific quantity of pepper. Any other plan would + have ruined the capitalist, as the culture is almost entirely in + their hands in the Straits' Settlements, and they will not work so + well for others as when they are specially interested. + + The plants are set out at intervals, _every way_, of from seven to + twelve feet, according to the degree of fertility of the soil, so + that there are from 800 to 1,000 vines in one orlong of land; to + each vine is allotted a prop of from ten to thirteen feet high, cut + from the thorny tree called _dadap_, or where that is scarce, from + the less durable _boonglai_; these props take root, thus affording + both shade and support to the plant. The plant may be raised from + seed pepper, but the plan is not approved of, cuttings being + preferable, as they soonest come into bearing. The pits in which + these cuttings are set should be a foot-and-a-half square, and two + feet in depth; manure is not often applied, and then it is only some + turf ashes. However unpicturesque a pepper plantation may be, still + its neat and uniform appearance renders the landscape lively, and + there can be little doubt that the island has suffered in its + salubrity since the jungle usurped the extensive tracts formerly + under pepper cultivation. + + When the vine has reached the height of three or four feet, it is + bent down and laid in the earth, and about five of the strongest + shoots which now spring up are retained and carefully trained up the + prop, to which they are tied by means of ligatures of some creeping + plants. + + One Chinese, after the plantation has been formed, can take care of + two orlongs of land. The usual mode is this:--an advance is made by + the capitalist to the laborer for building a house, and for + agricultural implements; he then receives two dollars monthly to + subsist on, until the end of the third year, when the estate or + plantation is equally divided betwixt the contracting parties. + + The Chinese and even European cultivators used formerly to engage + the Chinese who had just arrived from China; they paid off their + passage-money, and then allowed them two dollars monthly, for + provisions, for one year; with a suit of clothes, by which means the + cost of the labor of one man averaged about three dollars monthly; + but this plan is attended with risks. + + The cost attendant on the cultivation of two orlongs of land, with + pepper, for three years--the Chinese laborer receiving the usual + hire of _five_ Spanish dollars monthly--will be nearly as follows:-- + + Spanish dollars. + Price of land, clearing, and planting 40 + Quit rent, at 75 cents per annum per orlong 9 + Two thousand plants 4 + " dadap props 6 + Implements 6 + House 10 + Labor 200 + Interest, loosely calculated at 30 + --- + Total Spanish dollars 305 + + In a very good soil a pepper vine will yield about one-eighth of a + pound of dry produce at the end of the first year; at the end of the + second, about a quarter of a pound; and at the expiration of the + third, probably one pound; at the end of the fourth, from three to + three-and-a-half pounds; ditto fifth, from eight to ten pounds. + After the fifth year up to the fifteenth, or even the twentieth + year, about ten pounds of dry merchantable produce may be obtained + from each vine, under favorable circumstances. The Chinese + speculator used to rent out his half-share of a new plantation for + five years, to his cultivating partner, after the expiration of the + first three years, at the rate of thirty piculs per annum; the total + produce of these five years giving about fifty-six piculs annually + as an average. + + A pepper plantation never survives the thirtieth year, unless in + extremely rich soil, and then it is unproductive; nor will the young + vine thrive on an old worn out pepper land, a peculiarity which is + applicable to the coffee tree. The chief crop lasts from August to + February. Four pounds of dry produce, for ten of green, is + considered a fair estimate. Great care is requisite in the + management of the vine, and especially in training and tying it on + the props. It is subject to be injured by the attacks of a small + insect. The green pepper dries in two or three days, and if it is + intended that it shall be black, it is pulled before it is quite + ripe. To make white pepper, the berry is allowed to remain somewhat + longer on the vine; it is, when plucked, immersed in boiling water, + by means of which process and subsequent friction, before drying, + the husk is separated. + + The exports of pepper from Pinang in the last four years have + been--In 1849, 2,591,233 lbs.; in 1850, 6,397,733 lbs.; in 1851, + 2,366,933 lbs.; in 1852, 2,112,133 lbs." + +A small quantity of pepper seems to be annually exported from Ceylon, +which I presume is the growth of that island; thus there were:-- + + 54 cwts. shipped in 1842 + 83 " " 1843 + 102 " " 1844 + +In the Customs' returns of Ceylon, it is classed with cardamoms, and +160 to 170 cwt. of the two were shipped in each of the years 1850 and +1851. Last year the quantity was smaller. + +Pepper cultivation has been introduced into the Mauritius, and in 1839 +more than 500,000 lbs. were imported from thence, but as the shipments +have since decreased, I presume it has given place to the more +profitable staple sugar. I have been able to glean no information as +to the progress it has made in the West Indies. In Cayenne it has +been successfully carried on for many years; and large shipments of +pepper have been made thence to France. + + BLACK PEPPER EXPORTED FROM SINGAPORE. + + Piculs. Value in rupees. + 1841 Total Exports 66,810 + " Growth of Singapore 21,231 47,674 + 1842 Exports 74,228 + " Growth of Singapore 32,277 72,473 + 1843 Exports 57,883 + " Growth of Singapore 35,585 79,900 + 1844 Exports 67,148 + " Growth of Singapore 42,995 386,152 + 1845 Exports 65,892 + " Growth of Singapore 39,019 350,443 + 1846 Exports 56,709 + " Growth of Singapore 35,712 ----- + 1847 Exports 60,994 + " Growth of Singapore 36,565 328,397 + +Pliny, the naturalist, states that the price of pepper in the market +of Rome in his time was, in English money, 9s. 4d. a pound, and thus +we have the price of pepper at least 1,774 years ago. The pepper +alluded to must have been the produce of Malabar, the nearest part of +India to Europe that produced the article, and its prime cost could +not have exceeded the present one, or about 2d. a pound. It would most +probably have come to Europe by crossing the Indian and Arabian ocean, +with the easterly monsoon, sailing up the Red Sea, crossing the +desert, dropping down the Nile, and making its way along the +Mediterranean by two-thirds of its whole length. This voyage, which in +our times can be performed in a month, most probably then took +eighteen. Transit and customs duties must have been paid over and over +again, and there must have been plenty of extortion. All this will +explain how pepper could not be sold in the Roman market under +fifty-six times its prime cost. Immediately previous to the discovery +of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, we find that the price +of pepper in the markets of Europe had fallen to 6s a pound, or 3s. +4d. less than in the time of Pliny. What probably contributed to this +fall, was the superior skill in navigation of the now converted Arabs, +and the extension of their commerce to the islands of the Eastern +Archipelago, which abounded in pepper. After the great discovery of +Vasco de Gama, the price of pepper fell to about 1s. 3d. a pound, a +fall of 8s. 1d. from that of the time of Pliny, and of 4s. 9d. from +that of the Mahommedan Arabs, Turks, and Venetians. + +In 1826, 14,000,000 lbs. of pepper were imported into the United +Kingdom, of which about 5,500,000 were re-exported. In 1841, +15,000,000 lbs. were imported, of which 6,500,000 were re-shipped to +other countries. + +The home consumption, it will be seen, now averages about 3,250,000 +lbs.:-- + + Imports Home consumption + lbs. lbs. + 1845 9,852,984 3,209,718 + 1846 5,906,586 3,299,955 + 1847 4,669,930 2,966,022 + 1848 8,125,545 3,185,337 + 1849 4,796,042 3,257,911 + 1850 8,028,319 3,170,883 + 1851 3,996,496 3,303,403 + 1852 6,641,699 3,524,501 + +The following return shows the number of bags of pepper imported into +the United Kingdom, with the quantity retained for home consumption:-- + + Imports. Retained for home consumption. + Black. White. Black. White. + bags bags bags. bags. + 1843 37,840 3,861 21,163 2,257 + 1844 60,705 2,123 23,525 2,122 + 1845 80,600 3,208 30,294 2,861 + 1847 37,194 1,236 28,768 2,654 + 1848 65,518 3,042 31,665 3,950 + 1849 43,651 2,616 32,246 3,859 + + +CHILLIES AND CAYENNE PEPPER. + +Chillies or capsicum are long roundish taper pods, divided into two or +three cells, full of small whitish seeds. When this fruit is fresh, it +has a penetrating acrid smell; to the taste it is extremely pungent, +and produces a most painful burning in the mouth. They are +occasionally imported dry, and form the basis of Cayenne pepper; put +in vinegar when green or ripe, they are an acceptable present in +Europe. In Bengal the natives make an extract from the chillies, which +is about the consistence and color of treacle. + +The consumption of chillies in India is immense, as both rich and poor +daily use them, and it is the principal ingredient in all chutnies and +curries; ground into a paste, between two stones, with a little +mustard, oil, ginger, and salt, it forms the only seasoning which the +millions of poor in that country can obtain to eat with their insipid +rice. They are worth in the Bombay market about 40s. the candy of 600 +lbs. + +Immense quantities of the capsicum are used by the native population +of the West Indies, Africa, and Mexico; the consumption as a condiment +being almost universal, and perhaps equal in quantity to salt. Ten +barrels of these peppers were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in +the first six months of 1851. + +The wholesale price of chillies in the London market is from 15s. to +25s. the cwt., and there is a duty of 6d. per pound on them. Cayenne +fetches 9d. to 2s. the pound. + +Chilli is the Mexican name for all varieties of _Capsicum_. They are +natives of the East and West Indies, and other hot climates. _C. +annuum_ is the species commonly noticed, but there seems to be +numerous varieties, which by many are reckoned species. Thus, _C. +frutescens_ is a shrubby plant, which, along with _C. minimum_, +supplies the variety called bird-pepper, it grows to a larger and more +bushy size; _C. baccatum_ has a globular fruit, and furnishes cherry +or berry capsicum. They are all of the simplest culture, and may even +be grown with very little care in England. Culture appears to increase +the size, but to diminish the pungency of the fruit. In capsicums +irritant properties prevail so as to obscure the narcotic action. +Their acridity is owing to an oleaginous substance called capsicin. +Cayenne pepper is used in medicine chiefly in the form of tincture, as +a rubefacient and stimulant, especially in cases of ulcerated sore +throat. It acts on the stomach as an aromatic condiment, and when +preserved in acetic acid it forms chilli vinegar. + +Red pepper may be considered one of the most useful vegetables in +hygiene. As a stimulant and auxiliary in digestion it has been +considered invaluable, especially in warm countries. A kind called the +tobacco red pepper, is said to possess the most pungent properties of +any of the species. It yields a small red pod, less than an inch in +length, and longitudinal in shape, which is so exceedingly hot that a +small quantity of it is sufficient to season a large dish of any food. +Owing to its oleaginous character, it has been found impossible to +preserve it by drying, but by pouring strong boiling vinegar on it a +sauce or decoction can be made, which possesses in a concentrated form +all the essential qualities of the vegetable. A single drop of this +sauce will flavor a whole plate of soup or other food. + +The "wort" or Cayenne pottage may be termed the national dish of the +Abyssinians, as that, or its basis "dillock," is invariably eaten with +their ordinary diet, the thin crumpet-like bread of teff or wheat +flour. Equal parts of salt and the red cayenne pods are well powdered +and mixed together with a little pea or bean meal to make a paste. +This is called "dillock," and is made in quantities at a time, being +preserved in a large gourd-shell, generally suspended from the roof. +The "wort" is merely a little water added to this paste, which is then +boiled over the fire, with the addition of a little fat meat and more +meal to make a kind of porridge, to which sometimes is also added +several warm seeds, such as the common cress or black mustard, both of +which are indigenous in Abyssinia.--("Johnston's Abyssinia.") + +A great quantity of Agi or Guinea pepper is grown in Peru, the natives +being very fond of this condiment. It is not uncommon for an American +Indian to make a meal of twenty or thirty pods of capsicum, a little +salt, and a piece of bread, washed down by two or three quarts of +chica, the popular beverage. + + +PIMENTO. + +The pimento, _Eugenia Pimento_ (_Myrtus Pimenta_), is a native of +Mexico, and the West Indies. It flourishes spontaneously and in great +abundance on the north side of the island of Jamaica; its numerous +white blossoms mixing with the dark green foliage, and with the +slightest breeze diffusing around the most delicious fragrance, give a +beauty and a charm to nature rarely equalled, and of which he who has +not visited the shady arbors and perfumed groves of the tropics can +have little conception. This lovely tree, the very leaf of which when +bruised emits a fine aromatic odor, nearly as powerful as that of the +spice itself, has been known to grow to the height of from 30 to 40 +feet, exceedingly straight, and having for its base the spinous ridge +of a rock, eight or ten feet above the surface of the hill or +mountain. A single tree has frequently produced 150 lbs. of the raw, +or 100 lbs. of the dried fruit. + +The fruit has an aromatic odor, and its taste combines that of +cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves; hence its common name of allspice. The +fruit of _Eugenia acris_ is used for pimento. + +The trunk is of a grey color, smooth and shining, and altogether +destitute of bark. It is luxuriantly clothed with leaves of a deep +green, somewhat like those of the bay tree, and these leaves are, in +the months of July and August, beautifully contrasted and relieved by +an exuberance of white flowers. The leaves yield by distillation a +delicate odoriferous oil, which is said to be sometimes passed off for +oil of cloves. + +The berries are gathered before they are ripe, and spread on a +terrace, exposed to the sun for about a week, during which time they +lose their green color, and acquire that reddish brown tint which +renders them marketable. Some planters kiln-dry them. Like many of the +minor productions of the tropics, pimento is exceedingly uncertain, +and perhaps a very plenteous crop occurs but once in five years. + +In 1800 there were 12,759 bags and 610 casks of pimento imported from +Jamaica; in 1824 there were 33,308 bags and 599 casks shipped from the +island; in 1829 the quantity exported was 6,069,127 lbs. + +In the year ending October 1843, the export of pimento from Jamaica +was 29,322 bags and 156 casks; in the year ending October 1844, 12,055 +bags and 88 casks; in the year ending October 1845, 233 casks, valued +at 30s. each, and 59,494 bags, valued at 20s. + +From 1st January to 1st August, 1851, 128,277 lbs. pimento were +shipped from the port of Montego Bay, Jamaica. + +There was a very considerable pimento plantation made in Tobago, some +years ago, by a Mr. Franklin, but it was abandoned by his sons, that +they might attend the more exclusively to sugar culture. + +Jamaica exported nearly two millions of pounds of pimento less, in +the three years ending 1848, than she did in the three previous to the +emancipation of the slaves. The number of pounds shipped annually, in +these periods, is shown by the following figures:-- + + Year. lbs. + 1830 5,560,620 + 1831 3,172,320 + 1832 4,024,800 + 1846 2,997,060 + 1847 2,800,140 + 1848 5,231,908 + +Pimento is imported into this country in bags of about 100 lbs. each. +The imports have been:-- + + Year. Imports. Home consumption. + cwts. cwts. + 1848 20,773 4,230 + 1849 24,994 3,419 + 1850 20,448 3,467 + 1851 14,840 3,935 + 1852 22,708 3,872 + +The following is a statement of the imports from the West Indies, and +the consumption of the United Kingdom, in pounds:-- + + Entries for + Year. Imports. home consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1831 1,801,355 305,739 + 1832 1,366,183 296,197 + 1833 4,770,255 330,890 + 1834 1,389,402 320,719 + 1835 2,536,353 343,942 + 1836 3,230,978 400,941 + 1837 2,026,128 383,401 + 1838 892,974 383,997 + 1839 1,071,511 309,078 + 1840 999,068 338,969 + 1841 797,757 297,201 + 1842 1,643,318 450,683 + 1843 2,028,658 378,096 + + + The imports have been, in-- + + bags. + 1843 18,649 + 1844 2,408 + 1845 21,092 + 1847 9,649 + 1848 18,196 + 1849 14,108 + +Pimento is worth in the London market 6d. to 7d. per lb. The duty is +5s. per cwt. + + +VANILLA. + +The fleshy, pod-like, odoriferous fruit of different species of +_Epidendrum_ constitute the substance called vanilla, which is used in +confectionery for giving a delicious perfume to chocolate, liqueurs, +&c. As an aromatic it is much sought after by confectioners, for +flavoring ices and creams; and also by perfumers, liqueurists, and +distillers. The best comes from the forests round the village of +Zurtila, in the intendancy of Oaxaca, on the eastern slopes of the +Cordillera of Anahuac, between the parallels of 19 deg. and 20 deg. N. +All the vanilla which is used in Europe is imported from Mexico, +Venezuela, and Vera Cruz. + +It is a native of tropical America, and grows wild in Brazil, Peru, +the banks of the Orinoco, and all places where heat, shade, and +moisture prevail. There are many species indigenous to the Bahamas, +Trinidad, Jamaica, Cuba, Dominica, Martinique and St. Vincent, which +would produce considerable gain to the inhabitants if they would give +themselves the trouble of cultivating or collecting its fruit. + +This parasitical plant has a trailing stem, not unlike the common ivy, +but not so woody, by which it attaches itself to the trunks of trees, +and sucks the moisture which their bark derives from the lichens and +other cryptogamia, but without drawing nourishment from the tree +itself, like the misletoe and loranthus. The Indians in Mexico +propagate it by planting cuttings at the foot of trees selected for +that purpose. It rises to the height of 18 or 20 feet; the flowers are +of a greenish yellow, mixed with white. The plant is subcylindrical +about eight or ten inches long, of a yellow color when gathered, but +dark brown or black when imported into Europe. It is one-celled +siliquose, and pulpy within, wrinkled on the outside, and full of a +vast number of seeds like grains of sand, having when properly +prepared, a peculiar and delicious fragrance. It should be gathered +before it is fully ripe. + +Different species of vanilla are natives of Guiana, and it is found in +large quantities along the banks of its rivers, and in the wooded +districts which intersperse the savannahs. The oily and balsamic +substance which the minute seeds possess, may be found to have +medicinal qualities. Its cultivation can be connected with no +difficulties; it needs only to plant the slips among trees, and to +keep them clear of weeds. It would prove therefore a great addition to +a cocoa plantation. In 1825 the price was, in Germany, sixty-six +dollars (equal to L9) per pound, and twenty-five to thirty dollars are +paid for it in Martinique. + +Humboldt states that the annual value of vanilla exported from the +state of Vera Cruz was 40,000 dollars, L8,000 sterling. Some vanilla +is exported from Maranham. The cultivation of vanilla, which was +introduced into Java in the year 1847, is said to have made +considerable progress, there being now no fewer than thirty +plantations. + +The fruit of this orchideous plant is entirely neglected in the +province of Caracas, though abundant crops of it might be gathered on +the humid coast between Porto Cabello and Ocumare, especially at +Turiamo, where the pods attain the length of nearly a foot. The +English and American merchants often seek to make purchases at the +port of La Guayra, but with difficulty procure it in small quantities. + +In the valleys that descend from the chain of coast towards the +Caribbean sea, in the province of Truxillo, as well as in the mission +of Guiana, near the cataracts of the Orinoco, a great quantity of the +vanilla pods might be collected, the produce of which would be still +more abundant, if, according to the practice of the Mexicans, the +plant were disentangled from time to time from the other creepers, +with which it is intertwined and stifled. + +When collected to prepare it for the market, about 12,000 of the pods +are strung like a garland by their lower end, as near as possible to +their foot-stalk; the whole are plunged for an instant into boiling +water to blanch them; they are then hung up in the open air and +exposed to the sun for a few hours. By some they are wrapped in +woollen cloths to sweat. Next day they are lightly smeared with oil, +by means of a feather or the fingers, and are surrounded with oiled +cotton to prevent the valves from opening. As they become dry, on +inverting their upper end they discharge a viscid liquor from it, and +they are pressed several times with oiled fingers to promote its flow. +The dried pods, like the berries of pepper, change color under the +drying operation, grow brown, wrinkled, soft, and shrink to one-fourth +of their original size. In this state they are touched a second time +with oil, but very sparingly, because with too much oil they would +lose some of their delicious perfume. + +They are then packed for the market in small bundles of 50 or 100 in +each, enclosed in lead foil, or tight metallic cases. + +There are four local varieties, all differing in price and excellence; +viz., the vanilla _fina_, the _zacate_, the _rezacate_, and the +_vasura_. + +One pod of vanilla is sufficient to perfume a pound and a half of +cacao. It is with difficulty reduced to fine particles, but it may be +sufficiently attenuated by cutting it into small bits, and grinding +these along with sugar. + +As it comes to us, vanilla is a capsular fruit, of the thickness of a +swan's quill; straight, cylindrical, but somewhat flattened, truncated +at the top, thinned off at the ends, glistening, wrinkled, furrowed +lengthwise, flexible, from five to ten inches long, and of a reddish +brown color. It contains a pulpy parenchyma, soft, unctuous, very +brown, in which are embedded black, brilliant, very small seeds. + +The kind most esteemed in France is called _leq_ vanilla; it is about +six inches long, from one-fourth to one-third of an inch broad, +narrowed at the two ends and curved at the base; somewhat soft and +viscid, of a dark reddish color, and of a most delicious flavor, like +that of balsam of Peru. It is called vanilla _giorees_, when it is +covered with efflorescences of benzcoin acid, after having been kept +in a dry place, and in vessels not hermetically closed. + +The second sort, called _vanilla simarona_, or bastard, is a little +smaller than the preceding, of a less deep brown hue, drier, less +aromatic, destitute of efflorescence. It is said to be the produce of +the wild plant, and is brought from St. Domingo. + +A third sort, which comes from Brazil, is the _vanillon_, or large +vanilla of the French market; the _vanilla pamprona_ or _bova_ of the +Spaniards. Its length is from five to six inches, its breadth from +one-half to three-fourths of an inch. It is brown, soft, viscid, +almost always open, of a strong smell, but less agreeable than the +_leq_. It is sometimes a little spoiled by an incipient fermentation. +It is cured with sugar, and enclosed in tin plate boxes, which contain +from 20 to 60 pods[52]. The average annual import of vanilla into +Havre, in the five years ending 1841, was about 16 boxes; in 1842 it +was 30 packages. + +TONQUIN BEANS.--The seeds of the Tongo tree (_Dipterix odorata_), a +native of Guiana, are the well-known tonquin beans used to give a +pleasant flavor to snuff. + + +TURMERIC. + +This article of commerce is furnished by the branches of the rhizome +or root-stock of the _Curcuma longa_, and _C. rotunda_, plants which +are natives of Eastern Asia, but have been grown in England and the +West Indies. They thrive well in a rich light soil, and are readily +increased by offsets from the roots. + +In the East Indies, where it is known as Huldee, turmeric is much +employed in dyeing yellow, principally silks, but the color is very +fugitive. It is also used medicinally as an aromatic carminative, and +as a condiment; it enters into the composition of curry sauce or +powder, and many other articles of Indian cookery. It is cordial and +stomachic, and considered by the native doctors of India an excellent +application in powder for cleansing foul ulcers. + +It is grown in, and exported chiefly from, Bengal and Malabar, Madras, +Java, and China. The turmeric of Java is in high estimation in the +European markets, ranking next to that of China, and being much +superior to that of Bengal. The seeds of _Anethum Sowa_, from their +carminative properties, form an ingredient in curry powder. + +The price of turmeric in London is from 12s. to 20s. per cwt., +according to quality. The entries for home consumption are about 4,000 +to 5,000 cwts. annually. It is better shipped in casks or cases than +in bags. + +A kind of arrowroot is prepared from _C. angustifolia_, another +species of this tribe of plants. + +_Amaranthus gangiticus_, and another species, are much cultivated by +the Hindoos for their stews and curries. + +The quantity and value of the curry stuff imported into Ceylon, +chiefly from India, has been in the last few years as follows:-- + + Quantity. + Years. cwts. packages. Value. + 1847 6,866 + 1848 9,981 + 1849 26,347 109 9,664 + 1850 24,396 300 7,267 + 1851 32,550 9,446 + 1852 9,039 + +What is comprised under the term "curry stuff," I am not aware, but +it appears to be a bulky article, for it was imported to the extent of +32,000 cwt. in 1852. + +There are two varieties of turmeric usually sent into Europe from the +East (whence all the turmeric imported into Europe is obtained), the +"long" turmeric (_Curcuma longa_), and the "round," or as it is better +known the "Chinese turmeric." The latter description is very rare, the +former is the common article of commerce. According to one of my +correspondents, Mr. Hepburn, chemist, of Falmouth, Jamaica, the common +or long turmeric is indigenous to that island, growing luxuriantly in +the mountainous districts, in rather damp soils, its locality being in +the vicinity of rivers, water-courses and springs. In this respect it +differs from ginger, which requires a rather dry soil for its culture. +I am not aware that this plant possesses the property of impoverishing +the soil like the ginger. From the general habits of the plant in its +natural state, we may gather the following rules for our guidance in +its culture. The plants should be laid down in rows of five or six +inches distant from each other, in a soil moderately damp, of an +aluminous or clayey nature, and free to a great extent of the more +soluble alkalies, potash and soda, as these, by absorption, may +destroy the coloring matter of the plant, and so diminish its value as +a dye-stuff. Finally, in preparing the roots for exportation, they +should be cleansed from all earthy particles, exposed for drying in +the shade, and without any further preparation bagged for shipment. + +The coloring matter of turmeric is of an orange yellow color +exceedingly delicate and capable of change, either from the action of +light or of alkalies, which turn it to a dark brown color. It is +slightly soluble in water, and readily soluble in an alkaline +solution, becoming dark brown. Alcohol extracts the coloring matter. +The uses to which turmeric is applied are two: as an ingredient in the +curry powder and paste, and as a dye for silk. It was some time ago +used as a medicine; but though retained in the "Pharmacopoeias" of the +present day, it is entirely discarded by the practitioner as a +curative agent. The best Bengal and Malabar turmeric fetches a price +nearly as high as that of ginger, and I see no reason why the West +India planter could not send it into the British market quite as cheap +as the East India trader. According to Dallas, 397 bags of turmeric +were exported from Jamaica in 1797. + +Turmeric is grown about the city of Patna and Behar. It is much +cultivated about Calcutta and all parts of Bengal. One acre yields +about 2,000 lbs. of the fresh root. It is also grown on the central +table land of Afghanistan. The exports from Calcutta in 1841 were +11,000 Indian maunds, and 28,137 in 1842. The value of that exported +from Madras in 1839 was 40,000 rupees, or L4,000; in 1840, L4,200. The +quantity shipped from that Presidency in 1850 was 6,877 bags. + +In the neighbourhood of Dacca about 200 lbs. of seed is sown to the +beegah, measuring 80 cubits by 80, and the yield is from 640 to 800 +lbs. + +140 tons were imported into Liverpool in 1849, for dyeing and for +curries; 414 tons in 1850; 11,554 bags and packages in 1851; and only +3,595 ditto in 1852. The price in January 1853 was, for Bengal, 10s. +to 12s.; China, 12s. to 14s., and Malabar 9s. to 12s. the cwt. The +imports into London were 18 tons in 1848, 191 in 1849, and 980 in +1850. The deliveries for consumption, 192 tons in 1848, 270 in 1849, +and 870 tons in 1850. + +In China turmeric is used with Prussian blue in coloring and facing +tea. + + +GINSENG + +The produce of this plant, as an article of commerce, is confined to +our transatlantic neighbours, who have the monopoly of the supply to +China. + +The root of _Panax quinquefolium_, the American ginseng, is much +esteemed by the Chinese, for certain supposed beneficial effects upon +the nerves, and for other presumed virtues; but our physicians have +not discovered any proofs of its efficacy in Europe. The plant is an +herbaceous perennial, growing upon the confines of Tartary and China, +near the great wall. It is found wild, flourishing in moist +situations, and attains the height of from two to three feet; it is +also now produced largely in the northern, middle, and western States +of the Union, particularly Virginia, Louisiana, and Pennsylvania, and +a considerable trade is carried on with it to China. A variety of the +plant was discovered, a few years ago, in the Himalaya mountains, and +small quantities have been thence sent to Canton. It is also found +growing in Canada. The root is about three or four inches in length, +and one inch in thickness. It resembles a small carrot, but not so +taper at the end, and is sometimes single, sometimes divided into two +branches. The stem is striated, without branches, and of a red color +near the root. The leaves, from four to six of which surround the stem +where they form sheaths (bracteal), are simply pinnate. The flower +stalk is long and green, the inflorescence a simple umbel. The fruit +is a berry of a red color, and contains two seeds of the size of +mustard seed. The officinal root differs in appearance, according to +the country from which it is brought. In Korea and China it is white, +corrugated when dry, and covered with a powder resembling starch. In +Mandscharia and Dauria it is yellow, smooth and transparent, and when +cut resembles amber. The taste of the root is bitter. Crude ginseng +now sells in the Canton market at 70 to 80 dollars per picul of 133 +lbs., and cured or clarified root at 130 to 140 dollars. + +The stem of the plant, which is renewed every year, leaves, as it +falls off, an impression upon the neck of the root, so that the number +of these rings or marks indicates the age of the plant, and the value +of the root increases accordingly. The Chinese government were +formerly in the habit of sending out annually 30,000 Tartar soldiers +to search for the plant, and each was obliged to bring home two ounces +of the root gratis, and for all above that quantity he was paid its +weight in silver. The Asiatic ginseng is said to be obtained from the +root of _P. Schinseng_ of Nees von Esenbeck, _P. Pseudo ginseng_ of +Wallich. This root might be procured in Prince Edward's Island and +some of the other British North American colonies. + +I have been able to trace, after some labor and research, the +progressive exports of this curious article of trade from the United +States. + +In 1790, 813 casks, of the value of 47,025 dollars, were exported; and +in 1791, 29,208 lbs. From 1803 to 1807, the annual value of ginseng +shipped was about 123,000 dollars, and from 1820 to 1830, it averaged +157,000 dollars. + +The following figures show the value of the article in subsequent +years:--1831, 115,921 dollars; year ending 30th September, 1835, +94,960 dollars; 1837, 212,899 lbs., valued at 108,548 dollars; 1840, +22,728 dollars; 1841, 437,245 dollars. + +The quantity shipped in 1839, from Philadelphia alone, was 317,443 +lbs. In 1841, 637,885 lbs. were exported from the United States. + +The value of that exported in the years ending 30th June, was 1844, +95,008 in dollars, and in 1845, 117,146 dollars; 110,000 lbs. were +collected at Toledo, Ohio, in 1845. The value of the exports in the +following years, ending June 30th, were--1847, 64,466 dollars; 1849, +162,640; 1849, 182,966; 1850, 122,916 dollars. + + +CORIANDER, CARRAWAY, AND OTHER SEEDS. + +The fruits of anise, carraway, coriander, &c., (erroneously called +seeds,) are in demand for various purposes. + +CARRAWAY SEED is imported to the extent of 500 tons annually from +Germany and Holland, the price being about 33s. per cwt. It is also +now much grown in Essex and Kent. In the years 1848 and 1849, 7,000 +cwt. of this seed was imported, of which nearly the whole quantity was +retained for home consumption. + +CORIANDER SEED is chiefly used by distillers, to produce an aromatic +oil. The quantity imported annually does not exceed 50 tons, and it is +brought principally to the port of Hull. It is also cultivated in +Suffolk, Essex and Kent. + +Of MUSTARD SEED the aggregate quantity imported annually is about +2,000 tons for home consumption, and the flour is used as a well-known +condiment to food, &c., and in medicine; the average price being about +9d. per pound. + +ANISE.--The fruit of _Pimpinilla anisum_, under the name of aniseed, +is principally imported from Alicant and Germany (the first is +preferred), but some is also brought from the East Indies. It is an +annual plant, largely cultivated in Spain, Malta, and various parts of +Germany, and also in the island of Scio, Egypt, and parts of Asia. The +imports are not large; 192 cwts. paid duty in 1833, and 315 cwts. in +1840. About 60 cwts. are annually received at Hull from Germany. It is +used to flavor liqueurs, sweetmeats, and confectionery of various +kinds. Oil of aniseed is obtained by distillation from the fruit, and +1,544 lbs. were imported in 1839. About two pounds of oil are obtained +from one hundred-weight of seed. + +STAR ANISE, _Illicum anisatum_, is a native of the countries extending +from 231/2 deg. to 35 deg. of north latitude, or from Canton to Japan. +The capsules constitute in India a rather important article of +commerce, and are sold in all the bazaars. Large quantities are also +used in Europe in the preparation of liqueurs. 695 piculs of star +aniseed were exported from Canton in 1850, valued at 8,200 Spanish +dollars. 81 piculs of oil of aniseed were exported from Canton in +1845, and 105 piculs in 1850, valued at 11,900 dollars. 3,000 piculs +of aniseed are exported annually from Cambodia. + + +PUTCHUK, OR COSTUS. + +The substance called costus was highly prized by the ancients, and +specimens may be met with at a few of the London drug-houses. It has +been shown by Dr. Falconer to be the produce of a genus of the thistle +tribe, to which he has given the name of _Aucklandia_. The root of _A. +Costus_ is supposed to be the _Costus Arabicus_, on the following +grounds:--It corresponds with the descriptions given by the ancient +authors, and is used at the present day for the same purposes in +China, as costus was formerly applied to by the Greeks. The +coincidence of the names--in Cashmere the root is called koot, and the +Arabic synonym is said to be _koost_. It grows in immense abundance on +the mountains which surround Cashmere. It is a gregarious herb, about +six or seven feet high, with a perennial thick branched root, with an +annual round smooth stem, large leaves and dark purple flowers. The +roots are dug up in the months of September and October, when the +plant begins to be torpid; they are chopped up into pieces, from two +to six inches long, and are exported without further preparation. The +quantity collected, according to Dr. Falconer, is very large, +amounting to about two million pounds per annum. The cost of its +collection and transport to a mercantile depot in Cashmere, is about +2s. 4d. the cwt. The commodity is laden on bullocks and exported to +the Punjaub, whence the larger portion goes down to Bombay, where it +is shipped for the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and China; a portion of +it finds its way across the Sutlej and Jumna into Hindostan Proper, +whence it is taken to Calcutta, and bought up there with avidity under +the name of putchuk. The value is enhanced at Jugadree, on the Jumna, +to about 16s. 9d. or 23s. 4d. per cwt. In the Chinese ports it +fetches nearly double that price the cwt. The Chinese burn the roots +as an incense in the temples of their gods, and they also attach great +efficacy to it as an aphrodisiac. The imports into Canton in 1848 were +414 piculs; in 1850, 854 piculs; valued at 5,150 dollars. In Cashmere +it is chiefly used for the protection of bales of shawls from insects. +The exports from the port of Calcutta were, in 1840-41, 19,660 maunds; +in 1841-42, 12,847; in 1847-48, 2,0501/4; in 1848-49, 2,1103/4;--worth +about L1,500 annually. + +Specimens of amboyna wood, the odoriferous sandal wood from Timor, +clove wood, and other choice woods from the Moluccas and Prince of +Wales Island, were sent home to the Great Exhibition in 1851. + +LIGNUM ALOES, the eagle wood and Calambak of commerce, yielding an +aromatic perfume, is furnished by the _Aquilaria malaccensis_, and +_agallocha_, in Silhet, an ornamental evergreen shrub. A very high +artificial value is placed on the better qualities of this product by +the natives of the East; the best quality being worth about L14 the +picul of 133 lbs. + +This fragrant wood is probably the lign aloes of the Bible. + +Incense to the value of nearly one million and a quarter francs was +exported from Alexandria in 1837. + +Calambak or eagle wood, the true lignum aloes so highly esteemed in +the East as a perfume or incense, is said to be produced by the +_Aloexylum agallochum_, Lour. This remarkable wood contains a large +quantity of an odoriferous oleo-resin; when heated it undergoes a sort +of imperfect fusion, and exhales a fragrant and very agreeable odor. +Its price in Sumatra is about L30 per cwt. Inferior specimens are +obtained at Malacca. Eagle wood is also obtained from several other +trees. The true eagle wood is however very scarce. + + + + +SECTION IV. + +DYES AND COLORING STUFFS, AND TANNING SUBSTANCES. + + +Of the several classes of materials collected at the Industrial +Exhibition in Hyde Park, in 1851, few possessed so much importance in +the eyes of the textile and leather manufacturer and chemist as the +different products used in the arts and manufactures for coloring and +tanning purposes. These were in a great measure lost sight of by the +public at large, being scattered about in small quantities in a great +number of directions; and, from the minute samples shown, were in many +instances overlooked altogether. Besides furnishing some novel and +general statistical facts, which may prove interesting, I propose also +in this section to draw attention more prominently to some of these +products, which are at present little known or appreciated. + +Coloring substances for staining and dyeing are obtained indifferently +from the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms, but it is of the +last alone that I shall have to speak. The importance of a more +careful consideration of this subject will be admitted, if we consider +how much the prosperity and extent of our cotton, silk, woollen, and +leather manufactures depends on a liberal and cheap supply of dyes and +tannin, to give beauty and color to the fabrics, and substance and +utility to the skins. Even oil colors, for painters' purposes, which +do not come within the scope of my remarks, form an item in our yearly +exports of the value of L250,000, and when we calculate the large +amount of cotton, silk and wool worked up, most of which requires +various coloring agents, gums, starches, and mordants;--that nearly +30,000 tons of hides are annually imported, exclusive of those +obtained from our now slaughter-houses, besides goat, seal, and other +skins--and that the exports of our various manufactures of cotton, +linen, silk, wool and leather in 1852, setting aside our home +consumption, amounted to nearly fifty millions sterling, we shall be +able to form a better estimate of the importance of the various +subjects we are about to notice. + +Great Britain does not pay less than L600,000 annually for the dried +carcasses of the tiny cochineal insect, while the produce of another +small insect, that which produces the lac dye, is scarcely less +valuable. Then there are the gall nuts used for dyeing and making +black ink. Upwards of L3,000,000 is paid for barks of various kinds +for tanners' purposes, about one million for other tanning substances +and heavy dye woods, besides about L200,000 for various extracts of +tannin, such as Gambier, Cutch, Divi-divi, and Kino. The aggregate +value of the dye stuffs and gum it is difficult to estimate. + +The beautiful specimens of materials imported from China, India, New +Zealand, the Continent, and other countries, and exhibited at the +Crystal Palace, proves to us that we have yet much to learn from other +nations in the art of fixing colors and obtaining brilliant dyes. The +French are much our superiors in dyeing and the production of fast and +beautiful colors. Their chemical researches and investigations are +carried out more systematically and effectively than our own. Russia +imports dyewoods and dye-stuffs to the value of five millions and a +half of silver roubles annually. + +It was well observed by the Jury Reporters at the Great Exhibition, +that "a vast number of new coloring materials have been discovered or +made available, and improved modes have been devised of economically +applying those already in use; so that the dyer of the present time +employs many substances of the very existence of which his practical +predecessors were wholly ignorant. From the increased use of many of +the vegetable colors, and from the improved modes of applying the +coloring matters, a demand has naturally sprung up for various dye +stuffs; and at the present time, many of the dyeing materials of +distant countries are beginning to excite the attention of practical +men; for though they have been acquainted with many of these +substances, it is only recently that the progress of the art has +rendered their use desirable or even practicable." + +It would be quite impossible, within the limits which I have assigned +myself, to make even a bare enumeration of the various plants and +trees from which coloring substances and dye stuffs can be obtained, I +must, therefore, be content to specify only a few. + +The roots of some species of Lithospermum afford a lac for dyeing and +painting. Dried pomegranates are said to be used in Tunis for dyeing +yellow; the rind is also a tanning substance. + +Sir John Franklin tells us that the Crees extract some beautiful +colors from several of their native vegetables. They dye a beautiful +scarlet with the roots of two species of bed-straw, _Galium +tinctorium_ and _boreale_. They dye black, with an ink made of elder +bark and a little bog-iron ore dried and powdered, and they have +various modes of producing yellow. They employ the dried roots of the +cowbane (_Cicuta virosa_), the bruised buds of the Dutch myrtle, and +have discovered methods of dyeing with various lichens. + +In the "Comptes Rendus," xxxv., p. 558, there is an account by M.J. +Persoz, of a green coloring matter from China, of great stability, +from which it appears that the Chinese possess a coloring substance +having the appearance of indigo, which communicates a beautiful and +permanent sea green color to mordants of alumina and iron, and which +is not a preparation of indigo, or any derivative of this dyeing +principal. As furnished to M. Persoz by Mr. Forbes, the American +consul at Canton, it was in thin plates of a blue color, resembling +Japanese indigo, but of a finer grain, differing also from indigo in +its composition and chemical properties. On infusing a very small +quantity of it in water, this fluid soon acquired a deep blue color +with a greenish tinge; upon boiling and immersing a piece of calico on +which the mordants of iron and alumina had been printed, it was dyed a +sea green color of greater or less intensity according to the strength +of the mordant--the portions not coated remaining white. + +A berry called _Makleua_ grows on a large forest tree at Bankok, which +is used most extensively by the Siamese as a vegetable black dye. It +is merely bruised in water, when a fermentation takes place, and the +article to be dyed is steeped in the liquid and then spread out in the +sun to dry. The berry, when fresh, is of a fine green color, but after +being gathered for two or three days it becomes quite black and +shrivelled like pepper. It must be used fresh, and whilst its mixture +with water produces fermentation. The bark of _Datisca cannabina_ also +dyes yellow. It contains a bitter principle, like quassia. + +A coloring matter is prepared from the dried fruit of the _Rottlera +tinctoria_, by the natives of the East, to dye orange, which is a +brilliant and tolerably permanent dye. It is apparently of a resinous +nature. + +A small quantity of Alkanet root (_Anchusa tinctoria_), is imported +from the Levant and the south of France, and is used to color gun +stocks, furniture, &c., of a deep red mahogany and rosewood color. It +is brought over in packages weighing about two cwt., the price being +40s. or 50s. per cwt. + +Turmeric is now imported to the extent of upwards of 800 tons, a +portion of this is used in dyeing. The culture and commerce has been +already noticed in Section III. + +The bark and roots of the berberry are used in the East to dye yellow; +the color is best when boiled in ley. Some of the species of +Symplocos, as _S. racemosa_, known as lodh about the Himalaya +mountains, and _S. tinctoria_, a native of Carolina, are used for +dyeing. The scarlet flowers of _Butea frondosa_ (the Dhaktree), and +_B. superba_, natives of the Indian jungles, yield a beautiful dye, +and furnishing a species of kino (_Pulas kino_), are also used for +tanning. _Althea rosea_, the parent of the many beautiful varieties of +hollyhock, a native of China, yields a blue coloring matter equal to +indigo. Indigo of an excellent quality has been obtained in the East +from a twining plant, _Gymnema tingens_ or _Asclepias tingens_. + +The juice of the unripe fruit of _Rhamnus infectorius_, _catharticus_ +and _virigatius_, known as Turkey or French berries, is used for +dyeing leather yellow. When mixed with lime and evaporated to +dryness, it forms the color called sap-green. A great quantity of +yellow berries are annually shipped from Constantinople; 115 tons were +imported into Liverpool last year. The average annual imports into the +United Kingdom are about 450 tons. They come from the Levant in hair +bales weighing three and a quarter cwt., or in tierces of four to five +cwt., and are used by calico printers for dyeing a yellow color. They +are sometimes called Persian berries. + +It is a subject of surprise that the common betel-nut of the East has +never been introduced for dyeing purposes. The roots of the awl tree +of Malabar and other parts of India, _Morinda citrifolia_, and of _M. +tinctoria_, found abundant in all the Asiatic islands, are extensively +used as a dye stuff for giving a red color. It is usually grown as a +prop and shade for the pepper vine and coffee tree. The coloring +matter resides principally in the bark of the roots, which are long +and slender, and the small pieces are the best, fetching 8s. to 10s. a +maund. It is exported in large quantities from Malabar to Guzerat, and +the northern parts of Hindostan, but seldom finds its way to Europe. + +The wood and roots of another species, _M. umbellata_, known in the +eastern islands as "Mangkudu," are used extensively for their red dye, +in Celebes and Java. Specimens of all these, and of the Lopisip bark, +bunchong bulu wood, and the gaju gum (from undescribed plants), have +been introduced into England. They are said to furnish excellent dyes +in the Asiatic islands. Native dyes from Arracan have also been +imported, viz., thit-tel and the-dan yielding red dyes, ting-nget and +reros, affording dark purple dyes; and thit-nan-weng, a chocolate dye. +These would be worth enquiry, and particulars of the plants yielding +them, the quantities available, and the prices might be procured. Dyes +and colors from the following plants are obtained in India: several +species of _Terminalia_, _Sinecarpus Anacardium_, _Myrica Sapide_, +_Nelumbium speciosus_, _Butea frondosa_, and _Nyctanthes +arboretristis_. The bunkita barring, obtained from an undescribed +plant in Borneo, produces a dark purple or black dye. A species of +ruellia, under the name of "Room," is employed in its raw state by the +Khamptis and Lingphos to dye their clothes of a deep blue. It is +described by the late Dr. Griffiths as "a valuable dye, and highly +worthy of attention." It might, perhaps, be usefully employed as the +ground for a black dye. In Nepaul they use the bark of _Photinia +dubia_ or _Mespilus Bengalensis_ for dyeing scarlet. The bark of the +black oak, _Quercus tinctoria_ and its varieties, natives of North +America, are used by dyers under the name of quercitron. + +In the south of Europe, _Daphne Gnidium_ is used to dye yellow. The +root of reilbon, a sort of madder in Chili, dyes red. A purple tint or +dye is obtained from the bark of an undescribed tree, known under the +name of "_Grana ponciana_," growing about Quito; and Stevenson +(Travels in South America) says, "if known in Europe, it would +undoubtedly become an article of commerce." Another much more +expensive species of coloring matter (red) is obtained in various +parts of South America from the leaves of the _Bignonia Chica_, a +climbing evergreen shrub, native of the Orinoco country, with large +handsome panicles of flowers. The coloring substance is obtained by +decoction, which deposits, when cool, a red matter; this is formed +into cakes and dried. Dr. Ure thinks it might probably be turned to +account in the arts of civilization. The order of plants to which it +belongs, contains a vast number of species, all natives of tropical +regions, and their value for the production of coloring substances may +be worth investigation. + +It is met with in British Guiana, and the Indian tribes of that +district prepare the pigment with which they stain their skin from it; +it is called by them "Caraveru." The coloring matter is used as a dye +in the United States, and for artistical purposes would rival madder. +Sir Robert Schomburgk thinks it might form an article of export if it +were sufficiently known, as its preparation is extremely simple. The +leaves are dried in the sun, and at the first exposure, after having +been plucked from the vine which produces them, they show the abundant +feculent substance which they contain. + +LANA DYE.--A beautiful bluish-black color, known as "Caruto," is +procured in Demerara and Berbice from the juice of the fruit of the +_Genipa Americana_, Linn.--a tree very common in the colony. The +Indians use it for staining their faces and persons. The Lana dye was +honorably mentioned by the jurors at the Great Exhibition in 1851. The +bluish-black color obtained from it is remarkably permanent, a fact +which has very long been known, though hardly any attempt appears to +have been made to introduce it to the notice of European dyers. +Another pigment is prepared by them from arnotto, mixed with turtle +oil, or carap oil, obtained from the seeds of the _Carapa guianensis_ +(Aubl.). The wild plantain (_Urania guianensis_) and the cultivated +plantain (_Musa paridisiaca_), the Mahoe (_Thespesia populnea_), and +the pear seed of the Avocado (_Persea gratissima_), furnish dyes in +various parts of the West Indies; specimens of many of these have been +imported from British Guiana and Trinidad. + +Russia produces good specimens of the wood of _Statice coriaria_, the +leaves and bark of sumach, the bark of the wild pomegranate, yellow +berries, _Madia sativa_, saffron, safflower and madder roots for +dyeing purposes. + +_Avicenna tomentosa_, a species of mangrove, is very common about the +creeks of Antigua, Jamaica, and other West India islands, where it is +used for dyeing and tanning. + +In New Zealand, the natives produce a most brilliant blue-black dye +from the bark of the Eno, which is in great abundance. Some of the +borders of the native mats, of a most magnificent black, are dyed with +this substance. It has been tried in New South Wales; but, as with +other local dyes, although found well suited for flax, hemp, linen, +or other vegetable productions, it could not be fixed on wools or +animal matter. Dr. Holroyd, of Sydney, some time since, imported a ton +of it for a friend near Bathurst. It is of great importance that +chemical science should be applied to devise some means of fixing this +valuable dye on wool. As the tree is so common, the bark could be had +in any quantity at about L3 10s. a ton; and our tweed manufacturers +are in great want of a black dye for their check and other cloths. + +The principal heavy woods used for dyeing are fustic, logwood, +Nicaragua wood, barwood, camwood, red Sanders wood, Brazil wood, and +sappan wood. All the dyewoods are nearly L2 per ton higher than last +year. + +Common Spanish fustic which in September, 1852, was only L3 10s. per +ton, now fetches L6 10s. in the Liverpool market; and there is a great +demand for all kinds of dyewoods. Tampico and Puerto Cabello fustic +are now worth L6 10s. to L7 the ton, Cuba ditto, L9 10s. to L10. + +Sappan wood is L4 higher than last year; barwood has risen cent per +cent; logwoods are L2 per ton higher. + +The following were the prices of the different dyewoods in the +Liverpool market, on the 1st September, 1853, per ton:-- + + L s. d. L s. d. + FUSTIC, common Spanish 5 10 0 to 6 10 0 + Tampico 6 10 0 7 0 0 + Puerto Cabello 6 10 0 7 10 0 + Cuba 8 0 0 9 10 0 + LOGWOOD, Jamaica 5 0 0 5 5 0 + St. Domingo 5 5 0 5 10 0 + Campeachy, direct 7 12 6 8 0 0 + Indirect and Tobasco 6 10 0 7 0 0 + NICARAGUA. WOOD. + Rio de la Hache, solid 9 0 0 11 10 0 + " " small 6 0 0 6 10 0 + Lima 12 0 0 14 10 0 + BARWOOD, Angola } + Gaboon } 7 0 0 ----- + CAMWOOD 25 0 0 30 10 0 + RED SANDERS WOOD 5 15 0 6 10 0 + SAPPAN WOOD 10 0 0 15 0 0 + +RED SANDERS WOOD (_Pterocarpus santalinus_), which is hard and of a +bright garnet red color, is employed to dye a lasting reddish brown on +wool. It only yields its color to ether or alcohol. The tree, which is +a lofty one, is common about Madras and other parts of India; it is +also indigenous to Ceylon, Timor, and other Eastern islands. The +exports of this wood from Madras in one year have been nearly 2,000 +tons. + +The imports of red Sanders wood from Calcutta and Bombay chiefly into +London are to the extent of 700 or 800 tons a year, worth L6 to L9 per +ton. + +Of FUSTIC we import from 1,500 to 2,000 tons annually. We derive our +supplies from Brazil, Tampico, Puerto Cabello, Cuba, and Jamaica. The +best is obtained from Cuba; for while the common white fustic from +Jamaica and the Spanish Main fetches only L5 10s. to L6 10s. the ton, +that of Cuba realizes from L8 to L9 10s. the ton. + +SAPPAN WOOD (_Caesalpinia Sappan_) is an article of considerable +commerce in the East. It is the bukkum wood of Scinde, and is procured +in Mergui, Bengal, the Tenasserim Provinces, Malabar and Ceylon. In +1842 as much 78,000 cwts. were shipped from Ceylon, but the export +from thence has decreased. This island, however, ships dyewoods +annually to the amount of L2,000. A large quantity is exported from +Siam and the Philippine Islands; as much as 200,000 piculs annually +from the former, and 23,000 piculs from Manila. 3,524 piculs were +shipped from Singapore in 1851, and 4,074 piculs in 1852. The picul is +about one cwt. and a quarter. Sappan wood yields a yellowish color, +like that of Brazil wood (_C. brasiliensis_) but it does not afford of +dye matter so much in quantity or so good in quality. + +It forms a large export from Ceylon: the shipments from thence were, +in 1842, 77,694 cwt.; in 1843, 1,692; in 1844, 2,592; in 1845, 2,854. +I have no detailed returns at hand, but in 1837, 23,695 piculs of +sappan wood, and 2,266 piculs of roots of ditto were shipped, and in +the first six months of 1843, 22,326 piculs were exported from Manila; +a large portion of this comes to Europe, but some goes to China, the +United States, Singapore, &c. 15,500 piculs were shipped from Manila +in 1844, 5,250 ditto in 1845; and 1,210 tons in 1850. About 3,000 +piculs of sappan wood and the same quantity of other dye-stuffs are +annually imported into Shanghae. The price of straight sappan wood at +Shanghae in July, last year, was thirty dollars per picul. + +In Calcutta, in June last year, 4,000 piculs of the root of Manila +sappan wood sold freely at about 7s. 6d. per factory maund, Siam ditto +6s. + +75 tons were imported into Liverpool in 1849; and 120 tons in 1850, +from Calcutta. The imports of sappan wood into the United Kingdom, in +1850, amounted to 3,670 tons, worth L8 to L12 the ton, and this +continued the price in January 1853. + +Camwood, red sanders wood, barwood, and other dye woods, are found in +great quantities in many parts of Africa. The dyes of Africa are found +to resist both acids and light, properties which no other dyes seem to +possess in the same degree. About thirty miles east of Bassia Cove, in +the republic of Liberia, is the commencement of a region of unknown +extent, where scarcely any tree is seen except the camwood. This +boundless forest of wealth, as yet untouched, is easily accessible +from that settlement; roads can be opened to it with little expense, +and the neighbouring kings would probably give their co-operation to a +measure so vastly beneficial to themselves. It is impossible to +ascertain the exact amount of export of these commodities to Europe +and the United States, but it is very great, and employs a large +amount of vessels. One Liverpool house imported 600 tons in a single +year, worth L9,000. + +In 1841 upwards of 3,000 tons of dye woods were imported into +Liverpool from the western coast of Africa. + +CAMWOOD (_Baphia nitida_) is used as a mordant and for producing the +bright red color seen in English bandana handkerchiefs. The imports +from Sierra Leone to Liverpool in 1849 were 216 tons, worth L20 to L25 +per ton. + +Gaboon barwood is another variety of this dyewood which is imported +from the west coast of Africa, in straight flat pieces, from three to, +five feet in length; the average annual import being about 2,000 tons, +of the value of L4 a ton. + +The imports of barwood into Liverpool were in-- + + Tons. + 1835 2,000 + 1836 1,000 + 1837 1,150 + 1838 650 + 1839 350 + 1841 2,012 + 1850 1,710 + + + Dyewoods imported in 1850. Re-exported. + Logwood 32,930 4,332 + Fustic 9,808 1,771 + Nicaragua 7,909 112 + Barwood 1,896 1,229 + Sappan 3,670 -- + Green Ebony, and } + Cocuswood } 1,457 -- + Red Sanders 656 -- + Camwood 416 -- + Brazil and Brazillito 309 -- + ------ ----- + 59,051 7,444 + +Thus we perceive the annual consumption of heavy dyewoods in this +country, in dyeing cotton, linen, woollen and silk goods, &c., exceeds +in weight 51,000 tons. + +ARNOTTO.--The plants of this family are chiefly natives of the warmest +parts of South America, the East and West Indies, and Africa. In +America the seeds are called achote or roucou. From the port of +Barcelona, in Venezuela, about 2,000 quintals are annually exported. +The species grown for its dye is the _Bixa orellana_. It is used to +impart a bright orange color to silk goods, and to afford a deeper +shade to simple yellows. The dry hard paste is also found to be the +best of all ingredients for giving a golden tint to cheese or butter. +A convenient liquid preparation is now sold to dairymen. The Spanish +Americans mix it with their chocolate, to which it gives a beautiful +rich hue. + +It is of two sorts, viz.:-- + +1. Flag or cake arnotto, which is by far the most important article in +a commercial point of view, is furnished almost wholly by Cayenne. It +is imported in square cakes, weighing two or three pounds each, +wrapped in banana leaves, packed in casks. + +2. Roll arnotto is principally brought from Brazil. The rolls are +small, not exceeding two or three ounces in weight. It is hard, dry, +and compact, brownish on the outside, and of a beautiful red color +within. + +The dye is usually prepared by macerating the pods in boiling water +for a week or longer. When they begin to ferment, the seeds ought to +be strongly stirred and bruised with wooden pestles to promote the +separation of the red skins. This process is repeated several times, +till the seeds are left white. The liquor passed through close cane +sieves, pretty thick, of a deep red color, and a very bad smell, is +received into coppers. In boiling, it throws up its coloring matter to +the surface in the form of scum, which is taken off, saved in large +pans, and afterwards boiled down to a due consistence, and then made +up, when soft, into balls or cakes of two or three pounds weight. + +The following description of the manufacture is from Dr. Ure:-- + +"The pods of the tree being gathered, their seeds are taken out and +bruised; they are then transferred to a vat, which is called the +steeper, where they are mixed with as much water as covers them. Here +the substance is left for several weeks or even months; it is now +squeezed through sieves placed above the steeper, that the water +containing the coloring matter in suspension may return into the vat. +The residuum is preserved under the leaves of the pine-apple shrub, +till it becomes hot by fermentation. It is again subjected to the same +operation, and this treatment is continued till no more color remains. + +"The substance thus extracted is passed through sieves, in order to +separate the remainder of the seeds, and the color is allowed to +subside. The precipitate is boiled in coppers till it be reduced to a +consistent paste; it is then suffered to cool, and dried in the shade. +Instead of this long and painful labor, which occasions diseases by +the putrefaction induced and which affords a spoiled product, Leblond +proposes simply to wash the seeds of arnotto till they be entirely +deprived of their color, which lies wholly on their surface; to +precipitate the color by means of vinegar or lemon juice, and to boil +it up in the ordinary manner, or to drain it in bags as is practised +with indigo. + +"The experiments which Vauquelin made on the seeds of arnotto imported +by Leblond, confirmed the efficacy of the process which he proposed; +and the dyers ascertained that the arnotto obtained in this manner was +worth at least four times more than that of commerce; that, moreover, +it was more easily employed; that it required less solvents; that it +gave less trouble in the copper, and furnished a purer +color."--("Dict. of Arts.") + +Our imports of arnotto for home consumption are from 200,000 to +300,000 lbs. per annum. The plant is grown in Dacca and other parts of +India, and the eastern Archipelago. At the Hawaiian Islands, +Tongataboo, Rio Janeiro, Peru and Zanzibar, the arnotto is an +indigenous shrub which rises to the height of seven or eight feet, +producing oblong heavy pods, somewhat resembling those of a chesnut. +Within these there are generally thirty or forty irregularly-formed +seeds, which are enveloped in a pulp of a bright red color, and a +fragrant smell. + +The imports of arnotto have been as follows:-- + + Retained for + lbs. home consumption. + 1834 252,981 -- + 1835 163,421 -- + 1839 303,489 224,794 + 1840 408,469 330,490 + 1847 270,000 296,821 + 1849 162,400 145,824 + 1850 301,504 231,280 + +The price of flag arnotto in the London market, in June 1853, was 1s. +per lb. + +We imported from France, in 1850, 1,924 cwt. of roll or flag arnotto, +of the official value of L21,499; and in 1851, 1,253 cwt., worth +L13,968. + +Wood dye exported from Ceylon-- + + Value Quantity + L cwts. + 1848 1,359 -- + 1849 2,035 -- + 1850 1,766 5,206 + 1851 259 776 + 1852 770 2,396 + +CHAY-ROOT.--There is a plant called chay, the _Oldenlandia umbellata_, +which is extensively cultivated as a dye plant in the East, especially +on the coasts of Coromandel, Nellore, Masulipatam, Malabar, and other +parts of India. The outer bark of the roots furnishes the coloring +matter for the durable red for which the chintzes of India are famous. +Chay-root forms a considerable article of export from Ceylon. The wild +plant there is considered preferable; the roots, which are shorter, +yielding one-fourth part more coloring matter, and the right to dig it +is farmed out. It grows spontaneously on light, dry, sandy ground on +the sea coast; the cultivated roots are slender, with a few lateral +fibres, and from one to two feet long. The dye is said to have been +tried in Europe, but not with very advantageous effect. Dr. Bancroft +suspects it may be injured by the long voyage, but he adds that it +cannot produce any effect which may not be more cheaply obtained from +madder. + +This red dye, similar to Munjeet, is used to a great extent in the +southern parts of Hindostan by the native dyers. + +It is not held in very good estimation in Europe but seems to deserve +a better reputation than it at present possesses. Attention was drawn +to it as a dye-stuff in 1798, by a special minute of the Board of +Trade recommending its importation; but Dr. Bancroft, who made some +experiments with a sample of damaged chay-root, considered it inferior +to madder and hence discouraged its further importation. + +The bark and root of various species of Morinda (_M. citrifolia_ and +_tinctoria_) are used in different parts of the East Indies, and +considered a very valuable red dye. The colors dyed with it are for +the most part exceedingly brilliant, and the coloring matter is far +more permanent than many other red colors are, with improved +management it would probably rival that of madder, and is, therefore, +worthy more attention from dyers. + +MANGROVE BARK (_Rhizophora mangle_), is used to dye a chocolate color +in the East and West Indies. This was one of the colors introduced by +Dr. Bancroft, and for the exclusive use of which he obtained an Act of +Parliament. It is procured in plenty at Arracan, Malabar, and +Singapore in the East. + +SHUMAC or SUMACH, sometimes called young fustic, is the powder of the +leaves, peduncles, and young branches of a small deciduous plant +(_Rhus coriaria_), native of the South of Europe, but which is also +grown in Syria and Palestine, for its powerful astringent properties, +which renders it valuable for tanning light-colored leather, and it +imparts a beautiful bright yellow dye to cottons, which is rendered +permanent by proper mordants. It is principally imported from the +Ionian Islands and the Morea. The species grown for the purpose in +Spain, Portugal, and Italy is _R. Cotinus_, a shrub with pale purple +flowers, whereas _R. coriaria_ has greenish yellow blossoms. They may +be propagated by cuttings of the roots and layers. _R. typhina_, and +_R. glabia_, with their varieties, are North American species, which +are also used for tanning purposes. In Montpellier and the South of +France the twigs and leaves are known under the name of _redoul_ or +_roudo_. They are gathered every year, and the shoots are chipped or +reduced to powder by a mill. + +The imports into the United Kingdom were in 1846,10,256 tons; in 1847, +11,975 tons; in 1848, 9,617 tons; in 1849, 12,590 tons; in 1850, +12,929 tons, and in 1852, 9,758; which were all retained for +consumption. In 1841, we received about 9,000 tons from the port of +Leghorn. There were exported from Sicily in 1842, 123,305 tons, valued +at L68,894. It is imported in packages of about a cwt., wrapped in +cloth. America takes a large quantity of sumach. The imports into the +port of Boston alone, were 19,070 bags in 1847; 34,524 in 1848; and +30,050 in 1849. + +The prices in Liverpool, duty paid, in the close of this year, are per +cwt.:-- + + s. d. s. d. + Sicily, Messina 10 0 to 10 6 + " Palermo 12 0 " 13 0 + " Trieste 7 0 " 7 6 + " Verona 5 6 " 6 6 + " Tyrolese 8 0 " 9 0 + +SAFFLOWER.--The dried flowers of _Carthamus tinctorius_ yield a pink +dye, which is used for silks and cottons, and the manufacture of +rouge; the color, however, is very fugitive. It is an annual plant, +cultivated in China, India, Egypt, America, Spain, and some of the +warmer parts of Europe; and is indigenous to the whole of the Indian +Archipelago. A large quantity is grown in and exported from Bali. The +Chinese safflower is considered the best, and that from Bombay is +least esteemed. The annual quantity exported from the district of +Dacca averages about 150 tons. The shipments from Calcutta exceed 300 +tons to various quarters. Our imports are on the decline, and are now +only about 1,200 cwt. per annum. Safflower was shown in the Great +Exhibition from Celebes, Assam, the vicinity of Calcutta, Dacca, the +states of Rajpootana, and other places. + +There are two species: _C. tinctorius_, which has small leaves and an +orange flower; and _C. oxyacantha_, with larger leaves and a yellow +flower, a native of Caucasus. The former is cultivated in Egypt, the +Levant, &c., where it forms a considerable article of commerce. 6,633 +cwts. of safflower were imported into the United Kingdom in 1835, of +which about one-half was retained for home consumption. Of 5,352 cwts. +imported in 1840, nearly the whole came from our possessions in the +East. In 1847, about 405 tons were imported; in 1848, 506 tons; in +1849, 407 tons; in 1850, 522 tons. The price of safflower varies from +L1 to L8 per cwt., according to quality. That from Bombay is least +esteemed, fetching only 20s. to 30s. + +The annual quantity of safflower, according to Dr. Taylor, exported +from the district of Dacca for eight years ending with 1839, amounted +to 4,000 maunds, or about 149 tons. The exports through the Calcutta +Custom House are occasionally large: in 1824-25 there were about 316 +tons; 8,500 Indian maunds were shipped from Calcutta in each of the +years 1841 and 1842. + +The prices in the Liverpool market, in January 1853, were for Bengal, +good and fine, L6 to L7 10s. per cwt.; middling, L4 to L4 10s.; +inferior and ordinary, L2 10s. to L3. + +GAMBOGE is extensively used as a pigment, from its bright yellow +color. There are two kinds known in commerce, the Ceylon and the Siam. +The former is procured from the _Hebradendron Cambogoides_, Graham; a +tree which grows wild on the Malabar and Ceylon coasts, and affords +the coarsest kind. The pipe gamboge of Siam is said to be obtained +from the bruised leaves and young branches of _Stalagmites +cambogoides_. The resinous sap is received into calabashes, and +allowed to thicken, after which it is formed into rolls. Several other +plants, as the _Mangostana Gambogia_, Gaertner, and the _Hypericum +bacciferum_ and _Cayanense_, yield similar yellow viscid exudation, +hardly distinguishable from gamboge and used for the same purpose by +painters. The _Garcinia elliptica_, Wallich, of Tavoy and Moulmein, +affords gamboge, and approaches very closely in its characters to +Graham's _Hebradendron_. In like manner the Mysore tree bears an +exceedingly close resemblance to that species. It is common in the +forests of Wynaad in the western part of Mysore, and has been named by +Dr. Christison _Hebradendron pictorium_. Another gamboge tree has +recently been found inhabiting the western Burmese territories. Both +these seem to furnish an equally fine pigment. As it can be obtained +in unlimited quantity, it might be introduced into European trade, if +the natives learn how to collect it in a state of purity, and make it +up in homogenous masses in imitation of pipe gamboge, the finest Siam +variety. It seems to possess more coloring matter, more resin and less +gum than the ordinary gamboge of commerce. Gamboge owes its color to +the fatty acid. The resin must be regarded as the chief constituent, +and is most abundant in that imported from Ceylon, which contains +about 76 per cent., and is therefore best adapted for painting. +Gamboge also has its medicinal uses. + +Various species of _Lecanora_, particularly _L. tartarea_, known as +cudbear, are used in dyeing woollen yarn. The _Rocella tinctoria_ and +_fusiformis_ furnish the orchil, or orchilla weed of commerce, which +is sometimes sold as a moist pulp, but usually in the form of dry +cakes, known under the name of _litmus_; it produces a fine purple +color. Our imports, which have amounted to 6,000 or 7,000 cwts. +annually, are derived chiefly from the Canary, Azores, and Cape Verd +Islands. Rock orchilla was shown at the Exhibition, from the Berlingen +Isles, from Angola, Madeira and the Cape de Verds. Orchilla weed is +very plentiful about the shores of the islands of New Zealand, some +being sent from thence to the Exhibition; but from a want of knowledge +as to the time at which it should be gathered, and the mode of +preparing it for the market, it has not yet become a saleable +commodity there. The rich varieties of lichens on the rocks and plains +of Australia have not been tested, as they ought to be, with Helot's +lichen test. Various lichens, and _Rocella tinctoria_, from Tenasserim +and other parts of India, have been introduced by the East India +Company. In the Admiralty instructions given to Capt. Sir James C. +Ross, on his Antarctic voyage, a few years ago, his attention was +specially called to the search and enquiry for substitutes for the +_Rocella_, which is now becoming scarce. A prize medal was awarded, in +1851, to an exhibitor from the Elbe for specimens of the weed, and an +extract of red and violet orchil. Specimens of varieties of the +lichens used in the manufacture of cudbear, orchil and litmus, and of +the substance obtained, were also shown in the British department, +which were awarded prize medals. + +The beauty of the dyes given by common materials, in the Highlands of +Scotland, to some of the cloths which were exhibited, should lead our +botanists and chemists to examine, more closely than they have +hitherto done, the dye-stuffs that might be extracted from British +plants. Woad (_Isatis tinctoria_) and the dyers' yellow woad (_Reseda +lutea_), are both well known. A piece of tweed, spun and woven in +Ross-shire, was dyed brown and black, by such cheap and common dyes as +moss and alder bark, and the colors were unexceptionable. + +Sutherlandshire tweed and stockings, possessing a rich brown color, +were produced with no more valuable dye than soot; in another piece, +beautifully dyed, the yellow was obtained from stoney rag, brown from +the crops of young heather, and purple from the same, but subjecting +the yarn to a greater action of the dye than was necessary to produce +brown. There is very little doubt but that beautiful and permanent +dyes, from brown to a very rich purple, might be cheaply procured by +scientific preparations of the common heather (_Genista tinctoria_). +The inhabitants of Skye exhibited cloth with a peculiarly rich dye, +obtained from the "crobal" moss. In the Spanish department, specimens +of vegetable dyes from many cultivated and wild plants were furnished +by the Agricultural Board of Saragossa, and of several of these it +would be important to obtain descriptions and particulars. + +Gums are of essential importance to the dyer, and the imports of +these, therefore, are large, averaging about 8,000 tons. + + +INDIGO. + +The plants which afford this dye grow chiefly in the East and West +Indies, in the middle regions of America, in Africa and Europe. They +are all species of the genera _Indigofera_, _Isatis_ and _Nerium_. +_Indigofera tinctoria_ or _coerulea_, furnishes the chief indigo of +commerce, and affords in Bengal, Malabar, Madagascar, the Isle of +France, and St. Domingo, an article of middling quality, but not in +large quantity. The _Indigofera disperma_, a plant cultivated in the +East Indies and America, grows higher than the preceding, is woody, +and furnishes a superior dye-stuff. The Guatamela indigo comes from +this species. + +_Indigofera Anil_ grows in the same countries, and also in the West +Indies. The _Indigofera Argentea_, which flourishes in Africa, yields +little indigo, but it is of an excellent quality. _I. +pseudotinctoria_, cultivated in the East Indies, furnishes the best of +all. _I. glauca_ is the Egyptian and Arabian species. There are also +the _cinerea_, _erecta_ (a native of Guinea), _hirsuta_, _glabra_, +with red flowers, species common to the East, and several others. + +The _Wrightia tinctoria_, of the East Indies, an evergreen, with white +blossoms, affords some indigo, as does the _Isatis tinctoria_, or, +Woad, in Europe, and the _Polygonum tinctorium_, with red flowers, a +native of China. _Baptisia tinctoria_ furnishes a blue dye, and is the +wild indigo of the United States. + +SOURCES OF SUPPLY.--Indigo is at present grown for commercial purposes +in Bengal, and the other provinces of that Presidency, from the 20th +to the 30th deg. of north latitude; in the Province of Tinnevelly; in +the Madras Presidency; in Java, in the largest of the Philippine +islands, in Guatemala, Caraccas, Central America and Brazil. Bengal +is, however, the chief mart for indigo, and the quantity produced in +other places is comparatively inconsiderable. It is also still +cultivated in some of the West India islands, especially St. Domingo, +but not in large quantities. Indigo grows wild in several parts of +Palestine, but attention seems not to have been given to its +cultivation or collection. On most parts of the eastern and western +coasts of Africa, it is indigenous; at Sierra Leone, Natal, and other +places it is found abundant. + +In our settlements of Honduras, Demerara, and various portions of the +American continent, it would amply reward the labor of the cultivator; +several inferior sorts of Indigofera being found there indigenous, and +only requiring care and culture to improve them. + +The quality of indigo depends upon the species of the plant, its +ripeness, the soil and climate of its growth, and the mode of +manufacture. The East India, and Brazilian indigo arrives here packed +in chests, the Guatemala in ox-hides, called serons. + +The indigo imported from the western hemisphere was for some time +considered superior in quality to that of the East. Its cultivation, +however, has been neglected, and the Bengal indigo is preferred at +present to any imported from South America, where it is now only +cultivated by the Brazilians and Colombians. If proper attention were +paid to the cultivation of the plant, and to the preparation of the +dye, it is very likely part of that important trade would be brought +back. It thrives best in a moist climate, and the interior of Guiana, +chiefly newly-cleared land, would be well adapted for it. + +The late Mr. Dunlop ("Travels in Central America") gives an +interesting description, which, at the risk of repetition in some +points, I shall give entire. + +"Several vessels generally arrive at the Union from South America at +the time of the periodical fairs, where nearly all the indigo (the +only produce of any importance), is disposed of; formerly it reached +10,000 bales, but at present it does not at most exceed 3,000 bales of +150 lbs. each. + +The indigo well known in Europe by the name of Guatemala indigo, was +never cultivated in that province (in the same manner as not a grain +of the Honduras cochineal is grown there), being entirely grown in the +state of San Salvador, in the vicinity of San Miguel, San Vicenti, and +the City of Salvador, with the exception of a small quantity of very +superior quality grown in the state of Nicaragua, and a few bales in +Costa Rica, which is all consumed in the State. Under the government +of Spain, the produce of the state of San Salvador alone had reached +10,000 bales, and that of Nicaragua 2,000; the produce of San Salvador +in 1820, two years before its independence, being 8,323 bales. But +since 1822 the annual produce had gradually declined, and in 1846 it +did not exceed 1,000 to 1,200 bales, nearly all the indigo estates +being abandoned, partly, no doubt, from the great fall in the price of +the article, but more on account of the impossibility of getting +laborers to work steadily. + +The plant cultivated in Central America for the manufacture of indigo, +is the triennial plant, supposed to be a native of America; but there +is also an indigenous perennial plant, abounding in many parts of +Central America, which produces indigo of a very superior quality, but +gives less than half the weight which is produced by the cultivated +species. The ground for sowing the indigo seed is prepared in +April,--a piece of good forest land near one of the towns being +selected, a part is cut to make a rude fence, and the remainder burnt, +which is easily accomplished, as everything is very dry at that +season; and the ground is afterwards scratched with two sticks, +fastened crosswise, to resemble somewhat the shape of a plough, and +the seed scattered over it by hand. The rainy season always commences +early in May, and the indigo is ready for cutting about the middle of +July, taking about two and a half months to come to perfection. The +growing crop somewhat resembles lucerne, and is in the best state for +making indigo, when it becomes covered with a sort of greenish farina. + +The crop of the first year is small, and sometimes not worth +manufacturing; that of the second year is the best, and the third is +also very good, if it has been carefully weeded; but many indigo +fields have lasted more than ten years without being re-sown, as the +seed which falls naturally springs up again, and where the land is +good yields nearly as large a crop as a new sown field. When the plant +is ready for manufacturing, a number of men are collected, each of +whom is either provided with, or brings his own mule or horse, if he +has one. Two men always go together, cut the plant, then about the +height of full-grown red clover, and take it to the vats, which are +large tanks made of brick and lime, holding at least 1,000 gallons, +and some as much as 10,000. Into these the plant is thrown till they +are nearly full, when weights are put above it to prevent its +floating; and the vats filled with water till it covers the mass of +the indigo plant. After remaining from twelve to twenty-four hours, +according to the state of the plant, weather, and other circumstances +(the time required being determined by the color which the water +assumes), the herb is taken out, and the water beaten with paddles in +the very small vats, and by a wheel suspended above and turned by men +or horses in the larger ones, till it changes from a green color, +which it has acquired ere the removal of the herb, to a fine blue, +when it is allowed to stand for some hours, till the coloring matter +has settled to the bottom of the tank, a process which is generally +hastened by throwing in an infusion of certain herbs to facilitate its +settlement, or as the natives term it curdle (_cuajar_) the colored +water. As soon as all the color has settled, the water is drawn off, +and the blue, which is of the consistency of thick mud, is taken out +of the vat and spread upon cotton, or coarse woollen cloth, and dried +in the sun. The color in a great measure depends upon removing the +herb exactly at the proper time, and upon properly beating the water, +neither too long, or too short. Unless these processes are properly +performed, the indigo will not be of first-rate quality; but some +estates will never produce the best indigo, whatever care may be +bestowed on the manufacture. + +A _mansana_, of 100 yards square, which is nearly two British statute +acres, produces generally about 100 to 120 lbs. of indigo, the +carriage and cutting of the herb costing about twenty dollars, and the +cleaning of the field and all other expenses connected with it, +including the manufacture of the indigo, about as much more. + +The indigo of Central America is not put into moulds when drying, as +that of Bengal, but is allowed to remain in the rough shape in which +it dries, and without further preparation is ready for baling and +exportation. + +The bales are generally made up in 150 lbs. each, and the quality is +classed by numbers, from 1 to 9; Nos. 1 to 3 being of the quality +called _cobres_ in Europe; Nos. 4 to 6 of that called _cortes_, and +Nos. 7 to 9 of that called _flores_; Nos. 1 to 6 do not at present pay +the expenses of manufacture, and are never intentionally made. No +doubt, with a little more skill in the manufacture, the whole might, +as in Bengal, be made of the quality called _flores_; but such +improvements cannot be expected till a new race of people inhabit +Central America. At present about one-half of the indigo produced is +under No. 7, and as the cultivation is said not to pay at the present +prices--and, indeed, hardly can be supposed to compete with Bengal, a +country where labor is so much cheaper, and capital abundant--it is +probable, that the cultivation will shortly be entirely abandoned, +unless the price should again rise in Europe." In 1846, 21,933 lbs. of +indigo were exported from Angostura. + +The following particulars were contributed to my "Colonial Magazine," +by the late Dr. Edward Binns, of Jamaica:-- + + The species generally cultivated is the _I. tinctoria_, which + requires a rich moist soil and warm weather. The seed, which is at + first sight not unlike coarse gunpowder, is sown three or four + inches deep, in straight lines, twelve or fifteen inches apart. The + shoots appear above ground in about a week; at the end of two months + the plant flowers, when it is fit for cutting, which is done with a + pruning knife. It must be mentioned that great care is requisite in + weeding the indigo field when plants first shoot through the earth. + In the State of St. Salvador, large vats made of mahogany, or other + hard wood, are constructed for the reception of the plant, where it + is allowed to undergo maceration and fermentation. In a short time + the water becomes greenish, and emits a strong pungent smell, while + carbonic acid gas is freely evolved. In about twenty-four hours it + is run off into large flat vessels, and stirred about until a blue + scum appears, when additional water is added, and the blue flakes + sink to the bottom. The supernatant water has now acquired a + yellowish tinge, when it is run off carefully, and the blue deposit + or sediment put into bags to drain. It is subsequently dried in the + shade, or sometimes in the sun, then placed in cotton bags and + carried to the indigo fair, or forwarded to the city of Guatemala. + + The East Indian mode of manufacturing the indigo differs materially, + and many suppose it preferable to the Salvador. It consists in + _steaming_ the fermented mass in large pipes enclosed in huge + boilers. I am inclined to believe this to be the most economical, if + not the best way of manufacturing indigo. From Guatemala alone, it + is computed that from 6,000 to 8,000 serons of indigo are exported + annually; while San Miguel, Chalatenaugo, Tejulta, Secatecolnea, St. + Vincent, Sensuntepepe, not only, it is said, produce a larger + quantity, but the four last-mentioned places have the advantage as + to quality. The _Belize Advertiser_ stated, some time since, that + the value of this dye from one State in 1830 produced 2,000,000 + dollars, the minimum of an immense sum which has been most unjustly + and unwisely wrested from the people of Jamaica, and the West India + islands. + + Bridges ("Annals of Jamaica," p. 584, Append.), speaking of the vast + returns of an indigo plantation, says, "The labour of a single negro + would often bring to his owner L30 sterling per annum clear + profit,--a sum which was at the time the laborer's highest price. It + continued the _staple_ of Jamaica till an intolerable tax oppressed + it, while its price was lowered by the competition of other + colonies. + + Its cultivation immediately declined throughout them all, but + nowhere so rapidly as here. The financial error was quickly + discovered,--a remedy was attempted by a bounty; but it came too + late, the plantations were thrown up, and the planters, attracted by + the temporary gain, abused the tardy boon, by introducing, as of + their own growth, large quantities of foreign indigo." As Bridges + may be said in this passage to be merely a commentator on Edwards, + who has entered more largely upon the subject, I shall condense from + the latter, statements connected with the manufacture and decay of + this branch of industry, once the staple of Jamaica. + + Edwards ("West Indies," vol. ii., p. 275, 2nd edition) reckons three + kinds of indigo--the wild, Guatemala, and French. The first is the + hardest, and the dye extracted from it of the best quality as + regards color and grain; but one or other of the two species is + commonly preferred by the planter, as yielding a greater return. Of + these the French surpasses the Guatemala in quantity, but yields to + it in fineness of grain and beauty of color. The indigo thrives + almost on any land, though the richest soils produce the most + luxuriant plants, and the longest dry weather will not kill it. The + cultivation and manufacture our author thus describes:--"The land + being prepared, trenches, two or three inches in depth, are made by + the hoe. These are ten or twelve inches asunder. The seeds are then + strewed in the trenches by the hand, and slightly covered with + mould. When the plants shoot, they are carefully weeded, and kept + constantly clean, until they rise high enough to cover the ground. A + bushel of seed is sufficient for four or five acres. The best season + for planting is March; but if the land be good, it may be sown at + any time, and in three months the plants attain maturity. In + seasonable situations, they have four cuttings in the year. The + subsequent growths from the plants ripen in six or eight weeks; but + the produce diminishes after the second cutting, so that the seeds + should be sown every second year. A species of grub, or worm, which + infests the plant on the second year is avoided by changing the + soil; or, in other words, by a rotation of crops. The produce per + acre of the first cutting is about 60 lbs. It is nearly as much in + North America; but when the thermometer falls to sixty, the returns + are very uncertain, that degree of heat being too low for the + necessary vegetation, maceration, and fermentation. The yieldings + for the subsequent cuttings somewhat diminish; but in Jamaica and + St. Domingo, if the land is new, about 300 lbs. per acre of the + second quality may be expected annually from all the cuttings + together; and four negroes are sufficient to carry on the + cultivation of five acres, besides doing other occasional work, + sufficient to reimburse the expenses of their maintenance and + clothing." + + The process for obtaining the dye, according to the same author, was + conducted through the means of two cisterns, the one elevated above + the other, in the manner of steps. The higher, which was also the + longer, was named the _sleeper_--its dimensions sixteen feet square + and two and a half in depth. The second, into which the fluid was + discharged, was called the _battery_; it was about twelve feet + square, and four and a half in depth. These cisterns were of stone; + but strong timber answered remarkably well. There was also a + lime-vat, six feet square and four feet deep, the plug of which was + at least eight inches from the bottom. This was for the purpose of + permitting the lime to subside, before the lime-water was withdrawn. + The plants then being ripe, or fit for cutting, were cut with + reaping-hooks, or sickles, a few inches from the ground--six was the + minimum--and placed by strata in the _sleeper_, until it was about + three parts full. They were then pressed with boards, either loaded + with weights or wedged down, so as to prevent the plants from + floating loosely; and as much water was admitted as they would + imbibe, until it covered the mass four or five inches deep. In this + state it was allowed to ferment until the water had extracted the + pulp. To know when this had been thoroughly effected, required + extreme attention and great practical knowledge; for if the fluid + were drawn off too soon, much of the pulp was left behind; and if + the fermentation continued too long, the tender tops of the plants + were decomposed, and the whole crop lost. When the tincture or + extract was received in the battery, it was agitated or churned + until the dye began to granulate, or float in little flakes upon the + surface. This was accomplished at one period in Jamaica by paddles, + worked by manual labor, and, in the French islands, by buckets or + cylinders, worked by long poles; but subsequently--that is, at the + time Edwards wrote--convenient apparatus was constructed, the levers + of which were worked by a cog-wheel, kept in motion by a horse or + mule. When the fluid had been churned for fifteen or twenty minutes, + a small quantity was examined in a cup or plate, and if it appeared + curdled or coagulated, strongly impregnated lime-water was gradually + added, not only with a view to promote separation, but to prevent + decomposition. Browne remarks ("Civil and Nat. Hist. of Jamaica," + art. "Indigo"), the planters "must carefully distinguish the + different stages of this part of the operation also, and attentively + examine the appearance and color as the work advances,--for the + grain passes gradually from a greenish to a fine purple, which is + the proper color when the liquor is sufficiently worked,--too small + a degree of agitation leaving the indigo green and coarse, while too + vigorous an action brings it to be almost black." The liquor being + then, as we shall suppose, properly worked, and granulation + established, it was left undisturbed until the flakes settled at the + bottom, when the liquor was drawn off, and the sediment (which is + the indigo) placed in little bags to drain, after which it was + carefully packed in small square boxes, and suffered to dry + gradually in the shade. + + Such is the account, nearly word for word, which Edwards gives of + the mode of manufacturing indigo. I shall now quote his remarks upon + the outlay and gain upon the article _verbatim_.--"To what has been + said above of the nature of the plant suiting itself to every soil, + and producing four cuttings in the year, if we add the cheapness of + the buildings, apparatus, and labor, and the great value of the + commodity, there will seem but little cause for wonder at the + splendid accounts which are transmitted down to us concerning the + great opulence of the first indigo-planters. Allowing the produce of + an acre to be 300 lbs., and the produce no more than 4s. per pound, + the gross profit of only twenty acres will be L1,200, produced by + the labor of only sixteen negroes, and on capital in land and + buildings scarce deserving consideration." Yet, notwithstanding this + statement, the author informs us afterwards that he knew, in the + course of eighteen years' residence in the West Indies, upwards of + twenty persons who tried to re-establish indigo manufactories, but + failed. This appears strange, since it is plain that what has once + been done can be done again, but especially in the manufacture of an + article requiring a capital so very small in proportion to the + profits as almost to tempt the most cautious and the most timid man + to embark in it. + + I quote the following passage from the same author, for the purpose + of showing the very loose manner in which statements are made on the + authority of others, who are as incompetent to decide the merits of + a question as the party himself chronicling their opinion. Speaking + of the twenty unfortunate indigo-planters, our author thus + writes:--"Many of them were men of foresight, knowledge, and + property. That they failed is certain; but of _the causes of their_ + FAILURE _I confess I can give no satisfactory account._ I was told + that disappointment trod close upon their heels at every stop. At + one time the fermentation was too long continued, at another the + liquor was drawn off too soon; now the pulp was not duly granulated, + and now it was worked too much. To these inconveniences, for which + practice would doubtless have found a remedy, were added others of a + much greater magnitude--the mortality of the negroes, from the + vapour of fermented liquor (an alarming circumstance, that, I am + informed, both by the French and English planters, constantly + attends the process), the failure of the seasons, and the ravages of + the worm. These, or some of these evils, drove them at length to + other pursuits, where industry might find a surer recompense."--(p. + 283.) + + The fallacy of much of this requires no comment, as it must strike + even the most careless reader,--for if the so-called indigo-growers + did not know the process of manufacturing the commodity, then it + could not be surprising that they failed. Thus the cause of their + failure required no comment, and no explanation. Were a ploughman + taken from the field and placed at the helm of a ship, and the + vessel in consequence wrecked, would any one be astonished but at + the folly of those who placed him there? This was the case with the + indigo-growers,--they attempted what they did not understand, and, + consequently, lost their labor and their money. The mortality of the + negroes employed, stated as another reason for abandoning the + attempt, requires a somewhat more lengthy notice. + + I can briefly say, that I have learned that in the Central States of + America, deaths among indigo-laborers are not more frequent than in + other branches of tropical industry; and I never heard or have read + that the _original_ growers complained of the mortality attending + the progress. The truth is, that this statement is not founded on + fact. There is nothing whatever in the manufacture of indigo, either + in the cultivation or the granulation, or even the maceration and + fermentation of the plant, which is directly or indirectly, _per + se_, injurious to human life. I have certainly never seen the indigo + plant macerated on a large scale; but I have myself steeped much of + it in water, and allowed it even to rot, and found nothing in the + mass differing in any marked degree from decomposed vegetable + matter. It seems to me that this idea of the manufacture of indigo + being especially inimical to human life, is as unfounded as the + belief, even by Humboldt, up to a very recent period, that none of + the Cerealia would grow in tropical climates. In conversing with an + old gentleman in Jamaica, some twelve years since, who had tried the + manufacture of indigo, and with every prospect of success, but + abandoned it, as he confessed, for the cultivation of the sugar + cane, since it was then more profitable, he suggested the solution, + that as the manufacture was light work, probably aged and + debilitated, in place of youthful and vigorous slaves, were too + frequently employed in the process--hence the mortality. This may be + correct to a certain extent; but I am also inclined to think that + another cause of mortality might be found in the mode and manner in + which the negro was fed and clothed, and not because aged persons + were exclusively engaged in the manufacture. I believe I may state, + without fear of contradiction, that the real cause of the decline + and consequent abandonment of the indigo plant was the monstrous + duty levied upon it by the English government. Indeed, this has been + already stated in the extract from Bridges; while the cause of the + failure of the attempt to renew it, over and above the reasons we + have given, was the greater temptation to embark capital in sugar + plantations,--the West Indies enjoying a monopoly in this article, + while they had competitors in the Southern States of America in the + other. I have, therefore, no hesitation in saying, that, with a + trifling capital, under prudent management, indigo might be + cultivated to a very great extent, and with considerable profit, + even now, in Jamaica. But the adventurer is not to expect to count + his gains, as the original growers did, by thousands; he must be + content with hundreds, if not fifties; for at the present day every + branch of industry is laden with difficulties, encumbered by + taxation, and obstructed by competition. There are two objections, + however, which I have not removed,--I allude to "the failure of the + seasons and the ravages of the worm." Very little need be said to + combat these. Seasons are mutable, and the same heaven that frowns + this year on the labors of the husbandman, may smile the next; while + a remedy for the "ravages of the worm" may be found in the mutation + of the soil, the destruction of the grub, or the rotation of + crops,--accessories to success which seem not to have entered into + the vocabularies of the twenty pseudo indigo-growers, "many of them + men of knowledge, foresight and property." + + The following passage from Bryan Edwards will corroborate much that + I have endeavored to enforce. It furnishes not only a solution which + has been hinted at before, of the enigma why indigo ceased to be + cultivated in Jamaica, but also _an incentive_ to re-introduce the + culture. He says (p. 444), "It is a remarkable and well-known + circumstance, after the cultivation of indigo was suppressed by an + exorbitant duty of near L20 the hundred-weight, Great Britain was + compelled to pay her rivals and enemies L200,000 annually for this + commodity, so essential to a great variety of her most important + manufactures. At length, the duty being repealed, and a bounty some + time after substituted in its place, the States of Georgia and South + Carolina entered upon, and succeeding in the culture of this + valuable plant, supplied at a far cheaper rate than the French and + Spaniards (receiving too our manufactures in payment) not only the + British consumption, but also enabled Great Britain to export a + surplus at an advanced price to foreign markets."--It is therefore + plain that the manufacture of indigo was lost to Jamaica, not from + any difficulty in growing the plant, or from any loss of life + attending the process of manufacturing it, but from the ruinously + heavy duty of L20 the hundred-weight--and that now, when no duty + exists, it might be again cultivated with great advantage. + +The cultivation of indigo has been repeatedly attempted in Cuba, but +never with much success; although the shrub called the Xiquilite, from +which it is extracted, grows wild in several districts of the island, +but more especially towards the eastern extremity. The first +_anileria_, or manufactory of indigo, was established in 1795, under +the patronage of the _Ayuntamento_ of the Havana, who made an advance +of 3,500 dollars, without interest, to the party engaging in the +speculation, in order to encourage the enterprise; but the undertaking +proved unsuccessful, and the same fate has befallen every subsequent +attempt to introduce this branch of industry. In 1827, the whole +produce amounted only to 56 arrobas. In 1837 the imports of indigo +greatly exceeded the exports; the former having amounted to 121,350 +lbs., and the latter to 82,890 lbs. In 1833, 5,184 lbs. reached the +United Kingdom from the Havana, and in 1843, 62,675 lbs. + +In 1826 British Honduras exported 358,552 lbs.; in 1830, 2,650 serons; +in 1844, 1,247 serons; and in 1845, 1,052 serons. + +The indigo shrub is one of the most common bushes in Trinidad, where +it grows wild on almost all the indifferent soils. In 1783, there were +several plantations and manufactories of indigo established in +Trinidad; these were subsequently abandoned, on account of a +supposition that they were unhealthy. Prior to 1783, the colonists had +a kind of simple process by which they extracted sufficient coloring +matter to serve domestic consumption. This process is at present +unknown, hence all the indigo used there is imported from Europe, +although the plant from which it can be made vegetates in every +direction. + +In 1791 Hayti imported 930,016 lbs. of indigo, while in 1804 the +export had dwindled to 35,400 lbs. + +Indigo, as I have already stated, was once a most important crop in +South Carolina, some attention has recently again been given to it by +an individual or two in Louisiana, and the enterprise is said to +promise success; enough might undoubtedly be raised in the United +States to supply the home market. Some indigo produced at Baton Rouge +was pronounced to have been equal to the best Caraccas, which sells at +two dollars per pound; and the gentleman who cultivated it remarks, +that one acre of ground there, well cultivated, will yield from 40 to +60 lbs.; that it requires only from July to October for cultivating +it; that there is not connected with it one-third of the expense or +time that is generally required for the cultivation of cotton. + +I take the following from Smyth's "Tour in the United States." + +"This plant is somewhat like the fern when grown, and when young is +hardly distinguishable from lucern grass, its leaves in general are +pinnated, and terminated by a single lobe; the flowers consist of five +leaves, and are of the papilonaceous kind, the uppermost petal being +longer and rounder than the rest, and lightly furrowed on the side, +the lower ones are short and end in a point; in the middle of the +flower is formed the style, which afterwards becomes a pod containing +the seeds. + +"They cultivate three sorts of indigo in Carolina, which demand the +same variety of soils. First, the French or Hispaniola indigo, which +striking a long tap root will only flourish in a deep rich soil, and +therefore, though an excellent sort, is not so much cultivated in the +maritime parts of the State, which are generally sandy, but it is +produced in great perfection one hundred miles backwards; it is +neglected too on another account, for it hardly bears a winter so +sharp as that of Carolina. The second sort, which is the false +Guatemala, or true Bahamas, bears the winter better, is a more tall +and vigorous plant, is raised in greater quantities from the same +compass of ground, is content with the worst soil in the country, and +is therefore more cultivated than the first soil, though inferior in +the quality of its dye. + +"The third sort is the wild indigo, which is indigenous here; this, as +it is a native of the country, answers the purposes of the planter +best of all, with regard to the hardiness of the plant, the easiness +of the culture, and the quantity of the produce. Of the quality there +is some dispute not yet settled amongst the planters themselves; nor +can they distinctly tell when they are to attribute the faults of +their indigo to the nature of the plant, to the seasons, which have +much influence upon it, or to some defect in the manufacture. + +"The time of planting the indigo is generally after the first rains +succeeding the vernal equinox; the seed is sown in small straight +trenches, about eighteen or twenty inches asunder; when it is at its +height, it is generally eighteen inches tall. It is fit for cutting, +if all things answer well, in the beginning of July. + +"Towards the end of August a second cutting is obtained, and if they +have a mild autumn, there is a third cutting at Michaelmas. The indigo +land must be weeded every day, the plants cleansed from worms, and the +plantation attended with the greatest care and diligence. About +twenty-five hands may manage a plantation of fifty acres, and complete +the manufacture of the drug, besides providing their own necessary +subsistence and that of the planter's family. + +"Each acre yields, if the land be very good, 60 or 70 lbs. weight of +indigo, at a medium the produce is 50 lbs. This however, is reckoned +by many skilful planters but a very indifferent crop. + +"When the plant is beginning to blossom it is fit for cutting, and +when cut great care ought to be taken to bring it to the steeper +without pressing or shaking it, as great part of the beauty of the +indigo depends upon the fine farina, which adheres to the leaves of +this plant. The apparatus for making indigo is inconsiderable and not +expensive, for besides a pump, the whole consists only of vats and +tubs of cypress wood, common and cheap in this country. + +"The indigo, when cut, is first laid in a vat, about twelve or +fourteen feet long and four feet deep, to the height of about fourteen +inches, to macerate and digest; then this vessel, which is called the +_steeper_, is filled with water; the whole having laid from about +twelve to sixteen hours, according to the weather, begins to ferment, +swell, rise, and grow sensibly warm. At this time spars of wood are +run across, to mark the highest point of its ascent; when it falls +below this mark, they judge that the fermentation has attained its due +pitch, and begins to abate; this directs the manager to open a cock, +and let off the water into another vat, which is called the _beater_; +the gross matter that remains in the first vat is carried off to +manure the ground, for which purpose it is excellent, and new cuttings +are put in, as long as the harvest of the weed continues. When the +water, strongly impregnated with the particles of indigo, has run into +the second vat or beater, they attend with a sort of bottomless +buckets, with long handles, to work and agitate it, when it froths, +ferments, and rises above the rim of the vessel that contains it. To +allay this violent fermentation, oil is thrown in as the froth rises, +which instantly sinks it. When this beating has continued for twenty, +thirty, or thirty-five minutes, according to the state of the weather +(for in cool weather it requires the longest continued beating), a +small muddy grain begins to be formed; the salts and other particles +of the plant united, dissolved, and before mixed with the water, are +now re-united together, and begin to granulate. To discover these +particles the better, and to find when the liquor is sufficiently +beaten, they take up some of it from time to time on a plate, or in a +glass; when it appears in a hopeful condition, they let loose some +lime water from an adjacent vessel, gently stirring the whole, which +wonderfully facilitates the operation; the indigo granulates more +fully, the liquor assumes a purplish color, and the whole is troubled +and muddy; it is now suffered to settle; then the clearer part is +permitted to run off into another succession of vessels, from whence +the water is conveyed away as fast as it clears on the top, until +nothing remains but a thick mud, which is put into bags of coarse +linen. These are hung up and left for some time until the moisture is +entirely drained off. + +"To finish the drying, this mud is turned out of the bags, and worked +upon boards of some porous timber, with a wooden spatula; it is +frequently exposed to the morning and evening sun, but for a short +time only; and then it is put into boxes or frames, which is called +the curing, exposed again to the sun in the same cautious manner, +until, with great labor and attention the operation is finished, and +the valuable drug fitted for the market. The greatest skill and care +is required in every part of the process, or there may be great danger +of ruining the whole; the water must not be suffered to remain too +short or too long a time, either in the steeper or beater; the beating +itself must be nicely managed, so as not to exceed or fall short; and +in the curing the exact medium between too much or too little drying +is not easily attained. Nothing but experience can make the overseers +skilful in these matters. There are two methods of trying the goodness +of indigo; by fire and by water. If it swims it is good, if it sinks +it is inferior, the heavier the worse; so if it wholly dissolves in +water it is good. Another way of proving it, is by the fire ordeal; if +it entirely burns away it is good, the adulterations remain +untouched." + +Indigo to the extent of 220,000 lbs. per annum is grown in Egypt. The +leaves are there thrown into earthen vessels, which are buried in pits +and filled with water; heat is applied, and the liquid is boiled away +until the indigo becomes of a fit consistence, when it is pressed into +shape and dried. Many Armenians have been invited from the East Indies +to teach the fellahs the best mode of preparation, and, in +consequence, nine indigo works have been established belonging to the +government. + +The indigo plant is found scattered like a weed abundantly over the +face of the country in the district of Natal, Eastern Africa. It is +said that there are no less than ten varieties of the plant commonly +to be met with there. Mr. Blaine submitted, in 1848, to the Manchester +Chamber of Commerce, a small specimen of this dye-stuff, which had +been extracted by a rude process from a native plant, which was +pronounced by good authority to be of superior quality, and worth 3s. +4d. per pound. Mr. W. Wilson, a settler at Natal, in a letter to the +editor of the _Natal Witness_, thus speaks of the culture:-- + + "My attention was first forcibly drawn to the cultivation of indigo + by some seed imported by Mr. Kinlock, from India. This seed, on + trial, I found to grow luxuriantly; and after a few experiments I + succeeded in manufacturing the dye. The success which thus attended + my first attempts has encouraged me to try indigo planting on a more + extensive scale. For this purpose I am allowing all the plants of + this season to run to seed, and intend to plant equal quantities of + Bengal and native indigo. + + While my attention was engaged in these preliminary experiments, I + observed that the country abounded in a variety of species of + indigo, and by a series of experiments found it rich and abundant, + and have since learnt that it is known and in use among the natives, + and called by them Umpekumbeto. + + This of course induced further inquiry, and on consulting different + works I find that the Cape of Good Hope possesses more species of + indigo than the whole world besides. Now I take it for granted that + if Providence has placed these materials within our reach, it was + evidently intended that we should, by the application of industry, + appropriate them to our use. It becomes, then, a matter of necessity + that indigo must thrive, this being its native soil and climate; and + the experiments I have successfully made, go to support me in the + opinion that the cultivation of indigo will bring an ample reward. + Indeed it seems contrary to the laws of nature that it should be + otherwise. + + I have obtained from the 140th part of an acre the proportion of 300 + lbs. of indigo per acre. That the plant will cross successfully, I + have also ascertained." + +_Cultivation in India._--During the nine years which preceded the +opening of the trade with India in 1814, the annual average produce of +indigo in Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 5,600,000 lbs. But since +the ports were opened, the indigo produced for exportation has +increased fully a third; the exports during the sixteen years ending +with 1829-30, being above 7,400,000 lbs. a year. + +The consumption in the United Kingdom has averaged, during the last +ten years, about 2,500,000 lbs. a year. + +In 1839-40 the export of indigo from Madras amounted to 1,333,808 +lbs. A small quantity is also exported from the French settlement of +Pondicherry. In 1837 the export from Manila amounted to about 250,000 +lbs. The export from Batavia in 1841 amounted to 913,693 lbs., and the +production in 1843 was double that amount. The annual exports of +indigo, from all parts of Asia and the Indian Archipelago, were taken +by M'Culloch, in 1840, to be 12,440,000 lbs. The imports are about +20,000 chests of Bengal, and 8,000 from Madras annually, of which +9,000 or 10,000 are used for home consumption, and the rest +re-exported. + +The total crop of indigo in the Bengal Presidency has ranged, for the +last twenty years, at from 100,000 to 172,000 factory maunds; the +highest crop was in 1845. The factory maund of indigo in India is +about 78 lbs. + +In the delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest quantity of +indigo is produced, the plant lasts only for a single season, being +destroyed by the periodical inundation; but in the dry central and +western provinces, one or two _ratoon_ crops are obtained. + +The culture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as +respects the growth of the plant from year to year, but also as +regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of +plant will afford in the same season. + +The fixed capital required, as I have already shown, in the +manufacture of indigo, consists simply of a few vats of common masonry +for steeping the plant, and precipitating the coloring matter; a +boiling and drying house, and a dwelling for the planter. Thus a +factory of ten pair of vats, capable of producing, at an average, +12,500 lbs. of indigo, worth on the spot L2,500, will not cost above +L1,500 sterling. The buildings and machinery necessary to produce an +equal value in sugar and rum, would probably cost about L4,000. + +The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, called, in +commercial language, Bengal and Oude; the first being the produce of +the southern provinces of Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of the +northern provinces, and of Benares. The first class is in point of +quality much superior to the other. The inferiority of the Oude indigo +is thought to be more the result of soil and climate, than of any +difference in the skill with which the manufacture is conducted. The +indigo of Madras, which is superior to that of Manila, is about equal +to ordinary Bengal indigo. The produce of Java is superior to these. + +Large quantities of indigo, of a very fine quality, are grown in +Scinde. I have to acknowledge the receipt, from the Indian Government, +of an interesting collection of documents on the culture and +manufacture of indigo in Upper Scinde. The papers are chiefly from the +pen of Mr. Wood, Deputy Collector of Sukkur, though there are several +others, perhaps of much value, from various other of the revenue +officers of Scinde. + +Mr. Wood is of opinion that Scinde is much better suited than Bengal +for the production of this dye-stuff--the alluvial soil on the banks +of the Indus is equal in richness to that on those of the Ganges, and +the climate seems equally well suited for the growth of the plant. But +in two years out of three, the crops of the Bengal planter are injured +by excessive inundations, while the work of gathering and manipulation +is necessarily performed, during the rainy season, under the greatest +imaginable disadvantages. In Scinde, on the other hand, the inundation +of the river is produced almost solely from the melting of the snows +in the Himalayas, and it is not liable to those excessive fluctuations +in amount, or that suddenness in appearance peculiar to inundations +chiefly arising from falls of rain. The Granges sometimes rises ten +feet in four-and-twenty hours, and at some part of its course its +depth is at times forty feet greater during a flood than in fair +weather, while the Indus rarely rises above a foot a day, its extreme +flood never exceeding fifteen feet, the limits and amount of the +inundation being singularly uniform over a succession of years. +Moreover, as rain hardly ever falls in Scinde, and when it does so +only continues over a few days, and extends to the amount of three or +four inches, no danger or inconvenience from this need be apprehended. +Mr. Wood mentions that hemp may be grown in profusion on the indigo +grounds, and that were the production of the dye once introduced, it +would bring hundreds of thousands of acres now barren into +cultivation, and secure the growth or manufacture of a vast variety of +other commodities for which the country is eminently fitted. An +experimental factory might, it is believed, be set up for from two to +three thousand pounds, but this appears to be an amount of adventure +from which the Government shrinks. + +The districts of Kishnagar, Jessore, and Moorshedabad, in Bengal, +ranging from 88 to 90 degs. E. latitude, and 221/2 to 24 degs. N. +longitude, produce the finest indigo. That from the districts about +Burdwan and Benares is of a coarser or harsher grain. Tirhoot, in +latitude 26 degs., yields a tolerably good article. The portion of +Bengal most propitious to the cultivation of indigo, lies between the +river Hooghly and the main stream of the Ganges. + +In the East Indies, after having ploughed the ground in October, +November, and the beginning of December, they sow the seed in the last +half of March and the beginning of April, while the soil, being +neither too hot nor too dry, is most propitious to its germination. A +light mould answers best; and sunshine, with occasional light showers, +are most favorable to its growth. Twelve pounds of seed are sufficient +for sowing an acre of land. The plants grow rapidly, and will bear to +be cut for the first time at the beginning of July; nay, in some +districts so early as the middle of June. The indications of maturity +are the bursting forth of the flower buds, and the expansion of the +blossoms; at which period the plant abounds most in the dyeing +principle. Another indication is taken from the leaves, which, if +they break across when doubled flat, denote a state of maturity. But +this character is somewhat fallacious, and depends upon the poverty or +richness of the soil. When much rain falls, the plants grow too +rapidly, and do not sufficiently elaborate the blue pigment. Bright +sunshine is most advantageous to its production. + +The first cropping of the plants is the best; after two months a +second is made; after another interval a third, and even a fourth; but +each of these is of diminished value. + +_Culture in India._--For the following excellent account of the modes +of culture, and practice, &c., in Bengal, and other parts of India, I +am indebted to Mr. G. W. Johnson, one of the correspondents of my +"Colonial Magazine." Mr. Johnson, besides his own Indian experience, +has consulted all the best authorities, and the opinions of +contributors to the leading periodicals of Calcutta on this important +subject:-- + + When America became known to Europeans, its indigo became to them a + principal object of cultivation, and against their skill the native + Hindostanee had nothing to oppose, but the cheapness of his simple + process of manufacture. The profit and extent of the trade soon + induced Europeans to brave the perils of distance and climate to + cultivate the plant in Hindostan; but these obstacles, added to the + superior article manufactured by the French and Spaniards in the + West Indies, would long have held its produce in India in + subordination, if the anarchy and wars incident to the French + Revolution, especially when they reached St. Domingo, had not almost + annihilated the trade from the West, and consequently proportionally + fostered that in the East. The indigo produce of St. Domingo was + nearly as large as that of all the other West India islands + together. From the time that the negroes revolted in that island, + the cultivation of indigo has increased in Hindostan, until it has + become one of its principal exports, and the quality of the article + manufactured is not inferior to that of any other part of the world. + + The most general mode of obtaining the necessary supply of _weed_, + as it is called by the planter, is as follows:--The land attached to + the factory is parcelled out among the ryots or farmers, who + contract to devote a certain portion of their farm to the + cultivation of indigo, and to deliver it, for a fixed price per + bundle, at the factory; a sum of money, usually equal to half the + probable produce, has to be advanced to the ryot by the planter, to + enable him to accomplish the cultivation, and to subsist upon until + the crop is ready for cutting. + + If, as is generally the case, sufficient land is not attached to the + factory to supply it with plant, the owner obtains what he requires + by inducing the ryots in his vicinity to cultivate it upon a part of + their land. Yet it is with them far from a favorite object of + cultivation; and, indeed, if it were not for the money advanced to + each ryot by the planter, to provide seed, &c., and which gives him + a little ready money, bearing no interest, it is doubtful whether he + would engage in the cultivation at all. Even this advance of money + does not induce him to appropriate it to any but the worst part of + his farm, nor to bestow upon it more than the smallest possible + amount of labor. The reasons for this neglect are valid, for the + grain crops are more profitable to the ryot, and indigo is one of + the most precarious of India's vegetable products. + + In Bengal the usual terms of contract between the manufacturer and + the ryot are, that the latter, receiving at the time a certain + advance of money, perhaps one rupee (2s.) per biggah, with promise + of a similar sum at a more advanced period of the season, undertakes + to have a certain quantity of land suitably and seasonably prepared + for sowing, to attend and receive seed whenever occasion requires, + and to deliver the crop, when called upon, at the factory, at a + specified price per bundle or 100 bundles. The particular conditions + of these contracts vary generally in Bengal; they amount to + advancing the ryot two rupees for every biggah of land, furnishing + him with seed at about one-third its cost, on an engagement from + him to return whatever his lands may produce (which, as has been + said, is generally none at all), at the price charged, and receiving + the plant from him at six, seven, eight, or sometimes nine bundles + for a rupee--much oftener the former than the latter rates. A ryot + cultivating alluvial lands, and having no seed, can hardly ever + repay his advances; but it does not follow that he has been a loser, + for he, perhaps, could not value his time, labor, and rent + altogether at half the amount; and as long as this system is kept + within moderate bounds, it answers much better than private + cultivation to the manufacturer, and has many contingent advantages + to the cultivator. + + In Tirhoot similar engagements are entered into with the ryots, who + are there called _Assamees_. These engagements with Assamees are + generally made in the month of September, on a written instrument + called a _noviskaun_, by which they agree for a certain quantity of + land, for five years, to be cultivated with indigo plant, and for + which they are to be paid at the rate of six rupees per biggah, for + every full field of plant measured by a luggie or measuring-rod. The + luggie, it must be observed, varies in size throughout the district. + In the southern and eastern divisions of Tirhoot and Sarun it is + eight-and-a-half to ten feet long; and in the northern and western + from twelve to fourteen feet. The Assamee receives, on the day of + making his _bundobust_, or settlement, three rupees advance on each + biggah he contracts for, another rupee per biggah when the crop is + fit to weed, and the remaining two rupees at the ensuing settlement + of accounts. Exclusive of the price of his maul or plant, the + Assamee is entitled to receive two or three rupees per biggah (as + may be agreed on) for gurkee, or lands that have failed, as a + remuneration for his trouble, and to enable him to pay his rent. The + foregoing are the principal stipulations of the noviskaun, but the + Assamee further engages to give you such land as you may select, + prepare it according to instructions from the factory, sow and weed + as often as he is required, cut the plant and load the hackeries at + his own cost, and in every other respect conform to the orders of + the planter or his aumlah (managing man). The Assamee is not charged + for seed, the cartage of his plants, or for the cost of drilling. I + should mention that a penalty is attached to the non-fulfilment of + the Assamees engagements, commonly called _hurjah_, viz., twelve + rupees for every biggah short of his agreement, and this for every + year that the noviskaun has to run. This is, however, seldom + recoverable, for if you sue the Assamee in court and obtain a decree + (a most expensive and dilatory process), he can in most instances + easily evade it by a fictitious transfer of his property to other + hands. + + The planter generally finds it his interest to get the Zemindar of + the village in which he proposes cultivating, to join in the + noviskaun, as a further security; or he engages with a jytedar, or + head Assamee, having several others subordinate to him, and for + whose conduct he is responsible. But a still better system is lately + gaining ground in this district, I mean that of taking villages in + ticka, or farm, by far the best and cheapest plan that has ever been + resorted to for the cultivation of indigo. + + When the planter cultivates the ground himself, it is called in + Tirhoot _Zerant_ cultivation. _Zerants_, or _Neiz_, are taken on a + pottah or lease for five years, at the average rent of three rupees + per biggah. The heavy cost attending this cultivation has occasioned + its decrease in most factories in Tirhoot and particularly since the + fall in prices. About a third, I believe, was the proportion it + formerly bore to the whole cultivation of the district, but of late + such factories only have retained it as cannot procure sufficient + good land under the Assamewar system; but now that the plan of + taking villages in farm is becoming more and more prevalent here, it + is very likely that Zerants will be entirely abandoned. From all the + information I have been able to collect, the cost of a biggah of + Zerant (ten feet luggie) may be estimated at sixteen rupees; that of + Assamewar is generally twenty-five per cent. less, both exclusive of + interest, agents' charges, and private expenses. + + It can only be the reluctance of the ryot to cultivate indigo that + induces a manufacturer to grow it himself, for it has been found an + expensive plan, profitable only when the dye is at its highest rate, + and even then scarcely furnishing an adequate return. They not only + could not cultivate so cheaply as the native laboring husbandman, + but ordinarily had to engage extensive tracts of land, much of + which was not suitable for their purpose, or, perhaps, for any + other, and consequently, although the average rate of rent was even + low on the whole, it constituted a very heavy charge on the portion + from which they obtained their return. + + In Oude there are three systems of obtaining a supply of the plant, + viz., _Kush Kurreea_, _Bighowty_, and _Nij_; but the latter is a + mere trifle in proportion to the others, and is, therefore, not + worth mentioning. On the _Bighowty_ system, which prevails chiefly + in the Meerut and Mooradabad districts, the planter advances for a + biggah of _Jumowah_ (irrigated sowings) nine rupees, and for a + biggah of _Assaroo_ (rain sowings) five rupees four annas. The next + year's plant, or _khoonti_, becomes his on an additional payment of + eight annas per biggah. He also supplies the seed at the rate of six + seers per biggah, being almost double the quantity made use of in + Bengal, but which is necessary to make up for the destruction of the + plant the year following by the frost, white ants, hot winds, grass + cutters, and, I may add, the village cattle, which are let loose to + graze on the khoonte during the latter period, when not a blade of + grass or vegetation is to be seen anywhere left. + + The Bighowty system is a sadly ruinous one, as, independently of the + attempts to assimilate Assaroo, at five rupees four annas, with + _Jumowah_, at nine rupees per biggah, which is very easily effected + if the planter is not very vigilant, he is obliged to maintain an + extensive and imposing establishment of servants, not only to + enforce the sowings, weeding, and cutting, but also to look after + his khoonte, and protect it from being destroyed by bullocks and + grass cutters, or from being ploughed up clandestinely by the + Zemindars themselves. + + The Kush Kurreea system again has its evils, as the planter never + gets plant for the full amount of his advances, and hence often + leads to his ruin. + + _Soils._--Indigo delights in a fresh soil; new lands, of similar + staple to others before cultivated, always surpass them in the + amount and quality of their produce. Hence arises the superior + productiveness of the lands annually overflowed by the Ganges, the + earthy and saline deposits from which in effect renovate the soil. + The further we recede from the influence of the inundation, the less + adapted is the soil for the cultivation of indigo. The staple of the + soil ought to be silicious, fertile, and deep. Mr. Ballard, writing + on the indigo soils of Tirhoot, says that high "soomba," or light + soils, are generally preferred, being from their nature and level + less exposed to the risk of rain or river inundation; but they are + difficult to procure, and, moreover, require particular care in the + preparation. Next in estimation is "doruss," a nearly equal mixture + of light earth and clay; a soil more retentive of moisture in a dry + season than any other. "Muttyaur," or heavy clay soils, are + generally avoided, although in certain seasons, with mild showers of + rain, they have been known to answer. The safest selection I should + conceive to be an equal portion of soomba and doruss. In a country, + however, interspersed with jheels and nullahs, it is difficult to + form a cultivation without a considerable mixture of low lands, more + or less, according to the situation of the Assamee's fields. Great + care should be taken, at all events, to guard against oosur lands, + or such as abound with saltpetre; these can be most easily detected + in the dry months. _Puchkatak_, that is, lands slightly touched with + _oosur_, have been known to answer, as partaking more of the nature + of _doruss_ soil; but the crop is generally thin, although strong + and branchy. + + There is another description of land that should be cautiously + avoided. It goes by the name of _jaung_, and is a light soil, with a + substratum of sand from six to twelve inches below the surface. The + plant generally looks very fine in such fields till it gets a foot + high, when the root touching the sand, and having no moisture to + sustain it, either dies away altogether, or becomes so stunted and + impoverished as to yield little or nothing in the cutting. Of the + _daub_ or _dearab_ (alluvial) land, says Mr. Ballard, there is + scarcely any in the district except what falls to the lot of my own + factories, being situated on the banks of the Ganges and Great + Gunduck. Of _bungur_, a stiff reddish clay soil, there is little in + Tirhoot; it pervades the western provinces, and is best adapted for + Assaroo sowings, which do not succeed in Tirhoot. + + _Preparation of the soil._--The root of the indigo plant being + fusiform, and extending to about a foot in length, requires the soil + to be loosened thoroughly to that depth at least. Experience + teaches that the fineness of the tilth to which the soil is reduced + previously to the seed being committed to it, is one very + influential operation for the obtaining a productive crop. Yet in + some districts of Bengal, particularly about Furudpore, the sowing + is performed without any previous ploughing. This is where the + river, when receded, has left the soil and deposit so deep, that + about October, or a little later, the seed being forcibly discharged + from the sower's hand, buries itself, and requires no after covering + by means of the rake or harrow. + + In Tirhoot they are indefatigable in this first step of the + cultivation. Mr. Ballard says, that the preparation of indigo lands + should commence in September, as soon as the cessation of the rains + will permit; and as we do not rely on rain for our sowings (as is + the custom in Bengal and elsewhere, and irrigation is never resorted + to, from the heavy expense attending it), our principal aim is to + preserve as much moisture in the fields as possible. They should + receive, for this purpose, not less than eight ploughings, besides a + thorough turning up with the spade, after the fourth ploughing, to + clear the field from stubble, grass and weeds. It is absolutely + indispensable to get all this done on our light soils, especially + before the end of October, and have the land carefully harrowed + down, so as to prevent the moisture escaping. + + Should there be heavy rains between the interval of preparing and + sowing, it will be necessary to turn the fields up with either one + or two ploughings, and harrow them down as before. If only a slight + shower, running the harrow over them will be sufficient to break the + crust formed on the surface, and which, if allowed to remain, would + quickly exhaust the moisture. This, with the occasional use of the + weeding-hook, is all that the lands will require till the time of + sowing.--("Transactions of the Agri.-Hort. Society of Calcutta," + vol. ii., p. 22.) + + _Sowing_.--The time when the seed is committed to the soil varies in + different parts of India, and, even in the same place, admits of + being performed at two different seasons. The periods of sowing in + Bengal are first immediately after the rains, from about the latter + end of October. The rivers are then rapidly retiring within their + beds, and as soon as the soft deposit of the year has drained itself + into a consistency, though not solid enough to keep a man from + sinking up to his knees in it, they begin to scatter the seed + broadcast. This is continued until the ground has become too hard + for the seed to bury itself; the plough is then used to loosen the + crust, and the sowing continued to about the middle, or even the end + of November, from which period the weather is considered too cold, + until February. These autumnal sowings are called October sowings, + from the month in which they generally commence. Much of the plant + perishes during the months of December and January, and more again + in the spring, unless there are early and moderate showers. The crop + that remains is not so productive ordinarily in the vat, as that + obtained from spring sowings, and some think the quality of the + produce inferior. But there is no expense of cultivation, and the + liabilities of the crop to failure are such a discouragement to cost + and labor in rearing it, that the October sowing is followed by most + planters who can obtain suitable land. The second period of sowing + is the spring, with the first rains of March, or even the end of + February. The land having been measured and placed under its slight + course of tillage during the two or three preceding mouths, is sown + broadcast as soon as the ground has been well moistened, or even in + prospect of approaching rain. The quantity of seed used for this + autumn sowing is generally more than what is considered requisite + for spring sowing; six seers at the former and four at the latter + season per biggah, in Bengal, is the quantity usually allowed. + + Some cultivators commence the autumn sowing as early as at the close + of September, or as soon as the low lands are in a state to permit + the operation after the inundation has subsided. This seed time may + be said to continue until the end of December, and the crops from + these sowings often yield an average produce, if the lands are not + very low and wet. If they are, the sowing had better be delayed + until January, or even February, for the crops from these latter + sowings are usually the most productive, and the dye obtained from + them the finest. The object for thus delaying the sowing is, that + the young plants may have a more genial season for vegetation. Those + who prefer sowing earlier, and yet are aware of the importance of + saving the young plants as much as possible from the comparative low + temperature of the season, sow some other crop with their indigo. + Til, the country linseed, is good for this purpose in high lying + soils. But I never knew an intermixture of crops that was not + attended by inconveniences and injuries more than was compensated by + the advantages gained. + + The success of sowings during March and April is very doubtful. It + depends entirely upon the occurrence of rain, which in those months + is proverbially uncertain. If the season should be sufficiently wet, + the sowing may be performed in May; but a June sowing is very rarely + remunerating. The rains setting in during the latter part of this + month so promote the growth of weeds, that the young plants are + choked and generally destroyed. The exceptions only occur in high + lands, in unusually propitious seasons, and ought never to be relied + upon except when the earlier sowings have failed. To protract the + manufacturing season, some planters begin sowing upon low lying + lands in the hot season, for the chance of a crop at the + commencement of the rains; and they sow at the close of the rains + with the hope of, as it were, stealing another in the next year. In + the western provinces sowing necessarily occurs in the dry weather, + usually in March and April, though occasionally either a little + earlier or later. + + In Tirhoot the sowings commence about the latter end of February or + the beginning of March, if by that time there is sufficient warmth + in the atmosphere to ensure a healthy vegetation. Light soils are + sown on one close ploughing; heavy soils on two, with from four to + eight seers of seed, in proportion to the size of the biggah. After + strewing the seed, the field should be harrowed down by two turns of + the harrow, and then again by two turns more after the third day. In + case of rain before the plant appears (which it ought to do on the + sixth or seventh day), if a slight shower, the harrow should be used + again; if very heavy, it were best to turn up the ground and re-sow. + If rain fall after the appearance of the plant, and before it has + got past four leaves, and attained sufficient strength to resist the + hard crust before alluded to, immediate recourse must be had to + drilling. In fact, the closest attention is required to watch the + state of the young crop for a month at least after the sowings; if + it yield the least, or assume a sickly appearance, drills are the + only resource. These, if applied in time, in all March, for + instance, or before the middle of April at latest, are generally + successful, not only in restoring plants, but recovering such as may + have become sickly from want or excess of moisture, or any other + cause. In dry seasons they have been known to give a crop when + broadcast sowings have failed. Each drill, with a good pair of + bullocks, should do five biggahs a day. They are regulated to throw + from three to four seers per biggah, but the quantity can be + increased or diminished at pleasure. The natives do not employ them + in their grain sowings, but commonly adopt a contrivance with their + own plough for sowing in furrows, whenever their fields are + deficient in moisture. The drill employed in Tirhoot resembles + considerably the implement known by that name in England. It is + found not only to effect a great saving of seed, ten seers being + there sown broad-cost on a biggah of 57,600 feet square, and only + seven seers by this drill; but also materially to improve the + quality and regularity of the growth of the plant. Experience has + demonstrated, that the more lateral room the plants have, the more + abundant is their produce of leaves, in which the coloring matter + chiefly resides. The seed employed should always be as new as + possible, for though, if carefully preserved, it vegetates when one + year old, and even when nearly two years old has produced a moderate + crop, yet this has been under circumstances of an unusually + favorable season and soil. The plants from old seed rarely attain a + height of more than a foot before they wither and die. As frauds are + very likely to be practised by giving old seed the glossiness and + general appearance of new, great circumspection should be shown by + the planter, who does not grow his own, in obtaining seed from known + parties. + + Planters in the lower provinces are induced to use up-country seed, + because, coming from a colder climate, it vegetates, and the plants + ripen rapidly, so as to be harvested more certainly before the + annual inundation, but they employ one-fourth more. Three seers per + Bengal biggah are sufficient, if it is "Dassee" seed; but four is + not too much if it is up-country seed. A Bengal biggah is only a + third of the size of that of Tirhoot. If the weather is dry, the + seed very often does not germinate until the occurrence of rain, and + it has been known in a dry, light soil, to remain in the ground + without injury for six weeks. If seasonable showers occur, the + plants make their appearance in four days, or even less; and they + must be watched, in order that they may be weeded on the earliest + day that they are sufficiently established to allow the operation to + be safely performed. In dry weather, it must not be done while they + are very young, otherwise many of the seedlings will have their + roots disturbed, and perish from the drought. However, not more than + a fortnight should be allowed to pass, after the seedlings have + appeared, before the weeds are carefully removed, and this clearing + should be frequently repeated until the plants so overshadow the + ground that they of themselves keep back the advance of the weeds. + The first weeding is best performed immediately after a shower of + rain. + + Irrigation is rarely adopted for the indigo crops in the lower + provinces of Bengal, unless they happen to be grown in some + situation very favorable to the operation, such as the bank of a + river. It is much more attended to in the western provinces, and in + Oude, the water being obtained from wells, which are dug in nearly + every cultivated plot. In Oude, Mr. Ballard says that a biggah of + land employs three persons to irrigate it, and occupies never less + than six days. The ryot, or cultivator, requires for the work a pair + of bullocks, which cost him at least 32s., a bucket made of a white + bullock hide, at 2s., and a rope for 2s. more, both of which do not + last him above a year. He never pays less than 8s. for the rent of a + biggah of land near a well. + + In Bengal the plant requires three months to attain its highest + state of perfection for manufacturing, but is often cut, from + necessity, within half that time; for the approach of the river + compels the premature removal of the crop, unless, indeed, its + growth has been so retarded that it would not pay the expense of + working. Most indigo factories have consequently to begin in June, + or early in July, whenever they may have effected their spring + sowings, and the labors of the season are commonly terminated by the + middle or end of August. + + When the plants begin to flower is considered the best time for + cutting them, and this is just what the botanist would have + suggested, because then the proper sap of all plants is most + abundant, and most rich in their several peculiar secretions. A + vividly green, abundant and healthy foliage, downy at the back, is + the surest intimation of the plants being rich in indigo. Plants + that are ready for cutting in July and August, are usually the most + productive. + + In the western provinces from sixteen to twenty maunds of plant is + considered a good produce per biggah. In the upper provinces the + produce of the best crop, which is sown directly the rains commence, + is not more then ten maunds per biggah. The factory maund is equal + to about seventy-eight pounds. One thousand maunds of plant are + considered as producing quite an average quantity of indigo if this + amounts to four maunds. Adopting another mode of estimate, Mr. + Ballard says, that in Bengal an average crop may he considered to be + from ten to twelve bundles, over an extensive cultivation, in a good + season, from each Bengal biggah; the sheaf or bundle being measured + by a six-feet cord or chain. Speaking of the produce in Tirhoot, the + same gentleman says the "luggie," or measuring rod, varies + throughout the district. The common Tirhoot biggah, is, I believe, + equal to two-and-a-half or three Bengal biggahs (about an English + acre). Its produce varies according to the size of the luggie, the + fertility of the soil, and accidents of season; eight to ten hackery + loads, however, is generally considered a good average return. South + and east of Tirhoot, one hundred maunds from six hundred biggahs, + including "khoonti," or a second cutting, is reckoned a successful + result. In another part of the district, including Sarun, where the + "luggie" is larger, the average produce is about one-third better. + As we measure our plant on the ground (he adds), the bundle system + is unknown here; but, I believe, forty-five or fifty Tirhoot hackery + loads of plants (estimated to yield a maund of dry indigo), will be + found equal to two hundred Bengal bundles.--("Trans. Agri. Hort. + Soc., vol. ii. p. 23.") + + In Oude the _jamowah_, or crop sown in May, yields on an average + twenty maunds, or say thirteen bundles, per biggah (160 feet + square). The "assaroo," or rain sowings, producing a very inferior + plant, the average return is not more than three maunds, or two + bundles. The "khoonti," or crop of the next year from the same + plants, averages fifteen maunds, or ten bundles per biggah. + + In Central and Western India, the plants are allowed to produce the + second and even the third year, according to some statements; but in + Bengal the same stocks are rarely suffered to yield a second crop: + being nearly all on lands that are under water in the height of the + inundation, the stock is rotted in the ground. Mr. Ballard, speaking + of the duration of the plant, says that, as for three years' plant + and "khoonti," it is a mere chimera, like the many others with which + the planters have hitherto deluded themselves, and which it only + requires a little reflection to overthrow. A biggah may be cut here + and there, on an extensive cultivation, but it can never be relied + upon as forming a part of the cultivation. + + The uncertainty of the indigo crop has been already noticed, and is, + indeed, as proverbial as that from the hop plant in England. In + Bengal the crop is particularly subject to be destroyed by the + annual inundation of the river, if it occurs earlier than usual. A + storm of wind, accompanied by rain and hail, as completely ruins the + crop as if devoured by the locust; neither from this latter scourge + is the crop exempt. + + This proneness to injury extends throughout its growth. The + seedlings are liable to be destroyed by an insect closely resembling + the turnip-fly, as well as by the frog. Caterpillars feed upon the + leaves of older plants, and the white ant destroys them by consuming + their roots. To these destructive visitations are to be added the + more than ordinary liability of the plant to injury, not merely from + atmospheric commotions, but even from apparently less inimical + visitations. Thus not only do storms of wind, heavy rains, and hail, + destroy the indigo planter's prospects, but even sunshine, if it + pours out fervently after showers of rain, is apt, as it is properly + termed, to _scorch_ the plants; and if it occurs during the first + month of their growth, is most injurious to their future advance. + The reason of this effect appears to be the violent change from a + state of imbibing to a rapid transpiration of moisture. No human + invention or foresight can preserve the crop from the atmospheric + visitations. To destroy and drive away the little coleopterous + insects which attack the seedlings, it would be a successful method + to spread dry grass, &c., over the surface intended to be + cultivated, and to burn the litter immediately before the sowing. + The heat and smoke produced has been found perfectly efficacious + against the turnip-fly in England. To destroy the caterpillar, + slacked lime dusted over the leaves, while the dew is upon them, is + an effectual application. The white ants may be driven away or + destroyed by frequent hoeings, which is the best preventive of the + scorching, for hoeing preserves the soil in an equable and fitting + state of moisture. + + The great supply of seed for Bengal cultivation is obtained from the + western provinces, and forms an article of trade of no + inconsiderable magnitude. The stubble in the low lands of Bengal is + generally submerged before it has time to throw out fresh shoots, on + which the blossom and subsequent seed-pod are formed. There are, + however, some high tracts reserved for that purpose, and on these + the plant is found well in flower in September, and the seed fit to + gather in November or early in December. + +Two methods are pursued to extract the indigo from the plant; the +first effects it by fermentation of the fresh leaves and stems; the +second, by maceration of the dried leaves; the latter process being +most advantageous. They are thus described by Dr. Ure, in his +"Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures:"-- + + 1. _From the recent leaves._--In the indigo factories of Bengal, + there are two large stone-built cisterns, the bottom of the first + being nearly upon a level with the top of the second, in order to + allow the liquid contents to be run out of the one into the other. + The uppermost is called the fermenting vat, or the steeper; its + area is twenty feet square, and its depth three feet; the lowermost, + called the beater or beating vat, is as broad as the other, but + one-third longer. The cuttings of the plant, as they come from the + field, are stratified in the steeper, till this be filled within + five or six inches of its brim. In order that the plant, during its + fermentation, may not swell and rise out of the vat, beams of wood + and twigs of bamboo are braced tight over the surface of the plants, + after which water is pumped upon them till it stands within three or + four inches of the edge of the vessel. An active fermentation + speedily commences, which is completed within fourteen or fifteen + hours; a little longer or shorter, according to the temperature of + the air, the prevailing winds, the quality of the water, and the + ripeness of the plants. Nine or ten hours after the immersion of the + plant, the condition of the vat must be examined; frothy bubbles + appear, which rise like little pyramids, are at first of a white + colour, but soon become grey, blue, and then deep purple red. The + fermentation is at this time violent, the fluid is in constant + commotion, apparently boiling, innumerable bubbles mount to the + surface, and a copper colored dense scum covers the whole. As long + as the liquor is agitated, the fermentation must not be disturbed, + but when it becomes more tranquil, the liquor is to be drawn off + into the lower cistern. It is of the utmost consequence not to push + the fermentation too far, because the quality of the whole indigo is + deteriorated; but rather to cut it short, in which case there is, + indeed, a loss of weight, but the article is better. The liquor + possesses now a glistening yellow color, which, when the indigo + precipitates, changes to green. The average temperature of the + liquor is commonly 85 deg. Fahr.; its specific gravity at the + surface is 1.0015; and at the bottom 1.003. + + As soon as the liquor has been run into the lower cistern, ten men + are set to work to beat it with oars, or shovels four feet long, + called _busquets_. Paddle wheels have also been employed for the + same purpose. Meanwhile two other laborers clear away the + compressing beams and bamboos from the surface of the upper vat, + remove the exhausted plant, set it to dry for fuel, clean out the + vessel, and stratify fresh plants in it. The fermented plant appears + still green, but it has lost three-fourths of its bulk in the + process, or from twelve to fourteen per cent. of its weight, chiefly + water and extractive matter. + + The liquor in the lower vat must be strongly beaten for an hour and + a half, when the indigo begins to agglomerate in flocks, and to + precipitate. This is the moment for judging whether there has been + any error committed in the fermentation, which must be corrected by + the operation of beating. If the fermentation has been defective, + much froth rises in the beating, which must be allayed with a little + oil, and then a reddish tinge appears. If large round granulations + are formed, the beating is continued, in order to see if they will + grow smaller. If they become as small as fine sand, and if the water + clears up, the indigo is allowed quietly to subside. Should the vat + have been over-fermented, a thick fat-looking crust covers the + liquor, which does not disappear by the introduction of a flask of + oil. In such a case the beating must be moderated. Whenever the + granulations become round, and begin to subside, and the liquor + clears up, the beating must be discontinued. The froth or scum + diffuses itself spontaneously into separate minute particles, that + move about the surface of the liquor, which are marks of an + excessive fermentation. On the other hand, a rightly fermented vat + is easy to work; the froth, though abundant, vanishes whenever the + granulations make their appearance. The color of the liquor, when + drawn out of the steeper into the beater, is bright green; but as + soon as the agglomerations of the indigo commence, it assumes the + color of Madeira wine; and speedily afterwards, in the course of + beating, a small round grain is formed, which, on separating, makes + the water transparent, and falls down, when all the turbidity and + froth vanish. + + The object of the beating is three-fold; first, it tends to + disengage a great quantity of carbonic acid present in the liquor; + secondly, to give the newly-developed indigo its requisite dose of + oxygen by the most extensive exposure of its particles to the + atmosphere; thirdly, to agglomerate the indigo in distinct flocks or + granulations. In order to hasten the precipitation, lime water is + occasionally added to the fermented liquor in the progress of + beating, but it is not indispensable, and has been supposed capable + of deteriorating the indigo. In the front of the beater a beam is + fixed upright, in which three or more holes are pierced, a few + inches in diameter. These are closed with plugs during the beating, + but two or three hours after it, as the indigo subsides, the upper + plug is withdrawn to run off the supernatant liquor, and then the + lower plugs in succession. The state of this liquor being examined, + affords an indication of the success of both the processes. When the + whole liquor is run off, a laborer enters the vat, sweeps all the + precipitate into one corner, and enters the thinner part into a + spout which leads into a cistern, alongside of a boiler, twenty feet + long, three feet wide, and three feet deep. When all this liquor is + once collected, it is pumped through a bag, for retaining the + impurities, into the boiler, and heated to ebullition. The froth + soon subsides, and shows an oily looking film on the liquor. The + indigo is by this process not only freed from the yellow extractive + matter, but is enriched in the intensity of its color, and increased + in weight. From the boiler the mixture is run, after two or three + hours, into a general receiver called the _dripping vat_, or table, + which, for a factory of twelve pairs of preparation vats, is twenty + feet long, ten feet wide, and three feet deep, having a false bottom + two feet under the top edge. This cistern stands in a basin of + masonry (made water-tight with Chunam, hydraulic cement), the bottom + of which slopes to one end, in order to facilitate the drainage. A + thick woollen web is stretched along the bottom of the inner vessel, + to act as a filter. As long as the liquor passes through turbid, it + is pumped back into the receiver; whenever it runs clear, the + receiver is covered with another piece of cloth to exclude the dust, + and allowed to drain at its leisure. Next morning the drained magma + is put into a strong bag, and squeezed in a press. The indigo is + then carefully taken out of the bag, and cut with a brass wire into + bits, about three inches cube, which are dried in an airy house, + upon shelves of wicker work. During the drying a whitish + effloresence comes upon the pieces, which must be carefully removed + with a brush. In some places, particularly on the coast of + Coromandel, the dried indigo lumps are allowed to effloresce in a + cask for some time, and when they become hard they are wiped and + packed for exportation. + + 2. _Indigo from dried leaves._--The ripe plant being cropped, is to + be dried in sunshine from nine o'clock in the morning till four in + the afternoon, during two days, and threshed to separate the stems + from the leaves, which are then stored up in magazines till a + sufficient quantity he collected for manufacturing operations. The + newly dried leaves must be free from spots, and friable between the + fingers. When kept dry, the leaves undergo, in the course of four + weeks, a material change, their beautiful green tint turning into a + pale blue-grey, previous to which the leaves afford no indigo by + maceration in water, but subsequently a large quantity. Afterwards + the product becomes less considerable. + + The following process is pursued to extract indigo from the dried + leaves:--They are infused in the steeping vat with six times their + bulk of water, and allowed to macerate for two hours, with continual + stirring, till all the floating leaves sink. The fine green liquor + is then drawn off into the beater vat, for if it stood longer in the + steeper, some of the indigo would settle among the leaves and be + lost. Hot water, as employed by some manufacturers, is not + necessary. The process with dry leaves possesses this advantage, + that a provision of the plant may be made at the most suitable + times, independently of the vicissitudes of the weather, and the + indigo may be uniformly made; and, moreover, that the fermentation + of the fresh leaves, often capricious in its course, is superseded + by a much shorter period of simple maceration. + + PRODUCTION OF INDIGO IN INDIA. + + maunds. + + 1840 120,000 + 1841 162,318 + 1842 79,000 + 1843 143,207 + 1844 127,862 + 1845 127,862 + 1846 101,328 + 1847 110,000 + 1848 126,565 + 1849 126,000 + +Average of the ten years 126,744 maunds. + +The yield from the different districts in 1849, was nearly as +follows:-- + + maunds. + Bengal 84,500 + Tirhoot 24,500 + Benares 9,500 + Oude 6,500 + --------- + 125,000 + +In 1790 the general object of cultivation in Mauritius was indigo, of +which from four to five crops a year were procured. One person sent to +Europe 30,000 lbs., in 1789, of very superior quality. + +CEYLON.--Indigo, though indigenous in Ceylon, is still imported from +the adjoining continent, but its growth in this island would be +subject to none of the vicissitudes of climate, that in the course of +a single night have devastated the most extensive plantations in +Bengal, and annihilated the hopes and calculations of the planter at a +time when they had attained all the luxuriance of approaching +maturity. + +The district of Tangalle, in the southern province, is the best +adapted to the culture and manufacture of indigo for various reasons, +such as the abundance of the indigenous varieties of the plant, the +similarity of the climate to that of the coast of Coromandel, where +the best indigo is produced; facility of transport by water to either +of the ports of export, Galle or Colombo, during the south-east, or to +Trincomalee by the south-west monsoon; every necessary material is at +hand for building a first rate indigo factory, including drying yards, +leaf godowns (stores), steeping vats and presses, except roof and +floor tiles--which may be obtained in any quantity from Colombo, +during the south-west monsoon, at a moderate rate, compared with their +cost at home. + +In 1817 an offer was made to the Grovernment to introduce the +cultivation of indigo, on condition of a free grant of the land +required for the purpose and freedom from taxation for thirty years, +after which the usual tax was to be levied; and in case the +cultivation were abandoned, the land was to revert to the Crown. But +whether from the disturbed state of the colony at the time or from +incredulity on the part of the Government, as to the capability of the +colony in this respect, the application was unheeded. A subsequent +proposal, emanating from a Swedish gentleman of great ability, skill +and enterprise, was defeated by his death, although a company was on +the point of formation to carry out the scheme. It would not be +difficult, says Mr. Barrett, to select 500,000 acres, the property of +the Crown, which at a comparatively small expenditure might be brought +into a proper state of cultivation for the reception of indigo seed; +for very little would be required to be done beyond clearing the land +of weeds, burning the grass, and then lightly ploughing and levelling +the ground; and whenever manure might be requisite, the fecula of the +leaf affords one of the richest that could be employed. Ceylon +produces two other plants from which a very valuable blue dye may be +obtained by a similar process to that of making indigo. The Singhalese +head men of the Tangalle district have long been anxious for the +establishment of an indigo plantation there, and would readily take +shares in a company established for that purpose. Indigo would seem to +have been exported by the Dutch from Ceylon so late as 1794. The wild +varieties of indigo which grow on the sea-shore are used by the dobies +(_washermen_). + +Indigo grows in a wild state in Siam, and all the dye used in the +country is manufactured from these plants. The extensive low grounds +are admirably suited for the cultivation of this plant. + +A large quantity is raised in Manila, but I have no full details of +the cultivation in the Philippines. However, in the first six months +of 1843, 1,039 piculs of indigo were shipped to Europe, and about 650 +to other quarters--equal in all to about 226,000 lbs. in the half +year. In the year 1847 the exports of indigo were 30,631 arrobas, +equal to about 7,658 cwt.; in 1850 the total exports from Manila were +4,225 quintals. + +JAVA.--The cultivation of indigo was introduced into Java in the time +of the company. It was so much neglected during the administration of +Governor Daendels, that the exportation ceased. It however revived +subsequently, and in 1823 the exports were close upon 17,000 lbs. In +1826 it had risen to 46,000 lbs. In the single province of Westbaglen, +about 60 square miles in extent, 86 indigo factories were established +in the course of seven or eight years. In 1839, the exports of this +dye-stuff from Java were 588,764 kilogrammes, valued at 71/2 million +francs. + +It has been found by experience that a good soil is essentially +necessary for the plant, and the indigo transplanted from elevated +grounds to the rice fields succeeds better and yields more coloring +matter than when raised direct on the spot from the seed. The +residencies of Cheribon, Baglen and Madura, are those in which the +crop succeeds best. From being so exhausting a crop, and finding it +prejudicial to their rice grounds, they are gradually abandoning +indigo culture in Java, and about two-thirds of the indigo plantations +have within the, last year or two been replaced with sugar. + +The value of the Java indigo is set down at 250 rupees (L25) per +maund. If this be the average price, and it cannot be manufactured +lower, Bengal has little to fear from Javanese competition. The +product of indigo rose from 276 maunds in 1825, to 28,000 in 1842, and +the quantity sold by the Dutch Trading Company in the last-named year +was 10,500 chests, of about the same dimensions as those usually +exported from Calcutta. + +Some further statistics of the culture in Java are shown in the +following returns of the quantity exported:-- + + lbs. + 1830 22,063 + 1835 535,753 + 1839 595,818 + 1841 913,693 + 1843 1,890,429 + 1851 769,580 + 1852 838,288 + +The produce in 1848 was 1,151,368 lbs. + + 1840. 1841. + Residencies in which this culture is introduced 9 10 + Number of factories 728 728 + Families occupied with this culture 197,085 192,159 + Extent of fields where the cutting has been made + in _bahas_ of 71 decametres 40,844 38,829 + Quantity of _bahus_ planted before the gathering 317 538 + Quantity of indigo crop in pounds 2,032,097 1,663,427 + " average pounds per _bahu_ 493/4 43 + +The extent of fields destined for the crop of 1842 was 37,970 bahus, +and the amount of the crop was calculated by approximation at +1,862,000. + +The gradual increase of the export in the eighteen years ending 1842, +is shown as follows:-- + + Maunds. + 1825 76 + 1826 126 + 1827 109 + 1828 310 + 1829 600 + 1830 480 + 1831 563 + 1832 2,213 + 1833 2,861 + 1834 3,310 + 1835 7,023 + 1836 5,365 + 1837 10,822 + 1838 9,788 + 1839 15,680 + 1840 27,946 + 1841 24,044 + 1842 28,000 + +Total imports of indigo into the United Kingdom, and quantity retained +for home consumption:-- + + Imports. Home consumption. + cwts. cwts. + 1848 59,127 9,032 + 1849 81,449 12,270 + 1850 70,482 16,374 + 1851 89,994 27,947 + 1852 83,565 16,381 + + + IMPORTS OF INDIGO. + Mexico and the ports + East Indies. of South America. + lbs. lbs. + 1831 6,996,062 ------ + 1832 6,196,080 66,363 + 1833 6,315,529 125,264 + 1834 3,595,697 64,638 + 1835 3,861,853 88,306 + 1836 7,218,991 198,003 + 1837 5,706,896 365,091 + 1838 6,578,352 142,739 + 1839 4,651,542 363,148 + 1840 6,940,192 124,766 + 1841 7,451,653 247,031 + 1842 8,931,112 155,003 + 1843 6,319,294 130,836 + + Entered for home consumption about two millions and a half pounds + annually. (" Parl. Returns No. 656, September 1843, and 426, + September 1844.") + +The consumption of indigo in Europe and North America in round +numbers, estimated from authentic sources, is thus set down by Mr. +Macculloch in 1849:-- + + chests. + In Great Britain for home consumption 9,820 + " France total for ditto 10,400 + " American ports from London and Liverpool 2,500 + " " Calcutta 700 + " " Holland, &c 400 + Other European countries export from London and Liverpool. 21,530 + " " Holland 4,270 + " " Calcutta 120 + " " France 300 + ---------- + 50,040 + + +MADDER. + +This substance, which is so extensively used in dyeing red, is the +product of the long slender roots of the _Rubia tinctorum_, a plant of +which there are several varieties. Our principal supplies of this +important article of commerce are obtained from Holland, Belgium, +France, Turkey, Spain, and the Balearic Isles, the Italian States, +India, and Ceylon. + +The plant is generally raised from seed, and requires three years to +come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in eighteen months +without injury to the quality; the quantity only is smaller. A rich +soil is necessary for its successful cultivation, and when the soil is +impregnated with alkaline matter, the root acquires a red color; in +other cases it is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, from the +long habit of using Dutch madder, which is of this color, but in +France the red sells at two francs per cwt. higher, being used for the +Turkey-red dye. Madder does not deteriorate by keeping, provided it be +kept dry. It contains three volatile coloring matters, madder purple, +orange, and red. The latter is in the form of crystals, having a fine +orange red color, and called Alizaine. This is the substance which +yields the Turkey-red dye. The chay root is employed in the East +Indies as a substitute for madder, and so is the root of _Morinda +citrifolia_, under the name of Sooranjee. + +Turkey madder roots realise about 30s. per cwt. About 1,100 tons are +annually shipped from Naples, worth about L30 per ton. + +Madder has become an article of great request, on account of the fine +scarlet color produced from its roots, and is so essential to dyers +and calico printers that without it they cannot carry on their +manufactures. It is cultivated extensively in Holland, from whence it +is imported in large quantities into both England and France, though +it is cultivated to some extent in both countries. It has also been +raised as a soiling crop, but the coloring matter is of so penetrating +and subtile a character, that the flesh, milk, and even the bones of +animals fed upon it are said to be tinged to a considerable degree +with it. The soils best adapted, and which should be selected for its +cultivation, are dry, fertile, and deep sandy loams; the roots are +long and fibrous, and descend to a depth of from two to three feet. It +may be propagated by seed, which, by some, is thought the best +method, but the more usual mode is by the division of, and +transplanting, the roots. The ground should be thoroughly and deeply +pulverised, clean, and well-manured for the preceding crop, that the +manure may be thoroughly rotted and incorporated with the soil: in +April or May the suckers will be fit for taking from the older +plantations--those of two or three years producing the best. The sets +should have roots four or five inches long. Mark out rows two feet +apart, with a line, and set the plant with a dibble, one foot apart in +the rows. The roots should be dipped in a puddle of fine rich earth +and water, beaten to the consistence of cream, previous to planting; +let the crown of the plant be clearly over ground, and secure the +earth well around the root, to keep out drought. The plantation +requires nothing more but to be kept perfectly clean and well-hoed +during the summer months; and after the top decays in the autumn, to +be earthed up by the plough for the winter, each year, till the plants +are three years old, when they are of the proper size and age for +lifting, which must be done by trenching the land two feet +deep--several hands accompanying the digger to pick out the roots, +which must be thoroughly cleaned and dried on a kiln till they are so +brittle as to break across, when they are fit to be packed in bags, +and sold to the dye-stuff manufacturers who grind and reduce them to +powder for use. The produce is variable; usually from eight to twenty +cwt. per acre, but as much as 3,000 to 6,000 lbs. is frequently +obtained. The forage amounts to about 15,000 lbs. the first year, and +7,500 lbs. the second year. In a new and good soil manure may be +dispensed with for the first crop. Some cultivators interline and grow +other crops between the rows, but the best cultivators state that such +a practice is objectionable. The breadth of land under this crop in +England is much reduced, in consequence of the reduction in price from +the competition of the Dutch growers. + +Madder is extensively grown on the central table land of Afghanistan, +forming one of the leading products of Beloochistan.; and, according +to Mr. Pottinger, it sells in the Kelat Bazaar at about 10 lbs. for +2s. The cultivation there pursued is as follows:--The ground is +repeatedly ploughed, and laid out finally in small trenches, in which +the seed is sown, covered slightly with earth, and then the whole is +flooded. Whilst thus irrigated, the trenches are filled with a mixture +of rich manure and earth. The plants appear in about ten days, and +attain a height of three or four feet during the first summer. They +are cut down in September and used as fodder for cattle. Subsequently, +and until spring arrives, the ground is manured and repeatedly +flooded. During the second year's growth, the plants which are +intended to produce seed are set apart, but the stems of the remainder +are cut every four or six weeks, in order to increase the size and +goodness of the roots. + +Madder is said to repay a nett profit of 200 dollars to the acre, +when properly managed. It produced on the farm of a gentleman, who +has devoted some attention to this product in Ohio, at the rate of +2,000 lbs. per acre, and it may be made to produce 3,000 lbs., which +is a greater yield than the average crops of Germany and Holland. Nine +acres were planted by another person in the United States, in 1839, +which he harvested in 1842. The labor required is said to be from 80 +to 100 days work per acre. + +In the third year the stems are pruned as in the two preceding, and in +September the roots are dug up. The roots are fusiform and thin, +without any ramifications, and usually from three to five feet long. +As soon as raised, they are immediately cut into small pieces and +dried, and are then merchantable. + +Mr. Joseph Swift, an enterprising American farmer, of Erie county, +Ohio, who occupies about 400 acres of choice land, mostly alluvial, in +the valley of the Vermilion river, seven miles from Lake Erie, has +detailed his practice in the "New Genesee Farmer" (an agricultural +periodical), for March, 1843. His directions must be understood as +intended for those who wish to cultivate only a few acres, and cannot +afford much outlay of capital. Those who desire to engage in the +business on an extensive scale, would need to adopt a somewhat +different practice:-- + + _Soil and preparation._--" The soil should be a deep, rich, sandy + loam, free from weeds, roots, stones, &c., containing a good portion + of vegetable earth. Alluvial "bottom" land is the most suitable, but + it must not be wet. If old upland is used, it should receive a heavy + coating of vegetable earth, from decayed wood and leaves. The land + should be ploughed very deep in the fall, and early in the spring + apply about one hundred loads of well-rotted manure per acre, spread + evenly, and ploughed in deeply; then harrow till quite fine and free + from lumps. Next plough the land into beds four feet wide, leaving + alleys between three feet wide, then harrow the beds with a fine + light harrow, or rake them by hand, so as to leave them smooth and + even with the alleys; they are then ready for planting. + + _Preparing sets and planting._--Madder sets or seed roots are best + selected when the crop is dug in the fall. The horizontal uppermost + roots (with eyes) are the kind to be used; these should be separated + from the bottom roots, and buried in sand in a cellar or pit. If not + done in the fall, the sets may be dug early in the spring, before + they begin to sprout. They should be cut or broken into pieces, + containing from two to five eyes each; _i.e._, three to four inches + long. The time for planting is as early in the spring as the ground + can be got in good order, and severe frosts are over, which in this + climate (America) is usually about the middle of April. With the + beds prepared as directed, stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and + with the corner of a hoe make a drill two inches deep along each + edge and down the middle, so as to give three rows to each bed, + about two feet apart. Into these drills drop the sets, ten inches + apart, covering them two inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of sets + are requisite for an acre. + + _After culture._--As soon as the madder plants can be seen, the + ground should be carefully hoed, so as to destroy the weeds and not + injure the plants; and the hoeing and weeding must be repeated as + often as weeds make their appearance. If any of the sets have failed + to grow, the vacancies should be filled by talking up parts of the + strongest roots and transplanting them; this is best done in June. + As soon as the madder plants are ten or twelve inches high, the tops + are to be bent down on the surface of the ground, and all except the + tip end covered with earth, shovelled from the middle of the alleys. + Bend the shoots outward and inward in every direction, so as in time + to fill all the vacant space on the beds, and about one foot on each + side. After the first time covering, repeat the weeding when + necessary, and run a single horse plough through the alleys several + times to keep the earth clean and mellow. As soon as the plants + again become ten or twelve inches high, bend down and cover them as + before, repeating the operation as often as necessary, which is + commonly three times the first season. The last time may be as late + as September, or later if no frosts occur. By covering the tops in + this manner, they change to roots, and the design is to fill the + ground as full of roots as possible. When the vacant spaces are all + full, there is but little chance for weeds to grow; but all that + appear must be pulled out. + + _The second year._--Keep the beds free from weeds; plough the alleys + and cover the tops, as before directed, two or three times during + the season. The alleys will now form deep and narrow ditches, and if + it becomes difficult to obtain good earth for covering the tops, + that operation may be omitted after the second time this season. + Care should be taken, when covering the tops, to keep the edges of + the beds as high as the middle; otherwise the water from heavy + showers will run off, and the crop suffer from drought. + + _The third year._--Very little labor or attention is required. They + will now cover the whole ground. If any weeds are seen, they must be + pulled out; otherwise their roots will cause trouble when harvesting + the madder. The crop is sometimes dug the third year; and if the + soil and cultivation have been good, and the seasons warm and + favorable, the madder will be of a good quality; but generally it is + much better in quality, and more in quantity, when left until the + fourth year. + + _Digging and harvesting._--This should be done between the 20th of + August and the 20th of September. Take a sharp shovel or shovels, + and cut off and remove the tops with half an inch of the surface of + the earth; then take a plough of the largest size, with a sharp + coulter and a double team, and plough a furrow outward, beam-deep, + around the edge of the bed; stir the earth with forks, and carefully + pick out all the roots, removing the earth from the bottom of the + furrow; then plough another furrow beam-deep, as before, and pick + over and remove the earth in the same manner; thus proceeding until + the whole is completed. + + _Washing and drying._--As soon as possible after digging, take the + roots to some running stream to be washed. If there is no running + stream convenient, it can be done at a pump. Take large round + sieves, two-and-a-half or three feet in diameter, with the wire + about as fine as wheat sieves; or if these cannot be had, get from a + hardware store sufficient screen wire of the right fineness, and + make frames or boxes, two-and-a-half feet long and the width of the, + wire, on the bottom of which nail the wire. In these sieves or + boxes, put half a bushel of roots at a time, and stir them about in + the water, pulling the branches apart so as to wash them clean; + then, having a platform at hand, lay them onto dry. (To make the + platform, take two or three common boards, so as to be about four + feet in width, and nail deals across the under side). On these + spread the roots about two inches thick for drying in the sun. Carry + the platforms to a convenient place, not far from the house, and + place them side by side, in rows east and west, and with their ends + north and south, leaving room to walk between the rows. Elevate the + south ends of the platforms about eighteen inches, and the north + ends about six inches from the ground, putting poles or sticks to + support them--this will greatly facilitate drying. After the second + or third day's drying, the madder must be protected from the dews at + night, and from rain, by placing the platforms one upon another to a + convenient height, and covering the uppermost one with board. Spread + them out again in the morning, or as soon as danger is over. Five or + six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the madder + sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is convenient to + kiln-dry and grind it. + + _Kiln-drying,_--The size and mode of constructing the kiln may be + varied to suit circumstances. The following is a very cheap plan, + and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at a time. Place four strong + posts in the ground, twelve feet apart one way, and eighteen the + other; the front two fourteen feet high, and the other eighteen; put + girts across the bottom, middle, and top, and nail boards + perpendicularly on the outside as for a common barn. The boards + must be well seasoned, and all cracks or holes should be plastered + or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed-roof of common boards. In the + inside put upright standards about five feet apart, with + cross-pieces to support the scaffolding. The first cross-pieces to + be four feet from the floor; the next two feet higher, and so on to + the top. On these cross-pieces lay small poles, about six feet long + and two inches thick, four or fire inches apart. On these scaffolds + the madder is to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid at the + bottom to keep all dry and clean. When the kiln is filled, take six + or eight small kettles or hand-furnaces, and place them four or five + feet apart on the floor (first securing it from fire with bricks or + stones), and make fires in them with charcoal, being careful not to + make any of the fires so large as to scorch the madder over them. A + person must be in constant attendance to watch and replenish the + fires. The heat will ascend through the whole, and in ten or twelve + hours it will all be sufficiently dried, which is known by its + becoming brittle like pipe stems. + + _Breaking and grinding._--Immediately after being dried, the madder + must be taken to the barn and threshed with flails, or broken by + machinery (a mill might easily be constructed for this purpose), so + that it will feed in a common grist-mill. If it is not broken and + ground immediately, it will gather dampness so as to prevent its + grinding freely. Any common grist-mill can grind madder properly. + When ground finely it is fit for use, and may be packed in barrels + like flour for market. + + _Amount and value of product, &c._--Mr. Swift measured off a part of + his ground, and carefully weighed the product when dried, which he + found to be over two thousand pounds per acre, notwithstanding the + seasons were mostly dry and unfavorable. With his present knowledge + of the business, he is confident that he can obtain at least three + thousand pounds per acre, which is said to be more than is often + obtained in Germany. The whole amount of labor he estimates at from + eighty to one hundred days' work per acre. The value of the crop, at + the usual wholesale price (about fifteen cents per pound), from + three to four hundred dollars. In foreign countries it is customary + to make several qualities of the madder, which is done by sorting + the roots; but as only one quality is required for the western + market, Mr. Swift makes but one, and that is found superior to most + of the imported, and finds a ready sale. + +Madder is produced in Middle Egypt to some extent, for the consumption +of the country, principally for dyeing the _tarbouche_ or skull caps +which are universally worn. Its culture was introduced in 1825. In +1833, 300 acres in Upper Egypt, and 500 in the Delta and the Kelyout, +were devoted to madder roots. + +New South Wales is eminently suited to the culture of this valuable +root, and as the profits upon its cultivation are very large, I would +strongly recommend it to the attention of agriculturists there. The +article produces to France an annual sum of one million sterling; the +price of the finest quality in the English market being L60 per ton. +Its yield varies from L40 to L50 per acre, and the expenses upon its +proper culture should not exceed one-half that amount. The colonists +would find it to their interest to turn their attention to such +articles as this, for which there is an extensive demand at home, +instead of confining themselves exclusively to the commoner and +bulkier products, which they export at a much less profit, and which +when once the market is fully supplied, may fall to a price at which +they cannot afford to sell. + +The following is a calculation of the expenses generally supposed to +attend a crop according to the mode of cultivation practised in +Vaucluse:-- + + Rent per hectare (21/2 English acres), 3 years, at L s. d. + 165 francs 19 17 6 + Manure, 440 francs L17 12 6 + Carriage of ditto, 132 francs 3 5 10 + --------- 22 18 4 + --------- + L42 15 10 + +These expenses may almost be dispensed with in our colonies, as the +soil at Vaucluse has long been exhausted. + + Two and a-half acres require 170 lbs. seed, at 21/2d. per pound, + which, with the labor afterwards bestowed, including the + cost of spade trenching, will be 30 0 0 + --------- + L72 15 10 + +The average produce per hectare is 77 cwt., which, at L1 4s. 2d. per +cwt. (the price on the spot), is L93. The price is now much lower, but +still it is clear a most profitable return would be derived from the +first crop, and a proportionably larger one afterwards. + +A considerable portion of the madder roots, instead of being ground +and exported in that form, as heretofore, is now exposed, after being +invested with dilute sulphuric acid, to a boiling heat by means of +steam, by which the coloring matter is considerably altered and +improved in quality for some dyeing processes, while the quantity +rendered soluble in water is greatly increased. The madder so prepared +is known as "garancine," and forms an important branch of manufacture +in the south of France, which was well illustrated at the Great +Exhibition in 1851, by a collection of specimens supplied by the +Chamber of Commerce of Avignon. The spent madder, after being used in +dyeing, is now also converted by Mr. H. Steiner, of Accrington, into a +garancine (termed _garanceuse_ by the French) by steaming it with +sulphuric acid in the same manner as the fresh madder, and thus a +considerable quantity of coloring matter is recovered and made +available which was formerly thrown away in the spent madder. Both +varieties of garancine give a more scarlety red than the unprepared +madder, and also good chocolate and black, without soiling the white +ground, but are not so well fitted, particularly the garancine of +spent madder, for dyeing purples, lilacs, and pinks. The value of the +garancine imported from France in 1848 was L59,554, and of that +imported in 1851 L93,818. This preparation of ground madder is +imported into Liverpool to the extent of from 500 to 600 tons annually +from Marseilles, for the use of calico printers in the manufacturing +districts. The price is L7 to L8 the ton. + +This important root is already cultivated to a considerable extent in +Russia but not nearly in sufficient quantity to meet the local demand; +so that large quantities are imported from Holland and elsewhere, +every year. + +The quantity of madder, madder-root, and garaneine annually imported +into the United Kingdom is exceedingly large, over 15,000 tons, as is +shown by a reference to the following figures:-- + + Madder. Madder roots. Garancine. Total. + cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. + 1848 81,261 139,463 5,955 276,679 + 1849 92,736 161,986 4,969 259,691 + 1850 100,248 161,613 5,845 267,706 + 1851 92,925 202,091 9,382 304,398 + 1852 84,385 179,813 ---- ---- + +We imported from France, duty free, the following:-- + + Madder. Official value. Madder-root. + cwts. L cwts. L + 1848 54,084 122,851 25,068 70,749 + 1849 57,108 131,059 23,459 81,274 + 1850 54,559 123,628 13,693 55,263 + 1851 65,577 151,502 34,017 167,721 + +The price in the Liverpool market, in June 1853, for Bombay +madder-roots was L1 18s. to L2 14s. the cwt. + +INDIAN MADDER.--_Rubia cordifolia_, or _Munjestha_, a variety with +white flowers, a native of Siberia, is cultivated largely in the East, +particularly about Assam, Nepaul, Bombay, Scinde, Quitta, China, &c., +for its dye-stuff, and is known as Munjeet. A small quantity is +exported from China and India; about 338 Indian maunds were shipped +from Calcutta in 1840, and 2,328 in 1841. It fetches in the London and +Liverpool markets from 20s. to 25s. and 30s. per cwt., duty free; 405 +tons were imported into Liverpool from Bombay and Calcutta, in 1849, +and 525 tons in 1850, but none was imported in 1851 and 1852. + +It was remarked by the Jury in 1851, at the Great Exhibition, that +this is a valuable dye-stuff, and hitherto not so well appreciated as +it deserves, for some of the colors dyed with it are quite as +permanent as those dyed with madder, and even more brilliant. Its use +however is gradually increasing, and it is unquestionably well worthy +the attention of dyers. + +LOGWOOD.--The logwood of commerce is the red heart wood, or duramen, +of a fine lofty growing tree (_Haematroxylon Campechianum_), growing +in Campeachy and the bay of Honduras, and which is also now common in +the woods of Jamaica and St. Domingo. It is principally imported as a +dye wood, cut into short lengths. We chip, grind, and pack it into +casks and bags, ready for the dyers, hatters, and printers' use, who +esteem it as affording the most durable deep red and black dyes. It is +sometimes used in medicine as an astringent. That grown in Jamaica is +least valued that of Honduras, Tobasco, and St. Domingo, fetches a +somewhat higher price; but that imported from Campeachy direct, is the +most esteemed. The annual imports into Liverpool are about 1,300 tons +from Honduras, 100 from Tobasco, and 1,800 from Campeachy. + +It thrives best in a damp tenacious soil, with a small proportion of +sand. It is imported in logs, which are afterwards chipped, and is of +great commercial importance from its valuable dyeing properties. Old +wood is preferred; it is so hard as almost to be indestructible by +the atmosphere. The albumen is of a yellowish color, and is not +imported. The bark and wood are slightly astringent. The imports of +logwood into the United Kingdom, were 23,192 tons in 1848, 23,996 tons +in 1849, and 34,090 tons in 1850, of which 3,484 tons were re-exported +in 1848, and 2,307 tons in 1849. The imports in the past two years of +1852 and 1853, have averaged 20,000 tons, of which about 3,000 tons +were re-exported. It is increasing in use, for in 1837, the quantity +retained for home use was only 14,6771/2 tons. The price varies +according to quality from L4 to L7 per ton. + +We received from Honduras 5,401 tons in 1844; and 55,824 tons in 1845. +From Montego Bay, Jamaica, 398 tons were shipped between January and +July 1851. + +FUSTIC.--This is the common name of a species of dye wood in extensive +use, which is obtained from _Maclura tinctoria_, or _Broussonitia +tinctoria_, Kunth, a large and handsome evergreen tree, growing in +South America and the West Indies. The wood is extensively used as an +ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, and is largely imported for that +purpose. The quantity entered for home consumption in the United +Kingdom was 1,731 tons in 1847, 1,653 in 1848, and 1,842 tons in 1849. + +Ninety-one tons were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in the first +six months of 1851. + +QUERCITRON.---This bark furnishes a yellow dye, of which about 3,500 +tons are annually imported in hogsheads of from half a ton to a ton. +296 tons were imported into Liverpool from Philadelphia in 1849, and +514 tons in 1850. + +BRAZIL WOOD.--This very ponderous wood is obtained in Brazil from the +_Caesalpina Braziliensis_, which yields a red or crimson dye, when +united with alum or tartar, and is used by silk dyers. It is imported +principally from Pernambuco, 1,200 quintals having been shipped to +London in 1835, but about 500 tons, worth about L4 a ton, were +imported from Costa Rica in 1845. + +The tree is large, crooked, and knotty, and the bark is thick, and +equals the third or fourth of its diameter. + +The imports may be stated at about 600 tons annually, the average +price being L50 per ton. + +Brazil wood is found in the greatest abundance and of the best +quality, in the Province of Pernambuco, but being a government +monopoly it has been cut down in so improvident a manner, that it is +now seldom seen within several leagues of the coast. + +Among the Cuba dye woods is Copey _(Clusia rosea_, Linn). + +Braziletto, obtained from _C. Crista_, is one of the cheapest and +least esteemed of the red dye woods, imported from Jamaica and other +West India islands to the extent of 150 tons per annum, fetching L6 to +L8 per ton. 2,361 tons of Nicaragua wood were imported in 1848, 2,701 +tons in 1849, and 6,130 tons in 1850. + +Spain exhibited various vegetable dyes obtained from cultivated and +wild plants furnished by the Agricultural Board of Saragossa. + + +LICHENS. + +The chief lichens employed in the manufacture of orchil and cudbear +are the following:-- + +Angola weed (_Ramalina furfuracea_). + +Mauritius weed (_Rocella fusiformis_), which comes also from +Madagascar, Lima, and Valparaiso, and then bears the distinctive +commercial name of the port of shipment. + +Cape weed (_Rocella tinctoria_), from the Cape de Verd Islands. + +Canary Moss (_Parmelia perlata_). + +Tartareous Moss (_Parmelia tartarea_). + +Pustulatus Moss (_Umbilicaria pustulata_). + +Velvet Moss (_Gyrophora murina_). + +The last three are imported from Sweden. + +Of these lichens, the first, which is the richest in coloring matter, +grows as a parasite upon trees; all the remainder upon rocks. + +_Rocella corallina_, _Variolaris lactea_ and _dealbata_, have been +also resorted to. + +About 130 tons of cudbear are imported annually from Sweden. + +These lichens are found on rocks, on the sea coast. The modes, of +treating them for the manufacture of the different dyes is the same in +principle, though varying slightly in detail. They are carefully +cleaned and ground into a pulp with water, an ammoniacal liquor is +from time to time added, and the mass constantly stirred in order to +expose it as much as possible to the air. Peculiar substances existing +in these plants are, during this process, so changed by the combined +action of the atmosphere, water, and ammonia, as to generate the +coloring matter, which, when perfect, is pressed out, and gypsum, +chalk, or other substances, are then added, so as to give it the +desired consistency; these are then prepared for the market under the +forms of cudbear or litmus. + +HENNA (_Lawsonia inermis_), is an important dye-stuff, and the +distilled water of the flowers is used as a perfume. The Mahomedan +women in India use the shoots for dyeing their nails red, and the same +practice prevails in Arabia. In these countries the manes and tails of +the horses are stained red in the same manner. The _Genista tomentosa_ +yields red petals used in dyeing, and containing much tannic acid. + +ORCHILLA WEED.--The fine purple color which the orchilla weed yields, +is in use as an agent for coloring, staining, and dyeing. About 30,000 +lbs. is obtained annually in the island of Teneriffe. 460 arrobas (or +115 cwt.) of orchilla were exported from the Canary Isles in 1833. In +1839, 6,494 cwts. paid duty, and 4,175 cwts. in 1840. The average +imports of the three years ending with 1842, was 6,050 cwt. A little +comes in from Barbary and the islands of the Archipelago. + +Dr. W.L. Lindley, in a very interesting paper, read before the +Botanical Society of London, in December, 1852, on the dyeing +properties of the lichens, stated-- + + The subject of the _colorific_ and _coloring_ principles of the + lichen has, within the last few years, attracted a due share of that + attention which, has been increasingly devoted to organic chemistry. + Since 1830, Heeren, Kane, Schunck, Rochleder and Heldt, Knop, + Stenhouse, Laurent and Gerhardt, have published valuable papers on + these principles; but, here again, we have to regret the great + discrepancy in the various results obtained, and there is therefore, + here also, imperatively demanded re-investigation and correction + before _any_ of the results already published can he implicitly + relied upon, and before we can have safe data from which to + generalise. I have no doubt that a great proportion of the obscurity + overhanging this subject depends on the circumstance that many of + the chemists, who have devoted attention to the color-educts and + products of the lichens, were not themselves botanists, and have + therefore probably, in some cases at least, analysed species under + erroneous names, and also because their investigations have + comprehended a much too limited number of species. + + Their utility in the arts, and especially in dyeing--including the + collection of a series of the commercial dye lichens, _i.e._, those + used by the manufacturers of London, &c., in the making of orchil, + cudbear, litmus, and other lichen dyes. While investigating the + dyeing properties of the lichens, I made experiments, with a view to + test their colorific power, on as many species as I could obtain in + sufficient quantity, to render it at all useful to operate on--that + number, however, being very limited (between forty and fifty). + + Dr. Lindley adds, many parties may be able to aid his + investigations, by furnishing information on their economic uses, + and on their special applications in dyeing and other + arts--(particularly on their employment, as dye agents, by the + natives of Britain and other countries)--with specimens of the + lichens so used, and their common names--specimens of fabrics dyed + therewith--notes of the processes employed for the elimination of + the dyes, &c. Parties resident in, or travelling through our western + Highlands and Islands, the northern Highlands, Ireland, Wales, + Norway, Iceland, and similar countries, are most likely to be able + to afford this description of information--many native lichens being + still used by the peasantry of these countries to dye their homespun + yarn, &c. + + He proceeded to treat--1. The vast importance of this humble tribe + of plants in the grand economy of nature, as the pioneers and + founders of _all_ vegetation. 2. Their importance to man and the + lower animals, as furnishing various articles of food. 3. Their + importance in medicine, and especially in its past history, at home + and abroad. 4. Their importance in the useful and fine arts, and + especially in the art of dyeing. 5. Their affinities and analogies + to other cryptogamic families, and to the Phanerogamia. 6. Their + value as an element of the picturesque in nature; and, 7. Their + typical significance. + + He then adverted more especially to the subject of his + communication, under the ten following heads:-- + + I. The colors of the Thallus and apothecia of Lichens--their causes, and + the circumstances which modify and alter them. + + II. History of the application of their coloring matters to the art of dyeing. + + III. Chemical nature and general properties of these coloring matters. + + IV. Tests and processes for estimating qualitatively, and quantitatively the + colorific powers of individual species--with their practical applications. + + V. Processes of manufacture of the Lichen-dyes, on the large and small + scale in different countries--with the principles on which they are founded. + + VI. Nomenclature of the dye-Lichens, and of the Lichen-dyes. + + VII. Botanical and commercial sources of the same. + +VIII. Special applications of the Lichen-dyes in the arts. + + IX. Commercial value of the dye-Lichens, and their products. + + X. Geographical distribution of the dye-Lichens--with the effect of climate; + situation, &c., on their colorific materials. + + Of the four first sections of his paper, the following is a very + short summary or synopsis:-- + + Under the first head, the author spoke of chlorophylle and various + organic and inorganic substances, which enter into the formation of + the colors of the thallus and apothecia of lichens, and of the + modifications of these colors depending on various degrees of--1. + Exposure to air and light. 2. Temperature. 3. Moisture, &c. 4. + Atmospheric vicissitudes. 5. Season of the year. 6. Nature of the + Gonidic reproduction (_i.e._, gemmation). 7. Nature of habitat. 8. + Organic decomposition. 9. Coalescence of parts, monstrosities, &c. + + Under the second section, he traced historically the manufacture of + Lichen-dyes, and the native use of Lichens as dye agents, among + different nations, from the times of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and + Pliny, down to the present day, sketching briefly the ancient end + modern history of orchil, cudbear, and litmus, and specifying the + native use of lichen-dyes in different, countries of Europe, Asia, + and America. He alluded more particularly to their application to + the dyeing of yarns, &c., by the Scotch Highlanders, under the name + of "_Crottles_." "The process of the manufacture of the various + crottles, generally consisted in macerating the powdered lichen for + two or three weeks, in stale urine, exposing the mass freely to the + air by repeated stirring, and adding lime, salt, alum, or + argillaceous and other substances, either to heighten the color or + impart consistence. To such an extent did this custom at one time + prevail, that, in several of our northern counties each farm and + cottage had its tank or barrel of putrefying urine, a homely but + perfectly efficient mode of generating the necessary amount of + ammonia. In the county of Aberdeen, in particular, every homestead + had its reservoir of "Graith,"[53] and the "Lit-pig,"[54] which + stood by every fireside, was as familiar an article of furniture in + the cots of the peasantry, as the "cuttie-stool," or the "meal + girnel." So lately as 1841 (and I presume the practice continues to + the present day), Mr. Edmonston stated that, of four or five native + dyes, used by the Shetlanders to color cloth and yarns, two at least + were furnished by lichens, viz., a _brown dye_ from _Parmelia + saxatilis_, under the name of "Scrottyie," and a _red_ one from + _Lecanora tartarea_, under that of "Korkalett." It is very probable, + however, that steam and free trade have gradually dispelled this + good old custom, even in the remoter corners of our island; + machinery-made articles being now readily supplied, at a rate so + extraordinarily cheap, as to render it absolutely expensive (as to + time, if not also as to money) to prepare colors, even by a process + so simple and inexpensive as that just mentioned." + + Under the third head, he examined, in a general way, the chemistry + of the colorific and coloring matters of the lichens and the results + to which it has led, avoiding as much as possible the technicalities + inseparable from such a subject, and giving a short _vise_ of the + researches of Heeren, Kane, Rochleder, and Heldt, Stenhouse, + Schunck, Laurent, and Gerhardt, and others. "Our untaught senses + should undoubtedly lead us to expect the lichens, whose thallus + exhibits the brightest tints, to yield the finest dyes, and these, + too, of a color similar to that of the thallus, but experience + teaches us that the beautiful reddish or purplish coloring-matters + are producible in the greatest abundance by the very species from + which we should least expect to derive any, viz., in those most + devoid of external color. This, though at first sight very + remarkable, is easily explicable, when we remember that, in most of + the so-called dye-lichens, colorific principles exist in a colorless + form, and only become converted into colored substances under a + peculiar combination of circumstances. + + "Some lichens contain coloring matters, ready formed, and these + exhibit themselves in the tint of the thallus of the plants, _e.g._ + chrysophanic [or parietinic] acid in _Parmelia parietina_, and + vulpinic acid in _Evernia vulpina_. In other species we find + principles, which, while in the plant, and unacted on by chemical + re-agents, are colorless, but which, when the lichens are exposed to + the combined influence of atmospheric air, water, and ammonia, yield + colored substances. This series of colored products is usually + comprehended more for convenience sake than on account of chemical + identity, under the generic term orceine." + + The whole subject of the chemistry of these bodies is at present in + a most unsatisfactory condition, demanding fresh investigation and + research, in illustration of which, the author exhibited tables of + the colorific and coloring principles, so far as they are at present + known, showing their chemical formulae and the authority therefor, + and various relative information. "It is highly probable that when + the chemistry of the lichens has been more fully studied, and the + whole subject of their color-educts and products better understood, + we shall begin to reduce the present confused mass of complex + substances, and find the same principles more extensively diffused + through different lichen species." Dr. L. entered somewhat minutely + on the chemical reactions of the better known colorific and coloring + principles, and their derivatives, so far at least as these throw + any light on the production and transmutation of the red or purple + colors extracted from what may be termed _par excellence_, the + _dye-lichens_. After a few remarks on the chemical constitution of + orchil and litmus, as given by Kane, Gelis, Pereira, and others, he + discussed the subject of decolorisation of weak infusions of orchil + and litmus by exclusion of atmospheric air, and by various + deoxidising agents, and the different theories as to the causation + of this phenomenon. "I have repeatedly had occasion to notice that, + when weak infusions of these substances are excluded for some time + from atmospheric air, in a bottle, with a tightly fitting cork, they + gradually lose color, but rapidly regain it on re-exposure. It is + curious that both orchil and litmus are what are called transient or + false colors, _i.e._, they slowly lose their bloom and tint by long + exposure to the atmosphere; the coloring matter, therefore, appears + to be decolorised both by exposure to, and exclusion from the air, + phenomena apparently of very opposite characters. The cause of the + latter phenomenon has never, so far as I am aware, been quite + satisfactorily explained; but it has been variously supposed to be + due:-- + + 1. To the mere negation of oxygen. + + 2. To the development, in the liquids, of various substances, + capable of exerting a decolorising influence on the coloring matter. + + 3. To deoxidation of the coloring matter by substances, which have a + great tendency to become oxidised or peroxised; _e.g._ hydrogen, in + the case of decolorisation by sulphuretted hydrogen, nascent + hydrogen, and the protoxides of iron and tin, &c. + + 4. To the fixation of an additional amount of hydrogen in a new + colorless body, formed by the union of the sulphuretted hydrogen or + other substances with the coloring matter of the liquid. This view + is chiefly supported by Kane, who says, "that precisely as the + coloring matters combine with water, to form different shades of + red-colored bodies--with ammonia to produce a series of bodies, + which are blue and purple--so they combined with sulphuretted + hydrogen to form colorless compounds in solution, which, if solid, + very probably would be white." He supposes, in a word, that for + every colored substance existing in orchil and litmus, there is a + corresponding white one, producible by the action of sulphuretted + hydrogen, &c.; and, in proof of this theory, he mentions having + obtained from Azolitmine and Betaorceine colorless bodies, to which + he gave the respective names of Leuco-litmine and Leuco-orceine. + + The author then gave a short summary of Dr. Westring's experiments + on the dyeing powers of the Swedish lichens, which he found might be + conveniently divided into four classes, according to the degree of + heat employed in their maceration, viz.:-- + + 1. Lichens, whose coloring matter was easily extractable by _cold_ + water alone. + + 2. Those which required for the elimination of their coloring + matter, maceration in _tepid_ water (_i.e._ below 258 degs. Swedish + thermometer). + + 3. Those which required maceration in _warm_ water (_i.e._between 50 + and 60 degs. Swedish thermometer). + + 4. Those requiring _boiling_ water alone, or with the aid of + solvents. + + "It must be admitted that our knowledge of the true nature of the + colorofic and coloring principles of the lichens is, as yet, very + imperfect and confused, and one great cause of the dubity and + obscurity overhanging the subject, is the fact that different + analysts have arrived at most opposite results, even in the + examination of the same species. For instance, in _Rocella + tinctoria_, which has, of all the dye-Lichens, been most frequently + selected for analytical investigation, on account of its important + product orchil, the discrepancies between the results obtained are + very striking. In it Heeren discovered his _Erythrine_; Kane his + _Erythriline_; Schunk his _Erythric acid_; and Stenhouse three + different substances in as many varieties of the plant; all of these + bodies differing more or less from each other in composition and + properties (at least, if we are to assume, as correct, the + descriptions given of them by their respective discoverers"). + + "I have already hinted that there is no ratio between the external + and internal color or structure of a lichen, and the kind or amount + of coloring matter it will be found to yield. It is exceedingly + natural to suppose that such a ratio should exist; but, proceeding + for some time on this supposition, I was frequently disappointed in + my results--the most showy and brilliantly colored lichens often + furnishing the dullest and most worthless colors. For instance, the + bright yellow thallus of _Parmelia parietina_, and the beautiful + scarlet apothecia of _Scyphophorus cocciferus_, instead of producing + a rich yellow in the one case, and a deep crimson in the other, + yielded, respectively, only dirty greenish-yellow and brownish + colors. As a general rule I should almost be inclined to say that + the finer the color of the thallus of any given lichen, the more is + that lichen to be suspected of poverty in valuable coloring matters; + and that, on the other hand, the palest pulverulent or crustaceous + species, especially such as are saxicolous, may be expected to yield + the most beautiful and valuable pigments (_e.g._ the Rocellas and + Lecanoras). In such circumstances it is necessary to have some test, + of easy applicability, of the kind and amount of colorific + properties of any lichen, and this fortunately is readily + attainable." + + The fourth section of the paper was devoted to the consideration of + the various tests of colorific power, which have been recommended by + different authors. "Of these, the greater number proceed on the + principle of developing the coloring matter by some alkali, in + conjunction with the decomposing action of atmospheric oxygen and + water; others are founded on the reaction between colorific + principles of certain of the dye lichens and some of our ordinary + chemical re-agents." The author noticed in particular-- + + 1. Helot's test, } + 2. Westring's tests, }qualitative. + 3. Stenhouse's test, } + 4. " quantitative. + + Helot's test consists in digesting the dried and powdered lichen or + a few hours, at a temperature of 130 degs., in a weak solution of + ammonia, sufficiently strong, however, to be tolerably pungent. One + that is fit for the dyer will yield a rich violet red liquor. + + Dr. Westring recommended simply macerating three or four drachms of + the lichen in cool spring water, assisting, perhaps, the solvent + action of the water by minute quantities of common salt, nitre, + quicklime, sulphate of copper or iron, or similar re-agents. If + these means failed, after a sufficient length of time had been + allowed for the development of color, he digested a fresh portion of + the pulverised lichen in water, containing small quantities of + sal-ammoniac and quicklime [in the proportion of 25 parts of water, + 1-10th lime, and 1-20th sal-ammoniac for every part of lichen], for + a period varying from eight to fourteen days, and by this process, + he says, he never failed to develop all the color which the plant + was capable of yielding. + + Dr. Stenhouse, of London, one of our latest and best authorities on + the chemistry of the lichens, adds to an alcoholic infusion of the + lichen, a solution of common bleaching powder (chloride of lime), + whereby, if it contain certain colorific principles capable of + developing, under the joint action of air, water, and ammonia, red + coloring matters, a fugitive but distinct _blood-red color_ will be + exhibited. The amount of this colorific matter may be estimated + quantitatively by noting the quantity of the chloride of lime + solution required to destroy this blood-red color in different + cases: or the same result may be obtained by macerating for a short + period in milk of lime--filtering--precipitating the filtered liquor + by acetic or muriatic acid--collecting this precipitate on a weighed + filter--drying at ordinary temperatures and again weighing. + + The author entered into a full analysis of these tests and + processes--pointing out their respective advantages and + disadvantages--and showing their practical value and applications. + He stated that he had made use of these, and various other tests, in + upwards of 300 experiments, and the one which he employed to the + greatest extent, because most uniformly applicable, was Helot's + ammonia test. The following combination is that most favorable for + the development of the coloring matter of the lichens--viz., the + presence + + 1. Of _water_ as a solvent menstruum. + 2. Of atmospheric _oxygen_. + 3. Of _ammonia_, in the state of vapor or in solution, and + 4. Of a moderate degree of _heat_; + + And according as the proportion of these combining elements varies, + so do the kind and amount of color educed by them. This combination + is the foundation of all the processes for the manufacture of the + lichen dyes throughout the world, however different these may appear + to be in detail or results. + + I believe it may come to be a matter of great commercial importance + to discover, at home or abroad, some cheap and easily-procurable + substitute for the _Roccellas_, which are gradually becoming scarce, + and consequently valuable in European commerce, having sometimes + fetched, in times of scarcity, no less than L1,000 per ton. No + plants can be so easily collected and preserved as + lichens--requiring merely to be cleaned, dried, pulverised, and + packed; and if their bulk be an objection to transport, their whole + colorific matter may be collected in the way I have already + mentioned. Ascending to the verge of eternal snows, and descending + to the ocean level--with a geographical diffusion that is + co-extensive with the surface of our earth, it is difficult to say + where lichens shall not be found. There are myriads of small rocky + islets in the boundless ocean, and there are thousands of miles of + barren rocky coast and sterile mountain range in every part of the + world, which, though at present unfit to bear any of the higher + members of the vegetable kingdom, are yet carpeted and adorned with + a rich covering of lichens, and of those very species too, which I + have already spoken of as prolific in colorific materials. I + sincerely believe, therefore, that a more general attention to the + very simple tests just enumerated, would ultimately result in a + greatly extended use of the lichens as dye agents. What renders it + very probable that efforts in this direction are likely to meet with + success is the great similarity of species found all over the world. + It has been repeatedly noticed that the European species, which, of + course, are best known, differ little from those of North America. + Dr. Robert Brown remarked the same fact with regard to New Holland + species, and Humboldt also recognised the similarity in natives of + the South American Andes. Of a large collection made by Professor + Royle, in the Himalayas, Don pronounced almost every one to be + identical with European species. From examining the raw vegetable + products, sent by different countries to the Great Exhibition of + 1851, I am satisfied that, even now, there are many fields open for + the establishment of an export trade in _Roccellas_ and other + so-called orchella weeds." I there saw specimens of good dye lichens + from almost every part of the world, including our own young + colonies; and as a single instance of their probable value, I may + introduce here the copy of a note appended to a specimen of orchella + weed from the island of Socotra, contained in the Indian collection + of that exhibition, "_abundant_, but _unknown_ as an article of use + or commerce. Also abundant on the hills around (Aden) and _might_ be + made an article of trade." Roccellas from this source are estimated + as worth L190 to L380 per ton. I believe that a similar statement + might be made with regard to the countless islands of the broad + Atlantic and Pacific, which may, at some future period, perhaps not + far distant, be found to be rich depots of orchella weeds, just as + some of them are, at present, rich fields of guano, and may, as + such, become new nuclei of British commerce and enterprise. Even at + home, in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, or, to restrict our + limits still more narrowly, within the compass of Arthur's Seat, + there are not a few very good dye-lichens, which require merely to + be scraped with an old knife or similar instrument, from the rocks + to which they adhere, and subjected to the ammonia process already + mentioned. Of twelve specimens thus collected at random one morning, + I found no less than three yielded beautiful purple-red colors, + apparently as fine as orchil or cudbear, while the others furnished + rich and dark tints of brownish-red, brown and olive-green. + + Dr. Lindley's communication was illustrated with specimens of + coloring matters yielded by various lichens collected in the + neighbourhood of Edinburgh, &c. + + +BARKS FOR TANNING. + +Let us now take a brief review of the sources from whence tanning +materials may be obtained, which will also enable us to form a fair +estimate of the prospect of future supplies. Only one medal was +awarded, at the Great Exhibition, for tanning substances, viz., to +Messrs. Curtis, Brothers (United Kingdom, No. 126), but honorable +mention was made of the following competitors:--One from Tunis, one +from Van Diemen's Land, one from New Zealand, one from Belgium, one +from the Cape of Good Hope, one from Canada, and one from the United +Kingdom. + +The substance from which pure tannin is most frequently obtained for +chemical purposes is nutgalls, for tannin constitutes above 40 per +cent, of their weight. It may be procured also from several other +sources, such as oak, horse chestnut, sumach, and cinchona barks, +catechu, kino, &c. + +The basis of the skins of animals is composed of a substance to which +the name of gelatine is given. One of the properties of this substance +is, that when combined with tannin, it forms the compound of tannate +of gelatine, or leather, a substance which is so useful to mankind. +From time immemorial, the substance employed to furnish the tannin to +the hides of animals, in order to convert them into leather, has been +oak bark. But as the purpose for which oaks are grown is their timber, +and not their bark, the supply of oak bark cannot be calculated upon, +and this is, perhaps, one of the causes why tanning as an art is in +such a backward state. + +The consumption of tannin required in the leather manufacture may be +estimated from the fact that more than 672,000 cwts. of raw hides were +imported in 1851, besides the hides of the cattle, &c., consumed in +the United Kingdom. On the Continent and in the United States the +consumption of bark for this purpose is also considerable. + +The imports of bark for the use of tanners and dyers has amounted +yearly to the very large quantity of 380,674 cwt., besides what we +obtain at home. Oak bark contains usually the largest proportion of +tannin, and according to Davy's experiments eight-and-a-half pounds of +oak bark are equivalent for tanning purposes to two-and-a-quarter of +galls, three of sumach, seven-and-a-half of Leicester willow, eleven +of Spanish chesnut, eighteen of elm, and twenty-one of common willow +bark. Tannin obtained from these sources, however, differs materially +in some of its characters. The tannin of nutgalls, which is that +generally employed for chemical purposes, is sometimes called +gallo-tannic acid, to distinguish it from other species. + +Notwithstanding the number of different substances which have from +time to time been introduced for the use of tanners, it is, +nevertheless, pretty generally acknowledged that there is nothing +superior, or even equal, to good oak bark, and that all attempts to +hurry the process beyond a certain point by the use of concentrated +solutions of tan, &c., are for the most part failures, as the +manufacture of good leather, to a great extent, depends on the process +being conducted in a slow and gradual, but--at the same time--thorough +and complete matter. + +Oak bark is, however, by no means the only astringent bark well suited +to the use of the tanner, and in various parts of the world other +similar substances are used with very great success. All these tanning +materials, though they may not be considered by the English tanner +equal to the best oak bark, are, nevertheless, of great value to him; +they may be employed in conjunction with oak bark, or even as a +substitute in times of scarcity, or when the price of oak bark is +high; in fact the very existence of such substances tends to keep down +and equalise the price of bark, and to prevent it from undergoing +those great fluctuations in value which would necessarily occur were +it the only tanning material available to our manufacture--("Prof. +Solly in Jury Reports of Great Exhibition.") + +There are a vast number of bark and other substances useful for +tanning purposes, which are found in the tropics, that are +comparatively unknown or little regarded in Europe; but which might be +readily obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost. The bark +of many species of _Acacia_ furnishes the tanning principle in a great +degree, particularly that of _A. arabica_, which, under the name of +Babul wood, is largely used about Scinde, Biliary, Gruzerat, and other +parts of India; where it is regarded as a powerful tonic. The fruit of +_A. vera_, termed Egyptian and Senegal "bablah," has been employed in +tanning and dyeing. Numerous species of this tribe are found abundant +in New South Wales and the Cape Colony, and these, particularly the +wattle bark of Australia, are in common use for tanning, from their +astringent properties. The bark and rind of the fruit of the +pomegranate (_Pumica Granata_) have similar properties. + +The bark of _Avicenna tomentosa_ is in great use in the Brazils for +tanning. So are the curved pods of _Caesalpinia Coriari_, in the East +and West Indies, under the name of Divi-divi. _Coriaria myrtifolia_ is +not only used in tanning leather, but also for staining black. It is +worth L9 to L10 per ton. _Pterocarpus marsupium_ furnishes about +Tellicherry the concrete exudation called kino, a powerful astringent +used for tanning. + +The plants of the mangrove tribe, _Rhizophora Mangle_, and other +allied species, have frequently an astringent bark, which is in many +cases used for tanning and dyeing black. This tree is very common in +most tropical countries, where it forms dense thickets on the muddy +banks of rivers and the sea shores. The bark of _Bauhinia variegata_, +is made use of in Scinde and other parts of Asia. The bitter +astringent bark and the galls of several of the Tamarisk tribe are +also well suited for the purpose. + +_Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum_, one of the numerous indigenous species +of the Cape, is used in making morocco leather. + +The extract procured from the bark of the _Butea_, that of the +_Buchanania latifolia_, the _Scyzgium_ (_Calyptranthes_), _Jambolana_, +&c., are likely to be of consequence to the tanners, and could be +produced in India in large quantities. Specimens of these, and of the +bark of the Saul tree, of _Nychanthes arbortrista, Terminalia +angustifolia_, and of the gaub fruit (_Diospyros glutinosa_), were +shown by the East India Company. The bark of the hemlock tree is +extensively employed for tanning in New Brunswick. + +The bark of yellow hercules (_Xanthoxylum ochroxylon_), and the pods +of _Acacia tortuosa_ are used for tanning in the West Indies. + +In the instructions given by the Admiralty to Sir James Boss, when +proceeding on his Antarctic Expedition, his attention was particularly +called to the astringent substances adapted for tanning, and to the +various extracts of barks, &c., imported into England from our +Australian settlements, and which are employed by the tanner. Little +sterling information has as yet been obtained as to the qualities of +the astringent gums, barks, and dyes, yielded in such abundance by the +trees of those colonies, and the proportion of tannin they contained. + +In 1846, 563 tons of bark for tanning were exported from Port Phillip. + +A large quantity of tannin is extracted from various species of +Eucalyptus, the gigantic gum trees in Australia and Van Diemen's Land +(of which quarter all the species are natives), and sent to the +English market; it is said to be twice as powerful in its operations +as oak bark. Some of these trees attain a height of 200 feet. Their +bark separates remarkably into layers. A sort of kino gum, an +astringent resinous-like substance, is also extracted from _E. +resinifera_, the brown gum-tree of New Holland, which is sold in the +medicine bazaars of India. It exudes in the form of red juice from +incisions in the bark. A single tree will often yield 60 gallons. In +Brazil they use the bark of _Luhea panicata_, an evergreen climber, +for tanning leather; and in Peru the bark of some species of +_Weinmaunia_ serve the same purpose. Among other powerful astringents +I may notice the root of a species of Sea Lavender (_Statice +Caroliniana_), _Myrica cerifera_, and _Heuchera Americana_, all +natives of North America. Also the petals of _Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis_, +a native of Asia. + +The sea-side grape (_Coccolaba uvifera_) yields an astringent +substance, known as Jamaica kino. + +The bark of the _Cassia auriculata_, and the milky juice of the +_Asclepias gigantea_, are used for tanning in India. + +The red astringent gum obtained from _Butea frondosa_, a middling +size tree, common in Bengal and the mountainous parts of India, is +used by the natives for tanning. English tanners, however, object to +its use on account of the color which it communicates to the leather. + +The barks of the _Mora excelsa_, Benth; Courida (_Avicenna nutida_), +cashew (_Anicardium occidentale_), guava and hog-plum (_Spondius +lutea_, Linn.), have all been successfully used for tanning in +Demerara and the West India Islands, where they are very abundant. +Specimens were sent from British Guiana. + +The root of the Palmetto palm (_Chaemaerops Palmetto_) is stated to be +valuable for the purposes of tanning. The leaves of _Nerium Oleander_ +contain tannic acid. The bark of a species of Malphigia is much used +by the Brazilians. + +The panke (_Gunnera scabra_) is a fine plant, growing in Chili, on the +sandstone cliffs, which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic +scale. The inhabitants eat the stalks, which are subacid, tan leather +with the roots, and also prepare a black dye from them. The leaf is +nearly circular, but deeply indented on its margin. Mr. Darwin +measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter, and therefore no +less than twenty-four in circumference. The stalk is rather more than +a yard high, and each plant sends out four or five of these enormous +leaves, presenting together a very noble appearance. + +The barks replete with the tanning principle should be stripped with +hatchets and bills from the trunk and branches of trees in spring, +when their sap flows most freely. The average quantity of oak bark +obtained from our forests is estimated at 150,000 tons annually, of +which Ireland and Scotland furnish but a very small quantity. + +The following table, given by Dr. Ure, shows the quantity of +extractive matter and tannin yielded by different substances:-- + + In 480 parts In 100 parts + by Davy. by Cadet. + Sicilian sumach 78 -- + Malaga ditto 79 -- + Souchong tea 48 -- + Green tea 41 -- + Bombay catechu 261 -- + Bengal ditto 231 -- + Nutgalls 127 46 + Bark of pomegranate -- 32 + " Virginian sumach -- 10 + " Carolina ditto -- 5 + +Catechu and Gambier are very valuable for tanning, and are alluded to +under the heads GAMBIER and ARECA PALM. + +CATECHU is obtained from the _Acacia Catechu_, an arboreous tree +growing from fifteen to twenty feet high, with a brown and scabrous +bark. The interior wood is brown, dark red or blackish, and the +exterior white, one or two inches thick. It inhabits various parts of +the East Indies, of which it is a native, and is also now common in +Jamaica. It bears whitish or pale yellow flowers. + +The catechu obtained from this tree in Pegu, is celebrated throughout +India, and fetches L4 to L5 more per ton than gambier and other +astringent extracts. When of good quality, catechu is more powerful as +an astringent than kino. Of all the astringent substances we know, +catechu appears to contain the largest proportion of tannin, and Mr. +Purkis found that one pound was equivalent to seven or eight of oak +bark for tanning leather. + +The term catechu, observes Dr. Pereira, is applied to various +astringent extracts imported from India and the neighbouring +countries. A few years ago the terms catechu, terra japonica, and +cutch were employed synonymously; they are now, however, for the most +part used in trade somewhat distinctively, though not uniformly in the +same sense. The manufacture of catechu from the _Acacia catechu_ as +practised in Canara and Behar, has been described by Mr. Kerr ("Med. +Obs. and Inquiries," vol. v.), and Dr. Hamilton ("Journey through +Mysore," &c., vol. iii.), while Professor Royle has explained the +process followed in Northern India. According to the last-mentioned +gentleman, "the kutt manufacturers move to different parts of the +country in different seasons, erect temporary huts in the jungles, and +selecting trees fit for their purpose, cut the inner wood into small +chips. These they put into small earthen pots, which are arranged in a +double row, along a fireplace built of mud; water is then poured in +until the whole are covered; after a considerable portion has boiled +away, the clear liquor is strained into one of the neighbouring pots, +and a fresh supply of the material is put into the first, and the +operation repeated until the extract in the general receiver is of +sufficient consistence to be poured into clay moulds, which, in the +Kheree Pass and Doon, where I have seen the process, are generally of +a quadrangular form. This catechu is usually of a pale red color, and +is considered there to be of the best quality. By the manufacturers it +is conveyed to Saharunpore and Moradabad, whence it follows the course +of commerce down the Ganges, and meets that from Nepaul, so that both +may be exported from Calcutta." + + +GAMBIER. + +The Gambier plant (_Uncaria Gambler_, Roxburgh, _Nauclea Gambir_, +Hunter), has been described by Rumphius under the name of _Funis +uncatus_. It is a stout, scandent, evergreen shrub, which strongly +resembles the myrtle. It is generally cultivated in the same +plantation with pepper, as the leaves and shoots, after undergoing the +process by which their juice is extracted, to furnish a kind of +catechu, are found to be an excellent manure for the pepper vines. The +leaves and young shoots of the gambier plant are collected as soon as +they have attained a sufficient size, and boiled in iron pans until +the juice acquires the consistence of treacle. The decoction is poured +out into narrow troughs, dried, and afterwards cut up into small +cakes, and packed in baskets for exportation. The gambier extract, +which is of a yellowish brown color, and has the consistence of hard +cheese, is much esteemed by the Malays for mixing with the preparation +of betel, which they are in the habit of chewing; and considerable +quantities have lately been imported to this country, where it is used +for dyeing colors, and for tanning leather. The demand for gambier +here is on the increase; and when better known to our chemists, it +will probably be found applicable to many other purposes than those to +which it is at present applied. + +There were, in 1850, 400 gambier and pepper plantations on the island +of Singapore; each measures or occupies on an average an area of 500 +fathoms square, and employs eight to ten hands to cultivate and +manufacture the gambier and pepper. There are some pepper plantations +in addition, and they have been found to answer very well without any +gambier being cultivated with them. Gambier cultivation is generally a +losing undertaking, but it is adopted to obtain the refuse of the +leaves for manuring the pepper vines, and also to employ the people in +the plantations; it besides affords the proprietors the means of +getting monthly sums to carry on the cultivation of pepper, which +affords two crops yearly. There were formerly 600 plantations in +Singapore, but the reason already assigned, and the formation of spice +plantations contiguous have caused the abandonment of all those near +the town. Each plantation must have an equal extent of forest land to +that cultivated with gambier and pepper, to enable the manufacture of +the gambier being carried on, and each gambier plantation, of 500 +fathoms square, contains about 3,500 pepper vines, which yield on an +average two catties per vine, or 70 piculs of pepper, and about 170 +piculs of gambier annually;--a good plantation will, however, yield +sometimes as much as 120 piculs of pepper, and 200 piculs of gambier, +and a bad one as little as 40 to 50 piculs of pepper, and 60 to 80 +piculs of gambier. Were it not for the enormous commission charged by +the agents of these plantations, from whom the cultivators get all the +advances, it would prove a profitable cultivation. The rates of +commission charged generally are as follows:--Per picul of gambier, +fifteen to twenty-five cents; per picul of pepper, thirty to forty +cents; and if the price of the former is below one-and-a-half dollars, +and the latter below three-and-a-half dollars per picul, a small +reduction is made in the rates of commission. On every picul of rice +supplied to the planters twenty to twenty-five cents commission is +charged; this includes the interest of money advanced, which is never +charged. A gambier and pepper plantation is valued or estimated at +about 400 dollars on an average. The following is supposed to be a +correct estimate, on an average, of the yearly expenditure and returns +of a gambier and pepper plantation of 500 fathoms square, viz:-- + + EXPENDITURE. + drs. c. men. drs. c. + Eight men at 31/2 dollars and 7 Java rupees per + month, wages for headman and labourers + respectively 22.70 12 272.40 + Five piculs of rice, including commission, say 6.50 12 81.60 + Fish, &c. 5 12 60.0 + Boat or cart hire to carry rice and produce 13/4 12 21.0 + ------ + 435.0 + + PRODUCE. + + 170 piculs of gambier, valued at l dollar 45 cents + per picul, less 15 cents commission chargeable, + nett 221.30 -- --- + 70 piculs of pepper, at 41/2 dollars, less 40 cents + per picul commission, nett 287.0 -- 508.0 + +Yearly profit, 73 dollars, or about L15. + +Several gambier and pepper plantations have been abandoned in +Singapore, partly from the ground being impoverished, but more +particularly from the exhaustion of the forest adjacent to their +estates. The exhaustion of the trees by yearly consumption deprives +the planters of the necessary fire wood which is used for the boiling +down of the gambier. A gambier plantation gets exhausted in fifteen +years, either from the want of firewood or the land getting +impoverished. + +There are about 200 plantations at Johore, and the produce of gambier +for the season of 1851 was calculated at 30,000 piculs. + +This shrub was, at one period, cultivated with success at Pinang and +other places to the eastward, but as Java was the principal market for +the produce, and the Dutch had levied a duty of twelve Java rupees per +picul on it, the cultivation at the former island did not repay its +cost, and it was accordingly abandoned. Prices have been lately +advancing, and the Chinese are talking of trying it again. The plant +is partial to hilly land or slopes at the skirts of hills. Two hundred +plants are usually placed on one orlong of land, being six feet +asunder. They are raised from seed, and are topped to eight or ten +feet, when the gambier is to be prepared. The Chinese dry the seed +slightly, and sow in rainy weather. + +The seeds vegetate in forty days, and are planted out in the second or +third month afterwards. + +At the expiration of fourteen months, the first cutting of the +branches, with the leaves on, is made. These are put into a boiler, +and when the juice has been extracted, the branches and refuse are +thrown away, and the boiling is continued until the liquor has +obtained the proper consistence, when it is put into shallow troughs, +dried, and cut into slices for sale. The second cutting takes place +eight months subsequently to the first. The plant now grows strong and +admits of frequent cropping, and it will endure for twenty years. No +manure is used, but the plantation is kept clean. + +Estimated cost of cultivating ten orlongs, about 13 acres, according +to Colonel Low:-- + + Spanish dollars. + Value of cleared land, ten orlongs 200 + Six laborers per annum 360 + Quit rent 7 + Boilers, firewood, and implements 20 + Houses 50 + Incidental 30 + ---- + Total first year 667 + Second year 397 + ---- + 1,064 + +The six laborers on the plantation will, after the above period, be +constantly employed in cutting and preparing the gambier: the average +product will be 15 piculs monthly, which, at two dollars per picul, +will be 30 dollars monthly, or 360 dollars per annum. This is the +account obtained by collating different Chinese statements. + +The _Nauclea Gambir_ is placed by Jussieu under the natural order +_Rubiaceae_; it is a shrub attaining the height of six to eight feet, +branchy; the leaves are ovate, pointed, smooth, waving, distinctly +veined transversely underneath, of dark green color, and, when chewed, +they have a bitter astringent taste, leaving however, afterwards, a +sweetish taste in the mouth, not unlike liquorice; the flowers are +aggregate, globular, composed of numerous florets, crowded on a +globular naked receptacle; tubes of the corolla of a pinkish color; +the upper part of the corolla fine, cleft, and of a greenish yellow +color; the staminae are five in number, and short; the pistil is longer +than the corolla; the flowers are destitute of fragrance; the capsules +(as correctly stated by Mr. Hunter) are stalked oblong, incrusted, and +crowned with a calyx; tapering to a point below; two celled, two +valved, the valves adhering at the apex, splitting at the sides; seeds +very numerous, oblong, very small, compressed, furnished at both ends +with a membraneous pappus. + +The gambier plant is propagated either by seeds or cuttings, but the +latter are preferred. It is cultivated to some extent at Singapore, +but it is said that the gambier can be imported cheaper from the +islands in the vicinity, more especially at the Dutch settlement at +Rhio. The extract is used extensively by the natives of India, Eastern +Archipelago, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, as a masticatory, wrapped up +with the betel. + +There are three different qualities of extract; the first and best is +white, brittle, and has an earthy appearance when rubbed between the +fingers (which earthy appearance gave it the name of Terra Japonica, +being supposed, at first also, to come from Japan), and is formed into +very small round cakes. This is the dearest sort, and most refined, +but it is not unfrequently adulterated with sago; this kind is brought +in the greatest quantity from the island of Sumatra. The second +quality is of a brownish yellow color, is formed into oblong cakes, +and, when broken, has a light brown earthy appearance; it is also made +into a solid cube form; it is sold in the bazars in small packets, +each containing five or six. The third quality contains more +impurities than the preceding, is formed into small circular cakes, +and is sold in packages of five or six in the bazar. + +The method employed in preparing the extract is thus correctly related +by Finlayson:--"The leaves are collected three or four times a year; +they are thrown into a large cauldron, the bottom of which is formed +of iron, the upper part of bark, and boiled for five or six hours, +until a strong decoction is obtained; the leaves are then withdrawn, +and allowed to strain over the vessel, which is kept boiling for as +many hours more, until the decoction is inspissated; it is then +allowed to cool, when the catechu subsides, The water is drawn off; a +soft soapy substance remains, which is cut into large masses; these +are further divided by a knife into small cubes, about an inch square, +or into still smaller pieces, which are laid in frames to dry. This +catechu has more of a granular, uniform appearance than that of +Bengal; it is, perhaps, also less pure." + +The younger leaves of the shrub are said to produce the whitest and +best gambier; the older, a brown and inferior sort. There are other +species of _Nauclea_ indigenous to Singapore, but they do not produce +any extract. + +Dr. Bennett has particularised four qualities of gambier:-- + +1. Small round cakes, about the size of a small lozenge. Color pale, +purplish, yellowish, white. + +2. Cubes, in which shape it is principally imported into England, and +square prisms, or oblong pieces. + +3. Circular discs, or short cylindrical pieces. + +4. Cubical amylaceous pieces, of a darker brown than the other kinds. + +Gambier is one of the most powerful of the pure astringents. + +The chief places of manufacture are Saik, Malacca, Singapore, and Rhio +or Bintang. Bennett, in his "Wanderings," says there are 60,000 +plantations of gambier on this island. After that of Rhio, the next +best gambier is that of Lingin. That used by the Malays, with the +leaves of betel, in the same manner as cutch in other parts of India, +is the finest and whitest; the red being stronger tasted and rank, is +exported to Batavia, China, and England, for the purposes of tanning +and dyeing. It is frequently adulterated with sago powder, but it may +be detected by solution in water. + +Large quantities of gambier are imported, under the corrupted name of +cutch, into Calcutta, from Pegu. The quantity of gambier produced in +Rhio, by the Chinese settlers, amounts to about 4,600 tons a year, +about 2,000 of which are exported for the consumption of Java, the +rest being sent to Cochin-China and other neighbouring countries. + +Two methods of obtaining gambier are described. One consists in +boiling the leaves in water, and in inspissating the decoction; the +other, which yields the best gambier, consists in infusing the leaves +in warm water, by which a fecula is obtained, which is inspissated by +the heat of the sun, and formed into cakes. + +The injudicious practice adopted by the Land Office in Singapore, of +granting indiscriminate licenses, or "cutting papers" as they are +formed, seems open to objection, and is driving many of the Chinese +cultivators to the neighbouring island of Johore, where they readily +obtain permission to cultivate, without obstruction, this important +article of commerce. Parties of 300 or 400 at a time left in 1846. It +appears that, under his permissive license, the squatter obtains +permission to clear as much land as he possibly can, but the order +does not define any extent beyond which no cutting should take place. +The squatter clears as much land as the means at his disposal will +allow, in the hope and expectation that the jungle contiguous to the +cleared ground will be at his command for fuel--a supply of fuel, easy +of access, and adequate to the number of plants grown, being +indispensable to the culture and manufacture of gambier. When the time +for gathering the leaves arrives, another squatter (perhaps from +motives of envy or malice) obtains a "cutting paper," and commences +clearing in close proximity to the already-formed gambier plantation; +obviously depriving the owner of the fuel he has reasonably calculated +upon. The established planter cannot of course eject the intruder from +the land, since the latter possesses an equal right to it, in virtue +of his "cutting paper," which, as it specifies no limits, leaves him +the disposer or destroyer of the crop of the industrious planter. +Instead of the present system, a better practice ought to be +introduced, defining the boundaries to be included in a "cutting +paper," and effectually preventing a trespass on the fuel-land of the +industrious planter. This might easily be effected by specifying the +number of acres, as well as the direction, in every clearing paper +granted. + +The average produce of gambier in Singapore is between 7,000 and 8,000 +piculs monthly. The ordinary price is about 11/4 dollars per picul. A +deficiency of rain, labor, or other causes, will occasionally reduce +the annual produce from 90,000 or 100,000 piculs, to 60,000 or 70,000, +and this diminished supply will raise the market price of the article +probably 35 cents per picul. But, in addition to the effect occasioned +by a deficient supply, there are other causes in operation exercising +a powerful influence in reducing prices. Gambier was first exported in +1830, from Singapore, to the extent of 2,587 piculs, at 41/2 dollars per +picul. As a rival to bark it failed at so costly a price to meet with +encouragement; the culture and manufacture consequently declined until +1834, when 1,858 piculs were shipped to England at a somewhat lower +rate. The demand then became active, the exportations were at first +multiplied, then doubled every succeeding year, until they reached, in +1846-47 no less than 173,117 piculs. The price has gradually declined +to 11/4 dollars per picul, at which rate it displaces its rival, bark. +This price, however, is unremunerative to the grower, so that, unless +more encouragement offers, the supply will decline. + +The number of Chinese employed in the cultivation, &c., of gambier +and pepper in Singapore is about 11,000. Their rate of wages +fluctuates with the price of gambier. If a picul of gambier realizes +11/2 dollars, the monthly pay will be about three dollars; if gambier +fetches two dollars, their pay will amount to four dollars in the +month. The workmen who clean the plantation always receive a dollar +less than those who cut and boil the gambier. + +A good deal of gambier seems now to be grown in Java, for 58,305 +piculs were exported from that island in 1843. A small quantity is +taken by the Chinese ports, but whether as a masticatory or for +tanning and dyeing I am not aware. + + VALUE OF THE TERRA JAPONICA IMPORTED INTO CEYLON. + L + 1840 611 + 1841 1,053 + 1842 768 + 1843 471 + 1844 1,153 + 1845 537 + 1846 824 + 1847 1,549 + 1848 1,095 + 1849 896 + 1850 265 + 1851 386 + +In the Customs' returns of imports to this country, two articles are +enumerated, under the separate names of cutch and terra japonica; the +former is catechu and the latter the produce of the gambier plant. The +imports of gambier were, in 1836, 970 tons; 1837, 2,738 tons; 1838, +1,600 tons; 1839, 5,213 tons. + + Cutch. Terra Japonica. + tons. tons. + 1848 Imported to the United Kingdom 1,186 5,623 + Retained for home consumption 765 5,102 + 1849 Imported 1,636 6,851 + Retained for home consumption 869 5,400 + 1850 Imported 1,172 4,585 + Home consumption 787 3,655 + 1851 Imported 2,401 4,783 + Home consumption 2,020 4,431 + 1852 Imported 2,236 3,244 + Home consumption 1,708 3,003 + +Catechu, imported under its Indian name of cutch, is brought over in +bales or baskets of from one to four cwt., the price being L18 to L25 +per ton. About 450 cwt. of terra japonica or gambier is annually +imported into Hull from the East Indies. The imports of the two +substances into Liverpool is about 900 tons. Gambier is only worth L13 +to L14 the ton; a few years ago it fetched 26s. the cwt. The imports +into the port of London average 1,500 tons annually. + +4,679 bales, and 14,436 baskets of terra japonica were imported into +Liverpool in 1851, and 14,000 bales and baskets in 1852. The imports +of cutch were 10,290 bags, and 2,592 baskets, in 1851, and 11,873 bags +and baskets in 1852; the prices, which were from 16s. 6d. to 18s. per +cwt. for each article, in 1851, were rapidly run up in Liverpool, in +1853, owing to short supplies, to 25s. for gambier, and 22s. to 24s. +per cwt. for cutch, or catechu. + + EXPORTS OF GAMBIER FROM SINGAPORE, WITH THE OFFICIAL VALUE IN RUPEES. + + Piculs. Value in rupees. + 1840-41 Exported 79,508 457,560 + " Growth of Singapore 59,325 + 1841-42 Exported 93,340 470,790 + " Growth of Singapore 47,696 + 1842-43 Exported 148,746 548,281 + " Growth of Singapore 110,151 + 1843-44 Exported 139,050 584,449 + " Growth of Singapore 121,791 + 1844-45 Exported 157,654 539,978 + " Growth of Singapore 134,528 + 1845-46 Exported 110,766 425,643 + " Growth of Singapore 75,797 + 1846-47 Exported 173,117 591,943 + " Growth of Singapore 143,795 + +The exports of gambier from Singapore were as follows:-- + + To England. To the Continent. Total. + piculs. piculs. piculs. + 1849 134,546 6,121 140,667 + 1850 87,611 16,166 103,777 + 1851 68,365 11,639 80,004 + 1852 68,045 9,006 77,051 + +The exports of cutch from Pinang, in the last four years, have +been:--1849, 3,693 piculs; 1850, 900; 1851, 4,143; 1852, 3,880; or, on +an average, 197 tons. + +DIVI-DIVI is the commercial name for the curved pod of a leguminous +shrub, _Caesalpinia coriaria_, which is sometimes imported from +Carthage. Its tannin differs materially from that of nutgalls. The +quantity of mucilage which it contains precludes it from the use of +dyers; but, as it furnishes nearly 50 per cent. of tannin, it is +largely used by curriers. It is imported into Liverpool from Rio de la +Hacha, Maracaibo, and Savanila. 400 tons of the seed pods and bark of +the Algaroba, or Locust-tree (_Prosopis pallida_) were imported in +1849 into Liverpool from Valparaiso, as a substitute for divi-divi in +tanning. 3,200 lbs. of divi-divi were exported from the port of +Augostara, in 1846. + +Specimens of divi-divi which had been raised at Calcutta were shown in +the Indian department of the Great Exhibition. + +Dr. Hamilton states that, according to some admirably conducted +experiments of Mr. Rootsey, of Bristol, undertaken at his request, the +pods of divi-divi contain above 50 per cent. of tannin. It appears +also, from trials made, that one part of divi-divi is sufficient for +tanning as much leather as four parts of bark, and the process +occupies but one-third of the time. + +The average produce of pods from a full-grown tree has been estimated +at 100 lbs. weight, one-fourth of which consists of seeds or refuse, +leaving about 75 lbs. of marketable matter. + +At an interval of six feet apart, an acre of ground will contain 1,210 +trees, yielding an average of 810 cwts., and 30 pounds, or above 401/2 +tons of marketable matter, worth, at only L5 per ton, L200. Should the +interval between the trees be extended two feet more, we shall still +have 680 to the acre, the produce of which would not improbably be +increased by the increased space given for the extension of the +branches. + +The ground in which this tree admits of being cultivated is that which +is least adapted to the staple products of tropical agriculture; +guinea grass may be profitably raised beneath its shade and as with +the exception of the three years which precede the commencement of its +bearing, there is hardly any deduction to be made from its returns, it +promises to be among the most valuable objects of a planter's +attention. + +Jacquin describes the _Caesalpinia coriaria_ as a handsome branching +tree, of about fifteen feet in stature, covered with a dark spotted +bark. Its leaves are doubly pinnate, and the leaflets of twelve pair +without a terminal one; they are oblong, obtuse, smooth, very entire. +The flowers are disposed in spikes issuing from the extremities of the +branches; they are small, yellowish, and slightly fragrant. To these +succeed oblong, compressed, somewhat obtuse pods, curved laterally, +the inner side being concave and the other convex. The seeds rarely +exceed three or four in each pod, and are of a brownish color. + +Divi-divi resembles a dried pea-shuck curled up, filled with yellow +powder, and a few dark brown seeds. The price ranges from L8 to L13 +per ton. + +The imports into the United Kingdom in 1844, were 3,900 tons; in 1845 +and 1846, about 1,400 tons each year; during the subsequent three +years the imports were merely nominal, but in 1850 a renewed demand +seems to have sprung up, for 2,770 tons were imported into Liverpool, +and a few tons into London. + +CORK-TREE BARK (_Quercus suber_) has been imported into Ireland to a +considerable extent, frequently to the amount of 1,500 tons annually. +The quantity of cork imported annually into the United Kingdom is +about 3,000 tons. It is brought from Spain, Italy, and Barbary. Oak +bark and valonia being very cheap and plentiful, the price of cork +hark is only nominal, being, for Spanish cork-tree bark, L7 10s. to L8 +per ton; Leghorn ditto, L6 to L7 per ton. It is less astringent than +oak bark, and is more generally useful for stoppers of bottles and +bungs for casks. 160 tons of cork-tree bark were imported into +Liverpool from Rabat in 1849, and 150 tons in 1850. + +1,867 cwts. of bark for tanning were imported from Chili in 1844, of +which 292 were Quillai bark. + +MIMOSA BARK.--The bark of the _Mimosa decurrens_, which abounds in +Australia and Van Diemen's Land, is found to be a very powerful +tanning agent. + +The first shipment of tannin was made from Sydney to England as far +back as 1823, in the shape of an extract of the bark of two species of +mimosa, which was readily purchased by the tanners at the rate of L50 +per ton. One ton of bark had produced four cwts. of extract of the +consistency of tar. + +In 1843, 3,078 tons of mimosa bark was shipped from Port Phillip to +Great Britain. The price then realised in the London market was L12 to +L14 per ton, but it has since declined to L8 a ton. The quantity of +this bark to be procured in the colony is quite inexhaustible. The +price of chopped mimosa bark in Australia, for export, in the close of +1846, was L2 5s. per ton. Bark valued at L912 was exported from Van +Diemen's Land in 1848. + +The imports of mimosa bark have only been to a limited extent within +the last few years, reaching 350 tons in 1850, against 110 tons in +1849, 230 tons in 1848, and 600 tons in 1847. The prices realised were +L10 to L11 for chopped, L12 to L12 10s. for ground, and L8 to L9 per +ton for unchopped bark. Whilst the imports were 3,900 tons in 1814, +they dwindled to less than 400 tons in 1850. + +From an experiment, conducted by Professor Brandt, the strength of the +mimosa bark, as compared with that of young English oak bark, is found +to be in the proportion of 57 to 39, so that the mimosa bark is half +as strong again as the best English bark. + +Mr. Samuel Mossman, in a communication to the Botanic Society of +Edinburgh, in 1851, stated that the bark of _A. dealbata_ pays to ship +to England, notwithstanding the distance, from the fact of its +containing a greater per centage of tannin than any other bark. It is +a handsome tree, from fifteen to thirty feet high, forming luxuriant +groves on the banks of streams, most abundant in Port Phillip and +Twofold Bay, between the parallels of latitude 34 and 30 degrees. + +New Zealand is rich in barks and dyes. The bark of the Tanahaka +(_Phyllodadus trichomanoides_, of Don) is used by the natives as a red +dye for the ornamental parts of their kaitahas, their best border +garments. There is also another red dye, called Tawaivwai, the bark of +which is very profuse. A black dye is procured from the hinau. They +are of a rich hue, and exceedingly fast colors. The barks are to be +found all over the colony. The hinau and tanahaka are employed in +tanning, all the leather used in the colony being tanned either at the +Bay of Islands or Port Nicholson. + +The bark of the Rimu or red pine (_Dacrydium Cupressinum_, of +Solander), a very common tree, possesses tanning qualities far +superior to any of the Australian barks. One pound of the bark yields +85 grains of extract. + +The native tanning barks of New Zealand are various and easily +obtained. Specimens of the bark and dye, &c., of most of these trees +were sent home to the Great Exhibition. One pound of the Tanahaka bark +is said to yield 63 grains of tannin. The sails of boats are dyed with +it to preserve them. The Towai (_Licospermum racemosum_, of Don, +_Weinmaunia racemosa_, Decandole), is supposed to be valuable for the +purposes of the tanner, and is said to yield 104 grains of tannin for +every pound of bark. The bark of the Pohutu kawa of the natives, the +_Metrosideros tomentosa_of Richard, and _Callistemon ellipticum_ of +Allan Cunningham, would also be useful for tanning, one pound of it +furnishing about 60 grains of tannin. + +The bark of the Hino tree, the _Elaeocarpus hinau_ of Cunningham, the +_Dicera dentata_ of Forster, is used by the natives for dyeing black. + +The black mangrove (_Rhizophora mangle_) is a tree attaining an +altitude of from 30 to 50 feet, and occupying marshy situations in the +vicinity of the sea. Almost every part of the mangrove--the bark, +roots, and the fruit more particularly--abounds in an astringent +principle, which is successfully applied to the purposes of tanning. +As the tree is so abundant within the tropics, it might be worth the +while of some practical speculator to make an extract on the spot, and +introduce it into the English market, for the use of tanners and +dyers. For tanning, the mangrove is said to be infinitely superior to +oak bark, completing in six weeks an operation which with the latter +occupies at least six months, and the sole-leather so tanned is said +to be more durable than any other. The bark and leaves, which contain +nearly as much tannin as the oak, are made use of in the West Indies, +as well as in Scinde and other parts of Asia. + +3,713 piculs of mangrove bark, valued at L819, were shipped from +Shanghae, one of the Chinese ports, in 1849. + +MYROBALANS.--This is a name applied to the almond-like kernels of a +nut or dried fruit of the plum kind, of which there are several sorts +known in the East. They are the produce of various species of +_Terminalia_, as _T. Bellerica, chebula, citrina_, and _angustifolia_. +They vary from the size of olives to that of gall nuts, and have a +rough, bitter, and unpleasant taste. Many of the trees of this tribe, +which are all natives of the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and +America, are used for tanning, and some for dyeing. They are highly +valued by dyers, creating, when mixed with alum, a durable dark brown +yellow. Myrobalans fetch in the Bombay market 8s. to 26s. the Surat +candy of 821 lbs. The bark and leaves of _T. Catappa_ yield a black +pigment, with which Indian ink is made; the seeds are eaten like +almonds. A milky juice is said to flow from _T. angustifolia_, which, +when dried, is fragrant, and, resembling Benzoin, is used as a kind of +incense in the Catholic churches in the Mauritius. The fruit of _T. +Bellerica_, and of _T. Chebula_, both useful timber trees, indigenous +to the East Indies, are used medicinally as a tonic and astringent. +117 cwts. of myrobalans were shipped from Ceylon in 1845. + +The annual imports of myrobalans into Hull, amount to about 1,600 +cwts. The quantity which arrived at Liverpool was 185 tons in 1849, +851 tons in 1850; 27,212 bags in 1851, and 19,946 bags in 1852; they +come from Calcutta and Bombay, and are also used for dyeing yellow and +black. The price in January, 1853, was 6s. to 12s. per cwt. The +average annual imports into the United Kingdom may be taken at 1,200 +tons. + +KINO.--The Kino, of Botany Bay and Van Diemen's Land, is the produce +of the iron bark tree, _Eucalyptus resinifera_. White ("Journal of a +Voyage to New South Wales"), says this tree sometimes yields, on +incision, 60 gallons of juice. Kino is imported in boxes. The +tincture of kino is used medicinally, but an inconvenience is +frequently found to arise, from its changing to the gelatinous form. +Dr. Pereira seems to think this species of kino consists principally +of pectin and tannic acid. That chiefly used as East Indian kino, is +an extract formed by inspissating a decoction of the branches and +twigs of the gambler plant. Vauquelin analysed it, and found it to +consist of, tannin and peculiar extractive matter, 75; red gum, 24; +insoluble matter, 1. + +The East Indian kino, imported from Bombay and Tellicherry, is the +produce of _Pterocarpus marsupium_, a lofty, broad-spreading forest +tree, which blossoms in October and November. The bark is of a greyish +color, and is upwards of half an inch in thickness on the trunk. When +cut, a blood-red juice speedily exudes and trickles down; it soon +thickens, and becomes hard in the course of fifteen or sixteen hours. +The gum is extracted in the season when the tree is in blossom, by +making longitudinal incisions in the bark round the trunk, so as to +let the gum ooze down a broad leaf, placed as a spout, into a +receiver. When the receiver is filled it is removed. The gum is dried +in the sun until it crumbles, and then filled in wooden boxes for +exportation. + +_P. erinaceus_, a tree 40 to 50 feet in height, a native of the woods +of the Gambia and Senegal, furnishes kino, but none is collected in or +exported from Africa. _Butea frondosa_, or the dhak tree of the East +Indies, furnishes a similar product, in the shape of a milky, colored, +brittle, and very astringent gum. Kino is used as a powerful +astringent, and is administered in the form of powder and tincture. +Some specimens of Butea kino, analysed by Prof. Solly, after the +impurities had been separated, yielded 731/4 per cent. of tannin. + +VALONIA is the commercial name of the cupula or cup of the acorn, +produced by the _Quercus aegilops_ and its varieties, the Balonia or +Valonia oak, natives of the Levant, from whence, and the Morea, they +form a very considerable article of export; containing abundance of +tannin they are largely used by tanners. The tannin differs materially +from that of nutgalls. The bark of _Q. tinctorea_, a native of North +America, yields a yellow dye. + +The quantity of valonia imported for home consumption, in 1836, was +80,511 cwts., of which Turkey furnished 58,724 cwts., and Italy and +the Ionian islands 7,209 cwts. Of 163,983 cwts. imported in 1840, +143,095 cwts. were brought from Turkey, 15,195 cwts. from Italy, and +the residue from Greece and the Ionian Islands. The entries for home +consumption in the three years ending with 1842, amounted to about +8,200 tons a year. The increase since has been considerable, the +imports having been, in 1848, 10,237 tons; in 1849, 16,671 tons; in +1850, 12,526 tons; in 1851, 10,639 tons; in 1852, 13,870 tons. We +receive about 14,000 to 20,000 cwts. annually from Leghorn. The +imports into the port of Hull are 3,900 cwts. per year. + +The prices of Smyrna valonias are from L13 to L14 per ton; those of +picked Morea, L10 per ton. The duty received on valonias imported in +1842 was about L4,000. + +The annual produce is sufficient to meet the wants of all Europe. It +can be had in Turkey to any extent and at all periods. Many cargoes +are sent to Dublin, and the German markets. A little valonia is +exported from Manila, the shipments having been about 150 tons per +annum. + +Camata and Camatina are two varieties of very young valonias, which +are found more valuable for some processes of tanning than the common +kinds. + +Extensive as has been the enumeration of the vegetable substances used +in the various branches of art and manufacture which have formed the +principal subjects of this section, it is probable that with the +progress of knowledge, of scientific experiment, and of investigation +into the properties of given commodities, the list will be +indefinitely increased. What I have stated will suffice to give the +reader an idea of the surprising variety of sources from which we +receive the raw materials which enable us to perfect some of the most +elegant processes of manufacturing skill and ingenuity, and will +further afford some criterion--though, of course, not a perfect +one--for estimating the relative importance of the tanning and dyeing +substances. + + + + +SECTION V. + +OLEAGINOUS PLANTS, AND THOSE YIELDING FIXED OR ESSENTIAL OILS. + + +Few cultivators are probably aware of the great importance of oil to +this country, and the number of purposes for which it is employed in +the arts and manufactures. It is extensively used for candle and soap +making, for burning in lamps, for diminishing friction in machinery of +all kinds, and especially for locomotives--in wool-dressing, in the +manufacture of paints and varnishes, as an article of food, for +medicinal purposes, &c. + +So important are vegetable oils deemed, that the Society of Arts, in +its prize list for 1851, offered gold medals for the importation or +introduction into this country of any new plants or trees from China, +India, or elsewhere, producing oils or fatty substances, such as can +be used as food, or are applicable to manufacturing purposes; and also +to the person who shall manufacture and import the finest specimen of +oil, not less than ten gallons, the produce of olives grown in any +British colony in Africa or Australasia. + +The time of burning of equal quantities of the following oils has been +found to be-- + + Hours. + Oil of poppy 14 + " sunflower 13 + " rape 11 + " mustard 111/2 + " flax seed 10 + " gold of pleasure + (_Camelina sativa_) 91/2 + " olives 9 + " hemp seed 8 + " tallow 101/2 + + + FOREIGN VEGETABLE OILS IMPORTED. + + 1821. 1845. 1850. + tuns. tuns. tuns. + Coco-nut oil -- 2,148 98,040 + Olive oil 1,900 12,315 20,783 + Palm oil 3,200 25,285 448,589 cwts. + Rape seed oil 800 3,973 -- + Linseed oil 10,500 38,634 -- + ------ ------ ------- + 16,400 82,355 + Fish oils 32,356 22,626 21,328 + +The total quantity of all kinds of wool annually consumed in England +and Wales, in 1843, was estimated at 801,566 packs. Now, five gallons +of olive, rapeseed or other oils, being used in the preparation of +every pack of wool, for cloth (independent of the quantity used in +soap, applicable to the woollen manufactures), it follows that five +gallons on 801,566 packs are equal to 4,007,830 gallons, or 15,904 +tuns; and adding for olive or sperm oil used in machinery 1-11th of +the whole, 1,446 tuns, the total quantity consumed is 17,350 +tuns.--("Enderby on the South Whale Fishery.") + +_Fixed oils_ are found in the cells and intercellular spaces of the +fruit, leaves, and other parts of plants. + +Some of these are drying oils, as linseed oil, from _Linum +usitatissimum_; some are fat oils, as that from olives (fruit of _Olea +sativa_ or _Europaea_); whilst others are solid, as palm oil. + +The solid oils or fats procured from plants are, butter of cacao, from +_Theobroma cacao_; of cinnamon from _Cinnamomum verum_; of nutmeg, +from _Myristica moschata_; of coco-nut, from _Cocos nucifera_; of +laurel, from _Laurus nobilis_; of palm oil, from _Elais guianiensis_; +Shea butter, from _Bassia Parkii_; Galam butter, or Ghee, from _Bassia +butyracea_; and vegetable tallow, from _Stillingia sebifera_ in China, +from _Vateria indica_ in Canara and China, and from _Pentadesma +butyracea_ in Sierra Leone, and from the almond. These oils contain a +large amount of stearine, and are used as substitutes for fat. Some of +them are imported in large quantities, and enter into the composition +of soap, candles, &c. + +Castor oil, from the seeds of _Ricinus communis_, differs from other +fixed oils in its composition. + +Decandolle states the following as the quantity of oil obtained from +various seeds:-- + + Per cent. + in weight. + Hazel-nut 60 + Garden cress 57 + Olive 50 + Walnut 50 + Poppy (_Papaver somniferum_) 48 + Almond 46 + Caper-spurge (_Euphorbia Lathyris_) 41 + Colza (_Brassica oleracea_) 39 + White mustard (_Sinapis alba_) 36 + Tobacco 34 + Plum 33 + Woad 30 + Hemp 25 + Flax 22 + Sunflower 15 + Buckwheat 14 + Grapes 12 + +The following table, quoted from Boussingault, shows the results of +some experiments made by M. Grauzac, of Dagny:-- + + Seed produced Oil obtained per + per acre. acre, in lbs. Oil per Cake + cwts. qrs. lbs. lbs. ozs. cent. per cent. + + Colewort 19 0 15 875 4 40 54 + Rocket 15 1 3 320 8 18 73 + Winter rape 16 2 18 641 6 33 62 + Swedish turnips 15 1 25 595 8 33 62 + Curled colewort 16 2 18 641 6 33 62 + Turnip cabbage 13 3 19 565 4 33 61 + Gold of pleasure 17 1 16 545 8 27 72 + Sunflower 15 3 14 275 0 15 80 + Flax 15 1 25 385 0 22 69 + White poppy 10 1 18 560 8 46 52 + Hemp 7 3 21 229 0 25 70 + Summer rape 11 3 17 412 5 30 65 + +The subjoined list will serve to exhibit the richness of the produce +of different Indian seeds, from which varieties of oil are extracted; +it gives the proportion of oil per cent. in weight:-- + + Sesame oil (_Sesamum indicum_) 46.7 + Black til, coloured variety of ditto (_Verbesena sativa_) 46.4 + Gingelie oil (_S. orientale_) 46.7 + Ground nuts, produced by _Arachis hypogoea_ 45.5 + Wounded seeds obtained from the Poonnay-tree (_Calophyttum + Inophyllum_), a bitter lamp oil 63.7 + Karunj seeds, from the _Pongamia glabra_ 26.7 + Ram til, the seeds of the nuts Ellu, or _Guizotia oleifera_ 35 + Poppy seeds (_Papaver somniferum_) 43 to 58 + Silaam, an oil seed from Nepaul 41 + Rape seed (_Brassica napus_) 33 + +The foregoing are not all the seeds from which oil is extracted by the +natives of the East. In addition to this there are cottonseed oil, +used for their lamps. Castor oil and Argemone seed, similarly used. +Oil obtained from the fruit of _Melia Azadriachta_, for medicine and +lamps. Apricot oil in the Himalayas, sunflower oil, oil of +cucumber-seed for cooking and lamps, oil of colocynth seed, a lamp +oil. + +The seeds of bastard saffron (_Carthamus tinctorius_) yield oil. + +Mustard oil, the produce of various species of _Sinapis_, &c. Shanghae +oil, from _Brassica Chinensis_. Illiepie oil, from _Bassia +longifolia_, which is used for frying cakes, &c., in Madras; and +Muohwa oil, from another species of the same genus in Bengal, _B. +latifolia_. Oil is expressed from the seeds of _Caesalpina oleosperma_, +a native of the East. The neem tree seeds afford a very clear or +bitter oil, used for burning. + +Wood oil is a remarkable substance, obtained from several species of +_Dipterocarpus_, by simply tapping the tree. + +The horse-eyes and cacoons of Jamaica (_Fevillea scandens_) yield a +considerable quantity of oil or fat, as white and hard as tallow. It +has been employed for similar purposes on the Mosquito shores. + +The seeds of the _Argemone mexicana_, and of the _Sanguinaria +canadensis_, also contain a bland, nutritious, colorless, fixed oil. +The mass from which the seed is expressed is found to be extremely +nutritious to cattle. + +The _Camelina sativa_ is cultivated in Europe, for the extraction of +an oil used only by the soap makers, and for lamps. + +A solid oil, of a pale greenish color, a good deal resembling the oils +of the Bassia in character, though rather harder, and approaching more +in properties to myrtle wax, was shown at the Great Exhibition, from +Singapore. It is supposed to be the produce of the tallow tree of +Java, called locally "kawan," probably a species of Bassia. It is very +easily bleached; indeed, by exposure to air and light, it becomes +perfectly white; if not too costly, it promises to become a valuable +oil. + +According to Mr. Low, there are several varieties of solid oil +commonly used in the Islands of the Archipelago, and obtained from the +seeds of different species of _Dipterocarpus_. + +Piney tallow is obtained from the fruit of the _Vateria Indica_, a +large and quick-growing tree, abundant in Malabar and Canara. It is a +white solid oil, fusible at a temperature of 97 degrees, and makes +excellent candles, especially when saponified and distilled in the +manner now adopted with palm oil, &c. It has one great advantage over +coco-nut oil, that the candles made of it do not give out any +suffocating acrid vapors when extinguished, as those made with the +latter oil do. + +An oil is produced from the inner shell of the cashew-nut (_Anacardium +occidentale_ var. _indicum_), in the East. + +In Japan a kind of butter, called _mijo_, is obtained from a species +of the Dolichos bean (_Dolichos soya_). + +The kernel of the seeds of the tallow tree of China, _Stillingia +sebifera_, an evergreen shrub, contains an oil, which, when expressed, +consolidates through the cold to the consistence of tallow, and by +boiling becomes as hard as bees' wax. The plant also yields a bland +oil. A similar fatty product is obtained from a shrub in British +Guiana, the _Myristica (Virola) sebifera_. + +Oil is obtained in South America from the sand box tree _(Hura +crepitans_), and from the _Carapa guianensis_. + +A fatty oil is obtained in Demerara from the seeds of the butter tree, +_Pekea_ (?) _Bassia butyrosa_, and also from the Saouari (_P. +tuberculosa_). + +The fleshy seeds contained in the woody capsules of the Monkey pot +(_Lecythis Tabucajo_), which derive their generic name from their +similarity to an oil jar, are common in the West India Islands and +South America, and yield a considerable quantity of oil. + +The seeds of the plants of the cucumber family frequently supply a +bland oil, which is used in the East as a lamp oil and for cooking. +Among the vegetable oils imported into Ningpo, and other Chinese +ports, from Shantong, Leatong, and Teisin, are oil of teuss, obtained +from green and dried peas; black oil of the fruit of the tree _kin_ +(?) and oil from the pea of suchau. + +The seeds of _Spergula saliva_, a large, smooth-seeded variety of the +common cow spurrey, which is cultivated in Flanders as a pasture grass +and green crop, afford, on expression, a good lamp oil. + +A pale brownish yellow oil is obtained from the seeds of _Carthamus +tinctorius_, in Bombay; the seeds contain about 28 per cent. of oil. + +Excellent oil is expressed in various parts of India from the seeds of +different species of _Sinapis_, especially from the black mustard +seed. _S. glauca, S. dichotorna_, and _S. juncea_ are extensively +cultivated in the East for their oil. The _Erysimum perfoliatum_ is +cultivated in Japan for its oil-seeds. + +A beautiful pale yellow oil is procured from the seeds of the +angular-leaved physic nut, _Jatropha curcas_, a shrub which is often +employed in the tropics as a fence for enclosures. It is used by the +natives in medicine and as a lamp oil. About 700 tons of this oil was +imported into Liverpool in 1850 from Lisbon, for the purpose of +dressing cloth, burning, &c. + +A rich yellow oil, perfectly clear and transparent, is obtained from +the seeds of _Bergera koenigii_. + +RAPE OIL.--The imports of rape oil, from _Brassica napus_, into +Liverpool, are about 15 to 20 tuns annually. + +Rape oil has been found to be better suited than any other oil for the +lubrication of machinery, when properly purified from the mucilage, +&c., which it contains in the raw state. Rape oil is now used +extensively for locomotives, for marine engines, and also for burning +in lamps. It is stated that a locomotive consumes between 90 and 100 +gallons of oil yearly; and the annual consumption of oil by the London +and North-Western Railway, for this purpose alone, is more than 40,000 +gallons. The oil obtained from good English rape seed is purer and of +superior quality to that from foreign or colonial seed; and as an acre +of land yields nearly five quarters of seed, which is worth at present +50s. per quarter, it is a profitable crop. + +Rape seed is now largely imported for expressing oil. The imports, +which in 1847 were but 87,662 quarters, weighing 17,532 tons, had +reached, in 1851, 107,029 quarters, weighing 21,606 tons. The price of +new seed is L25 to L27 the last of ten quarters. The oil is L34 per +tun. + +The refuse cake, after the seed is crushed for oil, is in demand as +food for cattle, being worth L4 the ton. + +We imported in 1851, from Trance, 289 tuns of rapeseed oil, worth +about L17,000, on which there was no duty levied. + +There are exported annually from Hesse Darmstadt, 34,660 cwts. of +poppy and rape oils. + +The oil of the colza is much used in Europe, and highly prized. In +France it has been adopted for all the purposes of lighthouses. In +this country it has lately come into extensive domestic use, for +burning in the French moderateur lamps, being retailed at from 3s. 4d. +to 4s. the gallon. + +DOMBA OIL.--The Poonay or Palang tree (_Calophyllum Inophyllum_), the +Alexandrian laurel, is a beautiful evergreen, native of the East +Indies, which flourishes luxuriantly on poor sandy soils, in fact +where scarcely anything else will grow. The seeds or berries contain +nearly 60 per cent. of a fragrant, fixed oil, which is used for +burning as well as for medicinal purposes, being considered a cure for +the itch. As commonly prepared it has a dark green color. It is +perfectly fluid at common temperatures, but begins to gelatinise when +cooled below 50 degrees. + +THE EARTH-NUT (_Arachis hypogaea, or hypocarpogea_).--This very +singular plant has frequently been confounded with others, partly +through the carelessness of travellers, and by the improper use of +names, which tended to mislead and confuse. Its common appellative, +the earth-nut, has led to the conclusion that it was a species of nut, +such as is known in England under the name of "pig nut," "hawk nut," +and "ground nut." This, as well as the "earth chesnut," belongs to a +totally different genera. On the Continent and in the East Indies a +similar confusion had long existed by the appellation of "ground +pistachio," which caused the fruit to be confounded with the nut of +the tree _Pistacia vera_. Some resemblance, on the other hand, +existing between these--as well as from their being eaten by different +nations, and used as an article of food, and also for producing +oil--rendered the true description still more difficult. Botanists +are, however, no longer at a loss, having well established the nature +and character of all these plants. The Arachis "nut" partakes of the +nature of the pea or bean of our own country, and is a low annual +plant of the order _Diadelphia decandria_ of Linn.; originally from +Africa, but now extensively cultivated in every quarter of the globe. +It has been naturalised in Europe, and with the climate of the South +of France it may be turned to good account. + +It has been said to be indigenous in Florida, Peru, Brazil, and +Surinam; but the plant may be grown on a light sandy soil, under a +moderate heat, equal to that of Italy or the South of France. The +class to which it belongs approaches to the pea tribe; but its +remarkable difference to this, as to the pulse we know as a bean, is +the circumstance of its introducing its fruit or pod--if we may so +call it--into the earth, for the purpose of ripening its seed. The +Arachis, or earth nut, has obtained its name from this operation. The +flowers, leaves, and stems are produced in the ordinary manner we see +in the pea tribe. When the yellow flower has withered and the seed +fertilised, there is nothing left but the bare stem which had +supported it. This stem, in which is the germ of the future fruit and +pod, now grows rapidly in a curved manner, with a tendency to arrive +shortly on the surface of the ground, into which it penetrates this +now naked stem, and sinks into the earth several inches. It is in this +obscure position that the fruit takes its ripened form, and is either +gathered from its hiding place or left to the future season, when its +time of rising into new existence calls it from what was thought its +unnatural position. + +When mature, it is of a pale yellow color, wrinkled, and forms an +oblong pod, sometimes contracted in the middle; it contains generally +two seeds. The nuts or peas are a valuable article of food in the +tropical parts of Africa, America, and Asia. They are sweetish and +almond-like, and yield an oil, when pressed, not inferior in use and +quality to that obtained from the olive. The leaf resembles that of +clover, and, like it, affords excellent food for cattle. The cake, +after the oil is expressed, forms an excellent manure. + +The Arachis is usually sown in dry, warm weather, from May to June, +and are placed at the distance of eighteen inches from each other. +Insects are fond of them; and if the season is cold and unfavorable to +them, or the growth retarded, they become musty and bad, or are eaten +by insects. + +The mode of obtaining the oil is nearly the same as for other pulse or +seeds; and under favorable circumstances the Arachis will produce half +its weight of oil. When heated and pressed the quantity is very +considerably increased. This oil is good for every purpose for which +olive or almond oil is used. For domestic purposes it is esteemed, and +it does not become rancid so quickly as other oils. Experiments have +been made on its inflammable properties, and it is proved that the +brilliancy of light was superior to that of olive oil, and its +durability was likewise proved to be seven minutes per hour beyond the +combustion of the best olive oil, with the additional advantage of +scarcely any smoke. In Cochin-China and India it is used for lamps. It +is known as Bhoe Moong or Moong Phullee in Bengal, and as Japan or +Chinese pulse in Java. + +From China this plant was probably introduced into the continent of +India, Ceylon, and the Malayan Archipelago, where it is generally +cultivated. + +In South Carolina the seed is roasted and used as chocolate. The +leaves are used medicinally. + +It is grown in Jamaica, and there called Pindar nut. + +That the culture of the Arachis in warm climates, or even in a +temperate one, under favorable circumstances, should be encouraged, +there can be but one opinion. And when it is considered that its +qualities are able to supersede that of the olive and the almond, +which are but precarious in their crops--to which may be added, that +as a plant it is greedily devoured in the green state by cattle--how +much may it not serve to assist the new settler in regions of the +world which have a climate suited to it. + +It is known by various local names--such as _mani manoti_ by the +Spaniards, and has obtained also that of _cacahuete_ in some +countries. It has the additional term _hypogea_ attached to it, which +literally signifies subterranean. This is apt to mislead; for the +plant grows above ground as other pulse, whereas only its seed and +pericarp are inserted, after blooming, into the earth. Hence the +better term _hypocarpogea_. + +It appears to form an important article of cultivation along the whole +of the west coast of Africa, and probably on the east coast, on +several parts of which it was found by Loureiro ("Flor. Cochin," p. +430). It was doubtless carried from Africa to various parts of +equinoctial America, for it is noticed in some of the early accounts +of Peru and Brazil. 800 quarters of this nut were imported into +Liverpool from the West Coast of Africa, in 1849, for expressing oil, +and about half that quantity in 1850. + +Eighty to 90 tuns of the expressed oil are now annually imported. The +seeds contain about 44 per cent. of a clear pale yellow oil, which is +largely used in India as food, and for lamps, particularly at Malwa +and Bombay, &c. Two varieties are grown in Malacca, the white seed and +the brown seed, and also in Java, in the vicinity of sugar +plantations; the oil cake being used as manure. It is there known as +katjang oil. + +This plant, which seems to be a native of many parts of Asia, has +within the last ten years been much cultivated about Calcutta. The +seeds contain abundance of fixed oil, have a faint odor, and very mild +agreeable taste; 1,950 parts of seed, separated from their coverings +and blanched, give 1,405 of kernels, from which, by cold pressure, +703 parts of oil are procured. The seeds are consumed as a cheap +popular luxury, being half roasted, and then eaten with salt. The oil +is calculated to serve as an efficient and very cheap substitute for +olive oil, for pharmaceutical purposes. It burns with little smoke, +with a clear flame, and affords a very full bright light, answering +perfectly in Argand lamps. + +The oil cake affords, also, an excellent food for cattle. + +The ground nut has of late become of considerable importance as an +article of exportation, by English houses; yet more so by French +houses at Ghent, Rouen, and Bordeaux; some of whom have contracted +with the merchants of the African colonies for large quantities, +sending shipping for the cargoes. One house alone contracted for +60,000 bushels in the years 1844 and 1845. This nut oil is so very +useful to machinery that the naval steam cruisers on the coast have +adopted it. A ground-nut oil factory exists in the colony of Sierra +Leone; but from the want of steam power and proper machinery, and from +bad management, together with the inferior attainments of the African +artisan, when compared with the European mechanic, and their +facilities in quantity or quality, there is abundant scope for +improvement. The price in the colony is 4s. 6d. per gallon. It is +capable of being refined so as to answer the purpose of a salad oil; +the nut is prolific, and eaten by the natives and Europeans, boiled, +roasted, or in its raw state; and frequently introduced at the table +as we do the Spanish Barcelona nut at dessert. It grows in the rainy +season, and is collected in the dry, and sold in the colony for one +shilling to eighteen-pence per bushel, in goods and cash. Form of the +nut, long, light shell, contains two kernels covered with a brown +rind, when shelled white in appearance. + +It is a low creeping plant, with yellow flowers; after they drop off, +and the pods begin to form, they bury themselves in the earth, where +they come to maturity. The pod is woody and dry, containing from one +to three peas, or nuts, as they are called, hence the common names, +ground-nut or pea-nut. They require to be parched in an oven before +they are eaten, and form a chief article of food in many parts of +Africa. + +From a narrow strip of land, extending about 40 miles northerly from +Wilmington (North Carolina), comes nearly the entire quantity of earth +nuts (known as pea-nuts) grown in the United States for market. From +that tract and immediate vicinity, 80,000 bushels have been carried to +Wilmington market in one year. + +The plant has somewhat the appearance of the dwarf garden-pea, though +more bushy. It is cultivated in hills. The pea grows on tendrils, +which put out from the plant and take root in the earth, where the nut +is produced and ripened. The fruit is picked from the root by hand, +and the vines are a favorite food for horses, mules, and cattle. From +30 to 80 bushels are produced on an acre. There are some planters who +raise from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels a year.--("Hunt's Merchant's +Magazine," vol. xv., p. 426.) + +The ground-nut is exceedingly prolific, and requires but little care +and attention to its culture, while the oil extracted from it is quite +equal to that yielded by the olive. Almost any kind of soil being +adapted for it, nothing can be more simple than its management. All +that is required is the soil to be turned over and the seed sown in +drills like potatoes; after it begins to shoot it may be earthed with +a hoe or plough. In many parts of Western Australia they are now grown +in gardens for feeding pigs, the rich oil they are capable of yielding +being entirely overlooked. In regard to their marketable value at +home, I will give a copy of a letter of a friend of mine, received +from some London brokers, largely engaged in the African trade:-- + + "Wilson and Rose present compliments to Mr. N., and beg to inform + him the price of African ground nuts is as under:--Say for River + Gambia, L11 per ton here. Say for Sierra Leone, L10 per ton here. + For ground nuts free on board at the former port, L8 per ton is + demanded; these are the finest description of nut, the freight would + be about L4 per ton; the weight per bushel imperial measure, and in + the shell, is about 25 lbs." + +The following, also, is an extract from a letter written in 1842, by +Mr. Forster (the present M.P. for Berwick), an eminent African +merchant. Speaking of the staple of Africa, he says:-- + + "I have lately been attempting to obtain other oils from the coast, + and it was only yesterday I received from the hands of the oil + presser the result of my most recent experiment on the ground nut, + which I am happy to say is encouraging. I send you a sample of the + oil extracted from them. They are from the Gambia. It is a pure + golden colored oil, with a pleasant flavor, free from the frequent + rancidity of olive oil." + +Since then the cultivation has gone on, and the exportation largely +increased. The French also have entered into the trade, and several +vessels are exclusively employed in exporting this product from the +river Gambia, conveying it to oil factors on the continent, who +extract its oil. Seeing, then, the many advantages the cultivation of +such a product bestows, and its adaptation to the soil and climate of +Australia, I cannot refrain from expressing a hope that some of the +influential landowners in the cultivated districts will give the +matter their consideration. + +I am informed by an American merchant that he cleared 12,000 dollars +in one year, on the single article of ground or pea nuts obtained from +Africa. Strange as it may appear, nearly all these nuts are +transhipped to France, where they command a ready sale; are there +converted into oil, and thence find their way over the world in the +shape of olive oil; the skill of the French chemists enabling them to +imitate the real Lucca and Florence oil, so as to deceive the nicest +judges. Indeed, the oil from the pea nuts possesses a sweetness and +delicacy that cannot be surpassed. + +Advices from the West Coast of Africa to the 16th August, 1853, report +that the ground nut season had closed; the quantity shipped during the +season having exceeded 900,000 bushels. The yield has increased 20 per +cent, each year for the last three years, and it is expected the +increase will be still greater in the forthcoming season. + +TEUSS OIL.--The Chinese use what is called teuss or tea oil, for food +and other purposes. I have alluded to it under the head of pulse, at +page 312. It is obtained, however, from a species of the ground nut, +and is sold in Hong Kong, at 2s. 6d. the gallon, being imported from +the main land. By a local ordinance it is imperative on every +householder at Victoria, Hong-Kong, to have a lamp burning over his +door at night. When burning, this oil affords a clear, bright light, +and is not so offensive to the smell as train and other common lamp +oils. + +TOBACCO SEED OIL.--A discovery, which may prove of some commercial +importance, appears to have been made by a British resident in Russia, +namely, that the seed of the tobacco plant contains about fifteen per +cent. of an oil possessing peculiar drying properties, calculated to +render it a superior medium, especially for paints and varnishes. The +process employed for the extraction of the oil is to reduce the seed +to powder, and knead it into a stiff paste with _quantum sufficit_ of +hot water, and then submit it to the action of strong fires. The oil +thus obtained is exposed to a moderate heat, which, by coagulating the +vegetable albumen of the seed, causes all impurities contained in the +oil to form a cake at the bottom of the vessel employed, leaving the +oil perfectly limpid and clear. + +POPPY OIL.--About 80 cwt. of poppy seed is imported annually into +Hull, and small quantities come into other ports to be crushed into +oil. The seeds of the poppy yield, by expression, 56 per cent. of a +bland and very valuable oil, of a pale golden color, fluid to within +ten degrees of the freezing point of water. It dries easily, is +inodorous, and of an agreeable flavor like olive oil. + +Dr. J.V.C. Smith, writing from Switzerland, to the editor of the +"Boston Medical Journal," says:-- + + "Immense crops are raised here of articles wholly unknown to the + American farmers, and perhaps the kinds best fitted to particular + localities where grain and potatoes yield poorly under the best + efforts. One of these is poppies. Thousands of acres are at this + moment ready for market--which the traveller takes for granted, as + he hurries by, are to be manufactured into opium. They are not, + however, intended for medical use at all, but for a widely different + purpose. From the poppy seed a beautiful transparent oil is made, + which is extensively used in house painting. It is almost as + colorless as water, and possesses so many advantages over the flax + seed oil that it may ultimately supersede that article. Where flax + cannot be grown poppies often can be, in poor sandy soil. Linseed + oil is becoming dearer, and the demand for paint is increasing. With + white lead, poppy oil leaves a beautiful surface, which does not + afterwards change, by the action of light, into a dirty yellow. + Another season some one should make a beginning at home in this + important branch of industry. The oil may be used for other + purposes, and even put in the cruet for salads." + +TALLICOONAH or KUNDAH OIL, is obtained from the seeds of the _Carapa +Touloucouna_ (of the Flore de Senegambie). The tree grows to the +height of 40 feet; the fruit is a large, somewhat globular five-celled +capsule. The seeds (of which there are from 18 to 30 in each capsule), +vary in size from that of a chesnut to a hen's egg. They are +three-cornered, of a brownish or blackish red color. It is found +abundantly in the Timneh country, and over the colony of Sierra Leone. +It is manufactured in the following manner:--The nuts having been well +dried in the sun, are hung up in wicker racks or hurdles, and exposed +to the smoke of the huts, after which they are roasted and subjected +to trituration in large wooden mortars, until reduced to a pulp. The +mass is then boiled, when the supernatant oil is removed by skimming. +The natives principally prepare the oil to afford light; the leaves +are used by the Kroomen as a thatch. It is held in high estimation as +an anthelmintic. The oil is sold in Sierra Leone at 2s. a gallon, and +could be procured in abundance from the coast as an article of +commerce. + +CARAP or CRAB OIL (_Carapa guianensis_).--This is a sort of vegetable +butter, being sometimes solid and sometimes half fluid, which is +obtained from the seed of a large tree abundant in the forests of +Guiana, and also found in Trinidad. It is said to turn rancid very +soon when exposed to the air, but this is probably caused by the +presence of impurities, arising from the crude and imperfect way in +which it is prepared by the natives, who boil the kernels, leave them +in a heap for a few days, then skim them, and lastly reduce them into +a paste in a wooden mortar, which is then spread on an inclined board, +and exposed to the heat of the sun, so that the oil may melt and +gradually trickle down into a vessel placed below to receive it. A +prize medal was awarded for this oil at the Great Exhibition in 1851. + +Carap oil in Trinidad is highly esteemed as an unguent for the hair, +and also for applying to the wounds of animals, for destroying ticks +and other insects which infest cattle--also for the cure of +rheumatism. An oil called Carap oil is also obtained in the East, from +the almonds of _Xylocarpus granatum_, or _Carapa Molluccensis_, of +Lanark, which is used by the natives to dress the hair and anoint the +skin, so as to keep off insects. + +Cacao fat, the butter-like substance obtained from the seeds of +_Theobroma cacao_, is esteemed as an emollient. + +The nuts of the Great Macaw tree (_Acrocomia fusiformis_), a majestic +species of palm, furnishes much oil. This tree is the _Cocos +fusiformis_, of Jacquin, and other intertropical botanists. It is a +native of Trinidad and Jamaica, and is found also very commonly in +South America. + +The method of extracting the oil is as follows:--The nut or kernel is +slightly roasted and cleaned, then ground to a paste, first in a mill, +and then on a livigating stone. This paste, gently heated and mixed +with 3-10ths of its weight of boiling water, is put into a bag, and +the oil expressed between two heated plates of iron; it yields about +7-10ths or 8-10ths of oil. If discolored it can be purified, when +melted, by filtration. It is then of the consistence of butter, of a +golden yellow hue, the odor that of violets, and the taste sweetish. +If well preserved it will keep several years without spoiling, which +is known to have taken place by the loss of its golden hue and +delightful aroma. + +It is frequently sold in the shops as palm oil, and of late has +entered largely into the composition of toilet soaps. As an emollient +it is said to be useful in some painful affections of the joints; the +negroes deem it a sovereign remedy in "bone ache." The nut itself is +sometimes fancifully carved by the negroes, and is highly ornamental, +being of a shining jet black, and susceptible of a very high polish. +This tree may be increased from suckers. + +_A. sclerocarpa_ is the Macahuba palm of Brazil. + +THE AGAITI, as it is called by the Portuguese, or napoota by the +natives and Arabs (_Didynamia Gymosperma?_), much cultivated in all +Eastern Africa for its oil, which is considered equal to that of +olives, and fetches as high a price in the Indian market. The plant, +which is as tall and rank as hemp, and equally productive, having +numerous pods throughout the stems, is found everywhere in a wild as +well as cultivated state. + +The "Cape Shipping Gazette," of August, 1850, says:-- + + "The attention of the George Agricultural and Horticultural Society + having been drawn to the fact that an excellent oil, equal to the + olive oil of Italy, can be extracted from the kernel of the fruit + known by the name of "T Kou Pijte" and "Pruim Besje," they have + offered a reward of L10 for the best sample, not less than a half + aum of this oil--and L15 if it shall be adjudged equal to the best + oil of Italy. This fact is deserving of notice, as an instance of + the advantages which are likely to result from the attention now + being devoted to the natural productions of the colony." + +_Madia sativa_ is a handsome annual plant, native of Chili, which has +been naturalised in Europe. It grows about two feet high, and produces +flowers in July and August, of a pale yellow color. + +The whole plant is viscid and exhales a powerful odor, which is +somewhat like heated honey. It requires rather a rich soil, of a +ferruginous character. The root is fusiform, the stem cylindrical, and +furnished with sessile, three to five longitudinally-nerved leaves, +which are apposite on the lower portion of the stem, and alternate on +the upper. M. Victor Pasquier, who has written on the culture of the +plant, analysed the seed, and found 100 parts to consist of 26.5 of +testa, and 73.5 of kernel; 100 parts of the latter yielded 31.3 of +vegetable albumen, gum, and lignine, 56.0 of _fixed oil_, and 12.5 of +water. In dry seasons the oil is both more abundant and better than in +damp seasons. The produce of oil, compared with that of the poppy, is +equal; with colza, as 32 to 28; with linseed, 32 to 21; with the +olive, 32 to 16. + +The leaves and stems of this plant are rejected by cattle; but the +oil-cake, which always contains a considerable portion of the oil, +forms a nutritive food, of which they are very fond. The oil expressed +without heat is transparent, of a golden yellow color, inodorous, +rather fatter than the oil of rape or olives, and of a soft, +agreeable, nutty taste. It is fit to be employed in the preparation of +food, in salads, and for all the purposes of the best and mildest +fixed oils. It burns with a brilliant, reddish-white flame, and leaves +no residue. It is little liable to become rancid, and is completely +decolorised by animal charcoal. + +The oil of the seeds of this plant, now extensively cultivated in +France, will yield, according to the observations of Braconnet, a +solid soap, similar to that made from olive oil. Boussingault obtained +from the oil a solid, as well as a fluid acid. The solid one is +probably palmic acid, it fuses at exactly 140 degrees of Fahrenheit. +The fluid acid in its properties resembles the oleic acid discovered +by Chevreul, and seems to dry easily. + +The following is the composition of each, as determined by his +analysis:-- + + Solid acid. Fluid acid. + Carbon 74.2 76.0 + Hydrogen 12.0 11.0 + Oxygen 13.8 13.0 + ------ ------ + 100. 100. + +COCUM OIL, or butter, is obtained from the seeds of a kind of +mangosteen (_Garcinia purpurea_), and used in various parts of India +to adulterate ghee or butter. It is said to be exported to England for +the purpose of mixing with bears' grease in the manufacture of +pomatum. It is a white, or pale greenish yellow, solid oil, brittle, +or rather friable, having a faint but not unpleasant smell, melting at +about 95 degrees, and when cooled after fusion remaining liquid to 75 +degrees. + +An excellent solid oil, of a bright green color, is obtained from +Bombay, having a consistence intermediate between that of tallow and +wax, fusible at about 95 degrees, and easily bleached; it has a +peculiar and somewhat aromatic odor. There is some uncertainty as to +the plant from which it is obtained. It was referred to the _Salvadora +persica_, and to the _Vernonia Anthelminticea_, a plant common in +Guzerat and the Concan Ghats. + +A pale yellow clear oil is obtained from the seed of _Dolichos +biflorus_(_?_). Oil is also expressed in India from the seed of the +_Argemone mexicana_, which is used for lamps and in medicine; and from +the seeds of the cashew nut (_Anacardium occidentale_), from _Sapindus +marginatus_, and the country walnut (_Aleurites triloba_.) The fruit +of the _Chirongia sapinda_, (or _Buchanania latifolia_,) yields oil. +From the seeds of the _Pongamia glabra_, or _Galidupa arborea_, a +honey brown and almost tasteless oil is procured, which is fluid at +common temperatures, but gelatinises at 55 degrees. + +Other sources of oil are the _Celastrus paniculatus_ (_?_) _Balanites +Egyptictca_ and the saul tree (_Shorea Robusta_). + +THE CANDLE-TREE or PALO BE VELAS, (_Parmentiera cereifera_, +Seemann.)--This tree, in the valley of the Chagres, South America, +forms entire forests. In entering them a person might almost fancy +himself transported into a chandler's shop. From all the stems and +lower branches hang long cylindrical fruits, of a yellow wax color, so +much resembling a candle as to have given rise to the popular +appellation. The fruit is generally from two to three, but not +unfrequently four feet long, and an inch in diameter. The tree itself +is about 24 feet high, with, opposite trifoliated leaves, and large +white blossoms, which appear throughout the year, but are in greatest +abundance during the rainy season. The _Palo de Velas_ belongs to the +natural order _Crescentiaceae_, and is a _Parmentiera_, of which genus +hitherto only one species, the _P. edulis_, of De Candolle, was known +to exist. The fruit of the latter, called _Quauhscilote_, is eaten by +the Mexicans, while that of the former serves for food to numerous +herds of cattle. Bullocks especially, if fed with the fruit of this +tree, guinea-grass, and _Batatilla_ (_Ipomoea brachypoda_, Benth.), +soon get fat. It is generally admitted, however, that the meat +partakes in some degree of the peculiar apple-like smell of the fruit, +but this is by no means disagreeable, and easily prevented, if, for a +few days previous to killing the animal, the food is changed. The tree +produces its principal harvest during the dry season, when all the +herbaceous vegetation is burned up, and on that account its +cultivation in tropical countries is especially to be recommended; a +few acres of it would effectually prevent that want of fodder which is +always most severely felt after the periodical rains have +ceased.--("Hooker's Journal of Botany.") + +CINNAMON SUET is extracted by boiling the fruit of the cinnamon. An +oily fluid floats on the surface, which on cooling subsides to the +bottom of the vessel, and hardens into a substance like mutton suet. +The Singhalese make a kind of candles with it, and use it for culinary +purposes. It emits a very pleasant aroma while burning. According to +the analysis of Dr. Christison, it contains eight per cent, of a fluid +not unlike olive oil; the remainder is a waxy principle. + +CROTON OIL is obtained by expression from the seeds or nuts of _Croton +Tiglium_, an evergreen tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, belonging to the +same order as the castor oil plant, producing whitish green flowers, +and seeds resembling a tick in appearance, whence its generic name. It +is a native of the East Indies. 100 parts of seeds afford about 64 of +kernel. 50 quarters of croton nuts for expressing oil were imported +into Liverpool from the Cape Verd Islands, in 1849. + +The _Croton Tiglium_ grows plentifully in Ceylon, and the oil, if +properly expressed, might be made an article of trade. The best mode +of preparing it is by grinding the seeds, placing the powder in bags, +and pressing between plates of iron; allow the oil to stand for +fifteen days, then filter. The residue of the expression is triturated +with twice its weight of alcohol, and heated on the sand-bath from 120 +to 140 degs. Fahrenheit, and the mixture pressed again. In this step +the utmost caution is necessary in avoiding the acrid fumes. One seer +of seed furnishes by this process rather more than eleven fluid ounces +of oil, six by the first step, and five by alcohol. + +The oil acts as an irritant purgative in the dose of one drop. In +large doses it is a dangerous poison. When applied externally it +produces pustules. + +In 1845, eight cases of croton oil and six cases of the seed were +exported from Ceylon. + +Other species of Croton, as _C. Pavana_, a native of Ava and the +north-eastern parts of Bengal, and _C. Roxburghii_, yield a purgative +oil. The bark of _C. Eleuteria_, _C. Cascarilla_, and other species is +aromatic, and acts as a tonic and stimulant. It forms the cascarilla +bark of commerce already spoken of. When bruised, it gives out a musky +odor and is often used in pastilles. + +The oil obtained from the seeds of _Jatropha curcas_, a native of +South America and Asia, is purgative and emetic, and analagous in its +properties to croton oil. It is said to be a valuable external +application in itch. In India it is used for lamps. + +OIL OF BEN, known as Sohrinja in Bengal, and Muringo in Malabar is +obtained from the seeds or nuts of the horseradish tree, _Moringa +pterygosperma_, Burmann; the _Hyperanthera Moringa_, of Linnaeus. This +clear limpid oil having no perceptible smell, is much esteemed by +watchmakers and perfumers; it is expensive and not often to be +procured pure, consequently the oil would be a very profitable export. +It grows rapidly and luxuriantly everywhere in Jamaica, particularly +on the north side of the island--as well as Trinidad and other +quarters of the West. It is easily propagated either by cuttings from +the tree (the branches) or by seeds, and bears the second year. The +produce of each tree may be estimated at from one to two gallons. From +the flowers a very pleasant perfume might be easily distilled. + +The following account I derive from my friend Dr. Hamilton-- + + "It is a small tree, of about twenty feet in height, of most rapid + growth, coming into flower within a few months after it has been + sown, and continuing to produce seeds and blossoms afterwards + throughout the year. The tree is now naturalised in the West Indies. + The timber is said to dye a fine blue, and the gum, which, exudes + from wounds in the bark, bears a strong resemblance to that obtained + from the _Astragalus tragacantha_, for which it might, no doubt, be + substituted. + + The numerous racemes of white blossoms with which the tree is + constantly loaded, are succeeded by long triangular pods, somewhat + tourlose at the ends, and about two feet in length, when arrived at + the full growth. These pods, while yet young and tender, are not + unfrequently cooked and served up at the planter's tables like + asparagus, for which they are not a bad substitute. The pods, when + full grown, contain about fifteen seeds; each considerably larger + than a pea, with a membraneous covering expanding into three wings, + whence the specific name of _pterygosperma_. On removing the winged + envelope the seeds appear somewhat like pith balls; but upon + dividing them with the nail, they are found to abound in a clear, + colorless, tasteless, scentless oil, of which the proportion is so + large that it may be expressed from good fresh seeds by the simple + pressure of the nail. Geoffry informs us, that he obtained 301/2 + ounces of oil from eight pounds of the decorticated seeds, being at + the rate of very nearly 24 lbs. of oil from 100 lbs. of seed. + + Notwithstanding the great value of its oil, and the facility with + which it can be obtained in the West Indies, the moringa has been + hitherto valued merely as an ornamental shrub, and cultivated for + the sake of its young pods or the horseradish of its roots, as + luxuries for the table. + + The oil is peculiarly valuable for the formation of ointments, from + its capability of being kept for almost any length of time without + entering into combination with oxygen. This property, together with + the total absence of color, smell, and taste, peculiarly adapts it + to the purposes of the perfumer, who is able to make it the medium + for arresting the flight of those highly volatile particles of + essential oil, which constitute the aroma of many of the most + odoriferous flowers, and cannot be obtained by any other means, in a + concentrated and permanent form. To effect this, the petals of the + flowers, whose odor it is desired to obtain, are thinly spread over + flakes of cotton wool saturated with this oil, and the whole + enclosed in air tight tin cases, where they are suffered to remain + till they begin to wither, when they are replaced by fresh ones, and + the process thus continued till the oil has absorbed as much as was + desired of the aroma; it is then separated from the wool by + pressure, and preserved under the name of _essence_, in well stopped + bottles. + + By digesting the oil thus impregnated in alcohol, which does not + take up the fixed oil, a solution of the aroma is effected in the + spirit, and many odoriferous tinctures or waters, as they are + somewhat inaccurately termed, prepared. By this process most + delicious perfumes might be obtained from the flowers of the _Acacia + tortuosa_, _Pancratium carribeum_, _Plumeria alba_, _Plumeria + rubra_, and innumerable other flowers, of the most exquisite + fragrance, which abound within the tropics, blooming unregarded, and + wasting their odors on the barren air." + + +THE OIL PALM. + +There are several species of this genus of beautiful palms of the +tribe _Cococinae_, but that chiefly turned to account is _Elais +guineensis_, a native of the Coast of Guinea to the south of Fernando +Po, which furnishes the best oil. + +There are three other varieties--_E. melanococca_, a native of New +Granada, _E. Pernambucana_, common on the coast of Brazil, and _J. +occidentalis_, indigenous to Jamaica. All the species grow well in a +sandy loam and may be increased by suckers. + +The value of the oil of this palm, as an article of commerce, is +exemplified by the large annual imports, averaging more than 516,000 +cwt. for many years past. + +Our supplies of palm oil are almost wholly derived from the West Coast +of Africa, of which it is the staple article of export. + +Palm oil has the greatest specific gravity of any of the fixed +vegetable oils. It is used principally in this country for making +yellow soap. But the inhabitants of the Guinea coast employ it for the +same purposes that we do butter. + +The trade in palm oil has almost driven out the slave trade from the +Bight of Benin, which was a few years ago one of its principal seats. +The old slave traders at Whydah have generally gone into the palm oil +trade, and are carrying it on to a very great extent. In August 1849, +no less than twelve vessels were lying at that port taking in oil; +whilst, only three years before, it was rare to see three vessels +there at once, and of those in all probability two would be slavers. + +This palm is called Maba by the natives about the Congo river. It is +moneocious, which indeed Jacquin, by whom the genus was established, +concluded it to be, although first described as dioecious by Gaertner, +whose account has been adopted, probably without examination, by +Schroder, Willdenow, and Persoon. + +The average imports of this oil into Liverpool alone, have now been +for some years upwards of 18,000 tons, worth nearly L800,000 sterling, +and giving employment to upwards of 30,000 tons of shipping; thus +proving that the natives who formerly exported their brethren as a +matter of traffic, now find, at least, an equally profitable trade in +the exportation of the vegetable products of their native soil. + +Palm oil is produced by the nut of the tree, which grows in the +greatest abundance throughout Western Africa. The demand for it, both +in Europe and America, is daily increasing, and there is no doubt it +will, ere long, become the most important article of African trade. + + IMPORTS INTO LIVERPOOL. + casks. tons. + 1835 28,500 9,500 + 1836 33,500 11,000 + 1837 26,000 9,900 + 1838 27,520 10,320 + 1839 36,500 14,300 + 1852 about -- 23,500 + +In the colony of Liberia, I notice the manufacture of a new article of +African production, which is called "Herring's Palm Kernel Oil or +African Lard." It is thus spoken of in the newspapers of that Republic +:-- + + We had been for a long time impressed with an idea that the oil + contained in the kernel of the palm nut, was superior both in + quality and appearance to that of palm oil, which is obtained from + the exterior part. + + On making an effort to extract the oil from the kernel (which was by + means of a little machine, of our own invention and contrivance), we + found that our thoughts upon the matter were correct, that the oil + possessed admirable beauty in its appearance, with a taste, when + used for cooking purposes, unexcelled by that of the best lard. + + After being made and set by, it assumes a consistence like that of + hard butter, and has to be cut out with a knife or spoon; its + appearance in this state is very beautiful, presenting such + richness, clearness, and adaptedness to table purposes, that one + would not suppose that this oil is obtained from the same tree from + which palm oil is, for there is as much disparity both in their + appearance and taste as there is between lard and butter. + + The exquisite transparency which the kernel oil bears in a liquid + state, especially when undergoing the purifying process, is a cause + of admiration. On showing some of it to several foreigners, I was + asked in two instances which was the oil and which the water, or + whether it was oil or water; thus you may have an idea of its + clearness. We make two qualities of this oil, differing however in + taste only, the one being for table uses and the other for + exportation and for whatever use they may choose to put it to + abroad. + + There have been many conjectures in respect to the uses to which + this oil might he put in foreign countries; but that it will be a + useful article, and especially in our trade, when made more + extensively, there can be no doubt, for the quantity in which it + might be had would undoubtedly introduce it to a respectable rank + among the other commodities of our productive country so eagerly + sought after. + + There is nothing, to my knowledge, that can be turned to as good + account and at the same time so abundant and easily obtained, as the + palm kernel, for they are as common as the pebbles of stony land, + especially in this section of the country, where we have palm + orchards of spontaneous growth for miles together, and interspersing + the surrounding country in almost innumerable numbers. + + According to statistical ascertainment, there is on an average + exported from this port, thirty thousand gallons of palm oil + annually, from which fact we ascertain demonstratively that the palm + kernels which are thrown away here (leaving out the whole leeward + coast of our possessions) are sufficient to make thirty thousand + gallons of oil, more or less. This is not at all a problematical + speculation of ours, but we feel authorised to advance this + assertion from the fact that one bushel of kernels, completely + worked up, will make two gallons of oil. But to work them up is the + thing, plentiful as they are; we however, hesitate not to say, that + it can be done and probably will be. + + Having now so far conquered the difficulties attending the + manufacture of this oil, as that we can safely vouch a reasonable + supply for home consumption, we most cheerfully recommend it to the + citizens of this Republic, whose demands for it, for eating + purposes, we doubt not can be supplied, and on very reasonable + terms. + + We will assure our customers that there will not be an ounce of dirt + or sediment in a hundred pounds of our oil. + +The recent abolition of the soap duty, by stimulating the demand for +palm oil, will have an instant effect on the trade and commerce of +Western Africa, by confirming the suppression of the slave trade, and +giving an additional impetus to negro improvement. It will also +increase the production for England of ground nuts, whence the oil so +largely used in making continental soaps is expressed. "When (observes +a recent writer) the Portuguese first treated with that coast, they +found palm oil and ground nuts articles of native food, and so they +remained down to a period within living memory. So used, they neither +required any cultivation nor gave rise to any notions of property. +Though whole tracts of country are crowded by the oil-palm tree, +little care was taken of what was, in fact, superabundant; and as for +ground nuts, they were simply dug up as prudence or necessity +dictated. Some thirty years ago a cask or two of palm oil was sent +home from the Gold Coast; it met so ready a sale that it was further +inquired after, and the total amount now imported into England ranges +from 25,000 to 30,000 tons annually. The exportation of ground nuts is +even larger; but, owing to our excise on soap, they had heretofore +gone principally to France---to Marseilles especially. + +"Of these two articles, it is to be observed, the Western Coast of +Africa appears to have a monopoly; and with respect to palm oil, it is +further to be remarked, that it is exactly behind those ports and up +those rivers, which were formerly the great nests of the slave trade, +that its production is largest; and just as the slave trade there has +been crushed, a commerce in palm oil has sprung up and replaced it. +There are men alive who recollect the slave trade flourishing on the +Gold Coast; it has long been extinct there, and palm oil is now +largely exported. It is but a very few years ago since that traffic +appeared to be irrepressible at the mouths of the Niger: it is now +expelled, and thence Liverpool obtains, instead, its supplies of palm +oil. So also, later still, at Whydah, and the other ports of the +kingdom of Dahomy, and along the Lagoon, which connects Dahomy with +the Benin River, there the Spanish slave dealers are themselves +inaugurating a commerce in palm oil. Already the trade in that quarter +is considerable, and it would have extended much more rapidly than it +has done, were it not that disorder and warfare in the interior have +been promoted and prolonged by the indiscreet zeal of some of our own +naval officers and by the desire of some of our missionaries to rule +at Abeeokutu, at Lagos, and at Badagray. When, however, order and +tranquillity are restored, a most important trade will undoubtedly +arise there. A generation ago, when palm oil was merely an article of +food, there was, we have said, no property in palm trees. Since, +however, a large foreign demand has arisen for this oil, the +plantations, as already they are called, begin to be cared for; and +lately the title to some of them has been disputed in our courts on +the Gold Coast: a contention which constitutes the first evidence we +have received of the value of land, not actually under their own +cultivation, being recognised by the natives. Thus the feeling of +property and the desire for accumulation are springing up out of the +palm oil trade; and they are everywhere the germs of nascent +civilisation. It is no light question, therefore, thus involved in an +increased demand for this article; it may produce African consequences +of incalculable importance to the whole human race. It is in France +hitherto that the great consumption of ground nut oil has occurred. It +is there used in the manufacture of soaps, which, though preferred +abroad, are little used in England--very much because of the Excise +laws. The specific gravity of the soap made out of ground nut oil is +higher than those laws permitted; in consequence we could neither make +it for our own use nor for foreign exportation; and thus France has +substantially the soap trade of the world. By the repeal of the duty, +England will be enabled to compete--in this, as in all other +trades--with France abroad." + +The price, in Liverpool, for palm oil, in October, 1853, was L38 10s. +to L39 per ton. + +We export annually nearly four million gallons of oil made from +linseed, hemp seed, and rape seed. + + PALM OIL RETAINED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION + cwts. + 1835 242,733 + 1836 234,357 + 1837 211,919 + 1838 272,991 + 1839 262,910 + 1840 314,881 + 1841 300,770 + 1842 353,672 + 1843 377,765 + 1844 363,335 + 1848 510,218 + 1849 493,331 + 1850 448,589 + 1851 493,598 + 1852 408,577 + +The quantity of the four principal vegetable oils annually imported +into Great Britain, is shown by the following figures:-- + + Palm oil. Coco-nut oil. Castor oil. Olive oil. + cwts. cwts. cwts. tuns. + 1848 510,218 85,463 4,588 10,086 + 1849 493,331 64,452 9,681 16,964 + 1850 448,589 98,040 -- 20,738 + 1851 608,550 55,995 -- 11,503 + 1852 623,231 101,863 -- 8,898 + +THE OLIVE-TREE (_Olea Europea_).--There are several varieties of this +plant, two of which have been long distinguished--the wild and the +cultivated. The former is an evergreen shrub or low tree, with spiny +branches and round twigs; the latter is a taller tree, without +spines, and with four-angled twigs. The fruit is a drupe about the +size and color of a damson. Its fleshy pericarp yields by expression +olive oil, of which the finest comes from Provence and Florence. +Spanish or Castile soap is made by mixing olive oil and soda, while +soft soap is made by mixing the oil with potash. + +The wild olive is indigenous to Syria, Greece, and Africa, on the +lower slopes of Mount Atlas. The cultivated species grows +spontaneously in Syria, and is easily reared in Spain, Italy and the +South of France, various parts of Australia and the Ionian Islands. +Wherever it has been tried on the sea-coasts of Australia, the success +has been most complete. There are several fine trees near Adelaide, +some of them fourteen feet high, bearing fruit in abundance. +Unfortunately no one has attempted to cultivate the plant on a large +scale, but in a few years Australia ought to suply herself with olive +oil. + +The olive tree is also grown in Hong-Kong. + +There are five or six varieties of _O. Europoea_, or _sativa_, grown in +the south of Europe, of which district they are for the most part +natives. + +The entire exports of olive oil from the kingdom of Naples have been +estimated at 36,333 tuns a year, which, taken at its mean value when +exported at L62 per tun, is equivalent to the annual sum of +L2,252,646. + +There are one or two distinct species, natives of the East Indies and +the Cape of Good Hope. This genus of plants, besides their valuable +products of oil and fruit, are also much admired for the fragrance of +their white flowers. There is a yellow-blossomed variety, native of +China, _O. fragrans_, the Lan-hoa of the Chinese, which is used to +perfume their teas. + +Olive oil now forms an article of export from Chili, being grown in +most parts of that republic, particularly in the vicinity of St. Jago, +where trees of three feet in diameter, and of a proportionate height, +are common. The olive was first carried from Andalusia to Peru in +1560, by Antonio de Ribera, of Lima. Frezier speaks of the olive being +used for oil in Chili, a century and a half ago. + +The culture of the olive has been recommended for Florida and most of +the Southern States of America. Formerly, on account of its slow +growth, the olive was not considered very useful; but some years since +a new variety was introduced into France, and into some parts of Spain +and Portugal, which yields an abundant crop of fruit the second year +after planting. They are small trees or rather shrubs, about four or +five feet high. The fruit is larger than the common olive, is of a +fine green color when ripe, and contains a great deal of oil, The +advantages accruing from this new mode of cultivating the olive tree, +are beyond all calculation. By the old method an olive tree does not +attain its full growth, and consequently does not yield any +considerable crop under thirty years; whereas the new system of +cultivating dwarf trees, especially from cuttings, affords very +abundant crops in two or three. An acre of land can easily grow 2,500 +trees of the new variety, and the gathering of the fruit is easy, as +it can be done by small children. At Beaufort, South Carolina, the +olive is cultivated from plants which were obtained in the +neighbourhood of Florence, Italy. + +A gentleman in Mississippi is stated, by an American agricultural +journal, to have olive trees growing, which at five years from the +cutting bore fruit, and were as large at that age as they usually are +in Europe at eight years old. The olive then, it is added, will yield +a fair crop for oil at four years from the nursery, and in eight years +a full crop, or as much as in Europe at from fifteen to twenty years +of age. + +The lands and climate there are stated to be as well adapted to the +successful cultivation of the olive for oil, pickles, &c., as any part +of Europe. Some hundreds of the trees are grown in South Carolina, and +the owner expressed his conviction that this product would succeed +well on the sea-coast of Carolina and Georgia. The frosts, though +severe, did not destroy or injure them, and in one case, when the +plant was supposed to be dead, and corn was planted in its stead, its +roots sent out shoots. It is well known to be a tree of great +longevity, even reaching to 1,000 or 1,200 years; so that, when once +established, it will produce crops for a great while afterwards. The +expense of extracting the oil is also stated to be but trifling. + +The olive is of slow growth; trees 80 years of age measure only from +27 to 30 inches in circumference at the lower part of their trunks. An +olive tree is mentioned by M. Decandolle as measuring above 23 feet in +circumference, which, judging from the above inferences, may be safely +estimated at 700 years old. Two other colossal olives are recorded, +one at Hieres, measuring in circumference 36 feet, and one near Genoa, +measuring 38 feet 2 inches. The produce in fruit and oil is regulated +by the age of the trees, which are frequently little fortunes to their +owners. One at Villefranche produces on an average, in good seasons, +from 200 to 230 pounds of oil. The tree at Hieres, above-mentioned, +produces about 55 imperial gallons. + +The olive is found everywhere along the coast of Morocco, but +particularly to the south. The trees are planted in rows, which form +alleys, the more agreeable because the trees are large, round, and +high in proportion. They take care to water them, the better to +preserve the fruit. Oil of olives might be here plentifully extracted +were taxation fixed and moderate; but such has been the variation it +has undergone, that the culture of olives is so neglected as scarcely +to produce oil sufficient for domestic consumption. + +Olive oil might form one of the most valuable articles of export from +Morocco. It is strong, dark, and fit only for manufacturing purposes. +This is, perhaps, not so much the fault of the olive as of the methods +by which it is prepared. No care is taken in collecting the olives. +They are beaten from the trees with poles, as in Portugal and Spain, +suffered to lie on the ground in heaps until half putrified, then put +into uncleaned presses, and the oil squeezed through the filthy +residuum of former years. Good table oil might be made, if care were +taken, as in France and Lucca, to pick the olives without bruising +them, and to press only those that were sweet and sound. But such oil +would ill suit the palate of a Maroqueen, accustomed to drink by the +pint and the quart the rancid product of his country. + +The olive is the great staple of Corfu, which has, in fact, the +appearance of an extensive olive grove. It produces annually about +200,000 barrels. Olive oil is also produced for the purposes of +commerce, and for local consumption, by France, Algiers, Tuscany, +Spain, Sardinia, Portugal, Madeira, and South Australia. + +Olive plantations are extending considerably both in Upper and Lower +Egypt. Large quantities of trees were planted under the direction of +Ibrahim Pasha. + +The olive tree might be expected to be quickly matured at the Cape. +The native olive, resembling the European, is of spontaneous growth +and plentiful, so that if the Spanish or Italian tree were introduced, +there is no doubt of its success. The wood of the olive is exceedingly +hard and heavy, of a yellowish color, a close fine grain, capable of +the highest polish, not subject to crack nor to be affected by worms. +The root, in consequence of its variety of color, is much used for +snuff-boxes and similar bijouterie. + +The wood is beautifully veined, and has an agreeable smell. It is in +great esteem with cabinet makers, on account of the fine polish of +which it is susceptible. + +The sunny slopes of hills are best suited to its natural habits. +Layering is the most certain mode of propagating this fruit, although +it grows freely from the seed, provided it has first been steeped for +twelve hours in hot water or yeast. + +Olives intended for preservation are gathered before they are ripe. In +pickling, the object is to remove their bitterness and preserve them +green, by impregnating them with a brine. For this purpose various +methods are employed. The fruit being gathered are placed in a lye, +composed of one part of quicklime to six of ashes of young wood +sifted. Here they remain for half a day, and are then put into fresh +water, being renewed every 24 hours; from this they are removed into a +brine of common salt dissolved in water, to which add some aromatic +plants. The olive will in this manner remain good for twelve months. +For oil, the ripe fruit is gathered in November; the oil, unlike other +plants, being obtained from the pericarp, and immediately bruised in a +mill, the stones of which are set so wide as not to crush the kernel. +The pulp is then subjected to the press in bags made of rushes; and, +by means of a gentle pressure, the best or virgin oil flows first. A +second, and afterwards a third quality of oil is obtained, by +moistening the residuum, breaking the kernel, &c., and increasing the +pressure. When the fruit is not sufficiently ripe, the recent oil has +a bitterish taste, and when too ripe it is fatty. + +The following are the present market prices of olive oil in +Liverpool, (October, 1853,) and they are 40 per cent, higher than a +few years ago:--Galipoli, per tun of 252 gallons, L68; Spanish, L64; +Levant, L60. French olives, in half barrels of two gallons, are worth +L3 to L4; Spanish, in two gallon kegs, 9s. to 10s. + +The preserved or pickled olives, so admired as an accompaniment to +wine, are, as we have seen the green unripe fruit, deprived of part of +their bitterness by soaking them in water, and then preserved in an +aromatised solution of salt. + +The marc of olives after the oil has been expressed, indeed, the +refuse cake of all oil plants, is most valuable, either as manure or +for feeding cattle. + +More than 29,000 acres are under culture with the olive in the +Austrian empire, Venice, Dalmatia, Lombardy, Carinthia, and Carniola. +The climate of Dalmatia is highly suitable for the olive, and the oil +is better than that produced in most parts of Italy. Nearly 17,000 +cwt. are annually obtained. + +In 1837 there were 11,526 acres of ground under cultivation with +olives in Southern Illyria, which yielded 261,800 gallons. Olives and +sumach form the principal crops of the landholder. I have not been +able to get any recent correct statistics of the culture and produce. +The oil of Istria is considered equal to that of Provence. The stones +and refuse are used there for fuel. The olive is also extensively +cultivated in the Quarnero Islands, especially Veglia and Cherso, and +in Corfu. There were in 1836, 219,339 acres under cultivation in the +Ionian Islands, producing 113,219 barrels. The olive is gathered there +in December. The average price of the barrel of olive oil was 48s. 3d. +Nearly two millions of gallons of olive oil were exported from Sicily +in 1842. Naples alone shipped five millions of gallons in 1839, and +about 2,500 cwts. of oil is shipped annually from Morocco. Russia +imports about 500,000 poods (40 lbs. each) of olive oil annually. + +"Provence oil, the produce of Aix, is the most esteemed. Florence oil +is the virgin oil expressed from the ripe fruit soon after being +gathered; it is imported in flasks surrounded by a kind of network +formed by the leaves of a monocotyledonous plant, and packed in half +chests; it is that used at table under the name of salad oil. Lucca +oil is imported in jars holding nineteen gallons each. Genoa oil is +another fine kind. Galipoli oil forms the largest portion of the olive +oil brought to England, it is imported in casks. Apulia and Calabria +are the provinces of Naples most celebrated for its production; the +Apulian is the best. Sicily oil is of inferior quality; it is +principally produced at Milazzo. Spanish oil is the worst. The foot +deposited by olive oil is used for oiling machinery, under the name +of' droppings of sweet oil.'"--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") + +The manufacture of olive oil in Spain has undergone very considerable +improvement during the last few years; in particular, the process for +expressing the oil has been rendered more rapid and effectual by the +introduction of the hydraulic press, and thus the injurious +consequences which resulted from the partial fermentation of the fruit +are avoided. + +There are four different kinds of oil known in the districts where it +is prepared. + +1. _Virgin oil_--A term which is applied, in the district Montpellier, +to that which spontaneously separates from the paste of crushed +olives. This oil is not met with in commerce, being all used by the +inhabitants, either as an emollient remedy, or for oiling the works of +watches. A good deal of virgin oil is, however, obtained from Aix. + +2. _Ordinary oil_.--This oil is prepared by pressing the olives, +previously crushed and mixed with boiling water. By this second +expression, in which more pressure is applied than in the previous +one, an oil is obtained, somewhat inferior in quality to the virgin +oil. + +3. _Oil of the infernal regions_.--The water which has been employed +in the preceding operation is in some districts conducted into large +reservoirs called the _infernal regions_, where it is left for many +days. During this period, any oil that might have remained mixed with +the water separates and collects on the surface. This oil being very +inferior in quality, is only fit for burning in lamps, and is +generally locally used. + +4. _Fermented oil_ is obtained in the departments of Aix and +Montpellier, by leaving the fresh olives in heaps for some time, and +pouring boiling water over them before pressing the oil. But this +method is very seldom put in practice, for the olives during this +fermentation lose their peculiar flavor, become much heated, and +acquire a musty taste, which is communicated to the oil. + +The fruity flavor of the oil depends upon the quality of the olives +from which it is pressed, and not upon the method adopted in its +preparation,"--(French "Journal de Pharmacie.") + +The price of olive oil is sufficiently high to lead to its admixture +with cheaper oils. The oil of poppy seeds is that which is usually +employed for its adulteration, as it has the advantage of being cheap, +of having a sweet taste, and very little smell. M. Gobley has invented +an instrument which he calls an areometer, to detect this fraud. It is +founded on the difference between the densities of olive oil and oil +of poppies. + +The imports, which in 1826 were only 742,719 gallons, had risen in +1850 to 5,237,816 gallons. The following figures show the progressive +imports and consumption:-- + + Imported. Retained for home consumption. + gallons. gallons. + 1827 1,028,174 1,070,765 + 1831 4,158,917 1,928,892 + 1835 606,166 554,196 + 1839 1,793,920 1,806,178 + 1843 3,047,688 2,516,724 + 1847 2,190,384 -- + 1848 2,541,672 -- + 1849 4,274,928 -- + 1850 5,860,806 -- + 1851 2,898,756 2,749,572 + 1852 2,242,296 1,066,400 + +The imports of olive oil into the port of Liverpool were 9,815 tuns +in 1849, and 10,038 tuns in 1850. It was brought from Manila, Malaga, +and Corfu, but chiefly from Barbary, Palermo, Gallipoli, and the +Levant. In 1850 we imported from France 259,646 imperial gallons of +olive oil, officially valued at L34,638; the average in ordinary years +is only about 20,000 gallons from the continent. + + +ALMOND OIL.--To the south of the Empire of Morocco there are forests +of the Arzo tree, which is thorny, irregular in its form, and produces +a species of almond exceedingly hard. Its fruit consists of two +almonds, rough and bitter, from which an oil is produced, very +excellent for frying. In order to use this oil it requires to be +purified by fire, and set in a flame, which must be suffered to die +away of itself; the most greasy particles are thus consumed, and its +arid qualities wholly destroyed. "When the Moors gather these fruits +they drive their goats under the trees, and as the fruit falls the +animals carefully nibble off the skins, and then greedily feed. + +The oil of almonds is more fluid than olive oil, and of a clear, +transparent, yellowish color, with a very slight odor and taste. It is +occasionally employed for making the finer kinds of soap, and also in +medicine. + +In manufacturing it the fruit are first well rubbed or shaken in a +coarse bag or sack, to separate a bitter powder which covers their +epidermis. They are then pounded to a paste in mortars of marble, +which paste is afterwards subjected to the action of a press, as in +the case of the olive. + +About 80 tuns of almond oil are annually imported into this country, +the price being about 1s. per pound. Five-and-a-half pounds of almond +oil will yield by cold expression one pound six ounces of oil, and +three-fourths of a pound more if the iron plates are heated. + + +SESAME OR TEEL.--Of this small annual plant there are two or three +species. _Sesamum orientale_, the common sort; and _S. indicum_, a +more robust kind, cultivated at a different season, are both natives +of the East Indies. _S. indicum_ bears a pale purple flower, and _S. +orientals_ has a white blossom. It is the latter which is chiefly +grown, and the seeds afford the Gingellie oil or suffed-til, already +extensively known in commerce in the East. The expressed oil is as +clear and sweet as that from almonds, and probably the Behens oil, +used in varnish, is no other. It is called by the Arabs "Siriteh," and +the seed, "bennie " seed, in Africa. _S. orientals_ is grown in the +West Indies under the name of "wangle." It is said to have been first +brought to Jamaica by the Jews as an article of food. 1,050 bags of +gingelly teel, or sesame seed, were imported into Liverpool, in 1849, +from the East, South America, and Africa, for expressing oil, and +3,700 bags in 1850. There are two kinds of seed, light and dark, and +it is about the same size as mustard seed, only not round. + +A hectare of land in Algeria yields 1,475 kilogrammes of seed, which +estimated at 50 cents the kilogramme, amounts to 737 francs, whilst +the cost of production is only 259 francs, leaving a profit of 478 +francs (nearly L20). The oil obtained from this seed is inferior to +good olive oil, but is better adapted for the manufacture of soap. + +This plant is not unlike hemp, but the stalk is cleaner and +semi-transparent. The flower also is so gaudy, that a field in blossom +looks like a bed of florist's flowers, and its aromatic fragrance does +not aid to dispel such delusion. It flourishes most upon land which is +light and fertile. The fragrance of the oil is perceptibly weaker when +obtained from seed produced on wet, tenacious soils. A gallon of seed +seems to be the usual quantity sown upon an acre. In Bengal, _S. +orientale_ is sown during February, and the crop harvested at the end +of May; but _S. indicum_ is sown on high, dry soil, in the early part +of the rains of June, and the harvest occurs in September. About +Poonah it is sown in June and harvested in November. In Nepaul two +crops are obtained annually; one is sown as a first crop in April and +May, and reaped in October and November; the other as an autumn crop, +after the upland rise in August and September, and reaped in November +and December. + +In Mysore, after being cut it is stacked for a week, then exposed to +the sun for three days, but gathered into heaps at night; and between +every two days of such drying, it is kept a day in the heap. By this +process, the pods burst and shed their seeds without thrashing. + +The seeds contain an abundance of oil, which might be substituted for +olive oil; it is procured from them in great quantities, in Egypt, +India, Kashmir, China, and Japan, where it is used both for cooking +and burning. It will keep for many years and not acquire any rancid +smell or taste, but in the course of a year or two becomes quite mild, +so that when the warm taste of the seed, which is in the oil when +first expressed, is worn off, it is used for all the purposes of salad +oil. It possesses such qualities as fairly entitle it to introduction +into Europe; and if divested of its mucilage, it might perhaps compete +with oil of olives, at least for medicinal purposes, and could be +raised in any quantity in the British Indian Presidencies. It is +sufficiently free from smell to admit of being made the medium for +extracting the perfume of the jasmine, the tuberose, narcissus, +camomile, and of the yellow rose. The process is managed by adding one +weight of flowers to three weights of oil in a bottle, which being +corked is exposed to the rays of the sun for forty days, when the oil +is supposed to be sufliciently impregnated for use. This oil, under +the name of Gingilie oil, is used in India to adulterate oil of +almonds. + +The flour of the seed, after the oil is expressed, is used in making +cakes, and the straw serves for fuel and manure. + +The oil is much used in Mysore for dressing food, and as a common lamp +oil. From 200 to 400 quarters under the name of Niger seed are +imported annually into Liverpool for expressing oil. + +Three varieties of Til are extensively cultivated throughout India, +for the sake of the fine oil expressed from their seeds, the white +seeded variety, the parti-colored, and the black. It is from the +latter that the sesamum or gingelly oil of commerce is obtained. +Sesamum seed contains about 45 per cent. of oil. Good samples of the +oil were shown at the Great Exhibition from Vizianagram, Ganjain, +Hyderabad, Tanjore, the district of Moorshedabad, and Gwalior. The +gingelly seed is stated to be worth about L4 per ton in the North +Circars. + +An oil resembling that of sesamum is obtained from the seed of +_Guizotea oleifera_ and _Abyssinica_, a plant introduced from +Abyssinia, and common in Bengal. The ram til, or valisaloo seeds, +yield about 34 per cent, of oil. The oil is generally used for +burning, and is worth locally about 10d. per gallon. + +BLACK TIL (_Verbesena sativa_).--This is known as kutsela or kala til, +in the Deccan. It is chiefly cultivated in Mysore and the western +districts of Peninsular India, as well as in the Bombay presidency. + +About Seringapatam, as soon as the millet crop has been reaped the +field is ploughed four times, and the seed sown, a gallon per acre, +during the month of July or August, after the first heavy rain. No +manure or weeding is required, for the crop will grow on the worst +soils. It is reaped in three months, being cut close to the ground, +and stacked for a week. After exposure to the sun for two or three +days, the seed is beaten out with a stick. The crop in Mysore rarely +yields two bushels per acre, but about Poonah the produce is much +larger. The seed is sometimes parched and made into sweetmeats, but is +usually grown for its oil. This is used in cooking, but it is not so +abundant in the seed, nor so good as that of the sesame. Bullocks will +not eat the stems unless pressed by hunger. + +About 5,000 maunds are exported annually from Calcutta. 3,703 bags +were imported into Liverpool in 1851. The price per quarter of eight +bushels, in January, 1853, was from 30s. to L2; of teel oil, in tins, +weighing 60 to 100 pounds, L2 to L2 4s. + +Bombay linseed was worth L2 11s. to L2 12s. the quarter of eight +bushels, in January, 1853. Bengal ditto 2s. less. The imports into +Liverpool were 68,468 bags and 54,834 pockets in 1851, and 14,490 bags +and 33,700 pockets in 1852. About 9,000 bags of mustard seed and from +18,000 to 20,000 bags of rape seed are also imported thence. The price +of the latter is about L2 the quarter. + +NATIVE OIL MILLS.--The principal native oil mill of India, of which, +however, there are some varieties, consists of a simple wooden mortar +with revolving pestle. It is in common use in all Belgaum and +Bangalore. Two oxen are harnessed to the geering, which depends from +the extremity of the pestle,--a man sits on the top of the mortar, and +throws in the seeds that may have got displaced. The mill grinds twice +a day; a fresh man and team being employed on each occasion. When +sesame oil is to be made, about seventy seers measure, or two and a +half bushels of seeds are thrown in; to this ten seers, or two quarts +and three-quarters of water, are gradually added; this on the +continuance of the grinding, which lasts in all six hours, unites with +the fibrous portion of the seeds, and forms a cake, which, when +removed, leaves the oil clean and pure at the bottom of the mortar. +From this it is taken out by a coco-nut shell cup, on the pestle being +withdrawn. Other seed oils are described by Dr. Buchanan, as made +almost entirely in the same way as the sesamum. The exceptions are the +hamlu, or castor oil, obtained from either the small or large +varieties of _Ricinus_. This, at Seringapatam, is first parched in +pots, containing something more than a seer each. It is then beaten in +a mortar, and formed into balls; of these from four to sixteen seers +are put in an earthenware pot and boiled with an equal quantity of +water, for the space of five hours; frequent care being taken to stir +the mixture to prevent it from burning. The oil now floats on the +surface, and is skimmed off pure. The oil mill made use of at Bombay, +and to the northward, at Surat, Cambay, Kurrachee, &c., differs a +little from that just described, in having a very strong wooden frame +round the mouth of the mortar; on this the man who keeps the seeds in +order sits. In Scinde a camel is employed to drive the mill instead of +bullocks. + +Castor oil seed is thrown into the mill like other seeds, as already +described; when removed it requires to be boiled for an hour, and then +strained through a cloth to free it from the fragments of the seed. + +It is a curious fact, and illustrative of the imperfect manner in +which the oil is separated from the seeds, that while the common +pressman only obtained some 261/4 per cent., Boussingault, in his +laboratory, from the same seeds, actually procured 41 per cent. When +the oil cakes are meant for feeding stock, this loss is of little +consequence, inasmuch as the oil serves a very good purpose, but when +the cake is only intended to be used as a manure, it is a great loss, +inasmuch as the oil is of little or no use in adding any food for +crops to the soil. + +The chief oil made on the sea board of India, is that yielded by the +coco-nut palm. The nut having been stripped of the husk or coir, the +shell is broken, and the fatty lining enclosing the milk is taken out. +This is called cobri, copra, or copperah in different localities. +Three maunds, or ninety pounds of copperah, are thrown into the mill +with about three gallons of water, and from this is produced three +maunds, or seven and three-quarter gallons of oil. The copperah in its +unprepared state is sold, slightly dried in the market. It is burned +in iron cribs or grates, on the top of poles as torches, in +processions, and as means of illumination for work performed in the +open air at night. No press or other contrivance is made use of by the +natives in India for squeezing out or expressing the oil from the +cake, and a large amount of waste, in consequence of this, necessarily +ensues.--_Bombay Times_, June 5, 1850. + +Oil, of the finest kind, is made in India by expression from the +kernels of the apricot. It is clear, of a pale yellow color, and +smells strongly of hydrocyanic acid, of which it contains, usually, +about 4 per cent. + +"On inquiring into the use made of the sunflower, we were given to +understand that it is here (in Tartary) raised chiefly for the oil +expressed from it. But it is also of use for many other purposes. In +the market places of the larger towns we often found the people eating +the seeds, which, when boiled in water, taste not unlike the boiled +Indian corn eaten by the Turks. In some districts of Russia the seeds +are employed with great success in fattening poultry; they are also +said to increase the number of eggs more than any other kind of grain. +Pheasants and partridges eat them with great avidity, and find the +same effects from them as other birds. The dried leaves are given to +cattle in place of straw; and the withered stalks are said to produce +a considerable quantity of alkali."--_Bremner's Interior of Russia._ + +658 barrels linseed oil were brought down to New Orleans from the +interior in 1849, and 1009 in 1848. + +During the period of the Great Exhibition special enquiry was made by +many manufacturers as to the different oils of Southern India, +suitable for supplying the place of animal fat in the manufacture of +candles, and generally adapted for various other purposes. Enquiries +should be directed to the specific gravity, the boiling point, the per +centage of pure oil in the seeds, and the means of obtaining a regular +supply. The demand for vegetable oils in European commerce has been +steadily on the increase for several years past, and the quantities +consumed are now so large that the oleaginous products of India and +the colonies must sooner or later have a considerable commercial +importance, from the value which they are likely to acquire. Indeed +some have already established a footing in the home market, and Drs. +Hunter, Cleghorn, and others in India, have specially directed the +attention of the natives and merchants to the subject. + +MARGOSE, OR NEEM OIL.--From the pericarp or fleshy part of the fruit +of the _Melia Azederachta_, the well known Margosa oil is prepared; +which is cheap and easily procurable in Ceylon. Dr. Maxwell, garrison +surgeon of Trichinopoly, states that he has found this oil equally +efficacious to cod-liver oil in cases of consumption and scrofula. He +began with half-ounce doses, morning and evening, which were gradually +reduced. + +ILLEPE OIL.--The seeds of three species of Bassia, indigenous to +India, yield solid oils, and are remarkable for the fact, that they +supply at the same time saccharine matter, spirit, and oil, fit for +both food and burning in lamps. The Illepe( _B. longifolia_) is a tree +abundant in the Madras Presidency, the southern parts of Hindostan +generally, and the northern province of Ceylon. In Ceylon the +inhabitants use the oil in cooking and for lamps. The oil cake is +rubbed on the body as soap, and seems admirably adapted for removing +the unctuosity of the skin caused by excessive perspiration, and for +rendering it soft, pliable, and glossy, which is so conducive to +health in a tropical climate. The oil is white and solid at common +temperatures, fusing at from 70 to 80 degrees. It may be +advantageously employed in the manufacture of both candles and soap; +in Ceylon and some parts of India this oil forms the chief ingredient +in the manufacture of soap. + +Mahower (_B. latifolia_) is common in most parts of the Bengal +Presidency. The oil a good deal resembles that last described, +obtained from the Illepe seeds; and may be used for similar purposes. +It is solid at common temperatures, and begins to melt at about 70 +degrees. + +Vegetable butter is obtained from the Choorie (_B. butyracea_). This +tree, though far less generally abundant than the other two species, +is common in certain of the hilly districts, especially in the eastern +parts of Kumaon; in the province of Dotee it is so abundant that the +oil is cheaper than ghee, or fluid butter, and is used to adulterate +it. It is likewise commonly burnt in lamps, for which purpose it is +preferred to coco-nut oil. It is a white solid fat, fusible at about +120 degrees, and exhibits very little tendency to become rancid when +kept. + +Shea, or galam butter, is obtained in Western Africa from the _Bassia +Parkii_, or _Pentadisma butyracea_, a tree closely resembling the _B. +latifolia_, and other species indigenous to Hindostan. According to +Park, the tree is abundant in Bambara, the oil is solid, of a +greyish-white color, and fuses at 97 degrees. Its product is used for +a variety of purposes--for cooking, burning in lamps, &c. + +This tree has much of the character of the laurel, but grows to the +height of eighteen or twenty feet. Its leaf is somewhat longer than +the laurel, and is a little broader at the point; the edges of the +leaf are gently curved, and are of a dark sap green color. The nut is +of the form and size of a pigeon's egg, and the kernel completely +fills the shell. When fresh it is of a white drab color, but, if long +kept, becomes the color of chocolate. The kernel, when new, is nearly +all butter, which is extracted in the following manner:--The shell is +removed from the kernel, which is also crushed, and then a quantity is +put into an earthen pot or pan, placed over the fire with a portion of +water and the nut kernels. After boiling slowly about half an hour the +whole is strained through a grass mat into a clean vessel, when it is +allowed to cool. Then, after removing the fibrous part from it, it is +put into a grass bag and pressed so as to obtain all the oil. This is +poured into the vessel along with the first-mentioned portion, and +when cold is about the consistence of butter. + +The nuts hang in bunches from the different boughs, but each nut has +its own fibre, about seven or eight inches long, and about the +thickness and color of whip-cord. The nut is attached to the fibre in +a very singular manner. The end of the fibre is concealed by a thin +membrane, about half an inch wide and three-quarters of an inch long. +This membrane is attached to the side of the nut, and, when ripe, +relinquishes its hold, and the nut falls to the ground, when it is +gathered for use. A good-sized healthy tree yields about a bushel of +nuts, but the greater number are not so prolific. The trees close to +the stream present a more healthy appearance, probably on account of +being better watered, and the fire being less powerful close to the +stream. + +THE CANDLE NUT TREE (_Aleurites triloba_, of Foster) grows in the +Polynesian Islands, and is also met with in some parts of Jamaica and +the East Indies. In the latter quarter it is known as the Indian +Akhrowt. A very superior kind of paint oil is produced from the nut, +and the cake, after the expression of the oil, forms an excellent food +for cattle, and a useful manure. 311/2 gallons of the nut yield ten +gallons of oil, which bears a good price in the home markets. + +The yearly produce of this oil in the Sandwich Isles, where it is +called kukui oil, is about 10,000 gallons. It has been shipped to the +markets of Chili, New South Wales, and London, but not as yet with +much profit. It realized about L20 per imperial ton in the port of +London. In 1843, about 8,620 gallons were shipped from Honolulu, +valued at 1s. 8d. per gallon. + +In Ceylon the oil is known as kekune oil, and a good deal of it might +be obtained there from the district of Badulla. From the trials made +it appears that it cannot be used as a drying oil, but will probably +answer best as a substitute for rape oil. Samples have been sent to +several clothiers, and the nature and quality of the oil renders it +most applicable to their purposes. + +COLZA (_Brassica oleracea_), a variety of the common cabbage, is much +grown in the South of Europe and other parts, for the oil obtained by +pressure from its seeds, and which is used for lamps and other +purposes. The plant will not thrive on sand or clay, but requires a +rich light soil. After the ground has been well ploughed and manured, +the seed should be sown in July, in furrows eight or ten inches +asunder. The plants are transplanted about October. When ripe the +stalks are reaped with a sickle, and the seeds threshed out with a +flail. The cake, after the oil is expressed, is an excellent food for +cattle. + +Like all the oleaginous plants cultivated for their seed, colza +greatly impoverishes the soil. + +In Peru the caoutchouc is used as a substitute for candles. A roll of +it (which is generally about a yard long and three inches in diameter) +is cut lengthways into four parts, but before it is lighted the piece +is rolled up in a green plantain leaf, to prevent it from melting or +taking fire down the sides. The natives of Peru also bruize the beans +of a species of wild cacao after they have been well dried, and use +the substance instead of tallow in their lamps. + +Mr. Dearman, writing from Dacca, to Dr. Spry, Secretary to the +Agricultural and Horticultural Societies of India, in 1839, says--"I +will send you some seeds from a tree, which resemble chestnuts. One of +these seeds, after taking off the shell, being stuck on the point of +a penknife, and lighted at a candle flame, will burn without the least +odor for four or five minutes, giving a light equal to two or three +candles. From the flower of the tree (he adds), I am told, is +distilled a delightful scent." [I presume this must be the candle-nut +tree.] + +At the Feejee and Hawaian islands, the seeds of the castor oil plant +and of the candle-nut tree (_Aleurites triloba_) are strung together +and used for candles. Species of torches are also made from the candle +wood in Demerara. + +THE CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE (_Myrica cerifera_) abounds in the Bahama +Islands. The shrub produces a small green berry, which, like the hog +plum, puts out from the trunk and larger limbs. Much patient labor is +required in gathering these berries, and from them is obtained a +beautiful green wax, which burns very nearly, if not fully, as well as +the spermaceti, or composition candles imported from abroad. Not long +since Mr. Thos. B. Musgrove, of St. Salvador (or Cat Island), obtained +about 80 lbs. of this wax, and made some excellent candles of it. The +method of procuring this wax is by boiling the berries in a copper or +brass vessel for some time. Iron pots are found to darken and cloud +the wax. The vessel after a sufficient time is taken from the fire, +and when cool the hardened wax, floating on the top of the water, is +skimmed off. + +MYRTLE WAX.--According to the experiments of M. Cadet and Dr. Bostock, +myrtle wax differs in many respects from bees' wax, Specimens of it +assume shades of a yellowish green color. Its smell is also different; +myrtle wax, when fresh, emitting a fragrant balsamic odor. It has in +part the unctuosity of bees' wax, and somewhat of the brittleness of +resin. Its specific gravity is greater, insomuch that it sinks in +water, whereas bees' wax floats upon it; and it is not so easily +bleached to form white wax. The wax tree of Louisiana contains immense +quantities of wax. + +Mr. Moodie ("Ten Tears in South Africa") says,-- + + "I occasionally employed my people, at spare times, in gathering wax + berries that grow in great abundance upon small bushes in the sand + hills, near the sea, and yield a substance partaking of the nature + of wax and tallow, which is mixed with common tallow, and used by + the colonists for making candles. The berry is about the size of a + pea, and covered with a bluish powder. They are gathered by + spreading a skin on the sand, and beating the bush with a stick. + When a sufficient quantity of the berries are collected, they are + boiled in a great quantity of water, and the wax is skimmed off as + fast as it rises; the wax is then poured into flat vessels and + allowed to cool, when it becomes hard and brittle, and has a + metallic sound when struck. The cakes thus formed are of a deep + green color, and are sold at the same price as tallow. The wild pigs + devour these berries when they come in their way, and seem very fond + of them." + +A good specimen of myrtle, or candleberry wax, accompanied by candles +made from it in the crude unbleached state in New Brunswick, was shown +at the Great Exhibition. + +Vegetable wax was also sent from Shanghae, in China; from St. Domingo, +in the northern parts of which the plant is indigenous; and a +remarkable specimen from Japan. This substance, from its high melting +point and other physical characteristics, has of late attracted a good +deal of attention; it is admirably suited as a material for the +manufacture of candles. + +At a meeting of the Central Board, at Cape Town, in March, 1853, the +members voted about L300, to employ some 20 or 30 men, in gathering +berries from the Downs, and making wax during the winter months, that +is, from the beginning of May to the end of September. The wax fetches +a good price in the Cape market. + + In the annual report of the Cape of Good Hope Agricultural Society, + in May, 1853, a very fine sample of myrtle, or terry wax, grown on + the Cape Flats, was exhibited by Mr. Feeny, Superintendent of the + Road Plantation, by direction of the Commissioners of the Central + Road Board, in different stages of purification, from green to + white, as also some candles; and it being conceived by the meeting + that this article might ultimately become one of considerable + importance for purposes of export, a letter of thanks was addressed + to Mr. Feeny; and Nathaniel Day, the constable who assisted him, was + presented with the sum of L5, as a remuneration for his trouble in + assisting to purify and prepare the wax. On reference to the juror's + report on the Great Exhibition, it will be gratifying to find that + the berry wax, forwarded by this Society, had attracted peculiar + notice, and a prize medal been awarded for it; the following + reference is therein made to it: "some fine specimens of myrtle or + berry wax, from the Cape of Good Hope, are exhibited by J. + Lindenberg, of Worcester. This is an excellent material for the + manufacture of candles, when employed in conjunction with other + solid fats. The jury awarded a prize medal for these specimens." + + Your Committee would suggest every possible attention being drawn to + this subject, in which they are gratified to state, the + Commissioners of the Central Road Board have evinced a readiness to + co-operate, by offering to place at the Society's disposal the sum + of L10 10s., "to be given as a premium for the best information + respecting the wax berry plant, the soils and situations in which it + is found to grow most luxuriantly: the best mode of propagating and + cultivating it, of collecting the berries, and extracting and + preparing the wax, &c." And from a letter received from the + Secretary to the Central Road Board, it appears that the Board had + authorised the shipment to England of 2,561 lbs. of the wax, by the + _Queen of the South_ in November last, which, from the account sales + lately received from Messrs. J.R. Thomson & Co., realised as + follows, viz.:-- + + 4 cases weighing nett 856 lbs. a 8d. L28 10 8 + 4 " 1040 lbs. a 9d. 39 0 0 + 3 " 745 lbs. a 11d. 34 2 11 + 3 " 6 lbs. a 11d. 0 5 6 + --------------- + L101 19 1 + Discount 21/2 per cent. 2 11 0 + --------------- + L99 8 1 + + CHARGES. + Warehouse Entry 3s. 6d. Fire Insurance + 2s., Ports 2s. 6d L0 8 0 + Freight 7 3 3 + Primage 0 14 4 + Dock Charges 3 9 6 + Sale Expenses 0 9 0 + Brokerage 1 0 6 + --------------- + L13 4 7 + + Commission at 21/2 per cent 2 11 0 + --------------- + Carried forward L16 15 7 + + Brought forward L15 15 7 + --------- + L83 12 6 + Deduct Bills of Lading, &c. 0 19 6 + --------- + L82 13 0 + Deduct the Board's expenses for gathering and + preparing, &c 28 8 7 + --------- + Leaving a clear profit of L54 4 5 + + This statement shows that from a plant, which is indigenous to the + colony, and might he cultivated to almost any extent, and mostly on + soils unavailable for other purposes, an article of great export + could be derived at a comparatively small expense; it is with that + view that I desire to direct public attention more prominently to + it. + +In the Museum of the Royal Botanic Gardens, at Kew, wax is shown as +scraped from the trunk of the wax palm (_Ceroxylon andicola_), and +candles made from it, as also some made of acorns and closely +resembling common tallow. Concrete milk and butter made from the Shea +butter tree, and others growing in Para, are also exhibited. + +Wax candles have been made from the seeds of _Myrica macrocarpa_ in +Colombia, and also from vegetable wax in Java. Some of these are to be +seen in the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society of London. + + +CASTOR OIL PLANT. + +Castor oil is expressed from the seeds of _Ricinus communis (Palma +Christi)_, a plant with petale-palmate leaves, which is found native +in Greece, Africa, the South of Spain, and the East Indies, and is +cultivated in the West Indies, as well as in North and South America. +In the temperate and northern parts of Europe, the plant is an +herbaceous annual, of from three to eight feet high; in the more +southern parts it becomes scrubby and even attains an height of twenty +feet; while in India it is often a tree thirty to forty feet high. The +best oil is obtained by expression from the seeds without heat, and is +hence called "cold drawn oil." A large quantity of oil may be produced +by boiling the seeds, but it is less sweet and more apt to become +rancid than that procured by expression. + +The _Palma Christi_ grows continuously for about four years, and +becomes a large tree in constant bearing, ripening its rich clusters +of beans in such profusion, that 100 bushels may be obtained annually +from an acre, and their product of oil two gallons per bushel. + +There are several species, all of which yield oil of an equally good +quality. A shrubby variety is common in South Australia, and other +parts of New Holland. _Ricinus lividus_ is a native of the Cape of +Good Hope. It is a hardy plant, of the easiest culture, and will +thrive in almost any soil, whether in the burning plains or the +coldest part of the mountains. The seed should be planted in the +tropics in September, singly, and at the distance of 10 or twelve feet +apart. They will bear the first season, and continue to yield for +years. When the seed-pods become brown, they are in a fit state to +pluck. It is often grown in the East intermixed with other crops. The +primitive mode of obtaining the oil is to separate the seeds from the +husks, and bruise them by tying them up in a grass mat. In this state +they are put into a boiler amongst water, and boiled until all the oil +is separated, which floats at the top, and the refuse sinks to the +bottom; it is then skimmed off, and put away for use. The purest oil +is obtained, as before-mentioned, by crushing the seeds (which are +sewed up in horsehair bags), by the action of heavy iron beaters. The +oil, as it oozes out, is caught in troughs, and conveyed to receivers, +whence it is bottled for use. + +Castor oil is used for lamps in the East Indies, and the Chinese have +some mode of depriving it of its medicinal properties, so as to render +it suitable for culinary purposes. + +That which we import from the East Indies comes from Bombay and +Calcutta, and is obtained at a very low price. It is exceedingly pure, +both in color and taste. + +In the West Indies the shrub grows about six feet high. The stalks are +jointed, and the branches covered with leaves about eighteen inches in +circumference, forming eight or ten sharp-pointed divisions, of a +bluish green color, spreading out in different directions. The flowers +contain yellow stamina; the seed is enclosed in a triangular husk, of +a dark brown color, and covered with a light fur, of the same color as +the husk. When the capsule is thoroughly ripened by the sun, it +bursts, and expels the seeds, which are usually three in number. + +In Jamaica this plant is of such speedy growth, that in one year it +arrives at maturity, and I have known it to attain to the height of +twenty feet. A gallon of the seed yields by expression about two +pounds of oil. + +The wholesale price in Liverpool, in October, 1853, was 3d. to 5d. per +lb. + +It is brought over from the East Indies in small tin cases, soldered +together and packed in boxes, weighing about 2 cwt. each. + +In Ceylon castor oil is obtained from two varieties of the plant, the +white and the red. + +The native mode of preparing the oil is by roasting the seed; this +imparts an acridity to the oil, which is objectionable. By attending +to the following directions, the oil may be prepared in the purest and +best form. The modes of preparation are--1. By boiling in water. 2. By +expression. 3. Extraction by alcohol. In the first the seeds are +slightly roasted to coagulate the albumen, cleaned of the integuments, +bruised in a mortar, and the paste boiled in pure water. The oil which +rises on the surface is removed, and treated with an additional +quantity of fresh water; 10,000 parts of clean seed give by this +process (in Jamaica) 3,250 of oil, of good quality, though +amber-colored. 2. Expression is the simplest and most usually adopted +process; the cleaned kernels are well bruised, placed in cloth bags, +and compressed in a powerful lever and screw press. A thick oil is +obtained, which must be filtered through cloth and paper to separate +the mucilage. In Bengal the manufacturers boil the oil water, which +coagulates some albumen, and they subsequently filter through cloth, +charcoal, and paper. 3. The extraction by alcohol is practised by some +druggists. Each pound of paste is triturated with four pounds of +alcohol, specific gravity 8.350, and the mixture subjected to +pressure. The oil dissolved by the alcohol escapes very freely: one +half is recovered by the distillation of the spirit, the residue of +the distillation is boiled in a large quantity of water. The oil +separates and is removed, and gently heated to expel any adherent +moisture; then filtered at the temperature of 90 deg. Fahrenheit; +1,000 parts of the paste have by this process given 625 of colorless +and exceedingly sweet oil. + +The cultivation of the _Palma christi_, and the manufacture of castor +oil, is extensively carried on in some parts of the United States, and +continues on the increase. A single firm at St. Louis has worked up +18,500 bushels of beans in four months, producing 17,750 gallons of +oil, and it is stated that 800 barrels have been sold, at 50 dollars +per barrel. The oil may be prepared for burning, for machinery, soap, +&c., and is also convertible into stearine. It is more soluble in +alcohol than lard-oil. + +American castor oil is imported for the most part from New York and +New Orleans, but some comes from our own possessions in North America. +In the United States, according to the "American Dispensatory," the +cleansed seeds are gently heated in a shallow iron reservoir, to +render the oil liquid for easy expression, and then compressed in a +powerful screw press, by which a whitish oily liquid is obtained, +which is boiled with water in clean iron boilers, and the impurities +skimmed off as they rise to the surface. The water dissolves the +mucilage and starch, and the heat coagulates the albumen, which forms +a whitish layer between the oil and water. The clear oil is now +removed, and boiled with a minute portion of water until aqueous +vapors cease to arise: by this process an acrid volatile matter is got +rid of. The oil is put into barrels, and in this way is sent into the +market. American oil has the reputation of being adulterated with +olive oil. Good seeds yield about 25 per cent. of oil. A large +proportion of the drug consumed in the eastern section of the Union is +derived by way of New Orleans from Illinois and the neighbouring +States, where it is so abundant that it is sometimes used for burning +in lamps. + +In Jamaica the bruised seeds are boiled with water in an iron pot, and +the liquid kept constantly stirred. The oil which separates swims on +the top, mixed with a white froth, and is skimmed off. The skimmings +are heated in a small iron pot, and strained through a cloth. When +cold it is put in jars or bottles for use. + + Castor oil imported. Retained. + lbs. lbs. + 1826 263,382 453,072 + 1831 393,191 327,940 + 1836 981,585 809,559 + 1841 871,136 732,720 + 1846 1,477,168 -- + 1849 1,084,272 -- + 1850 3,495,632 -- + +The imports of castor oil come chiefly from the East India Company's +possessions, and were as follows, nearly all being retained for home +consumption:-- + + lbs. + 1830 490,558 + 1831 343,373 + 1832 257,386 + 1833 316,779 + 1834 685,457 + 1835 1,107,115 + 1836 972,552 + 1837 957,164 + 1838 837,143 + 1839 916,370 + 1840 1,190,173 + 1841 869,947 + 1842 490,156 + 1843 717,696 + +In 1841, 12,406 Indian maunds of castor oil were shipped from Calcutta +alone, and 7,906 ditto in 1842. + +In 1842, 8 cases were shipped from Ceylon, 10 in 1843, 24 in 1844, and +14 in 1845. + +1,439 barrels were shipped from New Orleans in 1847. The quantity +brought down to that city from the interior was 1,394 barrels in 1848, +and 1,337 barrels in 1849. + +Within the last year or two, an attempt has been made to introduce the +cake obtained in expressing the seeds of the castor oil plant as a +manure, which is deserving attention, both because it is in itself +likely to prove a serviceable addition to the list of fertilizers +which may be advantageously employed, and because it may lead to the +use of similar substances, which are at present neglected, or thrown +aside as refuse. + +The castor oil seed resembles in chemical composition the other oily +seeds. It consists of a mixture of mucilaginous, albuminous, and oily +matters; and the former two of these are identical in constitution and +general properties with the substances found in linseed and rape cake, +while the oil is principally distinguished by its purgative +properties. The cake obtained is in the form of ordinary oil-cake, but +is at once distinguished from it by its color, and by the large +fragments of the husk of the seeds which it contains. It is also much, +softer, and may be easily broken down with the hand. I have analysed +two samples of castor cake, stated to have been obtained by different +processes; and though I have not been informed of the exact nature of +these processes, I infer, from the large quantity of oil, that one +must have been cold-drawn. The first of the following analyses is that +of the sample which I believe the cold-drawn. It is the most complete +of the two, and contains a determination of the amount of oil. In the +other analysis this was not done, but there was no doubt on my mind +that its quantity was much smaller. + + No. 1. No. 2. + Water 8.32 16.31 + Oil 24.32 -- + Nitrogen 3.05 3.35 + Ash 7.22 4.95 + + The ash contains-- + Siliccous matters 1.96 -- + Phosphates 3.36 2.27 + Excess of phosphoric acid 0.64 -- + +In order to give a proper idea of the value of this substance as a +manure, I shall quote here, for comparison sake, the average +composition of rape cake, as deduced from the analyses contained in +the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland:-- + + Water 10.68 + Oil 11.10 + Nitrogen 4.63 + Ash 7.79 + The ash contains-- + Siliccous matters 1.18 + Phosphates 3.87 + Excess of phosphoric acid 0.39 + +It will be at once seen that there is a close general resemblance +between these two substances, although there is no doubt that the +castor cake is inferior to rape cake; still I believe that this +inferiority is fully counterbalanced by the difference in price, which +is such that, compared with rape cake, the castor cake is really a +cheap manure. There is only one of its constituents which it contains +in larger quantity, and that is the oil. No weight is, however, to be +attached to the quantity of oil in a manure. In a substance to be used +as food, it is of very high importance; but so far as we at present +know, its value as manure is extremely problematical. Whale, seal, and +other coarse oils have been used as manures, and by some few observers +benefits have been derived from their application, but the general +experience has not been favorable to their use, nor should we +chemically be induced to expect any beneficial effect from them. We +have every reason to believe that the oils which are found in plants +are produced there as the results of certain processes which are +proceeding within the plant, and there is no evidence to show that any +part of it is ever absorbed in the state of oil by the roots when they +are presented to them. On the other hand, the oils are extremely inert +substances, and undergo chemical changes very slowly; so that there is +no likelihood of their being converted into carbonic acid, or any +other substance which may be useful to the plant; and as they contain +no nitrogen, and consist only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they +can yield only those elements of which the plant can easily obtain an +unlimited supply. I can conceive cases in which the oil might possibly +produce some mechanical effect on the soil, but none in which it could +act as a manure, in the proper sense of the term. + +KANARI on.--Mr. Crawfurd, in his "History of the Indian Archipelago," +speaks most favorably of an oil obtained from the "Kanari," a tree +which, he says, is a native of the same country as the sago palm, and +is not found to the westward, though it has been introduced to Celebes +and Java. I have not been able to distinguish its botanical name; but +Mr. Crawfurd describes it as a large handsome tree, and one of the +most useful productions of the Archipelago. It bears a nut of an +oblong shape, nearly the size of a walnut, the kernel of which is as +delicate as that of a filbert, and abounds with oil. The nuts are +either smoked and dried for use, or the oil is expressed from them in +their recent state. It is used for all culinary purposes, and is purer +and more palatable than that of the coco-nut. The kernels, mixed up +with a little sago meal, are made into cakes and eaten as bread. + + +THE COCO-NUT PALM. + +This palm (_Cocos nucifera_) is one of the most useful of the +extensive family to which it belongs, supplying food, clothing, +materials for houses, utensils of various kinds, rope and oil; and +some of its products, particularly the two last, form important +articles of commerce. An old writer, in a curious discourse on palm +trees, read before the Royal Society, in 1688, says, "The coco nut +palm is alone sufficient to build, rig, and freight a ship with bread, +wine, water, oil, vinegar, sugar, and other commodities. I have sailed +(he adds) in vessels where the bottom and the whole cargo hath been +from the munificence of this palm tree. I will take upon me to make +good what I have asserted." And then he proceeds to describe and +enumerate each product. Another recent popular writer speaks in +eloquent terms of the estimation in which it is held, and the various +uses to which it is applied. + +"Its very aspect is imposing. Asserting its supremacy by an erect and +lofty bearing, it may be said to compare with other trees, as man with +inferior creatures. The blessings it confers are incalculable. Year +after year the islander reposes beneath its shade, both eating and +drinking of its fruit; he thatches his hut with its boughs, and weaves +them into baskets to carry his food; he cools himself with a fan +plaited from the young leaflets, and shields his head from the sun by +a bonnet of the leaves; sometimes he clothes himself with the +cloth-like substance which wraps round the base of the stalks, whose +elastic rods, strung with filberts, are used as a taper. The larger +nuts, thinned and polished, furnish him with a beautiful goblet; the +smaller ones with bowls for his pipes; the dry husks kindle his fires; +their fibres are twisted into fishing-lines and cords for his canoes. +He heals his wounds with a balsam compounded from the juice of the +nut; and with the oil extracted from its pulp embalms the bodies of +the dead. The noble trunk itself is far from being valueless. Sawn +into posts, it upholds the islander's dwelling; converted into +charcoal, it cooks his food; and, supported on blocks of stones, rails +in his lands. He impels his canoe through the water with a paddle of +the wood, and goes to battle with clubs and spears of the same hard +material. In Pagan Tahiti, a coco-nut branch was the symbol of regal +authority. Laid upon the sacrifice in the temple, it made the offering +sacred; and with it the priests chastised and put to flight the evil +spirits which assailed them. The supreme majesty of Oro, the great god +of their mythology, was declared in the coco-nut log from which his +image was rudely carved. Upon one of the Tonga Islands there stands a +living tree, revered itself as a deity. Even upon the Sandwich Islands +the coco palm retains all its ancient reputation; the people there +having thought of adopting it as the national emblem." + +Besides the foregoing and following uses, I am aware of several scents +and spirituous liquors being procured from the flowers and pulp of the +coco-nut. + +This palm tree is one of the finest objects in nature. Its stem is +tall and slender, without a branch; and at the top are seen from ten +to two hundred coco-nuts, each as large as a man's head: over these +are the graceful plumes, with their green gloss, and beautiful fronds +of the nodding leaves. Nothing can exceed the graceful majesty of +these intertropical fruit trees, except the various useful purposes to +which the tree, the leaf, and the nut are applied by the natives. + +1. The stem is used for--Bridges, posts, beams, rafters, paling, +ramparts, loop-holes, walking sticks, water butts, bags (the upper +cuticle), sieves in use for arrowroot. + +2. The coco-nut is used for--milk, a delicious drink; meat from the +scraped nut, for various kinds of food; jelly, _kora_, pulp, nut, oil, +excellent and various food for man, beast, and fowl. + +The shell for vessels to drink out of, water pitchers, lamps, funnels, +fuel, _panga_ (for a game). + +The fibre for sinnet, various cordage, bed stuffing, thread for tying +combs, scrubbing-brushes, girdle (ornamental), whisk for flies, +medicines, various and useful. + +3. The leaf is used for--Thatch for houses, lining for houses, +_takapau_ (mats), baskets (fancy and plain), fans, _palalafa_ (for +sham fights), combs (very various), bedding (white fibre), _tafi_ +(brooms), _Kubatse_ (used in printing), _mama_ (candles), screen for +bedroom, waiter's tray. + +Here are no less than forty-three uses of which we know something; and +the natives know of others to which they can apply this single +instance of the bounty of the God of nature. For house and clothes, +for food and medicine, the coco-nut palm is their sheet anchor, as +well as their ornament and amusement, who dwell in the torrid zone. + +This fine palm, which always forms a prominent feature in tropical +scenery, is a native of Southern Asia. It is spread by cultivation +through almost all the intertropical regions of the Old and New +Worlds; but it is cultivated nowhere so abundantly as in the Island of +Ceylon, and those of Sumatra, Java, &c. On the shores of the Red Sea +it advances to Mokha, according to Niebuhr; but it does not succeed +in Egypt. It is cultivated in the lower and southern portions of the +Asiatic Continent, as on the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, and +around Calcutta. In the island of Ceylon, where the fruit of this tree +forms one of the principal aliments of the natives, the nuts are +produced in such quantities that in one year about three millions were +exported, besides the manufactured produce in oil, &c. According to +Marshall it requires a mean temperature of 72 deg. Its northern limit, +therefore, is nearly the same as the southern limit of our cereals. + +Rumphius enumerates thirteen varieties of this palm, but many of these +have now been placed under other genera, and Lindley resolves them +into three species--_C. nucifera_, the most generally diffused +species, a native of the East Indies; and _C. flexuosa_ and _plumosa_, +natives of Brazil. The trunk, which is supported by numerous, small +fibrous roots, rises gracefully, with a slight inclination, from forty +to sixty feet in height; it is cylindrical, of middling size, marked +from the root upwards with unequal circles or rings, and is crowned by +a graceful head of large leaves. The terminal bud of this palm, as +well as that of the cabbage palm (_Euterpe montana_), is used as a +culinary vegetable. The wood of the tree is known by the name of +porcupine wood. It is light and spongy, and, therefore, cannot be +advantageously employed in the construction of ships or solid +edifices, though it is used in building huts; vessels made of it are +fragile and of little duration. Its fruit, at different seasons, is in +much request; when young, it is filled with a clear, somewhat sweet, +and cooling fluid, which is equally refreshing to the native and the +traveller. When the nut becomes old, or attains its full maturity, the +fluid disappears, and the hollow is filled by a sort of almond, which +is the germinating organ. This pulp or kernel, when cut in pieces and +dried in the sun, is called copperah, and is eaten by the Malays, +Coolies, and other natives, and from it a valuable species of oil is +expressed, which is in great demand for a variety of purposes. The +refuse oil cake is called Poonae, and forms an excellent manure. + +A calcareous concretion is sometimes found in the centre of the nut, +to which peculiar virtues have been attributed. + +Along the Gulf of Cariaco there are many large coco walks. In moist +and fertile ground it begins to bear abundantly the fourth year; but +in dry soils it does not produce fruit until the tenth. Its duration +does not generally exceed 80 or 100 years, at which period its mean +height is about 80 feet. Throughout this coast a coco tree supplies +annually about 100 nuts, which yield eight flascos of oil. The flasco +is sold for about 1s. 4d. A great quantity is made at Cumana, and +Humboldt frequently witnessed the arrival there of canoes containing +3,000 nuts. + +Throughout the South Sea Islands, coco-nut palms abound, and oil may +be obtained in various places. Some of the uninhabited islands are +covered with dense groves, and the ungathered nuts, which have fallen +year after year, lie upon the ground in incredible quantities. Two or +three men, provided with the necessary apparatus for pressing out the +oil, will, in the course of a week or two, obtain enough to load one +of the large sea canoes. Coco nut oil is now manufactured in different +parts of the South Seas, and forms no small part of the traffic +carried on with trading vessels. A considerable quantity is annually +exported from the Society Islands to Sydney. They bottle it up in +large bamboos, six or eight feet long, and these form part of the +circulating medium of Tahiti. The natives use the bruised fronds of +_Polypodium crassifolium_ to perfume this oil. _Evodia triphylla_, a +favorite evergreen plant with the natives of the Polynesian Islands, +is also used for this purpose. + +The most favorable situation for the growth of the coco palm is the +ground near the sea-coast, and if the roots reach the mud or salt +water, they thrive all the better for it. The coco-nut walks are the +real estates of India, as the vineyards and olive groves are of +Europe. I have seen these palms growing well in inland situations, +remote from the sea, but always on plains, never upon hills or very +exposed situations, where they do not arrive to maturity, wanting +shelter, and being shaken too violently by the wind. The stems being +tall and slight, and the whole weight of leaves and fruit at the head, +they may not unaptly be compared to the mast of a ship with round top +and topmast without shrouds to support it. Ashes and fish are good +manures for it. + +The coco-nut is essentially a maritime plant, and is always one of the +first to make its appearance on coral and other new islands in +tropical seas, the nut being floated to them, and rather benefiting +than otherwise by its immersion in the salt water. Silex and soda are +the two principal salts which the coco-nut abstracts from the soil, +and hence, where these do not exist in great abundance, the tree does +not thrive well. I do not know myself what is the practice in Ceylon, +but in Brazil, Dr. Gardner tells me, salt is very generally applied to +the coco-nut when planted. Far in the interior, he states, he has seen +as much as half a bushel applied to a single tree, and that too when +it cost about 2s. a pound, from the great distance it had to be +brought. That the application, therefore, of salt, of seaweed, and +saline mud, does more than supply soda, must be very evident, if we +only recollect how difficult it is to dry any part of our dress that +has been soaked in salt water, and what effect damp weather has on +table salt, which, in a balance, has often been made use of as an +hydrometer. Moisture is always attracted by salt, and the more sea mud +and other such little matters that coco-nut planters can apply round +the roots of their trees, there will most assuredly be the less +occasion for watering them in the dry season. Sea weed contains but +very little fibrous matter, being chiefly composed of mucilage and +water; and the experiments of Sir J. Pringle and Mr. C. W. Johnson, +prove that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of both +animal and vegetable substances. Decomposed poonac, or oil-cake, is +one of the best manures that can be applied, as it returns to the soil +the component parts of which it has beau deprived to form the fruit. + +The primary direction of the planter's industry will be to the +establishment of a nursery of young plants. In Ceylon, for this +purpose, the nuts are placed in squares of 400, covered with one inch +of sand, or salt mud; are watered daily till the young shoots appear, +and are planted out after the rains in September. Sand and salt mud +are to be found on almost all the coasts where it would be desirable +to plant nuts, and if they are put into the ground at the commencement +of the rainy season, artificial watering will scarcely be necessary. +Any period, when there are showers, would answer for transplanting +them. I should say from the middle to the end of January would be +best, when they are placed in the nursery in October and November; and +in October when they are planted in June. + +It is said that they should be allowed from 20 to 30 feet space apart, +but I will calculate their return when planted 27 feet apart every +way. This will give 58 coco-nut trees per acre. If manured, for the +first two years, with seaweed and salt mud, and supplied with water in +dry weather, there need be no loss, and the plants will thrive the +better. The land must be kept clear of weeds till the plants are +matured, in order to permit them abundance of air and light. In five +years, when well cared for, the flower may be expected, but the plants +will not be in full bearing before the seventh or eighth year. From 50 +to 80 nuts are the annual crop of a tree; but I will calculate at the +lowest rate. One hundred nuts will yield, when the oil is properly +expressed, at least two gallons and a half. I shall not take into +account the making of jaggery sugar and toddy, or spirit from the sap, +as I do not consider that the manufacture would be remunerative; and +it must be attended with much trouble, besides requiring a great deal +of care and some skill. + +Take the case now of a plantation of 100 acres in extent. This would +give us 5,800 trees, which, at 50 nuts per tree, 290,000 nuts, at 21/2 +gallons of oil per hundred, would yield 7,250 gallons of oil, the +value of which any person may calculate, but which, at the low rate of +3s. over charges, would furnish, as the gross plantation return in +oil, a sum of L1,087 10s. sterling. If the cultivator, instead of +making his produce into oil, were to sell it in its natural state, his +gross return in the West Indies would be nearly L600 sterling, at the +rate of ten dollars per thousand. + +Either of these sums would be a handsome return from 100 acres of any +land, _requiring no cultivation or care whatever, after the fourth +year, and yielding_ the same amount for upwards of half a century! But +this is not all. An outlay of a few pounds will secure other +advantages, and ought to enable the owner of a coco-nut plantation to +turn his gross receipts for oil into nett profits. The coir made from +the husk of the nut is calculated to realise nearly one-fourth of the +proceeds of the oil, but if we put it down at one-fifth, we shall +have, in addition to the value of the oil, L217 10s., thus making a +total of L1,305 sterling. If we obtained 60 nuts from each tree, the +return would be L1,566 sterling, and if 75, L1,957 8s. sterling; and +this from 100 acres of sea side sand! But even _this_ does not exhibit +the whole return of this article of culture. Each nut may be +calculated to give a quarter of a pound of poonac, or oil-cake, being +the refuse after expression, fit for feeding all kinds of stock, which +may be estimated as worth L10 per ton. We must, therefore, add on this +account to our first calculation, the sum of say L325; to the second, +L390; and to the third, L485. This would give, in round numbers, the +entire returns of the 100 acres planted:--At 50 nuts per tree, L1,630; +at 60 ditto, L1,957; at 75, ditto, L2,446. + +These are striking results, and may appear exaggerated; but I will, to +show how very moderate has been my calculation, give two returns, with +which I have been favored from Ceylon. These, it will be seen, differ +materially, but the latter I can rely on as a practical result, from a +plantation in Jaffna, the peninsula of the northern portion of the +island. After estimating the expense of establishing the plantation, +the first writer sets down his return thus:-- + +"The produce, calculating 90 trees to an acre, and 75 nuts to a tree, +sold at L2 per 1,000, would yield 675,000 nuts, worth L1,350; or if +converted into oil, calculating 30 to give one gallon, it would +produce 22,500 gallons, or about 90 tons from 100 acres." + +From Jaffna, the following is an abridged estimate of return of 100 +acres in full bearing:--"At 27 feet apart, 58 trees per acre, 5,800 +trees, at 60 nuts per tree, 3,480 nuts per acre, 100 acres, 348,000 +nuts, at 40 nuts per imperial gallon, 8,700 gallons of oil, at 2s. per +gallon, netted L8 14s. per acre. The poonac left will pay the expense +of making the oil. If shipped to England, at the present time (close +of 1848), the selling price there being 55s. per cwt., measuring 12 +imperial gallons, say, 4s. 7d. per gallon, and the cost and charges of +sending it home and selling it being 23s., it would leave 3s. per +gallon, or L13 per acre." This sum is _nett proceeds_. + +It will be seen by the above, that I have been extremely moderate in +my computation of the return which may be anticipated, for there is no +doubt that planters can, in favorable localities, on the coasts of +most of our colonies, cultivate this palm with as much success as +attends its culture in Ceylon. By the first of the calculations I have +cited from, that island, the gross return appears thus:-- + + 22,500 gallons at 4s. 7d L5,156 5 + Coir--one-fifth of value 1,031 4 + Cake from 675,000 nuts, say 1/4 lb. each, 75 tons at L10 750 0 + ----------- + Total gross return from 100 acres 6,937 9 + +According to the other calculation, the return will stand thus:-- + + 8,700 gallons at 4s. 7d L1,993 15 + Coir 398 15 + Cake from 348,000 nuts, 34 tons 340 0 + ---------- + Total gross return from 100 acres 2,732 10 + +It will be seen that in my calculation I have set down the return +lower than it is rendered in the less favorable statement from Ceylon +by a sum of upwards of L1,000 sterling. But even supposing _one-half_ +of the amount of the lower Ceylon estimate could be realised, we +should have a return of L1,366 5s. sterling from 100 acres of sea side +sand. + +I now proceed to point out the very small outlay required to obtain +these results. In places where the coco-nut would be grown, there is +generally no heavy woodland requiring great labor with axe and fire, +and consequently one able-bodied man should get through the felling +and clearing away bush, on an acre of the land to be prepared for the +plant, in a short period,--say, on an average, four days. I will +calculate, that for wages and rations, each hand employed will cost +sixteen dollars per month, an outside price. Let us then say that ten +laborers shall be at work. They fell two acres and a half per diem. In +one month there should be nearly 70 acres felled; but I will say that +the 100 acres will occupy them two months in felling and stacking the +wood. During this period our planter may be considered to have had the +aid of two more hands, engaged in the preparation, planting out, and +care of the nursery of young plants. Two more hands must also be +occupied in the construction of tanks and sheds, except where there is +a stream of fresh water. For grubbing up the roots, if not very large +size, the assistance of about a dozen cattle would be required, a +labor which would be performed by means of the common grubbing +machine, an implement in the form of a claw. We will consider that all +hands are occupied another month in this manner, and in removing and +re-stacking the wood, and turning up the land. The planting out would +require but little time and labor. At the end of three months then, +one-half of the hands, besides those engaged in the nursery and tanks, +might be discharged. We must make an allowance for provision for the +fodder of the cattle. Six thousand nuts would be required. + +Let us now see what are the planter's expenses; making ample allowance +on account of each item:-- + + dollars. + 6,000 picked nuts at 10 dollars per 1,000 60 + Hire and rations of 12 hands, at 16 dollars for 3 months 676 + Two hands at nursery, for same period 96 + Purchase of 12 cattle at 20 dollars 240 + Foddering cattle one month 32 + Hire of two extra hands, making tanks and sheds 3 months 96 + Hire of 6 hands for 9 months 864 + Tools (including plough) 100 + ----- + Total 2,064 + +About L415 sterling for expenses for the first year. + +Where fencing is required, we must add for making about three miles of +fence, say L30 sterling. Two carts would also have to be provided, +which will cost, say L20 more. In all we may compute the first year's +expenditure at L460 sterling. + +Second year's expenditure: ploughing land, or hoeing it twice, +watering plants, manuring, repairing fences, and supplying plants, +say hire of eight men for six months, about L150 sterling. The same +for the third. + +Fourth year's expenditure: hire of six hands for three months, +cleaning land, and manuring plants, about L60 sterling, and the like, +at the cultivator's option, for the fifth year. + + + SUMMARY OF EXPENSES. + L + First year 460 + Second year 150 + Third year 150 + Fourth year 60 + Fifth year 60 + --- + Total expenditure 880 + Add for buildings 80 + +And we have a grand total of L960 sterling expended; for what purpose? +To secure a net income of _at least_ L1,200 sterling per annum for at +least 50 years! + +In the first year's expenses many items might be cut down, but I leave +the calculation as one to be considered by a party with small capital, +intending to establish a coco-nut plantation. I have allowed nothing +for the cost of land, as it is impossible to compute that. In general +it would cost next to the nothing mentioned. I have, by careful +calculation, arrived at the conclusion that by combining the +cultivation of provisions with the gradual but steadily progressive +establishment of a coco-nut plantation, any man of energy and +perseverance may, with the aid of but four hands, clear, fence, and +plant, in a favorable locality, 50 acres of coco-nuts within the year, +yet have a balance in his pocket at its close. Such a person would, +ere doing anything beyond putting in his nursery plants, establish a +provision ground, of considerable extent, for the purpose of supplying +himself and his laborers with bread kind, and vegetables, and of +enabling him, by the disposal of the surplus produce in the market, to +raise a sufficient sum of money to furnish the wages and rations of +the men. I need not enter into a calculation to show how this could be +done, as every one must be aware of an easy method of following out so +simple a suggestion. Of course he would have to bear in mind that the +provision ground is of secondary importance, and limit his exertions +in that line accordingly; devoting to the coco-nut plantation the +strictest daily attention. + +The cultivation of this tree deserves much more attention than has +hitherto been paid to it, particularly in the East, where it not only +forms part of the daily food of all classes of the community, but is +an exportable article to neighbouring regions, the oil which it yields +having of late years become in great demand in England, for the +manufacture of composite candles and soap, and there is no doubt of +its continually extended application to such purposes. Supposing, +nevertheless, the result of an increased cultivation of the coco-nut +should be such as to cause a fall in price, and sink the nett return +in England to 2s. per gallon; this being clear profit, would make this +kind of plantation a safe and sure investment for both capital and +labor in the Colonies. + +A kind of sugar made from the sap is called "jaggery," and the sap +when fermented forms an intoxicating beverage known as toddy. The +fibrous outer covering, or husk of the nut, when macerated and +prepared, is termed "coir," and is spun into yarn and rope. It is +extensively shipped from Ceylon, in coils of rope, bundles of yarn, +and pieces of junk. + +The coco-nut is usually planted as follows:--Selecting a suitable +place, you drop into the ground a fully ripe nut, and leave it. In a +few days a thin lance-like shoot forces itself through a minute hole +in the shell, pierces the husk, and soon unfolds three pale green +leaves in the air; while, originating in the same soft white sponge +which now completely fills the nut, a pair of fibrous roots pushing +away the stoppers which close two holes in an opposite direction, +penetrate the shell, and strike vertically into the ground. A day or +two more, and the shell and husk, which in the last and germinating +stage of the nut are so hard that a knife will scarcely make any +impression, spontaneously burst by some force within; and, henceforth, +the hardy young plant thrives apace, and needing no culture, pruning, +or attention of any sort, rapidly arrives at maturity. In four or five +years it bears; in twice as many more it begins to lift its head among +the groves, where, waxing strong, it flourishes for near a century. +Thus, as some voyager has said, the man who but drops one of these +nuts into the ground, may be said to confer a greater and more certain +benefit upon himself and posterity, than many a life's toil in less +genial climes. The fruitfulness of the tree is remarkable. As long as +it lives it bears, and without intermission. Two hundred nuts, besides +innumerable white blossoms of others, may be seen upon it at one time; +and though a whole year is required to bring any one of them to the +germinating point, no two, perhaps, are at one time in precisely the +same stage of growth. + +Coco-nuts form a considerable article of export from many of the +British colonies: 375,770 were exported from Honduras in 1844, and +254,000 in 1845; 105,107 were shipped from Demerara, in 1845; +3,500,000 from Ceylon in 1847. + +They are very abundant on the Maldive Islands, Siam, and on several +parts of the coast of Brazil. Humboldt states, that on the south +shores of the Gulf of Cariaco, nothing is to be seen but plantations +of coco-nut trees, some of them containing nine or ten thousand trees. + +Ceylon is one of the localities where the greatest progress has been +made in this species of culture. + +In 1832 several Europeans settled at Batticaloa, expressly for the +purpose of cultivating this palm to a large extent. They planted +cotton bushes between the young trees, which were found to ripen well, +and nurse and shade them. + +There are now an immense number of coco-nut topes, or walks, on the +coasts of the island, and about 20,000 acres of land are under +cultivation with this tree. + +The value of this product to Ceylon, may be estimated by the following +return of its exports in 1847, besides the local consumption:-- + + L + Declared value of nuts 5,485 + Ditto of Coir 10,318 + Kernels, or Copperah 6,503 + Shells 210 + Oil 19,142 + Arrack 11,657 + ------- + Total L53,315 + +The annually increasing consumption of the nuts holds out a great +inducement to the native proprietors to reclaim all their hitherto +unproductive land. The fruit commands a high price in the island, +(ranging from 3/4d. to 3d. per nut), owing to the constant demand for it +as an article of food, by both Singhalese and Malabars; there is not +so much, therefore, now converted into copperah for oil making. In the +maritime provinces of the island, it has been estimated that the +quantity of nuts used in each family, say of five persons, amounts to +100 nuts per month, or 1,000 per annum. It needs only a reduction in +the cost of transit, to extend the consumption in the interior of the +island to an almost unlimited extent. + +In 1842, Ceylon exported but 550 nuts, while in 1847 she shipped off +to other quarters three millions and a half of nuts, valued at L5,500. +The average value of the nuts exported may be set down at L7,000. + +In Cochin China the cultivation of the coco-nut tree is much attended +to, and they export a large quantity of oil. At Malacca and Pinang it +shares attention with the more profitable spices. Since the palm has +been acclimatised in Bourbon, about 20,000 kilogrammes of oil have +been produced annually. About 8,000 piculs of oil are exported +annually from Java. + +A correspondent, under date December, 1849, has furnished me with the +following particulars of coco-nut planting in Jaffna, the northern +district of Ceylon, in which the culture has only recently been +carried on; the facts and figures are interesting:-- + + The Karandhai estate, the property of the late Mr. J. Byles, was + sold last month for L2,400, part of it bearing. It consisted of 303 + acres, of which 228 are planted with coco nuts--about half the trees + six years old. + + The Victoria estate, in extent 170 acres, planted and part in + bearing, and about seventy acres of jungle, was also sold for + L1,500. Mr. G. Dalrymple was the purchaser of the latter, and Mr. + Davidson of the former. Both lots were cheap. The properties are + among the best in the district, the latter, especially, is a + beautiful estate. + + About two-thirds of the estates planted are looking well, and the + remainder but indifferently, in fact, ought never to have been + planted, and I believe will never give any return. About 7,000 acres + are now under cultivation here, and clearing is still going on. + Estates can now be put in for about one half what they cost + formerly, viz., about L4 or L5 per acre, and can be kept in order, + inclusive of all charges, for about 15s. to 20s. per acre for the + first two years, and about half that afterwards. Estates, in some + instances, have been put in for about L3 per acre. + + Elephants have almost disappeared; now and then a stray one comes. + Figs are still a great nuisance, but the greatest anxiety among + planters is regarding beetles. You will be sorry to hear that the + first year the trees showed fruit or flower, one-tenth of them were + destroyed by the beetle; the insects still go on destroying, and + hardly a tree attacked ever recovers. + + This is a very serious evil, and upon which the fortunes of all + those involved in coco-nut planting depend. The trees come into + bearing but very slowly, and I consider no estate will give any + return over its current expenses under twelve years. It takes twelve + months from the formation of the flower, till the fruit ripens. On + an estate, perhaps one of the oldest and best in this district, out + of 120 acres, part seven and eight years old, about 12 per cent, are + in flower or in bearing, and give a return of about twenty-four nuts + per tree, on an average, yearly. On the next oldest, the return is + not near so great. But few of the estates here will, I think, pay + interest on the money laid out, and many will never pay anything + over the expense of keeping them up, even after coming into bearing. + I doubt if any estate in this district, however economically + managed, will ever give a net return of more than L2, or perhaps of + L2 10s. per acre, at least without there is a great increase in the + consumption of oil in Europe. The consumption of this oil, in + Europe, is under 5,000 tons. If the beetles do not destroy half the + trees, the estates here when in bearing, if they yield anything, + will give half that quantity; and it must be borne in mind that + coco-nut oil is not a strong oil, like palm oil, and that soap + boilers will never use it to any extent, for it will allow but + little admixture of rosin, &c.; its use in Europe will be + principally for candles and fancy soaps; but as by refining and + compression they can now purify tallow, and make of it candles fully + equal to those made from coco-nut oil, the consumption of the latter + is not likely to increase. The consumption of candles is always + limited on the continent of Europe, liquid oil being preferred, and + in many instances gas is now being used where candles formerly were. + +The return of land planted with coco-nut trees in Ceylon, in 1851, was +22,500 acres; but this refers only to regular estates recently opened +and cultivated chiefly by Europeans. Let us suppose that the natives +possess besides, twenty millions of trees; Butollac in his time +estimated the number at thirteen millions. At 100 trees to the acre, +twenty millions of trees give 100,000 acres, so that the total amount +of land planted with coco-nut trees would be 122,500 acres. + +An hydraulic press, for the manufacture of coco-nut oil, 1,200 horse +power and weighing twenty-three tons, was cast at the Ceylon Iron +Works, in 1850, by Messrs. Nelson and Son. + +In the island of Singapore there are now many extensive plantations in +a very flourishing condition, holding out favorable prospects to the +proprietors. Hitherto the island has been supplied almost wholly from +abroad with nuts and oil for its consumption, which will, before long, +be obtained exclusively from its own soil. In 1846 there were 10,000 +coco-nut trees in bearing in Singapore. + +I have omitted to notice, in the foregoing observations, a very +mistaken notion which prevails in many quarters, that it is best to +let the trees drop their fruit, and not to pick the nuts when ripe. +Nature directs differently. As soon as the husk of the nut is more +brown than green it should be picked. It then makes better oil and +better coir, than when left to shrivel up and fall from the tree. + +Colonel Low, in his "Dissertation on Pinang," gives some interesting +details and statistics on coco-nut planting:-- + + On a rough estimate--for an actual enumeration has not been lately + taken--the total number of _bearing trees_ in Pinang may be stated + at 50,000, and those in Province Wellesley at 20,000; but very large + accessions to these numbers have of late years been made. The tree + is partial to a sandy soil in the vicinity of the sea, and Province + Wellesley offers, therefore, greater facilities, perhaps, for its + cultivation than Pinang does, as its line of clear beach is longer, + and has many narrow slips of light or sandy land lying betwixt the + alluvial flats inland. There are several kinds of this tree known + here; one has a yellowish color, observable both on the branches and + unripe fruit; its branches do not droop much. A second has green + spreading branches, more drooping than the former, the fruit being + green colored until ripe; this is, perhaps, the most prolific; it + also bears the soonest, if we except the dwarf coco-nut, which + fruits at the second or third year, before the stem has got above + one foot high. This last kind was brought from Malacca; it attains + in time to the height of the common sort. Its fruit is small and + round, and of course less valuable than the other sorts. There is + also a coco-nut so saturated with green, that the oil expressed from + its kernel partakes of that color. + + It is a mistaken supposition that the coco-nut tree will flourish + without care being taken of it. The idea has been induced by the + luxuriant state of trees in close proximity to houses and villages, + and in small cove's where its roots are washed by the sea. In such + circumstances, a tree, from being kept clear about the roots, from + being shaded, and from occasional stimuli, advances rapidly to + perfection; but in an extended plantation, a regular and not + inexpensive system of culture must be followed to ensure success. + + The nuts being selected, when perfectly ripe, from middle-aged trees + of the best sorts, are to be laid on the ground under shades, and + after the roots and middle shoots, with two branches, have appeared, + the sooner they are planted the better. Out of 100 nuts, only + two-thirds, on an average, will be found to vegetate. The plants are + then to be set out at intervals of thirty or forty feet--the latter + if ground can be spared--and the depth will be regulated by the + nature of the soil, and the nut must not be covered with earth. The + plants require, in exposed situations, to be shaded for one and even + two years, and no lalang grass must be permitted to encroach on + their roots. A nursery must be always held in readiness to supply + the numerous vacancies which will occur from deaths and accidents. + The following may be considered the average cost of a plantation, + until it comes into bearing:-- + + FIRST COST--100 ORLONGS OF LAND. + Spanish dollars. + Purchase money of land, ready for planting 1,000 + 7,000 nuts at 11/2 dollars, per 100 105 + Houses of coolies, carts, buffaloes, &c., &c. 100 + ----- + Spanish dollars 1,205 + + YEARLY COST OF SEVEN YEARS. + + First year, 10 laborers at 3 dollars per month, including + carts, &c. 360 + Wear and tear of buildings, carts, and implements 50 + Overseer, at 7 dollars per month 84 + Quit rent, average 50 + Nursery and contingencies 50 + ----- + Total per annum 594 + Seven years at the rate will be 4,158 + ----- + Total, Spanish dollars 4,752 + + To this sum interest will have to be added, making, perhaps, a sum + total of 6,000 Spanish dollars, and this estimate will make each + tree, up to its coming into bearing, cost one Spanish dollar at the + lowest. The young tree requires manure, such as putrid fish and + stimulating compounds, containing a portion of salt. On the + Coromandel coast, the natives put a handful of salt below each nut + on planting it. + + The cultivators of Kiddah adopt a very slovenly expedient for + collecting the fruit. Instead of climbing the tree in the manner + practised by the natives on the Coromandel coast, by help of a hoop + passing round the tree and the body of the climber--and a ligature + so connecting the feet as will enable him to clasp the tree with + them--the Malays cut deep notches or steps in the trunk, in a + zig-zag manner, sufficient to support the toes or the side of the + foot, and thus ascend with the extra, aid only of their arms. This + mode is also a dangerous one, as a false step, when near the top of + a high tree, generally precipitates the climber to the ground. This + notching cannot prove otherwise than injurious to the tree. But the + besetting sin of the planter of coco-nuts, and other productive + trees, is that of crowding. Coco-nut trees, whose roots occupy, when + full grown, circles of forty to fifty feet in diameter, may often be + found planted within eight or ten feet of each other; and in the + native campongs all sorts of indigenous fruit trees are jumbled + together, with so little space to spread in, that they mostly assume + the aspect of forest trees, and yield but sparing crops. + + The common kinds of the coco-nut, under very favorable + circumstances, begin to bear at six years of age; but little produce + can be expected until the middle or end of the seventh year. The + yearly produce, one tree with another, may be averaged at 80 nuts + the tree; where the plantation is a flourishing one--assuming the + number of trees, in one hundred orlongs, to be 5,000--the annual + produce will be 400,000 nuts, the minimum local market value of + which will be 4,000 Spanish dollars, and the maximum 8,000 dollars. + From either of these sums 6 per cent. must be deducted for the cost + of collecting, and carriage, &c. The quantity of oil which can be + manufactured from the above number of nuts will be, as nearly as + possible, 834 piculs of 133-1/3 lbs. + + The average price of this quantity, at 7 dollars per picul 5,838 + Deduct cost of manufacturing, averaged at one-fourth, and + collecting, watching, &c 2,059 + ----- + Profit, Spanish dollars 3,779 + + The Chinese, who are the principal manufacturers of the oil, readily + give a picul of it in exchange for 710 ripe nuts, being about 563 + piculs of oil out of the total produce of the plantation of 100 + orlongs. The price of coco-nut oil has been so high in the London + market as L35 per tun, or about an average of ten dollars per picul. + It is said that English casks have not been found tight enough for + the conveyance of this oil to Europe, but if the article is really + in great demand, a method will no doubt be discovered to obviate + this inconvenience. + + So long, however, as the cultivator can obtain a dollar and a half, + or even one dollar for 100 nuts, he will not find it profitable to + make oil, unless its price greatly rises. + + Soap is manufactured at Pondicherry from this oil, but it is not + seemingly in repute; the attempt has not been made in Pinang with a + view to a market. + + There is scarcely any coir rope manufactured at this island, so that + the profit which might (were labor cheaper) arise from this + application of the coco-nut fibre, is lost. The shell makes good + charcoal; the leaves are scarcely put to any purpose, the nipah or + attap being a superior material for thatching. + + The coco-nut tree is extremely apt to be struck by lightning, and in + such cases it is generally destroyed. It is a dangerous tree, + therefore, to have close to a house. If the trees are widely + planted, coffee may be cultivated under their shade. It is generally + believed that the extracting of toddy from this tree hastens its + decline. The Nicobar and Lancavi Islands used partly to supply the + Pinang market with this indispensable article; but their + depopulation has greatly reduced the quantity. + + On the whole it may be said that there is no cultivation which + insures the return of produce with so much certainty as that of the + coco-nut tree; and as Rangoon, the Tenasserim coast, and Singapore + will, probably, always remain good markets for the raw nut, there + appears to be every chance of the value of the produce affording + ample remuneration to the planter. + +_Coco-nut beetle._--The chief natural enemy of this tree is a +destructive species of elephant-beetle (_Oryctes Rhinoceros_), which +begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape of a fan; it then +perforates the central pithy fibre, so that the leaf snaps off; and +lastly, it descends into the folds of the upper shoot, where it bores +itself a nest, and if not speedily extracted or killed, will soon +destroy the tree. At Singapore, on account of the depredations of this +beetle, the difficulties have been considerable. + +In Pinang and Province Wellesley it has only been observed within the +last two years, and it is believed to have come from Keddah. A similar +kind of beetle is, however, found on the Coromandel coast. The natives +of Keddah say that this insect appears at intervals of two, three, or +more years. + +Its larvae, which are also very formidable insects or grubs, about +three inches long, with large reddish heads, are found in decaying +vegetable matter. It is when the tree has made considerable progress, +however, that the parent insect does most mischief. When they are from +one to two years old, throwing out their graceful branches in quick +succession with the greatest vigor, and promising in three or four +years more to yield their ruddy fruit, this destructive enemy begins +to exercise his boring propensities; and, making his horn act as an +auger, he soon penetrates the soft and yielding fibre of the young +tree, and if not discovered in time, destroys the leading shoot or +branch. The only remedy which has been adopted in Ceylon, is the +following:--Several intelligent boys are provided each with an iron +needle or probe, of about a foot long, with a sharp double barbed +point, like a fish-hook, and a ring handle; they go through the +plantation looking narrowly about the trees, and when they perceive +the hole in the trunk, which indicates that the enemy is at work, they +thrust in the barbed instrument and pull him out. Sometimes he may +only have just commenced, when his capture is more easily effected, +but even should he have penetrated to the very heart of the tree, the +deadly needle does not fail in its errand, but brings the culprit out, +impaled and writhing on its point. This is the only known way of +checking the ravages of this beetle, except destroying its larvae. Some +cultivators, however, think pouring salt water or brine on the top of +the tree, so as to descend among the folds of the upper shoots, a good +plan to get rid of the larvae. + +Nearly two million coco-nuts are shipped annually from Bahia. + +From Ceylon, 114,600 coco-nuts were shipped in 1851, and 70,185 in +1852. + +Coco-nut oil; 98,159 gallons were shipped from Ceylon in 1852; 359,233 +gallons in 1851. + +The prices of Ceylon oil have ranged from L31 to L33 10s. per tun; of +Cochin oil, L34 to L35, within the last two years. The price per +leaguer in Colombo, without casks, has been L8 10s. to L9. + +_Copperah_ is the name, given by the natives to the kernel of the ripe +nut after it has been exposed to the sun on mats, until it has become +rancid and dissolved. It has recently been shipped to England in this +state for the purpose of converting into oil. The exports of copperah +from Ceylon were, in 1842, 115 cwts.; in 1843, 2,194; in 1844, 2,397; +and in 1852, 39,174 cwts. + +The returned value of the copperah or kernels exported from Ceylon, as +entered in the Custom House books, is-- + + 1840 2,508 + 1841 1,460 + 1842 3,022 + 1843 5,795 + 1844 6,194 + 1845 3,282 + 1846 5,517 + 1847 6,503 + 1848 12,639 + 1849 7,819 + 1850 4,166 + 1851 9,678 + 1852 13,325 + +632 cwts. of poonac (being the refuse or cake, after expressing the +oil) were exported from Ceylon in 1842. It is worth there about L10 +the ton. + +The oil from the nut is obtained for culinary purposes by boiling the +fresh pulp, and skimming it as it rises. That for exportation is +usually obtained by pressing the copperah in a simple press turned by +bullocks. Recently, however, steam power has been applied in Colombo, +with great advantage. About 21/2 gallons of oil per 100 nuts, are +usually obtained. It is requisite that care should be taken not to +apply too great and sudden a pressure at once, but by degrees an +increasing force, so as not to choke the conducting channels of the +oil in the press. + +In many of the colonies the oil is expressed by the slow and laborious +hand process of grating the pulp. + +The quantity shipped from Ceylon was 2,250 tuns, in 1842; 3,985 in +1843; 2,331 in 1844; 1,797 in 1845. The quantity in gallons shipped +since, was 101,553 in 1846; 197,850 in 1847; 300,146 in 1848; 867,326 +in 1849; 407,960 in 1850; 442,700 in 1851; and 749,028 in 1852. + +The duty on importation is of and from British possessions, 7d. and +7/8ths. per cwt.; if the produce of foreign possessions, 1s. 33/4 d, per +cwt. In the close of 1852, the price of coco-nut oil in the London +market was, for Ceylon, L32, L33, to L33 10s. per ton; Cochin, +middling to fine, L34 to L35. + +The following return shows the Custom House valuation of the oil +shipped from Ceylon for a series of years, and which is of course much +below its real value:-- + + 1839 L26,597 + 1840 32,483 + 1841 24,052 + 1842 34,242 + 1843 43,874 + 1844 24,067 + 1845 15,945 + 1846 7,939 + 1847 19,142 + 1848 24,839 + 1849 34,831 + 1850 35,035 + 1851 31,444 + 1852 58,045 + +Among the coco-nut oil exported from Ceylon, in 1849, there were +47,4271/2 gallons, valued at L3,595, the whole of which, I believe, was +Cochin oil; the raw material of this kind not being, like the copperah +generally in Ceylon, subjected to the action of fire, the product is +finer, and fetches a better price in the London market. + +Amongst the imports from British possessions in Asia, were 2,600 +cwts., of copperah (dried coco-nut kernels, from which oil is +expressed), valued at L1,100; amongst the imports re-exported to Great +Britain, we find 870 cwts. of the same article, valued at L300. Of the +oil exported a quantity of 11,000 gallons was shipped for the United +States. About 600,000 piculs of coco-nut oil are annually exported +from Siam. + +A large quantity of oil is made in Trinidad, chiefly on the east +coast, where, in one locality, there is an uninterrupted belt of +coco-nut palms fourteen miles in extent. They usually bear when five +years old. + +The cultivation of the coco-nut in a proper soil presents a very +profitable speculation for small capitalists. Whether sold at the rate +of a dollar per hundred in their natural state, to captains of ships, +who freely purchase them, or manufactured into oil, they are a very +remunerative product. Each tree in the West Indies is calculated to +produce nuts to the value of one dollar yearly. There is one thing to +which we would draw the attention of chemists and other scientific +men. + +For twenty-four or even forty-eight hours after its manufacture this +oil is as free from any unpleasant taste as olive oil, and can be used +in lieu of it for all culinary purposes, but after that time it +acquires such a rancid taste as to be wholly unpalateable. If any +means could be discovered of preventing this deterioration in quality, +and preserving it fresh and sweet, it could compete with olive oil, +and the price and consumption would be largely raised. + + COCO-NUT OIL IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. + + Imports. Retained for home consumption. + cwts. cwts. + 1835 19,838 14,015 + 1836 26,058 26,062 + 1837 41,218 28,641 + 1838 -- 38,669 + 1839 -- 15,153 + 1840 -- 37,269 + 1841 -- 26,528 + 1842 -- 26,225 + 1843 -- 29,928 + 1844 -- 42,480 + 1848 85,453 54,783 + 1849 64,451 14,622 + 1850 98,040 46,494 + 1851 55,995 2,333 + 1852 101,863 27,112 + +A London coco-nut oil soap was found, on analysis by Dr. Ure, to +consist of:-- + + Soda 4.5 + Coco-nut lard 22.0 + Water 73.5 + ----- + 100.0 + +This remarkable soap was sufficiently solid; but it dissolved in hot +water with extreme facility. It is called marine soap, because it +washes linen with sea water. + +Of the six principal vegetable oils, namely--palm, coco-nut castor, +olive, linseed, and rape, the first four are imported in the state of +oil only; the two last chiefly as seed. The proportion in which they +were imported is shown in the following tables; and if to these +quantities are added about a million and a half cwt. of tallow, and +nearly twenty thousand tuns of whale oil and spermaceti, they will +nearly represent the total quantity of oil imported into Great +Britain. + + IMPORTS IN 1846. + Palm oil. Olive oil. Castor oil. + cwts. tuns. cwts. + Western Africa 475,364 1 -- + United States 13,349 -- 290 + Naples and Sicily 14 9,661 -- + East Indies -- -- 6,315 + Canary Islands 3,719 -- -- + Malta -- 2,237 -- + Turkish Empire -- 1,712 -- + Tuscany -- 832 -- + Spain -- 753 -- + Brazil 525 -- -- + Ionian Islands -- 506 -- + Morocco -- 368 -- + Madeira 353 -- -- + Sardinia -- 333 11 + Miscellaneous 7 471 65 + ------- ------- ------- + Total 493,331 16,864 9,681 + + + IMPORTS IN 1850 + Linseed. Rape seed. + quarters. quarters. + Russia 482,813 3,235 + Sweden 870 -- + Norway 268 -- + Denmark 37 3,092 + Russia 87,273 645 + Hanse Towns 1,153 2,872 + Holland 7,734 201 + Naples 1,476 -- + Austrian Territories 40 2,580 + Greece -- 1,637 + Wallachia and Moldavia 910 1,280 + Egypt 17,517 -- + East Indian Empire 26,142 13,126 + Miscellaneous 262 922 + -------- ------ + Total 626,495 29,495 + +OIL-CAKE.--It has been observed by Evelyn that one bushel of walnuts +will yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels, and these will produce +half that weight of oil, which the sooner it is drawn is the more in +quantity, though the drier the nut the better its quality. The cake or +marc of the pressing is excellent for fattening hogs and for manure. + +Oats contain, as a maximum, about seven per cent. of oil, and Indian +corn nine per cent. The cake of the gold of pleasure contains twelve +per cent. Indeed the most valuable oil-cakes are those of the +_Camelina sativa_, poppies and walnuts, which are nearly equal; next +to these are the cakes of hemp, cotton, and beech-mast. In France the +extraction and purification of oil from the cotton seed is a recent +branch of labor, the refuse of which is likely to prove useful in +agriculture; its value as a manure being nearly ten times greater than +that of common dung. Oil is obtained from maize or Indian corn in the +process of making whiskey. It rises in the mash tubs and is found in +the scum at the surface, being separated either by the fermentation or +the action of heat. It is then skimmed off, and put away in a cask to +deposit its impurities; after which it is drawn off in a pure state, +fit for immediate use. The oil is limpid, has a slight tinge of the +yellow color of the corn, and is inoffensive to the taste and smell. +It is not a drying oil, and therefore cannot be used for paint, but +burns freely in lamps and is useful for oiling machinery. + +Among the various seeds used in the manufacture of oil-cake, flour of +linseed is the most important. Rape seed is also employed, but is +considered heating. In Lubeck, a marc, called dodder cake, is made +from the _Camelina sativa_. Inferior oil-cake is made from the poppy +in India. Cotton-seed cake has lately been recommended on account of +its cheapness, being usually thrown away as refuse by the cotton +manufacturers. It is extensively used as a cattle food, in an +unprepared state, in various parts of the tropical world, and to a +limited extent in this country. + +The cost of seed, freight included, was 2d. per lb. from Charlestown +to Port Glasgow. Cotton oil-cake is now ordered at the same price as +linseed cake. The produce of oil-cake and oil from cotton seed, is two +gallons of oil to one cwt. of seed, leaving about 96 lbs of cake; 8 +lbs. is the daily allowance for cattle in England. + +Cotton seed oil, very pure, is manufactured to a considerable extent +at Marseilles, by De Gimezney, from Egyptian seed; and he received a +prize medal at the Great Exhibition. + +Account of the export of linseed and rapeseed cakes from Stettin, +principally to England, in-- + + cwts. + 1834 33,518 + 1835 27,038 + 1836 56,581 + 1837 70,643 + 1838 119,540 + 1839 115,416 + 1840 162,457 + 1841 143,816 + 1842 119,814 + +The quantity of oil-seed cakes imported into the United Kingdom was +in-- + + tons. + 1849 59,462 + 1850 65,055 + 1851 55,076 + 1852 53,616 + +Cargoes of oil-cake, to the value of L22,207, were exported from the +port of Shanghae, in China, in 1849. + +2,467 tons of oil-cake were brought down to New Orleans from the +interior in 1848, and 1,032 tons in 1849. + +Seven samples of American oil-cake gave the following results:-- + + Oil 11.41 + Water 7.60 + Nitrogen 4.74 + Ash 6.35 + +From the above figures, the scientific farmer will see that the manure +formed by 100 lbs. of oil-cake is more than that derived from 300 lbs. +of Indian corn. 300 lbs. of corn contain about l1/4 lbs. phosphoric +acid; 100 lbs. oil-cake contain about 21/2 lbs. + +VOLATILE OR ESSENTIAL OILS occur in the stems, leaves, flowers and +fruit of many odoriferous plants, and are procured by distillation +along with water. They are called "essences," and contain the +concentrated odor of the plant. They usually exist ready-formed, but +occasionally they are obtained by a kind of fermentation, as oil of +bitter almonds and oil of mustard. Some of them consist of carbon and +hydrogen only, as oil of turpentine, from _Juniperus communis;_ oil of +savin, from _Juniperus Sabina;_ oil of lemons and oranges, from the +rind of the fruit; and oil of nerole, from orange flowers. A second +set contain oxygen in addition, as oil of cinnamon, from _Cinnamonum +verum;_ otto or attar of roses, from various species of rose, +especially _Rosa centifolia;_ oil of cloves, from _Caryophyllus +aromaticus_. + +Those principally obtained from tropical shrubs and plants are +citronella, oil of oranges and lemons, from the rind of the fruit oil +of cinnamon and cloves, croton oil, &c. + +The oil of Sandal or Sanders wood _(Santalum album_), grown on the +Malabar coast, is much esteemed as a perfume. Keora oil, from +_Pandanus odoratissimus_, in Bengal. Oil of spikenard, so highly +prized, on account of its perfume, by the ancients, may be procured in +Sagur, Nepaul, and the mountains of the Himalaya. + +956 lbs. of essential oils were imported into Hull in 1850. There were +exported from Ceylon in 1842, 902 cases; in 1843, 138; in 1844, 20; in +1845, 25 cases of essential oils, and in the last two years as +follows:-- + + 1852. 1851. + cases. cases. + Cinnamon oil 17 23 + Citronella oil 110 87 + Essential oil 72 35 + +Of chemical, essential, and perfumed oils imported from France, the +quantity is about 35,000 lbs. annually, worth L10,000. The duty is 1s. +per lb. We also imported from France, in 1851, 9,596 cwt. of oil or +spirit of turpentine, worth L14,197, on which a duty of 5s. 3d. per +cwt. is levied. + +From Western Australia some distilled oil of the Liptospermum was +shown at the Exhibition, which it is stated may be obtained in any +quantity, and a similar oil produced, by distillation, from the +_Eucalyptus piperita_, a powerful solvent of caoutchouc, evidently +very similar, if not altogether identical, with the oil of cajeput. +The characters of these two oils are much alike and without some care +it is difficult to distinguish them from one another by the odor; the +liptospermum oil has a slight tinge of yellow, its specific gravity is +0.9035; the eucalyptus oil is colorless, and has a density of 0.9145. +It is probable that these oils might be used with great advantage in +the manufacture of varnish, they readily dissolve copal, and when its +solution is spread over any surface the oil soon evaporates, and +leaves a hard, brilliant and uniform coating of the resin. These oils, +according to Prof. Solly, are specially worthy of attention. + +Dr. Bennett, in his "Wanderings in New South Wales," states that a +large quantity of camphorated oil, which closely resembles the +cajeputi, is produced from the foliage of several species of +_Eucalyptus_. Some of the leaves, which are of a bluish green, contain +it in such abundance as to cover the hand with oil when one of the +leaves is gently rubbed against it. + +From the odorous leaves of the _Arbor alba_ is extracted a portion of +the aromatic cajeput oil. This celebrated medicinal oil is principally +made in the island of Borneo, one of the Moluccas. + +The leaf of the _Melaleuca minor_ yields, by distillation, the +volatile oil of cajeputi, well known as a powerful sudorific, and a +useful external application in chronic rheumatism. It is an evergreen +shrub, with white flowers like a myrtle, native of the East Indies, +principally flourishing on the sea coasts of the Moluccas and other +Indian islands. Two sacks full of the leaves yield scarcely three +drachms of the oil, which is limpid, pellucid, and of a green color. + +Oil of cinnamon and oil of cassia, according to Mulder, have the same +composition. When fresh they are pale yellow, but become brown on +exposure to the air. On exposure they rapidly absorb cinnamic acid, +two resins and water. + +More than 22,000 lbs. of essence of bergamot was imported in 1848. It +is obtained by distillation or pressure from the rind of the fragrant +citron. + +_Andropogon calamus aromaticus_, of Royle, _A. nardoides_, of Nees v. +Esenb., according to some yields the grass oil of Namur. + +The fruits of _Carum carui_, a hardy biennial British plant, popularly +known as caraway seeds, supply a volatile oil, which is carminitive +and aromatic. Oils of a similar kind are obtained from _Coriandrum +sativum_, from anise (_Pimpinella Anisum_), and cumin (_Cuminum +Cyminum_), a native of Egypt. + +The production of cinnamon, clove, and cassia oils, have already been +noticed in speaking of those spices. + +In Malabar, a greenish sweet-smelling oil is obtained, by +distillation, from the roots of _Unona Narum_, an evergreen climber, +which is used medicinally as a Stimulant. + +OIL OF PEPPERMINT.--Mr. De Witt C. Van Slyck, of Alloway, Wayne +county, New York, furnished me with the following particulars on the +cultivation of peppermint, in December, 1849, which may appropriately +be introduced in this place:-- + + "As an agricultural production, the culture of peppermint in the + United States is limited to few localities; this county and the + adjoining ones, Seneca and Ontario, comprise the largest bed. In the + year 1846 about 40,000 lbs. of oil were produced. In Lewis county, + in this state, it is grown, though to a less extent; the amount of + oil produced there in 1846 was estimated at 4,500 lbs. In Michigan + about 10,000 lbs. are annually produced; Ohio furnishes about 3,000 + lbs. and Indiana 700 lbs. per annum. The entire crop in the United + States, in the year 1846, is estimated in round numbers at 58,000 + lbs. + + The above comprises all the localities of any importance in the + United States, and the above estimates of the annual product of oil + were made from correct data for the year 1846, since which time the + cultivation of mint has rapidly decreased in consequence of a + speculative movement by a New York company, who in the spring of + 1847 purchased nearly all the mint then growing in this State, and + stipulated with the growers not to raise it for two years + thereafter, which condition was generally observed on the part of + the growers. The present year (1849), on account of the drought, has + not realised the expectations of those engaged in its culture, + although the amount of oil produced is much larger than the product + of the two preceding years. In this mint district, 8,000 lbs. have + been raised; Lewis county furnishes 1,000 lbs.; Michigan, 8.000 + lbs.; Ohio, 1,000 lbs., and Indiana 500 lbs. So that the entire crop + of 1849 will not materially vary from 18,500 lbs. + + I have consulted several of the principal dealers in mint oil, whose + opportunities have been ample to form a tolerably correct estimate + of the amount of oil annually consumed, and their opinion fixes the + total consumption, for the various purposes for which it is used in + the United States and in Europe, at from 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. + annually. + + The price of mint oil is extremely fluctuating. Like other unstaple + commodities, the value of which depends upon their scarcity or + abundance, it never has assumed a constant and standing value, but + its price has generally been deranged by speculation and monopoly. + It has happened that the amount of oil produced was for several + years greater than the annual consumption, producing an accumulation + in the market, and reducing the price to the very low rate of 75 + cents per pound; on the other hand, when the article was scarce, it + readily sold for 5 dollars 25 cents per pound. The average price for + fifteen vears has been about 2 dollars 50 cents, per pound. This + year (1849) it readily sells for 1 dollar 50 cents., (6s. 6d.). + + Peppermint began to be cultivated in this vicinity as an + agricultural product about the year 1816, but for several years the + want of a proper knowledge of its culture, and the expense and + difficulty of extracting the oil, prevented its extension beyond a + few growers, who, however, realised fortunes out of the enterprise. + Almost any kind of soil that will successfully rear wheat and maize + is adapted to the growth of mint. Rich alluvions, however, seem to + be most natural, as would be inferred from the fact that the wild + herb is almost uniformly found growing upon the tertiary formations + on the margins of streams. The rich bottom lands along our rivers + and the boundless prairies of the West are eminently adapted for its + successful culture. It is believed by those best acquainted with the + subject, that its cultivation must be ultimately confined to the + western prairies, where it will grow spontaneously, and where the + absence of noxious weeds and grasses, incident to all older settled + lands, renders the expense of cultivation comparatively light, and + where the low price of land will be an important item in the amount + of capital employed, the expense of marketing being slight in + comparison to that of the more bulky products of agricultural + industry. + + The method of cultivation is nearly uniform. The mode of propagation + is by transplanting the roots, which may be done in autumn or + spring, though generally the latter, and as the herb is perennial, + it does not require replanting till the fourth year. To ensure a + good crop and obviate the necessity of extra attendance the first + season, the ground intended for planting should be fallowed the + preceding summer, though this is not necessary if the land is + ordinarily clean. The ground should be prepared as for maize, as + soon as possible in the spring furrowed, and roots planted in drills + twenty inches apart, and covered with loose earth, two inches deep, + the planter walking upon the drill and treading it firmly. The + proper time to procure roots is when the herb is a year old, when + from six to eight square rods of ordinary mint will yield a + sufficient quantity of roots to plant an acre, and the crop from + which the roots are taken will not be deteriorated, but rather + benefited by their extraction. As soon as the herb makes its + appearance it requires a light dressing with a hoe, care being taken + not to disturb the young shoots, many of which have scarcely made + their appearance above the ground. In the course of a week or two + the crop requires a more thorough dressing, and at this stage of + growth the cultivator may be used with advantage, followed by the + hoe, carefully eradicating weeds and grass from the drills, and + giving the herb a light dressing of earth. Another dressing a week + or two later is all the crop requires. + + The two following years no labor is bestowed upon the crop, though + it is sometimes benefited by ploughing over the whole surface, very + shallow, in the autumn of the second year, and harrowing lightly the + following spring, which frequently renews the vigor of the plant and + increases the product. + + The mint should be cut as soon as it is in full bloom, and the lower + leaves become sere; the first crop will not be fit to cut as early + as the two succeeding ones. It is then to be hayed and put in cock, + and is then ready for distillation. + + I have consulted many mint growers, who have cultivated it for a + series of years, in regard to the average yield per acre, and have + arrived at the following estimate, which I think is low, provided + the land is suitable, and is properly cultivated. I estimate the + average yield per acre for the first year at 18 lbs.; the second + year at 14 lbs.; and the third year at 8 lbs.--making the product + for three years 40 lbs., which I think will not materially vary from + the actual result, though growers aver they have raised from 30 to + 40 lbs. per acre the first season. + + Several years since, the only method of extracting the oil then + known was by distilling the herb in a copper kettle, or boiler, and + condensing in the usual manner; a slow and tedious process, by which + about 12 or 15 pounds of oil could be separated in a day. But + recently steam, that powerful agent, which has wrought such immense + changes in our social and national economy, has been applied to this + subject with its usual attendant success. The present method + consists in the use of a common steam-boiler, of the capacity of + from 100 to 150 gallons, from which the steam is conveyed by + conductors into large wooden air-tight tubs, of 200 gallons + capacity, containing the dried herb; from which it is conveyed, + charged with the volatile principle of the plant, into a water-vat, + containing the condenser. The water collected at the extremity of + the condenser, although it does not readily commingle with the oil, + is highly tinctured with it, and is used to feed the boiler. Two + tubs are necessary, in order that when the "charge" is being worked + off in one, the other can be refilled. The oil is then to be + filtered, and is ready for market. The expense of a distillery is + estimated at 150 dollars, which, with the labor of two men, and a + cord of dry wood, will run 40 lbs. of oil per day. The usual price + for distilling is 25 cents per pound. + + The cost of production is of course greatly modified by + circumstances. If grown on rich bottom lands, or prairie, unusually + free from weeds and grass, the labor required will be comparatively + trifling. From information derived from the principal mint growers + in this vicinity, I have prepared the following estimate of the cost + of production of an acre of mint for three years:-- + + FIRST YEAR. + Dollars. + Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 + One day plough and drag, one hand and team 2.00 + Half day furrowing, digging roots, one hand and horse 1.00 + Three days planting, at 75 cents 2.25 + Two days dressing with hoe, at 75 cents 1.50 + Two days with cultivator and hoe, 1.00 2.00 + Two days with cultivator and hoe (third dressing) 1.50 + One and a-half days cutting new mint, at 75 cents 1.13 + Curing and drawing to distillery 1.50 + Distilling 18 lbs. oil, at 25 cents 4.50 + Can for oil 25 + ----- + 25.63 + + SECOND YEAR. + Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 + Cutting one acre of old mint 75 + Curing and hauling to distillery 1.50 + Distilling 14 lbs. oil, at 25 cents 3.50 + Can for oil 25 + ----- + 14.00 + + THIRD YEAR. + Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 + Cutting, curing, &c. 2.25 + Distilling 8 lbs. of oil, at 25 cents, and can 2.25 + ----- + 12.50 + ----- + Total expenses for three years 52.13 + + Forty pounds of oil, at dollars 1.371/2 per pound 55.00 + Deduct expenses 52.13 + ----- + Net profit 2.87 + + In the above estimate I have omitted the expense of roots, for the + reason that the crop will yield as many as are required for + planting. The price of roots is about 50 cents per square rod, and + if they are in demand, the profit of the crop will be greatly + enhanced by selling them at that, or even a lower price. + + It will be readily perceived that the culture of peppermint promises + no great return of profit in sections of country where land is + valuable, and where the expense of production is nearly double what + it is in newly-settled districts. It is a fact that in Michigan, and + other Western States, the actual expense of production is about + one-half less than the above estimate, and the yield is a fourth + greater; the greater distance from market, which is usually New York + city, not being taken into account, the freight on oil being + comparatively trifling. Another consideration in favor of prairie + cultivation is, that the mint will endure for years by simply + ploughing over the surface every second year, which seems to + invigorate the herb, and obviates the necessity of replanting every + second or third year, as must be done in older settled localities." + +In India the perfumed oils are obtained in the following manner:--The +layers of the jasmine, or other flowers, four inches thick and two +inches square, are laid on the ground and covered with layers of +sesamum or any other oil yielding seed. These are laid about the same +thickness as the flowers, over which a second layer of flowers like +the fruit is placed. The seed is wetted with water, and the whole mass +covered with a sheet, held down at the end and sides by weights, and +allowed to remain for eighteen hours in this form. It is now fit for +the mill, unless the perfume is desired to be very strong, when the +faded flowers are removed and fresh ones put in their place. The seed +thus impregnated is ground in the usual way in the mill and the oil +expressed, having the scent of the flower. At Ghazipoor the jasmine +and bela are chiefly employed; the oil is kept in the dubbers, and +sold for about 4s. a seer. + +The newest oils afford the finest perfume. In Europe a fixed oil, +usually that of the bean or morerja nut, is employed. Cotton is soaked +in this, and laid over layers of flowers, the oil being squeezed out +so soon as impregnated with perfume. Dr. Johnson thus describes the +culture and manufacture:-- + + _Cultivation of Roses_.--Around the station of Ghazipoor, there are + about 300 biggahs (or about 150 acres) of ground laid out in small + detached fields as rose gardens, most carefully protected on all + sides by high mud walls and prickly pear fences, to keep out the + cattle. These lands, which belong to Zemindars, are planted with + rose trees, and are annually let out at so much per biggah for the + ground, and so much additional for the rose plants--generally five + rupees per biggah, and twenty-five rupees for the rose trees, of + which there are 1,000 in each biggah. The additional expense for + cultivation would be about eight rupees eight annas; so that for + thirty-eight rupees eight annas you have for the season one biggah + of 1,000 rose trees. + + If the season is good, this biggah of 1,000 rose trees should yield + one lac of roses. Purchases for roses are always made at so much per + lac. The price of course varies according to the year, and will + average from 40 to 70 rupees. + + _Manufacture of Rose-water_.--The rose trees come into flower at the + beginning of March, and continue so through April. Early in the + morning the flowers are plucked by numbers of men, women, and + children, and are conveyed in large bags to the several contracting + parties for distillation. The cultivators themselves very rarely + manufacture. + + The native apparatus for distilling the rose-water is of the + simplest construction; it consists of a large copper or iron boiler + well tinned, capable of holding from eight to twelve gallons, having + a large body with a rather narrow neck, and a mouth about eight + inches in diameter; on the top of this is fixed an old dekchee, or + cooking vessel, with a hole in the centre to receive the tube or + worm. + + This tube is composed of two pieces of bamboo, fastened at an acute + angle, and it is covered the whole length with a strong binding of + corded string, over which is a luting of earth to prevent the vapour + from escaping. The small end, about two feet long, is fixed into the + hole in the centre of the head, where it is well luted with flower + and water. The lower arm or end of the tube is carried down into a + long-necked vessel or receiver, called a bhulka. This is placed in a + handee of water, which, as it gets hot, is changed. The head of the + still is luted on to the body, and the long arm of the tube in the + bhulka is also well provided with a cushion of cloth, so as to keep + in all vapour. The boiler is let into an earthen furnace, and the + whole is ready for operation. There is such a variety of rose-water + manufactured in the bazar, and so much that bears the name, which is + nothing more than a mixture of sandal oil, that it is impossible to + lay down the plan which is adopted. The best rose-water, however, in + the bazar, may be computed as bearing the proportion of one thousand + roses to a seer of water; this, perhaps, may be considered as the + best procurable. + + From one thousand roses most generally a seer and a half of + rose-water is distilled, and perhaps from this even the attar has + been removed. The boiler of the still will hold from eight to twelve + or sixteen thousand roses. On eight thousand roses from ten to + eleven seers of water will be placed, and eight seers of rose-water + will be distilled. This after distillation is placed in a carboy of + glass, and is exposed to the sun for several days to become pucka + (ripe); it is then stopped with cotton, and has a covering of moist + clay put over it; this becoming hard, effectually prevents the scent + from escaping. The price of this will be from twelve to sixteen + rupees. This is the best that can be procured. + + _Attar of Roses_.--To procure the attar, the roses are put into the + still, and the water passes over gradually, as in the case of the + rose-water process; after the whole has come over, the rose-water is + placed in a large metal basin, which is covered with wetted muslin, + tied over to prevent insects or dust getting into it; this vessel is + let into the ground about two feet, which has been previously wetted + with water, and it is allowed to remain quiet during the whole + night. The attar is always made at the beginning of the season, when + the nights are cool; in the morning the little film of attar which + is formed upon the surface of the rose-water during the night is + removed by means of a feather, and it is then carefully placed in a + small phial; and, day after day, as the collection is made, it is + placed for a short period in the sun, and after a sufficient + quantity has been procured, it is poured off clear, and of the color + of amber, into small phials. Pure attar, when it has been removed + only three or four days, has a pale greenish hue; by keeping it + loses this, and in a few weeks' time it becomes of a pale yellow. + The first few days distillation does not produce such fine attar as + comes off afterwards, in consequence of the dust or little particles + of dirt in the still and the tube being mixed with it. This is + readily separated, from its sinking to the bottom of the attar, + which melts at a temperature of 84 degrees. From one lac of roses it + is generally calculated that 180 grains, or one tolah, of attar can + be procured; more than this can be obtained if the roses are + full-sized, and the nights cold to allow of the congelation. The + attar purchased in the bazar is generally adulterated, mixed with + sandal oil, or sweet oil; not even the richest native will give the + price at which the purest attar alone can be obtained, and the + purest attar that is made is sold only to Europeans. During the past + year it has been selling from 80 to 90 rupees the tolah; the year + before it might have been purchased for 50 rupees. + + _General Remarks_.--Native stills are let out at so much per day or + week, and it frequently occurs that the residents prepare some + rose-water for their own use as a present to their friends, to + secure their being provided with that which is the best. The natives + never remove the calices of the rose-flowers, but place the whole + into the still as it comes from the garden. + + The best plan appears to be to have these removed, as by this means + the rose-water may be preserved a longer time, and is not spoiled by + the acid smell occasionally met with in the native rose-water. It is + usual to calculate 100 bottles to one lac of roses. The rose-water + should always be twice distilled; over ten thousand roses water may + be put to allow of sixteen or twenty bottles coming out; the + following day these twenty bottles are placed over eight thousand + more roses, and about eighteen bottles of rose-water are distilled. + This may be considered the best to be met with. The attar is so much + lighter than the rose-water, that, previous to use, it is better to + expose the rose-water to the sun for a few days, to allow of its + being well mixed; and rose-water that has been kept six months is + always better than that which has recently been made. + + At the commencement of the rose season, people from all parts come + to make their purchases, and very large quantities are prepared and + sold. There are about thirty-six places in the city of Ghazeepore + where rose-water is distilled. These people generally put a large + quantity of sandal oil into the receiver, the oil is afterwards + carefully removed and sold as sandal attar, and the water put into + carboys and disposed of as rose-water. At the time of sale a few + drops of sandal oil are placed on the neck of the carboy to give it + fresh scent, and to many of the natives it appears perfectly + immaterial whether the scent arises solely from the sandal oil or + from the roses. Large quantities of sandal oil are every year + brought up from the south and expended in this way. + + 6. The chief use the natives appear to make of the rose water, or + the sandal attar as they term it, is at the period of their + festivals and weddings. It is then distributed largely to the guests + as they arrive, and sprinkled with profusion in the apartments. A + large quantity of rose water is sold at Benares, and many of the + native Rajahs send over to Ghazipoor for its purchase. Most of the + rose water, as soon as distilled, is taken away, and after six + months from the termination of the manufacture there are not more + than four or five places where it is to be met with. + + I should consider that the value of the roses sold for the + manufacture of rose water may be estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 + rupees a year; and from the usual price asked for the rose water, + and for which it is sold, I should consider there is a profit of + 40,000 rupees. The natives are very fond of using the rose water as + medicine, or as a vehicle for other mixtures, and they consume a + good deal of the petals for the conserve of roses, or goolcond as + they call it. + + The roses of Ghazipoor, on the river Ganges, are cultivated in + enormous fields of hundreds of acres. The delightful odor from these + fields can be scented at seven miles distance on the river. The + valuable article of commerce known as attar of roses is made here in + the following manner:--On 40 pounds of roses are poured 60 pounds of + water, and they are then distilled over a slow fire, and 30 pounds + of rose water obtained. This rose water is then poured over 40 + pounds of fresh roses, and from that is distilled at most 20 pounds + of rose water; this is then exposed to the cold night air, and in + the morning a small quantity of oil is found on the surface. From 80 + pounds of roses, about 200,000, at the utmost an ounce and a-half of + oil is obtained; and even at Ghazipoor it costs 40 rupees (4_l._) an + ounce. + + Five guineas have been often paid for one ounce of attar of roses. + The most approved mode of ascertaining its quality is to drop it on + a piece of paper; its strength is ascertained by the quickness with + which it evaporates, and its worth by its leaving no stains on the + paper. The best otto is manufactured at Constantinople. + +A volatile oil, erroneously called oil of spikenard, is met with in +the shops, which is obtained from a plant which has been named by Dr. +Royle, the _Andropogon Calamus aromaticus._ + +The true spikenard of the ancients is supposed to have been obtained +from the _Nardostachys Jatamansi_, a plant of the Valerian family. Dr. +Stenhouse describes rather minutely ("Journal Pharm. Soc." vol. iv. p. +276) a species of East India grass oil, said to be the produce of +_Andropogon Ivaracusa_, which he believes to be what is usually called +the oil of Namur. It has a very fragrant aromatic odor, slightly +resembling that of otto of roses, but not nearly so rich. Its taste is +sharp and agreeable, approaching that of oil of lemons. It has a deep +yellow color, and contains a good deal of resinous matter. + +LEMON GRASS (_Andropogon schoenanthus_).--This fragrant grass, which is +now cultivated very generally throughout the West Indies, in the +gardens of the planters, as an elegant and powerful diaphoratic, was +doubtless introduced from the East. The active principle of the leaves +seems to reside in the essential oil which they contain. Lemon grass +oil forms an important article of export from Ceylon, amounting in +value to nearly L7,000 annually. + +The _Andropogon schoenanthus_, which may be seen covering all the +Kandian hills, is the best possible pasture for cattle--at least as +long as it is young. This species of grass is very hard, and grows to +the height of seven feet, and sometimes higher, and has a strong but +extremely pleasant acid taste. It derives its name from having, when +crushed, an odor like that of the lemon, so strong, that after a time +it becomes quite heavy and sickening, although grateful and refreshing +at first. It covers the hills in patches--those, at least, that are +not overgrown with jungle and underwood--and it is to be found nowhere +but in the Kandian district. Spontaneous ignition frequently takes +place, and the appearance of the burning grass is described as most +magnificent. A few days after, from the midst of this parched, +blackened, and apparently dead ground, lovely young green shoots begin +to arise--for the roots of this extraordinary grass have not even +been injured, far less destroyed, by the fire; and in a very short +time the whole brow of the mountain is again overspread with tufts of +beautiful green waving grass.--("Journal of Agriculture.") + +Otto of khuskhus or scented grass, from another species, _A. +digitalis_, obtained at Ulwar in the States of Rajpootanah, was shown +at the Great Exhibition in 1851, and Newar oil (from _A. maritima_) +from Agra. + +CITRONELLA OIL.--In the Southern province of Ceylon some half dozen +estates about Galle are cultivated with citronella grass. The exports +of this oil from Ceylon in the last three years have been as +follows:--1850, 86,048 oz., valued at L3,344; 1851, 114,959 oz., +valued at L3,742; in 1852, 131,780 oz., valued at L2,806. + +PATCHOULY.--Under this name are imported into this country the dried +foliaceous tops of a strongly odoriferous labiate plant, growing three +feet high in India and China, called in Bengalee and Hindu, _pucha +pat_. About 46 cases, of from 50 to 110 lbs. each, were imported from +China, by the way of New York, in 1844. The price asked was 6s. per +pound. Very little is known of the plant yielding it. Mr. George +Porter, late of the island of Pinang, stated that it grows wild there +and on the opposite shores of the Malay peninsula. Dr. Wallich says, +that it obviously belongs to the family Labiatae. Viney, in the "French +Journal of Pharmacy," suggests that it is the _Plectranthus +graveolens_ of R. Brown. It forms a shrub of two or three feet in +height. It is the _Pogostemon patchouly_. The odor of the dried plant +is strong and peculiar, and to some persons not agreeable. The dried +tops imported into England are a foot or more in length. In India it +is used as an ingredient in tobacco for smoking, and for scenting the +hair of women. In Europe it is principally used for perfumery +purposes, it being a favorite with the French, who import it largely +from Bourbon. The Arabs use and export it more than any other nation. +Their annual pilgrimship takes up an immense quantity of the leaf. +They use it principally for stuffing mattrasses and pillows, and +assert that it is very efficacious in preventing contagion and +prolonging life. It requires no sort of preparation, being simply +gathered and dried in the sun; too much drying, however, is hurtful, +inasmuch as it renders the leaf liable to crumble to dust in packing +and stowing on board. The characteristic smell of Chinese or Indian +ink is owing to an admixture of this plant in its manufacture. M. de +Hugel found the plant growing wild near Canton. By distillation it +yields a volatile oil, on which the odor and remarkable properties +depend. This oil is in common use in India for imparting the peculiar +fragrance of the leaf to clothes among the superior classes of +natives. The origin of its use is this:--A few years ago, real Indian +shawls bore an extravagant price, and purchasers could always +distinguish them by their odor; in fact, they were perfumed with +Patchouly; the French manufacturers at length discovered this secret, +and used to import the plant to perfume articles of their make, and +thus palm off homespun shawls as real India! Some people put the dry +leaves in a muslin bag, and thus use it as we do lavender, scenting +drawers in which linen is kept; this is the best way to use it, as +this odor, like musk, is most agreeable when very +dilute.--("Gardeners' Chronicle.") + +The root of some parasitical plant, under the name of kritz, is used +in Cashmere to wash the celebrated shawls, soap is used only for white +shawls. + +From the flowers of the Bengal quince (_AEgle marmemolos_) a fragant +liquid is distilled in Ceylon known as marmala water, which is much +used as a perfume for sprinkling by the natives. + +Jasmine oil is distilled from _Jasminum sambac_ and _grandiflora_. + +SAPONACEOUS PLANTS.--Many plants furnish abroad useful substitutes for +common soap. The aril which surrounds the seed and the roots of +_Sapindus Saponaria_, an evergreen tree, I have seen used as soap in +South America and the West Indies under the name of soap berries. The +seed vessels are very acrid, they lather freely in water and will +cleanse more linen than thirty times their weight of soap, but in time +they corrode or burn the linen. Humboldt says that proceeding along +the river Carenicuar, in the Gulf of Cariaco, he saw the Indian women +washing their linen with the fruit of this tree, there called the +parapara. Some other species of _Sapindus_ and of _Gypsophila_ have +similar properties. The bruised leaves and roots of _Saponaria +officinalis_, a British species, form a lather which much resembles +that of soap, and is similarly efficacious in removing grease spots. +The bark of many species of Quillaia, as _Q. saponaria_, when beaten +between stones, makes a lather which can be used as a substitute for +soap, in washing woollens and silk clothes, and to clean colors in +dyeing, in Chili and Brazil, but it turns linen yellow. The fruit of +_Bromelia Pinguin_ is equally useful. A vegetable soap was prepared +some years ago in Jamaica from the leaves of the American aloe (_Agave +Americana_) which was found as detergent as Castile soap for washing +linen, and had the superior quality of mixing and forming a lather +with salt water as well as fresh. Dr. Robinson, the naturalist, thus +describes the process he adopted in 1767, and for which he was awarded +a grant by the House of Assembly:--"The lower leaves of the Curaca or +Coratoe (_Agave karatu_) were passed between heavy rollers to express +the juice, which, after being strained through a hair cloth, was +merely inspissated by the action of the sun, or a slow fire, and cast +into balls or casks. The only precaution necessary was to allow no +mixture of any unctuous materials, which destroyed the efficacy of the +soap. A vegetable soap, which has been found excellent for washing +silk, &c, may be thus obtained. To one part of the skin of the Ackee +add one and a half part of the _Agave karatu_, macerated in one part +of boiling water for twenty-four hours, and with the extract from this +decoction mix four per cent. of rosin. In Brazil, soap is made from +the ashes of the bassura or broom plant (_Sidu lanceolata_) which +abounds with alkali. There are also some soap barks and pods of +native plants used in China. Several other plants have been employed +in different countries as a substitute for soap. The bark of _Quillaia +saponaria_ renders water frothy and is used as a detergent by wool +dyers. _Saponaria vaccana_ is common in India. The pericarp of +_Sapindus emarginatus_ mixed with water froths like soap. Saponaceous +berries are found in Java. + +The soap-worts to which the genus Sapindus belongs are tropical +plants. The fruit of many species of _Sapindus_ is used as a +substitute for soap, as _Sapindus acuminata_, _Laurifolius +emarginatus_ and _detergens_, all East Indian plants. + + + + +SECTION VI. + +PLANTS YIELDING DRUGS, INCLUDING NARCOTICS AND OTHER COMMON MEDICINAL +SUBSTANCES. + + +The chief plants furnishing the drugs of commerce, and which enter +largely into tropical agriculture, are the narcotic plants, especially +tobacco, the poppy for opium, and the betel nut and leaf; as +masticatories--but there are very many others to which the attention +of the cultivator may profitably be directed. I have already trenched +so largely upon my space, that I cannot do that justice to the plants +coming under this section I could have wished. There are very many, +however, of which I must make incidental mention. Some few medicinal +plants have been already alluded to in former sections, particularly +in that on dye-stuffs, &c. + +THE COCA PLANT grows about four or five feet high, with pale bright +green leaves, somewhat resembling in shape those of the orange tree. +The leaves are picked from the trees three or four times a year, and +carefully dried in the shade; they are then packed in small baskets. +The greatest quantity is grown about 30 leagues from Cicacica, among +the Yunnos on the frontiers of the Yunghos. Some is also cultivated +near to Huacaibamba. + +The natives in several parts of Peru chew these leaves as Europeans do +tobacco, particularly in the mining districts, when at work in the +mines or travelling; and such is the sustenance that they derive from +them, that they frequently take no food for four or five days. I have +often (observes Mr. Stevenson) been assured by them, that whilst they +have a good supply of coca they feel neither hunger, thirst, nor +fatigue, and that without impairing their health they can remain eight +to ten days and nights without sleep. The leaves are almost insipid, +but when a small quantity of lime is mixed with them, they have a very +agreeable sweet taste. The natives generally carry with them a leather +pouch containing coca, and a small calabash holding lime or the ashes +of the molle to mix with them. + +_Cocculus indicus_, or Indian berries.--This is the commercial name +for the berries or fruit of the _Menispermum Cocculus_ of Linnaeus, _M. +heteroclitum_ of Roxburgh, _Animerta paniculata_ of Colebrooke, _A. +Cocculus_ of Wright and Arnot, and _Cocculus suberosus_ of Decandolle. +It is a strong climbing shrub or tree, native of Malabar, Ceylon, and +the Eastern Islands. The seeds or drupes contain a bitter poisonous +acid, and are used for the purpose of stupefying fish, and, in the +form of a black extract, for fraudulently increasing the intoxicating +power of malt liquors; one pound of the berries, it is said, will go +as far in brewing as a sack of malt. The berry is kidney-shaped, with +a white kernel. Whilst the imports in 1846 were but 246 bags, in 1850 +they had increased to 2,359 bags of about 1 cwt. each. The price is +19s. to 24s. the cwt. + +A crystalline, poisonous, narcotic principle called picrotoxin, has +been detected in these seeds, and occasionally employed externally in +some cutaneous diseases. _Cocculus crispus_ is used in intermittent +fevers and liver complaints. + +The annual imports now average 250 tons, and nearly the whole is +consumed for illegal purposes by brewers. Though the practice is +nominally discountenanced by the Legislature under the penalty of L200 +upon the brewer and L500 upon the seller, yet under the recent tariff +great encouragement is given to the introduction of these berries, the +duty having been reduced from 7s. 6d. to 5s. the cwt. + +The capsules and seeds of _Xanthoxylum hostile_ are also employed for +the same purpose as cocculus indicus. The bark of _Walseria piscidia_, +a native of the Circar mountains, also intoxicates fish. + +About 250 tons of _Nux vomica_, another species of dried flat seed +possessing intoxicating properties, are also imported annually for the +same purposes, and they fetch about 6s. to 8s. the cwt. + +BETEL LEAF.--_Piper Betel_, a scandent species of the shrubby +evergreen tribe of plants belonging to the pepper family, furnishes +the celebrated betel leaf of the Southern Asiatics, in which they +enclose a few slices of the areca nut and a little shell lime; this +they chew to sweeten the breath, and to keep off the pangs of hunger, +and it acts also as a narcotic. + +Such is the immense consumption of this masticatory, termed Pan, in +the East, that it forms nearly as extensive an article of commerce as +that of tobacco in the West. The tax on the leaf forms a considerable +portion of the local revenue of Pinang; in 1805, the tax yielded as +much as 5,400 dollars. + +Rumphius describes six species of this vine, besides several wild and +cultivated varieties. It is very easily reared in the Indian islands, +but in the countries of the Deccan requires manuring, frequent +watering and great care, and in the northern parts of Hindostan it +becomes an exotic very difficult to rear. The vine affords leaves fit +for use in the second year, and continues to yield for more than +thirty, the quantity diminishing as the plants grow older. + +ARECA PALM (_Acacia Catechu_).--This is a fine, slender, graceful +tree, rising from 20 to 30 feet high, which, being a native of the +East, is found abundant in many of the forests of India, from 16 to 30 +degs. of latitude. The principal places of its growth are the Burmese +territories, a large province on the Malabar coast called the +_Concan_, and the forests skirting the northern parts of Bengal, under +the hills which divide it from Nepaul, the south and west coasts of +Ceylon, the south of China, &c., the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and the +Eastern islands, it produces fruit at five years old, and continues +bearing till about its twenty-fifth year, when it withers and dies. It +thrives at a greater distance from the sea, and in more elevated +regions than the coco-nut palm. In Prince of Wales Island some +hundreds of thousands of these palms are cultivated. + +The seeds or nuts form a chief ingredient in the celebrated eastern +masticatory called Pan and which seems to owe its stimulating +properties to the leaves of the _Piper Betel_. When prepared for use, +the nut is cut into slices and wrapped in the fresh leaves of the +betel pepper vine, together with a quantity of quicklime (_Chunam_) to +give it a flavor. The flavor is peculiar, between an herbaceous and an +aromatic taste. + +All classes, male and female, chew it; they say it sweetens the +breath, strengthens the stomach, and preserves the teeth, to which it +gives a reddish hue; there is probably less objection to its use than +tobacco or opium, and its taste is more pleasant; but, if taken to +excess, it will produce stupor like other narcotics, and even +intoxication. The nuts grow in large bunches at the top, and when ripe +are red and have a beautiful appearance; they resemble the nutmeg in +shape and color, but are larger and harder. When gathered they are +laid in heaps until the shell be somewhat rotted, and then dried in +the sun, after which the process of shelling commences. The trees vary +in their yield from 300 to 1,000 nuts, averaging about 14 lbs.; which +the cultivators sell at about half a dollar (2s.) a picul of 133 lbs. +As these palms are planted usually at the distance of 71/2 feet, it +follows that the produce of an acre is about 10,841 lbs. The tree +bears but once in a year generally, but there are green nuts enough to +eat all the year long. Betel nut is a staple article of import into +China; 25,000 piculs annually is the amount returned, but there is an +immense quantity imported in Chinese junks from Hainan, of which there +is no account kept. In the single port of Canton alone, 15,565 piculs +were imported in 1844, and about 400 to Ningpo. 3,005 piculs of betel +nuts, valued at 8,700 dollars, were imported into Canton in 1850, and +as much as 4,000 tons of areca nuts are shipped annually from Ceylon. + +The astringent extract obtained from the seeds of the Areca-palm +constitutes two (or perhaps more) kinds of the catechu of the shops. +According to Dr. Heyne ("Tracts Hist. and Statist. on India"), it is +largely procured in Mysore, about Sirah, in the following manner:-- + + The nuts are taken as they come from the tree and boiled for some + hours in an iron vessel. They are then taken out, and the remaining + water is inspissated by continual boiling. This process furnishes + Kassu, or most astringent terra japonica, which is black and mixed + with paddy criu, husks, and other impurities. After the nuts are + dried, they are put into a fresh quantity of water, boiled again; + and this water being inspissated, like the former, yields the best + or dearest kind of catechu, called Coony. It is yellowish brown, has + an earthy fracture, and is free from the admixture of foreign + bodies. + +Most of the betel nuts imported into China come from Java, Singapore, +and Pinang. Betel nut is not so generally used in the South of China +as among the Southern Islands, and in the north of China it is a +luxury, as the pepper does not grow freely there. Formerly there was a +considerable trade in betel nuts with the Coromandel coast, from +whence the natives brought back manufactured goods and other +necessaries in return, but this has ceased for some time. The common +price was 20,000 for a dollar. These nuts are seldom imported into +England, though they might be of use as a dye in some manufactures. + +The natives of the East chew the fruit of _Elate sylvestris_, (which +is something like a wild plum), in the same manner as the areca nut, +with the leaf of the betel pepper and quick lime. + +The inner wood furnishes a kind of _Catechu_ or _Cutch_, which +contains much tannin and is a powerful astringent. It is obtained by +the simple process of boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours, +when it assumes the appearance and consistency of tar. It hardens by +cooling, and when formed into small squares and dried in the sun is +fit for the market. + +The produce of Bombay is of uniform texture and of a dark red color. +That of Concan and other parts of India is of chocolate color, and +marked inside with red streaks. + +The analysis of Sir H. Davy gave the following result:-- + + Bombay. Concan. + Tannin 54.5 48.5 + Extractive 34.0 36.5 + Mucilage 6.5 8.0 + Insoluble matters, sand, lime, &c. 5.0 7.0 + ----- ----- + 100. 100. + +Catechu is in extensive use in India for tanning purposes, and of late +years it has entirely superseded madder in the calico works of Europe +for dyeing a golden coffee-brown, one pound of catechu being found +equivalent to six pounds of madder. + +Value of the areca nuts exported from Ceylon to the British Colonies +and foreign States in the years named:-- + + L. + 1839 22,956 + 1840 23,096 + 1841 22,428 + 1842 29,222 + 1843 27,028 + 1844 20,978 + 1845 31,836 + 1846 34,209 + 1847 35,723 + 1848 42,482 + 1849 31,746 + 1850 42,907 + 1851 54,846 + 1852 52,230 + + +THE POPPY. + +OPIUM is the concrete inspissated juice of the white poppy, _Papaver +somniferum_ and its varieties, obtained by scratching the capsules and +collecting the exuding juice. The plant has been long known, and is +perhaps one of the earliest described. It is a native of Western Asia +and probably also of the South of Europe, but it has been distributed +over various countries. + +In 1826 the imports of opium into the United Kingdom were 79,829 lbs., +of which 28,329 lbs. were consumed in this country. The imports and +consumption in subsequent years are shown by the following figures:-- + + Imports. Consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1827 113,140 17,322 + 1830 209,076 22,668 + 1833 106,846 35,407 + 1836 130,794 38,943 + 1839 196,247 41,682 + 1842 72,373 47,432 + 1845 259,644 38,229 + 1848 200,019 61,055 + 1819 105,724 44,177 + 1850 126,318 42,324 + 1851 118,024 50,682 + 1852 205,780 62,521 + +Few who have not looked into the statistics of this trade, are aware +of the enormous consumption of opium all over the world, but chiefly +in China and India. + +In 1845, 18,792 chests of opium were sent from Calcutta to China, and +nearly the same number of the Malwa opium from Bombay and Damaun. The +total production of India exported to China, in 1844, was 21,526 +chests from Bengal, and 18,321 from Bombay, in all 39,847 chests. The +number of persons in China given to the consumption of opium was +estimated, in 1837, at three millions, and the average quantity smoked +by each individual is about 171/2 grains a day. The consumption of +Indian opium (independent of Turkey opium) in China has gradually +increased from 3,210 chests in 1817, to 9,969 chests in 1827, and +about 40,000 chests in 1837, valued at 25,000,000 dollars. Now it has +reached 50,000 to 60,000 chests. Notwithstanding severe penalties, +imprisonment, temporary banishment, and even death, the number of +those who smoke opium has multiplied exceedingly, and the contraband +trade in the drug is carried on to so large an extent, that it is to +be feared the practice will become general throughout the empire. + +According to Mr. E. Thornton's statistics, the production of opium in +Bengal has increased cent. per cent. in the last ten years:-- + + Chests. + 1840-41 17,858 + 1841-42 18,827 + 1842-43 18,362 + 1843-44 15,104 + 1844-45 18,350 + 1845-46 21,437 + 1846-47 21,648 + 1847-48 30,515 + 1848-49 36,000 + +The chest is about 140 lbs., so that the production in 1849 was +5,040,000 lbs. + +According to the statements annexed to the statistical papers relating +to India, the income from the opium monopoly is obtained by two +principal means, namely, by a system of allowing the cultivation of +the poppy by the natives of British India on account of Government, +and by the impost of a heavy duty on opium grown and manufactured in +foreign states, but brought in transit to a British port for +exportation. The former system obtains in Bengal, the latter in +Bombay. According to the statements published, Bengal opium yields a +profit of 7s. 6d. per lb., whilst the duty derived in the Bombay +presidency is only equal to a surplus of 5s. 8d. per lb. By these +means the total revenue realised by the opium monopoly, in Bengal and +Bombay, in the year 1849-50 yielded L3,309,637. + +Lest objection should be taken to this large annual revenue derived +from the cultivation of a drug, the unnatural consumption of which +would be suppressed under any other European government, the Court of +Directors is very anxious to show the benefit which the country +derives from this monopoly; they say "that as the price of opium is +almost wholly paid by foreign consumers, and the largest return is +obtained with the smallest outlay, the best interests of India would, +appear to be consulted." Nobody at all acquainted with the financial +resources and the capabilities of any country, would hazard such an +assertion. By paying cultivators for the restricted growth of the +poppy a price hardly yielding more than the average rate of wages to +the common laborer, I do not see in what way the best interests of +India are consulted, nor is it clear that the population derives any +benefit by being prohibited altogether from manufacturing a drug, +which may be brought from another country _in transitu_ on the payment +of a heavy duty; unless indeed the Court of Directors are of opinion +that in the event of the abolition of the monopoly, the people of the +country would have to make up for the loss of the revenue by +submitting to some other mode of direct or indirect taxation. There is +an inconsistency in the statements of the Court of Directors, which is +absolutely amusing. "The free cultivation of the poppy," say the +Directors, "would doubtless lead to the larger outlay of capital, and +to greater economy in production; but the poppy requires the richest +description of land, and its extended cultivation must therefore +displace other products." How very considerate on the part of the +Directors, but how strongly at variance with facts, since all the fear +of displacing other products, and all this appropriation of the +richest description of land for other purposes has not prevented the +Indian Government, within less than ten years, from more than doubling +the cultivation of the poppy and the manufacture of opium. The +Directors tell us that the heavy transit duty charged at Bombay is to +discourage production, but they do not say whether that discouragement +applies, as one would imagine, to those foreign districts which have +to pay the transit duty for their production. If so, the assertion is +again at variance with facts, because in a subsequent statement they +say, "It is stated that neither the price of opium, nor the extent of +cultivation in Malwa, has been affected by the great enhancement of +the pass duty, which has taken place since 1845." + +The following will show that the Company loses no opportunity of +applying the screw:-- + + The subjugation of Scinde afforded opportunity for the levy of a + higher rate. Down to the period of that event, a large portion of + the opium of Malwa had been conveyed through Scinde to Kurrachee, + and thence onward to the Portuguese ports of Diu and Demaun. That + route is now closed, and it was reasonably expected that an advance + might be made in the charge of passes without the risk of loss to + the revenue from a diminished demand for them. The rate was + accordingly increased in October, 1843, from 125 to 200 rupees per + chest. Upon the principle that it was desirable to fix the price at + the highest amount that could be levied, without forcing the trade + into other channels, a further increase was made in 1845. when it + was determined that the charge should be 300 rupees per chest. Under + the like views it was, in 1847, raised to 400 rupees per chest. + +The company was perfectly correct, for though the quantity of opium +did not increase, the revenue did; and whilst in 1840-41 16,773 chests +yielded an income of only 22,046,452 rupees--16,500 chests brought in +1849-50 actually 72,094,835 rupees into the coffers of the Government +of Bombay. But the people of India earned not a pice by it, and those +richest descriptions of land, which it was so desirable to reserve for +other produce than the poppy, remained barren. + +The white variety of the poppy is that which is exclusively brought +under cultivation for the production of the drug in India and Egypt. +For the successful culture of opium a mild climate, plentiful +irrigation, a rich soil, and diligent husbandry are indispensable. One +acre of well cultivated ground will yield from 70 lbs. to 100 lbs. of +"chick," or inspissated juice, the price of which varies from 6s. to +12s. a pound, so that an acre will yield from L20 to L60 worth of +opium at one crop. Three pounds of chick will produce one pound of +opium, from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in +evaporation. A chief chemical feature, which distinguishes Bengal +opium from that of Turkey and Egypt, is the large proportion which the +narcotine in the former bears to the morphia, and this proportion is +constant in all seasons. It is a matter of importance to ascertain +whether the treatment which the juice receives after its collection +can influence in any way the amount of alkaloids, or of the other +principles in opium. In Turkey it is the custom to beat up the juice +with saliva, in Malwa it is immersed as collected in linseed oil, +whilst in Bengal it is brought to the required consistence by mere +exposure to the air in the shade, though, at the same time, all the +watery particles of the juice that will separate are drained off, and +used in making _Lewah_, or inferior opium. + +The lands selected for poppy cultivation are generally situated in the +vicinity of villages, where the facilities for manuring and irrigation +are greatest. In such situations and when the soil is rich, it is +frequently the practice with the cultivators to take a crop of Indian +corn, maize, or vegetables off the ground during the rainy season, and +after the removal of this in September, to dress and manure the ground +for the subsequent poppy sowings. In other situations, however, and +when the soil is not rich, the poppy crop is the only one taken off +the ground during the year, and from the commencement of the rains in +June or July, until October, the ground is dressed and cleaned by +successive ploughings and weedings, and manured to the extent which +the means of the cultivator will permit. In the final preparation of +the land in October and November, the soil, after being well loosened +and turned up by the plough, is crushed and broken down by the passage +of a heavy log of wood over its surface, and it is in this state ready +for sowing. + +The amount of produce from various lands differs considerably. Under +very favorable circumstances of soil and season, as much as twelve or +even thirteen seers (26 lbs.) of standard opium may be, obtained from +each biggah of 27,225 square feet. "Under less favorable conditions +the turn-out may not exceed three or four seers, but the usual amount +of produce varies from six to eight seers per biggah. + +The chemical examination of different soils in connection with their +opium-producing powers, presents a field for profitable and +interesting inquiry; nor is the least important part of the +investigation that which has reference to variations in the +proportions of the alkaloids (especially the morphia and narcotine), +which occur in opium produced in various localities. That atmospheric +causes exert a certain influence in determining these variations is +probable; that they influence the amount of produce, and cause +alterations in the physical appearance of the drug, are facts well +known to every cultivator: thus the effect of dew is to facilitate the +flow of the juice from the wounded capsule, rendering it abundant in +quantity, but causing it at the same time to be dark and liquid. An +easterly wind (which in India is usually concomitant with a damp state +of atmosphere), retards the flow of juice, and renders it dark and +liquid. A moderate westerly wind, with dew at night, form the +atmospheric conditions most favorable for collection, both as regards +the quantity and quality of the exudation. If, however, the westerly +wind (which is an extremely dry wind) blow violently, the exudation +from the capsules is sparing. Whilst the effect of meteorological +phenomena in producing the above results are well marked, their action +in altering the relative proportions of the chemical constituents of +the juice of the poppy plant is more obscure, and it is highly +probable that the chemical composition of the soil plays a most +important part in this respect. Dr. O'Shaughnessy is certainly the +most accomplished chemist who had ever, in India, turned his attention +to the subject, and he has published the results of his analyses of +specimens of opium from the different divisions of the Behar Agency, +which are worthy of much attention. In the opium from eight divisions +of the agency, he found the quantity of morphia to range from 13/4 +grains to 31/2 grains per cent., and the amount of the narcotine to vary +from 3/4 grain to 31/2 grains per cent., the consistence of the various +specimens being between 75 and 79 per cent. In the opium from the +Hazareebaugh district (the consistence of the drug being 77), he found +41/2 per cent, of morphia, and 4 per cent, narcotine; whilst from a +specimen of Patna-garden opium he extracted no less than 103/4 per cent. +of morphia, and 6 per cent. of narcotine, the consistence of the drug +being 87. With respect to the last specimen, Dr. O'Shaughnessy +mentions that the poppies which produced it were irrigated three times +during the season, and that no manure was employed upon the soil. It +is much to be regretted that these interesting results were not +coupled with an analysis of the soils from which the specimens were +produced, for to chemical variations in it must be attributed the +widely different results recorded above. + +Opium as a medicine has been used from the earliest ages; but when it +was first resorted to as a luxury, it is impossible to state, though +it is not at all improbable that this was coeval with its employment +in medicine, for how often do we find that, from having been first +administered as a sedative for pain, it has been continued until it +has taken the place of the evil. Such must have happened from the +earliest ages, as it happens daily in the present; but as a national +vice it was not known until the spread of Islamism, when, by the +tenets of the Prophet, wine and fermented liquors being prohibited, it +came in their stead along with the bang or hasch-schash (made from +hemp), coffee, and tobacco. From the Arabs the inhabitants of the +Eastern Archipelago most probably imbibed their predilection for +opium, although their particular manner of using it has evidently been +derived from the Chinese. China, where at present it is so extensively +used, cannot be said to have indulged long in the vice. Previous to +1767 the number of chests imported did not exceed 200 yearly; now the +average is 50,000 to 60,000. In 1773 the East India Company made their +first venture in opium, and in 1796 it was declared a crime to smoke +opium. + +In different countries we find opium consumed in different ways. In +England it is either used in a solid state, made into pills, or a +tincture in the shape of laudanum. Insidiously it is given to children +under a variety of quack forms, such as "Godfrey's cordial," &c. In +India the pure opium is either dissolved in water and so used, or +rolled into pills. It is there a common practice to give it to +children when very young, by mothers, who require to work and cannot +at the same time nurse their offspring. In China it is either smoked +or swallowed in the shape of _Tye_. In Bally it is first adulterated +with China paper, and then rolled up with the fibres of a particular +kind of plantain. It is then inserted into a hole made at the end of a +small bamboo, and smoked. In Java and Sumatra it is often mixed with +sugar and the ripe fruit of the plantain. In Turkey it is usually +taken in pills, and those who do so, avoid drinking any water after +swallowing them, as this is said to produce violent colics; but to +make it more palatable, it is sometimes mixed with syrups or thickened +juices; in this form, however, it is less intoxicating, and resembles +mead. It is then taken with a spoon, or is dried in small cakes, with +the words "Mash Allah," or "Word of God," imprinted on them. When the +dose of two or three drachms a day no longer produces the beatific +intoxication, so eagerly sought by the opiophagi, they mix the opium +with corrosive sublimate, increasing the quantity of the latter till +it reaches ten grains a day. It then acts as a stimulant. In addition +to its being used in the shape of pills, it is frequently mixed with +hellebore and hemp, and forms a mixture known by the name of majoon, +whose properties are different from that of opium, and may account in +a great measure for the want of similitude in the effect of the drug +on the Turk and the Chinese. + +In Singapore and China the refuse of the chandu, the prepared extract +of opium, is all used by the lower classes. This extract, when +consumed, leaves a refuse, consisting of charcoal, empyreumatic oil, +some of the salts of opium, and a part of the chandu not consumed. Now +one ounce of chandu gives nearly half an ounce of this refuse, called +Tye, or Tinco. This is smoked and swallowed by the poorer classes, who +only pay half the price of chandu for it. When smoked it yields a +further refuse called samshing, and this is even used by the still +poorer, although it contains a very small quantity of the narcotic +principle. Samshing, however, is never smoked, as it cannot furnish +any smoke, but is swallowed, and that not unfrequently mixed with +arrack. + + _Preparation_.--In Asia Minor, men, women, and children, a few days + after the flower falls from the poppies, proceed to the fields, and + with a shell scratch the capsules, wait twenty-four hours, and + collect the tears, which amount to two or three grains in weight + from each capsule. These being collected and mixed with the + scrapings of the shells, worked up with saliva and surrounded by + dried leaves, it is then sold, but, generally speaking, not without + being still more adulterated with cow's dung, sand, gravel, the + petals of flowers, &c. Different kinds of opium are known in the + markets of Europe and Asia. + + The first in point of quality is the _Smyrna_, known in commerce as + the _Turkey_ or _Levant_. It occurs in irregular, rounded, flattened + masses, seldom exceeding two pounds in weight, and surrounded by + leaves of a kind of sorrel; the quantity of morphia said to be + derived from average specimens is eight per cent. + + Second, _Constantinople Opium_, two kinds of which are found in the + market, one in very voluminous irregular cakes, which are flattened + like the Smyrna; this is a good quality. The other kind is in small, + flattened, regular cakes, from two to two and a half inches in + diameter, and covered with the leaves of the poppy; the quantity of + morphia is very uncertain in this description of opium, sometimes + mounting as high as 15 per cent., and sometimes descending so low as + six, showing the great variety in the quality of the drug. + + Third, _Egyptian Opium_, occurs in round flattened cakes, about 3 + inches in diameter, and covered externally with the vestiges of + some leaf. It is distinguished from the others by its reddish color, + resembling "Socotrine Aloes." The quantity of morphia in this is + inferior to the preceding. It has one quality which, when + adulterated, ought to be known, that is a musty smell. By keeping it + does not blacken like the other kinds. + + Fourth, _English Opium_, is in flat cakes or balls enveloped in + leaves. It resembles fine Egyptian opium more than any other kind. + Its color is that of hepatic aloes, and in the quantity of morphia + it is inferior to the preceding, but in the strength of the mass it + is said by one of its most extensive cultivators to be superior. + + Fifth, _French_, and sixth _German Opium_, require no particular + remarks. By a recent notice I find the French are cultivating the + poppy in Algeria, from which they get opium giving a small per + centage of morphia. + + Seventh, _Trebizond_ or _Persian Opium_, is sometimes met with of a + very inferior quality in the form of cylindrical sticks, which by + pressure have become angular. + + Eighth, _Indian Opium_, divided into four kinds, Cutch, Malwa, Patna + and Benares. Of these Cutch is but little known or cultivated. It + occurs in small cakes covered with leaves, and its color is much + inferior to Smyrna. Malwa opium is to be met with of two kinds. The + inferior is in flattened cakes, without any external covering, dull, + opaque, blackish brown externally, internally somewhat darker, and + soft. Its color is somewhat like the Smyrna, but less powerful, and + with a slight smoky smell. Superior Malwa is in square cakes, about + three inches in length and one inch thick. It has the appearance of + a well prepared, shining, dry, pharmaceutical extract; its color is + blackish brown, its odor less powerful than Smyrna; it is not + covered by petals as the following kinds are, but smeared with oil; + it is then rubbed with pounded petals. + + The Behar, Patna, and Benares Opium, being strictly in the hands of + Government, no adulteration can take place, without a most extensive + system of fraud; but it will not be uninteresting to trace the + progress of the opium from the hands of the natives, to the + condition in which it is delivered to the public by the Government. + + From the commencement of the hot season to the middle of the rains + the Government is ready to receive opium, which is brought by the + natives every morning, in batches, varying in quantities from twenty + seers to a maund. The examining officer into each jar thrusts his + examining rod, which consists of a slit bamboo, and, by experience, + he can so judge of the qualities of the specimens before him, which + are sorted into lots of No. 1 to No. 4 quality. Opium of the first + quality is of a fine chesnut color, aromatic smell, and dense + consistence. It is moderately ductile, and, when the mass is torn, + breaks with a deeply notched fracture, with sharp needle-like + fibres, translucent and ruby red at the edges. It is readily broken + down under water, and the solution at first filters of a sherry + color, which darkens as the process proceeds. One hundred grains of + this yield an extract to cold distilled water of from 35 to 45, and + at the temperature of 212 degs., leaves from 20 to 28 per cent., + having a consistency of 70 to 72, the consistence of the factory. + + The second quality is inferior to the first, and the third quality + is possessed of the following properties, black paste, of a very + heavy smell, drops from the examining rod, gives off from 40 to 50 + per cent, of moisture, and contains a large quantity of "Pasewa;" + while the fourth or last number embraces all the kinds which are too + bad to be used in the composition of the balls, comprising specimens + of all varieties of color and consistence. This number is mixed with + water, and only used as a paste to cement the covering of the balls. + + The three first qualities are emptied from their jars into large + tanks, in which they are kept until the supply of the season has + been obtained. The opium is then removed and exposed to the air on + shallow wooden frames, until it becomes of the consistency of from + 69 to 70, when it is given to the cake maker, who guesses to a + drachm the exact weight, and envelops the opium in its covering of + petals, cemented by a covering of quality number 4. The balls are + then weighed and stored, to undergo a thorough ventilation and + drying. Formerly the covering of the balls was composed of the + leaves of tobacco; but the late Mr. Flemming introduced the + practice of using the petals of the poppy, which was such an + improvement that the Court of Directors presented him with 50,000 + rupees. The balls, forty in number, are packed in a mango wood case, + which consists of two stories with twenty pigeon holes in each, + lined with lath and surrounded by the dried leaves of the poppy. + Sometimes these balls are so soft as to burst their skins, and much + of the liquid opium running out, is lost. In 1823, many of the + chests of Patna lost five catties from this cause, and to this day + we have the same thing continuing to occur. Patna chests are covered + with bullock hides, Benares with gunnies. + +Dr. Impey, staff surgeon at Poona, who resided in Malwa from 1843 to +1846, published at Bombay, in 1848, a valuable treatise on the +cultivation, preparation, and adulteration of Malwa opium. It was some +time before he obtained the permission of the East India Company to +publish the result of the experience he had acquired in Malwa, and as +Government inspector of opium at Bombay. It is the most practical +treatise I have yet met with, although a very elaborate, useful paper, +by Mr. Little, surgeon, of Singapore, appears in the 2nd vol. of the +"Journal of the Indian Archipelago," from which I have quoted the +preceding remarks. + +Mr. Little furnishes a complete history of the drug, and the physical +and mental effects resulting from its habitual use. There are also +some able remarks in Dr. O'Shaughnessy's Bengal Dispensatory:-- + + For the successful cultivation of opium, a mild climate, plentiful + irrigation, a rich soil, and diligent husbandry, are indispensable. + In reference to the first of these, Malwa is placed most favorably. + The country is in general from 1,300 to 2,000 feet above the level + of the sea: the mean temperature is moderate, and range of the + thermometer small. Opium is always cultivated in ground near a tank + or running stream, so as to be insured at all times of an abundant + supply of water. The rich black loam, supposed to be produced by the + decomposition of trap, and known by the name of cotton soil, is that + prepared for opium. Though fertile and rich enough to produce thirty + successive crops of wheat without fallowing, it is not sufficiently + rich for the growth of the poppy until largely supplied with manure. + There is, in fact, no crop known to the agriculturist, unless sugar + cane, that requires so much care and labor as the poppy. The ground + is first four times ploughed on four successive days, then carefully + harrowed; when manure, at the rate of from eight to ten cart loads + an acre, is applied to it; this is scarcely half what is allowed a + turnip crop at home. The crop is after this watered once every eight + or ten days, the total number of waterings never exceeding nine in + all. One beegah takes two days to soak thoroughly in the cold + weather, and four as the hot season approaches. Water applied after + the petals drop from the flower, causes the whole to wither and + decay. When the plants are six inches high, they are weeded and + thinned, leaving about a foot and a-half betwixt each plant; in + three months they reach maturity, and are then about four feet in + height if well cultivated. The full-grown seed-pod measures three + and a-half inches vertically, and two and a-half in horizontal + diameter. Early in February and March the bleeding process + commences. Three small lancet-shaped pieces of iron are bound + together with cotton, about one-twelfth of an inch of the blade + alone protruding, so that no discretion as to the depth of the wound + to be inflicted shall be left to the operator; and this is drawn + sharply up from the top of the stalk at the base, to the summit of + the pod. The sets of people are so arranged that each plant is bled + all over once every three or four days, the bleedings being three or + four times repeated on each plant. This operation always begins to + be performed about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, the + hottest part of the day. The juice appears almost immediately on the + wound being inflicted, in the shape of a thick gummy milk, which is + thickly covered with a brownish pellicle. The exudation is greatest + over night, when the incisions are washed and kept open by the dew. + The opium thus derived is scraped off next morning, with a blunt + iron tool resembling a cleaver in miniature. Here the work of + adulteration begins--the scraper being passed heavily over the + seed-pod, so as to carry with it a considerable portion of the + beard, or pubescence, which contaminates the drug and increases its + apparent quantity. The work of scraping begins at dawn, and must be + continued till ten o'clock; during this time a workman will collect + seven or eight ounces of what is called "chick." The drug is next + thrown into an earthen vessel, and covered over or drowned in + linseed oil, at the rate of two parts of oil to one of chick, so as + to prevent evaporation. This is the second process of + adulteration--the ryot desiring to sell the drug as much drenched + with oil as possible, the retailers at the same time refusing to + purchase that which is thinner than half dried glue. One acre of + well cultivated ground will yield from 70 to 100 pounds of chick. + The price of chick varies from three to six rupees a pound, so that + an acre will yield from 200 to 600 rupees worth of opium at one + crop. Three pounds of chick will produce about two pounds of opium, + from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in evaporation. It + now passes into the hands of the Bunniah, who prepares it and brings + it to market. From twenty-five to fifty pounds having been + collected, is tied up in parcels in double bags of sheeting cloth, + which are suspended from the ceilings so as to avoid air and light, + while the spare linseed oil is allowed to drop through. This + operation is completed in a week or ten days, but the bags are + allowed to remain for a month or six weeks, during which period the + last of the oil that can be separated comes away; the rest probably + absorbs oxygen and becomes thicker, as in paint. This process + occupies from April to June or July, when the rain begins. The bags + are next taken down and their contents carefully emptied into large + vats from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, and six or eight inches + thick. Here it is mixed together and worked up with the hands five + or six hours, until it has acquired an uniform color and consistence + throughout, become tough and capable of being formed into masses. + This process is peculiar to Malwa. It is now made up into balls of + from eight to ten ounces each, these being thrown, as formed, into a + basket full of the chaff of the seeds pod. It is next spread out on + ground previously covered with leaves and stalks of the poppy; here + it remains for a week or so, when it is turned over and left further + to consolidate, until hard enough to bear packing. It is ready for + weighing in October or November, and is then sent to market. It is + next packed in chests of 150 cakes, the total cost of the drug at + the place of production being about fourteen rupees per chest, + including all expenses. About 20,000 chests are annually sent from + Malwa, at a prime cost charge of two lacs and 80,000 rupees. It may + easily be supposed that manipulations so numerous, complex, and + tedious, as those described, give the most ample opportunities for + the adulteration to which the nature of the drug tempts the + fraudulent dealer. + + In order to enable the cultivator to carry on his agricultural + operations, he receives from time to time certain advances, the + amount of which reaches in the aggregate to about one-half of the + value of the estimated out-turn of produce. If the land has been + under cultivation in previous seasons, its average produce is known; + if it be new land, and considered by the Sub-Deputy Agent as + eligible, then the cultivator, in addition to the usual advances, + receives an advance of so much per biggah to enable him to bestow a + certain amount of extra care in tilling and dressing the soil. The + first advance is made on the completion of the agreement or + bundobust, and this takes place in September and October. The second + advance is made on the completion of the sowings in November, and + the final or Chook payment is made immediately after the delivery + and weighing of the produce. Nothing therefore can be fairer to the + cultivator than this system of advances; he is subject to no sort of + exaction, in the shape of interest or commission on the money which + he receives, and it puts within his power the certain means of + making a fair profit by the exercise of common care and honesty. It + is an established rule in the Agency that the cultivator's accounts + of one season shall be definitively settled before the commencement + of the next, and that no outstanding balances shall remain over. + When a cultivator has from fraud neglected to bring produce to cover + his advances, the balances due by him are at once recovered, if + necessary by legal means; whereas, if he can satisfactorily show + that he has become a defaulter from calamity and uncontrollable + circumstances, and that the liquidation of his debt is placed + entirely beyond his power, his case is then made the subject of + report to the Government by the Agent, with the request that the + debt may be written off to profit and loss. These provisions are + most wise, for outstanding balances may be made the means of + oppression, and to their operation may be traced a considerable + amount of litigation and agrarian crime in the indigo districts of + lower Bengal. It is clear that when such balances become so large + that the cultivator cannot discharge them, he is no longer a free + agent, but is perfectly subservient to the will of his creditor, for + whom he must cultivate whether he desire it or not. Such burdens may + even be handed down from father to son. The fairness of the Agency + system, and the justice with which the cultivators are treated, are + best evidenced by the readiness with which they come forward to + cultivate, and also by the comparative rarity of agrarian crime, + arising out of matters connected with the poppy cultivation. + +Opium is grown to some extent in Egypt; 39,875 lbs. were produced in +1831, and sold at two dollars a pound. + +At the end of October, after the withdrawal of the Nile waters the +seed, mixed with a portion of pulverised earth, is sown in a strong +soil, in furrows; after fifteen days the plant springs up, and in two +months has the thickness of a Turkish pipe, and a height of four feet; +the stalk is covered with long, oval leaves, and the fruit, which is +greenish, resembles a small orange. Every morning before sunrise, in +its progress to maturity, small incisions are made in the sides of the +fruit, from which a white liquor distils almost immediately, which is +collected in a vessel; it soon becomes black and thickish, and is +rolled into balls, which are covered with the washed leaves of the +plant; in this state it is sold. The seeds are crushed for lamp oil, +and the plant is used for fuel. + +A plant known in Jamaica under the name of bull hoof yields a narcotic +which has been administered successfully in the shape of tincture and +a syrup, instead of opium. This is the _Muracuja ocellata_, or +_Passiflora muracuja_, of Swartz, an elegant climber, bearing bright +scarlet blossoms. There is another species, _M. orbiculata_, found in +Hayti and other islands, which may be expected to partake more or less +of the properties of the former. The flowers are the parts most +commonly employed. + + +THE TOBACCO PLANT. + +Several species of _Nicotium_ furnish tobacco; that chiefly used in +Europe is procured from _N. Tabacum_ and its numerous varieties, a +plant naturally inhabiting the hotter parts of North and South +America. The popular narcotic furnished by tobacco is probably in more +extensive use than any other, and its only rivals are opium and the +betel-nut and leaf of the East. The herb for smoking was brought to +England from Tobago, in the West Indies, or from Tobasco, in Mexico +(whence the name), by Sir Ralph Lane, in 1586. Seeds were shortly +after introduced from the same quarter. + +"Tobacco, as used by man," says Du Tour, "gives pleasure to the savage +and the philosopher, to the inhabitant of the burning desert and the +frozen zone; in short, its use, either in powder, to chew, or to +smoke, is universal; and for no other reason than a sort of convulsive +motion (sneezing) produced by the first, and a degree of intoxication +by the two last modes of use." + +Tobacco is an annual plant, attaining a height of six feet, having +dingy red, funnel-shaped flowers, and viscid leaves. The leaves are +the officinal part, and their active properties depend on a peculiar, +oily-like alkaloid, called Nicotin. The flavor and strength of tobacco +depend on climate, cultivation, and the mode of manufacture. That most +esteemed by the smoker is Havanna tobacco, but the Virginian is the +strongest. The small Havanna cigars are prepared from the leaves of +_Nicotium repanda_, Syrian and Turkish tobacco from _N. rustica_, and +fine Shiraz tobacco from _N. persica_. With the exception of the +Macuba tobacco, which is cultivated in Martinique in a peculiar soil, +the tobacco of Cuba is considered the finest in the world. That grown +in the island of Trinidad is, however, fully equal to it in quality, +but all raised in the colony is generally consumed there, and is +little known in the English market. This ought not to be the case, for +no article would pay better. + +The Maryland is a very light tobacco, in thin, yellow leaves; that of +Virginia is in large brown leaves, unctuous or somewhat gluey on the +surface, having a smell very like the figs of Malaga; that of Havanna +is in brownish light leaves, of an agreeable and rather spicy +smell,--it forms, as I have already stated, the best cigars. The +Carolina tobacco is less unctuous than the Virginian, but in the +United States it ranks next to the Maryland. The shag tobacco is dried +to the proper point upon sheets of copper, and is cut up by +knife-edged chopping stamps. There are said to be four kinds of +tobacco reared in Virginia, viz., the sweet-scented, which is +considered the best; the _big and little_, which follows next; then +the Frederick; and, lastly, the _one and all_, the largest kind, and +producing most in point of quantity. + +According to Loudon ("Encyclo. of Plants"), there are fourteen species +of this genus, besides a few varieties. Lindley, however, enumerates +31, but many of these are mere showy species, adapted to flower +gardens. I shall therefore follow chiefly London's classification-- + + 1. _N. Tabacum_, a native of several parts of America, but + principally known as Virginian tobacco, having a stem rising from + four to six feet or more in height, bearing pink flowers. Of this + there are three chief varieties known in America by the popular + names of Orinoco, Broad-leaved and Narrow-leaved. Lindley enumerates + eight varieties of _N. Tabacum_. + + 2. _N. macrophylla_, or large-leaved tobacco, an ornamental annual, + also with pink flowers, native of America, which rises to the height + of six feet. + + 3. _N. fruticosa_, or shrubby tobacco, an ornamental evergreen + shrub, native of China, with pink blossoms, which grows to about + three feet. + + 4. _N. undulata_, or _suaveolens_, sweet-scented or New Holland + tobacco, a green house perennial, native of New South Wales, with + white flowers, which is only two feet high. + + 5. _N. rustica_.--The common green or English tobacco, an annual + plant, native of America, producing white flowers, which seldom + grows higher than three feet. + + 6. _N. paniculata_, or panicled tobacco, an annual plant bearing + greenish yellow flowers, native of Peru, rises to the height of + three feet. + + 7. _N. glutinosa_, or clammy-leaved tobacco, also an annual plant, + native of Peru, growing to the height of four feet, with bright + scarlet flowers. + + 8. _N. plumbaginifolia_, or curled-leaved tobacco, an ornamental + deciduous annual, native of America, with white blossoms, rising to + the height of two feet. + + 9. _N. pusilla_, or primrose-leaved tobacco, an ornamental deciduous + biennial, with white flowers, native of Vera Cruz, rising to three + feet. + + 10. _N. quadrivalvis_, four-valved, or Missouri tobacco, an + ornamental annual, native of North America, with white flowers, + seldom growing higher than two feet. + + 11. _N. nana_, or rocky mount tobacco, a curious greenhouse annual, + native of North America, with white blossoms, rising only three + inches high. + + 12. _N. Langsdorffii_, or Langsdorff's tobacco, an ornamental + annual, with greenish yellow flowers, native of Chili, reaching five + feet high. + + 13. _N. cerinthoides_, or honey-wort tobacco, an ornamental annual, + with greenish yellow flowers, native country unknown. + + 14. _N. repanda_, or Havanna tobacco, an annual with white flowers, + native of Cuba, rising two feet high. + + There are a few species, natives of the Province of Buenos Ayres, + which may be particularised. _N. bonariensis_, having white flowers; + _N. glauca_, yellowish green flowers; _N. longiflora_, white + flowers; and _N. viscosa_, pink flowers. + +The important mineral substances presented in Havanna tobacco, +examined by Hertung, are in 100 parts of ashes, + + Salts of potash 34.15 + Salts of lime 51.38 + Magnesia 4.09 + Phosphates 9.04 + +These substances were for the most part insoluble in earth, and must +have been dissolved during the growth of the crop. + + ANALYSIS OF FIVE SAMPLES OF TOBACCO. + No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. + Grown on argillaceous soil Grown in calcareous soil. + Potash 29.08 30.67 9.68 9.36 10.37 + Soda 2.26 -- -- -- .36 + Lime 27.67 24.79 49.28 49.44 39.58 + Magnesia 7.22 8.57 14.58 15.59 15.04 + Chloride of sodium .91 5.95 4.61 3.20 6.39 + Chloride of potassium -- -- 4.44 3.27 2.99 + Phosphate of iron 8.78 6.03 5.19 6.72 7.56 + Sulphate of lime 6.43 5.60 6.68 6.14 9.42 + Silica 17.65 18.39 5.54 6.28 8.34 + ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- + 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 + +From the above it will be seen that on the argillaceous soil the +tobacco contained a large quantity of alkalies and silica, while on +the other hand, the lime, magnesia and chlorides were high in +proportion, in the tobacco grown on calcareous soil. + +There is no doubt that the manure which contains the largest +proportion of alkaline carbonate, magnesia, lime and gypsum, is that +best adapted for tobacco. + +I give an analysis taken from Prof. Johnston's "Lectures," (2nd +edition) of the ash of the tobacco leaf and the composition of a +special manure for tobacco:-- + + Potash 12.14 + Soda 0.07 + Lime 45.90 + Magnesia 13.09 + Chloride of sodium 3.49 + Chloride of potassium 3.98 + Phosphate of iron 5.48 + Phosphate of lime 1.49 + Sulphate of lime 6.35 + Silica 8.01 + ------ + 100.00 + +All the ingredients which are necessary to replace 100 lbs. of the ash +of tobacco leaves are present in the following mixture:-- + + Bone dust, sulphuric acid 23 lbs. + Carbonate of potash (dry) 31 " + Carbonate of soda (dry) 5 " + Carbonate of Magnesia 25 " + Carbonate of lime (chalk) 60 " + ------ + 144 " + +The following is the result of an analysis of the fresh leaves of +tobacco, by Posselt and Reimann ("Mag. Pharm." xxiv. xxv.):-- + + Nicotine 0.06 + Nicotianine 0.01 + Extractive matter, slightly bitter 2.37 + Gum, with a little malate of lime 1.74 + Green resin 0.26 + Vegetable albumen 0.26 + Substance analogous to gluten 1.04 + Malic acid 0.51 + Malate of ammonia 0.12 + Sulphate of potash 0.04 + Chloride of potassium 0.06 + Potash combined with malic and nitric acids 0.90 + Phosphate of lime 0.16 + Lime in union with malic acid 0.24 + Silica 0.08 + Woody fibre 4.96 + Water (traces of starch) 87.21 + ------ + 100.10 + +Dr. Covell, in "Silliman's American Journal," vol. vii., shows its +components to have been but imperfectly represented in the above +German analysis. He found in tobacco by chemical examination--1, gum; +2, a viscid slime, equally soluble in water and alcohol, and +precipitable from both by subacetate of lead; 3, tannin; 4, gallic +acid; 5, chlorophyle (leaf green); 6, a green pulverulent matter, +which dissolves in boiling water, but falls down again when the water +cools; 7, a yellow oil, possessing the smell, taste and poisonous +qualities of tobacco; 8, a large quantity of a pale yellow resin; 9, +nicotine; 10, a white substance, analogous to morphia, soluble in hot, +but hardly in cold alcohol; 11, a beautiful orange red dye stuff, +soluble only in acids; it deflagrates in the fire, and seems to +possess neutral properties; 12, nicotianine. According to Buchner, the +seeds of tobacco yield a pale yellow extract to alcohol, which +contains a compound of nicotine and sugar. + +M.M. Henry and Boutron Charlard found in 100 parts of + + Cuba tobacco 8.64 of nicotine. + Maryland 5.28 + Virginia 10.00 + Ile et Vilaine 11.20 + Lot et Garonne 8.20 + +quantities from 12 to 19 times more than were obtained by Posselt and +Reimann.--"Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures." + +The following are the results of a series of experiments made by +Messrs. Cooper and Brande, for the purpose of ascertaining the +quantity of soluble matter in eight samples of tobacco, of detecting +the presence and quantity of sugar contained in them, and the nature +and relative proportions of their inorganic constituents. An important +paper on the state in which _Nicotine_ exists in tobacco, and on the +relative proportion of it furnished by different varieties of the +plant, has been furnished by Schloessing ("Ann. Ch. et Ph." 3ieme Ser. +XIX. 230). + + __________________________________________________________________ + |P s |P & |P t o |P s a|P s a|P m t|P o i|P m o| + |e o |e c |e r f |e o s|e o c|e a h|e b n|e a b| + |r l |r . |r e |r l h|r l i|r t e|r t f|r t t| + | u | | a a | u .| u d| t | a u| t a| + |c b |c i |c t m |c b |c b |c e a|c i s|c e i| + |e l |e n |e m o |e l |e l i|e r s|e e i|e r n| + |n e |n s |n e n |n e |n e n|n , h|n n o|n e| + |t |t o |t n i |t |t |t .|t e n|t d d| + |. i |. l |. t a |. i |. i t|. a |. d .|. e | + | n | u | . | n | n h| s | | d a| + Tobacco dried |o |o b |o w |o |o e|o |o f |o u l| + at 212 degs. |f w |f l |f i |f w |f h |f s |f r |f c c| + | a | e | t | a | y a| i | o | e o| + |e t |w |a h |m t |m d s|i l |a m |s d h| + |x e |o i |s |a e |a r h|n i |l |a o| + |t r |o n |h c |t r |t o .|s c |c f |c f l| + |r . |d | a |t |t c |o a |o e |c r .| + |a |y w |a r |e i |e h |l , |h r |h o | + |c | a |f b |r n |r l |u |o m |a m | + |t |f t |t n | | o |b & |l e |r | + |, |i e |e a | t | r |l c | n |i t | + | |b r |r t | h | i |e . | t |n h | + |& |r . | e | e | c | | e |e e | + |c |e | | | | i | d | | + |. | | | | | n | | | + | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + ------------------|----|----|------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| + 1. Light Missouri}|49 |54.9|20.97 |2.17 |11.73| 5.9 | -- | -- | + leaf and stalk}| | |white | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 2. Light Missouri}|50 |47.7|19.7 |1.77 |12.83| 5.1 |0.75 |1.50 | + leaf only }| | |white | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 3. Dark Missouri }|50 |52.4|16.47 |4.2 |10.14| 2.13| -- | -- | + leaf and stalk}| | |white | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 4. Dark Missouri} |51 |50.6|13.8 |2.17 | 8.73| 2.9 |0.35 |0.71 | + leaf only } | | |white | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 5. Light Virginia}|51.5|53.1|16.4 |2.53 | 8.54| 5.33| -- | -- | + leaf and stalk}| | |gray- | | | | | | + | | |white | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 6. Light Virginia}|54 |46.1|11.97 |2.0 | 6.86| 3.11|1.045|2.09 | + leaf only }| | |green-| | | | | | + | | |gray | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 7. Dark Virginia }|48.5|51.8|14.7 |4.8 |8.40 | 1.5 | -- | -- | + leaf and stalk}| | |gray | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | + 8. Dark Virginia} |52 |49.8|12.53 |2.63 |8.20 | 1.7 |1.46 |2.93 | + leaf only } | | |gray | | | | | | + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + + 1. The samples were dried and the woody fibre and extract were also + dried at 212 degs. The watery infusions of all contained ammoniacal + salts. The salts from the ash, which were soluble in water, + consisted of sulphates, carbonates, phosphates, and chlorides; the + bases being potassa and lime. The solution by hydrochloric acid + contained lime, alumina, phosphate of lime, and oxide of iron. + + 3. Contained oxide of manganese in small quantity; sulphates in + watery solution of ash abundant. Hydrochloric solution contained an + abundance of lime. + + 4. A trace of manganese; a trace only of phosphoric acid in watery + solution. + + 5. Contained abundance of oxide of manganese. + + 6. Abundance of oxide of manganese. + + 7. A mere trace of oxide of manganese, and a trace of oxide of iron; + only a trace of alumina. + + 8. A trace of oxide of manganese; quantity of oxide of iron very + great; only a trace of alumina. + +In rich loams, where the solution of the minerals of the soil is +rapid, and where 10 to 20 per cent, of vegetable matter is +incorporated in the earth, tobacco may be obtained for many years, but +it is always an exhausting crop. It has been stated that 170 Lbs. of +mineral matter are removed in less than three months from one acre of +land, by a crop of tobacco. This is very much more than wheat or other +grains abstract from the soil in eight or nine months. + +Tobacco is now very extensively cultivated in France and other +European countries, in the Levant, the East and West Indies; and a +little is grown at the Cape and in the Australian Settlements. + +A good deal of tobacco is raised in Mexico, but only for home +consumption, as its export is prohibited. It forms an article of +culture in Brazil and some of the South American republics, and is +grown to a small extent along the Western shores of Africa. It is from +North America, however, that we derive the bulk of our supplies of +this great article of commerce, which, with cotton, forms the chief +agricultural wealth of the United States. + +In 1821, the tobacco exported from the Brazils amounted to 29,192,000 +Lbs., but its cultivation was greatly injured by the siege of the +capital in 1822-23. Fresh seed was subsequently obtained from Cuba, +and in 1835 the exports were 6,051,040 Lbs. + +131 cases of Princeza snuff were shipped from Bahia to Lisbon, in +1835; about 60,000 Lbs. per annum of this snuff being now manufactured +at Bahia, with the aid of two steam-engines. The exports of tobacco +from Bahia increased from 2,048,000 Lbs. in 1833, to 6,051,040 Lbs. in +1835. The average shipments are about 21,000 bales and rolls. + +The army of smokers in Great Britain and Ireland consume yearly about +six millions of pounds worth of tobacco. The duty alone paid upon +snuff and tobacco for the people of Great Britain, averages +four-and-a-half millions sterling a year! The quantity +consumed--smoked, snuffed, or chewed--during the same period, is about +28 millions of pounds weight, or about four pounds weight per annum +for every male adult. Ireland annually pays not less than L800,000 of +duty on tobacco and snuff, and only about L30,000 on coffee. For every +pound of coffee that the Irish people use, they smoke away about _four +pounds of tobacco_. + +North America produces annually upwards of 200 million pounds. The +combustion of the mass of vegetable material used in this kingdom +would yield about 340 million pounds of carbonic acid gas; so that the +yearly produce of carbonic acid gas from tobacco smoking alone cannot +be less than 1,000,000,000 lbs.--a large contribution to the annual +demand for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the +world. Henceforth let no one twit the smoker with idleness and +unimportance. Every pipe is an agricultural furnace,--every smoker a +manufacturer of vegetation,--the consumer of a weed that he may rear +more largely his own provisions. + +In the year 1842, 605,000,000 of cigars were made in the German +Commercial Union. + +In 1839, the revenue on tobacco in this country was about L3,600,000. +Of this it has been estimated eleven-twelfths are drawn from the +working classes, and one-twelfth from the richer classes. The +following is a calculation of the consumption of tobacco per head of +the population, estimated from the number of pounds on which duty was +paid:-- + + Consumption per head. + Rate of duty. ozs. + 1801 {1s. 7 3-10d. England } 17 + {1s. 0 7-10d. Ireland.} + 1811 2s. 2 13-20d. 191/2 + 1821 4s. 0d. 11 45 + 1831 3s. 0d. 12 35 + 1841 3s. 1 8-10d. 12 4-5 + 1851 3s. 1 4-5d. 21 + +Thus it will be seen the consumption is materially affected by the +rate of duty. + +A memorial presented to the First Lord of the Treasury a few years +ago, by the American Chamber of Commerce, and signed by Mr. Thomas +Todd, the chairman, furnishes some valuable information, and I am +therefore tempted to give it entire:-- + + The American Chamber of Commerce of Liverpool desire respectfully to + bring under the consideration of her Majesty's Government the + impolicy of the present high rate of duty on foreign tobacco, and + the benefit to commerce, as well as to the revenue, which would + arise from such a reduction as would remove the temptation now held + out to the smuggler. + + The cost of tobacco, including freight and all charges, is from 3d. + to 4d. per lb., and the duty is 3s. per lb., being 900 per cent, on + the value. A duty so enormously disproportioned to the cost offers + an irresistible premium to the illicit trader; for the expense of + smuggling tobacco by the cargo, including the first cost, does not + exceed 91/2d. per lb., and it has been ascertained that the smuggler + receives 6d. per lb. less than the duty, or 2s. 6d. per lb., which + yields him a clear profit of 1s. 81/2d. per lb., to the injury not + only of the revenue, but of the fair trader. + + The effect of this heavy duty in diminishing the consumption of + duty-paid tobacco is further exemplified by the fact that, while all + other articles of general consumption have progressively increased + with the increase of the population, tobacco alone forms an + exception, as will appear from the following:-- + + COMPARATIVE SCALE OF POPULATION AND CONSUMPTION OF TEA, COFFEE, + AND TOBACCO, IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, COMPILED FROM PARLIAMENTARY + PAPERS. + + Population Tea Coffee Tobacco + 1801 16,338,102 + Duty, 65 a 95 per ct 19d. per lb. 19d. per lb. + & 121/2 per ct. & 121/2 per ct. + Lbs., 23,163,999 871,846 16,895,752 + 1811 18,547,720 + Duty 96 per cent. 8d. per lb. 261/2d. per lb. + Lbs., 24,461,308 6,895,619 21,376,370 + 1821 21,193,458 + Duty, 96 a 100 per ct. 12d. per lb. 4s. per lb. + Lbs., 26,043,257 7,593,001 1,823,365 + 1831 24,271,763 + Duty 96a 100 per ct. 6d. per lb. 3s. per lb. + Lbs., 30,648,348 22,740,627 19,418,941 + 1841 26,855,928 + Duty, 261/4d. per lb. 6d. per lb. 3s. per lb. + Lbs., 36,396,073 28,420,980 22,094,772 + +The consumption of tobacco in the island of Great Britain, excluding +Ireland, and the duty thereon, were in + + Consumption. Duty. + 1801 10,514,998 lbs. 1s. 7d. + 1811 14,923,243 " 2s. 21/2d. + 1821 12,983,198 " 4s. 0d. + 1831 15,350,018 " 3s. 0d. + 1841 16,083,593 " 3s. 0d. + 1851 28,062,841 " 3s. 0d. + + In the last two periods five per cent is added to all the duties. + + Thus, while the consumption of tea and coffee has increased even + beyond the ratio of the population, the consumption of tobacco has + decreased. + + This table also exemplifies the greater productiveness of a low duty + compared with a high one; for instance, coffee in 1801, at 1s. 7d. + per lb., yielded L77,654; in 1821, at 1s. per lb., L379,650; and, in + 1841, at 6d. per lb., L710,524; tobacco in 1821, at 4s. per lb., + yielded L3,164,673, and 1841, at 3s. per lb., L3,314,215. But the + difference in duty in the latter case was not sufficient to curtail + the profits of the smuggler to any material extent. + + Cigars afford a remarkable example of the amount of duty being + increased by diminishing the rate. In 1828, when the duty was 18s. + per lb., duty was paid on 8,600 lbs. only, yielding L7,740. In 1830, + when the duty was reduced to 9s. per lb., duty was paid on 66,000 + lbs., yielding L29,700; and such has been the increase of + consumption, that, in 1841, duty was paid on 213,613 lbs., yielding + L100,899. + + We would further illustrate the position by the following facts: + + In 1798, Ireland, with a population of 4,000,000, consumed 8,000,000 + lbs. of tobacco, and now, with more than double the population, she + consumes about 3,000,000 lbs. of tobacco less than at the former + period. The reason is obvious: in 1789 the duty was 8d. per lb; now + it is 3s. In 1798, England and Scotland, with a population of + 10,000,000, consumed 10,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, being one half of + the relative consumption of Ireland at the same period; the duty in + England and Scotland being then 1s. 7d. per lb., and in Ireland only + 8d. + + But the quantity of tobacco on which duty is paid does not even + approximately show the quantity consumed. If the duty now paid on + tobacco in the United Kingdom retained the same relative proportion + to the population that it held in Ireland in 1798, the duty in 1841 + would have been actually levied upon 53,711,856 lbs., instead of + 22,094,772 lbs.; and such we believe to be about the actual amount + of consumption, the great bulk of the supply being furnished by the + illicit trader. + + In Prussia, it appears that the consumption of tobacco is at the + rate of three pounds per head; while, in England, if we were to + judge from the amount on which duty is paid, it is considerably less + than one pound per head. + + Assuming the actual consumption at only 45,000,000 lbs., or two + pounds per head, we believe that a reduction of duty to 1s. per + pound would so effectually destroy the illicit trader, that the + revenue would gain by the change, not only by bringing upwards of + 30,000,000 lbs. under duty, which at present escape, but by the + great increase of the consumption consequent upon the encouragement + given to the fair trader. + + We would not, however, treat the question merely as a matter of + revenue. We would strongly represent the injustice which this + exorbitant duty inflicts upon those who pursue a legitimate trade, + by enabling the smuggler to lessen the extent of their transactions + by more than half what they would otherwise be; and we would further + earnestly urge upon your consideration the demoralising tendency of + such a systematic and extended violation of the law, not only upon + those engaged in the illicit trade, also upon those parties who are + found to connive at the practice from a sense of the gross injustice + and impolicy of a duty so disproportioned to the value of an article + of such extensive consumption. + + We would refer to the opinion of a committee of the House of Commons + on the growth of tobacco in Ireland, in 1840, as follows:--'That it + further appears, from the evidence, that smuggling of foreign + tobacco is at present carried on to a great extent, and that all the + measures now adopted, at great expense to the country, are and will + be ineffectual to repress it so long as the temptation of evading a + duty equal to twelve times the value of the article on which it is + imposed, remains." + + We beg, therefore, respectfully to express our opinion, that if the + duty on tobacco were reduced to one shilling per pound, it would be + alike beneficial to the interests of legitimate commerce; to the + consumers, who consist almost entirely of the poorer classes; to the + revenue, by increasing the productiveness of the duty, and by + greatly diminishing the expenditure so ineffectually incurred to + suppress the illicit trade; and to the general morals of society by + removing a powerful inducement to infringe the laws. + +The imports of all kinds of tobacco for the last five years have been +as follows:-- + + | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. + | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. + Unmanufactured|34,090,360|41,546,848|35,166,358|31,061,953|33,205,635 + Manufactured | | | | | + and snuff | 1,512,714| 1,905,306| 1,557,618| 2,331,886| 2,930,299 + |----------|----------|----------|----------|---------- + |35,603,074|43,452,154|36,723,876|33,393,839|36,135,934 + + Gross duty received:-- + + | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. + | L | L | L | L | L + On raw tobacco| 4,267,579| 4,328,217| 4,337,258| 4,386,910| 4,466,533 + Cigars, snuff,| | | | | + &c. | 97,655| 96,814| 92,873| 98,858| 94,298 + |----------|----------|----------|----------|---------- + | 4,365,234| 4,425,031| 4,430,131| 4,485,768| 4,569,831 + +The amount of tobacco consumed is so limited that the trade will not +admit of an excessive growth. In the two most thickly populated +countries in Europe--France and England--not more than a certain +quantity finds its way there. In France the trade is monopolised by +Government, which gives out contracts to deliver a stipulated quantity +at certain prices; in England the duty imposed is so enormous that +only a limited quantity of certain descriptions can be imported +without risk of loss. In Germany and Holland, where the trade is more +extensively carried on than elsewhere, the duty imposed is almost +nominal, and all classes of their citizens are enabled to use the weed +at prices very little higher than its first prime cost. The tobacco +trade constitutes so large a staple of American produce that it is +singular greater efforts are not made upon the part of that Government +to cause a reciprocal duty to be imposed, that more favor may be shown +by European Governments to this particular article. England, from the +duty imposed upon it alone, derives a revenue of L4,500,000, being +about L160 to the hogshead, or from ten to sixteen times its original +cost. France makes the trade a monopoly, from which she derives an +income of L3,000,000 sterling. + + STATEMENT OF IMPORTS, SALES, AND STOCKS OF TOBACCO AND + STEMS, IN BREMEN, FROM 1840 TO 1850. + ----+---------------------------+-----------------------+ + | MARYLAND | VIRGINIAN | + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | S | | | | S | + | S | | | t | S | | | t | + | t | | | o D | t | | | o D | + | o J | I | | c e | o J | I | | c e | + | c a | m | | k c | c a | m | | k c | + | k n | p | S | e | k n | p | S | e | + Y | u | o | a | l m | u | o | a | l m | + e | 1 a | r | l | a b | 1 a | r | l | a b | + a | s r | t | e | s e | s r | t | e | s e | + r | t y | s | s | t r | t y | s | s | t r | + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + 1840| 4,890|14,570|18,399| 1,061| 245| 3492| 3422| 285| + 1841| 1,061|19,629|18,321| 2,369| 285| 3466| 3025| 726| + 1842| 2,369|20,821|19,067| 4,123| 726| 6729| 5898| 1557| + 1843| 4,123|18,483|15,004| 7,602| 1557| 5541| 4242| 2856| + 1844| 7,602|16,978|18,338| 6,242| 2856| 5092| 4282| 3666| + 1845| 6,242|24,251|24,571| 5,922| 3666| 1588| 3099| 2155| + 1846| 5,922|26,785|23,788| 8,919| 2155| 2386| 2456| 2085| + 1847| 8,919|21,743|20,681| 9,981| 2085| 911| 2079| 917| + 1848| 9,981|12,084| 9,935|12,130| 917| 847| 1054| 710| + 1849|12,130|19,285|22,112| 9,303| 710| 1173| 1734| 149| + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + ----+---------------------------+-----------------------+ + | KENTUCKY | STEMS | + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | S | | | | S | + | S | | | t | S | | | t | + | t | | | o D | t | | | o D | + | o J | I | | c e | o J | I | | c e | + | c a | m | | k c | c a | m | | k c | + | k n | p | S | e | k n | p | S | e | + Y | u | o | a | l m | u | o | a | l m | + e | 1 a | r | l | a b | 1 a | r | l | a b | + a | s r | t | e | s e | s r | t | e | s e | + r | t y | s | s | t r | t y | s | s | t r | + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + 1840| 181| 3,803| 3,699| 285| 2853| 3362| 4564| 1651| + 1841| 285| 5,206| 4,941| 550| 1651| 7085| 7054| 1682| + 1842| 550| 9,407| 8,939| 1018| 1682| 4151| 5386| 447| + 1843| 1018| 7,485| 6,441| 2062| 447| 3969| 3447| 969| + 1844| 2062| 9,736| 9,569| 2229| 969| 4753| 5513| 209| + 1845| 2269|11,439|10,328| 3340| 209| 5273| 4152| 1330| + 1846| 3340| 5,028| 6,099| 2269| 1330| 6092| 4716| 2706| + 1847| 2269| 3,816| 5,013| 1072| 2706| 6788| 8038| 1456| + 1848| 1072| 4,448| 4,980| 540| 1456| 4912| 4473| 1895| + 1849| 540| 4,620| 4,746| 414| 1895| 5188| 5083| 1000| + ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + +_Culture and Statistics in the United States_.--Tobacco has been the +great staple of the States of Virginia and Maryland from their first +settlement. About the year 1642 it became a royal monopoly, and +afterwards, in order to encourage its growth in the colonies, and +thereby increase the revenue of the Crown, Parliament prohibited the +planting of it in England. The average quantity shipped from the North +American colonies to the parent country, for ten years preceding the +year 1709, was about twenty-nine millions of pounds. For some years +prior to the American revolution, about 85,000 hhds. were exported, +then valued at little more than four millions of dollars, and +constituting nearly one-third the value of all the exports of the +British North American colonies. From 1820 to 1830 tobacco constituted +about one-ninth in value of all the domestic exports of the United +States. It finds a market principally in Great Britain, France, +Holland, and the north of Europe.[55] The crop of tobacco produced in +the four principal States, was in-- + + 1838. 1839. + hhds. hhds. + Virginia 26,000 45,000 + Kentucky 27,000 35,000 + Maryland 16,000 16,000 + Ohio 3,000 4,000 + ------ ------- + 72,000 100,000 + +The whole crop of 1840 was 219,163,319 lbs., which, at the estimate +of 1,200 lbs. to the hhd., would be equal to 182,636 hhds., and at the +average price of that year, 81 dollars 5 cents. per hhd., would make +the value of the crop of the United States 14,802,647 dollars 80 +cents. The average annual export for the ten years ending with 1840, +was 96,775 hhds. The actual exportation of 1840 was 119,484 hhds. The +principal exports are formed of the produce of Virginia, Kentucky, +Tennessee, Maryland, and North Carolina. The exports are chiefly to +the following countries--about 30,000 hhds. annually to England, +15,000 hhds. to France, 20,000 hhds. to Holland, 25,000 hhds. Germany, +and about 22,000 hhds. to other countries. The whole crop for 1845 was +put down at 187,422,000 lbs. In 1839, it was ascertained that one and +a half million persons were engaged in the cultivation and manufacture +of tobacco in the United States, one million of whom were so occupied +in the States of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. In the +city of New York the consumption of cigars is computed at 10,000 +dollars a day, a sum greater than that which the inhabitants pay for +their daily bread; and in the whole country the annual consumption of +tobacco is estimated at 120 million pounds, being 7 lbs. for every +man, woman, and child, at an annual cost to the consumers of 20 +million dollars (more than four million pounds sterling). + +It is estimated that the manufacture of tobacco in the United States +is increasing at the rate of 2,000 hhds. per annum. + + hhds. + The quantity manufactured in 1851, was stated at 55,000 + Exportations for the year estimated at 120,000 + ------- + 175,000 + +The production for 1852 is supposed to be as follows:-- + + hhds. + Virginia 27,000 + Maryland 33,000 + Western States, including frosted 65,000 + ------- + Total production 125,000 + Deficiency in the year's crop 50,000 + +The quantity produced in the United States, in 1847, was 220,164,000 +lbs., worth, at 5 cents per lb., nearly 11 million dollars (more than +two million sterling). The principal producing States were--Kentucky, +65 million lbs.; Virginia, 50 millions; Tennessee, 35 millions; North +Carolina, 14 millions; Ohio, 9 millions; Indiana, 4 millions; +Illinois, Connecticut, and a few others in smaller proportions. + +The production in 1848 was 218,909,000 lbs., which, valued at four +cents per lb., would be worth nine million dollars. From persons +largely interested in the tobacco trade, and well informed in relation +thereto, I have gathered the following general statements:-- + + The crops of tobacco to come to market in the year 1851, were + estimated as follows-- + + hhds. + Virginia 30,000 + Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri, about 50,000 + Maryland, about 22,000 + Ohio, about 14,000 + + From the above estimate it will be seen that the quantity produced + in 1850 is less than two-thirds of the usual production in the + States named. The entire crop of Virginia will be required for home + consumption. About 15,000 hhds. Kentucky, and 5,000 hhds. Maryland + will also be wanted for home use. Owing to the increase of + population by immigration and otherwise, the domestic consumption, + which was a few years ago so small as not to be considered worthy of + notice, has now increased to a very important item, and affords a + steady home market for a large portion of the production. + + The quantity of Maryland tobacco left for export to Bremen and + Holland, in 1851, will only be about 17,000 hhds., which is not more + than half the amount usually shipped to these countries every year. + + Of the Kentucky tobacco contracted for last year by France and + Spain, through their agents in this country, less than one third has + yet been purchased, and those governments will this year require the + deficiency to be made up, in addition to their annual average + supply, which, with the quantity required for England, will take the + entire crop, leaving nothing for the rest of Europe, Africa, South + America, the West Indies, &c. The tobacco markets throughout the + world are in a much more healthy condition than has ever been known, + and it is thought prices will rule very high the coming season. In + Maryland, while the production has been not more than half an + average crop, the price is nearly three times as high as usual; so + that the planter will receive more for his diminished crops than in + ordinary seasons of plenty. + + QUANTITY OF TOBACCO EXPORTED ANNUALLY FROM 1821 TO 1850. + + Exports for Year ending hhds.|Stocks in Europe, year ending hhds. + + September 30th, 1821 66,850| December 31st, 1821 -- + " " 1822 83,169| " " 1822 -- + " " 1823 99,000| " " 1823 -- + " " 1824 77,889| " " 1824 -- + " " 1825 75,986| " " 1825 -- + " " 1826 64,099| " " 1826 -- + " " 1827 100,020| " " 1827 -- + " " 1828 96,279| " " 1828 69,485 + " " 1829 77,136| " " 1829 63,670 + " " 1830 83,810| " " 1830 50,672 + " " 1831 86,718| " " 1831 54,690 + " " 1832 106,800| " " 1832 61,868 + " " 1833 83,153| " " 1833 50,543 + " " 1834 87,979| " " 1834 53,413 + " " 1835 94,353| " " 1835 57,458 + " " 1836 109,042| " " 1836 68,918 + " " 1837 100,232| " " 1837 38,703 + " " 1838 100,593| " " 1838 31,067 + " " 1839 78,995| " " 1839 38,715 + " " 1840 119,484| " " 1840 37,623 + " " 1841 147,828| " " 1841 50,880 + " " 1842 158,710| " " 1842 62,496 + June 30 (9 ms.) 1843 94,454| " " 1843 91,196 + " (12 ms.) 1844 163,042| " " 1844 88,973 + " " 1845 147,168| " " 1845 91,213 + " " 1846 147,998| " " 1846 100,774 + " " 1847 135,762| " " 1847 88,858 + " " 1848 130,665| " " 1848 80,391 + " " 1849 101,521| " " 1849 70,527 + " ' 1850 145,729| " " 1850 66,777 + + It is a curious fact that, notwithstanding the variety of climate + and soil in the northern State;, every State and territory in the + Union produces some tobacco. In many of the States its cultivation + is, of course, a secondary object, and perhaps in several it is + attended to as a mere matter of curiosity; but in most of the + States, probably a sufficient quantity has been grown, to show that + with attention to this object, it might, in case of necessity, be + resorted to as a profitable crop. The States in which the great bulk + of the crop is grown lie between the latitudes of about 34 and 40 + degrees. + + There is a considerable increase of consumption of American tobacco + in Europe, as well as in the United States, which should encourage + the planters of Virginia and North Carolina to cultivate this + article more abundantly than they have done for several years past; + and, since the home manufacture has increased so much, and the + Virginia tobacco is preferred in many parts of the European markets, + they may safely count on getting good prices for many years to come. + + It is not in the power of Virginia to make any three years together + more than 56,000 hhds., even with good seasons, and 30,000 hhds. + annually of this will be wanted by our manufacturers. + + The planters, then, should enrich their lands, and aim to make full + crops. + + The increased consumption in Europe is three per cent., and in the + United States four per cent. per annum. + + The crop of the United States from 1840 to 1850 inclusive--say 11 + years--averaged about 160,000 hhds.; this embraces the large crops + of 1842-43-44. + + The consumption of Europe from 1829 to 1838 was 96,826 hhds.--it is + now 130,000. + +An account of the quantities of unmanufactured tobacco, manufactured +called negro-head, and cigars, imported into the United Kingdom in +1850:-- + + Countries from whence imported. Unmanufactured Manufactured + United States of America 30,173,444 1,191,001 + Venezuela, New Granada and Ecuador 895,523 527 + Brazil 12,138 56,802 + Peru 8,649 6 + Cuba 589,627 153,819 + British West Indies, including Demerara + and Honduras 26,169 3,242 + British Territories in the East Indies 14,500 25,332 + Philippine Islands 12,233 51,210 + Hongkong and China 2,706 2,340 + Turkey, Syria, and Egypt 140,361 2,882 + Malta 13,028 7,818 + Italy, Sardinian Territories 431,939 17 + Gibraltar 7 3,063 + Spain 307,641 1,100 + France 29,950 1,521 + Channel Islands 149 1,342 + Belgium 29,922 6,579 + Holland 2,418,732 9,078 + Hanseatic Towns 50,610 36,680 + Other parts 8,930 1,980 + ---------- --------- + Total unmanufactured 35,166,358 1,556,321 + Ditto manfactured 1,556,321 + Snuff 1,197 + ---------- + Total 36,723,876 + +From the tobacco circulars of Messrs. Clagett, Son, and Co., leading +brokers of London, dated Feb., 1st, 1850, I take the following +extracts:-- + + The exhaustion of the stock has resulted from the concurrence of a + gradually decreasing supply and increasing consumption, which may + be very clearly perceived by a reference, first to the official + returns from New Orleans of the yearly receipts of the western crops + in each of the last seven years; and secondly, to the consumption of + American tobacco in Great Britain and Ireland in the years 1847, + 1848, and 1849, as compared with that of 1840, 1841, and 1842. We + have no means of exhibiting with similar accuracy the relative + consumption of Continental Europe in the latter as compared with the + former part of these last ten years, but it is quite reasonable to + assume that the increase, where there has been little or no duty, + must have gone on more rapidly than it has done here, under the + restraining force of a duty of 800 to 900 per cent. + + The deliveries from London and Liverpool, independently of those + from Scotland, Bristol, and Newcastle, for the use of Great Britain + and Ireland, have been as follows:--In 1840, 15,037 hhds.; 1841, + 15,019 hhds.; 1842, 15,468 hhds.; 1847, 18,091 hhds.; 1848, 18,595 + hhds.; 1849, 18,738 hhds. + + The highest estimates we have seen of the whole of the crops of the + United Slates in 1849, do not exceed 140,000 hhds., of which it is + not doubted that fully 45,000 hhds. will be required for consumption + there, and we estimate the supply required for the consumption of + Europe, South America, the West Indies, and Africa, at certainly not + less than 125,000 hhds.; if these estimates be realised in fact, it + will follow that the stocks at the close of this year must be 30,000 + hhds. less than at the close of 1849. + + We estimate the present consumption of American tobacco in Great + Britain and Ireland as follows:-- + + The deliveries in London and Liverpool in 1849, were 18,738 hhds.; + do. do. Bristol 1,400 hhds.; do. do. Scotland we assume at 2,800 + hhds. Total 22,939. + + Of Stripts, the deliveries in Liverpool last year were 8,544 hhds., + of which about 300 were for exportation; the deliveries, therefore, + were--For the use of Great Britain and Ireland, 8,250 hhds. In + London we have no account of the deliveries of stripts, as + distinguished from leaf, for the whole of last year; it is doubtless + less than that in Liverpool, and we assume it at 7,000 hhds.; in + Bristol it was about 900 hhds.; in Scotland we assume it at 2,400 + hhds. Total 18,550 hhds. + + Now, assuming 1,500 hhds. of the deliveries in Scotland and Bristol + to be included in the coastwise returns in London and Liverpool, + then the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland would appear to be + about 21,500 hhds. of American tobacco, and 17,000 for these to be + stripts. The progressive increase which we have shown in the returns + of 1849, as compared with those of 1840, must still go on. + + Without troubling you with any detail of the stocks in each of the + several markets, it may be sufficient to show that the summary of + the whole in all the markets of Europe, other than Great Britain, + consisted on the 31st December, 1849, of about 22,000 hhds.; of + which about 18,000 were Maryland and 2,000 stalks; and it is + important to notice especially the fact, that the stocks of the + manufacturers and dealers in Germany, Holland and Belgium are + unusually small. We have taken very considerable care to inform + ourselves on this point, and are fully satisfied that the usual + stocks in second or dealers' hands do not exist. The whole demand of + the year must, therefore, be supplied from those stocks in + importers' hands, from England or from the United States. + + The following were the prices current in London in the spring of + 1853:--Virginia Leaf, common, per pound, 31/4d. to 33/4d.; middling, 5d. + to 6d.; good and fine 61/2d. to 71/2d. Stripts, 51/2d. to 10d. Kentucky + Leaf: common 3d., to 31/2d.; middling, 33/4d. to 41/2d.; good and fine, + 5d. to 6d. Stripts, 5d. to 7d. Maryland, 31/2d. to 9d. Negrohead and + Cavendish: common and heated, 4d. to 6d.; middling to good, 6d. to + 8d. and 9d.; fine, 10d., 12d., 16d.; Barret's none. Columbian, 7d. + to 1s. 8d.; Brazil, 3d. to 6d.; flat, 5d. to 1s. 1d.; Manilla, 7d. + to 2s. 6d.; Havana, 10d. to 5s.; Yara, 11d. to 3s.; Cuba, 9d. to 1s. + 1d.; ingars, 3s. to 16s.; cheroots, Manilla, 7s. 6d., nominal; + German and Amersfoort 4d. to 1s. 3d.; stalks, duty paid, 2s. 6d. to + 3s. 4d.; smalls, 2s. 9d to 2s. + + The shipments to Europe were 76,516 hhds. against 40,652 hhds. the + previous year, and 43,576 hhds. in 1850. The rapidity of sales, the + diminished stocks even now held in first hands, were taken as an + infallible index of the progressive rate of consumption; and of a + truth the quantity of hogsheads received in the principal markets of + Belgium, Holland, Germany, and the North, and as speedily relieved + from the control of the importers, was enough to control even those + who were alive to the existing necessities of Europe, and to give a + color to the rumour of almost inexhaustible consumption. + + This extraordinary demand for tobacco on the continent has been + occasioned by three distinct causes; the first of which was the + pressing wants which, for the last two years, were well known to + have existed, and the constant willingness of consumers to act at + the very moderate rates which prevailed some time last spring. The + second was the compulsory purchases by the Austrian Government, + amounting, it is estimated, to 20,000 hhds., by reason that the + discontented Hungarians, for political considerations, abandoned + altogether the cultivation of tobacco, and which deficiency was + obliged to be replaced by American growths. The third cause also had + a political origin: the anticipation of the extension of the + Zollverein or German Customs League to the Kingdoms of Hanover and + Oldenburg, whereby the duties on tobacco in those countries would be + greatly increased, was a natural incentive to the dealers and + manufacturers there to lay in heavy stocks, to reap the benefit + thereon; and these last two causes, therefore, may be viewed in the + light of fortuitous circumstances, which have fostered a speculation + originally founded on the cheapness of money alone. + + It has been shown, and the statistics of the past year fully confirm + the statement, that a plethora of money and prosperity among the + middle classes of society, while it induces to the consumption of + tobacco in general, rather curtails than otherwise the demand for + American growths. A poor man addicted to smoking takes his pipe not + from choice, but necessity; as he grows independent, the humble pipe + is abandoned and the more costly cigar assumed. We have frequently + heard this matter noticed, more especially after the disasters which + followed the railway speculations of 1846, when the demand for + English cigars sensibly declined; and we have now a further + verification of the assertion in the opposite sense, the sales of + cigar materials in Bremen having been extended more than 40 per + cent, in three years, viz., from 94,750 bales and cases in 1850 to + 135,650 during last season. + + From New Orleans we learn that the arrivals from the interior since + the 1st September had amounted to 18,043 hhds. against 5,165 hhds. + last season, and the stock on hand was 24,128 hhds. against 7,927 + hhds. only. + + The shipments from Virginia during the past year exceeded 13,700 + hhds. In 1851 they were under 4,000 casks. + + From Baltimore 54,272 hhds. have been exported. The official figures + for the previous year gave 35,967 as the total. + + The aggregate stock of tobacco on the 1st of January last, in the + principal ports of America, was taken at 52,982 hhds. against 45,292 + the year before and the growth of the Western States, Virginia, and + Maryland during 1852, to come forward for our supply the present + season, is estimated at 185,000 hhds., notwithstanding all the + unfavorable influences and curtailing causes which were said to have + prevailed. + +The method adopted of cultivating tobacco in Virginia is thus +described: + + Several rich, moist, but not too wet spots of ground are chosen out + in the fall, each containing about a quarter of an acre or more, + according to the magnitude of the crop, and the number of plants it + may require. + + These spots, which are generally in the woods, are cleared, and + covered with brush or timber, for five or six feet thick and + upwards; this is suffered to remain upon it until the time when the + tobacco seed must be sowed, which is within twelve days after + Christmas. The evening is commonly chosen to set these places on + fire, and when everything thereon is consumed to ashes, the ground + is dug up, mixed with the ashes, and broken very fine. The tobacco + seed, which is exceedingly small, being mixed with ashes also, is + then sown and just raked in lightly; the whole is immediately + covered with brushwood for shelter to keep it warm, and a slight + fence thrown around it. In this condition it remains until the + frosts are all gone, when the brush is taken off, and the young + plants are exposed to the nutritive and genial warmth of the sun, + which quickly invigorates them in an astonishing degree, and soon + renders them strong and large enough to be removed for planting, + especially if they be not sown too thick. Every tobacco planter, + assiduous to secure a sufficient quantity of plants, generally has + several of these plant beds in different situations, so that if one + should fail, another may succeed; and an experienced planter + commonly takes care to have ten times as many plants, as he can make + use of. + + In these beds, along with the tobacco, they generally sow kale, + colewort, and cabbage seed, &c., at the same time. + + There are seven different kinds of tobacco, particularly adapted to + the different qualities of the soil on which they are cultivated, + and each varying from the other. They are named Hudson, Frederick, + Thick-joint, Shoe-string, Thickset, Sweet-scented, and Oronoko. But + although these are the principal, yet there are a great many + different species besides, with names peculiar to the situations, + settlements and neighbourhoods wherein they are produced; which it + would be too tedious here to specify and particularise. The soil for + tobacco must be rich and strong; the ground is prepared in the + following manner:--after being well broke up and by repeated + working, either with the plough or hand hoes, rendered soft, light, + and mellow, the whole field is made into hills, each to take up the + space of three feet, and flattened at the top. + + In the first rains, which are here called seasons, after the vernal + equinox, the tobacco plants are carefully drawn while the ground is + soft; carried to the field where they are to be planted, and one + dropped upon every hill, which is done by the negro children. The + most skilful slaves then begin planting them, by making a hole with + their finger in each hill, inserting the plant with the taproot + carefully placed straight down, and pressing the earth on each side + of it. This is continued as long as the ground is wet enough to + enable the plants sufficiently grown to draw and set; and it + requires several different seasons, or periods of rain, to enable + them to complete planting their crop, which operation is frequently + not finished until July. + + After the plants have taken root, and begin to grow, the ground is + carefully weeded and worked, either with hand hoes or the plough, + according as it will admit. After the plants have considerably + increased in bulk, and begin to shoot up, the tops are pinched off, + and only ten, twelve, or sixteen leaves left, according to the + quality of the tobacco and the soil. The worms, also, are carefully + picked off and destroyed, of which there are two species that prey + upon tobacco. One is the ground worm, which cuts it off just beneath + the surface of the earth; this must be carefully looked for and + trodden to death; it is of a dark brown color, and short. The other + is a horn worm, some inches in length, as thick as your little + finger, of a vivid green color, with a number of pointed + excrescences or feelers from his head like horns. These devour the + leaf, and are always upon the plant. As it would be endless labor to + keep their hands constantly in search of them, it would be almost + impossible to prevent their eating up more than half the crop had it + not been discovered that turkeys are particularly dexterous at + finding them, eat them up voraciously, and prefer them to every + other food. For this purpose every planter keeps a flock of turkeys, + which he has driven into the tobacco grounds every day by a little + negro that can do nothing else; these keep his tobacco more clear + from horn worms than all the hands he has got could do were they + employed solely for that end. When the tops are nipped off, a few + plants are left untouched for seed. On the plants that have been + topped, young shoots are apt to spring out, which are termed + suckers, and are carefully and constantly broken off lest they + should draw too much of the nourishment and substance from the + leaves of the plant. This operation is also performed from time to + time, and is called "suckering tobacco." For some time before it is + ripe, or ready for cutting, the ground is perfectly covered with + leaves, which have increased to a prodigious size, and then the + plants are generally about three feet high. When it is ripe, a + clammy moisture or exudation comes forth upon the leaves, which + appear, as it were, ready to become spotted, and they are then of a + great weight and substance. The tobacco is cut when the sun is + powerful, but not in the morning and evening. The plant, if large, + is split down the middle, and cut off two or three inches below the + extremity of the split; it is then turned directly bottom upwards, + for the sun to kill it more speedily, to enable the laborers to + carry it out of the field, else the leaves would break off in + transporting it to the scaffold. The plants are cut only as they + become ripe, for a field never ripens altogether. There is generally + a second cutting likewise, for the stalk vegetates and shoots forth + again, and in good land, with favorable seasons, there is a third + cutting also procured, notwithstanding acts of the Legislature to + prevent cutting tobacco even a second time. + + When the tobacco plants are cut and brought to the scaffolds, which + are generally erected all around the tobacco houses, they are placed + with the split across a small oak stick, an inch and better in + diameter and four feet and a half long, so close as each plant just + to touch the other without bruising or pressing. These sticks are + then placed on the scaffolds, with the tobacco thus suspended in the + middle, to dry or cure, and are called tobacco sticks. As the plants + advance in curing, the sticks are removed from the scaffolds out of + doors into the tobacco house, on to other scaffolds erected therein + in successive regular gradations from the bottom to the top of the + roof, being placed higher as the tobacco approaches to a perfect + cure, until the house is all filled and the tobacco quite cured, and + this cure is frequently promoted by making fires on the floor below. + When the tobacco house is quite full, and there is still more + tobacco to bring in, all that is within the house is struck, and + taken down, and carefully placed in bulks, or regular rows, one upon + another, and the whole covered with trash tobacco, or straw, to + preserve it in a proper condition, that is moist, which prevents its + wasting and crumbling to pieces. But, to enable them to strike the + cured tobacco, they must wait for what is there called a season, + that is rainy or moist weather, when the plants will better bear + handling, for in dry weather the leaves would all crumble to pieces + in the attempt. By this means a tobacco house may be filled two, + three, or four times in the year. Every night the negroes are sent + to the tobacco house to strip, that is to pull off the leaves from + the stalk, and tie them up in hands or bundles. This is also their + daily occupation in rainy weather. In stripping, they are careful to + throw away all the ground leaves and faulty tobacco, binding up none + but what is merchantable. The hands or bundles thus tied up are also + laid in what are called a bulk, and covered with the refuse tobacco + or straw to preserve their moisture. After this, the tobacco is + carefully packed in hogsheads, and pressed down with a large beam + laid over it, on the ends of which prodigious weights are suspended, + the other end being inserted with a mortice in a tree, close to + which the hogshead is placed. This vast pressure is continued for + some days, and then the cask is filled up again with tobacco until + it will contain no more, after which it is headed up and carried to + the pubic warehouses for inspection. At these warehouses two skilful + planters constantly attend, and receive a salary from the public for + that purpose. They are sworn to inspect with honesty, care, and + impartiality, all the tobacco that comes to the warehouse, and none + is allowed to be shipped that is not regularly inspected. The head + of the cask is taken off, and the tobacco is opened by means of + large, long iron wedges, and great labour, in such places as the + inspectors direct. After this strict attentive examination, if they + find it good and merchantable, it is replaced in the cask, weighed + at the public scales, the weight of the tobacco and of the cask also + cut in the wood on the cask, stowed away in the public warehouses, + and a note given to the proprietor, which he disposes of to the + merchant, and he neither sees nor has any trouble with his tobacco + more. The weight of each hogshead must be 950 lbs. nett, exclusive + of the cask--for less a note will not be given. Under the name of a + crop hogshead, however, the general weight is from 1,000 to 1,200 or + 1,300 lbs. nett, but if the tobacco is found to be totally bad, and + refused as unmerchantable, the whole is publicly burnt in a place + set apart for that purpose. However, if it be judged that there is + some merchantable tobacco in the hogshead, the owner must unpack the + whole publicly on the spot, for he is not permitted to take any of + it away again, and must select and separate the good from the bad; + the last is immediately committed to the flames, and for the first + he receives a transfer note, specifying the weight, quality, &c. + This great and very laudable care was taken by the public to + prevent frauds, which, however, was not always effectual, for, even + with all these precautions, many acts of iniquity and imposition + were committed. + +So little is this crop cultivated in the States north of Maryland, +that scarcely any notice has been taken of it in the agricultural or +other public journals. + +In Connecticut, in some few towns of Hartford county, considerable +attention has been directed to it for a number of years past. A ton +and a-half the acre is said to be no uncommon yield. The tobacco is +planted very thick, two feet and a half each way. The seed came +originally from Virginia. It is cured in houses, without having been +yellowed in the sun, and without the use of fire. It is said that the +best Havana cigars (as they are termed) are often manufactured from +mixed Cuba and American tobacco, and sold under that name in +Connecticut. + +In the Connecticut Valley is produced about 500 tons of tobacco +annually, the average quantity, 1,500 lbs. per acre, value from seven +to ten cents per pound. + +_Culture_.--Seed bed made rich and sown as cabbage early in April as +possible. + +Land well ploughed and manured and harrowed as for corn, laid out in +rows three feet apart, and slight hills in the row about two and +a-half feet apart; begin to plant about 10th of June, the ground to be +kept clean with hoe and cultivator, and examine the plants and keep +clear of worms. + +"When in blossom and before seed is formed, the plants must be topped +about thirty-two inches from the ground, having from sixteen to twenty +leaves on each stalk, after this the suckers are broken off, and the +plants kept clean till cut. When ripe the leaves are spotted, thick, +and will crack when pressed between the fingers and thumb. It is cut +at any time of the day, after the dew is off, left in the row till +wilted, then turned, and if there is a hot sun, it is often turned to +prevent burning; after wilting it is put into small heaps of six or +eight plants, then carried to the tobacco house for hanging, usually +on poles twelve feet long; hung with twine about forty plants to a +pole, twenty on each side, crossing the pole with a hitch knot to the +stump end of the plants; when perfectly cured, which is known by the +stems of the leaves being completely dry, it is then taken in a damp +time, when the leaves will not crumble, from the poles and placed in +large piles, by letting the tops of the plants lap each other, leaving +the butts out; it remains in these heaps from three to ten days before +it is stripped, depending on the state of weather, but it must not be +allowed to heat. When stripped it is made into small hands, the small +and broken leaves to be kept by themselves; it is then packed in boxes +of about 400 lbs. and marked "Seed Leaf Tobacco." + +One acre of tobacco will require as much labor as two of corn that +produce 60 bags to the acre, and requires about the same quantity of +manure. If the tobacco can be cured without fire heat the quality +will be improved, and if dried in the open air, should have shades of +boards to keep off rain and excess of sun. The chief market for +Connecticut tobacco is Bremen. + +In a number of the "Charleston Southern Planter," a remedy is +described for preventing the destruction of plants by the fly. The +writer says: "I had a bushel or two of dry ashes put into a large tub, +and added train oil enough (say one gallon of oil to the bushel of +ashes) to damp and flavor the ashes completely: this was well stirred +and mixed with the hand, and sown broadcast over certain patches, and +proved thoroughly effectual for several years, while parts left +without the remedy were destroyed." + +The best ground for raising the plant, according to Capt. Carver +("Treatise on Culture of Tobacco," &c.), is a warm rich soil, not +subject to be overrun with weeds. The soil in which it grows in +Virginia is inclining to sandy, consequently warm and light; the +nearer, therefore, the nature of the land approaches to that, the +greater probability there is of its flourishing. The situation most +preferable for a plantation is the southern declivity of a hill, or a +spot sheltered from the blighting north winds. But at the same time +the plants must enjoy a free current of air; for if that be obstructed +they will not prosper. + +The different sorts of seed not being distinguishable from each other, +nor the goodness to be ascertained by its appearance, great caution +should be used in obtaining the seed through some responsible +mercantile house, or individual of character. + +Each capsule contains about a thousand seeds, and the whole produce of +a single plant has been estimated at 350,000. The seeds are usually +ripe in the month of September, and when perfectly dry may be rubbed +out and preserved in bags till the following season. + +There is a large quantity of tobacco raised in the southern part of +Indiana annually, equal in quality to the tobacco raised in Kentucky. +In some counties the article is extensively cultivated, and generally +pays the producer a handsome profit on the labor bestowed on it. The +cultivation of it is becoming more extensive every year. Nearly all +this crop is taken to Louisville for sale, very little being shipped +south on account of the producer. + +Heretofore, owing to the heaviness of tobacco and bad roads, the +producer has encountered great difficulties in getting his crop to +market. The hauling of a few hogsheads fifty or sixty miles, or even +forty, is no light job, even over good roads. Hence, tobacco has not +been as extensively cultivated as it would have been under different +circumstances. But, with the facilities afforded by the railroads in +carrying their crops to market, I doubt not the farmers of the +interior will more generally engage in the cultivation of tobacco, and +those who have been in the habit of raising small crops will extend +their operations. + +In Maryland the seed is sown in beds of fine mould, and the plants +arising therefrom are transplanted in the beginning of May. They are +set at the distance of three or four feet apart, and are hilled, and +kept continually free from weeds. When as many leaves have shot out as +the soil will nourish to advantage, the top of the plant is broken +off, which of course prevents its growing higher. It is carefully kept +clear from worms, and the suckers which put out between the leaves are +taken off at proper times, till the plant arrives at perfection, which +is in August. When the leaves turn of a brownish color, and begin to +be spotted, the plants are cut down and hung up to dry, after having +sweated in heaps one night. When the leaves can be handled without +crumbling, which is always in moist weather, they are stripped from +the stalks, tied up in bundles, and packed for exportation in +hogsheads. No suckers nor ground leaves are allowed to be +merchantable. An industrious person may manage 6,000 plants of +tobacco, which will yield 1,000 lbs. of dried leaves, and also four +acres of Indian corn. + +Miller, an American author, thus describes the mode of culture:-- + + When a regular plantation of tobacco is intended, the beds being + prepared and well turned up with the hoe, the seed, on account of + its smallness and to prevent the ravages of ants, is mixed with + ashes and sown upon them, a little before the rainy season. The beds + are raked, or trampled with the foot, to make the seed take the + sooner. The plants appear in two or three weeks. As soon as they + have acquired four leaves, the strongest are carefully drawn up and + planted in the field by a line, at a distance of about three feet + from each other. If no rain fall, they should be watered two or + three times. Every morning and evening the plants must he looked + over in order to destroy a worm which sometimes invades the bud. + When they are about four or five inches high, they are to be cleaned + from weeds and moulded up. As soon as they have eight or nine + leaves, and are ready to put forth a stalk, the top is nipped off in + order to make the leaves longer and thicker. After this the buds + which sprout at the joints of the leaves are also plucked off, and + not a day is suffered to pass without examining the leaves to + destroy the large caterpillar, which is often most destructive to + them. When they are fit for cutting, which is known by the + brittleness of the leaves, they are cut off with a knife close to + the ground, and, after lying some time, are carried to the + drying-shed or house, where the plants are hung up by pairs upon + lines, leaving a space between, that they may not touch one another. + When perfectly dry, the leaves are stripped from the stalks and made + into small bundles, tied with one of the leaves. These bundles are + laid in heaps and covered with blankets; care is taken not to + overheat them, for which reason the heaps are laid open to the air + from time to time, and spread abroad. This operation is repeated + till no more heat is perceived in the heaps, and the tobacco is then + ready for packing and shipping. + +I have been favored by Mr. J. M. Hernandez, a Cuba planter, with some +valuable instructions for the cultivation of Cuba tobacco, which I +subjoin. These remarks apply principally to America, but most of the +advice and information will be found generally applicable to other +localities:-- + + The first thing to be considered in this, as in every other culture, + is the soil, which for this kind of tobacco (_N. repanda_) ought to + be a rich, sandy, loam, neither too high nor too low--that is, + ground capable of retaining moisture, the more level the better, + and, if possible, well protected by margins. The next should be the + selection of a spot of ground to make the necessary beds. It would + be preferable to make those on land newly cleared, or, at all + events, when the land has not been seeded with grass; for grass + seeds springing up together with the tobacco would injure it + materially, as the grass cannot be removed without disturbing the + tobacco plants. In preparing the ground for the nurseries, break it + up properly, grub up all the small stumps, dig out the roots, and + carefully remove them with the hand. This being done, make the beds + from three to four inches high, of a reasonable length, and from + three to three and a-half feet broad, so as to enable the hand, at + arm's length, to weed out the tender young plants with the fingers + from both sides of the bed, and keep them perfectly clean. + + The months of December and January are the most proper for sowing + the seed in Florida. Some persons speak of planting it as early as + the month of November, I am, however, of opinion, that about the + latter part of December is the best time to sow tobacco seed; any + sooner would expose the plants to suffer from the inclemency of the + most severe part of the winter season. Before the seed is sown take + some dry trash and burn it off upon the nursery beds, to destroy + insects and grass seeds; then take one ounce of tobacco seed and mix + it with about a quart of dry ashes, so as to separate the seed as + much; as possible, and sow it broadcast. After the seed has been + thus sown, the surface of the bed ought to be raked over slightly, + and trodden upon by the foot, carrying the weight of the body with + it, that the ground may at once adhere closely to the seed, and then + water it. Should the nursery-beds apparently become dry from + blighting winds or other causes, watering will be absolutely + necessary, for the ground ought to be kept in a moist state from the + time the seed is planted until the young plants are large enough to + be set out. + + The nurseries being made, proceed to prepare the land where the + tobacco is to be set out. If the land is newly cleared--and new land + is probably more favorable to the production of this plant than it + is to that of any other, both as respects quality and + quantity--remove as many of the stumps and roots as possible, and + dig up the ground in such a manner as to render the surface + perfectly loose; then level the ground, and in this state leave it + until the nursery plants have acquired about one-half the growth + necessary to admit of their being set out; then break up the ground + a second time in the same manner as at first, as in this way all the + small fibres of roots and their rooted parts will be more or less + separated, and thus obviate much of that degree of sponginess so + common to new land, and which is in a great measure the cause of new + land seldom producing well the first year, as the soil does not lay + close enough to the roots of the plants growing in it, so that a + shower of rain produces no other effect than that of removing the + earth still more from them. + + The ground having been prepared and properly levelled off, and the + plants, sufficiently grown to be taken up--say of the size of good + cabbage plants--take advantage of the first wet or cloudy weather to + commence setting them out. This should be done with great care, and + the plants put single at equal distances, that is, about three feet + north and south, and two and a-half, or two and three-fourths feet + east and west. They are placed thus close to each other to prevent + the leaves growing too large. The direction of the rows, however, + should alter according to the situation of the land; where it has + any inclination, the widest space should run across it, as the bed + will have to be made so as to prevent the soil from being washed + from the roots by rain when bedded; but where the land is rather + level, the three feet rows should be north and south, so as to give + to the plants a more full effect on them by passing across the beds, + than by crossing them in an oblique direction. To set the plants out + regularly, take a task line of 105 feet in length, with a pointed + stick three feet long attached to each end of it, then insert a + small piece of rag or something else through the line at the + distance of two feet and three-fourths from each other; place it + north and south (or as the land may require), at full length, and + then set a plant at every division, carefully keeping the bud of the + plant above the surface of the ground. Then remove the line three + feet from the first row, and so on, until the planting is completed. + Care ought to be taken to prevent the stretching of the line from + misplacing the plants. In this way the plants can be easily set out, + and a proper direction given to them both ways. In taking the plants + up from the nursery, the ground should be first loosened with a flat + piece of wood or iron, about an inch broad; then carefully holding + the leaves close towards each other between the fingers, draw them + up, and place them in a basket or some other convenient thing to + receive them for planting. After taking up those that can be planted + during the day, water the nursery that the earth may again adhere to + the remaining ones. The evening is the best time for setting out the + plants, but where a large field has to be cultivated it will be well + to plant both morning and evening. The plants set out in the + morning, unless in rainy or cloudy weather, should be covered + immediately, and the same should be done with those planted the + evening previous, should the day open with a clear sunshine,--the + palmetto leaf answers the purpose very well. There should be water + convenient to the plants, so as to have them watered morning and + evening, but more particularly in the evening, until they have taken + root. They should also be closely examined when watered, so as to + replace such plants as happen to die, that the ground may be + properly occupied, and that all the plants may open as nearly + together as possible. + + From the time the plants are set out, the earth around them should + be occasionally stirred, both with the hand and hoe. At first hoe + flat, but as soon as the leaves assume a growing disposition, begin + gradually to draw a slight heel towards the plant. The plants must + be closely examined, even while in the nursery, to destroy the + numerous worms that feed upon them--some, by cutting the stalk and + gnawing the leaves when first set out; these resemble the grub-worm, + and are to be found near the injured plant, under ground; others, + which come from the eggs deposited on the plant by the butterfly, + and feed on the leaf, grow to a very large size, and look very ugly, + and are commonly called the tobacco-worm. There is also a small worm + which attacks the bud of the plant, and which is sure destruction to + its further growth; and some again, though less destructive, are to + be seen within the two coats of the leaf, feeding as it were on its + juices alone. The worming should be strictly attended to every + morning and evening, until the plants are pretty well grown, when + every other day will be sufficient. The most proper persons for + worming are either boys or girls from ten to fourteen years of age. + They should be made to come to the tobacco ground early in the + morning, and be led by inducements, such as giving a trifling reward + to those who will bring the most worms, to clear it thoroughly. + Grown persons would find it rather too tedious to stoop to examine + the under part of every leaf, and seek the worm under ground: nor + would they be so much alive to the value of a spoonful of sugar, or + other light reward. Beside, where the former would make the search a + matter of profit and pleasure, it would to the latter prove only a + tedious and irksome occupation. Here I will observe, that it is for + similar reasons that the culture of the Cuba tobacco plant more + properly belongs to a white population, for there are few plants + requiring more attention and tender treatment than it does. Indeed + it will present a sorry appearance, unless the eye of its legitimate + proprietor is constantly watching over it. + + When the plants have acquired from twelve to fourteen good leaves, + and are about knee high, it may be well to begin to top them, by + nipping off the bud with the aid of the finger and thumb nail + (washing the hands after this in water is necessary, as the acid + juices of the plants, otherwise, soon produce a soreness on the + fingers), taking care not to destroy the small leaves immediately + near the bud: for if the land is good and the season favorable, + those very small top leaves will in a short time be nearly as large, + and ripen quite as soon as the lower ones, whereby two or more + leaves may be saved; thus obtaining from 16 to 18 leaves, in the + place of 12 or 14, which is the general average. As the topping of + the tobacco plant is all essential in order to promote the growth, + and to equalise the ripening of the leaves, I would observe that + this operation should at all events commence the instant that the + bud of the plant shows a disposition to go to seed, and be + immediately followed by removing the suckers, which it will now put + out at every leaf. Indeed, the suckers should be removed from the + plant as often as they appear. The tobacco plant ought never to be + cut before it comes to full maturity, which is known by the leaves + becoming mottled, coarse, and of a thick texture, and gummy to the + touch, at which time the end of the leaf, by being doubled, will + break short, which it will not do to the same extent when green. It + ought not to be out in wet weather, when the leaves lose their + natural gummy substance, so necessary to be preserved. About this + period, the cultivator is apt to be rendered anxious by the fear of + allowing the plants to remain in the field longer than necessary; + until experience removes those apprehensions, he should be on his + guard, however, not to destroy the quality of his tobacco, by + cutting it too soon. When the cutting is to commence, there should + be procured a quantity of forked stakes, set upright, with a pole or + rider setting on each fork ready to support the tobacco, and to keep + it from the ground. The plant is then cut obliquely, even with the + surface of the ground, and the person thus employed should strike + the lower end of the stalk, two or three times with the blunt side + of his knife, so as to cause as much of the sand or soil to fall + from it as possible, then tying two stalks together, they are gently + placed across the riders or poles prepared to receive them. In this + state they are allowed to remain in the sun or open air until the + leaves have somewhat withered, whereby they will not be liable to + the injury which they would otherwise receive, if they came suddenly + in contact with other bodies when fresh cut. Then place as many + plants on each pole or rider as may be conveniently carried, and + take them in the drying house, where the tobacco is strung off upon + the frames prepared for it, leaving a small space between the two + plants, that air may circulate freely among them, and promote their + drying. As the drying advances, the stalks are brought closer to + each other, so as to make room for those which yet remain to be + housed. + + In drying the tobacco, all damp air should be excluded, nor ought + the drying of it to be precipitated by the admission of high drying + winds. The process is to be promoted in the most moderate manner, + except in the rainy season, when the sooner the drying is effected + the better; for it is a plant easily affected by the changes of the + weather, after the drying commences. It is then liable to mildew in + damp weather, which is when the leaf changes from its original color + to a pale yellow cast, and from this, by parts, to an even brown. + When the middle stem is perfectly dry, it can be taken down, and the + leaves stripped from the stalk and put in bulk to sweat, that is, to + make tobacco of them; for before this process, when a concentration + of its better qualities takes place, the leaves are always liable to + be affected by the weather, and cannot well be considered as being + anything else than common dry leaves, partaking of the nature of + tobacco, but not actually tobacco. The leaves are to be stripped + from the stalks in damp or cloudy weather, when they are more easily + handled, and the separation of the different qualities rendered also + more easy. The good leaves are at this time kept by themselves as + wrappers, or caps, and the most defective ones for fillings, or + _tripa_. When the tobacco is put in _bulk_, the stem of the leaves + should all be kept in one direction, to facilitate the tying of them + in hanks: afterwards make the bulk two of three feet high, and of a + proportionate circumference. To guard against the leaves becoming + over-heated, and to equalise the fermentation or sweating, after the + first twenty-four hours, place the outside leaves in the centre, and + those of the centre to the outside of the _bulk_. By doing this once + or twice, and taking care to cover the _bulk_ either with sheets or + blankets, so as to exclude all air from it, and leaving it in this + state for about forty days, it acquires an odor strong enough to + produce sneezing, and the other qualities of cured tobacco. The + process of curing may then be considered as completed. Then take + some of the most injured leaves, but of the best quality, and in + proportion to the quantity of tobacco made, and place them in clean + water, there let them remain until they rot, which they will do in + about eight days; then break open your _bulks_, spread the tobacco + with their stems in one direction, and damp them with this water in + a gentle manner, that it may not soak through the leaf, for in this + case the leaf would rot. Sponge is used in Cuba for this operation. + Then tie them in hanks of from, twenty-five to thirty leaves; this + being done, spread the hanks in the tobacco house for about twelve + hours, to air them, that the dampness may be removed, and afterwards + pack them in casks or barrels, and head them tight, until you wish + to manufacture them. + + The object of damping the tobacco with this water, is to give it + elasticity, to promote its burning free, to increase its fragrance; + to give it an aromatic smell, and to keep it always soft. This is + the great secret of curing tobacco for cigars properly, and for + which we are indebted to the people of Cuba, who certainly + understand the mode of curing this kind of tobacco better than other + people. It is to them a source of great wealth, and may be made + equally so to others. We have here three cuttings from the original + plants; the last cutting will be of rather a weak quality, but + which, nevertheless, will be agreeable to those who confine their + smoking to weak tobacco. + + In ratooning the plant, only one sprout ought to be allowed to grow, + and this from those most deeply rooted; all other sprouts ought to + be destroyed. + + The houses necessary for the curing of tobacco ought to be roomy, + with a passage way running through the centre, from one extremity of + the building to the other, and pierced on both sides with a + sufficient number of doors and windows to make them perfectly airy. + + In addition to what I have said respecting the mode of cultivating + and treating the tobacco plant, I have further to state, that when + once the plant is allowed to be checked in its growth, it never + again recovers it. That in promoting the drying of the leaf, fire + should not be resorted to, because the smoke would impart to it a + flavor that would injure that of the tobacco itself. + + In order to obtain vigorous plants, the seed ought to be procured + from the original stalk, and not from the ratoons, by allowing some + of them to go to seed for that express purpose. In Cuba, the seed is + most generally saved from the ratoon plants, but we should consider + that that climate and soil are probably more favorable to the + production of the plant than America, and consequently we ought to + confide in the best seed, which is had from the original stalk. + + All plants have their peculiar empire: nevertheless, we should not + be deterred from planting Cuba tobacco here; for even if we should + be compelled to import the seed every third year, which would be as + often as necessary, it would still prove a profitable culture. + Taking 600 lbs., which is the average product per acre, it would + yield, if well cured, at 50 cents, per lb., 300 dollars in the leaf. + + The following exhibits the profit to be derived from it when + manufactured into cigars:-- + + Dls. Dls. + Six hundred pounds, allowing eight pounds to the 1.000, would + produce 75,000 cigars, which at ten dollars per thousand 750.00 + Cost of the leaf 300.00 + Worth of manufacture, at two dollars fifty cents per thousand 187.50 487.50 + -------- + Difference in favor of manufacturer 262.50 + + This amount being the profits of the manufacturer alone, the profit + to him who could combine both pursuits would be more than doubled. + + As to the quantity of land which can be cultivated to the hand, + there is some difference in the practice of planters; however, I + think that I am within the usual calculation in saying, that an acre + and a half would not exceed the quantity that an able hand can + easily cultivate and manage properly. + +"With reference to the cultivation of Spanish tobacco from the seed, +the following remarks are also made by a gentleman residing in +Maryland:-- + + My experience for some years in the cultivation and manufacture of + Spanish tobacco into cigars, convinces me that the first-rate + variety of Spanish tobacco--that is, the most odorous and fine--will + bear reproduction in our climate twice, without much deterioration; + by that time it becomes acidulated and worthless as Spanish tobacco. + For seven years I have imported annually first seed from Cuba, but + have occasionally made experiments with reproduced seed, and I have + arrived at the conclusion above stated. I have obtained, annually, a + cigar maker from Baltimore, who has made for me on my farm, and from + Spanish tobacco. These produced about the average of 70,000 cigars, + per year; they have been sold in Baltimore and Philadelphia for five + dollars the half box, that is ten dollars the thousand. The tobacco + has been uniformly admired, but in former years they have been very + badly made; for the last two years, (writing in 1843,) my crops were + destroyed by the unfavorable weather. This growth and manufacture do + not interfere with my cultivation of other crops; in fact they are + wholly unconnected with the other operations of the farmer." He + mentions having obtained a premium from an agricultural society, for + having produced on one and a half acres, growth and manufacture + included, of Spanish tobacco 504 dollars net profit. + +The following letter from Mr. Clarke, to the Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, +Washington, speaks favorably of a new variety of tobacco:-- + + Willow Grove, Orange County, Virginia, + + Feb. 13, 1844. + + Dear Sir,--Agreeably to my promise I enclose you the Californian + tobacco seed. It grew from the small parcel given to me by Mr. Wm. + Smith, in your office in March last. On getting home, although late, + I prepared a bed, and sowed the small parcel, the first week in + April, and not having seed enough to finish the bed, sowed the + balance of the bed in Oronoko tobacco seed, and to my astonishment + the Californian plants were soon ready to set out, as soon as the + other kinds of tobacco sown in the month of January; and the Oronoko + seed, that was sown with the Californian, did not arrive to + sufficient size until it was too late to set out. The Californian + tobacco, if it continues to ripen and grow for the time to come, as + it did for me on the first trial, must come into general use--first, + because the plants are much earlier in the spring (say ten days at + least), than any kind we have; secondly, when transplanted, the + growth is remarkably quick, matures and ripens at least from ten to + fifteen days earlier than any kind of tobacco we have in use amongst + us. It is a large broad, silky leaf, of fine texture, and of a + beautiful color, and some plants grow as large as seven feet across, + from point to point; upon the whole, I consider it a valuable + acquisition to the planting community. + +Tobacco is one of the chief staples of Cuba. There are many qualities, +but it is usually classed into two kinds. That which is raised on the +western end of the island and is unequalled for smoking, is called +"Vuelta abajo." That which is raised east of Havana, is called "Vuelta +arriba," and is far inferior to the former. + +The best Havana tobacco farms are confined to a very narrow area on +the south west part of Cuba. This district, twenty-seven leagues long +and only seven broad, is bounded on the north by mountains, on the +south and west by the ocean, whilst eastward, though there is no +natural limit, the tobacco sensibly degenerates in quality. A light +sandy soil and rather low situation suit the best. + +The "Vuelta abajo" is usually divided into five classes. + + Calidad or Libra. + Ynjuriado Principal or Firsts. + Segundas or Seconds. + Terceiras or Thirds. + Cuartas or Fourths. + +Calidad is the best tobacco, selected for its good color, flavor, +elasticity and entireness of the leaves. The bales contain sixty hands +of four gabillas, or fingers of twenty-five leaves each, and are +marked L.60. Ynjuriado Principal has less flavor, and is usually of a +lighter color. The leaves should be whole and somewhat elastic. The +bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas, or thirty leaves each, +and are marked B. 80. Segundas is the most inferior class of wrapper. +There are many good leaves in it, but the hands are usually made up of +those which are stained, have a bad color, or have been slightly +touched by the worm. The bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas +of thirty-six to forty leaves each, and are marked Y. 2a. 80. + +Terceiras is the best tilling, and much wrapper can usually be +selected from it when new. The bales contain eighty hands of four +gabillas of more than forty leaves each, and are marked 3a. 80. + +Cuartas is the most inferior class, fit only for filling. The bales +contain eighty hands of four gabillas of no determined number of +leaves, and are marked 4a. 80. + +The Vuelta arriba tobacco is prepared in a similar manner, but neither +its color or flavor is good, and it does not burn well. + +The crop is gathered in the spring, and usually begins to appear at +market in July. Good tobacco should be aromatic, of a rich brown +color, without stains, and the leaf thin and elastic. It should burn +well and the taste should be neither bitter nor biting. The best is +grown on the margins of rivers which are periodically overflowed, and +is called "De rio." It is distinguished from other tobacco by a fine +sand, which is found in the creases of the leaves. + +The tobacco plantations in Cuba increased in number from 5,534 in +1827, to 9,102 in 1846. The production of tobacco has nearly doubled +in the province, of which St. Jago is the port, in the last ten years. + +The following figures show the exports from the Havana:-- + + Leaf tobacco. Cigars. + 1840 1,031,136 lbs. 147,818 thousand. + 1841 1,460,302 " 161,928 " + 1842 1,053,161 " 135,127 " + 1843 2,125,805 " 153,227 " + 1844 1,197,136 " 147,825 " + 1845 1,621,889 " 120,352 " + 1846 4,066,262 " 158,841 " + 1847 1,936,829 " 1,982,267 " + 1848 1,350,815 " 150,729 " + 1849 1,158,265 " 111,572 " + +The class of tobacco shipped at the port of Havana, is not the same as +that gathered in the districts from which the manufacturers of cigars +there receive their supplies--it would cost too dear. However, it is +not a rare occurrence to find among a number of bales a few of a +quality about equal to that employed there, and this happens in years +when the crop has been very abundant, as in 1846 and 1848. The various +classes are paid in proportion to the capa, or outside leaves, which +are found in an assortment; the three first classes are employed as +covers, and often, if the tobacco is new, they may be found in the +fourth and even in the fifth. In parcels well assorted, one-fourth is +composed of capa--say, first, second, and third, and the rest is +composed of tripa, or interior of the cigar. In the first-named, there +generally comes more of the _capa_ than is necessary to use; the +remaining bales, which contain the inferior class, are fit only for +fillings. + +The following is an analysis of the ashes of Havana tobacco:-- + + Salts of potash 24.30 + Salts of lime and magnesia 67.40 + Silica 8.30 + ----- + 100.00 + + + Hayti exported in 1836 1,222,716 lbs. + Porto Rico, in 1839 43,203 cwt. + +The French have been so successful in cultivating tobacco, in their +possessions in Northern Africa, that they hope soon to be independent +of the foreign grown article. The mode of preparing it, however, is +not very well understood by the colonists. In 1851, the number of +planters in Algeria was only 137, whereas in 1852, it was 1,073. The +number of hectares under culture with the tobacco plant was 446 in +1851, and 1,095 in 1852. The total of the present year's crop is +estimated at 1,780,000 kilogrammes, of which 700,000 kilogrammes have +been grown by the natives, and the rest by Europeans. + +In the province of Algiers alone, the quantity of tobacco sold will +amount to 550,000 kilogrammes, which is nearly three times as much as +in 1851, and an equal progression has taken place in the provinces of +Oran, and Constantina. + +The cultivation of tobacco in Algeria has proved most successful; in +1851, only 264,912 kilogrammes were produced; in 1852, the quantity +had risen to 735,199 kilogrammes. There are two crops in the year, the +first being the best, but even this is capable of almost indefinite +augmentation. + + +CULTURE OF TOBACCO IN THE EAST. + +Having touched upon the practice of culture in the western world, we +will now bend our steps towards the east, and it may be curious to +notice the method pursued in cultivating and curing the celebrated +Shiraz tobacco of Persia (_Nicotiana Persica_), which is so much +esteemed for the delicacy of its flavor, and its aromatic quality. It +is thus described by an intelligent traveller. The culture of the +plant, it will be seen, is nearly the same; it is only the preparation +of the tobacco that forms the difference:-- + + In December the seed is sown in a dark soil, which, has been + slightly manured (red clayey soils will not do). To protect the + seed, and to keep it warm, the ground is covered with light, thorny + bushes, which are removed when the plants are three or four inches + high; and during this period, the plants are watered every four or + five days, only however in the event of sufficient rain to keep the + soil well moistened not falling. The ground must be kept wet until + the plants are six to eight inches high, when they are transplanted + into a well moistened soil, which has been made into trenches for + them; the plants being put on the top of the ridges ten or twelve + inches apart, while the trenched plots are made, so as to retain the + water given. The day they are transplanted, water must be given to + them, and also every five or six days subsequently, unless rain + enough falls to render this unnecessary. When the plants have become + from thirty to forty inches high, the leaves will be from three to + fifteen inches long. At this period, or when the flowers are + forming, all the flower capsules are pinched or twisted off. After + this operation and watering being continued, the leaves increase in + size and thickness until the month of August or September, when + each plant is cut off close to the root, and again stuck firmly into + the ground. At this season of the year, heavy dews fall during the + night; when exposed to these the color of the leaves change from + green to the desired yellow. During this stage, of course no water + is given to the soil. When the leaves are sufficiently yellow, the + plants are taken from the earth early in the morning, and while they + are yet wet from the dew, are heaped on each other in a high shed, + the walls of which are made with light thorny bushes, where they are + freely exposed to the wind. While there, and generally in four or + five days, those leaves which are still green become of the desired + pale yellow color. The stalks and centre stem of each leaf are now + removed, and thrown away, the leaves are heaped together in the + drying house for three or four days more, when they are in a fit + state for packing. For this operation the leaves are carefully + spread on each other and formed into sorts of cakes, the + circumference from four to five feet, and three to four inches + thick, great care being taken not to break or injure the leaves. + + Bags made of strong cloth, but thin and very open at the sides, are + filled with these cakes, and pressed very strongly down on each + other; the leaves would be broken if this were not attended to. When + the bags are filled, they are placed separately in a drying house, + and turned daily. If the leaves were so dry that there would be a + risk of their breaking during the operation of packing, a very + slight sprinkling of water is given them to enable them to withstand + it without injury. The leaf is valued for being thick, tough, and of + a uniform light yellow color, and of an agreeable aromatic smell. + +In India, the Surat, Bilsah, and Sandoway (Arracan) varieties of +tobacco are the most celebrated. The two first are found to be good +for cultivation in the district about Calcutta, but the Cabool is +still more to be preferred. Tobacco requires in the East, for its +growth, a soil as fertile and as well manured as for the production of +the poppy or opium. It is, therefore, often planted in the spaces +enriched by animal and vegetable exuviae, among the huts of the +natives. I have tried seed in different soils, says Capt. C. +Cowles,--namely a light garden mould with a large portion of old house +rubbish, dug to a good depth, which had a top dressing of the +sweepings of the farm-yard and cow-houses; a rather heavy loam, highly +manured with burnt and decayed vegetables, and old cow dung; the third +was a patch of ground, which was originally an unwholesome swamp, from +being eighteen inches to two feet, lower than the surrounding land; +the soil appeared to be a hard sterile clay, and covered with long +coarse grass and rushes. As there was a tank near it, I cut away one +side of it, and threw the soil over the ground, bringing it rather +above the level. Such was its appearance, (a hard compost marly clay,) +that I expected no other good from it than that of raising the land so +as to throw the water off; contrary, however, to my expectations, it +produced a much finer crop of tobacco than either of the other soils, +and with somewhat less manure. The agricultural process is limited to +some practical laws founded on experience, and these are subject to +two principal agents; viz., the soil and climate. With respect to the +former, it is the practice amongst the growers in tobacco countries, +such as Cuba, the States of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and +the Philippine Islands, to select a high and dry piece of land, of a +siliceous nature, and combined with iron, if possible; and with +respect to the latter, there are seasons of the year too well known +to the planters to need any explanation. The only difference (if there +is any) depends on the geographical situation of the place, with +respect to its temperature, or in the backwardness or advancement of +seasons, and even on the duration of the same--in which circumstances +the planter takes advantage of the one for the other. + +The influence of a burning climate may be modified by choosing the +coolest month of the year, whereas the soil cannot be altered without +incurring great expense. I have seen tobacco lose its natural quality +and degenerate by transplanting from one soil to another, although of +the same temperature, and _vice versa_. + +Mr. Piddington has analysed several Indian soils, distinguished for +the production of superior tobacco. These are the table soils from +Arracan, (Sandoway,) a soil from Singour, in Burdwan, near +Chandernagore, the tobacco of which, though of the same species as +that of the surrounding country, sells at the price of the Arracan +sort; and the soil of the best Bengal tobacco, which is grown at, and +about Hingalee, in the Kishnagur district. + +The best tobacco soils of Cuba and Manila, are for the most part red +soils. Now, the red and reddish soils contain most of their iron in +the state of peroxide, or the reddish brown oxide of iron; while the +lighter grey soils contain it only in the state of protoxide, or the +black oxide of iron. Mr. Piddington believes the quality of the +tobacco to depend mainly on the state and quantity of the iron of the +soil, while it is indifferent about the lime, which is so essential to +cotton. None of the tobacco soils contain any lime. Their analysis +show them to contain:-- + + + Arracan soil. Singour soil. Hingalee soil. + Oxide or iron, (peroxide) 15,65 10,60 6,00 + Water and saline matter 1,10 75 1,50 + Vegetable matter and fibre 3,75 1,10 75 + Silex 76,90 80,65 87,25 + Alumina 2,00 4,50 1,50 + ------- ------- ------- + 99,40 97,60 97,00 + Water and loss 60 2,40 3,00 + ------- ------- ------- + 100 100 100 + +From which it will be seen that the best tobacco soil hitherto found +in India contains about sixteen per cent., or nearly one-sixth, of +iron, which is mostly in a state of peroxide; and that the inferior +sort of tobacco grows in a soil containing only six per cent., or +one-sixteenth of iron, which is, moreover, mostly in the state of +protoxide, or black oxide. Mr. Piddington thought it worth examining +what the quantity of iron in the different sorts of tobacco would be, +and found that while the ashes of one ounce, or 480 grains of Havana +and Sandoway cheroots gave exactly 1.94 grains, or 0.40 per cent., of +peroxide of iron the ashes of the same quantity of the Hingalee, or +best Bengal tobacco, only gave 1.50 grains, or 0.32 per cent.; and it +appears to exist in the first two in a state of peroxide, and in the +last as a protoxide of iron; rendering it highly probable that the +flavor of the tobacco to the smoker depends on the state and quantity +of the iron it contains! Green copperas water, which is a solution of +sulphate of iron, is often used by the American and English +tobacconists and planters, to colour and flavor their tobacco; and +this would be decomposed by the potass of the tobacco, and sulphate of +potass and carbonate of iron is formed. Carbonate of iron is of an +ochre-yellow color. Mr. Piddington says he took care to ascertain that +this process had not been performed with the tobacco used for this +experiment; and adds that Bengal cheroot makers do not know of this +method. Mr. Laidley, of Gonitea, dissents from the idea suggested by +Mr. Piddington that ferruginous matter in the soil is essential to the +successful growth of tobacco. He observes that if we attend only to +the iron contained, why every plant will be found to require a +ferruginous soil; but tobacco contains a notable quantity of nitrate +of potass and muriate of ammonia (the latter a most rare ingredient in +plants), and these two salts are infinitely more likely to affect the +flavor of the leaf than a small portion of oxide of iron, an inert +body. Now as neither of these can be supplied by the atmosphere, we +must search for them in the soil, and accordingly he imagined that a +compost similar to the saltpetre beds which Napoleon employed so +extensively in France, would be a good manure for tobacco lands; +namely, calcareous matter, such as old mortar, dung, and the ashes of +weeds or wood. He was aware that good tobacco might be grown in +Beerbhoom, having raised some himself several years ago from American +seed. The plants grew most vigorously, and he further observed, in +confirmation of his opinion about the proper manure, that in other +districts in which he had resided the natives always grew the tobacco +(each for his own use) upon the heap of rubbish at his door, +consisting of ashes, cow-dung, and offal of all kinds. While the soil +of the Gangetic diluvium almost always contains carbonate of lime, the +Beerbhoom soil does not, as far at least as Mr. Laidley had examined +it. + +The following is the mode of culture pursued about the city of +Coimbetore. Between the middle of August and the same time in +September, a plot of ground is hoed and embanked into small squares; +in these the seed is sown, and covered by hand three times at +intervals of ten days. To secure a succession of seedlings water is +then given, and the sun's rays moderated by a covering of bushes. +Watering is repeated every day for a month, and then only every fifth +day. The field in which the seedlings are transplanted, is manured and +ploughed at the end of August. Cattle are also folded upon the ground. +Four or five ploughings are given between mid September and the middle +of October, when the field is divided as above into small squares. +These are watered until the soil is rendered a mud. Plants of the +first sowing are then inserted at the end of September, about a cubit +apart, the transplanting being done in the afternoon. At intervals of +ten days the seedlings of the other two sowings are removed. A month +after being transplanted the field is hoed, and after another month +the leading shoot of each plant is pinched off, so as to leave them +not more than a cubit high. Three times during the next month all side +shoots thrown out are removed. When four months old, the crop is ready +for cutting. To render the leaves sweet the field is watered, and the +plants cut down close to the surface, being allowed to remain when cut +until next morning. Their roots are tied to a rope and suspended round +the hedges. In fine weather the leaves are dry in ten days, but if +cloudy they require five more days. They are then heaped up under a +roof, which is covered with bushes and pressed with stones for five +days. After this the leaves are removed from the stems, tied in +bunches, heaped again, and pressed for four days longer. They are now +tied in bundles, partly of the small leaf and partly of the large leaf +bundles, and again put in heaps for ten days--once during the time the +heaps being opened and piled afresh. This completes the drying. A +thousand bundles, weighing about 570 lbs., is a good produce for an +acre. + +In 1760, Ceylon produced a considerable quantity of tobacco, +principally about Jaffna, a demand having sprung up for it in +Travancore, and on the Malay coast. The cultivation spread to other +districts of the island, Negombo, Chilaw, and Matura. Not long after +the possession of the island by the British, a monopoly was created by +an import duty of 25 per cent., _ad valorem_, and in 1811 the growers +were compelled to deliver their tobacco into the Government stores at +certain fixed rates. The culture and demand thereupon decreased. In +1853, the duty on the exports of tobacco from this island amounted to +L8,386, and in 1836 to L9,514. + +Ceylon now exports a considerable quantity of tobacco. The value of +that exported in 1844 was nearly L18,000: it went exclusively to +British colonies. The shipments since have been as follows:-- + + 1848 L17,992 ---- + 1849 22,300 ---- + 1850 20,721 22,184 cwts. + 1851 21,422 22,523 " + 1852 20,531 21,955 " + +About 96,000 piculs of cigars, of five different qualities, are +exported annually from Siam. A good deal of very fine tobacco is grown +in the Philippines, and the Manila cheroots are celebrated all over +the globe. The quantity of raw tobacco shipped from Manila in 1847 was +92,106 arrobas (each about a quarter of a cwt.); manufactured tobacco, +12,054 arrobas; and 1,933 cases of cigars. 5,220 boxes of cigars were +shipped from Manila in 1844. 73,439 millions of cigars were shipped in +1850, and 42,629 quintals of leaf tobacco. + +The manufacture of cigars in Manila is a monopoly of the government, +and not only is this the case, but it is a monopoly of the closest +description, and any infringement of the assumed rights of the Spanish +Indian government is visited by the most severe penalties. Public +enterprise, however little of that commodity there now exists in the +Spanish character, is thus kept down; and this is not only detrimental +to the nation itself, but is also unjust towards those persons who are +the purchasers of the article, enhanced in price, as is always the +case, by monopoly. The cheroot, which now costs, free of duty, about +one halfpenny, could be rendered for half that sum, according to +well-authenticated opinions. To protect itself from illicit +manufacturers, or smuggling of any kind in connection with cigars, the +government is compelled to maintain an army of gendarmes, in order to +adopt the most stringent means which despotic states alone tolerate. +No person is, therefore, permitted to have even the tobacco leaf in +its raw state on his premises, and gendarmes pay, at stated intervals, +domiciliary visits to the habitations of the people, in search of any +contraband materials. There are several extensive manufactories of +cigars and cheroots belonging to the government in and near Manila. +Mr. Mac Micking, in his recent work on the Philippines, thus describes +the mode of manufacture by those employed by the government:-- + + In making cheroots women only are employed, the number of those so + engaged in the factory at Manila being generally about 4,000. Beside + these, a large body of men are employed at another place in the + composition of cigarillos, or small cigars, kept together by an + envelope of white paper in place of tobacco; these being the + description most smoked by the Indians. The flavor of Manila + cheroots is peculiar to themselves, being quite different from that + made of any other sort of tobacco; the greatest characteristic + probably being its slightly soporific tendency, which has caused + many persons in the habit of using it to imagine that opium is + employed in the preparatory treatment of the tobacco, which, + however, is not the case. + + The cigars are made up by the hands of women in large rooms of the + factory, each of them containing from 800 to 1,000 souls. These are + all seated, or squatted, Indian like, on their haunches, upon the + floor, round tables, at each of which there is an old woman + presiding to keep the young ones in order, about a dozen of them + being the complement of a table. All of them are supplied with a + certain weight of tobacco, of the first, second, or third qualities + used in composing a cigar, and are obliged to account for a + proportionate number of cheroots, the weight and size of which are + by these means kept equal. As they use stones for beating out the + leaf on the wooden tables before which they are seated, the noise + produced by them while making them up is deafening, and generally + sufficient to make no one desirous of protracting a visit to the + place. The workers are well recompensed by the government, as very + many of them earn from six to ten dollars a month for their labor; + and as that amount is amply sufficient to provide them with all + their comforts, and to leave a large balance for their expenses in + dress, &c., they are seldom very constant laborers, and never enter + the factory on Sundays, or, at least, on as great an annual number + of feast days as there are Sundays in a year. + +The Japanese grow a good deal of tobacco for their own consumption, +which is very considerable. They consider that from Sasma as the best, +then that from Nangasakay, Sinday, &c. The worst comes from the +province of Tzyngaru; it is strong, of a black color, and has a +disgusting taste and smell. The tobacco from Sasma is, indeed, also +strong, but it has an agreeable taste and smell, and is of a bright +yellow color. The tobacco from Nangasakay is very weak, in taste and +smell perhaps the best, and of a bright brown color. The tobacco from +Sinday is very good. The Japanese manufacture the tobacco so well, +says Capt. Golownin, (Recollections of Japan,) that though I was +before no friend to smoking, and even when I was at Jamaica could but +seldom persuade myself to smoke an Havana cigar, yet I smoked the +Japanese tobacco very frequently, and with great pleasure. + +The culture of tobacco is a very profitable article for the laborers, +seeing that the produce is obtained from grounds which have already +given the first crop. The qualities of Java tobacco are more and more +prized in the European markets, the preparation and assortment are not +yet all that could be desired, but they have progressed in this +branch, and the contracts made with the new adventurers assure them of +a considerable benefit. But before the Java tobaccos can find an +assured opening in the European markets, it is necessary that the +cultivators should make use of seed from the Havana or Manila. The +residencies of Rembang, Sourabaya, Samarang, Chinbou, and Tagal, +present districts suited for its culture; it has been carried on with +success for a good many years in the residencies of Treanger, +Pakalongan, and Kedu, but only for the consumption of the interior, +and of the Archipelago. + +Tobacco is cultivated in Celebes, but merely in sufficient quantity +for local consumption. It is exclusively grown by the Bantik +population--the mode of preparation is the same as in Java; it is +chopped very fine and mostly flavored with arrack. When bought in +large quantities, it may be had for thirty cents the pound; but in +smaller quantities it costs double that price. + +Tobacco is cultivated in New South Wales with much success. Australia +produces a leaf equal to Virginia, or the most fertile parts of +Kentucky, but the great difficulty is to extract the superabundant +"nitre." The first crop in New South Wales exceeds one ton per acre, +and the second crop off the same plants, yields about half the weight +of the first. In 1844 there were about 871 acres in cultivation in New +South Wales with tobacco, and the produce was returned at 6,382 cwts. +In New England, New South Wales, as fine a "fig" as could be wished +for is manufactured under the superintendence of a thorough-bred +Virginia tobacco manufacturer--but the impossibility of extracting the +nitre by the heating, or any other process, renders the flavor rank +and disagreeable. Perhaps cheroots, or the lower numbers of cigars, +manufactured from the Australian leaf, might prove more successful. + +In Sydney the time for sowing tobacco seed is September, but in Van +Diemen's Land it should be a month later, as tobacco plants cannot +stand the frost. The ground should be made fine, and in narrow beds +three feet wide from path to path, to allow for weeding without +stepping on the beds. The seed, being small, should not be raked in; +but after the ground is raked fine, and perfectly clean, and well +pulverised, mix the seed with wood ashes, and sow over the beds, and +pat in with the spade, or tread in with the naked feet, which is +preferable. The ground should be moist, but not much watered, or it +moulds the plants. When about as large as moderate sized cabbage +plants, they should be put out--three feet or three feet six in the +rows, and five feet apart between the rows. When the plant rises to +about two feet high, it will throw out suckers at each leaf, which +must be carefully taken off with the finger and thumb, and all bottom +and decayed leaves that touch the ground taken off. When the tobacco +plant throws out flower, it must be topped off, leaving about twelve +leaves in the stalk to ripen and come to maturity. When the leaves +feel thick between the finger and thumb, and assume a mottled +appearance, they are fit to cut. + +In "Tegg's New South Wales Almanac" it is stated that the end of July +is the usual time for sowing the seed. In order, however, to prevent +the plants from being subsequently destroyed by frost, care must be +taken not to sow the seed until the frost has ceased in any respective +locality (unless raised in a frame). Tobacco requires a rich light +soil, and well manured. + +By the instructions for cultivating it, the plant must be three feet +apart each way, which would give 4,840 plants to an acre; assuming +that each plant would yield half a pound for the first crop, this +would give 2,420 lbs. to an acre, which is only 180 lbs. in excess of +a ton. In New South Wales several parties use the tobacco stems for +sheep wash. One pound of tobacco is sufficient to wash five sheep on +an average (one washing), which would give 12,100 sheep to one acre. + +Assuming that only one crop was grown in New Zealand in one year, of +2,420 lbs. to an acre, at 3d. per pound, (which is about half the +market price of a fair sample of tobacco in bond,) it would amount to +L30 5s. per acre. + +Three rows of Indian corn are planted outside the tobacco plants to +shelter them from the wind. In order to save seed, a few plants are +allowed to flower. The Virginian tobacco is the largest; it is known +by a pink flower; the _Nicotiana rustica_ (common green) has a yellow +flower. + +A planter in Northern Australia furnishes the following directions:-- + + The land selected for the growth of tobacco ought to be of the most + fertile description, of a friable description, and upon which no + water can rest within eighteen inches of the surface. Newly cleared + brush lands of this nature are the most prolific; upon such, after + good tillage, put the plants about four feet or more apart, in rows, + and five feet six inches asunder. In interior or old ground, plant + proportionately closer. Before topping or nipping off the head, all + the lower leaves (that is such as may touch the ground) ought to be + broken off, leaving only from five to seven for the crop, which will + yield a greater weight and be of a superior quality than if double + that number were left. When ripe, a dry and cloudy day should be + selected to cut it, as the sun destroys its quality after cutting. + It ought then to lie sufficiently long upon the ground so as to welt + before carting to the sheds, hanging up each stalk next morning so + as not to touch its fellow. + + The drying sheds ought to be built upon an elevated or dry spot, + with a hoarded flour of rough split stuff, fifteen or eighteen + inches from the ground, with apertures as windows to admit or to + exclude the external atmosphere. In damp weather close all the doors + and windows, also every night; in contrary weather open all. + + In these drying houses the stalks should remain suspended until the + vegetable moisture is entirely evaporated, so that on a dry day the + stems of the leaves will break like a glass pipe, and the finer + parts crumble into snuff upon compression; after which, in humid + weather, they will become quite pliable; then strip the leaves off + the stems, make them up into hands, and pack them tightly into a + close bin: when full, cover it with boards and old bagged stuff, + upon which place heavy weights. In this state it undergoes the + sweating process, which, in this colony, is little understood or not + properly attended to, and yet, upon the skill displayed thereon, the + quality of the tobacco greatly depends. I will therefore give some + general directions upon this portion of the planter's office. If the + tobacco happen to be too damp when put into the bin, it will attain + either an injurious or a destructive degree of heat; it must + therefore he watched for some days after it is packed. To an + experienced operator I would say, if the heat exceed 80 degrees of + temperature, immediately unpack and re-hang the whole, waiting its + condition as before explained, before it is again put into the + sweating bin. Should the degree of heat be below that stated, it may + remain for weeks or until the heat has subsided. I have generally + removed it from the sweating process in about fourteen or twenty + days, sometimes considerably longer, regulating that act by the odor + and color of the leaf. If, however, it appears to be attaining a + very dark brown color and its heat not subsided, it should be taken + out and closely pressed into large cases or casks, when it will + again attain a gentle heat called the "second sweating," as is + invariably the case with the hogsheads of the American leaf tobacco: + this again improves its quality. Here the grower's operations + terminate. + + It may be necessary to remark, that how skilful and experienced + soever the grower may be, it is hardly possible for him to produce a + good article upon a small scale; for with a less quantity than one + ton to place in the sweating bin at a time, the requisite heat to + insure success will not be generated. I would further observe, that + the practice of the colonists in growing what they term a "second + crop" is most injurious to their interests, their lands, and the + quality and character of the colonial tobacco. The American planter + never attempts it. I would therefore strongly recommend its + discontinuance, and also never to crop one piece of land with + tobacco more than two or three years in succession. The Americans + rarely take more than two crops unless the land be new; after which + they sow it down with grasses, in which state it remains for two or + three years until it is again planted with tobacco. I would + recommend this plan to the growers. + + The character of the American tobacco has been greatly advanced in + the mercantile world by an ordinance regulating that source of + national wealth. The planters are thereby obligated to deposit their + crops in warehouses, over which sworn inspectors preside, who + rigidly examine every hogshead, and if found to be of mercantile + quality, grant the owner a certificate, by which instrument only he + sells his produce. The purchaser is hereby safe in buying these + certificates. The tobacco to which they refer is delivered to the + holder on presentation to the inspector. I mention this not as + applicable here at present, but it most probably may hereafter. + + When the colony is suffering severely for the want of labor, it may + by some be deemed inopportune in offering remarks upon this article + of commerce. To such dissentients I will remark, that a great + portion of the work can be performed by women and children. A moiety + of our anticipated increase of population will be available for this + hitherto mismanaged source of wealth. At present the quantity grown + in the colony is equal to three-fourths of its consumption, and + which production is of a very inferior quality to the imported. + These facts tend to show that my notice of the subject is not + inopportune, and particularly so when the object is to point out + those errors so generally adopted by the tobacco growers here. Years + of practical experience, of personal observation upon the + plantations of North America, and my having been, I believe, the + grower of the greatest quantity of tobacco in the colony, qualify me + to afford instructions thereon; whereby, if attended to, our tobacco + will become fully equal to the American, as was proved to be the + case by the crops I grew here (upwards of 40 tons),[56] which were + sold in Sydney by the Commissariat Department at public auction, at + an advance of twenty per cent. more than the imported leaf. As the + duty on tobacco is about to be reduced, the present production may + fall off, unless an immediate improvement in its quality take place. + Instead of being importers of tobacco, we should, if it was grown + here to perfection, be exporters of it to all our sister colonies; + and in its raw state, also to the European markets. At present, for + home consumption, there is a greater profit to be made by its + cultivation, if skilfully managed, than in any part of the world; + for the duty upon imported is a positive bonus to the grower. + +In 1849-50 there were fifteen manufactories of tobacco on a small +scale in New South Wales, but these were reduced in 1851 to six. + +Many samples of tobacco grown in the colony have been pronounced by +competent judges equal to Virginian, but a very considerable prejudice +exists against it. There is, however, no doubt that the dealers +dispose of a great deal as American tobacco, and get a best price for +it. The reduction of the import duties on foreign tobacco, recently +made by the Legislative Council, will probably retard the progress of +the colonial production and manufacture of this article; but with an +abundance of labor there is no question that this branch of industry +will be again profitably resorted to. The quantity of tobacco +manufactured in New South Wales, in 1847, was 1,321 cwt.; in 1848, 714 +cwt.; in 1849, 2,758 cwt.; in 1850, 3,833 cwt.; in 1851, 4,841 cwt. + +A correspondent of the _Adelaide Observer_ recommends its culture in +South Australia, and supplies the following useful information:-- + + Without entering into botanical details, I will simply state that + the plant is of a shrubby nature, about five feet high, and ought + not to be planted nearer than four feet from each other, in rows + five feet apart--thus allowing for each plant a space of ground four + feet by five, or 20 square feet. An acre will consequently furnish + sufficient room for 2,178 plants. + + The tobacco plant will thrive in almost any climate, from the torrid + zone to the temperature of Great Britain. It luxuriates in rich + alluvial valleys, where the soil is either of a _loamy_ or a _peaty_ + nature. + + Maiden soil is not recommended. The ground should be trenched, + worked as fine as possible, and well manured. Tobacco will not + answer unless the subsoil is thoroughly broken. The best manure is + that obtained from the bullock-yard, and bark from the tan yard; and + by two or three ploughings the earth can be brought to a proper + consistency, and fit for the reception of the plants. + + The usual method adopted in New South Wales, is to raise the plants + in a warm, sheltered bed, neither exposed to wind nor to the sun's + rays; but if the weather is dry, they should be well watered night + and morning. The time of sowing is the end of August or the + beginning of September in the latitude of Sydney, according to the + state of the weather; and they may be transplanted when they have + attained their sixth leaf, which is generally about a month or five + weeks after they are up. + + The period is rather later in this colony, and care should be taken + that the plants have gained sufficient strength in the ground after + transplanting to withstand the effect of the hot winds, and, if + practicable, the aspect should be either N.E. or N.W., and the rows + should incline towards either of these points. + + The most suitable spots in this colony for the cultivation of + tobacco, are Lyndoch Valley and the districts round the town of + Willunga and Morphett Vale. + + The greatest care is required from the cultivator to prevent the + destruction of the plant from its greatest enemy, the black grub. + Daily search should be made for it, and not a plant should be left + unexamined; they make their appearance about the beginning of + November, when the plants have scarcely had time to take root. The + soil between the rows should be kept constantly stirred with a + three-pronged fork, that air and the sun's rays may be admitted, + which latter are as indispensable to the growing plant as injurious + to the seedling. The labor is great, and from first to last requires + the constant attention of one man throughout the year, with an + additional hand for about six weeks during the process of curing. + + The profits even in bad seasons are considerable; but when the + season and soil are favorable, they average upwards of 100 per cent. + The consumption of tobacco is great in this colony, not only for + personal use, but for sheep-wash; and the profits may be + considerably greater for the lower leaves, which, owing to their + gritty nature, cannot be manufactured, but may be advantageously + cured for wash. + + It is not my office to argue the point as to the advantages which + may accrue from a free trade in tobacco; but this I know, and + confidently assert it, from actual experiments made in this + province, that a more lucrative article cannot be grown. + + The consumption in South America, in 1850, was 147,178 lbs.; and the + annual increase since 1840 has been a higher percentage than the + increase of population, chiefly owing to extension in sheep-farming. + + The probable expense of cultivation per acre may be as under:-- + + L s. d. + Rent 0 10 0 + Labor, 12 months 52 0 0 + Ditto, 2 months 8 10 0 + Ploughing three times 2 2 0 + Harrowing twice 1 0 0 + Manure, say 2 10 0 + Seed, say 0 10 0 + ---------- + L67 2 0 + + The Sydney average quantity is said to be 11-1/3 cwt. per acre, + say 10 cwt.; and the cost price per lb. will be 141/2d., or L6 15s. + 4d. per cwt. The profit will at once be seen on this article of + consumption. + + * * * * * + +Miscellaneous Drugs.--The blood tree (_Croton gossypifolia_), an +evergreen shrub, native of the Trinidad mountains, is remarkable for +yielding, when wounded, a thick juice resembling blood in color, which +is one of the most powerful astringents I know of, and as such would +be valuable to medical science. The bark of _Croton Cascarilla_ is, as +we have seen in a former section, aromatic, and the seeds of _C. +Tiglium_, the physic nut, are purgative; so are those of the purging +nut (_Jatropha multifida_), and another species (_J. gossypifolia_). + +The pods of cow-itch (_Mucuna pruriens_) act as a vermifuge; the roots +of the _Ruellia tuberosa_, or manyroot, and the bulbs of the white +lily (_Pancratium Carribaeum_ and _maritimum_), are emetic. The Indian +root or bastard ipecacuan (_Asclepias curassavica_) has medicinal +properties. _A. tuberosa_ is used as a mild cathartic, and a remedy +for a variety of disorders. _Hydrastis canadensis_, or Canadian yellow +root, is a valuable bitter, and furnishes a useful yellow dye. +_Knowltonia vesicatoria_ is used commonly as a blister in the Cape +Colony. _Ranunculus saleratus_ (the _R. indicus_ of Roxburgh, and _B. +camosus_ of Wallich), common in India, is also used by the natives for +blistering purposes. + +A kind of sedge rush, common in swampy places in the West India +islands, the _Adme cyperus_, enjoys a reputation for the cure of +yellow fever. It is also stated to be cordial, diuretic and cephalic, +serviceable in the first stages of the dropsy, good in vomitings, +fluxes, &c. + +Dr. Impey, the residentiary surgeon of Malwa, has just confidence in +the indigenous drugs in use by the natives of the East, many of which +are quite unknown in European practice. He believes that, in the +Indian bazaars and the jungle, drugs having precisely the same effect +as those of Europe may be discovered, and has recently drawn up a list +of ninety substances, which are perfect substitutes for an equal +number of European medicines. The class of tonics, in particular, is +most amply supplied, and the Englishman is not the only animal who +suffers from disorders of the digestive organs. + +My friend Dr. Hamilton, of Plymouth, recently brought under the notice +of the profession the medical properties of the prickly poppy or +Mexican thistle (_Argemone Mexicana_). It is indigenous to and grows +wild in the greatest profusion throughout the whole of the Caribbean +islands, and may be found at every season of the year covered with its +bright golden blossoms, and bearing its prickly capsules in all their +several stages of maturity. It is an annual plant, attaining a height +of about two feet, growing abundantly in low and hot uncultivated +spots. Its stem is round and prickly, furnished with alternate +branches and thorny leaves. The seeds possess an emetic quality. The +whole plant abounds in a yellow milky juice, resembling gamboge in +color, and not improbably possessing properties similar to the seeds. +In Nevis the oil is obtained from the bruised seeds by boiling, and +sold by the negroes in small phials, containing about an ounce each, +under the name of "thistle oil," at the price of a quarter of a dollar +each. The usual dose for dry bellyache is thirty drops upon a lump of +sugar, and its effect is perfectly magical, relieving the pain +instantaneously, throwing the patient into a profound and refreshing +sleep, and in a few hours relieving the bowels gently of the contents. +This oil seems fitted to compete in utility with the far more costly +and less agreeable oil of the croton. + +The seeds of the sandbox (_Hura crepitans_) when bruised, operate +powerfully as emetico-cathartic. It is probable that an oil might be +obtained from them similar in its operation to the thistle oil. + +A cucurbitaceous fruit, one of the Luffas (called by Von Martius +_Luffa purgans_), a tribe closely allied to the colocynth and +mornordicas, growing in South America, is a powerful purgative, and is +used in the province of Pernambuco, where it is called Cabacinha. The +fruit is about the size of a small pear and resembles the wild +cucumber. An infusion of a fourth part of one of these fruits is +administered chiefly in the form of an injection. + +Another species (_Luffa drastica_, of Martius) is also employed for +the same purpose. + +The _Luffa purgans_ grows spontaneously in the suburbs of Recieffe, +the capital of the province of Pernambuco, and flowers in November and +December. The fruit is a drastic purgative, and an infusion of it is +used either internally or in the form of clyster. The tincture is +prepared by macerating, for twenty-eight hours or more, four of the +fruit deprived of the seeds in a bottle of spirit 21 degrees. The dose +is three or four ounces daily, which occasions much sickness. + + * * * * * + +Poisons.--The vegetable kingdom (observes Mr. Simple), to which man is +largely indebted for the materials of food, clothing, and shelter, +produces also some of the most deadly poisons with which science, +experience, or accident, has made him acquainted. In examining the +poisonous productions of the vegetable kingdom, we find that their +properties are generally due to the presence of some acid or alkali +contained in the plant from which they are derived. Oil of bitter +almonds and cherry laurel water are poisonous in consequence of +containing prussic acid. Opium owes its activity to the alkaloid +morphia. The Upas-tiente derives its energetic powers from the +alkaloid strychnia; conia is the active principle of hemlock; veratria +of hellebore; aconita of monk's hood; and although there are several +poisonous plants in which the active principle has not yet been +detected, there can be little doubt that such a principle exists, +although it has hitherto eluded the researches of the +chemist.--("Pharmaceutical Journal," vol. 2, p. 17.) + +The bark taken from the roots of the Jamaica dogwood (_Piscidia +erythrina_), which is extensively distributed throughout the +Archipelago of the Antilles, is used for stupefying fish. The pounded +root is mixed with slaked lime and the low wines or lees of the +distillery, and the mixture is put into small baskets or sacks, and so +suffered to wash out gradually, coloring the water to a reddish hue. +The fish rise to the surface in a few minutes, when they float as if +dead. + +The expressed juice of the root of _Maranta Arundinacea_ is stated to +be a valuable antidote to some vegetable poisons, and also serviceable +in cases of bites or stings of venomous insects or reptiles. One of +the most popular remedies for the bites of snakes is a decoction of +the leaves of the Guaco, or snake plant, of South America, a species +of willow which flourishes along the banks of the streams in the +sultry regions shaded by other trees. It is said to be both a +preventive and cure. + +Mr. Edward Otto, writing from Cuba to the "Gardener's Magazine" for +May, 1842, p. 286, describes the guaco as a tree growing from four to +eight feet in height, with beautiful dark green leaves, having a brown +tinge round the margin. The blossoms are small, of a bluish brown, and +hang like loose bunches of grapes at the points of the shoots, or even +on the stem itself, as it has seldom branches. The milky sap is said +to have poisonous effects. "I was told (he adds) that this plant is +used efficiently in cholera and yellow fever." This tree is said to be +the _Camaeladia ilicifolia_ of Swartz, common in Antigua and Hayti, +being known in Antigua by the popular name of the holly-leaved maiden +plum. + + * * * * * + +ALOES.--The drug called aloes is the bitter, resinous, inspissated +juice of the leaves of various species of an arborescent plant of the +lily family, with a developed stem and large succulent leaves, growing +principally in tropical and sub-tropical regions, and having a wide +extent of range, being produced in Borneo and the East, Africa, +Arabia, and the West Indies; many are also natives of the Cape of Good +Hope. The plant will thrive in almost any soil, and, when once +established, it is extremely difficult to eradicate. + +The cultivation and manufacture are of the most simple kind. The usual +mode of propagating the plants is by suckers; and all the care +required is to keep them free from weeds. + +From the high price which the best Barbados aloes fetches in the +market, L7 per cwt., its culture might be profitably extended to many +of the other islands. The aloes plant is indigenous to the soil of +Jamaica, and although handled by thousands of the peasantry and +others, there is not perhaps one in five thousand who understands its +properties or the value of the plant. With the Jamaicans it is +commonly used in fever cases, by slicing the leaves, permitting the +juice to escape partially, and then applying them to the head with +bandages;--this is the only generally known property which it +possesses there. + +A series of trials made recently in Paris proved that cordage +manufactured from the fibre of this plant grown in Algiers, was far +preferable in comparative strength to that manufactured from hemp. +Cables, of equal size, showed that that made of the aloe raised a +weight of one-fifth more than that of hemp. + +The drug is imported into this country under the names of Socotrine, +East Indian or Hepatic, Barbados, Cape and Caballine aloes. It +contains a substance called Aloetine, which some regard as its active +principle. The various species now defined are--_Aloe spicata_, +_vulgaris_, _Socotrina_, _Indica_, _rubescens_, _Arabica_, +_linguae-formis_ and _Commelina_. The average imports in 1841 and 1842 +were only about 170,780 cwts.; it is now much larger, and a great +portion of the supply is drawn from the Cape colony. + +The mode of preparing the drug, which I have myself seen in the West +Indies, is exceedingly simple. When the plant has arrived at proper +maturity, the laborers go into the field with tubs and knives, and cut +the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk; these are +placed upright in the tubs, side by side, so that the sap may flow out +of the wound. Sometimes a longitudinal incision is made from top to +bottom of the leaf, to facilitate the discharge. The crude juice thus +obtained is placed in shallow flat-bottomed receivers, and exposed to +the sun until it has acquired sufficient consistency to be packed in +gourds for exportation. In preparing the coarser kind, or horse aloes, +the leaves are cut into junks and thrown into the tubs, there to lie +till the juice is pretty well drained out; they are then squeezed by +the hand, and water, in the proportion of one quart to ten of juice, +is added, after which it is boiled to a due consistence and emptied +into large shallow coolers. + +The following analysis by M. Edmond Robiquet of a specimen of +Socotrine aloes, obtained from M. Chevallier, is given in the sixth +volume of the "Pharmaceutical Journal," p. 277. The constituents in +100 parts were:-- + + Pure aloes (Aloetine) 85.00 + Ulmate of potash 2.00 + Sulphate of lime 2.00 + Carbonate of potash } + -------------lime } traces. + Phosphate of lime } + Gallic acid .25 + Albumen 8. + +The true Socotrine aloes is the produce of _A. Socotrina_, which grows +abundantly in the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean. Lieutenant +Wellstead says, the hills on the west side of the island are covered +for an extent of miles with aloe plants. The aloe grows spontaneously +on the limestone mountains of Socotra, from 500 to 3,000 feet above +the level of the sea. The produce is brought to Tamarida and +Colliseah, the principal town and harbor for exports. In 1833, the +best quality sold for 2s. a pound, while for the more indifferent the +price was 13d. The value is much impaired by the careless manner in +which the aloes is gathered and packed. Aloes once formed the staple +of its traffic, for which it was chiefly resorted to; but only small +quantities are now exported. It was formerly shipped by the way of +Smyrna and Alexandria, but is usually now brought by the way of +Bombay; Melinda, on the Zanzibar coast, and Maccula on the Arabian +shore, furnish the greater part of that sold in Europe as Socotrine +aloes. It comes home in chests or packages of 150 to 200 lbs. wrapt in +skins of the gazelle, sometimes in casks holding half a ton or more. +It is somewhat transparent, of a garnet or yellowish red color. The +smell is not very unpleasant, approaching to myrrh. Socotrine aloes, +although long considered the best kind, is now below Barbados aloes in +commercial value. + +About two tons were imported from Socotra in 1833, but a much larger +quantity could be obtained if required. + +The price of Socotrine aloes in the Liverpool market, in the early +part of 1853, was 30s. to L6 the cwt.; of Cape, 30s. to 32s. + +_East Indian_, or _Hepatic aloes_.-- The real hepatic aloes, so called +from its liver color, is believed to be the produce of _A. Arabica_, +or _perfoliala_, which grows in Yemen in Arabia, from whence it is +exported by the way of Bombay to Europe. According to Dr. Thomson and +the "Materia Medica," it is duller in its color than the other kinds, +is bitterer, and has a less pleasant aroma than the Socotrine aloes. +It should not be liquid, which deteriorates the quality. + +_A. Indica_--a species with reddish flowers, common in dry situations, +in the north-west provinces of India, is that from which an inferior +sort of the drug is produced. It is obtained in Guzerat, Salem, and +Trichinopoly, and fetches a local price of 2d. to 3d. a pound. In the +Bombay market, Socotrine aloes fetches wholesale 16s. to 20s. the +Surat maund of 41 lbs., and Maccula aloes only 9s. + +_Barbados aloes_, is the produce of _A. vulgaris_, or _A. +barbadensis_, a native of the Cape colony, and is often passed off for +the Hepatic. It is brought home in calabashes, or large gourd shells, +containing from 60 to 70 lbs. each, or more. It is duskier in hue than +the East Indian species, being a darkish brown or black, and the taste +is more nauseous and intensely bitter. + +In 1786 one hogshead and 409 gourds of aloes were exported from +Barbados. In 1827, there were about 96,000 packages shipped from the +island. In 1844, there were 4,600 packages exported. The exports have +fallen off considerably, only about 850 gourds having been shipped in +the season of 1849-50; but in 1851 it increased to 2,505 gourds. + +_Caballine_, or _Horse-aloes_, is the coarsest species or refuse of +the Barbados aloes, and from its rank fetid smell is only useful for +veterinary medicine. It is also obtained from Spain and Senegal. + +A very good description of the mode of cultivating and preparing the +aloes in Barbados is given in the 8th vol. of the "London Medical +Journal":-- + + The lands in the vicinity of the sea, that is from two to three + miles, which are rather subject to drought than otherwise, and are + so strong and shallow as not to admit of the planting of sugar-canes + with any prospect of success, are generally found to answer best for + the aloe-plant. The stones, at least the larger ones, are first + picked up, and either packed in heaps upon the most shallow barren + spots, or laid round the field as a dry wall. The land is then + lightly ploughed and very carefully cleared of all noxious weeds, + lined at one foot distance from row to row, and the young plants set + like cabbages, at about five or six inches from each other. This + regular mode of lining and setting the plants is practised only by + the most exact planters, in order to facilitate the frequent weeding + by hand; because if the ground be not kept perfectly clean and free + from weeds, the produce will be very small. Aloes will bear being + planted in any season of the year, even in the dryest, as they will + live on the surface of the earth for many weeks without a drop of + rain. The most general time of planting them, however, is from April + to June. + + In the March following, the laborers carry a parcel of tubs and jars + into the field, and each takes a slip or breadth of it, and begins + by laying hold of a bunch of the blades, as much as he can + conveniently grasp with one hand, whilst with the other he cuts it + just above the surface of the earth as quickly as possible (that the + juice may not be wasted), and then places the branches in the tub + bunch by bunch or handful by handful. When the first tub is thus + packed quite full, a second is begun (each laborer having two); and + by the time the second is filled, all the juice is generally drained + out of the blades in the first tub. The blades are then lightly + taken out and thrown over the land by way of manure, and the juice + is poured out into a jar. The tub is then filled again with blades, + and so alternately, till the laborer has produced his jar full, or + about four gallons and a half of juice, which is often done in six + or seven hours, and he has then the remainder of the day to himself, + it being his employer's interest to get each day's operation as + quickly done as possible. It may be observed that although aloes are + often cut in nine, ten, or twelve months after being planted, they + are not in perfection till the second or third year, and that they + will be productive for a length of time, say ten or twelve years, or + even for a longer time, if good dung or manure of any kind is + stirred over the field once in three or four years, or oftener if + convenient. + + The aloe juice will keep for several weeks without injury. It is + therefore not boiled till a sufficient quantity is procured to make + it an object for the boiling house. In the large way, three boilers, + or coppers are placed to one fire, though some have but two, and the + small planters only one boiler. The boilers are filled with the + juice, and as it ripens or becomes more inspissated by a constant + but regular fire, it is ladled from boiler to boiler, and fresh + juice is added to that farthest from the fire, till the juice in + that nearest the fire (by much the smallest of the three) becomes of + a proper consistency, to be skipped or ladled out into gourds or + other small vessels used for its final reception. The proper time to + skip or ladle it out of the last boiler is when it has arrived at + what is termed a resin height, or when it cuts freely or in thin + flakes from the edges of a small wooden slice that is dipped from + time to time into the boiler for that purpose. A little lime water + is used by some aloe boilers during the process, when the ebullition + is too great. + +CAPE ALOES is the produce chiefly of _A. spicata_, and _A. Commelini_, +which are found growing wild in great abundance in the interior of the +Cape Colony. It has not the dark opaque appearance of the other +species. About fifty miles from Cape Town is a mountainous tract, +almost entirely covered with numerous species and varieties of the +plant, and some of the extensive arid plains in the interior of the +colony are crowded with it. The settlers go forth and pitch their +waggous and campa on these spots to obtain the produce. The shipments +from Table Bay and the eastern port of Algoa Bay are very +considerable. The odor of the Cape aloes is stronger and more +disagreeable than that of the Socotrine or Barbados, and the color is +more like gamboge. It is brought over in chests and skins, the latter +being preferred. + +Mr. George Dunsterville, surgeon of Algoa Bay, gives the following +description of the manufacture of Cape aloes:-- + + A shallow pit is dug, in which is spread a bullock's hide or sheep's + skin. The leaves of the aloe plants in the immediate vicinity of + this pit are stripped off and piled up on the skin to variable + heights. These are left for a few days. The juice exudes from the + leaves, and is received by the skin beneath. The Hottentot then + collects in a basket or other convenient article the produce of many + heaps, which is then put into an iron pot capable of holding + eighteen or twenty gallons. Fire is applied to effect evaporation, + during which the contents of the pot are constantly stirred to + prevent burning. The cooled liquor is then poured into wooden cases + of about three feet square by one foot deep, or into goat or sheep + skins, and thus is filled for the market. In the colony aloes + realises about 21/4 d. to 31/2 d. per pound. The Hottentots and Dutch + boors employ indiscriminately different species of aloe in the + preparation of the drug. + + The Cape aloes, which _is_ usually prized the highest in the English + market, is that made at the Missionary institution of Bethelsdorp (a + small village about nine miles from Algoa Bay, and chiefly inhabited + by Hottentots and their missionary teachers). Its superiority arises + not from the employment of a particular species of aloe, for all + species are used, but from the greater care and attention paid to + what is technically called the cooking of the aloes; that is, the + evaporation, and to the absence of all adulterating substances + (fragments of limestone, sand, earth, &c.), often introduced by + manufacturers. + +Mr. Moodie, in his "Ten Years' Residence in Southern Africa," gives a +somewhat similar account. + +Mr. Bunbury states that, about the neighbourhood of Graham's Town, +three large kinds of aloe are very abundant, which form striking and +characteristic features of the scenery; they grow irregularly +scattered over the parched and naked faces of the hills, but most +abundantly among the low broken ledges and knolls of sandstone rock, +and are often seen spiring up above the evergreen bushes in the +ravines, and crowning the cliffs. One kind grows to the height of a +man. They are plants of a strange, rigid, and ungraceful appearance, +but with very handsome flowers, which form tall and dense spikes, of a +fine coral-red color in two of the species _(A. arborescens_ and +_lineata?_), and of an orange scarlet in the third _(A. +glaucescens?_). When in blossom they are conspicuous at a great +distance, and might easily be mistaken, when seen from far off, for +soldiers in red uniforms. + +The importance of this indigenous plant to the Cape Colony, may be +estimated from the following figures:-- + + + AMOUNT OF ALOES, THE PRODUCE OF THE COLONY, AND VALUE THEREOF, + EXPORTED IN THE YEARS ENDING 5TH JANUARY 1841, 1842, AND 1846. + lbs L + 1841 485,574 8,821 + 1842 602,620 11,877 + 1846 266,725 3,018 + + + EXPORTS AND VALUE FROM THE EASTERN PROVINCE. + lbs. L + 1835 68,042 474 + 1836 30,808 285 + 1837 13,400 115 + 1838 28,867 306 + 1839 75,500 918 + 1840 82,478 1,145 + 1841 220,214 4,271 + 1842 283,305 5,003 + 1844 318,035 3,225 + + + EXPORTS AND VALUE FROM THE WESTERN PROVINCE. + lbs. L + 1841 242,860 4,175 + 1842 379,315 6,874 + 1844 506,796 6,586 + +ASAFOETIDA.---This drug of commerce is procured from the milky juice +of _Ferula asafoetida_, a plant recently described by Dr. Falconer, +under the name of _Narthex asafoetida_. It is found in Persia, the +mountains of Chorasan, the central table land of Affghanistan, and +some seeds of it, sent to this country by Dr. Falconer, germinated in +the Botanical Garden at Edinburgh, and are now vigorous thriving +plants of six years growth. Its leaves have a resemblance to those of +a paeony; the fruit is distinguished by divided and interrupted vittae, +which form a network on the surface. The perennial roots grow to a +very large size, and are seldom of any use until after four or five +years' growth. The asafoetida is procured by taking successive slices +off the top of the root and collecting the milky juice., which is +allowed to concrete into masses of a fetid resinous gummy matter, with +a sulphur oil, similar to that of garlic, which is probably its active +ingredient. + +An inferior sort is obtained from _F. persica_, another species with +very much divided leaves, growing chiefly in the southern provinces of +Persia. It comes over usually in casks and cases. The British +consumption of the drug is about 10,000 lbs. a year. A little is +procured from Scinde. In 1825 the quantity imported was 106,770 lbs., +in 1839 only 24 cwts. + +The wholesale price in the Liverpool market, in January 1853, was L1 +to L3 10s. the cwt. + +CAMPHOR.--The Camphor tree (_Camphora officinarum_, _Laurus Camphora_) +is a native of China, Japan, and Cochin China, of the laurel tribe, +with black and purple veins. Camphor is procured from all parts of the +tree, but it is obtained principally from the wood by distillation, +and subsequent sublimation. + +Many plants, such as the cinnamon tree, supply a kind of camphor, but +the common camphor of the shops is the produce chiefly of _C. +officinarum._ + +Two kinds of unrefined camphor are known in commerce.--1. The Dutch, +which is brought from Batavia, and is said to be the produce of Japan. +This is imported in tubs covered by matting and each surrounded by a +second tub, secured on the outside by hoops of twisted cane. Each tub +contains about one cwt. Most of this goes to the continent. 2. +Ordinary crude camphor is imported from Singapore and Bombay, in +square chests lined with lead-foil, and containing 11/4 to 11/2 cwts. It +is chiefly produced in the island of Formosa, and is brought by the +Chin Chew junks in very large quantities to Canton, whence foreign +markets get supplied.--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") + +In the southern part of Japan the tree grows in such abundance that, +notwithstanding the great consumption of it in the country, large +quantities are exported. Koempfer says, that the Japanese camphor is +made by a simple decoction of the wood and roots, but bears no +proportion in value to that of Borneo. There is also an imitation of +camphor in Japan, but every body can distinguish it from the genuine. + +The camphor of Sumatra is procured from the stem of a large tree, +_Dryobalanops Camphora_, Colebrook; _D. aromatica_, Graertner. It is +secreted in crystalline masses naturally into cavities of the wood. It +supplies this camphor only after attaining a considerable age. In its +young state it yields, however, by incision, a pale yellow liquid, +called the liquid camphor of Borneo and Sumatra, which consists of +resin and a volatile oil having a camphorated odor. + +An account of this tree, and of the mode of procuring the peculiar and +high-priced camphor which it yields, is given by Dr. Junghuhn, who has +travelled lately in Sumatra, and Prof. De Vriese, of Leyden, in the +"Nederlandsch Kruidkundig Archief" for 1851. An abstract of the +memoir, translated into English by Miss De Vriese, is published in +"Hooker's Journal of Botany " for February and March 1852:-- + + The Dryobalanops is a gigantic tree, rising for fifty or even a + hundred feet above those which compose the chief mass of the forests + where they grow, just as the steeples of the churches appear above + the roofs of the houses in a town. The trunks of the full-grown + trees are from 7 to 10 feet in diameter at the very base, and from 5 + to 8 feet higher up; they rise to the height of 100 or 130 feet, and + their ample crown is from 50 to 70 feet in diameter. The tree has a + limited range, being confined to the seaward slope of the mountains + of southwestern Sumatra, most abundant on the lower slopes and the + outlying hills of the alluvial plain, and extending in latitude from + 1deg. 10m. to 2deg. 20m. N., and perhaps further to the north. + Camphor oil occurs in all the trees, and is most abundant in the + younger branches and leaves. The solid camphor is found only on the + trunks of older trees, especially in fissures of the wood, and in + smaller quantity than is generally supposed. Colebrooke, and authors + who have copied from him, assert that camphor is found in the heart + of the tree in such a quantity as to fill a cavity of the thickness + of a man's arm, and that a single tree yields about eleven pounds. + The price of this camphor, which at Padang sells for about 340 + dollars per hundred weight, suffices to show that the account is + much exaggerated. The camphor occurs only in small fissures, from + which the natives, having felled the trees and split up the wood, + scrape it off with small splinters or with their nails. From the + oldest and richest trees they rarely collect more than two ounces. + After a long stay in the woods, frequently of three months, during + which they may fell a hundred trees, a party of thirty persons + rarely bring away more than 15 or 20 pounds of solid camphor, worth + from 200 to 250 dollars. The variety and price of this costly + substance are enhanced by a custom which has immemorially prevailed + among the Battas, of delaying the burial of every person who during + his life had a claim to the title of Rajah (of which each village + has one) until some rice, sown on the day of his death, has sprung + up, grown and borne fruit. The corpse, till then kept above ground + among the living, is now, with these ears of rice, committed to the + earth, like the grain six months before; and thus the hope is + emblematically expressed that, as a new life arises from the seed, + so another life shall begin for man after his death. During this + time the corpse is kept in the house, enclosed in a coffin made of + the hollowed trunk of a Durion, and the whole space between the + coffin and the body is filled with pounded camphor, for the purchase + of which the family of the deceased Rajah frequently impoverish + themselves. The camphor oil is collected by incisions at the base of + the trunk, from which the clear balsamic juice is very slowly + discharged. + +In Sumatra the best camphor is obtained in a district called Barus, +and all good camphor bears that local name. It appears that the tree +is cut down to obtain the gum and that not in one tenth of the trees +is it found. Barus camphor is getting scarce, as the tree must be +destroyed before it is ascertained whether it is productive or not. +About 800 piculs are annually sent to China. The proportion between +Malay and Chinese camphor is as eighteen to one; the former is more +fragrant and not so pungent as the latter. + +Nine hundred and eighty-three tubs of camphor were exported from Java +in 1843; 625 bales were imported in 1843, the produce of the Japanese +empire; and 559 piculs exported from Canton in 1844. + +The price of unrefined camphor in the Liverpool market in July, 1853, +was L4 to L4 10s. the cwt. There have been no imports there direct in +the last two years. + + Camphor (says Dr. Ure) is found in a great many plants and is + secreted in parity by several laurels; it occurs combined with the + essential oils of many of the _labiacae_; but it is extracted for + manufacturing purposes only from the _Laurus Camphora_, which + abounds in China and Japan, as well as from a tree which grows in + Sumatra and Borneo, called in the country _kapur barus_, from the + name of the place where it is most common. The camphor exists, ready + formed, in these vegetables between the wood and the bark; but it + does not exude spontaneously. On cleaving the tree _Laurus + Sumatrensis (Qy. Dryobalanops Camphora)_, masses of camphor are + found in the pith. The wood of the Laurus is cut into small pieces + and put, with plenty of water, into large iron boilers, which are + covered with an earthen capital or dome, lined within with rice + straw. As the water boils, the camphor rises with the steam, and + attaches itself as a sublimate to the stalks, under the form of + granulations of a grey color. In this state it is picked off the + straw and packed up for exportation to Europe."--(" Dictionary of + Arts and Manufactures.") + +The price of camphor at Canton in July, 1850, was from fourteen to +fifteen dollars per picul. + +Cinchona.--Peruvian or Jesuit's Bark--One of the most valuable and +powerful astringents and tonics used in medicine, is the produce of +several species of cinchona, natives of the Andes, from 11 north +latitude to 20 south latitude, at elevations varying from 1,200 to +10,000 feet above the level of the sea, and in a dry rocky soil. There +are at least twelve trees which are supposed to furnish the barks of +commerce, and great obscurity prevails as to the species whence the +various kinds of cinchona bark are derived. The names of yellow, red, +and pale bark have been very vaguely applied, and are by no means well +defined. Dr. Lindley mentions twenty-six varieties; of which +twenty-one are well known. The barks are met with either in thick, +large, flat pieces, or in thinner pieces, which curl inwards during +drying, and are called quilled. + +Quinine is one of the most important of the vegetable alkaline +bitters. It was first discovered by Vauquelin, in 1811, and its +preparation on a large scale pointed out by Pelletier and Caventon in +1820. It is obtained by boiling the yellow bark (_Cinchona_) in water +and sulphuric acid, and then treating it with lime and alcohol, when +the quinine is precipitated in the form of a white powder. Upwards of +120,000 ounces are made annually in Paris. + +Cinchona, or the Peruvian bark, was gathered to the amount of two +million dollars in one year recently, and the demand is constantly +increasing. + +Peruvian bark is cut in the eastern Provinces of Bolivia, skirting the +river Paraguay, and now conveyed an immense distance by mules over a +mountainous region to El Puerto, the only port of Bolivia on the +Pacific. It is thence brought by Cape Horn to the cities of the United +States and Europe. Now that Government has been successful in opening +the South American rivers, this important article of commerce will be +furnished in market by the Paraguay and La Plata rivers, at a much +reduced price. + +A species of bark from Colombia, known as Malambo or Matias bark, has +been frequently administered by Dr. Alexander Ure as a substitute for +cinchona with good effect. It offers the useful combination of a tonic +and aromatic. It is supposed to be the produce of a species of +_Drimys_. It is stated that in New Granada, and other districts of +Central America, where the tree is indigenous, incisions are made in +the bark, and there exudes an aromatic oil which sinks in water. + +Cinchona bark contains two alkaloids, cinchonia and quina, to which +its active properties are due; the former is best obtained from gray +bark, the latter from yellow bark. In combination with these there +exists an acid called kinic acid. + +The imports of cinchona bark to this country are from 225,000 to +556,000 lbs. annually, and about 120,000 lbs. are retained for home +consumption. It comes over in chests and serons, or ox-hides, varying +from 90 to 200 lbs. We imported from France, in 1850, 489 cwt. of +Peruvian bark, of the value of L6,840; and in 1851, 1,128 cwt., of the +value of L15,787; also the following quantities of sulphate of +quinine, on which there is a duty of 6d. and 3-10ths per ounce. + + oz. L + 1848 3,856 5,898 + 1849 1,114 1,560 + 1850 8,976 12,566 + 1851 7,605 10,647 + +The following is the arrangement of these barks adopted by Pereira, +who has gone very fully into the subject:-- + + A. True cinchonas, with a brown epidermis. + + I. Pale barks 1. Crown or Loxa bark. _C. Condaminea_. 2. Gray or + silver or Huanuco bark. _C. micrantha_. 3. Ash or Jaen bark. _C. + ovata_. 4. Rusty or Huamalies bark. _C. pubescens_. + + II. Yellow barks. 5. Royal, yellow or Calisaya bark. _C. sp ?_ + + III. Red barks. 6. Red bark. _C. sp ?_ + + B. True cinchonas, with a white epidermis. + + I. Pale barks. 7. White Loxa bark. + + II. Yellow barks. 8. Hard Carthagena bark. _C. cordifolia_. 9. + Fibrous ditto. Perhaps _C. cordifolia_. 10. Cuzco bark. _C. sp.?_ + 11. Orange bark of Santa Fe. _C. lancifolia_. + + III. Red barks. 12. Bed bark of Santa Fe. _C. oblongifolia_. + +The genus Exostemma yields various kinds of false cinchona bark, which +do not contain the cinchona alkalies. The following are some of the +kinds noticed by Pereira:-- + + 1. St. Lucia or Piton bark. _Exostemma floribundum_. + 2. Jamaica bark. _E. caribaeum_. + 3. Pitaya bark. _E. sp?_ + 4. False Peruvian bark. _E. peruvianum_. + 5. Brazilian bark. _E. souzianum_. + +The mode adopted by the bark-peelers of obtaining cinchona varies +somewhat in different districts. The Indians (says Mr. Stevenson, +"Twenty Years' Residence in South America") discover from the +eminences where a cluster of trees grow in the woods, for they are +easily discernable by the rose-colored tinge of their leaves, which +appear at a distance like bunches of flowers amid the deep-green +foliage of other trees. They then hunt for the spot, and having found +it out, cut down all the trees, and take the bark from the branches, +and after they have stripped off the bark, they carry it in bundles +out of the wood, for the purpose of drying it. The peelers commence +their operation about May, when the dry season sets in. Some writers +state that the trees are barked without felling. + +In a letter published in one of the Calcutta papers not long ago, from +the pen, I believe, of Mr. Piddington, he strongly urged the +introduction of the cinchona tree into British India:-- + + There is (he observes) one tree, the introduction and the copious + distribution of which within certain appropriate points of the + sub-Himalayan range, "would confer a greater blessing on the great + body of natives, than any effort the Government has made or can + make, and that is the cinchona bark tree. + + Without any reference to the greater or less force of medical + theories as to the efficacy of cinchona bark, I now only take an + experienced and practical view, well knowing that the sufferings of + many millions of poor and rich natives, especially in the jungle + districts, are yearly very great, and the mortality quite enormous + from remittent and intermittent fevers, by far the greater part of + which would be immensely relieved, or wholly cured, by the free use + of cinchona bark. + + If by abundance the price be once brought within the poor native's + reach, he will readily take to it, having no objection whatever on + account of caste to anything of the nature of the bark of a tree. + + If the cinchona tree were once growing in abundance, quinine could + be easily prepared in India, from the facility of procuring, and + cheapness of spirits of wine used in the process of its elimination. + + I take it that every hundred Sepahees sick of fevers remaining in + hospital off duty for thirty days, drawing an average pay of eight + rupees each, form a full monthly loss to Government of eight hundred + rupees; while a free use of quinine and bark would cure them in ten + days on the average, costing at present about forty rupees; thus by + the twenty days' services gained, Government would save nearly five + hundred rupees. + + But the cinchona tree once glowing abundantly, quinine would of + course become infinitely cheaper. + + Under a proper system of culture, quill bark only need be taken + without destroying the trees, and an earlier return be obtained. + + There never yet has been a substitute found for cinchona bark and + its salts, as an antiperiodic and tonic. + + It yet remains for some one to find an equally efficacious + substitute, and thus make a fortune. In the mean time the importance + of the cinchona is paramount. + + The cinchona tree, like the pimento, deteriorates under cultivation, + and in moist, warm, rich valleys the bark becomes inert. The best + bark is from trees growing on mountain tops or steep declivities. + + From the full accounts of Condamine, Mutis, and Humboldt, a soil and + climate like that of the north west sub-Himalayan range is admirably + adapted to the planting and prospering of cinchona trees. + + In Lord W. Bentinck's time, before there were steamers in or to + India, seeing the immense benefit to be derived, I sent in a + proposition to procure young cinchona plants from Vera Cruz, begging + to be then permitted to proceed there on that account, and my + proposition was civilly and even favorably received; but these were + not the days to act on it. + + Of about the twenty species of cinchona trees the following would of + course be the best to bring--the _Cinchona bineifolia_, the + _cinchona cordifolia_, the _cinchona oblongifolia_, the _cinchona + micrantha_, and the _cinchona condaminea_. + +The Calumba plant (_Cocculus palmatus_, Decandolle, or _Minispermum +palmatum_) furnishes the medicinal Colombo root, which is one of the +most useful stomachics and tonics in cases of dyspepsia. It is +scarcely ever cultivated, the spontaneous produce of thick forests on +the shores of Oibo and Mozambique and many miles inland on the eastern +shores of Africa, Madagascar and Bombay, proving sufficient. The +supplies principally go to Ceylon. The roots are perennial, and +consist of several fasciculated, fusiform, branched, fleshy, curved +and descending tubers, from one to two inches thick, with a brown +warty epidermis; internally deep yellow, odorless, very bitter. + +The main roots are dug up by the natives in March (the hot season). +The offsets are cut in slices and hung up on cords to dry in the +shade. It is deemed fit to ship when, on exposure to the sun, it +breaks short, and of a bad quality when it is soft and +black.--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") + +It contains a bitter crystallizable principle called Calumbin. + +The commercial parcels are often adulterated with the roots of _Costus +indicus, C. speciosus_, and _C. Arabicus_ (Kusmus, Putckuk, &c.). It +is imported into this country in bags and chests of from one to three +cwt., and ranges in price from L1 to L2 the cwt. The imports in 1846 +to London were 82 packages, and in 1850, 214 packages, but the stock +held in London is always large, being nearly 2,500 packages. + +Colocynth, furnished by _Cucumis colocynthis_ and _C. +pseudocolocynthis_, is the dried medullary part of a wild species of +gourd which is cultivated in Spain. It also grows wild in Japan, the +sandy lands of Coromandel, Cape of Good Hope, Syria, Nubia, Egypt, +Turkey, and the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. It may be obtained +in the jungles of India in cart loads. The fruit, which is about the +size of an orange, with a thin but solid rind, is gathered in autumn, +when ripe and yellow, and in most countries is peeled and dried either +in the sun or by stoves. It comes over from Cadiz, Trieste, Mogadore, +&c., in cases, casks, &c., and duty was paid on about 11,000 lbs. in +1839. + +CUBEBS.--The dried unripe fruit of _P. Cubebi_, or _Cubeba +qfficinalia_, a climbing plant of the pepper tribe, native of Prince +of Wales' Island, Java, and the Indian islands furnishes the medicinal +cubebs, which is used extensively in arresting discharges from mucous +membranes. In appearance cubebs resemble black pepper, except that +they are higher colored and are each furnished with a stalk two or +three lines long. Dr. Blume says, that the cubebs of the shops are the +fruit of _P. caninum_. This species of pepper, when fresh and good, +contains nearly 10 per cent. of essential oil. + +In 1842 the quantity entered for home consumption was 67,093 lbs. The +average imports are about 40 to 50 tons annually. 3 cases were +imported into Liverpool in 1851. The price in the Liverpool market, in +January 1853, was L3 10s. to L4 10s. the cwt. + +GAMBOGE.--This resinous juice, which is a most important article of +commerce, is furnished by some of the plants of Gambogia, natives +principally of South America. It is a powerful irritant, and is +employed medicinally as a drastic and hydragogue cathartic. From its +bright yellow color it is also used as a pigment. + +Gamboge fetches in the London market from L5 to L11 per cwt. + +Some of the species of _Stalagmites_ (Murray), natives of Ceylon and +the East, yield a similar yellow viscid juice, hardly distinguishable +from gamboge, and used for the same purpose by painters. They are a +genus of fine ornamental trees, thriving well in soils partaking of a +mixture of loam and peat. + +According to Koenig, the juice is collected by breaking off the leaves +or young branches. From the fracture the gamboge exudes in drops, and +is therefore called _gum gutta_. It is received on leaves, coco-nut +shells, earthen pots, or in bamboos; it gradually hardens by age, and +is then wrapped up in leaves prior to sale. + +The common gamboge of Ceylon is produced by a plant which Dr. Graham +was led to view as a species of a new genus under the name of +_Hebradendron Gambogoides_. A very different species, the _Garcinia +Gambogia_, of Roxburgh, once supposed to produce gamboge, and indeed +actually confounded by Linnaeus with the true gamboge tree of Ceylon, +he has proved not to produce gamboge at all. + +This substance is also obtained from several other plants, as the +_Mangostana Gambogia_ (Gaertner), _Hypericwm bacciferum_ and +_Cayanense_, natives of the East Indies, Siam and Ceylon, whence it is +imported in small cakes and rolls or cylindrical twisted masses. Its +composition is as follows: number 1 being an analysis by Professor +Christison of a commercial specimen from Ceylon; number 2 of a fine +sample of common ditto:-- + + 1 2 + Resin, or fatty acid 78.84 74.8 + Coloring matter 4.03 3.5 + Gum 12.59 16.5 + Residue 4.54 5.2 + ----- ----- + 100. 100. + +The average imports of gamboge into the port of London, during the +past five or six years, have been from 400 to 500 chests of one to two +cwt. each. + +Gentian.--The yellow gentian root (_Gentiana lutea_) is the officinal +species, and a native of the Alps of Austria and Switzerland. + +The stems and roots of _G. amarella_ and _campestris_, British +species, and _G. cruciata, purpurea, punctata_, &c., are similar in +their effects, having tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal properties. So +has _G. kurroo_ of the Himalayas. The root is generally taken up in +autumn, when the plant is a year old. It is cut longitudinally into +pieces of a foot or a foot and a half long. They are imported into +this country in bales from Havre, Marseilles, &c., and a good deal +comes from Germany. In 1839, 470 cwts. were entered for home +consumption. + +Chiretta is the herb and root of _Agathotes Chirayta_, Don; _Gentiana +Chirayta_, Fleming; or _Ophelia chirayta_, a herbaceous plant, growing +in the Himalaya mountains about Nepaul and the Morungs. + +Ipecacuan.-- _Cephaelis Ipecacuanhae_, Richard, yields the ipecacuan of +the shops. The plant is met with in the woods of several Brazilian +provinces, as Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio Janeiro. It is found growing +in moist shady situations, from 8 to 20 degs. south latitude. The +roots, which are the officinal part, are contorted, knotty and +annulated, and about the thickness of a goose quill. + +Besides this brown or gray annulated ipecacuan, there are spurious +kinds, such as the striated or black Peruvian, the produce of +_Pyschotria elliptica_, and other species; and white or amylaceous +ipecacuan, furnished by _Richardsonia scabra_, an herbaceous +perennial, native of the provinces of Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes. +_Manettia glabra_ or _cordifolia_, also furnishes ipecacuan in Buenos +Ayres. It is imported into this country from Rio in bales, barrels, +bags, and serons, and the average annual imports in the eight years +ending in 1841 were 10,000 lbs. In 1840, the shipments from Rio were +as much as 20,000 lbs. + +Castelnau states, that one expert hand can gather 15 lbs. of the +ipecacuan root in a day, which will fetch in Rio one dollar per pound. +He estimates that, from 1830 to 1837, not less than 800,000 lbs. of +this drug were exported from the province of Matto Grosso to Rio. + +Jalap.--This drug is obtained from the dried tubers or root-stock of +_Ipomoea Jalapa_ or _Convolvulus Jalapa_, a perennial plant, native of +America. Some suppose it takes its specific name from Xalapa, in +Mexico, whence we chiefly import it. It grows in the woods near +Chicanquiaco, at an altitude of 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. +Large quantities might be gathered and exported in Jamaica. The root +is of a roundish tuberous form, black externally, and of a deep, +yellowish grey within, and varies in size from that of a walnut to +that of a moderate sized turnip. It contains a resin in which its +active properties reside. It is brought to this country in thin +transverse slices, and the amount entered for home consumption is +about 45,000 lbs. a year. It is imported in bales, from Vera Cruz +direct, or indirectly by way of New York, and other places. + +Two sorts of jalap root occur in commerce. The one which was first +introduced into the market, and which is even at the present day most +frequently met with, is obtained from the _Ipomoea Schiedeana_ of +Zuccarini, a plant growing on the eastern declivity of the Mexican +Andes, and discovered by Von Schiedes. The root, as met with in +commerce, consists of pieces varying from the size of a nut to that of +the fist, sometimes whole, sometimes cut into disks, and at other +times divided into two or three portions. The external surface is of a +more or less dark gray brown color, corrugated and rough. It is very +hard, presents a shining resinous even surface when broken, and is +difficult to reduce to powder. The powder is of a brownish color, has +a faint peculiar odor and irritant taste. + +The second quality, which was introduced into commerce is great +quantities a few years ago, by the name of stalk jalap, is now more +scarce, and obtained from the _Ipomoea orazabensis_ of Pelletan, a +plant growing without cultivation in the neighbourhood of the Mexican +town of Orizaba. The root, as met with in the trade, consists of +pieces varying from one to three inches in length, and 11/2 to two +inches in diameter. They are of a higher color than the first-named +root, and of decidedly fibrous structure. The chief constituents of +both varieties is a peculiar resin, of which they contain about 10 per +cent. + +Scammony.--The root of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, another plant of the +same family, affords, when cut, a gummy resinous exudation or milky +juice, which soon concretes and forms scammony. The plant grows +abundantly in Greece, the Grecian Islands, and various parts of the +Levant. It is imported from Aleppo in drums, weighing from 75 to 125 +lbs. each, and from Smyrna in compact cakes like wax packed in chests. +In 1839, the quantity on which duty (2s. 6d. per lb.) was paid +amounted to 8,581 lbs. The duty received for scammony, in 1842, was +L607. A spurious kind is prepared from _Calystegia (Convolvulus) +sepium_, a native of Australia, and several plants of the Asclepiadacae +order. + +Dr. Russell ("Med. Obs. and Inqui.") thus describes the mode of +procuring scammony:-- + + Having cleared away the earth from the upper part of the root, the + peasants cut off the top in an oblique direction, about two inches + below where the stalks spring from it. Under the most depending part + of the slope they affix a shell, or some other convenient + receptacle, into which the milky juice flows. It is then left about + twelve hours, which time is sufficient for the drawing off of the + whole juice; this, however, is in small quantities, each root + affording but a few drachms. This milky juice from the several roots + is put together, often into the leg of an old boot, for want of some + more proper vessel, when in a little time it grows hard, and is the + genuine scammony. Various substances are often added to scammony + while yet soft. Those with which it is most usually adulterated are + wheat flour, ashes, or fine sand and chalk. + +Liquorice.--The plant which yields the liquorice root of commerce is +_Glycirrhiza glabra_ or _Liquiritia officinalis_. It is a native of +Italy and the southern parts of Europe, but has been occasionally +cultivated with success in Britain, especially at Pontefract, in +Yorkshire, and at Mitcham, in Surrey. The plant is a perennial, with +pale blue flowers. It grows well in a deep, light, sandy loam, and is +readily increased by slips from the roots with eyes. The root, which +is the only valuable part, is long, slender, fibrous, of a yellow +color, and when grown in England is fit for use at the end of three +years. The sweet, subacid, mucilaginous juice is much esteemed as a +pectoral. It owes its sweetness to a peculiar principle called glycrin +or glycirrhiza, which appears also to be present in the root and +leaves of other papilionaceous plants, as _G. echinata_ and +_glandulifera, Trifoliwm alpinum_, and the wild liquorice of the West +Indies, _Abrus precatorius_, a pretty climber. + +The greatest portion of our supplies of the extract, which amount to +7,000 or 8,000 cwts. a year, are obtained from Spain and Sicily. The +juice, obtained by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them +to the press, is slowly boiled, till it becomes of a proper +consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness, +which are usually covered with bay leaves. It is afterwards usually +re-dissolved, purified, and, when formed into small quills, is known +as refined liquorice. + +In 1839, 1,166 tons of liquorice paste were exported from Naples, +valued at L45 per ton. Mr. Poole, in his Statistics of Commerce, +states that the consumption of liquorice root and paste in this +country averages 500 tons per annum. 110 cwt. of the juice and 100 +cwt. of the root are annually brought into Hull from the continent. + +Matico--the Peruvian styptic, a powerful vegetable astringent, was +first made known to the medical profession of England by Dr. Jeffreys, +of Liverpool, in the _Lancet_, as far back as January 5th, 1839. A +paper on its history and power was published in May, 1843, in the +"Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association," +vol. 10. It is stated to be the _Piper angustifolium_ of Ruiz and +Parsons. Dr. Martin believes it to be a species of _Phlomis_. The +leaves are covered with a fine hair. + +The powdered leaves of the _Eupatorium glutinosum_, under the name of +Matico, are used about Quito for stanching blood and healing wounds. A +good article on the pharmaceutical and chemical character of matico, +by Dr. J.F. Hodges, appeared in the "Proceedings of the Chemical +Society of London," in 1845. It is stated, by Dr. Martin, that, like +the gunjah, which the East Indians prepare, from the _Cannabis +Indica_, the leaves and flowers of the matico have been long employed +by the sensual Indians of the interior of Peru to prepare a drink +which they administer to produce a state of aphrodisia. The leaves and +flowering tops of the plant are the parts imported and introduced to +notice as a styptic, which property seems to depend on their structure +and not on their chemical composition. + +Quassia.--The quassia wood of the pharmacopoeia was originally the +product of _Quassia amara_, a tall shrub, never above fifteen feet +high, native of Guiana, but also inhabiting Surinam and Colombia. It +is a very ornamental plant, and has remarkable pinnate leaves with +winged petioles. This wood is well known as one of the most intense +bitters, and is considered an effectual remedy in any disorder where +pure bitters are required. Surinam quassia is not, however, to be met +with now. That sold in the shops is the tough, fibrous, bitter bark of +the root of _Simaruba (Quassia) excelsa_ and _officinalis_, very large +forest trees, growing in Cayenne, Jamaica, and other parts of the West +India Islands, where they bear the local name of bitter-wood. Its +infusion is used as a tonic. 23 tons of bitter-wood were shipped from +Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1851. Quassia acts as a narcotic poison on +flies and other insects. Although prohibited by law, it is frequently +employed by brewers as a substitute for hops. The duty of L8 17s. 6d. +per cwt., levied on quassia, is intended to restrict its use for such +a purpose. + +Rhubarb.--This most important plant belongs to the genus Rheum. The +officinal rhubarb is the root of an undetermined species. There are +about thirteen different kinds which are said to yield rhubarb. +Lindley enumerates fifteen. I however take Professor Balfour's +classification:-- + + 1. _Rheum palmatum_, native of Bucharia, which has perhaps the best + title to be considered the true rhubarb-plant, grows spontaneously + in the Mongolian empire on the confines of China. + + 2. _R. undulatum_, native of China, which yields much of the French + rhubarb. + + 3. _R. compactum_, native of Tartary, another species yielding + French rhubarb, and often cultivated in Britain for its acid + petioles. + + 4. _R. Emodi_ (Wallich). This species yields a kind of Himalayan + rhubarb. Its petioles are much used for their acid properties. + + 5. _R. Rhaponticum_, native of Asia. Used in France and Britain in + the same way as the third species. It is much cultivated in the + department of Morbihan. + + 6. _R. hybridum_ (Murr). Much cultivated in Germany for its root and + in Britain for its stalks. + + 7. _R. Webbianum_ (Royle). 8. _R. Spiceformi_ (Royle). 9. _R. + Moorcroftianum_ (Royle). Himalayan species or varieties. + + 10. _R. crassinervium_ (Fisch), a Russian species. + + 11. _R. leucorhizum_ (Pall), a Siberian and Altai species, said to + yield imperial or white rhubarb. It has striped flowers, while all + others are whitish green. + + 12. _R. Caspicum_ (Fisch), a Russian and Altai species. + + 13. _R. Ribes_, native of the Levant, but some say an Afghanistan or + Persian species. + +All these grow in the cold parts of the world, as on the Altai +mountains, in Siberia, Thibet, North of China, and on the Himalayan +range. The rhubarb procured from one or more of these species is known +in commerce under the names of Russian or Turkey, Chinese or East +Indian, and English rhubarb. + +The plants all thrive well in a rich loamy soil, or light sandy soil, +and are increased by divisions of the roots or by seed. + +The extent of country from which rhubarb of one kind or another is +actually collected, according to Christison, stretches from Ludall, in +771/2 east longitude, to the Chinese province of Shen-si, 29 degrees +further east, and from the Sue-chan mountains, in north latitude 26 +degrees, nearly to the frontiers of Siberia, 24 degrees northward. The +best rhubarb is said to come from the very heart of Thibet, within 95 +degrees east longitude and 35 degrees north latitude, 500 or 600 miles +north of Assam. + +The Chinese rhubarb is inferior to that of Russia and Turkey. The +price varies in China from 38 dollars per picul upwards, and about +1,500 piculs are annually exported, on an average at 50 dollars per +picul. In 1844, 2,077 piculs were shipped from Canton for Great +Britain; and of 95,701 lbs. imported in 1841, 43,640 lbs. were brought +from China, 8,349 lbs. from the Philippines, 7,290 lbs. from the East +Indies, and 33,710 lbs. from the United States; only 1,462 lbs. were +brought from Russia. The imports from the East Indies have decreased +more than 70 per cent. in the last twelve years, as compared with the +preceding. The wholesale prices are, for round rhubarb, 8d. to 3s. per +lb.; flat, 6d. to 3s. 3d. per lb.; Dutch trimmed, 6s. to 7s. per lb.; +Russian, 13s. to 13s. 6d. per lb. + +In 1831, we imported 133,462 lbs. from the East India Company's +possessions, and 6,901 lbs. from Russia. In 1843, only 71,298 lbs. +came from the East. From China we received, in 1843, 172,882 lbs. + +The quantities of rhubarb on which duty of 1s. per lb. was paid in the +six years ending 1840, were as follows;-- + + East Indian. Foreign. + lbs. lbs. + 1835 32,515 10,647 + 1836 36,836 7,752 + 1837 44,669 5,946 + 1838 37,026 7,402 + 1839 22,575 12,525 + 1840 16,745 22,203 + +The imports and consumption of rhubarb are thus stated in the +_Pharmaceutical Journal_:-- + + Imports. Consumption. + lbs. lbs. + 1826 102,624 32,936 + 1831 140,395 40,124 + 1836 122,142 44,468 + 1841 95,701 67,877 + 1846 427,694 -- + 1847 305,736 -- + 1848 116,005 -- + 1849 94,914 -- + +The rhubarb brought into Siberia grows wild in Chinese Tartary, +especially in the province Gansun, on hills, heaths, and meadows, and +is generally gathered in summer from plants of six years of age. "When +the root is dug up, it is washed to free it from earthy particles; +peeled, bored through the centre, strung on a thread, and dried in the +sun. In autumn all the dried rhubarb collected in the province is +brought in horsehair sacks, containing about 200 lbs., to Sinin (the +residence of the dealers), loaded on camels, and sent over Mongolia to +Kiachta, and the ports and capital of China. + +Sarsaparilla.--The root of various species of _Smilax_ constitutes the +sarsaparilla of the shops. It is an evergreen climbing undershrub, +having whitish green flowers, and grows readily from suckers. It is a +native of the temperate and tropical regions of Asia and America. The +officinal part is the bark, which comes off from the rhizomes. They +are mucilaginous, bitter, and slightly acid. Sarsaparilla is used in +decoction and infusion as a tonic and alterative. The following are +enumerated as sources whence sarsaparilla of various kinds is derived. + +_Smilax China_ and _sagittaefolia_, yielding the Chinese root, are said +to come from the province of Onansi in China. + +_S. pseudo China, S. Sarsaparilla, S. rubens_, and _S. Watsoni,_ +furnish the drug of North America. + +The sarsaparilla distinguished in commerce as the Lisbon or Brazilian +is the root of _S. papyracea_ of Poiret. It is an undershrub, the stem +of which is compressed and angular below, and armed with prickles at +the angles. The leaves are elliptic, acuminate, and marked with three +longitudinal nerves. This species grows principally in the regions +bordering the river Amazon, and on the banks of most of its tributary +streams. It is generally brought from the provinces of Para and +Maranham. It is in large cylindrical bundles, long and straight, and +the flexible stem of the plant is bound round the bundles, so as to +entirely cover them. Its fibres are very long, cylindrical, wrinkled +longitudinally, and furnished with some lateral fibrils. Its color is +of a fawn brown, or sometimes of a dark grey, approaching to black. +The color internally is nearly white. Besides this species there are +others indigenous, such as _S. officinalis_, which grows in the +province of Mina; _S. syphilitica_, which grows in the northern +regions, and three new species, _S. japicanga, S. Brasiliensis_, and +_S_. _syringioides_. There is also met with in Brazil another plant, +_Herreria sarsaparilla_, belonging to the same natural order, which +abounds in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Mina, and the roots of +which receive the name of wild sarsaparilla. + +From Mexico, Honduras, and Angostura very good qualities are imported. +_S. zeylanica, glabra_, and _perfoliata_ furnish sarsaparilla from +Asia, and _S. excelsa_ and _aspera_ are used as substitutes for the +officinal drug in Europe. + +_Smilax officinalis_, found in woods near the Rio Magdalena in New +Granada, furnishes the best in the market, which is commonly known as +Jamaica Sarza. It differs from the other kinds in having a deep red +cuticle of a close texture, and the color is more generally diffused +through the ligneous part. It is shipped in bales, formed either of +the spirally formed roots, as in the Jamaica and Lima varieties, or of +unfolded parallel roots, as in the Brazilian varieties. The roots are +usually several feet long, about the thickness of a quill, more or +less wrinkled, and the whole quantity retained for home consumption, +in 1840, was 143,000 lbs. In 1844, 184,748 lbs., and in 1845 111,775 +lbs. were shipped from Honduras. + +The prices in the London market, at the close of 1853, were --Brazil, +1s. 3d. per lb.; Honduras, 1s. 3d. to 1s. 8d. per lb.; Vera Cruz, 6d. +to 11d. per lb.; Jamaica, 1s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. per lb. The duty received +on sarsaparilla in 1842 was L1,536. + +The average annual quantity of sarsaparilla obtained from Mexico and +South America, exclusive of Brazil, and taken for home consumption, in +the twelve years ending with 1843 was 37,826 lbs. + + IMPORTS OF BRAZILIAN SARSAPARILLA. + lbs. + 1827 28,155 + 1828 49,280 + 1829 52,772 + 1830 19,842 + 1831 31,972 + 1832 91,238 + 1833 13,077 + 1834 28,803 + 1835 22,387 + 1836 1,718 + 1837 12,842 + 1838 -- + 1839 9,484 + 1840 4,141 + 1841 1,399 + 1842 5,572 + +The total imports in 1849 were 118,934 lbs. + +Sarsaparilla has been found growing in the Port Phillip district of +Australia, and has been shipped thence in small quantities. It seems +to be indigenous to the Bahamas, and is to be found on many of the out +islands. Mr. Wm. Dalzell, of Abaco, collected some considerable +quantity at a place called Marsh Harbor, which was found to be of a +superior quality. + +Some thousands of pounds of sarsaparilla were brought to Falmouth, +Jamaica, last year, and bought by merchants for export. It came from +the parish of St. Elizabeth, and there are whole forests covered with +this weed, for such in reality it is. It is too the real black Jamaica +sarsaparilla, that is so much valued in the European and American +markets. It is also found in other parts of the island. + +In 1798 3,674 lbs. of sarsaparilla were shipped from La Guayra; 2,394 +lbs. in 1801 from Puerto Cabella, and 400 quintals from Costa Rica, in +1845, valued at eight dollars a quintal. + +SENNA.--Several varieties of Cassia, natives of the East, are grown +for the production of this drug. The dried leaves of C. _lanceolata_ +or _orientalis_, grown in Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, the true Mecca +senna, are considered the best. In Egypt the leaves of _Cynanchum +Arghel_ are used for adulterating senna, _Cassia obovata_ or _C. +senna_, also a native of Egypt, cultivated in the East Indies, as well +as in Spain, Italy, and Jamaica. It is a perennial herb, one or two +feet high. In the East Indies there is a variety (_C. elongata_) +common about Tinnivelly, Coimbatore, Bombay, and Agra, &c. Several of +this species are common in the West India islands. The plants, which +are for the most part evergreens, grow from two to fifteen feet high; +they delight in a loamy soil, or mixture of loam or peat. + +The seed is drilled in the ground, and the only attention required by +the plant is loosening the ground and weeding two or three times when +it is young. + +The senna leaves imported from India are not generally so clean and +free from rubbish as those from Alexandria. They are worth from 20s. +to 27s. per cwt. in the Bombay market. + +The prices are--Alexandria, l1/2d. to 6d. per lb.; East Indian, 2d. to +3d. per lb.; Tinnevelly, 7d. to 91/2d. per lb. + +Senna is collected in various parts of Africa by the Arabs, who make +two crops annually; one, the most productive, after the rains in +August and September, the other about the middle of March. It is +brought to Boulack, the port of Cairo, by the caravans, &c., from +Abyssinia, Nubia, and Sennaar, also by the way of Cossier, the Red +Sea, and Suez. The different leaves are mixed, and adulterated with +arghel leaves. The whole shipments from Boulack to Alexandria, whence +it finds it way to Europe, is 14,000 to 15,500 quintals. + +The quantities imported for home consumption were-- + + From the East Indies. Other places. Total. + lbs. lbs. lbs. + 1838 72,576 69,538 142,114 + 1839 110,409 63,766 174,175 + +In 1840, 211,400 lbs. paid duty, which is now only 1d. per lb. + +In 1848, we imported 800,000 lbs. from India; in 1849, the total +imports were 541,143 lbs. The imports into the United Kingdom were, in +1847, 246 tons; 1848, 402 tons; 1849, 240 tons. + +Alexandrian senna (_Cassia acutifolia_). This species is said by some +to constitute the bulk of the senna consumed for medical purposes in +Europe. It is much adulterated with the leaves of _Cynanchum Arghel, +Tiphrosia apollinea_, and _Coriaria myrtifolia_. + +_C. lanceolata_ and _C. ethiopica_ furnish other species of the same +article, the greater part of the produce of which find its way to +India, through the Red Sea, Surat, Bombay and Calcutta, the imports +into Calcutta, in 1849, having been 79,212 lbs. _C. obovata_ furnishes +the Aleppo and Italian drug. + +At least eight varieties of senna leaf are known in commerce in +Europe--1. the Senna palthe; 2. Senna of Sennaar or Alexandria; 3. of +Tripoli; 4. of Aleppo; 5. of Moka; 6. of Senegambia; 7. the false or +Arghel; 8. the Tinnevelly. + +In Egypt the senna harvest takes place twice annually, in April and +September; the stalks are cut off with the leaves, dried before the +sun, and then packed with date leaves. At Boulka, the drug is sorted, +mixed, and adulterated, and passed into commerce through Alexandria. + +Alexandrian senna, according to Mr. Jacob Bell ("Pharmaceutical +Journal," vol. 2, p. 63), contains a mixture of two or more species of +true senna. It consists principally of _Cassia obovata_ and _C. +obtusata_, and according to some authorities it occasionally contains +_C. acutifolia_. This mixture is unimportant, but the _Cynanchum +Arghel_, which generally constitutes a fifth of the weight on an +average, possesses properties differing in some respects from true +senna, and which render it particularly objectionable. The Tinnevelly +senna, that most esteemed by the profession, is known by the size of +the leaflets, which are much larger than those of any other variety; +they are also less brittle, thinner and larger, and are generally +found in a very perfect state, while the other varieties, especially +the Alexandrian, are more or less broken. The leaves of the Cynanchum +are similar in form to those of the lanceolate senna, but they are +thicker and stiffer, the veins are scarcely visible, they are not +oblique at the base, their surface is rugose, and the color grey or +greenish drab; their taste is bitter and disagreeable, and they are +often spotted with a yellow, intensely bitter gummo-resinous +incrustation. Being less fragile than the leaflets of the true senna, +they are more often found entire, and are very easily distinguishable +from the varieties which constitute true Alexandrian senna. + +In their botanical character they are essentially different, being +distinct leaves, not leaflets, which is the case with true senna. + +The SUMBUL root, which has recently been introduced into the French +market, is the root of an umbelliferous plant, which is characterised +by a strong odor of musk. The pilgrims, on their return from Mecca, +generally import to Salonika, Constantinople, &c., among other +articles of trade, various plants with a musk-like odor. The +preparation of these vegetable substances is said to be effected by +smearing them over with musk-balsam. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures.] + +[Footnote 2: Fractional parts are not necessary to include.] + +[Footnote 3: Dr. Lindley is in error as to the discriminating +duties--British cacao pays 9s., and foreign 18s.] + +[Footnote 4: According to Breen's History of St. Lucia up to 1844.] + +[Footnote 5: Caffeine (the principle of coffee) and theobromine (the +principle of cacao) are the most highly nitrogenised products in +nature, as the following analysis will show:-- + +_Caffeine_, according to Pfaff and Liebig, contains-- + + Carbon 49.77 + Hydrogen 5.33 + _Nitrogen_ 28.78 + Oxygen 16.12 + +_Theobromine_, according to Woskreseusky, contains-- + + Carbon 47.21 + Hydrogen 4.53 + _Nitrogen_ 35.38 + Oxygen 12.80 + +Of the two, cacao contains the larger quantity of nitrogen; and this +chemical fact explains why cacao should be so much more nutritive than +tea, though the principle of tea (theine) is nearly identical with the +principle of cacoa--tea containing in 100 parts 29.009 of nitrogen. On +this subject Liebig has made an observation which I cannot avoid +noticing. He says, "We shall never certainly be able to discover how +men were led to the use of the hot infusion of the leaves of a certain +shrub (tea), or of a decoction of certain roasted seeds (coffee). Some +cause there must be, which would explain how the practice has become a +necessary of life to whole nations. But it is surely still more +remarkable that the beneficial effects of both plants on the health +must be ascribed to one and the same substance, the presence of which +in two vegetables, belonging to different natural families, and the +produce of different quarters of the globe, could hardly have +presented itself to the boldest imagination. Yet recent researches +have shown, in such a manner as to exclude all doubt, that caffeine, +the peculiar principle of coffee, and theine, that of tea, are in all +respects identical."--_(Anim. Chem.,_ pp. 178-9.) We really can see +nothing in all this but the manifestation of that instinct which, +implanted in us by the Almighty, led the untutored Indian (as we are +pleased to call him) to breathe into the nostril of the buffalo or the +wild horse, and by that single act to subdue his angry rage, or that +impelled the first discoverer of combustion to extract fire from the +attrition of two pieces of wood. The American Indian, living entirely +on flesh, "discovered for himself in tobacco smoke a means of +retarding the change of matter in the tissues of the body, and thereby +of making hunger more endurable."--(P. 179.) But the wonder ceases, +when we reflect that man was endued with certain properties by his +Maker which must have been at some remote period, of which we can form +no idea, active and manifest the moment he breathed the breath of +life. To inquire how he lost this property is not our business at +present, but it is only by supposing the _quondam_ existence of such a +property, active and manifest, that can in any way explain a first +knowledge of the therapeutic, or threptic, qualities of plants and +shrubs. With regard to the identity of theine, caffeine, theobromine, +&c., it would be as well that the reader should keep in mind that it +is so chemically _only_, for in appearance, taste, weight, odor, &c., +no substances can differ more. Does the palate exert some peculiar +action on the ingesta, so as to give to each a distinct sapor? Or +_vice versa_?] + +[Footnote 6: In the West Indies, from my own experience, I have found +this to be one of the worst descriptions of soil. _P.L.S._] + +[Footnote 7: Correspondent of the Singapore _Free Press_, December, +1852.] + +[Footnote 8: It is important, in considering what tea may be had from +China, to consider the manner of its production. It is grown over an +immense district, in small farms, or rather gardens, no farm producing +more that 600 chests. "The tea merchant goes himself, or sends his +agents to all the small towns, villages, and temples in the district, +to purchase tea from the priests and small farmers; the large +merchant, into whose hands the tea thus comes, _has to refire it and +pack it for the foreign market."--(Fortune's Tea Districts.)_ This +refiring is the only additional process of manufacture for our market. +Mr. Fortune elsewhere, in his valuable work, giving an account of the +cost of tea from the farmers, the conveyance to market, and the +merchant's profit, states that " the small farmer and manipulator is +not overpaid, but that the great profits are received by the +middlemen." No doubt these men do their utmost to keep the farmers in +complete ignorance of the state of the tea-market, that they may +monopolise the advantages, but it is pretty certain that the news of a +bold reduction of duty, and the promise of an immensely increased +consumption, would reach even the Chinese farmers, and make them pick +their trees more closely--a little of which amongst so many would make +a vast difference in the total supply.] + +[Footnote 9: See article Thea, by Dr. Royle, in "Penny Cyclopaedia," +vol xxiv., p. 286.] + +[Footnote 10: Hooker's "Bot. Mag.," 1.3148. It is the Assam tea +plant.] + +[Footnote 11: Report on Tea Cultivation submitted to House of Commons. +See Blue Book, 1839, p. 1-3.] + +[Footnote 12: In a short time rain gauges will be established at +Bheemtal, Huwalbaugh, Paoree, and Kaolagir, in order to measure the +quantity of rain that falls annually, for the purpose of ascertaining +how much the quantity and quality of the produce of tea is affected by +the weather.] + +[Footnote 13: In China this process, according to the statement of tea +manufacturers, is carried on to a great extent.] + +[Footnote 14: Dr. Jameson, in a late communication, remarks--"From the +accounts I have received of that place (Darjeeling), I doubt not but +that the plants there grown will yield tea of a superior +description."] + +[Footnote 15: The crops of this district, such as rice, mundooa, and +other grains, are so plentiful and cheap as scarcely to pay the +carriage to the nearest market town, much less to the plains. In +Almorah a maund of rice or mundooa sells for something less than a +rupee; barley for eight annas; and wheat for a rupee.] + +[Footnote 16: There is frequently a discrepancy in the figures in the +Parliamentary papers, which will account for a want of agreement in +some of these returns.] + +[Footnote 17: See the "Pharmaceutical Journal" for June, 1849, p. 15, +et seq.] + +[Footnote 18: Reports of Dr. Roxburgh, Mr. Touchet of Radanagore, and +Mr. Cardin of Mirzapore, Cutna. Papers on East India Sugar, page 258.] + +[Footnote 19: Many are of opinion, that although the juice of this +cane is larger in quantity, yet that it contains less sugar. There is +some sense in the reason they assign, which is, that in the Mauritius +and elsewhere it has the full time of twelve or fourteen months +allowed for its coming to maturity--whereas the agriculture of India, +and especially in Bengal, only allows it eight or nine months, which, +though ample to mature the smaller country canes, is not sufficient +for the Otaheite.] + +[Footnote 20: Roxburgh on the Culture of Sugar and Jaggary in the +Rajahmundry Circar; Third Ap. to Report on East India Sugar, p. 2.] + +[Footnote 21: L'Exploitation de Sucreries. Porter on the Sugar Cane, +53,321.] + +[Footnote 22: That the above application would be beneficial, is +rendered still more worthy of credit from the following +experience:--In the Dhoon, the white ant is a most formidable enemy to +the sugar planter, owing to the destruction it causes to the sets when +first planted. Mr. G.H. Smith says, that there is a wood very common +there, called by the natives _Butch_, through, which, they say, if the +irrigating waters are passed in its progress to the beds, the white +ants are driven away. (Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc. of India, v. 65.)] + +[Footnote 23: Fitzmaurice on the Culture of the Sugar Cane.] + +[Footnote 24: The kilogramme is equal to 2 lb, 3 oz. avoirdupois.] + +[Footnote 25: A lecture on the nutritive value of different articles +of food, by C. Daubeny, M.D., "Gardener's Chronicle" (London), January +20th, 1849, p. 37.] + +[Footnote 26: Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, +1849, p. 646.] + +[Footnote 27: A lecture "On the Geographical Distribution of Corn +Plants," by the Rev. E. Sidney--Proceedings of the Royal Institution +(London), May 18th, 1849.] + +[Footnote 28: Boussingault's Rural Economy, American edition, pp. 85 +and 86.] + +[Footnote 29: Zenas Coffin, one of the oldest whalemen in Nantucket, +states that corn meal in tight rum puncheons when sent to the Went +Indies will keep sweet, while in common flour barrels it will spoil. +Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1847, p. 133.] + +[Footnote 30: From remarks of Col. Skinner, and others, at a meeting +of the American Institute, held in April 1846. Transactions of +American Institute, 1846, p. 509 _et seq._] + +[Footnote 31: Comptes Rendus des Seances de L'Academie des Sciences, +February 5th, 1819.] + +[Footnote 32: A Treatise on Diet and Regimen, by Wm. Henry Robertson, +M.D., vol. i. p. 153.] + +[Footnote 33: The Plant: a Biography; by M.H. Schleiden, M.D., +Professor of Botany in the University of Jena. English translation, p. +54.] + +[Footnote 34: Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society +for 1847, p. 190. In this communication, Mr. Bentz does not describe +the process which he adopts, but enumerates some of its supposed +advantages.] + +[Footnote 35: Quoted by Boussingault, Rural Economy, Amer. edition, p. +410.] + +[Footnote 36: A Treatise on Diet and Regimen, by Wm. Henry Robertson, +M.D., Vol. i. p. 140.] + +[Footnote 37: Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals, &c., by +R.D. Thomson, M.D., p. 156.] + +[Footnote 38: Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, translated +by Prof. J.F.W. Johnston, p. 684.] + +[Footnote 39: See Dr. R.D. Thomson's Experimental Researches on the +Food of Animals, &c.] + +[Footnote 40: Mulder's Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology; +English Translation, p. 816.] + +[Footnote 41: I have had no opportunity of analysing samples of flour +from the South-Western States, and therefore cannot extend this +comparison to them.] + +[Footnote 42: Transactions of "Agri.-Hort. Society, of Calcutta," vol. +iv. p. 125.] + +[Footnote 43: Dict. of Arts and Manufacture.] + +[Footnote 44: Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. 3, p. 138.] + +[Footnote 45: The glasses used were all of the sort described in +Griffin's catalogue under the name of Clark's test-glasses. They were +all, as nearly as possible, of the same size and shape.] + +[Footnote 46: I have determined the amount of nitrogen contained in +the meal made from the whole maize, the growth of the colony, as also +from plantain meal; I have also ascertained its amount in cassava +meal, prepared in the manner mentioned in the text, and in meal +prepared from the cassava sliced, dried, and ground without expressing +the juice. Assuming Liebig's formula of Proteine, namely, C-48 N-6 +H-36 0-4 the results stand thus:-- + + Nitrogen. Proteine compounds. + Per cent. Per cent. + Maize meal (unhusked) 1.73 10.72 + Plantain meal .88 5.45 + Cassava meal (juice expressed) .36 2.23 + Ditto from the sliced and dried roots .78 4.83 +] + +[Footnote 47: Les Moyens de prevenir la Maladie des Pommes de Terre. +Experiences et Conclusions de A.N.C. Bollman, Conseiller d'etat, +Professeur, &c. 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1853.] + +[Footnote 48: If cinnamon seeds after washing be exposed to the sun, +even for twenty minutes, the shells will crack in two, and this +prevents the seeds from growing.] + +[Footnote 49: No export duties exist in the Straits Settlements.] + +[Footnote 50: Since these remarks were written, the duty has been +wholly abolished.] + +[Footnote 51: Although this was the amount of produce for 1842, it +must be remarked that that crop was a complete failure, and the +average crop for some years past has been 46,666 pounds.] + +[Footnote 52: Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures.] + +[Footnote 53: The vernacular name for stale or putrid urine.] + +[Footnote 54: "Lit" was the name applied to the plant, from which the +dye was to be prepared, and "pig" is the Scotch synonym for any kind +of earthenware vessel---in which the maceration was generally carried +on.] + +[Footnote 55: Pitkins' Statistics of the United States.] + +[Footnote 56: A great portion of the crop I grew had leaves measuring +two feet nine inches in length and eighteen inches wide, being larger +than I ever knew to have been grown in America. The average weight I +obtained per acre, was 25 cwt.; whereas I see by the public returns, +the average of what is grown here is only 17 1-7th cwt.] + + + + + INDEX. + + _Albrus precatorius_, 643 + + Acacia bark, 493 + _Catechu_, 495, 577 + _dealbata_, 505 + + _Acer saccharinum_, 205 + + Acre, coffee trees to the, 69 + + Achira plant, 355 + + Achote, a name for arnotto, 447 + + _Acrocomia fusiformis_, 519 + + _Adeps Myristica_, 402 + + _Adme cyperus_, 626 + + _Adenanthera Pavonina_, 378 + + _Adansonia digitata_, 378 + + African arrowroot, 353 + lard, 525 + purple millet, 307 + + Africa, pepper grown in, 422 + tobacco culture in, 615 + + Agar-Agar moss, 378, 379 + + Agi or Guinea pepper, 429 + + Agave Americana--a substitute for soap, 574 + + Agaiti oil, 520 + + Agricultural wealth of tropical regions, 2 + + Aipi, 376 + + Akyab, exports of rice from, 297 + + _Aleurites triloba_, 521, 538 + + Alexandrian senna, 648 + + Algaroba beans, 313 + bark, 503 + + Algiers, tobacco culture in, 615 + + Alizaine, 478 + + Alkanet root, 442 + + Allspice, the common name for pimento, 430 + + Almond oil, 510, 533 + + Aloes, statistics of exports from the Cape, 632 + varieties of, 628 + + _Alpinia Galanga_, 419 + _Cardamomum_, 419 + _racemosa_, 414 + + _Alstraemeria pallida_, 330 + + _Althea rosea_, 442 + + _Amaranthus gangiticus_, 434 + + American arrowroot, 352 + flour, countries to which, shipped, 223 + + Americans consume most coffee, 40 + + Amboyna wood, 439 + + _Amomum_, species of, 419 + _Zingiber_, 414 + + _Anacardium occidentale_, 495, 521 + + Analyses, various, of tobacco, 592-93 + + Analysis of the coffee plant, 49 + ashes of the coffee tree, 43 + of catechu, 579 + of Havana tobacco, 591, 615 + of other varieties, 615 + of oil cake, 546 + of soils, 617 + of soils, not so requisite abroad, 7 + of the sugar cane, by Dr. Evans, 154 + of sugar soils in the East, 172 + + _Anethum graveolens_, 376 + _Sowa_, seeds of, 434 + + Angola weed, 486 + + Aniseed, 437 + + Antigua arrowroot, statistics of, 353 + cost of cultivating sugar, 189 + + Ants, remedy for, 181 + + _Anchusa tinctoria_, 442 + + Andropogon, species of, 572 + + _Anileria_, a manufactory for indigo, 460 + + Apricot oil, 511, 536 + + Apios, 355, 371 + + Aquilaria, species of, 439 + + Arghel leaves, 647 + + _Arachis hypogoea_, 513 + + _Arenga saccharifera_, the _gomutus saccharifera_ of Rumphius, 136, 314 + + Areometer, an instrument for testing oil, 532 + + _Arbor alba_, 566 + + Areca nuts, value of the exports from Ceylon, 579 + palm, 577 + + _Argemone Mexicana_, 511, 521, 626 + + Arnotto, 447 + + Arpent, a French land measure, about one-seventh less than an acre, 251 + + Arracan, exports of rice from, 297 + + _Arracacha esculenta_, 355, 375 + + Arrack, 556 + used to flavor tobacco, 621 + + Arroba, a Spanish weight of 25 lbs., the fourth part of a quintal. + + Arrowroot, Benzon's analysis of, 348 + culture and commerce of, 345 + made from the Palmyra shoots, 376 + starch of, 331, 334-35, 337 + + Arsenic for steeping grain, poisonous effects from, 233 + + _Artocarpus incisa_, 318, 330 + + _Arum colocasia_, 364 + _esculentum_, 364 + _Rumphii_, 365 + + Asafoetida, 633 + + _Asclepias curassavica_, 625 + _gigantea_, 494 + _tingens_, 442 + + Assamee, an Indian name for the ryot or cultivator, 467 + + Assam, introduction of tea culture, 94 + tea sales, 98 + Company, origin of, 98 + manufacture of tea in, 126 + + Assaroo, rain sowing, 468 + + _Astoria theiformis_, used as tea at Santa Fe, 80 + + Attap leaf for thatching, 405, 559 + + Attar of roses, 570 + + Aucklandia, 438 + + _Auracaria Bidwillii_, 377 + + Australia, consumption of tea in, 87, 88 + sugar cultivation recommended, 139 + + Austria production of beet-root sugar in, 197, 200 + + _Avicenna tomentosa_, 444 + + Avocado seed yields a dye stuff, 444 + + Awl tree, 443 + + + Babool wood, 493 + + Bahu, a land measure in Java, equal to 71 acres. + + Bajree, the Indian name for _Holcus Spicatus_, 306 + + Bales of Cuba tobacco, size of, 613 + + Balfour (Prof.) on the starch in potatoes, 330 + on species of rhubarb, 647 + + Ball's account of the cultivation, &c., of tea, 103 + + Banana, starch in, 331 + used as a shade for the cacao, 15 + + _Baptista tinctoria_, 453 + + Barbacue, a platform for coffee drying, 69 + + _Baphia nitida_, 447 + + Barbados arrowroot, 337, 353 + culture of aloes in, 630 + cost of cultivating sugar, 189 + ginger, 415 + sugar crops of, 149 + yam, 334, 335, 337, 338, 362 + + Barcelona, exports of cacao from, 13 + + Bark of the larch, its utility, 376 + + Barks for tanning, 492 + + Barley, history and consumption of, 255 + imported, 218 + meal imported, 218 + produce of in England and Wales, 248, 256 + average prices of, 256 + + Barrel of rice weighs 600 lbs. net, 291 + + Barus camphor, 634 + + Barwood, 445, 447 + + Basket of rice, a measure equal to 551/2 lbs., English, + + _Bassia butyracea_, 136, 512 + _longifolia_, 511 + oil seeds of, 537 + + _Batatas edulis_, 330, 331, 357 + + _Bauhinia variegata_, 492 + + Bayley (Mr.), on consumption of tea in the manufacturing districts + + Bay rush or tapioca, 376 + + Beans, analysis of, 264 + and peas, quantities imported, 313 + imported, 218 + + Bearing time of different plants, 9 + + Beck (Prof.) on various wheats, 222 + on the American breadstuffs, 226 + + Beet root sugar produced on the Continent, 144 + cost of producing, 189, 204 + + Beet, varieties of the root, 191 + + Belgians, large consumers of coffee, 40 + + Belgium, production of beet root sugar in, 200 + + Benares, production of indigo in, 475 + + Ben, oil of, 523 + + Bencoolen, pepper grown in, 423 + spice culture in, 412 + + Bengal, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + indigo, 464 + introduction of the coffee tree into, 40 + production of indigo in, 475 + production of opium in, 580 + rice, 296 + + Bennet on Ceylon, 316 + + Bennett (Dr.), description of gambier, 500 + + Berar, edible root of, 377 + + Berberry, a dye stuff, 442 + + Berbice, exports of coffee from, 73 + + Bergamot, essence of, 566 + + Berger's process of making rice starch, 344 + + Bermuda arrowroot, statistics of, 353 + mode of cultivating arrowroot, 346 + + Berry wax, 540 + + Betel leaf, 577 + + Bhoe Moong, the Indian name for the ground nut, 515 + + Bhull rice lands, 293 + + Biggah, distinction between this land measure, 471 + + _Bignonia Chica_, 444 + + Bihai, 320 + + Bitter cassava, 331 + + _Bixa orellana_, 447 + + Black ginger, 415 + pepper, statistics of, 428 + tea, imports of the last fifteen years, 82 + mode of manufacturing, 112 + + Blood tree, 625 + + Bollman (Prof.), on the potato rot, 359 + + Bolitus used as food, 377 + + Bonynge (Mr. F.) promotes tea culture in America, 97 + + _Borassus gomutus_, 315 + + Borneo, pepper produced in, 422 + + Bourbon, cacao grown in, 36 + produce of rice in, 293 + + Bousa, an African beer, 308 + + Boussingault's analysis of wheat, 244 + + Boyams, food plant, 377 + + Bran, analysis of, 231 + + _Brassica oleracea_, oil from the seed, 539 + + Brazilian arrowroot, 330, 367, 369 + + Brazil, exports of coffee to America, 63 + cost of producing sugar in, 189 + culture of ginger, 418 + production of coffee in, 40, 41, 63 + introduction of the tea plant, 128 + statistics of sugar production, 182 + tobacco export from, 594 + wood, 485 + + Bread fruit, 318, 330 + made from millet, 306 + nut of Jamaica, 319 + stuffs of commerce, 217 + + Brick tea of Thibet, 92 + + British Guiana, coffee produced in, 73 + West Indies, decline of coffee culture in, 40, 63, 67 + exports of coffee from, 73 + + Brood-boon, 319 + + Bromelia Pinguin, fruit of, used for soap, 574 + + Broom corn, 307, 308 + sedge, 308 + + _Brosimum Alicastrum_, edible nuts of, 319 + + _Broussonitia tinctoria_, 485 + + Brown bread, its wholesomeness, 230 + + Bruce, (Mr. C.A.) on the manufacture of tea in Assam, 126 + + _Buchanania latifolia_, 494, 521 + + Buckwheat, average weight of crop in New Brunswick, 253 + oil from, 510 + culture of, 259 + analysis of, 260 + + Buck yam, 333, 335, 362 + + Bullhoof, yields a narcotic, 589 + + Bunbury (Mr.) on Cape aloes, 632 + + Butch wood, used to keep off ants, 181 + + _Butea frondosa_, 507 + varieties of, 442 + tannin from, 494 + + Butter of cacao, 11, 12 + obtained from the dolichos bean, 313 + + + _Cabacinha_, the Portuguese name for a purgative plant, 626 + + Caballine aloes, 630 + + Cacao beans or seeds, analysis of, 12 + age at which may be transplanted, 6 + expenses of a plantation, 33 + information respecting, 9 + plantation, enormous returns formerly obtained from, 34 + quantity consumed in the United Kingdom, 11 + total imports into the United Kingdom, 35 + total imports from America and the West Indies, 35 + trees, where indigenous, 33 + oppressive duties levied on, 34 + + Cacomite, a species of Tigridia, 374 + + Cacoon, oil from, 511 + + Cadet's analysis of barks, 495 + + _Caesalpinia_, species of, 446 + _Brasiliensis_, 485 + + _Caesalpinia Coriari_, 493 + _oleospermum_, 511 + + Caffeine, analysis of, 80 + + Cajeput oil, 566 + + _Caladium costatium_, 377 + _esculentum_, 331 + _sagittifolium_, 334 + + Calambak wood, 439 + + _Calandra oryza_, 279 + + Calcutta, exports of castor oil, 545 + + Calidad, the best kind of Cuba tobacco, 613 + + California, tea proposed to be cultivated in, 97 + + _Callistemon ellipticum_, 505 + + _Calophyllum Inophyllum_, 513 + + Calumba plant, 638 + + Calumbin, 638 + + _Calystegia sepium_, 642 + + _Camassia esculenta_, 376 + + Camata, a variety of valonia, 508 + + _Camelina sativa_, 509, 511, 564 + + Camotes, a Spanish name for the sweet potato, 375 + + _Camaeladia ilicifolia_, 628 + + Campbell (Dr. A.), on the tea culture at Darjeeling, 116 + + Camphor, on the collection of, 633 + obtained from the roots of the cinnamon, 389 + + _Cannabis indica_, 643 + + Camwood, 447 + + Canada, production of maple sugar in, 206 + West, grain exports of, 251 + + Canadian yellow root, 626 + + Canary Isles, millet exported from, 306 + moss, 486 + seed, 311 + + Candleberry myrtle, 540 + + Candlewood, 539 + + Candles made of cinnamon suet, 390 + + Candle tree, 521, 538 + + Cane sugar, composition of, 136, 155, 157 + + _Canella alba_, 396 + + Canna, species of, 355 + + _Canothus Americanus_, used as tea, 80 + + Caoutchouc, 539 + + Capa, a term in Cuba for good tobacco, 614 + + Cape aloes, manufacture of, 631 + weed, 486 + + Capsicum, 428 + + _Carapa_, species yielding oil, 518 + oil, 441, 519 + _guianensis_, 512 + + Caracas, large produce of cacao in, 13 + + Caraveru, a red pigment, 444 + + Carraway seed oil, 437, 566 + + Cardomoms, bastard, 419 + plants furnishing, 419 + + _Carduus Virginianus_, 376 + + Carob bean, 312, 313 + + Carolina rice, shipments of, 285 + + Carrageen, 379 + + Carrots, average weight per bushel in New Brunswick, 253 + + _Carthamus tinctoria_, 450 + oil from, 512 + + Caruto, a name for the Lana dye, 444 + + Carver's treatise on tobacco culture, 607 + + _Carum carui_, 566 + + _Caryophyllus aromaticus_, 397 + + _Caryota urens_, 314 + + Cascarilla bark, 396 + + Cashew bark, 495 + nut oil, 512 + + Cassareep, an antiseptic, 339, 343, 369 + + Cassava cakes, 342 + culture of, 367 + fecula of, 330 + flour exports from St. Lucia, 369 + meal, 341 + roots, information respecting, 9 + starch, yield per acre, 370 + + Cassia, a rival to cinnamon, 391 + _auriculata_, 494 + bark of China, superiority of, 393, 394 + buds, 396 + _lignea_, 394, 396 + statistics of imports and consumption of, 394 + + Castor oil, 510, 511, 527, 536, 542, 563 + + Catechu or Cutch, 579 + tannin in, 495 + + Cattle, consumption of Indian corn by, 271 + + Catty, a Chinese weight, 400 + + Cayenne, nutmeg introduced, 412 + pepper grown in, 427 + pepper, 429 + pottage, 429 + + _Celastrus paniculatus_, 521 + + Celebes, coffee grown in, 62 + production of coffee in, 41 + rice culture in, 302 + tobacco, 621 + + Centrifugal machine for sugar, 140 + + _Cephaelis Ipecacuanhae_, 641 + + _Ceratonia siliqua_, 312, 313 + + Cereal grasses, 216 + + _Ceroxyion andicola_, 541 + + _Cersium virginianum_, 376 + + _Cetraria islandica_, 343, 379 + + Ceylon arrowroot, 353 + cardamoms, 419, 421 + coco-nut culture in, 556 + culture of rice in, 295 + + Ceylon, exports of castor oil from, 545 + adapted for indigo culture, 475 + gamboge, 639 + the great seat of cinnamon culture, 383 + pepper exported from, 426 + imports of _Terra Japonica_, 502 + moss, 379 + produce of tobacco in, 619 + production of coffee in, 41 + tea plant introduced, 95 + Value of the betel nuts exported, 579 + + Chay-root, 449, 478 + + _Chamarops Palmetto_, 495 + + Chandu, the prepared extract of the opium, 585 + + _Chenopodium quinon_, 310 + + Cherrots, Manilla, 619 + + Chesnuts, consumed in France, 361 + + Chest of opium, about 140 lbs., 58 + + Chick pea, 312 + the inspissated juice of the poppy, 582 + + Chicory, extensive consumption of, 37 + + Chillies, growth of, 428 + + Chimo, powdered potatoes, 361 + + China, population of, 86 + shipments of tea from, 84 + + Chinese arrowroot, 352 + + _Chironia sapinda_, 521 + + _Chloranthus_, flowers used to flavor tea, 85 + + Chocolate nuts, 11 + imported, 35 + paste, as prepared by the Marienna, 18 + + Christison (Prof.), analysis of gamboge, 640 + + Chiretta, 641 + + Chrysoptranic acid, 488 + + _Cibotium Billardieri_, 380 + + Cigars, consumption of, 596 + duty received on, 597 + large consumption of in New York, 599 + profit on manufacture of, 612 + number exported from Cuba, 614 + exported from Siam, 619 + + Cinchona bark, 635 + + Cinnamon, 382 + export duty on, 391 + oil, 565 + properties of good, 387 + statistics of export from Ceylon, 390, 391 + suet, 522 + varieties of the tree, 386 + + Citronella oil, 565, 573 + + Clagett and Co.'s (Messrs.) tobacco circulars, 601 + + Clarifying cane juice, 155 + + Clark, (Mr.) on a new variety of tobacco, 613 + + Classification and arrangement adopted in the work, 5 + + _Claytonia acutiflora_, 371 + + Clerihew's coffee apparatus, 52 + + Climate suited for various plants, 9 + + Clove bark, 383 + + Cloves, 397 + oil, 390, 398 + statistics of, 411 + varieties of the tree, 398 + where grown, 402 + + Cobres a first quality of indigo, 456 + + Coca plant, 576 + + _Cocculus indicus_, 576 + _palmatus_, 638 + + Cochin China, coco nut oil exported from, 556 + culture of rice, 298 + exports of cinnamon, 393 + tea considered inferior, 94 + + Cochineal, value of the dye stuff, 440 + + Cocoa, see Cacao, 9 + fat, 519 + nut butter, 560 + information respecting, 9 + oil, 527 + palm, 547 + + _Cocos nucifera_, 547 + _fusiformis_, 519 + or eddoes, 364 + + Cocum oil, 521 + + Coffee, adulteration of, and substitutes for, 37 + consumption of, 39, 596 + cultivation in Ceylon, 46 + in Africa, 77 + in India, 44 + information respecting, 9 + manures suited for, 50 + tree, description of, 43 + production in various countries, 41 + produce per tree and per acre, 69, 481 + leaf, suited for making a beverage by infusion, 78 + Dr. Hooker's opinion thereon, 79 + plantation, beauty of, 67 + prices of, in London, 47 + signs of its being properly cured, 71 + trade, progress of, 36 + + Coimbatore, culture of tobacco in, 618. + + Coir, Coco nut, 551, 552, 555, 556. + + Colman (Mr.), on grain production, 219 + on sugar, 204 + + _Colocasia_, varieties of cultivated, 364 + + _Colocynth_, 638 + oil, 511 + + Colombo root, 638 + shipments of coffee from, 48 + + Coloring principles of the lichens, 487 + teas in China, 104 + + Colza oil, 510, 513, 539 + + _Conium Arracacha_, 375 + + Connecticut, culture of tobacco in, 606 + + Consumption of rhubarb, 645 + + _Convolvulus Jalapa_, 641 + _Scammonia_, 642 + + Conquin tay, plantain meal, 324 + + Constantinople opium, 585 + + Consumption of arrowroot, 354 + of arnotto, 449 + cacoa in the United Kingdom, 36 + cassia bark, 394 + castor oil, 544 + coco nut oil, 562 + coffee, 36, 64, 596 + coffee in various countries, 41 + cinnamon, 391 + cloves, 401 + ginger, 418 + indigo, 477 + mace, 414 + nutmegs, 414 + opium, 580 + palm oil, 527 + pepper, 428 + pimento, 431 + sago in the United Kingdom, 318 + sugar in India, 140 + Great Britain, 139 + tea, statistics of, 82, 596 + tobacco, 596, 595 + + _Convolvulus batatas_, 333, 334, 356 + + Coolies employed in Mauritius, 150 + + Copey, a Cuba dye wood, 485 + + Copperah, 536, 549, 556, 560, 661 + + Corakan flour, 304 + + Coriander seed, 437 + + _Coriaria myrtifolia_, 493 + + Cork tree bark, 504 + + Corn, the common name for maize in America, 270 + + Cortes, a description of indigo, 456 + + _Corypha umbraculifera_, 316 + + _Costus Arabicus_, 438 + _indicus_, &c., 638 + + Costa Rica, production of coffee in, 41, 64 + + Cotton, information respecting, 9 + seed oil, 564 + cake, 564 + + Courida bark, 495 + + Cow-itch, 625 + + Crane potato, 372 + + Crawfurd (Mr. J.), estimate of pepper produce, 422 + + _Croix lachryma_, 304 + + Crop hogshead of tobacco, weight of, 605 + + _Croton Cascarilla_, 396 + _Eleuteria_, 397 + _gossypifolia_, 625 + oil, 522 + _Tiglium_, 522 + + Cuba, coffee plantations in, 77 + culture of tobacco in, 613 + exports of coffee to America, 63 + cost of producing sugar in, 147, 189 + exports of coffee from, 73 + progress of sugar cultivation in, 148 + production of coffee in, 41 + rice grown in, 292 + statistics of coffee exported, 76 + tobacco plantations in, 614 + + Cubebs, medicinal, 639 + + Cucumber seed oil, 512 + + _Cucumis Colocynthus_, 638 + + Cudbear, imports of, 486 + 452 + + Culilaban bark, 383 + + _Curcuma longa_, 419 + species of, 434 + varieties of, yielding E.I. arrowroot, 351 + + Curry stuff, imports into Ceylon, 434 + + Cush, an Indian name for millet, 306 + + Cutch, the Indian name for catechu, or gambier, 600 + exported from Pinang, 503 + imports of, 502 + + Cuyupa, an Indian tuber, 374 + + _Cycas circinalis_, 314 + + _Cynamchum_ leaves, 649 + + _Cynosurus corocanus_, 306 + + _Cytisus Cajan_, 304 + + + _Dacrydium cupressinum_, 505 + + Dadap, a prop for the pepper, 425, 42 + a name given in Java to the _Erythrina_, 55, 58 + + _Datisca cannabina_, 442 + + Davis' (Dr.), analysis of maize, 265 + + Day's analysis of barks, 495 + + Demerara, exports of coffee from, 73 + rice grown in, 292 + + Dholl, the Indian name for varieties of _Cajanus_, 312 + + Dhak tree, bark of, 507 + + Dhurra, the Egyptian name for millet, 306 + + _Dicypellium caryophyllatum_, 384 + + _Didynamia gymosperma_, 520 + + Dietetic articles used for the preparation of popular beverages, 11 + + Dillock, a preparation with cayenne, 429 + + _Dioscorea aculeata_, 334, 362 + + _Diospyros glutinosa_, 494 + + _Dipterix odorata_, 434 + + _Dipterocarpus_, oil from, 511 + + Divi-divi, 503 + + Division of seasons in the tropics, 6 + + Dodder cake, 564 + + Dogwood, bark of, 627 + + _Dolichos biflorus_, varieties of, 312 + _bulbosus_, roots used as food, 377 + oil, 521 + + Domba oil, 513 + + Dominica, exports of coffee from, 73 + introduction of the clove tree, 399 + + _Dracaena terminalis_, 355 + + Drimys bark, 636 + + Dryobalanops, species furnishing camphor, 634 + + Dubranfaut's process of sugar making, 197, 201 + + Dunsterville (Mr.), on Cape aloes, 631 + + Duquesne (M.), process of making sugar from beet, 202 + + Duration of various plants, 9 + + Dutch pound, lighter than the English avoirdupoise pound; 100 Dutch pounds equal to 101 and 1-5th lbs. + + Dutch West Indies, production of coffee in, 41 + + Duty, large, levied on tobacco, 598 + + Dye stuffs, various, 440 + from British plants, 452 + furnished by the cacao bean, 12 + + Dye woods, 445, 447 + + + Eagle wood, 439 + + Earth mouse, 374 + + Earth-nut oil, 513 + + East India ginger, 416, 418 + sugar, 139 + cultivation in, 152 + + East Indies, imports of indigo from, 477 + rhubarb, 645 + + Eddoes or cocos, 364 + + Edward's preserved potatoes, 361 + + Egyptian corn, 307 + opium, 585 + + Elais, species furnishing palm oil, 524 + + _Elate sylvestris_ fruit, a masticatory, 579 + + _Elettaria Cardomomum_, 421 + + _Eleusine corocana_, 304 + + _Encephalartos cafer_, 319 + + English opium, 586 + + Eno bark, a black dye, 444 + + _Epidendrum_, species of, 431 + + _Ervum lens_, 312 + + Erythric acid, 489 + + Erythrina, a shade tree for the cacao, 15 + + _Erysimum perfoliatum_, oil from, 512 + + Essences, 565 + + Essential oils, 565 + + Ethiopian pepper, 421 + + _Eucalyptus_, bark of, for tanning, 494 + _resinifera_, 506 + + _Eugenia caryophyllata_, 397 + _Pimento_, 430 + + _Eulophia virens_, 354 + + _Eupatorium glutinosum_, 643 + + _Euphorbia Lathyris_, 510 + + _Euterpe montana_, 549 + + Evans' (Dr.) Sugar Planter's Manual, 140 + + _Evernia vulpina_, 488 + + _Evodia triphylla_, used as a perfume, 550 + + Factory maund, about 70 pounds, 471 + + _Fagara piperita_, 421 + + Fanega, a Spanish measure, the fifth part of an English quarter, equal to 12 quarrees, or 62 and 2-5ths acres, 13, 327 + + Fanegada, a Spanish land measure, 9 + + Farinaceous plants, 216 + + Fennel flower, 421 + + _Ferula asafoetida_, 633 + + Fern roots as food, 377, 380 + + _Fevillea scandens_, 511 + + Finlayson's description of gambier manufacture, 500 + + Fish oils consumed, 509 + poison, 627 + + Fitzmaurice on the sugar cane, 180 + + Fixed oils, 510 + + Flax seed oil, 509, 501 + + Flores, a commercial classification of indigo, 456 + + Florida, tobacco culture in, 609 + + Flour, damaged, shipped from America, 227 + and meal, our imports of, 218 + obtained from spurry seed, 377 + + Flowering of the sugar cane, 182 + + Food plants of commerce, 217 + nutritious properties of various kinds, 232 + + Foo-foo, the dough of the plantain, 324 + + Fortune (Mr. R.) on the tea districts, 89 + engaged by the East India Company, 100 + report on the Indian tea plantations, 106, 117 + + Fortune's (Mr. R.) wanderings in China, 103 + + Fownes (Mr.) on clarifying cane juice, 164 + + France, production of beet sugar in, 194, 200 + rice cultivated in, 292 + + Frazla, the Arabian name for a bale of variable weight, in Mocha about 16 lbs. avoirdupoise, + + Free trade policy, effects of, 2 + + French berries for dyeing, 443 + Slave Colonies, cost of producing sugar in, 189 + West Indies, production of coffee in, 41 + + _Fucus amylaceus_, 380 + _tenax_, furnishes glue, 378 + as food for cattle, 379 + + Fundi or Fundungi, an African grain, 310 + + Fustic, 445, 447, 485 + + + Gallipoli oil, 531 + + Gallo tannic acid, 492 + + _Galidupa arborea_, 521 + + Garancine, quantity and value of, 483, 484 + + Gambier plant, 496 + + Gamboge, 451 + plants furnishing, 639 + + _Garcinea elliptica_, 451 + + Garbelled, a term for sorted or picked + + Gabilla, a finger or hank of tobacco, 613 + + Galangale root, 351, 418 + + _Garcinea Gambogia_, 640 + + Garnett (Mr. A.) on the culture of the plantain, 320 + + Galam butter, 538 + + _Gastrodia sesamoides_, 375 + + Gesner (Dr.), plants recommended by, for cultivation, 371 + + _Genipa Americana_, 444 + + _Genista tinctorea_, 453 + _tomentosa_, 486 + + Gentian, plants furnishing it, 640 + + Ghee, 538 + + Ginger, culture of, 414 + + Gin, made from rye in Holland, 258 + + _Gigartina Iichenoides_, 379 + + Gingelie seed oil, 511, 533 + oil, used to adulterate almond oil, 534 + + Ginseng, 436 + + Glen (Mr. J.), his experiments on Cassava starch, 370 + + Gloves made from bark, 376 + + Gluten contained in various grain crops, 264 + definition of, 234 + + Gluten, composition of, 221 + + Glycirrhiza, 643 + + _Glyrine Apios_, 371 + _subterranea_, 371 + + Glycerine, 643 + + _Glycirrhiza glabra_, 642 + + _Gnizotia oleifera_, 535 + + Gohyan, an Indian name for upland rice, 282 + + Gold of pleasure oil, 509 + cake of, 564 + + Gomuti palm sugar, 136 + 315 + + _Gomatus saccharifer_, 314 + + Goor, the Indian name for half-made sugar, 308 + + Gorham's (Prof.) analysis of maize, 264 + + Gourds used for packing aloes, 630 + + _Gracelaria lichenoides_, 379 + + Graham (Dr.), on gamboge, 639 + + Gram, the Indian name for the _Ervum lens_, and _Cicer arietinum_, 312 + + Grain crops, 217 + produce per acre in England, 219 + of Paradise, 419, 420 + average prices of in New Brunswick, 254 + + Grape sugar, properties of, 136 + sugar, analysis of, 155 + + Grater for rasping arrowroot, 338 + + Grenada, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + + Great Exhibition, results of, 2 + + Green tea, mode of manufacturing, 113 + tea, imports of the last 15 years, 82 + + Griffith (Dr.) on tea plants in Assam, 111 + + Groundnut oil, 511 + + Guano, not much required in tropical countries, 7 + + Guayaquil, large exports of cocoa from, 13 + + _Guazuma ulmifolia_, 164 + + Guillemen's (M.) report on the tea plantations of Brazil, 128 + + Guiana, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + + Guinea pepper, 429 + grains, 420 + yam, 331, 334, 335, 337, 362 + corn, 306 + + Gums used by the dyers, 453 + + Gum tree of Australia, 494 + + Gun stock tree, 164 + + _Gunnera scabra_, 495 + + Gunny bags, rough canvas bags, 392 + + Guntang, an Indian dry measure of rather more than 15 pounds, 297 + + Guaco, or snake plant, 627 + as a fertilizer, 278 + + _Gynerium saccharoides_, 136 + + _Gyrophora murina_, 486 + + + _Hamatoxylon campechianum_, 484 + + Hamilton (Dr.), on oil of ben, 523 + notices by, 617 + + Havana tobacco, classification of, 613 + exports of tobacco from, 614 + shipments of sugar from, 147 + + Hayti, exports of tobacco, 615 + exports of ginger, 418 + coffee from, 67 + indigo from, 460 + + Hazel nut, oil from, 510 + + _Hebradendron Cambogoides_, 451, 639 + + Heather, dye from, 453 + + Hectare, a French land measure, equal to about 21/2 acres, 204 + + Hectolitre, a French measure 1921/4 bushel's + + Helot's lichen test, 452 + + Herreria sarsaparilla, 646 + + _Heliconia humilis_, 320 + + Hemlock tree, bark of, 494 + + Hemp seed oil, 509 + + Henna, a dye stuff, 486 + + Hepatic aloes, 630 + + Herring's palm kernel oil, 525 + + Hernandez (Mr.) on Cuba tobacco, 608 + + _Heuchera Americana_, 494 + + _Hibiscus rosa sinensis_, 494 + + Hingalee, the best Bengal tobacco, 617 + + Hino bark, 606 + + Hogs, large consumption of maize by, 271 + + Holcomb (Mr.) on the wheat crop of America, 245 + + _Holcus avenaceus_, 307 + _spicatus_, 366 + _saccharatum_, 306 + + Holland, tea sent to, 86 + + Honduras, export of indigo from, 460 + + Hooker (Dr.) on brick tea, 92 + + Hops, cascarilla bark used to adulterate, 397 + + Horse gram, 312 + + Hungary, production of beet sugar in, 197 + + _Hura crepitans_, 512, 626 + + Husking rice, 290 + + Hydraulic press for coco nut oil, 557 + press, 329 + + _Hydrastica canadensis_, 625 + + _Hymenoea Courbaril_, 313 + + _Hyperanthera Moringa_, 523 + + Hypericum, species of, furnishes gamboge, 454, 640 + + + Iceland moss, 343, 379 + + Illepe oil, 537, 511 + + _Ilex Paraguayensis_, indigenous to Brazil, 130 + description of, 133 + + _Illicum anisatum_, 438 + + Impey (Dr.) on Malwa opium, 587 + on Indian drugs, 626 + + Implements of colonial agriculture few and simple, 6 + requisite for manufacturing tea, 115 + + Imports of arrowroot, 351, 354 + arnotto, 449 + cacao, from America and the West Indies, 35 + cloves, 401 + cinchona bark, 636 + tea into Great Britain, 82 + tobacco, 597 + coco-nut oil, 562 + palm oil, 525, 527 + pimento, 431 + opium, 580 + nutmegs, 414 + pepper, 428 + castor oil, 544 + sago, 318 + indigo, 477 + coffee, 37 + + Import commerce, our principal, articles furnished by the Vegetable Kingdom, 4 + + Incense wood, 439 + + Indigo, details of, 453 + plants yielding, 442 + information respecting, 10 + mode of manufacturing, 457 + production of in India, 474 + in Natal, 463 + + _Indigofera_, species of, 453 + + India, tea culture in, 98 + culture of indigo in, 463 + + Indiana, tobacco culture in, 607 + + Indian aloes, 630 + berries, 576 + corn, imports of, 263 + information respecting, 9 + analysis of, 264 + sources of supply, 262, 263 + starch, 343 + meal imported, 218 + yield per acre, 356 + compared with Guinea corn, 307 + meal, composition of, 307 + opium, 586 + root, 625 + shot, 345 + + Indian corn, weight of, 280 + madder, 484 + + Intoxicating liquors made from Cassava, 369 + + Iodine, 378 + + Ipecacuan, bastard, 653 + 641 + + _Ipomoea batatas_, 365 + _brachypodo_, 522 + _Jalapa_, 641 + + Ireland, tobacco consumed in, 596 + cost of producing beet root sugar in, 193 + + Irish rock moss, 379 + + Iron, quantity of, in tobacco, 617 + bark tree, 506 + + Irrigation for the tea plant never practised in China, 122 + + _Isatis Indigotica_,104 + _tinctoria_, 452 + + + Jaggery sugar, 555 + + Japanese camphor, 633 + tobacco, 620 + + Japan, tea culture, 94 + + _Jatropha curcas_, oil from, 512 + + Jacobson's (Mr.) work on tea culture in Java, 102 + + Jalap, 641 + + Jamaica, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + culture of coffee in, 67 + culture of Guinea corn, 306 + decline of sugar production, 148, 149 + exports of coffee from, 73 + ginger, 415, 417 + sarsa, 646, 47 + + Jameson (Dr.) on the culture of tea in India, 106 + + Java, cinnamon cultivated in, 383, 392 + clove does not succeed there, 399 + coffee exported to the United States, 63 + coco-nut oil exported from, 556 + cost of producing sugar in, 189 + culture of coffee in, 53 + culture of rice in, 299 + cultivation of indigo in, 476 + gambier grown in, 502 + nutmegs exported from, 413 + pepper grown in, 422-23 + production of coffee in, 41 + statistics of, 300 + statistics of indigo exported, 476 + statistics of tea culture in, 102 + sugar culture in, 152 + tea plantations, 94 + tobacco, 621 + + Jack fruit tree, 319 + + Janipha, starch in, 331 + _Manihot_, 315 + + Jasmine oil, 570, 574 + + _Jatropha gossypyfolia_, 625 + _cureas_, oil from, 523 + + Jellies, clearness of, 337 + + Jesuit's bark, 635 + + Joar, the Indian name of the _Sorghum vulgare_ or millet, 304, 306 + + Job's tears, 304 + + Johnson (Dr.) on manufacture of rose water, 570 + (Mr.) on indigo culture, 466 + (Prof.) analyses of grain crops, 264 + (Prof.) on grain crops of New Brunswick, 253 + + Jones's process for making rice starch, 344 + + Jumowah, irrigated sowings, 468 + + Juniperus, oil of, 565 + + + Kafir bread, 319 + + Kamas root, an edible, 376 + + Kanari kernels made into cakes, 547 + oil, 546 + + Katjang oil, produce of the ground nut, 515, 299 + + Kawan, the Java tallow tree, 511 + + Kashmir, culture of rice in, 295 + + Kemmayes, an Arabian truffle, 381 + + Kew Gardens, tea plant grows in, 101 + + Kekune oil, 539 + + Kentucky tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 + + Keora oil, 565 + + Khoonte, the Indian name for a second cutting, 471 + + Kiln-drying madder, 481 + of bread stuffs, 221, 229 + + Kilogramme, a French weight, equal to 21bs. 3oz. avoird., 194 + + Kino, Australian, 506 + East India, 507 + + _Knowltonia vessicatoria_, 626 + + Koster's Travels in Brazil, 186 + + Kous-kous, 311 + + Kooyah plant, 376 + + Kukui oil, 539 + + Kumaon, tea plantations in, 117 + + + Laudanum, 584 + + _Lawsonia inermis_, 486 + + _Laminaria saccharina_, 379 + + _Lathyrus tuberosus_,374 + + Larch bark edible, 376 + + _Laurus camphora_, 633, 35 + + La Guayra, cacao from, 13 + production of coffee in, 41 + exports of coffee from, 62 + + Lana dye, 444 + + _Lecythis Tabucajo_, 512 + + Lemon grass oil, 672 + + Legumes, varieties of, 312 + + Lecanora, species of, 432 + + Lentils, 312 + + Leaf tobacco shipped from the Havana, 614 + + Liberia, suitability for coffee culture, 77 + + Lichen tribe as food, 378 + + Lichens, 486 + + Lichenin, 343 + + _Licospermun racemosum_, 605 + + Lindley (Dr.) on the cinchonas, 635 + + Litmus, 452 + + Lignum aloes, 439 + + Litre, a French measure, equal to 13/4 English pint nearly, 202 + + Lime, its influence on cane juice, 161 + + Lindley (Prof.) on the wheat of South Australia, 221 + + Lindley's classification of the plantain tribe, 322 + + Liptospermum, oil of, 565 + + _Lilium Pomponium_, 356 + + Lindley (Dr.) on the lichens, 486 + + Linseed, 535 + oil, 509, 537 + imported, 563 + cake imported, 564 + + Little (Mr.) on opium, 587 + + Libra, a Spanish kind of tobacco, 613 + + Liquorice, 642 + paste, 643 + + Logwood, 445, 447, 484 + + Lotus seeds, used as food, 356 + + Locust tree, 313 + pods, 503 + + Louisiana, cost of producing sugar in, 189 + production of sugar in, 146 + + Loxa bark, 636 + + Luffas, properties of, 626 + + Luggie, a measuring rod, 471 + + Lucca oil, 531 + + + Macfarlane (Mr. A.) on the tea plant,117 + + Madder, culture of, 478 + Indian, 484 + statistics of imports, 484 + + _Madia sativa_ oil, 520 + _sativa_, 444 + + Mahowa oil, 537 + + _Maclura tinctoria_, 485 + + Mauritius weed, 486 + + Mangrove bark, for tanning, 493 + + Mac Micking (Mr.) on making cigars, 620 + + Margose oil, 537 + + Macaw tree, 519 + + Maxwell (Dr.) on Neem oil, 537 + + Marc of olives, 531 + + Mango, kernel of, for bread, 378 + + Marmala water, 574 + + Malabar cardamoms, 419 + + Manila, exports of indigo from, 476 + exports of sugar from, 153 + cigar making, 620 + hemp, whence obtained, 321 + + Mattrasses, stuffed with blades of Indian corn, 281 + + Macculloch's (Mr.) estimate of indigo, 478 + + Maize, number of varieties cultivated, 278 + analysis of, 264 + imported, 218 + meal, imported, 218 + on the culture of, 260 + sugar, 215 + information respecting, 9 + Dr. Phillip's analysis of, 307 + starch of, 334, 335, 337, 343 + system of culture in America, 273 + culture in the East Indies, 282 + immense produce per acre, 281 + varieties grown in, Peru, 281 + statistics of production in America, 269 + statistics of exports from the United States, 272 + + Malphigia bark, for tanning, 495 + + Maslin, quantity grown in France, 250 + + Mace, imports of, 414 + false color of, 409 + proportion of, to nutmegs, 408 + + Malt, quantity made, 255 + + Mahoe, furnishes a dye stuff, 444 + + Mauritius, exports of pepper, 426 + nutmeg introduced in, 412 + pepper grown in, 422 + cost of sugar cultivation in, 187, 189 + tea culture in, 94 + progress of sugar culture in, 150 + clove culture of, 398, 401 + black beans, 304 + + Mangrove bark, 450, 506 + + Madagascar cardamoms, 419 + + _Mangostana Gambogia_, 451, 640 + + Maple sugar, 205 + + _Manettia glabra_, 641 + + Madeira, introduction of the tea plant, 94 + + Madras, tea culture suitable for, 101 + exports of indigo from, 464 + cost of producing sugar in, 189 + + Marah (Mr.) prize essay on coffee culture, 69 + + Malambo bark, 636 + + Machinery for sugar, 140 + for coffee, 51 + for arrowrot, 350, 348 + required for the plantain, 324 + required for sago, 318 + + Magdalena river, cacao indigenous on its shores, 14 + + _Magnolia fuseata_, used to flavor tea, 85 + + Majoon, an opium confection, 585 + + Malabar, production of coffee in, 41 + cassia, 394 + ginger, 415 + pepper produced in, 422 + + Malwa opium, 580 + + Manure, a special for tobacco, 592 + + Manures, suited to the coffee tree, 50 + for the nutmeg, 406 + suited for arrowroot, 347 + scarcely required in tropical countries, 6 + suited for the sugar cane, 172 + suited to maize 278 + + Manioc, see Cassava + + Manihot, species of, 367 + _utilissima_, 315 + + Mansana, a land measure of 100 square yards, or nearly two British statute acres, 455 + + Manyroot, 625 + + _Maranta arundinacea_, juice of an antidote to poisons, 627 + + _Marattia alata_, 380 + + Maryland tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 + + Mate, a name for the Paraguay tea, 133 + + Matico, 643 + + Matias bark, 636 + + Maund of Surat, 391/4 lbs. + an Indian weight of varable quantity + + _Melaleuca minor_, 566 + + _Metrosideros tomentosa_, 505 + + _Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum_, 494 + + _Menispermum coceulus_, 576 + _palmatum_, 638 + + Megass, a name given to the dried cane stems, or trash used for fuel, 168 + + Meleguetta pepper, 420 + + Melsen's process of sugar boiling, 203 + + _Mespilus Bengalensis_, 443 + + Mendo, a wild sweet potato of North America, 372 + + Menomine, an Indian edible root, 372 + + Mexican thistle, 626 + + Mexico, imports of indigo from, 477 + + _Metroxylon sagus_, 314 + + Millet, varieties of, cultivated, 304 + the great Indian, 306 + + Miller on tobacco culture, 608 + + Mill, rude one, used in Siam for hulling paddy, 302 + for crushing plantain stems, 327 + + Mills for cleaning rice, 286, 288 + + Minot, a Canadian grain measure about one-eighth less than a bushel, 251 + + Milloco, a tuberous plant, 374 + + Mint, culture of, 567 + + Mimosa bark, 504 + + Mico or mijo, a vegetable butter made in Java, 313, 512 + + Monkey bread, 378 + pot seed oil, 512 + + Morinda, species of, 443, 449 + + Morewood (Mr. E.), his exertions in Natal, 140 + experiments in sugar culture, 187 + + Mocha, production of coffee in, 41 + cultivation of coffee in,' 43 + + Mother cloves, definition of, 397 + + Moussache, the fecula of the manioc, 315 + + Mountain rice, 285, 290, 296 + + Morphia, proportion in opium, 584, 585 + + _Mora excelsa_, 495 + + _Morinda citrifolia_, 478 + + Moringa oil, 523 + species of, 523 + + Musa, species of, 319 + + Musquash root of the Micmacs, 371 + + Mustard seed, 437 + + Muscovado sugar, cost of producing, 189 + + _Mucuna pruriens_, 625 + _utilis_, 304 + + _Muchowa_ oil, 511 + + _Musa textilis_, 321 + + Mustard oil, 510, 511 + seed, 509, 535 + + Munjeet, 449 + + _Munjestha_, 484 + + _Muracuja ocellata_, a narcotic, 489 + + _Myrica cerifera_, 494, 540 + _macrocarpa_, 542 + + _Myrtus carophyllata_, 284 + _Pimenta_, 430 + + _Myristica_, varieties of the tree, 401 + _sebifera_, 512 + + Myrobolans, 506 + + Myrtle wax, 540 + + Mysore, production of coffee in, 41 + + + _Napoota_ oil, 620 + + _Nauclea Gambir_, 496 + + Namur oil, 572 + + Natal Agricultural Society, its endeavours to promote sugar cultivation, 139 + indigo culture in, 463 + sugar culture in, 186 + + _Narthex asafoetida_, 633 + + _Nelumbium_, seed of, as food, 378 + _speciosum_, the source of Chinese arrowroot, 352 + + New South Wales, suited for madder, 482 + tobacco culture in, 621 + + Negrohead tobacco, 601 + + New Orleans, capabilities for rice culture, 287 + exports of castor oil from, 545 + + _Nerium_, 453 + _oleander_, 495 + + Neem tree oil, 511, 537 + + Nicaragua wood, 445, 447 + + _Nipa fruticana_, 136 + + Nipah, leaf for thatching, 559 + + Nicotine, 590 + + _Nicotium_, species of the plant, 590 + + Nitrogen, in grain, 307 + in the starch plants, 342 + 234, 310 + in the plantain, 323 + + Nigella, species of, 421 + + North West Provinces, tea culture in, 117 + + _Nostoe edulis_, 378 + + Northern Australia, directions for growing tobacco, 623 + + Nut oil, price of, 517 + + Nutgall, tannin in, 492, 495 + + Nut pine, 377 + + Nutmeg tree, 401 + curing of, 409 + wild, 412 + + _Nux vomica_, 577 + + _Nyctanthes arbortristes_, 494 + + _Nymphaea lotus_, starch obtained from, 352 + + + Oats, proportion of oil in, 564 + production of in the United Kingdom, 257 + imported, 218 + + Oatmeal, imported 218 + + Oats and beans, produce of in England, 248 + + Oak bark, tannin in, 492 + + Ocas, a tuberous plant, 374 + + Ocoes or taniers, 331 + + _Ocymum tuberosum_, 356, 367 + + Ohio tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 + + Oil of aniseed, 438 + + Oil, proportions of in various crops, 264 + obtained from the Cacao seeds 11, 12 + + Oil of cubebs, 639 + of camphor, 634 + of cassia, 396 + + Oil of cloves, 398 + of mace, 402 + of cinnamon, 389, 390 + spikenard, 565 + of Ben, 523 + cake, 513, 531 + mills of India, 535 + cakes of the castor seed, 545 + cake from coco-nut, 552, 563 + coco-nut, 551, 556, 561, 562 + from maize, 564 + of sandal wood, 565 + cake imported, 564 + cake, American, 565 + + Oilcake as a manure, 50 + used in China, 313 + + Oil palm, 525 + + Oils, burning properties of various, 508 + + _Oldenlandia umbellata_, 449 + + Oleaginous plants, 509 + + _Olea fragrans_, 528 + _Europea_, 527 + + Olives, mode of preserving the fruit, 530 + + Olive oil, prices of, 531 + 509, 527 + sources of supply, 563 + + Omen-e-chah, the Indian name for a wild bean, 372 + + Onions, planted with arrow root, 347 + + _Ophelia chitrata_, 641 + + Opium, history and trade of, 580 + + Orceine, 488 + + Orchilla weed, 452 + weed, imports of, 486 + + Orchids furnishing salep, 354 + an edible species of, 375 + roots of some used as food, 377 + + Orituco cacao, superior quality of, 14 + + Oryza, varieties of, 284 + + Orlong, a land measure in the East, equal to 1-1/3 acre, 297 + + O'Shaughnessy's analysis of Ceylon moss, 380 + on opium, 584 + + Oswego starch factory, 343 + + Otto of khuskhus, 573 + + Otaheite cane, 153 + + Oude, production of indigo in, 464, 475 + + Oxalic acid, used for vinegar, 312 + + Oxley (Dr.) on nutmeg culture, 402 + + + Paddy, a name for rice in the husk, 297 + + Patchouly, 537 + + Pannam kilingoes, 376 + + Parchment coffee, 60 + + _Pao Crava_, one of the spice barks, 384 + + _Pachyrrhizus angulatus_, 377 + + Palm oil, imports of, 527 + sources of supply, 563 + + Palm oil, 509, 524 + wine, 314 + sugar, 136 + + Palma Christi, 542 + + Palmetto palm, 495 + + Palmyra nut, first shoot of, edible, 376 + + Pan, a masticatory, 577 + + Pancratium, species of, 625 + + Pandanus, fruit of eaten as food, 377 + _odoratissimus_, 565 + + Panicum, various species of, 304 + _spicatum_, of Roxburgh, 308 + + _Panax quinquefolium_, 436 + + _Palos de Velas_, 521 + + Paper made from plantain fibre, 335 + + _Papsalum exile_, 310 + + _Papaver somniferum_, 580 + + Paraguay tea plant common in Brazil. 130 + description of, 133 + extent of the trade, 133 + + Parietinic acid, 488 + + _Parmenteira cerifera_, 521 + + Parmelia, species of lichens, 486 + a dye-stuff, 488 + + Peas, analysis of, 264 + + Peeling coffee, 51, 60 + cinnamon, 316 + + Peligot (Mr.) on the composition of wheat, 230 + + Pepper, black, 421 + pot, a West Indian dish, 369 + prices of, 413 + duty on, 424 + + Peppermint oil, 566 + + Peon, the Spanish term for a laborer, 135 + + _Persea gratissima_, 444 + + Perfumed oils, 569 + + Persian berries, 443 + + Peas imported, 218 + + Pessaloo, an Indian name for the _Phaseolus mungo_ + + Pereira's classification of the cinchonas, 636 + + Peruvian bark, 635 + + Pearl sago, 318 + of Persia, 316 + + _Piper angustifolium_, 643 + + Petty rice, 310 + + _Pekea_, species of, yielding oil, 512 + + Pea-nut, 516 + + Persian tobacco, 615 + + Phaseolus, varieties of, 312 + + _Phaseolus Mungo max_, 171 + + _Phalaris caniesis_, 314 + + Phlomis, 643 + + Philippines, cassia brought from, 394 + + Philippine Islands, sugar cultivation in, 153 + production of coffee in, 41 + varieties of rice grown in, 302 + + Philippines, export of indigo from, 476 + cigars made in, 620 + + Phillip's (Dr.) analyses of Guinea corn, 307 + + _Phyllodadus trichomanoides_, 505 + + Physic nut, 512, 625 + + Picul, a Dutch weight of 133-1/3 English pounds, 36 + + Piddington's (Mr.) analyses of tobacco, 617 + + Pigeon-pea, 304 + + Pignons, use of as food, 377 + + _Pimpinella Anisitm_, 437 + + Pimento, 430 + + Pinang, nutmegs in, 412 + tea culture attempted, 95 + clove culture in, 399, 400 + pepper culture in, 425 + + Piper Betel, 577 + _Cubebi_, 639 + species of, 421 + + _Pinus Pinea_, seeds of the cones used for food, 377 + + Piney tallow, 512 + + Plantation sugar, imports, 139 + + Plantado passado, 323 + + Plantain, dye stuffs obtained from, 444 + juice recommended for clarifying sugar, 162 + information respecting, 9 + starch in, 331 + blight, 321 + 319 + leaves, bags made of, 316 + meal, 324, 341 + + Planche, his memoir on the sagos, 315 + + _Plumeria_, essences of, 524 + + _Plectranthus graveolens_, 573 + + Plough used in Brazil, 184 + + _Polygonum fagopyrum_, 260 + + _Poa Abyssinica_, 308 + + Pomegranates, for dyeing, 440 + + Potash an important element in maize, 267 + large quantity in maize, 264 + + Potatoes, mode of keeping in Peru, 361 + average weight per bushel in New Brunswick, 253 + composition of, 227 + imported, 218 + composition of, 264 + analysis of varieties, 362 + yield per acre, 356 + + Potato, information respecting, 10 + meal, syrup made from, 197 + the wild, of North America, 372 + starch in, 330 + starch, used to adulterate arrowroot, 349 + test for detecting, 349 + starch, 334, 335, 337, 362 + crop of the United States, 361 + disease, 358 + proposed cure for, 359, 60 + crop in Ireland, 358 + varieties of, 358 + imports of, 359 + crop in France, 361 + + Poisons, 627 + + _Pomme des Prairies_, of the Canadians, 373 + + Pounding coffee, 61 + + Population of Great Britain, &c., 87 + of China, 86, 91, 298 + + Porto Rico, exports of coffee, 77 + cost of producing sugar in, 189 + production of coffee in, 41 + exports of tobacco, 615 + + Poonac, as manure, 50 + 549, 552, 561 + + Pomegranate bark, 493, 495 + + Poonay oil, 511-13 + + _Polygonum tinctorium_, 453 + + _Pongamia glabra_, 521 + + _Pogostemon patchouly_, 573 + + Poppy, culture of, 581 + oil, used to adulterate olive, 532 + 509-10-11-18 + + _Polypodium crassifolium_, used as a perfume, 550 + + Preserved Plantains, 323 + + Prices, average of sugar, 145 + + Prickly poppy, 626 + + Princeza snuff, 594 + + Prince of Wales Island, clove culture in, 399 + + _Prosopis pallida_, 313 + + Protein compounds, 307, 310, 342 + + Produce of various plants, 9 + + Production, average of various plants, 9 + + Provence oil, 531 + + Province Wellesley, clove culture in, 400 + + Prussia, tobacco consumed by, 596 + production of beet sugar in, 197-98 + + Pruning coffee tree, 69 + + Psoralia, varieties of, 372 + + _Pteris esculenta_, 380 + + _Pterocarpus marsupium_, 493 + _santalinus_, 445 + species of, 507 + + Pulping mill for coffee, 51 + + Purging nut, 625 + + Pulse, culture of, 312 + + Putchuk or Costus, 438 + 638 + + Punjaub, proposed culture of tea in, 101 + + _Pustulatus_ moss, 486 + + + Qually, an iron vessel for drying sago, 317 + + Quarree, a Spanish land measure, about 53/4 English acres, 326 + + Quassia wood, 643 + + Quas, a fermented Russian beverage, 308 + + Quercitron, 443 + 485 + + _Quercus tinctoria_, 443, 485 + _suber_, 504 + + Quintal, the Spanish cwt., equal to 1013/4 lbs. English, + + Quinine, imports of, 636 + manufacture of, 635 + + Quillai, bark of, used for soap, 574 + + Quinoa, 310 + species of, 507 + + + Railways, large consumption of oil for, 513 + + Ramos (Mr.) his dessicating agent for sugar, 140, 162 + + _Ramalina fufuracea_, 486 + + Ram-til, 535 + + Ramsay (Mr. C. J.) on beet sugar manufacture, 200 + + Ranunculus, properties of, 626 + + Rape oil, 609 + + Rape seed, quantity imported, 563 + oil, 513 + cake, 564 + + _Raphis fabelliformis_, 314 + + Red pepper, 429 + Sanders wood, 445 + Sandal wood, 378 + + _Reseda lutea_, 452 + + Revenue from sugar, 143 + + Rhamnus, varieties of, 442 + leaves of, used for tea in China, 105 + + _Rhizaphora mangle_, 493, 506 + + Rhubarb, 644 + + Rhus, species of, 450 + + _Ricinus communis_, 542 + + Rial, a Spanish coin worth 6d., 135 + + Rice starch, 344 + imports of, 303 + produce per acre, 356 + meal for feeding pigs, 383 + + Rice imported, 218 + starch, Jones's process, 303 + consumption per head in the East 297 + price of in China, 298 + time it may be kept, 292 + threshing mill for, 288 + grown in Demerara, 292 + history of, 283 + American crop of, 285 + returns of produce in Carolina, 291 + weight per bushel, 290 + + _Richardsonia scabra_, 641 + + Rimu, or red pine, 505 + + Robertson (Mr.) on the collection of Paraguay tea, 133 + + Robiquet (E.) analysis of aloes, 629 + + Rocella dye, 452 + species of lichens, 486 + + Room, an Indian dye stuff, 443 + + Roucou, a name for arnotto, 447 + + Rotation of crops, 243 + + Root crops, 355 + prices of in New Brunswick, 254 + + Rollers, proportionate advantages of those with 3 & 4, 168 + + Roxburgh on the sugar cane, 179 + + Roses, cultivation of, 570 + + _Rottlera tinctoria_, 442 + + Royle's (Prof.) productive resources of India, 103 + + _Rubia cordifolia_, 484 + _tinctorium_, 478 + + _Ruellia tuberosa_, 625 + + Ruellia, a dye stuff, 443 + + Rupee, an Indian coin worth about, 2s + + Russia, production of beet sugar in, 199 + consumption of tea in, 92 + tea sent to, 87 + + Rye, analysis of, 258 + imported, 218 + meal, imported, 218 + + + Sappan wood, 445, 446, 447 + + Salisbury (Dr.), analysis of maize, 265 + + Saxony, beet sugar manufacture in, 199 + + Salt, recommended as a fertiliser, 172 + + _Santalum album_, 565 + + Saa-ga-ban root of the Indians, 371 + + Saga, the Java name for bread, 314 + imported, 218 + flour, exports of, 318 + palms, 314 + millet used for, 306 + + _Saccharum sinensis_ of Roxburgh, 136, 169 + _violacum_, 136 + + Safflower, 450 + + Salangore sugar cane, an excellent variety, 154 + + Sandwich Islands, arrowroot made in, 352 + + Sandbox, seeds of, emetic, 626 + tree, 512 + + Saul tree, wood useful for tea boxes, 114 + + Sarsaparilla, 645 + + _Saguerus Rumphii_, 314, 316 + _inermis_, 314 + _laevis_, 314 + _farinifera_, 316 + + Salep, 354 + + Samshing, a refuse produce of opium, 585 + + Sandoway in Arracan produces superior tobacco, 616 + + Saponaceous plants, 674 + + Sapindus, varieties of, 574 + + _Salvadora persica_, 521 + + _Sapindus marginatus_, 521 + + Saouari oil, 512 + + _Sanguinaria canadensis_, 511 + + Scammony, 642 + + Scharling's (Dr.) test for adulterated arrowroot, 349 + + Schomburgk (Sir R.), arrowroot forwarded by, 352 + discovers a new tuberous plant, 374 + discovers wild plantains, 320 + + Scotland, produce of grain in, 249 + Seed leaf tobacco, 606 + wheat in France, 219 + + Senna, varieties of, 647 + + Sesame oil, 511, 533 + + _Setaria italica_, 305 + _germanica_, 304 + + Shanghae oil, 511 + + Sheet lead, manufacture of for tea cases, 114 + + _Shorea robusta_, 114, 521 + + Shier (Dr.), his opinion on cassava starch, 370 + analysis of the plantain, 323 + on the starch producing plants, 331 + + Shea butter, 538 + + Shiraz tobacco, 613 + + Sicily oil, 531 + + Siam gamboge, 639 + pepper produced in, 422 + indigo found wild in, 476 + exports of cardamoms, 419 + + _Sidu lanceolata_, 574 + + Sugar, obtained from the palm tree, 314 + made from millet, 306 + + _Simaruba amara_, 643 + + Singapore, produce of gambier in, 501 + exports of sago, 318 + nutmeg trade of, 413 + pepper grown in, 423, 424, 427 + nutmeg trees in, 400 + produce of mace, 414 + extent of clove culture in, 399 + + Sinapis, species of, yielding oil, 512 + + Silica, essential for wheat soils, 240 + + Singhara nuts, 378 + + Sinde, culture of rice in, 293 + + Smith (Dr.), his experiments in tea culture in America, 95 + + Snuff, duty received on, 597 + + _Sorghum officinarum_, 136 + _saccharatum_, 136 + _avenaceum_, 307 + _vulgare_, 304, 306 + + Soap, made from coco-nut oil, 559, 562 + worts, 575 + + Soil suited to coffee, 68 + for the nutmeg, 403 + for cinnamon, analysis of, 384 + best suited for wheat, 247 + a due consideration and knowledge of, requisite to the planter, 7 + suited for tobacco, 586, 587, 607 + suited for indigo, 468 + + Solly (Prof.) on the want of a hand-hook for the cultivator, 1 + on barks for tanning, 493 + + Society of Arts, premiums offered by, 2 + + Soconusco, the finest cacao, 13 + + Socotrine aloes, analysis of, 629 + + _Soja hispida_, 313 + + Soy, mode of making, 313 + + Sohrinjee oil, 478, 523 + + South Australia, tobacco culture in, 624 + + South Carolina, exports of rice from, 285 + + Sooranjee, 478, 523 + + _Spergula sativa_, flour from the seed, 377 + + _Sphoeroccus crispus_, 379 + + Spanish moss, 380 + tobacco, on the mannagement of, 612 + oil, 531 + + Spices, plants which furnish, 382 + + Spikenard oil, 572 + + _Spondius lutea_, 495 + + _Spergula sativa_, 512 + + _Stalagmites cambogoides_, 451 + _gambogoides_, 63 + + Star anise, 438 + + Starch producing plants, 329 + + Starch contained in various grain crops, 264 + made from maize, 265 + plants, comparative yield per acre, 339 + process of manufacture, 342 + large proportion of in rice, 303 + proportion of in potatoes, 362 + + _Statice coriaria_, 444 + _Caroliniana_, 494 + + Stenhouse (Dr.) on the lichens, 490 + + _Stillingia sebifera_, 512 + + St. John's bread, 312-13 + + St. Lucia, cost of cultivating sugar, in, 189 + exports of coffee from, 73 + shipment of cassava flour, 369 + + St. Kitt's, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + + St. Domingo, exports of coffee to the United States, 63 + + St. Vincent, introduction of the clove to, 399 + production of arrowroot in, 347 + production of coffee in, 41 + cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + arrowroot shipped from, 351 + + Straits settlements, nutmeg culture in, 407 + cinnamon culture recommended, 387 + + Sumbul root, 649 + + Surat maund, 391/4 lbs., 401 + + Sumach, 450 + tannin in, 495 + + Sunflower oil, 509-10-36 + + Sullivan (Mr.) on cost of beet root sugar, 191 + + Sugar, cost of producing in different countries, 189 + + Sugar cane, varieties of, 137, 153, 168 + mills, relative advantages of different ones, 168 + supply, demand and production, 141 + plants from which it is obtained, 136, 216 + + Sugar, information respecting, 10 + + Sugar maple, 205 + + Sumatra, production of coffee in, 41 + + Sumatra, production of pepper in, 422 + + Sweet cassava, 331 + + Sweet potato, 330-31-37-65 + + Swift (Mr.) on the culture of madder, 480 + + Swamp potato, 373 + + _Sxygium carophyllaeum_, 384 + + _Sylvanus surinamensis_, 279 + + Symplocos, varieties of, 442 + + + Tacca plant, species of, 354 + + Tahiti arrowroot, 354 + + Talipot palm, furnishes sago, 316 + + Tallicoonah oil, 518 + + Tallow tree of China, 512 + tree of Java, 511 + burning properties of, 509 + + Tanping, a Chinese oil cake, 312 + + Tannin of nutgalls, 492 + + Tannia, 334-35-36-37 + + Tanahaka bark, 505 + + Tapioca sago, 315 + 369 + + _Tasmannia aromatica_, 421 + + Taro, 364 + + Tartareous moss, 486 + + Taniers, or ocoes, 331 + + Taurine, Leibig on, 80 + + Tea, total outlay for by the British public, 86 + extent to which the consumption might be pushed, 89 + local consumption of in China, 86, 91 + tannin in, 495 + consumption of, 596 + oil, 518 + range of prices, 83 + consumption of in the British empire, 84 + in all other countries, 84 + Mr. Montgomery Martin's statistics of, 84 + quantity that might be used free of duty, 84 + value of the exports from China, + high priced, used in the China market, 85 + various Chinese names for, 105 + immense trade in, 80 + names of the green, 81 + black, 81 + original cost in China, 85 + duty received on, 83 + + Teel or Til oil, 511, 533 + + Teff, an African bread, 308 + + Teinsing, a Chinese vegetable dye, 104 + + Temperature requisite for various plants, 8, 9 + + Tempering cane juice, 158 + + Tenacity of starches, 336 + + _Terminalia angustifolia_, 494 + species of, 506 + + Terra Japonica, a misnomer, 490 + statistics of imports, 502 + + Teuss, a Chinese legume, 312 + oil, 215 + + Texas, production of sugar in, 147 + + _Thespesia populnea_, 444 + + _Thea viridis_, 103, 110 + Bohea, 103, 110 + + Theine, analysis of, 80 + + Thistle oil, 511, 103, 110, 626 + roots as food, 376 + + Theobromine, 11 + + _Theobroma_, description of the tree, 11 + + Tikoor, a local name for Indian arrowroot, 351 + + Til oil, 511 + + Tip-sin-ah, a wild prairie turnip of North America, 372 + + Tinnevelly senna, 648 + + Ti plant, 355 + + Tirhoot, production of indigo in, 475 + + Tobacco, memorial of American Chamber of Commerce, 595 + culture of in the East, 615 + duty paid on, 594 + leaf, Prof. Johnston's analysis, 592 + plant, 589 + sources of supply, 601 + fly, cure for, 607 + statistics of American exports, 600 + prohibited to be grown in England, 598 + method of curing, 605 + manufacture increasing in the United States, 599 + number of persons engaged in the culture in America, 599 + worm, 610 + stems, trade in, 598 + information respecting, 9 + seed oil, 510-18 + prices in London, 602 + root, a wild edible plant, 376 + cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 + + Tonquin beans, 434 + + Tous-les-mois, starch of, 330-33-35-37-40 + + Topinam bar, 365-76 + + Topping the coffee tree, 68 + + Towai bark, 505 + + Toddy, 555 + + Travers (Mr. J.I.) on consumption of tea, 87 + + Trinidad, exports of coffee from, 73 + indigo in, 460 + culture of coffee in, 72 + cost of cultivating sugar, 189 + + _Tropaeolum tuberosum_, 536 + + Tripa, a name for damaged tobacco leaves, 611 + + _Tripolium alpinum_, 643 + + Truffle, 381 + + Tuberous plants, new, recommended, 370 + + _Tuber cibarium_, 381 + + Turkey berries, 442 + opium, 585 + + Turmeric, 419, 434, 442 + used for coloring tea, 436 + + Turnips, average weight of crop in New Brunswick, 253 + + Turpentine, spirits of, 565 + + Typha bread, 380 + + Tye, a preparation of opium, 585 + + + _Unearia Gambier_, 496 + + United States, production of sugar in, 145 + supplies of coffee to, 63 + imports of tea and value, 92 + value of its agricultural produce, 222 + former culture of indigo, 461 + production of maple sugar in, 215 + tea plant introduced, 95 + + Upland rice, 302 + grown in Texas, 285 + + Ure (Dr.), on arrowroot manufacture, 347 + on manioc starch, 368 + on tannin in barks, 495 + on indigo manufacture, 472 + + _Urania guianensis_, 444 + + + _Valenaria edulis_, 376 + + Valonia, 507 + + Van Diemen's Land, culture of oats in, 258 + + Vanilla, 431 + plant, grows in Brazil, 130 + + Vara, a Spanish land measure, 9 + + _Variolaris_, species of lichens, 486 + + Varzeas, a Portuguese name for low and marshy ground, 183 + + _Vateria indica_, 512 + + Vegetable butter, 538 + wax, 540 + soap, 574 + + Velvet moss, 486 + + Venezuela, coffee culture in, 62 + + _Verbesena sativa_, 535 + + _Vernonia anthelmentica_, 521 + + Vinegar, made from millet, 306 + + Virginian tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 + method of culture, 604 + + _Virola sebifera_, 401, 512 + + Voandzou, 371 + + Voelcker (Dr.), analysis of quinoa, 310 + + Volatile or essential oils, 565 + + _Vuelta abajo_, the best class of Cuba tobacco, 613 + _arribo_, the inferior kind of ditto, 613 + + Vulpinic acid, 488 + + + Wabessepin, a wild American potato, 372 + + Wages paid in the Mauritius, 150 + + Walnut, oil from, 510 + + Wangle, oil seed, 533 + + Watappinee, an Indian edible root, 372 + + Water, proportion of in different kinds of wheat, 221 + quantity in potatoes, 227 + for making starch, 341 + + Wax berries, 546 + palm, 541 + + _Weinmaunia_, bark of, 499 + _racemosa_, 505 + + Weight per bushel of crops in New Brunswick, 253 + of coffee per bushel, 47 + + Wellstead (Lt.) on Socotro aloes, 629 + + Westring (Dr.) on the Swedish lichens, 489-90 + + West India ginger, 418 + + Wheat, weight of, as an index of value, 236 + imported, 218 + flour do., 218 + culture, statistics of, 220 + annual produce of, 219 + analysis of, by Boussingault, 244 + average price of, 249 + best soil for, 247 + consumption of in England, 248 + produce of in England and Wales, 248 + information respecting, 10 + starch of, 331-35-36-37, 343 + composition of the ash of, 241 + yield per acre, 240 + flour, various analyses of, 237 + + White pepper, statistics of, 428 + + Whisky, quantity of maize used for, 271 + + Wilcockes on Paraguay tea trade, 135 + + Williams's Middle Kingdom, extract from, 105 + + _Willoughbeia edulis_, 378 + + Wilson (Mr. T.) on the cost of producing sugar, 189 + + Wilson's rice-cleaning machine, 290 + + Winnowing coffee, 51 + machine for tea, 116 + + Woad, 452 + + Wood dyes, 449 + oil, 511 + (Mr.) on indigo culture, Wool manufacture, oil consumed in, 510 + + Wray's practical sugar planter, 140 + + _Wrightia tinctoria_, 463 + + + _Xanthoxylum piperitum_, 421 + _ochroxylon_, 460 + + _Xiguilite_, the indigo shrub, 460 + + _Xylocarpus granatum_, 519 + + _Xylopia aromatica_, 421 + + + Yam, back, 333, 335, 337-38-39, 362 + + Yams, varieties of cultivated, 362 + + Yampah root, 376 + + Yellow berries, 443 + + Yerba, Spanish and native name for the Paraguay tea tree, 133 + + _Yucca amarga_, 331 + + Yucca, the Peruvian name for cassava, 367, 375 + + + Zamia, arrowroot obtained from, 319, 352 + _pumila_, 330 + + Zanzibar, clove plantations in, 400 + + _Zea Mays_, description of, 260 + + _Zingiber officinale_, 414 + + _Zizania aquatica_, 284 + + Zones, Meyen's division of, 25 + + Zollverein, production of beet root sugar in, 198 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Commercial Products of the +Vegetable Kingdom, by P. 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