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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works, by
+Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other Distinguished
+Authors
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works
+
+Author: Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other
+Distinguished Authors
+
+Release Date: March 6, 2005  [eBook #15268]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND
+WORKS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State
+University Libraries, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+JOHN STUART MILL: HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+Twelve Sketches by
+
+Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison,
+and Other Distinguished Authors
+
+Boston: James R Osgood and Company
+(Late Ticknor & Field and Fields Osgood, & Co.)
+
+1873
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+JOHN STUART MILL
+
+   I. A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE.
+         H. R. Fox Bourne
+
+  II. HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE.
+         W. T. Thornton
+
+ III. HIS MORAL CHARACTER.
+         Herbert Spencer
+
+  IV. HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.
+         Henry Trimen
+
+   V. HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC.
+         W. Minto
+
+  VI. HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY.
+         J. H. Levy
+
+ VII. HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE.
+         W. A. Hunter
+
+VIII. HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+         J. E. Cairnes
+
+  IX. HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.
+         Henry Fawcett
+
+   X. HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.
+         Millicent Garrett Fawcett
+
+  XI. HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.
+         Frederic Harrison
+
+ XII. HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.
+         W. A. Hunter
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE
+
+
+John Stuart Mill was born on the 20th of May, 1806. "I am glad," wrote
+George Grote to him in 1865, with reference to a forthcoming article
+on his "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," "to get an
+opportunity of saying what I think about your 'System of Logic' and
+'Essay on Liberty,' but I am still more glad to get (or perhaps to
+_make_) an opportunity of saying something about your father. It has
+always rankled in my thoughts that so grand and powerful a mind as his
+left behind it such insufficient traces in the estimation of
+successors." That regret was natural. The grand and powerful mind of
+James Mill left very notable traces, however, in the philosophical
+literature of his country, and in the training of the son who was to
+carry on his work, and to be the most influential teacher in a new
+school of thought and action, by which society is likely to be
+revolutionized far more than it has been by any other agency since
+the period of Erasmus and Martin Luther. James Mill was something more
+than the disciple of Bentham and Ricardo. He was a profound and
+original philosopher, whose depth and breadth of study were all the
+more remarkable because his thoughts were developed and his knowledge
+was acquired mainly by his own exertions. He had been helped out of
+the humble life into which he had been born by Sir John Stuart, who
+assisted him to attend the lectures of Dugald Stewart and others at
+Edinburgh with a view to his becoming a minister in the Church of
+Scotland. Soon finding that calling distasteful to him, he had, in or
+near the year 1800, settled in London as a journalist, resolved by
+ephemeral work to earn enough money to maintain him and his family in
+humble ways while he spent his best energies in the more serious
+pursuits to which he was devoted. His talents soon made him friends,
+and the greatest of these was Jeremy Bentham.
+
+As erroneous opinions have been current as to the relations between
+Bentham and James Mill and have lately been repeated in more than one
+newspaper, it may be well here to call attention to the contradiction
+of them that was published by the son of the latter in "The Edinburgh
+Review" for 1844. "Mr. Mill and his family," we there read, "lived
+with Mr. Bentham for half of four years at Ford Abbey,"--that is,
+between 1814 and 1817,--"and they passed small portions of previous
+summers with him at Barrow Green. His last visit to Barrow Green was
+of not more than a month's duration, and the previous ones all
+together did not extend to more than six months, or seven at most.
+The pecuniary benefit which Mr. Mill derived from his intimacy with
+Bentham consisted in this,--that he and his family lived with him as
+his guests, while he was in the country, periods amounting in all to
+about two years and a half. I have no reason to think that his
+hospitality was either given or accepted as pecuniary assistance, and
+I will add that the obligation was not exclusively on one side.
+Bentham was not then, as he was afterwards, surrounded by persons who
+courted his society, and were ever ready to volunteer their services,
+and, to a man of his secluded habits, it was no little advantage to
+have near him such a man as Mr. Mill, to whose advice and aid he
+habitually had recourse in all business transactions with the outward
+world of a troublesome or irksome nature. Such as the connection was,
+it was not of Mr. Mill's seeking." On the same unquestionable
+authority we learn, that "Mr. Mill never in his life was in debt, and
+his income, whatever it might be, always covered his expenses." It is
+clear, that, from near the commencement of the present century, James
+Mill and Bentham lived for many years on terms of great intimacy, in
+which the poorer man was thoroughly independent, although it suited
+the other to make a fair return for the services rendered to him. A
+very characteristic letter is extant, dated 1814, in which James Mill
+proposes that the relations between him and his "dear friend and
+master" shall be to some extent altered, but only in order that their
+common objects may be the more fully served. "In reflecting," he says,
+"upon the duty which we owe to our principles,--to that system of
+important truths of which you have the immortal honor to be the
+author, but of which I am a most faithful and fervent disciple, and
+hitherto, I have fancied, my master's favorite disciple,--I have
+considered that there was nobody at all so likely to be your real
+successor as myself. Of talents it would be easy to find many
+superior. But, in the first place, I hardly know of anybody who has so
+completely taken up the principles, and is so thoroughly of the same
+way of thinking with yourself. In the next place, there are very few
+who have so much of the necessary previous discipline, my antecedent
+years having been wholly occupied in acquiring it. And, in the last
+place, I am pretty sure you cannot think of any other person whose
+whole life will be devoted to the propagation of the system." "There
+was during the last few years of Bentham's life," said James Mill's
+son, "less frequency and cordiality of intercourse than in former
+years, chiefly because Bentham had acquired newer, and to him more
+agreeable intimacies, but Mr. Mill's feeling never altered towards
+him, nor did he ever fail, publicly or privately, in giving due honor
+to Bentham's name and acknowledgment of the intellectual debt he owed
+to him."
+
+Those extracts are made, not only in justice to the memory of James
+Mill, but as a help towards understanding the influences by which his
+son was surrounded from his earliest years. James Mill was living in a
+house at Pentonville when this son was born, and partly because of the
+peculiar abilities that the boy displayed from the first, partly
+because he could not afford to procure for him elsewhere such teaching
+as he was able himself to give him, he took his education entirely
+into his own hands. With what interest--even jealous interest, it
+would seem--Bentham watched that education, appears from a pleasant
+little letter addressed to him by the elder Mill in 1812. "I am not
+going to die," he wrote, "notwithstanding your zeal to come in for a
+legacy. However, if I were to die any time before this poor boy is a
+man, one of the things that would pinch me most sorely would be the
+being obliged to leave his mind unmade to the degree of excellence of
+which I hope to make it. But another thing is, that the only prospect
+which would lessen that pain would be the leaving him in your hands. I
+therefore take your offer quite seriously, and stipulate merely that
+it shall be made as soon as possible; and then we may perhaps leave
+him a successor worthy of both of us." It was a bold hope, but one
+destined to be fully realized. At the time of its utterance, the "poor
+boy" was barely more than six years old. The intellectual powers of
+which he gave such early proof were carefully, but apparently not
+excessively, cultivated. Mrs. Grote, in her lately-published "Personal
+Life of George Grote," has described him as he appeared in 1817, the
+year in which her husband made the acquaintance of his father. "John
+Stuart Mill, then a boy of about twelve years old,"--he was really
+only eleven,--"was studying, with his father as sole preceptor, under
+the paternal roof. Unquestionably forward for his years, and already
+possessed of a competent knowledge of Greek and Latin, as well as of
+some subordinate though solid attainments, John was, as a boy,
+somewhat repressed by the elder Mill, and seldom took any share in the
+conversation carried on by the society frequenting the house." It is
+perhaps not strange that a boy of eleven, at any rate a boy who was to
+become so modest a man, should not take much part in general
+conversation; and Mr. Mill himself never, in referring to his father,
+led his hearers to suppose that he had, as a child, been in any way
+unduly repressed by him. The tender affection with which he always
+cherished his father's memory in no way sanctions the belief that he
+was at any time subjected to unreasonable discipline. By him his
+father was only revered as the best and kindest of teachers.
+
+There was a break in the home teaching in 1820. James Mill, after
+bearing bravely with his early difficulties, had acquired so much
+renown by his famous "History of India," that, in spite of its adverse
+criticisms of the East-India Company, the directors of the Company in
+1817 honorably bestowed upon him a post in the India House, where he
+steadily and rapidly rose to a position which enabled him to pass the
+later years of his life in more comfort than had hitherto been within
+his reach. The new employment, however, interfered with his other
+occupation as instructor to his boy; and for this reason, as well
+probably as for others tending to his advancement, the lad was, in the
+summer of 1820, sent to France for a year and a half. For several
+months he lived in Paris, in the house of Jean Baptiste Say, the
+political economist. The rest of his time was passed in the company of
+Sir Samuel Bentham, Jeremy Bentham's brother. Early in 1822, before he
+was eighteen, he returned to London, soon to enter the India Office as
+a clerk in the department of which his father was chief. In that
+office he remained for five and thirty years, acquitting himself with
+great ability, and gradually rising to the most responsible position
+that could be there held by a subordinate.
+
+But, though he was thus early started in life as a city clerk, his
+self-training and his education by his father were by no means
+abandoned. The ancient and modern languages, as well as the various
+branches of philosophy and philosophical thought in which he was
+afterwards to attain such eminence, were studied by him in the early
+mornings, under the guidance of his father, before going down to pass
+his days in the India Office. During the summer evenings, and on such
+holidays as he could get, he began those pedestrian exploits for which
+he afterwards became famous, and in which his main pleasure appears to
+have consisted in collecting plants and flowers in aid of the
+botanical studies that were his favorite pastime, and something more
+than a pastime, all through his life. His first printed writings are
+said to have been on botany, in the shape of some articles contributed
+to a scientific journal while he was still in his teens, and it is
+probable, that, could they now be detected, we should find in other
+periodicals traces of his work, at nearly if not quite as early a
+period in other lines of study. That he worked early and with
+wonderful ability in at least one very deep line, appears from the
+fact that while he was still only a lad, Jeremy Bentham intrusted to
+him the preparation for the press, and the supplementary annotation,
+of his "Rationale of Judicial Evidence." That work, for which he was
+highly commended by its author, published in 1827, contains the first
+publicly acknowledged literary work of John Stuart Mill.
+
+While he was producing that result of laborious study in a special and
+intricate subject, his education in all sorts of other ways was
+continued. In evidence of the versatility of his pursuits, the veteran
+author of a short and ungenerous memoir that was published in "The
+Times" of May the 10th contributes one interesting note. "It is within
+our personal knowledge," he says, "that he was an extraordinary youth
+when, in 1824, he took the lead at the London Debating Club in one of
+the most remarkable collections of 'spirits of the age' that ever
+congregated for intellectual gladiatorship, he being by two or three
+years the junior of the clique. The rivalry was rather in knowledge
+and reasoning than in eloquence, mere declamation was discouraged; and
+subjects of paramount importance were conscientiously thought out." In
+evidence of his more general studies, we may here repeat a few
+sentences from an account, by an intimate friend of both these great
+men, of the life of Mr. Grote, which was published in our columns two
+years ago. "About this time a small society was formed for readings in
+philosophical subjects. The meetings took place at Mr. Grote's house
+in Threadneedle Street, on certain days from half past eight till ten
+in the morning, at which hour the members (all in official employment)
+had to repair to their respective avocations. The members were Grote,
+John Mill, Roebuck, William Ellice, William Henry Prescott, two
+brothers Whitmore, and George John Graham. The mentor of their
+studies was the elder Mr. Mill. The meetings were continued for two or
+three years. The readings embraced a small manual of logic, by Du
+Trieu, recommended by Mr. Mill, and reprinted for the purpose,
+Whately's Logic, Hobbes's Logic, and Hartley on Man, in Priestley's
+edition. The manner of proceeding was thorough. Each paragraph, on
+being read, was commented on by every one in turn, discussed and
+rediscussed, to the point of total exhaustion. In 1828 the meetings
+ceased; but they were resumed in 1830, upon Mill's 'Analysis of the
+Mind,' which was gone over in the same manner." These philosophical
+studies were not only of extreme advantage in strengthening and
+developing the merits of Mr. Mill and his friends, nearly all of whom
+were considerably older than he was, they also served to unite the
+friends in close and lasting intimacy of the most refined and
+elevating sort. Mr. Grote, his senior by twelve years, was perhaps the
+most intimate, as he was certainly the ablest, of all the friends whom
+Mr. Mill thus acquired.
+
+Many of these friends were contributors to the original "Westminster
+Review," which was started by Bentham in 1824. Bentham himself and the
+elder Mill were its chief writers at first; and in 1828, if not
+sooner, the younger Mill joined the number. In that year he reviewed
+Whately's Logic; and it is probable that in the ensuing year he
+contributed numerous other articles. His first literary exploit,
+however, which he cared to reproduce in his "Dissertations and
+Discussions" was an article that appeared in "The Jurist," in 1833,
+entitled "Corporation and Church Property." That essay, in some
+respects, curiously anticipated the Irish Church legislation of
+nearly forty years later. In the same year he published, in "The
+Monthly Repository," a remarkably able and quite a different
+production,--"Poetry and its Varieties," showing that in the
+department of _belles-lettres_ he could write with nearly as much
+vigor and originality as in the philosophical and political
+departments of thought to which, ostensibly, he was especially
+devoted. Shortly after that he embarked in a bolder literary venture.
+Differences having arisen concerning "The Westminster Review," a new
+quarterly journal--"The London Review"--was begun by Sir William
+Molesworth, with Mr. Mill for editor, in 1835. "The London" was next
+year amalgamated with "The Westminster," and then the nominal if not
+the actual editorship passed into the hands of Mr. John Robertson. Mr.
+Mill continued, however, to be one of its most constant and able
+contributors until the Review passed into other hands in 1840. He
+aided much to make and maintain its reputation as the leading organ of
+bold thought on religious and social as well as political matters.
+Besides such remarkable essays as those on Civilization, on Armand
+Carrel, on Alfred de Vigny, on Bentham, and on Coleridge, which, with
+others, have been republished in his collection of minor writings, he
+contributed many of great importance. One on Mr. Tennyson, which was
+published in 1835, is especially noteworthy. Others referred more
+especially to the politics of the day. From one, which appeared in
+1837, reviewing Albany Fonblanque's "England under Seven
+Administrations," and speaking generally in high terms of the
+politics of "The Examiner," we may extract a few sentences which
+define very clearly the political ground taken by Mr. Mill, Mr.
+Fonblanque, and those who had then come to be called Philosophical
+Radicals. "There are divers schools of Radicals," said Mr. Mill.
+"There are the historical Radicals, who demand popular institutions as
+the inheritance of Englishmen, transmitted to us from the Saxons or
+the barons of Runnymede. There are the metaphysical Radicals, who hold
+the principles of democracy, not as means to good government, but as
+corollaries from some unreal abstraction,--from 'natural liberty' or
+'natural rights.' There are the radicals of occasion and circumstance,
+who are radicals because they disapprove the measures of the
+government for the time being. There are, lastly, the Radicals of
+position, who are Radicals, as somebody said, because they are not
+lords. Those whom, in contradistinction to all these, we call
+Philosophical Radicals, are those who in politics observe the common
+manner of philosophers; that is, who, when they are discussing means,
+begin by considering the end, and, when they desire to produce
+effects, think of causes. These persons became Radicals because they
+saw immense practical evils existing in the government and social
+condition of this country, and because the same examination which
+showed them the evils showed also that the cause of those evils was
+the aristocratic principle in our government,--the subjection of the
+many to the control of a comparatively few, who had an interest, or
+fancied they had an interest, in perpetuating those evils. These
+inquirers looked still farther, and saw, that, in the present
+imperfect condition of human nature, nothing better than this
+self-preference was to be expected from a dominant few; that the
+interests of the many were sure to be in their eyes a secondary
+consideration to their own ease or emolument. Perceiving, therefore,
+that we are ill-governed, and perceiving that, so long as the
+aristocratic principle continued predominant in our government, we
+could not expect to be otherwise, these persons became Radicals; and
+the motto of their Radicalism was, Enmity to the aristocratical
+principle."
+
+The period of Mr. Mill's most intimate connection with "The London and
+Westminster Review" forms a brilliant episode in the history of
+journalism; and his relations, then and afterwards, with other men of
+letters and political writers,--some of them as famous as Mr. Carlyle
+and Coleridge, Charles Buller and Sir Henry Taylor, Sir William
+Molesworth, Sir John Bowring, and Mr. Roebuck,--yield tempting
+materials for even the most superficial biography; but we must pass
+them by for the present. And here we shall content ourselves with
+enumerating, in the order of their publication, those lengthier
+writings with which he chiefly occupied his leisure during the next
+quarter of a century; though that work was frequently diversified by
+important contributions to "The Edinburgh" and "The Westminster
+Review," "Fraser's Magazine," and other periodicals. His first great
+work was "A System of Logic," the result of many years' previous
+study, which appeared in 1843. That completed, he seems immediately to
+have paid chief attention to politico-economical questions. In 1844
+appeared "Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy,"
+which were followed, in 1848, by the "Principles of Political
+Economy." After that there was a pause of ten years, though the works
+that were issued during the next six years show that he had not been
+idle during the interval. In 1857 were published two volumes of the
+"Dissertations and Discussions," consisting solely of printed
+articles, the famous essay "On Liberty," and the "Thoughts on
+Parliamentary Reform." "Considerations on Representative Government"
+appeared in 1861, "Utilitarianism," in 1863, "Auguste Comte and
+Positivism" and the "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
+Philosophy," in 1865. After that, besides the very welcome "Inaugural
+Address" at St. Andrew's in 1867, his only work of importance was "The
+Subjection of Women," published in 1869. A fitting conclusion to his
+more serious literary labors appeared also in 1869 in his annotated
+edition of his father's "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind."
+
+When we remember how much and what varied knowledge is in those
+learned books, it is almost difficult to believe, that, during most of
+the years in which he was preparing them, Mr. Mill was also a hard
+worker in the India House, passing rapidly, and as the reward only of
+his assiduity and talent, from the drudgery of a junior clerk to a
+position involving all the responsibility, if not quite all the
+dignity, of a secretary of state. One of his most intimate friends,
+and the one who knew far more of him in this respect than any other,
+has in another column penned some reminiscences of his official life;
+but if all the state papers that he wrote, and all the correspondence
+that he carried on with Indian officials and the native potentates of
+the East, could be explored, more than one volume would have to be
+written in supplement to his father's great "History of British
+India."
+
+Having retired from the India House in 1858, Mr. Mill went to spend
+the winter in Avignon, in the hope of improving the broken health of
+the wife to whom he was devotedly attached. He had not been married
+many years, but Mrs. Mill, who was the widow of Mr. John Taylor, a
+London merchant, had been his friend since 1835, or even earlier.
+During more than twenty years he had been aided by her talents, and
+encouraged by her sympathy, in all the work he had undertaken, and to
+her rare merits he afterwards paid more than one tribute in terms that
+have no equal for the intensity of their language, and the depth of
+affection contained in them. Mrs. Mill's weak state of health seems to
+have hardly repressed her powers of intellect. By her was written the
+celebrated essay on "The Enfranchisement of Women" contributed to "The
+Westminster Review," and afterwards reprinted in the "Dissertations
+and Discussions," with a preface avowing, that by her Mr. Mill had
+been greatly assisted in all that he had written for some time
+previous. But the assistance was to end now. Mrs. Mill died at Avignon
+on the 3d of November, 1858, and over her grave was placed one of the
+most pathetic and eloquent epitaphs that have been ever penned. "Her
+great and loving heart, her noble soul, her clear, powerful, original,
+and comprehensive intellect," it was there written, "made her the
+guide and support, the instructor in wisdom, and the example in
+goodness, as she was the sole earthly delight, of those who had the
+happiness to belong to her. As earnest for all public good as she was
+generous and devoted to all who surrounded her, her influence has been
+felt in many of the greatest improvements of the age, and will be in
+those still to come. Were there even a few hearts and intellects like
+hers, this earth would already become the hoped-for heaven."
+Henceforth, during the fourteen years and a half that were to elapse
+before he should be laid in the same grave, Avignon was the chosen
+haunt of Mr. Mill.
+
+Passing much of his time in the modest house that he had bought, that
+he might be within sight of his wife's tomb, Mr. Mill was also
+frequently in London, whither he came especially to facilitate the new
+course of philosophical and political writing on which he entered. He
+found relief also in excursions, one of which was taken nearly every
+year, in company with his step-daughter, Miss Helen Taylor, into
+various parts of Europe. Italy, Switzerland, and many other districts,
+were explored, partly on foot, with a keen eye both to the natural
+features of the localities, especially in furtherance of those
+botanical studies to which Mr. Mill now returned with the ardor of his
+youth, and also to their social and political institutions. Perhaps
+the longest and most eventful of these excursions was taken in 1862 to
+Greece. On this occasion it had been proposed that his old friend, Mr.
+Grote, should accompany him. "To go through those scenes, and
+especially to go through them in your company," wrote Mr. Grote in
+January, "would be to me pre-eminently delightful; but, alas! my
+physical condition altogether forbids it. I could not possibly stay
+away from London, without the greatest discomfort, for so long a
+period as two months. Still less could I endure the fatigue of horse
+and foot exercise which an excursion in Greece must inevitably
+entail." The journey occupied more than two months; but in the autumn
+Mr. Mill was at Avignon; and, returning to London in December, he
+spent Christmas week with Mr. Grote at his residence, Barrow
+Green,--Bentham's old house, and the one in which Mr. Mill had played
+himself when he was a child. "He is in good health and spirits," wrote
+Mr. Grote to Sir G.C. Lewis after that visit; "violent against the
+South in this American struggle; embracing heartily the extreme
+Abolitionist views, and thinking about little else in regard to the
+general question."
+
+It was only to be expected that Mr. Mill would take much interest in
+the American civil war, and sympathize strongly with the Abolitionist
+party. His interest in politics had been keen, and his judgment on
+them had been remarkably sound all through life, as his early articles
+in "The Morning Chronicle" and "The London and Westminster Review,"
+and his later contributions to various periodicals, helped to testify;
+but towards the close of his life the interest was perhaps keener, as
+the judgment was certainly more mellowed. It was not strange,
+therefore, that his admirers among the working classes, and the
+advanced radicals of all grades, should have urged him, and that,
+after some hesitation, he should have consented, to become a candidate
+for Westminster at the general election of 1865. That candidature
+will be long remembered as a notable example of the dignified way in
+which an honest man, and one who was as much a philosopher in practice
+as in theory, can do all that is needful, and avoid all that is
+unworthy, in an excited electioneering contest, and submit without
+injury to the insults of political opponents and of political
+time-servers professing to be of his own way of thinking. The result
+of the election was a far greater honor to the electors who chose him
+than to the representative whom they chose; though that honor was
+greatly tarnished by Mr. Mill's rejection when he offered himself for
+re-election three years later.
+
+This is hardly the place in which to review at much length Mr. Mill's
+parliamentary career, though it may be briefly referred to in evidence
+of the great and almost unlooked-for ability with which he adapted
+himself to the requirements of a philosophical politician as distinct
+from a political philosopher. His first speech in the House of
+Commons, delivered very soon after its assembling, was on the occasion
+of the second reading of the Cattle Diseases Bill, on the 14th of
+February, 1866, when he supported Mr. Bright in his opposition to the
+proposals of Mr. Lowe for compensation to their owners for the
+slaughter of such animals as were diseased or likely to spread
+infection. His complaint against the bill was succinctly stated in two
+sentences, which fairly illustrated the method and basis of all his
+arguments upon current politics. "It compensates," he said, "a class
+for the results of a calamity which is borne by the whole community.
+In justice, the farmers who have not suffered ought to compensate
+those who have; but the bill does what it ought not to have done, and
+leaves undone what it ought to have done, by not equalizing the
+incidence of the burden upon that class, inasmuch as, from the
+operation of the local principle adopted, that portion of an
+agricultural community who have not suffered at all will not have to
+pay at all, and those who have suffered little will have to pay
+little; while those who have suffered most will have to pay a great
+deal." "An aristocracy," he added, in words that as truly indicate the
+way in which he subjected all matters of detail to the test of general
+principles of truth and expediency,--"an aristocracy should have the
+feelings of an aristocracy; and, inasmuch as they enjoy the highest
+honors and advantages, they ought to be willing to bear the first
+brunt of the inconveniences and evils which fall on the country
+generally. This is the ideal character of an aristocracy: it is the
+character with which all privileged classes are accustomed to credit
+themselves; though I am not aware of any aristocracy in history that
+has fulfilled those requirements."
+
+That, and the later speeches that Mr. Mill delivered on the Cattle
+Diseases Bill, at once announced to the House of Commons and the
+public, if they needed any such announcement, the temper and spirit in
+which he was resolved to execute his legislative functions. The same
+spirit and temper appeared in the speech on the Habeas Corpus
+Suspension (Ireland) Bill, which he delivered on the 17th of February;
+but his full strength as a debater was first manifested during the
+discussion on Mr. Gladstone's Reform Bill of 1866, which was brought
+on for second reading on the 12th of April. His famous speech on that
+occasion, containing the most powerful arguments offered by any
+speaker in favor of the measure, and his shorter speech during its
+discussion on the 31st of May, need not here be recapitulated. They
+were only admirable developments in practical debate of those
+principles of political science which he had already enforced in his
+published works. The other leading topics handled by Mr. Mill during
+the session of 1866 were the expediency of reducing the National Debt,
+which he urged on the occasion of Mr. Neate's proposal on the 17th of
+April; the Tenure and Improvement of Land (Ireland) Bill, on which he
+spoke at length and with force on the 17th of May, then practically
+initiating the movement in favor of land-reform, which he partly
+helped to enforce in part with regard to Ireland, and for the more
+complete adoption of which in England he labored to the last; the
+Jamaica outbreak, and the conduct of Governor Eyre, on which he spoke
+on the 31st of July; and the electoral disabilities of women, which he
+first brought within the range of practical politics by moving, on the
+20th of July, for a return of the numbers of householders, and others
+who, "fulfilling the conditions of property or rental prescribed by
+law as the qualification for the electoral franchise, are excluded
+from the franchise by reason of their sex."
+
+In the session of 1867 Mr. Mill took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the Metropolitan Poor Bill; and he spoke on various
+other topics,--his introduction of the Women's Electoral Disabilities
+Removal Bill being in some respects the most notable: but his chief
+action was with reference to Mr. Disraeli's Reform Bill, several
+clauses of which he criticised and helped to alter in committee.
+Though he was as zealous as ever, however, in his attendance to
+public business, he made fewer great speeches, being content to set a
+wise example to other and less able men in only speaking when he felt
+it absolutely necessary to do so, and in generally performing merely
+the functions of a "silent member."
+
+In 1868 he was, if not more active, somewhat more prominent. On March
+the 6th, on the occasion of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre's motion respecting the
+"Alabama Claims," he forcibly expressed his opinions as to the wrong
+done by England to the United States during the civil war, and the
+need of making adequate reparation; and on the 12th of the same month
+he spoke with equal boldness on Mr. Maguire's motion for a committee
+to inquire into the state of Ireland, repeating anew and enforcing the
+views he had lately put forward in his pamphlet on Ireland, and
+considerably aiding by anticipation the passage of Mr. Gladstone's two
+great measures of Irish Reform. He took an important part in the
+discussion of the Election Petitions and Corrupt Practices Bill; and
+among a great number of other measures on which he spoke was the
+Married Women's Property Bill of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre.
+
+Soon after that the House of Commons was dissolved, and Mr. Mill's too
+brief parliamentary career came to an end. The episode, however, had
+to some extent helped to quicken his always keen interest in political
+affairs. This was proved, among other ways, by the publication of his
+pamphlet on "England and Ireland" in 1868, and of his treatise "On the
+Subjection of Women" in 1869, as well as by the especial interest
+which he continued to exhibit in two of the most important political
+movements of the day,--all the more important because they are yet
+almost in their infancy,--the one for the political enfranchisement
+of women, the other for a thorough reform of our system of land
+tenure. The latest proof of his zeal on the second of these important
+points appeared in the address which he delivered at Exeter Hall on
+the 18th of last March, and in two articles which he contributed to
+"The Examiner" at the commencement of the present year. We may be
+permitted to add that it was his intention to use some of the greater
+quiet that he expected to enjoy during his stay at Avignon in writing
+frequent articles on political affairs for publication in these
+columns. He died while his intellectual powers were as fresh as they
+had ever been, and when his political wisdom was only ripened by
+experience.
+
+In this paper we purposely limit ourselves to a concise narrative of
+the leading events of Mr. Mill's life, and abstain as far as possible
+from any estimate of either the value or the extent of his work in
+philosophy, in economics, in politics, or in any other of the
+departments of thought and study to which, with such depth and breadth
+of mind, he applied himself; but it is impossible for us to lay down
+the pen without some slight reference, however inadequate it may be,
+to the nobility of his character, and the peculiar grace with which he
+exhibited it in all his dealings with his friends and with the whole
+community among whom he lived, and for whom he worked with the
+self-sacrificing zeal of an apostle. If to labor fearlessly and
+ceaselessly for the good of society, and with the completest
+self-abnegation that is consistent with healthy individuality, be the
+true form of religion, Mr. Mill exhibited such genuine and profound
+religion--so permeating his whole life, and so engrossing his every
+action--as can hardly be looked for in any other man of this
+generation. Great as were his intellectual qualities, they were
+dwarfed by his moral excellences. He did not, it is true, aim at any
+fanciful ideal, or adopt any fantastic shibboleths. He was only a
+utilitarian. He believed in no inspiration but that of experience. He
+had no other creed or dogma or gospel than Bentham's axiom,--"The
+greatest happiness of the greatest number." But many will think that
+herein was the chief of all his claims to the honor of all men, and
+the best evidence of his worth. At any rate, he set a notable example
+of the way in which a man, making the best use in his power of merely
+his own reason and the accumulated reason of those who have gone
+before him, wisely exercising the faculties of which he finds himself
+possessed, and seeking no guidance or support from invisible beacons
+and intangible props, may lead a blameless life, and be one of the
+greatest benefactors of his race. No one who had any personal
+knowledge of him could fail to discern the singular purity of his
+character; and to those who knew him best that purity was most
+apparent. He may have blundered and stumbled in his pursuit of truth;
+but it was part of his belief that stumbling and blundering are
+necessary means towards the finding of truth, and that honesty of
+purpose is the only indispensable requisite for the nearest approach
+towards truth of which each individual is capable. That belief
+rendered him as charitable towards others as he was modest concerning
+his own attainments. He never boasted; and he despised no one. The
+only things really hateful to him were arrogance and injustice, and
+for these he was, to say the least, as willing and eager to find
+excuse as could be the most devout utterer of the prayer, "Father,
+forgive them, for they know not what they do." We had noted many
+instances, coming within our own very limited observation, of his
+remarkable, almost unparalleled magnanimity and generosity; but such
+details would here be almost out of place, and they who need such will
+doubtless before long receive much more convincing proof of his moral
+excellence.
+
+We shall not here dilate on those minor qualities of mind and heart
+that made Mr. Mill's society so charming to all who were fortunate
+enough to have any share in it; and these, especially in recent years,
+were many. When the first burden of his grief at the loss of his wife
+had passed,--perhaps partly as a relief from the solitude, save for
+one devoted companion, that would otherwise have been now forced upon
+him,--he mixed more freely than he had done before in the society of
+all whose company could yield him any satisfaction or by whom his
+friendship was really valued. His genial and graceful bearing towards
+every one who came near him must be within the knowledge of very many
+who will read this column; and they will remember, besides his
+transparent nobility of character, and the genial ways in which it
+exhibited itself, certain intellectual qualities for which he was
+remarkable. We here refer, not to his higher abilities as a thinker,
+but to such powers of mind as displayed themselves in conversation.
+Without any pedantry,--without any sort of intentional notification to
+those with whom he conversed that he was the greatest logician,
+metaphysician, moralist, and economist of the day,--his speech was
+always, even on the most trivial subjects, so clear and incisive, that
+it at once betrayed the intellectual vigor of the speaker. Not less
+remarkable also than his uniform refinement of thought, and the
+deftness with which he at all times expressed it, were the grasp and
+keenness of his observation, and the strength of memory with which he
+stored up every thing he had ever seen, heard, or read. Nothing
+escaped his notice at the time of its occurrence: nothing was
+forgotten by him afterwards. His friends often found, to their
+astonishment, that he knew far more about any passages in their lives
+that he had been made aware of than they could themselves remember;
+and, whenever that disclosure was made to them, they must have been
+rejoiced to think, that this memory of his, instead of being, as it
+might well have been, a dangerous garner of severe judgments and
+fairly-grounded prejudices, was a magic mirror, in which their follies
+and foibles were hardly at all reflected, and only kindly
+reminiscences and generous sympathies found full expression.
+
+But he is dead now. Although the great fruits of his life--a life in
+which mind and heart, in which senses and emotions, were singularly
+well balanced--are fruits that cannot die, all the tender ties of
+friendship, all the strictly personal qualities that so much aided his
+work as a teacher of the world, as the foremost leader of his
+generation in the search after truth and righteousness, are now
+snapped forever. Only four weeks ago he left London for a
+three-months' stay in Avignon. Two weeks ago he was in his customary
+health. On the 5th of May he was attacked by a virulent form of
+erysipelas. On the 8th he died. On the 10th he was buried in the grave
+to which he had, through fourteen years, looked forward as a pleasant
+resting-place, because during fourteen years there had been in it a
+vacant place beside the remains of the wife whom he so fondly loved.
+
+H. R. FOX BOURNE.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE
+
+
+I have undertaken to prepare a sketch of Mr. Mill's official career,
+but find, on inquiry, scarcely any thing to add to the few particulars
+on the subject which have already found their way into print. Of his
+early official associates, all have, with scarcely an exception,
+already passed away; and there is no one within reach to whom I can
+apply for assistance in verifying or correcting my own impressions.
+These are in substance the following.
+
+In the few last decades of its existence, the East-India Company's
+establishment, in Leadenhall Street, consisted of three
+divisions,--the secretary's, military secretary's, and examiners'
+offices,--in the last of which most of the despatches and letters were
+composed which were afterwards signed by the directors or the
+secretary. Into this division, in the year 1821, the directors,
+perceiving an infusion of new blood to be very urgently required,
+introduced, as assistant examiners, four outsiders,--Mr. Strachey
+(father of the present Sir John and Major-Gen. Richard Strachey),
+Thomas Love Peacock (author of "Headlong Hall"), Mr. Harcourt, and
+Mr. James Mill; the selection of the last-named being all the more
+creditable to them, because, in his "History of British India," he had
+animadverted with much severity on some parts of the Company's
+administration. Two years afterwards, in 1823, the historian's son,
+the illustrious subject of these brief memoirs, then a lad of
+seventeen, obtained a clerkship under his father. According to the
+ordinary course of things in those days, the newly-appointed junior
+would have had nothing to do, except a little abstracting, indexing,
+and searching, or pretending to search, into records; but young Mill
+was almost immediately set to indite despatches to the governments of
+the three Indian Presidencies, on what, in India-House phraseology,
+were distinguished as "political" subjects,--subjects, that is, for
+the most part growing out of the relations of the said governments
+with "native" states or foreign potentates. This continued to be his
+business almost to the last. In 1828 he was promoted to be assistant
+examiner, and in 1856 he succeeded to the post of chief examiner;
+after which his duty consisted rather in supervising what his
+assistants had written than in writing himself: but for the three and
+twenty years preceding he had had immediate charge of the political
+department, and had written almost every "political" despatch of any
+importance that conveyed the instructions of the merchant princes of
+Leadenhall Street to their pro-consuls in Asia. Of the quality of
+these documents, it is sufficient to say, that they were John Mill's;
+but, in respect to their quantity, it may be worth mentioning that a
+descriptive catalogue of them completely fills a small quarto volume
+of between three hundred and four hundred pages, in their author's
+handwriting, which now lies before me; also that the share of the
+Court of Directors in the correspondence between themselves and the
+Indian governments used to average annually about ten huge
+vellum-bound volumes, foolscap size, and five or six inches thick, and
+that of these volumes two a year, for more than twenty years running,
+were exclusively of Mill's composition; this, too, at times, when he
+was engaged upon such voluntary work in addition as his "Logic" and
+"Political Economy."
+
+In 1857 broke out the Sepoy war, and in the following year the
+East-India Company was extinguished in all but the name, its
+governmental functions being transferred to the Crown. That most
+illustrious of corporations died hard; and with what affectionate
+loyalty Mill struggled to avert its fate is evidenced by the famous
+Petition to Parliament which he drew up for his old masters, and which
+opens with the following effective antithesis: "Your petitioners, at
+their own expense, and by the agency of their own civil and military
+servants, originally acquired for this country its magnificent empire
+in the East. The foundations of this empire were laid by your
+petitioners, at that time neither aided nor controlled by Parliament,
+at the same period at which a succession of administrations under the
+control of Parliament were losing, by their incapacity and rashness,
+another great empire on the opposite side of the Atlantic."
+
+I am fortunate enough to be the possessor of the original MS. of this
+admirable state paper, which I mention, because I once heard its real
+authorship denied in that quarter of all others in which it might have
+been supposed to be least likely to be questioned. On one of the last
+occasions of the gathering together of the Proprietors of East-India
+Stock, I could scarcely believe my ears, when one of the directors,
+alluding to the petition, spoke of it as having been written by a
+certain other official who was silting by his side, adding, after a
+moment's pause, "with the assistance, as he understood, of Mr. Mill,"
+likewise present. As soon as the Court broke up, I burst into Mill's
+room, boiling over with indignation, and exclaiming, "What an infamous
+shame!" and no doubt adding a good deal more that followed in natural
+sequence on such an exordium. "What's the matter?" replied Mill as
+soon as he could get a word in. "M----[the director] was quite right.
+The petition was the joint work of ---- and myself."--"How can you be
+so perverse?" I retorted. "You know that I know you wrote every word of
+it."--"No," rejoined Mill, "you are mistaken: one whole line on the
+second page was put in by----."
+
+In August, 1858, the East-India Company's doom was pronounced by
+Parliament. The East-India House was completely re-organized, its very
+name being changed into that of the India Office, and a Secretary of
+State in Council taking the place of the Court of Directors. But a
+change of scarcely secondary importance to many of those immediately
+concerned was Mill's retirement on a pension. A few months after he
+had left us an attempt was made to bring him back. At that time only
+one-half of the Council were nominated by the Crown, the other half
+having been elected, and the law prescribing that any vacancy among
+these latter should be filled by election on the part of the remaining
+elected members. On the first occasion of the kind that occurred,
+Mill was immediately proposed; and I had the honor of being
+commissioned to sound him on the subject of the intended offer, and to
+endeavor to overcome the objections to acceptance which it was feared
+he might entertain. I went accordingly to his house at Blackheath, but
+had no sooner broached the subject than I saw that my mission was
+hopeless. The anguish of his recent bereavement was as yet too fresh.
+He sought eagerly for some slight alleviation of despair in hard
+literary labor; but to face the outside world was for the present
+impossible.
+
+Here my scanty record must end, unless I may be permitted to
+supplement its meagreness by one or two personal--not to say
+egotistical--reminiscences. The death of Mr. Mill senior, in 1836, had
+occasioned a vacancy at the bottom of the examiner's office, to which
+I was appointed through the kindness of Sir James Carnac, then
+chairman of the Company, in whose gift it was. Within a few months,
+however, I was transferred to a newly-created branch of the
+secretary's office; owing to which cause, and perhaps also to a little
+(or not a little) mutual shyness, I for some years came so seldom into
+contact with Mr. Mill, that, though he of course knew me by sight, we
+scarcely ever spoke, and generally passed each other without any mark
+of recognition when we happened to meet in or out of doors. Early in
+1846, however, I sent him a copy of a book I had just brought out, on
+"Over-population." A day or two afterwards he came into my room to
+thank me for it; and during the half-hour's conversation that
+thereupon ensued, sprang up, full grown at its birth, an intimate
+friendship, of which I feel that I am not unduly boasting in declaring
+it to have been equally sincere and fervent on both sides. From that
+time for the next ten or twelve years, a day seldom passed without, if
+I did not go into his room, his coming into mine, often telling me as
+he entered, that he had nothing particular to say; but that, having a
+few minutes to spare, he thought we might as well have a little talk.
+And what talks we have had on such occasions, and on what various
+subjects! and not unfrequently, too, when the room was Mill's, Grote,
+the historian, would join us, first announcing his advent by a
+peculiar and ever-welcome rat-tat with his walking-stick on the door.
+I must not dwell longer over these recollections; but there are two
+special obligations of my own to Mill which I cannot permit myself to
+pass over. When, in 1856, he became examiner, he had made it, as I
+have been since assured by the then chairman of the East-India
+Company, a condition of his acceptance of the post, that I, whose name
+very likely the Chairman had never before heard, should be associated
+with him as one of his assistant examiners; and I was placed, in
+consequence, in charge of the Public-Works Department. Not long
+afterwards, having lapsed into a state of nervous weakness, which for
+nearly a year absolutely incapacitated me for mental labor, I should,
+but for Mill, have been compelled to retire from the service. From
+this, however, he saved me by quietly taking upon himself, and for the
+space of twelve months discharging, the whole of my official duties,
+in addition to his own. Is it wonderful that such a man, supposed by
+those who did not know him to be cold, stern, and dry, should have
+been enthusiastically beloved by those who did?
+
+It is little to say, that my own friendship with him was, from first
+to last, never once ruffled by difference or misunderstanding of any
+kind. Differences of opinion we had in abundance; but my open avowal
+of them was always recognized by him as one of the strongest proofs of
+respect, and served to cement instead of weakening our attachment.[1]
+The nearest approach made throughout our intercourse to any thing of
+an unpleasant character was about the time of his retirement from the
+India House. Talking over that one day with two or three of my
+colleagues, I said it would not do to let Mill go without receiving
+some permanently-visible token of our regard. The motion was no sooner
+made than it was carried by acclamation. Every member of the
+examiners' office--for we jealously insisted on confining the affair
+to ourselves--came tendering his subscription, scarcely waiting to be
+asked; in half an hour's time some fifty or sixty pounds--I forget the
+exact sum--was collected, which in due course was invested in a superb
+silver inkstand, designed by our friend, Digby Wyatt, and manufactured
+by Messrs. Elkington. Before it was ready, however, an unexpected
+trouble arose. In some way or other, Mill had got wind of our
+proceeding, and, coming to me in consequence, began almost to upbraid
+me as its originator. I had never before seen him so angry. He hated
+all such demonstrations, he said, and was quite resolved not to be
+made the subject of them. He was sure they were never altogether
+genuine or spontaneous; there were always several persons who took
+part in them merely because they did not like to refuse; and, in
+short, whatever we might do, he would have none of it. In vain I
+represented how eagerly everybody, without exception, had come
+forward; that we had now gone too far to recede; that, if he would not
+take the inkstand, we should be utterly at a loss what to do with it;
+and that I myself should be in a specially embarrassing position. Mill
+was not to be moved. This was a question of principle, and on
+principle he could not give way. There was nothing left, therefore,
+but resort to a species of force. I arranged with Messrs. Elkington
+that our little testimonial should be taken down to Mr. Mill's house
+at Blackheath by one of their men, who, after leaving it with the
+servant, should hurry away without waiting for an answer. This plan
+succeeded; but I have always suspected, though she never told me so,
+that its success was mainly due to Miss Helen Taylor's good offices.
+But for her, the inkstand would almost certainly have been returned,
+instead of being promoted, as it eventually was, to a place of honor
+in her own and her father's drawing-room.
+
+Mine is scarcely just now the mood in which I should have been
+naturally disposed to relate anecdotes like this; but, in the
+execution of my present task, I have felt bound chiefly to consider
+what would be likely to interest the reader.
+
+W.T. THORNTON.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [1] I may be permitted here, without Mr. Thornton's
+     knowledge, to recall a remark made by Mr. Mill only a few
+     weeks ago. We were speaking of Mr. Thornton's recently
+     published "Old-fashioned Ethics and Common-Sense
+     Metaphysics," when I remarked on Mr. Mill's wide divergence
+     from most of the views contained in it. "Yes," he replied,
+     "it is pleasant to find _something_ on which to differ from
+     Thornton." Mr. Mill's prompt recognition of the importance
+     of Mr. Thornton's refutation of the wage-fund theory is only
+     one out of numberless instances of his peculiar
+     magnanimity.--B.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+HIS MORAL CHARACTER.
+
+
+To dilate upon Mr. Mill's achievements, and to insist upon the
+wideness of his influence over the thought of his time and
+consequently over the actions of his time, seems to me scarcely
+needful. The facts are sufficiently obvious, and are recognized by all
+who know any thing about the progress of opinion during the last half
+century. My own estimate of him, intellectually considered, has been
+emphatically though briefly given on an occasion of controversy
+between us, by expressing my regret at 'having to contend against the
+doctrine of one whose agreement I should value more than that of any
+other thinker.'
+
+While, however, it is almost superfluous to assert of him that
+intellectual height so generally admitted there is more occasion for
+drawing attention to a moral elevation that is less recognized partly
+because his activities in many directions afforded no occasion for
+exhibiting it, and partly because some of its most remarkable
+manifestations in conduct are known only to those whose personal
+relations with him have called them forth. I feel especially prompted
+to say something on this point, because, where better things might
+have been expected, there has been, not only a grudging recognition of
+intellectual rank, but a marked blindness to those fine traits of
+character, which, in the valuation of men, must go for more than
+superiority of intelligence.
+
+It might indeed have been supposed, that even those who never enjoyed
+the pleasure of personal acquaintance with Mr. Mill would have been
+impressed with the nobility of his nature as indicated in his opinions
+and deeds. How entirely his public career has been determined by a
+pure and strong sympathy for his fellow men, how entirely this
+sympathy has subordinated all desires for personal advantage, how
+little even the fear of being injured in reputation or position has
+deterred him from taking the course which he thought equitable or
+generous--ought to be manifest to every antagonist, however bitter. A
+generosity that might almost be called romantic was obviously the
+feeling prompting sundry of those courses of action which have been
+commented upon as errors. And nothing like a true conception of him
+can be formed, unless, along with dissent from them, there goes
+recognition of the fact that they resulted from the eagerness of a
+noble nature impatient to rectify injustice and to further human
+welfare.
+
+It may perhaps be that my own perception of this pervading warmth of
+feeling has been sharpened by seeing it exemplified, not in the form
+of expressed opinions only, but in the form of private actions, for
+Mr. Mill was not one of those, who, to sympathy with their fellow men
+in the abstract, join indifference to them in the concrete. There came
+from him generous acts that corresponded with his generous sentiments.
+I say this, not from second-hand knowledge, but having in mind a
+remarkable example known only to myself and a few friends. I have
+hesitated whether to give this example, seeing that it has personal
+implications. But it affords so clear an insight into Mr. Mill's
+character, and shows so much more vividly than any description could
+do how fine were the motives swaying his conduct, that I think the
+occasion justifies disclosure of it.
+
+Some seven years ago, after bearing as long as was possible the
+continued losses entailed on me by the publication of the "System of
+Philosophy," I notified to the subscribers that I should be obliged to
+cease at the close of the volume then in progress. Shortly after the
+issue of this announcement I received from Mr. Mill a letter, in
+which, after expressions of regret, and after naming a plan which he
+wished to prosecute for re-imbursing me, he went on to say, "In the
+next place ... what I propose is, that you should write the next of
+your treatises, and that I should guarantee the publisher against
+loss; i.e., should engage, after such length of time as may be agreed
+on, to make good any deficiency that may occur, not exceeding a given
+sum,--that sum being such as the publisher may think sufficient to
+secure him." Now, though these arrangements were of kinds that I could
+not bring myself to yield to, they none the less profoundly impressed
+me with Mr. Mill's nobility of feeling, and his anxiety to further
+what he regarded as a beneficial end. Such proposals would have been
+remarkable even had there been entire agreement of opinion, but they
+were the more remarkable as being made by him under the consciousness
+that there existed between us certain fundamental differences, openly
+avowed. I had, both directly and by implication, combated that form
+of the experiential theory of human knowledge which characterizes Mr.
+Mill's philosophy: in upholding Realism, I had opposed in decided ways
+those metaphysical systems to which his own Idealism was closely
+allied; and we had long carried on a controversy respecting the test
+of truth, in which I had similarly attacked Mr. Mill's positions in an
+outspoken manner. That, under such circumstances, he should have
+volunteered his aid, and urged it upon me, as he did, on the ground
+that it would not imply any personal obligation, proved in him a very
+exceptional generosity.
+
+Quite recently I have seen afresh illustrated this fine trait,--this
+ability to bear with unruffled temper, and without any diminution of
+kindly feeling, the publicly-expressed antagonism of a friend. The
+last evening I spent at his house was in the company of another
+invited guest, who, originally agreeing with him entirely on certain
+disputed questions, had some fortnight previously displayed his change
+of view,--nay, had publicly criticised some of Mr. Mill's positions in
+a very undisguised manner. Evidently, along with his own unswerving
+allegiance to truth, there was in Mr. Mill an unusual power of
+appreciating in others a like conscientiousness, and so of suppressing
+any feeling of irritation produced by difference,--suppressing it, not
+in appearance only, but in reality, and that, too, under the most
+trying circumstances.
+
+I should say indeed, that Mr. Mill's general characteristic,
+emotionally considered, was an unusual predominance of the higher
+sentiments,--a predominance which tended, perhaps, both in theory and
+practice, to subordinate the lower nature unduly. That rapid advance
+of age which has been conspicuous for some years past, and which
+doubtless prepared the way for his somewhat premature death, may, I
+think, be regarded as the outcome of a theory of life which made
+learning and working the occupations too exclusively considered. But
+when we ask to what ends he acted out this theory, and in so doing too
+little regarded his bodily welfare, we see that even here the excess,
+if such we call it, was a noble one. Extreme desire to further human
+welfare was that to which he sacrificed himself.
+
+HERBERT SPENCER.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.
+
+
+If we would have a just idea of any man's character, we should view it
+from as many points, and under as many aspects, as we can. The
+side-lights thrown by the lesser occupations of a life are often very
+strong, and bring out its less obvious parts into startling
+prominence. Much especially is to be learned of character by taking
+into consideration the employment of times of leisure or relaxation;
+the occupation of such hours being due almost solely to the natural
+bent of the individual, without the interfering action of necessity or
+expediency. Most men, perhaps especially eminent men, have a
+"hobby",--some absorbing object, the pursuit of which forms the most
+natural avocation of their mind, and to which they turn with the
+certainty of at least satisfaction, if not of exquisite pleasure. The
+man who follows any branch of natural science in this way is almost
+always especially happy in its prosecution; and his mental powers are
+refreshed and invigorated for the more serious and engrossing if less
+congenial occupation of his life. Mr. Mill's hobby was practical field
+botany; surely in all ways one very well suited to him.
+
+Of the tens of thousands who are acquainted with the philosophical
+writings of Mr. Mill, there are probably few beyond the circle of his
+personal friends who are aware that he was also an author in a modest
+way on botanical subjects, and a keen searcher after wild plants. His
+short communications on botany were chiefly if not entirely published
+in a monthly magazine called "The Phytologist," edited, from its
+commencement in 1841, by the late George Luxford, till his death, in
+1854, and afterwards conducted by Mr. A. Irvine of Chelsea, an
+intimate friend of Mr. Mill's, till its discontinuance in 1863. In the
+early numbers of this periodical especially will be found frequent
+notes and short papers on the facts of plant distribution brought to
+light by Mr. Mill during his botanical rambles. His excursions were
+chiefly in the county of Surrey, and especially in the neighborhood of
+Guildford and the beautiful vale of the Sittingbourne, where he had
+the satisfaction of being the first to notice several plants of
+interest, as _Polygonum dumetorum_, _Isatis tinctoria_, and _Impatiens
+fulva_, an American species of balsam, affording a very remarkable
+example of complete naturalization in the Wey and other streams
+connected with the lower course of the Thames. Mr. Mill says he first
+observed this interloper in 1822 at Albury, a date which probably
+marks about the commencement of his botanical investigations, if not
+that of the first notice of the plant in this country. Mr. Mill's
+copious MS lists of observations in Surrey were subsequently forwarded
+to the late Mr. Salmon of Godalming, and have been since published
+with the large collection of facts made by that botanist in the "Flora
+of Surrey," printed under the auspices of the Holmesdale (Reigate)
+Natural History Club. Mr. Mill also contributed to the same
+scientific magazine some short notes on Hampshire botany, and is
+believed to have helped in the compilation of Mr. G.G. Mill's
+"Catalogue of the Plants of Great Marlow, Bucks."
+
+The mere recording of isolated facts of this kind of course affords no
+scope for any style in composition. It may, however, be thought worth
+while to reproduce here the concluding paragraph of a short article on
+"Spring Flowers in the South of Europe," as a sample of Mr. Mill's
+popular manner, as well as for its own sake as a fine description of a
+matchless scene. He is describing the little mountain range of Albano,
+beloved of painters, and, after comparing its vernal flora with that
+in England, goes on:--
+
+     'If we would ascend the highest member of the mountain group,
+     the Monte Cavo, we must make the circuit of the north flank
+     of the mountains of Marino, on the edge of the Albano Lake,
+     and Rocca di Tassa, a picturesque village in the hollow
+     mountain side, from which we climb through woods, abounding
+     in _Galanthus nivalis_ and _Corydalis cava_, to that summit
+     which was the _arx_ of Jupiter Latialis, and to which the
+     thirty Latian cities ascended in solemn procession to offer
+     their annual sacrifice. The place is now occupied by a
+     convent, under the wall of which I gathered _Orinthogalum
+     nutans_; and from its neighborhood I enjoyed a panoramic
+     view, surely the most glorious, in its combination of
+     natural beauty and grandeur of historical recollections, to
+     be found anywhere on earth. The eye ranged from Terracina on
+     one side to Veii on the other, and beyond Veii to the hills
+     of Sutrium and Nepete, once covered by the Cimmian forests,
+     then deemed an impenetrable barrier between the interior of
+     Etruria and Rome. Below my feet the Alban mountain, with all
+     its forest-covered folds, and in one of them the dark-blue
+     Lake of Nemi; that of Albano, I think, was invisible. To the
+     north, in the dim distance, the Eternal City, to the west
+     the eternal sea, for eastern boundary, the long line of
+     Sabine mountains from Soracte past Tibur and away towards
+     Proeneste. The range then passed behind the Alban group, but
+     re-appeared to the south-east as the mountain crescent of
+     Cora and Pometia, enclosing between its horns the Pontine
+     marshes, which lay spread out below as far as the sea line,
+     extending east and west from Terracina in the bay of Fondi,
+     the Volscian Anxur, to the angle of the coast where rises
+     suddenly, between the marshes and the sea, the mountain
+     promontory of Circeii, celebrated alike in history and in
+     fable. Within the space visible from this one point, the
+     destinies of the human race were decided. It took the Romans
+     nearly five hundred years to vanquish and incorporate the
+     warlike tribes who inhabited that narrow tract, but, this
+     being accomplished, two hundred more sufficed them to
+     complete the conquest of the world.
+
+During the frequent and latterly prolonged residence at Avignon, Mr.
+Mill, carrying on his botanical propensities, had become very well
+acquainted with the vegetation of the district, and at the time of his
+death had collected a mass of notes and observations on the subject.
+It is believed to have been his intention to have printed these as the
+foundation of a flora of Avignon.
+
+In the slight contributions to the literature of botany made by Mr.
+Mill, there is nothing which gives any inkling of the great
+intellectual powers of their writer. Though always clear and accurate,
+they are merely such notes as any working botanical collector is able
+to supply in abundance. Mainly content with the pursuit as an outdoor
+occupation, with such an amount of home work as was necessary to
+determine the names and affinities of the species, Mr. Mill never
+penetrated deeply into the philosophy of botany, so as to take rank
+among those who have, like Herbert Spencer, advanced that science by
+original work either of experiment or generalization, or have entered
+into the battle-field where the great biological questions of the day
+are being fought over. The writer of this notice well remembers
+meeting, a few years since, the (at that time) parliamentary logician,
+with his trousers turned up out of the mud, and armed with the tin
+insignia of his craft, busily occupied in the search after a
+marsh-loving rarity in a typical spongy wood on the clay to the north
+of London.
+
+But however followed, the investigation of nature cannot fail to
+influence the mind in the direction of a more just appreciation of the
+necessity of system in arrangement, and of the principles which must
+regulate all attempts to express notions of system in a
+classification. Traces of this are not difficult to find in Mr. Mill's
+writings. It may be safely stated, that the chapters on classification
+in the "Logic" would not have taken the form they have, had not the
+writer been a naturalist as well as a logician. The views expressed so
+clearly in these chapters are chiefly founded on the actual needs
+experienced by the systematic botanist; and the argument is largely
+sustained by references to botanical systems and arrangements. Most
+botanists agree with Mr. Mill in his objections to Dr. Whewell's views
+of a natural classification by resemblance to "types," instead of in
+accordance with well-selected characters; and indeed the whole of
+these chapters are well deserving the careful study of naturalists,
+notwithstanding that the wonderfully rapid progress in recent years of
+new ideas, lying at the very root of all the natural sciences, may be
+thought by some to give the whole argument, in spite of its logical
+excellence, a somewhat antiquated flavor. How fully Mr. Mill
+recognized the great importance of the study of biological
+classifications, and the influence such a study must have had on
+himself, may be judged from the following quotation:--
+
+     "Although the scientific arrangements of organic nature
+     afford as yet the only complete example of the true
+     principles of rational classification, whether as to the
+     formation of groups or of series, those principles are
+     applicable to all cases in which mankind are called upon to
+     bring the various parts of any extensive subject into mental
+     co-ordination. They are as much to the point when objects
+     are to be classed for purposes of art or business as for
+     those of science. The proper arrangement, for example, of a
+     code of laws, depends on the same scientific conditions as
+     the classifications in natural history; nor could there be a
+     better preparatory discipline for that important function
+     than the study of the principles of a natural arrangement,
+     not only in the abstract, but in their actual application to
+     the class of phenomena for which they were first elaborated,
+     and which are still the best school for learning their use.
+     Of this, the great authority on codification, Bentham, was
+     perfectly aware; and his early 'Fragment on Government,' the
+     admirable introduction to a series of writings unequalled in
+     their department, contains clear and just views (as far as
+     they go) on the meaning of a natural arrangement, such as
+     could scarcely have occurred to any one who lived anterior
+     to the age of Linnaeus and Bernard de Jussieu" (_System of
+     Logic_, ed. 6, ii., p. 288).
+
+HENRY TRIMEN.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC
+
+
+Mr. Mill's achievements as an economist, logician, psychologist, and
+politician are known more or less vaguely to all educated men; but his
+capacity and his actual work as a critic are comparatively little
+regarded. In the three volumes of his collected miscellaneous
+writings, very few of the papers are general reviews either of books
+or of men; and even these volumes derive their character from the
+essays they contain on the severer subjects with which Mr. Mill's name
+has been more peculiarly associated. Nobody buys his "Dissertations
+and Discussions" for the sake of his theory of poetry, or his essays
+on Armand Carrel and Alfred de Vigny, noble though these are in many
+ways. His essay on Coleridge is very celebrated; but it deals, not
+with Coleridge's place as a poet, but with his place as a
+thinker--with Coleridge as the antagonistic power to Bentham in
+forming the opinions of the generation now passing away. Still at such
+a time as this it is interesting to make some endeavor to estimate the
+value of what Mr. Mill has done in the way of criticism. It is at
+least worth while to examine whether one who has shown himself
+capable of grappling effectively with the driest and most abstruse
+problems that vex the human intellect was versatile enough to study
+poetry with an understanding heart, and to be alive to the distinctive
+powers of individual poets.
+
+It was in his earlier life, when his enthusiasm for knowledge was fresh,
+and his active mind, "all as hungry as the sea," was reaching out
+eagerly and strenuously to all sorts of food for thought,--literary,
+philosophical, and political,--that Mr. Mill set himself, among other
+things, to study and theorize upon poetry and the arts generally. He
+could hardly have failed to know the most recent efflorescence of
+English poetry, living as he did in circles where the varied merits of
+the new poets were largely and keenly discussed. He had lived also for
+some time in France, and was widely read in French poetry. He had
+never passed through the ordinary course of Greek and Latin at school
+and college, but he had been taught by his father to read these
+languages, and had been accustomed from the first to regard their
+literature as literature, and to read their poetry as poetry. These
+were probably the main elements of his knowledge of poetry. But it
+was not his way to dream or otherwise luxuriate over his favorite
+poets for pure enjoyment. Mr. Mill was not a cultivator of art for
+art's sake. His was too fervid and militant a soul to lose itself in
+serene love and culture of the calmly beautiful. He read poetry for
+the most part with earnest, critical eye, striving to account for it,
+to connect it with the tendencies of the age, or he read to find
+sympathy with his own aspirations after heroic energy. He read De
+Vigny and other French poets of his generation, with an eye to their
+relations to the convulsed and struggling state of France, and because
+they were compelled by their surroundings to take life _au sérieux_,
+and to pursue, with all the resources of their art, something
+different from beauty in the abstract. Luxurious passive enjoyment or
+torpid half-enjoyment must have been a comparatively rare condition of
+his finely-strung, excitable, and fervid system. I believe that his
+moral earnestness was too imperious to permit much of this. He was
+capable indeed of the most passionate admiration of beauty, but even
+that feeling seems to have been interpenetrated by a certain militant
+apostolic fervor; his love was as the love of a religious soldier for
+a patron saint who extends her aid and countenance to him in his wars.
+I do not mean to say that his mind was in a perpetual glow: I mean
+only that this surrender to impassioned transports was more
+characteristic of the man than serene openness to influx of enjoyment.
+His "Thoughts on Poetry and its Varieties," while clear and strenuous
+as most of his thoughts were, are neither scientifically precise, nor
+do they contain any notable new idea not previously expressed by
+Coleridge, except perhaps the idea, that emotions are the main links
+of association in the poetic mind: still his working out of the
+definition of poetry, his distinction between novels and poems, and
+between poetry and eloquence, is interesting as throwing light upon
+his own poetic susceptibilities. He holds that poetry is the
+delineation of the deeper and more secret workings of human emotion.
+It is curious to find one who is sometimes assailed as the advocate of
+a grovelling philosophy complaining that the chivalrous spirit has
+almost disappeared from books of education, that the youth of both
+sexes of the educated classes are growing up unromantic. "Catechisms,"
+he says, "will be found a poor substitute for the old romances,
+whether of chivalry or faery, which, if they did not give a true
+picture of actual life, did not give a false one, since they did not
+profess to give any, but (what was much better) filled the youthful
+imagination with pictures of heroic men, and of what are at least as
+much wanted,--heroic women."
+
+If Mr. Mill did not love poetry with a purely disinterested love, but
+with an eye to its moral causes and effects, neither did he study
+character from mere delight in observing the varieties of mankind.
+Armand Carrel the Republican journalist, Alfred de Vigny the Royalist
+poet, Coleridge the Conservative, and Bentham the Reformer, are taken
+up and expounded, not as striking individuals, but as types of
+influences and tendencies. This habit of keeping in view mind in the
+abstract, or men in the aggregate, may have been in a large measure a
+result of his education by his father; but I am inclined to think that
+he was of too ardent and pre-occupied a disposition, perhaps too much
+disposed to take favorable views of individuals, to be very sensitive
+to differences of character. It should not, however, be forgotten that
+in one memorable case he showed remarkable discrimination. Soon after
+Mr. Tennyson published his second issue of poems, Mr. Mill reviewed
+them in "The Westminster Review" for July, 1835, and, with his usual
+earnestness and generosity, applied all his powers to making a just
+estimate of the new aspirant. To have reprinted this among his
+miscellaneous writings might have seemed rather boastful, as claiming
+credit for the first full recognition of a great poet: still it is a
+very remarkable review; and one would hope it will not be omitted if
+there is to be any further collection of his casual productions. I
+shall quote two passages which seem obvious enough now, but which
+required true insight, as well as courageous generosity, to write them
+in 1835--
+
+     "Of all the capacities of a poet, that which seems to have
+     arisen earliest in Mr. Tennyson, and in which he most
+     excels, is that of scene-painting in the higher sense of the
+     term; not the mere power of producing that rather vapid
+     species of composition usually termed descriptive
+     poetry,--for there is not in these volumes one passage of
+     pure description,--but the power of creating scenery in
+     keeping with some state of human feeling, so fitted to it as
+     to be the embodied symbol of it, and to summon up the state
+     of feeling itself with a force not to be surpassed by any
+     thing but reality."
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "The poems which we have quoted from Mr. Tennyson prove
+     incontestably that he possesses in an eminent degree the
+     natural endowment of a poet,--the poetic temperament. And it
+     appears clearly, not only from a comparison of the two
+     volumes, but of different poems in the same volume, that
+     with him the other element of poetic excellence,
+     intellectual culture, is advancing both steadily and
+     rapidly; that he is not destined, like so many others, to be
+     remembered for what he might have done rather than for what
+     he did; that he will not remain a poet of mere temperament,
+     but is ripening into a true artist.... We predict, that, as
+     Mr. Tennyson advances in general spiritual culture, these
+     higher aims will become more and more predominant in his
+     writings; that he will strive more and more diligently, and,
+     even without striving, will be more and more impelled by the
+     natural tendencies of an expanding character, towards what
+     has been described as the highest object of poetry,--'to
+     incorporate the everlasting reason of man in forms visible
+     to his sense, and suitable to it.'"
+
+This last sentence might easily be construed into a prediction of "In
+Memoriam" and "The Idyls of the King."
+
+If it is asked why Mr. Mill, with all his width of knowledge and
+sympathy, has achieved so little of a reputation as a miscellaneous
+writer, part of the reason no doubt is, that he sternly repressed his
+desultory tendencies, and devoted his powers to special branches of
+knowledge, attaining in them a distinction that obscured his other
+writings. Another reason is, that, although his style is extremely
+clear, he was for popular purposes dangerously familiar with terms
+belonging more or less to the schools. He employed these in literary
+generalizations, without remembering that they were not equally
+familiar to his readers; and thus general readers, like Tom Moore, or
+the author of the recent notice in "The Times," who read more for
+amusement than instruction, were disposed to consider Mr. Mill's style
+"vastly unreadable."
+
+W. MINTO.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY
+
+
+To a savage contemplating a railway train in motion, the engine would
+present itself as the master of the situation,--the determining cause
+of the motion and direction of the train. It visibly takes the lead,
+it looks big and important, and it makes a great noise. Even people a
+long way up in the scale of civilization are in the habit of taking
+these attributes, perhaps not as the essential ones of leadership, but
+at all events as those by which a leader may be recognized. Still that
+blustering machine, which puffs and snorts, and drags a vast multitude
+in its wake, is moving along a track determined by a man hidden away
+from the public gaze. A line of rail lies separated from an adjacent
+one, the pointsman moves a handle, and the foaming giant, that would,
+it may be, have sped on to his destruction and that of the passive
+crew who follow in his rear, is shunted to another line running in a
+different direction and to a more desirable goal.
+
+The great intellectual pointsman of our age--the man who has done more
+than any other of this generation to give direction to the thought of
+his contemporaries--has passed away; and we are left to measure the
+loss to humanity by the result of his labors. Mr. Mill's achievements
+in both branches of philosophy are such as to give him the foremost
+place in either. Whether we regard him as an expounder of the
+philosophy of mind or the philosophy of society, he is _facile
+princeps_. Still it is his work in mental science which will, in our
+opinion, be in future looked upon as his great contribution to the
+progress of thought. His work on political economy not only put into
+thorough repair the structure raised by Adam Smith, Malthus, and
+Ricardo, but raised it at least one story higher. His inestimable
+"System of Logic" was a revolution. It hardly needs, of course, to be
+said that he owed much to his predecessors,--that he borrowed from
+Whewell much of his classification, from Brown the chief lines of his
+theory of causation, from Sir John Herschel the main principles of the
+inductive methods. Those who think this a disparagement of his work
+must have very little conception of the mass of original thought that
+still remains to Mr. Mill's credit, the great critical power that
+could gather valuable truths from so many discordant sources, and the
+wonderful synthetic ability required to weld these and his own
+contributions into one organic whole.
+
+When Mr. Mill commenced his labors, the only logic recognized was the
+syllogistic. Reasoning consisted solely, according to the then
+dominant school, in deducing from general propositions other
+propositions less general. It was even asserted confidently, that
+nothing more was to be expected,--that an inductive logic was
+impossible. This conception of logical science necessitated some
+general propositions to start with; and these general propositions
+being _ex hypothesi_ incapable of being proved from other
+propositions, it followed, that, if they were known to us at all, they
+must be original data of consciousness. Here was a perfect paradise of
+question begging. The ultimate major premise in every argument being
+assumed, it could of course be fashioned according to the particular
+conclusion it was called in to prove. Thus an 'artificial ignorance,'
+as Locke calls it, was produced, which had the effect of sanctifying
+prejudice by recognizing so-called necessities of thought as the only
+bases of reasoning. It is true, that outside of the logic of the
+schools great advances had been made in the rules of scientific
+investigation; but these rules were not only imperfect in themselves,
+but their connection with the law of causation was but imperfectly
+realized, and their true relation to syllogism hardly dreamt of.
+
+Mr. Mill altered all this. He demonstrated that the general type of
+reasoning is neither from generals to particulars, nor from
+particulars to generals, but from particulars to particulars. "If from
+our experience of John, Thomas, &c., who once were living, but are now
+dead, we are entitled to conclude that all human beings are mortal, we
+might surely, without any logical inconsequence, have concluded at
+once from those instances, that the Duke of Wellington is mortal. The
+mortality of John, Thomas, and others is, after all, the whole
+evidence we have for the mortality of the Duke of Wellington. Not one
+iota is added to the proof by interpolating a general proposition." We
+not only may, according to Mr. Mill, reason from some particular
+instances to others, but we frequently do so. As, however, the
+instances which are sufficient to prove one fresh instance must be
+sufficient to prove a general proposition, it is most convenient to
+at once infer that general proposition, which then becomes a formula
+according to which (but not from which) any number of particular
+inferences may be made. The work of deduction is the interpretation of
+these formulas, and therefore, strictly speaking, is not inferential
+at all. The real inference was accomplished when the universal
+proposition was arrived at.
+
+It will easily be seen that this explanation of the deductive process
+completely turns the tables on the transcendental school. All
+reasoning is shown to be at bottom inductive. Inductions and their
+interpretation make up the whole of logic; and to induction
+accordingly Mr. Mill devoted his chief attention. For the first time
+induction was treated as the _opus magnum_ of logic, and the
+fundamental principles of science traced to their inductive origin. It
+was this, taken with his theory of the syllogism, which worked the
+great change. Both his "System of Logic" and his "Examination of Sir
+William Hamilton's Philosophy" are for the most part devoted to
+fortifying this position, and demolishing beliefs inconsistent with
+it. As a systematic psychologist Mr. Mill has not done so much as
+either Professor Bain or Mr. Herbert Spencer. The perfection of his
+method, its application, and the uprooting of prejudices which stood
+in its way,--this was the task to which Mr. Mill applied himself with
+an ability and success rarely matched and never surpassed.
+
+The biggest lion in the path was the doctrine of so-called "necessary
+truth." This doctrine was especially obnoxious to him, as it set up a
+purely subjective standard of truth, and a standard--as he was easily
+able to show--varying according to the psychological history of the
+individual. Such thinkers as Dr. Whewell and Mr. Herbert Spencer had
+to be met in intellectual combat. Dr. Whewell held, not that the
+inconceivability of the contradictory of a proposition is a proof of
+its truth co-equal with experience, but that its value transcends
+experience. Experience may tell us what _is_; but it is by the
+impossibility of conceiving it otherwise that we know it _must be_.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, too, holds that propositions whose negation is
+inconceivable have "a higher warrant than any other whatever." It is
+through this door that ontological belief was supposed to enter.
+"Things in themselves" were to be believed in because we could not
+help it. Modern Noumenalists agree that we can know nothing more of
+"things in themselves" than their existence, but this they continue to
+assert with a vehemence only equalled by its want of meaning.
+
+In his "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," Mr. Mill
+gives battle to this mode of thought. After reviewing, in an opening
+chapter, the various views which have been held respecting the
+relativity of human knowledge, and stating his own doctrine, he
+proceeds to judge by this standard the philosophy of the absolute and
+Sir William Hamilton's relation to it. The argument is really on the
+question whether we have or have not an intuition of God, though, as
+Mr. Mill says, "the name of God is veiled under two extremely abstract
+phrases,--'The Infinite' and 'The Absolute.'" So profound and friendly
+a thinker as the late Mr. Grote held this raising of the veil
+inexpedient, but he proved, by a mistake he fell into, the necessity
+of looking at the matter in the concrete. He acknowledged the force of
+Mr. Mill's argument, that "The Infinite" must include "a farrago of
+contradictions;" but so also, he said, does the Finite. Now
+undoubtedly finite things, taken distributively, have contradictory
+attributes, but not as a class. Still less is there any one individual
+thing, "The Finite," in which these contradictory attributes inhere.
+But it was against a corresponding being, "The Infinite," that Mr.
+Mill was arguing. It is this that he calls a "fasciculus of
+contradictions," and regarded as the _reductio ad absurdissimum_ of
+the transcendental philosophy.
+
+Mr. Mill's religious tendencies may very well be gathered from a
+passage in his review of Auguste Comte, a philosopher with whom he
+agreed on all points save those which are specially M. Comte's.
+"Candid persons of all creeds may be willing to admit, that if a
+person has an ideal object, his attachment and sense of duty towards
+which are able to control and discipline all his other sentiments and
+propensities, and prescribe to him a rule of life, that person has a
+religion; and though every one naturally prefers his own religion to
+any other, all must admit, that if the object of his attachment, and
+of this feeling of duty, is the aggregate of our fellow-creatures,
+this religion of the infidel cannot in honesty and conscience be
+called an intrinsically bad one. Many indeed may be unable to believe
+that this object is capable of gathering round it feelings
+sufficiently strong; but this is exactly the point on which a doubt
+can hardly remain in an intelligent reader of M. Comte: and we join
+with him in contemning, as equally irrational and mean, the conception
+of human nature as incapable of giving its love, and devoting its
+existence, to any object which cannot afford in exchange an eternity
+of personal enjoyment." Never has the libel of humanity involved in
+the current theology been more forcibly pointed out, with its constant
+appeal to low motives of personal gain, or still lower motives of
+personal fear. Never has the religious sentiment which must take the
+place of the present awe of the unknown been more clearly indicated.
+It is this noble sentiment which shines out from every page of Mr.
+Mill's writings and all his relations to his fellow-creatures: the
+very birds about his dwelling seemed to recognize it. It is this noble
+sentiment which infuses a soul of life into his teachings, and the
+enunciation and acting-out of which constitute him, not only the great
+philosopher, but also the great prophet of our time.
+
+J. H. LEVY.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE
+
+
+The two chief characteristics of Mr. Mill's mind are conspicuous in
+the field of morals and jurisprudence. He united in an extraordinary
+degree an intense delight in thinking for its own sake, with an almost
+passionate desire to make his intellectual excursions contribute to
+the amelioration of the lot of mankind, especially of the poorer and
+suffering part of mankind. And yet he never allowed those high aims to
+clash with one another: he did not degrade his intellect to the
+sophistical office of finding reasons for a policy arising from mere
+emotion, nor did he permit it to run waste in barren speculations,
+which might have excited admiration, but never could have done any
+good. This is the reason why so many persons have been unable to
+understand him as the prophet of utilitarianism. A man of such
+exquisite feeling, of such pure conscientiousness, of such
+self-denying life, must surely be an advocate of what is called
+absolute morality. Utilitarianism is the proper creed of hard
+unemotional natures, who do not respond to the more subtle moral
+influences. Such is the view natural to those who cannot dissociate
+the word "utilitarianism" from the narrow meaning of utility, as
+contrasted with the pleasures of art. The infirmity of human
+language excuses such errors; for the language in which controversy
+is conducted is so colored by sentiment that it may well happen
+that two shall agree on the thing, and fight to the death about
+the word. We need the support of such reflections when we recall
+the history of such a word as "pleasure." To pursue pleasure, say the
+anti-utilitarians, is a swinish doctrine. "Yes," replied Mr. Mill, "if
+men were swine, and capable only of the pleasures appropriate to that
+species of animals." Those who could not answer this argument, and at
+the same time cannot divest themselves of the association of pleasure
+with the ignoble, took refuge in the charge of inconsistency, and,
+finding there was not less but more nobility in Mr. Mill's writing
+than their own theory, accused him of abandoning the tradition of his
+school. Mahomet would not go to the mountain, and they pleased
+themselves with the thought that the mountain had gone to Mahomet.
+Such a charge is really tantamount to a confession that popular
+antipathy was more easily excited by the word than by the real
+doctrine. Nevertheless Mr. Mill did an incalculable service in showing
+not less by his whole life, than by his writings, that utilitarianism
+takes account of all that is good in man's nature, and includes the
+highest emotions, as well as those that are more commonplace. He took
+away a certain reproach of narrowness, which was never in the
+doctrine, and which was loudly, though perhaps with little reason,
+urged against some of its most conspicuous supporters. An important
+addition to the theory of morals is also contained in the book on
+"Utilitarianism." His analysis of "justice" is one of the happiest
+efforts of inductive definition to be found in any book on ethics.
+From any point of view, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to
+the literature of ethical philosophy.
+
+The somewhat technical subject of jurisprudence was not too much for
+Mr. Mill's immense power of assimilation. One of his earliest efforts
+was as editor of Bentham's "Rationale of Judicial Evidence." He must,
+therefore, at an early period, have been master of the most original
+and enlightened theory of judicial evidence that the world has seen.
+He lived to see nearly all the important innovations proposed by
+Bentham become part and parcel of the law of the land; one of the last
+relics of bigotry--the exclusion of honest atheists (and only of such)
+from the witness-box--having been removed two or three years ago. Mr.
+Mill, in after years, attended Austin's famous lectures on
+jurisprudence, taking extensive notes; so that he was able to supply
+the matter wanting to complete two important lectures, as they were
+printed in the first edition of Austin's works. Among the
+"Dissertations and Discussions," is a criticism of Austin's work,
+which shows that he was far more than a scholar,--a most competent
+judge of his master. He pointed out in Austin's definition of "right"
+a real defect. One of the points that Austin elaborated most was a
+classification such as might serve for a scientific code of law. Mr.
+Mill fully acknowledged the merits of the scheme, but laid his finger
+unerringly on its weakest part. His remarks show, that, if he had
+followed up the subject with an adequate knowledge of any good system
+of law, he would have rivalled or surpassed his achievements in other
+departments of knowledge.
+
+W. A. HUNTER.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+
+
+The task of fairly estimating the value of Mr. Mill's achievements in
+political economy--and indeed the same remark applies to what he has
+done in every department of philosophy--is rendered particularly
+difficult by a circumstance which constitutes their principal merit.
+The character of his intellectual, no less than of his moral nature,
+led him to strive to connect his thoughts, whatever was the branch of
+knowledge at which he labored, with the previously-existing body of
+speculation, to fit them into the same framework, and exhibit them as
+parts of the same scheme; so that it might be truly said of him, that
+he was at more pains to conceal the originality and independent value
+of his contributions to the stock of knowledge than most writers are
+to set forth those qualities in their compositions. As a consequence
+of this, hasty readers of his works, while recognizing the
+comprehensiveness of his mind, have sometimes denied its originality;
+and in political economy in particular he has been frequently
+represented as little more than an expositor and popularizer of
+Ricardo. It cannot be denied that there is a show of truth in this
+representation; about as much as there would be in asserting that
+Laplace and Herschel were the expositors and popularizers of Newton,
+or that Faraday performed a like office for Sir Humphry Davy. In
+truth, this is an incident of all progressive science. The cultivators
+in each age may, in a sense, be said to be the interpreters and
+popularizers of those who have preceded them; and it is in this sense,
+and in this sense only, that this part can be attributed to Mill. In
+this respect he is to be strongly contrasted with the great majority
+of writers on political economy, who, on the strength perhaps of a
+verbal correction or an unimportant qualification of a received
+doctrine, if not on the score of a pure fallacy, would fain persuade
+us that they have achieved a revolution in economic doctrine, and that
+the entire science must be rebuilt from its foundation in conformity
+with their scheme. This sort of thing has done infinite mischief to
+the progress of economic science; and one of Mill's great merits is,
+that both by example and by precept he steadily discountenanced it.
+His anxiety to affiliate his own speculations to those of his
+predecessors is a marked feature in all his philosophical works, and
+illustrates at once the modesty and comprehensiveness of his mind.
+
+It is quite true that Mill, as an economist, was largely indebted to
+Ricardo; and he has so fully and frequently acknowledged the debt,
+that there is some danger of rating the obligation too highly. As he
+himself used to put it, Ricardo supplied the backbone of the science;
+but it is not less certain that the limbs, the joints, the muscular
+developments,--all that renders political economy a complete and
+organized body of knowledge,--have been the work of Mill. In Ricardo's
+great work, the fundamental doctrines of production, distribution, and
+exchange have been laid down, but for the most part in mere outline;
+so much so, that superficial students are in general wholly unable to
+connect his statement of principles with the facts, as we find them,
+of industrial life. Hence we have innumerable "refutations of
+Ricardo,"--almost invariably refutations of the writers' own
+misconceptions. In Mill's exposition, the connection between
+principles and facts becomes clear and intelligible. The conditions
+and modes of action are exhibited by which human wants and
+desires--the motive powers of industry--come to issue in the actual
+phenomena of wealth, and political economy becomes a system of
+doctrines susceptible of direct application to human affairs. As an
+example, I may refer to Mill's development of Ricardo's doctrine of
+foreign trade. In Ricardo's pages, the fundamental principles of that
+department of exchange are indeed laid down with a master's hand; but
+for the majority of readers they have little relation to the actual
+commerce of the world. Turn to Mill, and all becomes clear. Principles
+of the most abstract kind are translated into concrete language, and
+brought to explain familiar facts; and this result is achieved, not
+simply or chiefly by virtue of mere lucidity of exposition, but
+through the discovery and exhibition of modifying conditions and links
+in the chain of causes overlooked by Ricardo. It was in his "Essays on
+Unsettled Questions in Political Economy" that his views upon this
+subject were first given to the world,--a work of which M. Cherbuliez
+of Geneva speaks as "un travail le plus important et le plus original
+dont la science economique se soit enrichie depuis une vingtaine
+d'années."
+
+On some points, however, and these points of supreme importance, the
+contributions of Mill to economic science are very much more than
+developments--even though we understand that term in its largest
+sense--of any previous writer. No one can have studied political
+economy in the works of its earlier cultivators without being struck
+with the dreariness of the outlook which, in the main, it discloses
+for the human race. It seems to have been Ricardo's deliberate
+opinion, that a substantial improvement in the condition of the mass
+of mankind was impossible. He considered it as the normal state of
+things that wages should be at the _minimum_ requisite to support the
+laborer in physical health and strength, and to enable him to bring up
+a family large enough to supply the wants of the labor-market. A
+temporary improvement indeed, as the consequence of expanding commerce
+and growing capital, he saw that there might be; but he held that the
+force of the principle of population was always powerful enough so to
+augment the supply of labor as to bring wages ever again down to the
+_minimum_ point. So completely had this belief become a fixed idea in
+Ricardo's mind, that he confidently drew from it the consequence, that
+in no case could taxation fall on the laborer, since--living, as a
+normal state of things, on the lowest possible stipend adequate to
+maintain him and his family--he would inevitably, he argued, transfer
+the burden to his employer; and a tax nominally on wages would in the
+result become invariably a tax upon profits. On this point Mill's
+doctrine leads to conclusions directly opposed to Ricardo's, and to
+those of most preceding economists. And it will illustrate his
+position as a thinker, in relation to them, if we note how this result
+was obtained. Mill neither denied the premises nor disputed the logic
+of Ricardo's argument: he accepted both; and in particular he
+recognized fully the force of the principle of population; but he took
+account of a further premise which Ricardo had overlooked, and which,
+duly weighed, led to a reversal of Ricardo's conclusion. The _minimum_
+of wages, even such as it exists in the case of the worst-paid
+laborer, is not the very least sum that human nature can subsist upon:
+it is something more than this; in the case of all above the
+worst-paid class it is decidedly more. The _minimum_ is, in truth, not
+a physical but a moral _minimum_, and as such, is capable of being
+altered with the changes in the moral character of those whom it
+affects. In a word, each class has a certain standard of comfort below
+which it will not consent to live, or at least to multiply,--a
+standard, however, not fixed, but liable to modification with the
+changing circumstances of society, and which, in the case of a
+progressive community, is, in point of fact, constantly rising, as
+moral and intellectual influences are brought more and more
+effectually to bear on the masses of the people. This was the new
+premise brought by Mill to the elucidation of the wages question; and
+it sufficed to change the entire aspect of human life regarded from
+the point of view of political economy. The practical deductions made
+from it were set forth in the celebrated chapter on "The Future of
+the Industrial Classes,"--a chapter which it is no exaggeration to say
+places a gulf between Mill and all who preceded him, and opens an
+entirely new vista to economic speculation.
+
+The doctrine of the science with which Mill's name has been most
+prominently associated within the last few years is that which relates
+to the economic nature of land, and the consequences to which this
+should lead in practical legislation. It is very commonly believed,
+that on this point Mill has started aside from the beaten highway of
+economic thought, and propounded views wholly at variance with those
+generally entertained by orthodox economists. No economist need be
+told that this is an entire mistake. In truth, there is no portion of
+the economic field in which Mill's originality is less conspicuous
+than in that which deals with the land. His assertion of the peculiar
+nature of landed property, and again his doctrine as to the "unearned
+increment" of value arising from land with the growth of society, are
+simply direct deductions from Ricardo's theory of rent, and cannot be
+consistently denied by any one who accepts that theory. All that Mill
+has done here has been to point the application of principles all but
+universally accepted to the practical affairs of life. This is not the
+place to consider how far the plan proposed by him for this purpose is
+susceptible of practical realization; but it may at least be
+confidently stated, that the scientific basis on which his proposal
+rests is no strange novelty invented by him, but simply a principle as
+fundamental and widely recognized as any within the range of the
+science of which it forms a part.
+
+I have just remarked that Mill's originality is less conspicuous in
+relation to the economic theory of land than in other problems of
+political economy, but the reader must not understand me from this to
+say, that he has not very largely contributed to the elucidation of
+this topic. He has indeed done so, though not, as is commonly
+supposed, by setting aside principles established by his predecessors,
+but, as his manner was, while accepting those principles, by
+introducing a new premise into the argument. The new premise
+introduced in this case was the influence of custom as modifying the
+action of competition. The existence of an active competition, on the
+one hand between farmers seeking farms, on the other between farming
+and other modes of industry as offering inducements to the investment
+of capital, is a constant assumption in the reasoning by which Ricardo
+arrived at his theory of rent. Granting this assumption, it followed
+that farmers as a rule would pay neither higher nor lower rents than
+would leave them in possession of the average profits on their capital
+current in the country. Mill fully acknowledged the force of this
+reasoning, and accepted the conclusion as true wherever the conditions
+assumed were realized; but he proceeded to point out, that, in point
+of fact, the conditions are not realized over the greater portion of
+the world, and, as a consequence, that the rent actually paid by the
+cultivators to the owners of the soil by no means, as a general rule,
+corresponds with that portion of the produce which Ricardo considered
+as properly "rent." The real regulator of actual rent over the greater
+part of the habitable globe was, he showed, not competition, but
+custom; and he further pointed out that there are countries in which
+the actual rent paid by the cultivators is governed neither by the
+causes set forth by Ricardo, nor yet by custom, but by a third cause
+different from either,--the absolute will of the owners of the soil,
+controlled only by the physical exigencies of the cultivator, or by
+the fear of his vengeance if disturbed in his holding. The recognition
+of this state of things threw an entirely new light over the whole
+problem of land-tenure, and plainly furnished grounds for legislative
+interference in the contracts between landlords and tenants. Its
+application to Ireland was obvious; and Mill himself, as the world
+knows, did not hesitate to urge the application with all the energy
+and enthusiasm which he invariably threw into every cause that he
+espoused.
+
+In the above remarks, I have attempted to indicate briefly some few of
+the salient features in Mill's contributions to the science of
+political economy. There is still one more which ought not to be
+omitted from even the most meagre summary. Mill was not the first to
+treat political economy as a science; but he was the first, if not to
+perceive, at least to enforce the lesson, that, just because it is a
+science, its conclusions carried with them no obligatory force with
+reference to human conduct. As a science, it tells us that certain
+modes of action lead to certain results; but it remains for each man
+to judge of the value of the results thus brought about, and to decide
+whether or not it is worth while to adopt the means necessary for
+their attainment. In the writings of the economists who preceded Mill,
+it is very generally assumed, that to prove that a certain course of
+conduct tends to the most rapid increase of wealth suffices to entail
+upon all who accept the argument the obligation of adopting the course
+which leads to this result. Mill absolutely repudiated this inference,
+and, while accepting the theoretic conclusion, held himself perfectly
+free to adopt in practice whatever course he preferred. It was not for
+political economy or for any science to say what are the ends most
+worthy of being pursued by human beings; the task of science is
+complete when it shows us the means by which the ends may be attained;
+but it is for each individual man to decide how far the end is
+desirable at the cost which its attainment involves. In a word, the
+sciences should be our servants, and not our masters. This was a
+lesson which Mill was the first to enforce, and by enforcing which he
+may be said to have emancipated economists from the thraldom of their
+own teaching. It is in no slight degree through the constant
+recognition of its truth, that he has been enabled to divest of
+repulsiveness even the most abstract speculations, and to impart a
+glow of human interest to all that he has touched.
+
+J. E. CAIRNES.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.
+
+
+Some time ago, when there was no reason to suppose that we should so
+soon have to mourn the loss of the great thinker and of the kind
+friend who has just passed away, I had occasion to remark upon the
+influence which Mr. Mill had exercised at the universities. I will
+quote my words as they stand, because it is difficult to write with
+impartiality about one whose recent death we are deploring; and Mr.
+Mill would, I am sure, have been the first to say, that it is
+certainly not honoring the memory of one who is dead to lavish upon
+him praise which would not be bestowed upon him if he were living. I
+will therefore repeat my words exactly as they were written two years
+since: 'Any one who has resided during the last twenty years at either
+of our universities must have noticed that Mr. Mill is the author who
+has most powerfully influenced nearly all the young men of the
+greatest promise.' In thus referring to the powerful influence
+exercised by Mr. Mill's works, I do not wish it to be supposed that
+this influence is to be measured by the extent to which his books form
+a part of the university _curriculum_. His "Logic" has no doubt
+become a standard examination-book at Oxford. At Cambridge the
+mathematical and classical triposes still retain their former
+_prestige_. The moral science tripos, though increasing in importance,
+still attracts a comparatively small number of students, and there is
+probably no other examination for which it is necessary to read Mr.
+Mill's "Logic" and "Political Economy." This fact affords the most
+satisfactory evidence that the influence he has exerted is
+spontaneous, and is therefore likely to be lasting in its effects. If
+students had been driven to read his books by the necessity which
+examinations impose, it is quite possible, that, after the
+examination, the books might never be looked at again. A resident,
+however, at the university can scarcely fail to be struck with the
+fact, that many who perfectly well know that they will never in any
+examination be asked to answer a question in logic or political
+economy are among the most diligent students of Mr. Mill's books. When
+I was an undergraduate, I well remember that most of my friends who
+were likely to take high mathematical honors were already so
+ultimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings, and were so much
+imbued with their spirit, that they might have been regarded as his
+disciples. Many looked up to him as their teacher; many have since
+felt that he then instilled into them principles, which, to a great
+extent, have guided their conduct in after life. Any one who is
+intimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings will readily understand
+how it is that they possess such peculiar attractiveness for the class
+of readers to whom I am now referring. There is nothing more
+characteristic in his writings than generosity and courage. He always
+states his opponent's case with the most judicial impartiality. He
+never shrinks from the expression of opinion because he thinks it
+unpopular; and there is nothing so abhorrent to him as that bigotry
+which prevents a man from appreciating what is just and true in the
+views of those who differ from him. This toleration, which is so
+predominant a feature of his writings, is probably one of the rarest
+of all qualities in a controversialist. Those who do not possess it
+always produce an impression that they are unfair; and this
+impression, once produced, exercises a repelling influence upon the
+young. Another cause of the attractiveness of Mr. Mill's writings is
+the precision with which his views are expressed, and the systematic
+form which is given to his opinions. Confidence is reposed in him as a
+guide, because it is found that there is some definite goal to which
+he is leading his readers: he does not conduct them they know not
+whither, as a traveller who has lost his way in a mist, or a navigator
+who is steering his ship without a compass. The influence exercised by
+Mr. Mill does not chiefly depend upon the originality of his writings.
+He did not make any great discovery which will form an epoch in the
+history of human thought; he did not create a new science, or become
+the founder of a new system of philosophy. There is perhaps not so
+much originality in his "Political Economy" as in Ricardo's; but there
+are thousands who never thought of reading Ricardo who were so much
+attracted by Mr. Mill's book, that its influence might be traced
+throughout the rest of their lives. No doubt one reason of his
+attractiveness as a writer, in addition to other circumstances to
+which allusion has already been made, is the unusual power he
+possessed in applying philosophical principles to the facts of
+ordinary life. To those who believe that the influence Mr. Mill has
+exercised at the universities has been in the highest degree
+beneficial,--to those who think that his books not only afford the
+most admirable intellectual training, but also are calculated to
+produce a most healthy moral influence,--it may be some consolation,
+now that we are deploring his death, to know, that, although he has
+passed away, he may still continue to be a teacher and a guide. I
+believe he never visited the English universities: it was consequently
+entirely through his books that he was known. Not one of those who
+were his greatest admirers at Cambridge, when I was an undergraduate,
+ever saw him till many years after they had left the University. I
+remember that we often used to say, that there was nothing we should
+esteem so great a privilege as to spend an hour in Mr. Mill's society.
+There is probably no bond of attachment stronger than that which
+unites a pupil to one who has attracted him to new intellectual
+pursuits, and has awakened in him new interests in life. Some four or
+five years after taking my degree, I met Mr. Mill for the first time;
+and from that hour an intimate friendship commenced, which I shall
+always regard as a peculiarly high privilege to have enjoyed. Intimacy
+with Mr. Mill convinced me, that, if he had happened to live at either
+of the universities, his personal influence would have been no less
+striking than his intellectual influence. Nothing, perhaps, was so
+remarkable in his character as his tenderness to the feelings of
+others, and the deference with which he listened to those in every
+respect inferior to himself. There never was a man who was more
+entirely free from that intellectual conceit which breeds disdain.
+Nothing is so discouraging and heart-breaking to young people as the
+sneer of an intellectual cynic. A sarcasm about an act of youthful
+mental enthusiasm not only often casts a fatal chill over the
+character, but is resented as an injury never to be forgiven. The most
+humble youth would have found in Mr. Mill the warmest and most kindly
+sympathy.
+
+It may be said, if Mr. Mill has not become the founder of a new
+philosophical school at the universities where must we seek the result
+of his influence? I cannot give any thing like a complete reply to
+this question now; but any one who has observed the marked change
+which has come over the mode of thought in the universities in the
+last few years will be able to form some idea of the kind of influence
+which has been exercised by Mr. Mill. Speaking generally, he has
+obtained a very wide acceptance of the utilitarian doctrines: they
+were presented by Bentham in a form so harsh and unattractive as to
+produce an almost repelling effect. Mr. Mill, on the contrary, showed
+that the utilitarian philosophy might inspire the most active
+benevolence and the most generous enthusiasm. This acceptance of
+utilitarianism has produced a very striking effect in modifying the
+political opinions prevalent in the universities. For many years what
+has been known as the liberalism of young Oxford and Cambridge is in
+many respects fundamentally different from what is known as liberalism
+outside the universities. The liberalism of the universities, as well
+as that of the Manchester school, are both popularly described as
+advanced but between the two there is in many essentials the widest
+possible divergence. What is known as Philosophical Radicalism will
+long bear the impression of Mr. Mill's teaching.
+
+It should be particularly remembered, that, avowing himself a liberal,
+he never forgot that it is the essence of true liberalism to be
+tolerant of opinions from which one differs, and to appreciate the
+advantages of branches of learning to which one has not devoted
+special attention. It is somewhat rare to find that those who profess
+themselves undoubted liberals are prepared to accept a consistent
+application of their principles. There is almost sure to be some
+region of inquiry which they regard as so dangerous that they regret
+that any one should enter upon it. Sometimes it is said that freedom
+of thought, though admirable in politics, is mischievous in theology:
+some, advancing what they believe to be one step further, express a
+general approbation of freedom of thought, but stigmatize
+free-thinkers. Again, it may be not infrequently observed that
+devotion to some particular study makes men illiberal to other
+branches of knowledge. Metaphysicians and physiologists who have never
+taken the trouble to master mathematical principles dogmatically
+denounce the influence of mathematics. Eminent classics and
+mathematicians have too frequently sneered at each other's studies. No
+one was ever more free from this kind of bigotry than Mr. Mill, and it
+probably constitutes one of the main causes of his influence. Some
+years ago I happened to be conversing at Cambridge with three men who
+were respectively of great eminence in mathematics, classics, and
+physiology. We were discussing the inaugural address which Mr. Mill
+had just delivered as rector of the St. Andrew's University. The
+mathematician said, that he had never seen the advantages to be
+derived from the study of mathematics so justly and so forcibly
+described; the same remark was made by the classic about classics, and
+by the physiologist about natural science. No more fitting homage can
+probably be offered to the memory of one to whom so many of us are
+bound by the strongest ties of gratitude and affection, than if,
+profiting by his example, we endeavor to remember, that above all
+things he was just to his opponents, that he appreciated opinions from
+which he differed, and that one of his highest claims to our
+admiration was his general sympathy with all branches of knowledge.
+
+HENRY FAWCETT.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.
+
+
+Every one must be familiar with the often expressed opinion, that, as
+a practical politician, Mr. Mill's career was essentially a failure.
+It has been said a thousand times that the principal result of his
+brief representation of Westminster was to furnish an additional
+proof, if one were wanted, that a philosopher is totally incapable of
+exercising any useful influence in the direction of practical
+politics. It is proposed briefly to examine this opinion, though it
+may, indeed, with truth be urged that the present time is not
+calculated to make the examination an impartial one. The inquiry
+involves an almost constant reference, either expressed or implied, to
+Mr. Mill's personal character and influence, and it is hardly possible
+for those who are mourning him as a friend to speak of these
+dispassionately. It is perhaps hardly necessary at such a time as this
+to ask the indulgence of the reader if this unworthy tribute to the
+memory of a great man is colored by personal reverence and gratitude.
+
+When, it is said that Mr. Mill failed as a practical politician,
+there are two questions to be asked: "Who says he has failed?" And
+"What is it said that he failed in?" Now, it seems that the persons
+who are loudest in the assertion of his failure are precisely those to
+whom the reforms advocated by Mr. Mill in his writings are
+distasteful. They are those who pronounce all schemes of electoral
+reform embodying the principle of proportional representation to be
+the result of a conspiracy of fools and rogues; they are those who
+sneer at the "fanciful rights of women;" they are those who think our
+present land tenure eminently calculated to make the rich contented,
+and keep the poor in their proper places; they are those who believe
+that republicans and atheists ought to be treated like vermin, and
+exterminated accordingly; they are those who think that all must be
+well with England if her imports and exports are increasing, and that
+we are justified in repudiating our foreign engagements, if to
+maintain them would have an injurious effect upon trade. The assertion
+of failure coming from such persons does not mean that Mr. Mill failed
+to promote the practical success of those objects the advocacy of
+which forms the chief feature of his political writings. It is rather
+a measure of his success in promoting these objects, and of the
+disgust with which his success is regarded by those who are opposed to
+his political ideas. It was known, or ought to have been known, by
+every one who supported Mr. Mill's candidature in 1865, that he was a
+powerful advocate of proportional representation, and that he
+attributed the very greatest importance to the political, industrial,
+and social emancipation of women; he advocated years ago, in his
+"Political Economy," the scheme of land tenure reform with which his
+name is now practically associated; his essay "On Liberty" left no
+doubt as to his opinions upon the value of maintaining freedom of
+thought and speech, his article entitled "A Few Words on
+Non-intervention" might have warned the partisans of the Manchester
+school that he had no sympathy with their views on foreign policy.
+There is little doubt that the majority of Mr. Mill's supporters in
+1865 did not know what his political opinions were, and that they
+voted for him simply on his reputation as a great thinker. A large
+number, however, probably supported him, knowing in a general way the
+views advocated in his writings, but thinking that he would probably
+be like many other politicians, and not allow his practice to be in
+the least degree influenced by his theories. Just as radical heirs
+apparent are said to lay aside all inconvenient revolutionary opinions
+when they come to the throne, it was believed that Mr. Mill in
+Parliament would be an entirely different person from Mr. Mill in his
+study. It was one thing to write an essay in favor of proportional
+representation it was another thing to assist in the insertion of the
+principle of proportional representation in the Reform Bill, and to
+form a school of practical politicians who took care to insure the
+adoption of this principle in the school board elections. It was one
+thing to advocate theoretically the claims of women to representation
+it was another to introduce the subject into the House of Commons, to
+promote an active political organization in its favor, and thus to
+convert it, from a philosophical dream, into a question of pressing
+and practical importance. It was one thing to advocate freedom of
+thought and discussion in all political and religious questions it was
+another to speak respectfully of Mr. Odger, and to send Mr. Bradlaugh
+a contribution toward the expenses of his candidature for Northampton.
+The discovery that Mr. Mill's chief objects in Parliament were the
+same as his chief objects out of Parliament branded him at once as an
+unpractical man: and his success in promoting these objects
+constituted his "failure" as a politician. His fearless disregard of
+unpopularity, as manifested in his prosecution, in conjunction with
+Mr. P.A. Taylor, of Ex-Governor Eyre, was another proof that he was
+entirely unlike the people who call themselves "practical
+politicians." His persistency in conducting this prosecution was one
+of the main causes of his defeat at the election of 1868.
+
+If to be unpopular because he promoted the practical success of the
+opinions his life had been spent in advocating is to have failed, then
+Mr. Mill failed. If, however, the success of a politician is to be
+measured by the degree in which he is able personally to influence the
+course of politics, and attach to himself a school of political
+thought, then Mr. Mill, in the best meaning of the words, has
+succeeded. If Mr. Mill had died ten years ago, is it probable that his
+views on representative reform would have received so much practical
+recognition as they have obtained during the last five years? If he
+had never entered the House of Commons, would the women's-suffrage
+question be where it now is? Before he introduced the subject into the
+House of Commons in 1867, it may be said to have had no political
+existence in this country. The whole question was held in such
+contempt by "practical politicians," that the House would probably
+have refused to listen to any member, except Mr. Mill, who advocated
+the removal of the political disabilities of women. Mr. Mill was the
+one member of Parliament whose high intellectual position enabled him
+to raise the question without being laughed down as a fool. To every
+one's astonishment, seventy-four members followed Mr. Mill into the
+lobby: the most sanguine estimate, previous to the division, of the
+number of his supporters had been thirty. Since that time, the
+movement in favor of women's suffrage has made rapid and steady
+progress. Like all genuine political movements, it has borne fruit in
+many measures which are intended to remove the grievances of which
+those who advocate the movement complain: among these collateral
+results of the agitation for women's suffrage, may be enumerated the
+Married Women's Property Act, the Custody of Infants Bill, and the
+admission of women to the municipal and educational franchises and to
+seats upon school-boards. A large part of the present anxiety to
+improve the education of girls and women is also due to the conviction
+that the political disabilities of women will not be maintained. In
+this question of the general improvement of the position of women, Mr.
+Mill's influence can scarcely be over-estimated. All through his life
+he regarded it as a question of first-rate importance; and the extent
+to which he was able practically to promote it is sufficient in itself
+to make his career as a politician a success. A strong proof of the
+vitality of the movement, of which he was the principal originator, is
+that his death cannot injuriously affect its activity or its prospects
+of ultimate success. What he has done for women is final: he gave to
+their service the best powers of his mind and the best years of his
+life. His death consecrates the gift: it can never lessen its value.
+
+What is true of Mr. Mill's influence on the women's-suffrage question
+is true also of the other political movements in which he took an
+active interest. He was able in all of these powerfully to influence
+the political history of his day in the direction in which he desired
+to influence it. If this is failure, failure is worth much more than
+success.
+
+Of the influence of Mr. Mill's personal character on those who were
+his political associates, it is difficult to speak too warmly. No one
+could be with him or work with him without being conscious of
+breathing a purer moral atmosphere: he made mean personal ambitions
+and rivalries seem despicable and ridiculous, not so much by any thing
+that he said directly on the subject, as by contrast with his own
+noble, strong, and generous nature. It is almost impossible to imagine
+that any one could be so insensible to the high morality of Mr. Mill's
+character as to suggest to him any course of conduct that was not
+entirely upright and consistent. A year or two ago, however, a story
+was told of a gentleman who asked Mr. Mill to stand for an Irish
+constituency, and stated that the only opinion it would be necessary
+for him to change was the one he had so often expressed against
+denominational education. A smile at the man's stupidity, and the
+remark, "I should like to have seen Mill's face when he heard this
+suggestion," is the almost invariable comment on this story. It is a
+very suggestive indication of the impression Mr. Mill's moral
+influence made on those who knew him.
+
+An apology is due to the readers of these pages that the task of
+speaking of Mr. Mill as a practical politician has not fallen into
+more competent hands. No one can be more deeply sensible of my
+inability to deal adequately with the subject than I am myself. This
+sketch ought to have been written by one who is in every way more
+qualified to speak of Mr. Mill's political career than I am.
+Unavoidable circumstances, however, prevented his undertaking the
+work; and as the time was too short to allow of any being spent in a
+search that might have proved fruitless, the honor of writing these
+lines has devolved upon me.
+
+MILLICENT GARRETT FAWCETT.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.[2]
+
+The present course of lectures on a special subject has made no
+pretension to present the religious aspect of Positivism, and I shall
+not venture to intrude on one of its gravest functions the due
+commemoration of the dead. But nothing that is spoken here should have
+a merely scientific form, nor can I be satisfied until I have tried to
+give expression to the feeling which must be foremost in the minds of
+all present. It is impossible to forget that it was by Mr. Mill that
+Comte was first made known in this country, and that by him first in
+this country the great doctrines of positive thought, the supreme
+reign of law in the moral and social world, no less than in the
+intellectual world, were reduced to system and life. This conception
+as a whole has been gradually forming in the minds of all modern
+thinkers; but its full scope and force were presented to Englishmen
+for the first time by Mr. Mill. The growth of my own mind, and of that
+of all those with whom I have been associated, has been simply the
+recognition of this truth in all its bearings and force; and it was
+in minds saturated with this principle by the teaching of Mr. Mill
+that the great phases of English thought have germinated in our day.
+In this place it is impossible to forget, that, in introducing to the
+English world the principles of Comte, Mr. Mill so clearly and
+ardently professed the positive philosophy at that time restricted to
+its earlier phase alone. In this place it is impossible, too, to
+forget the generous assistance which he extended to Comte, whereby he
+was enabled to continue his labors in philosophy, impossible also to
+forget the active communion of mind between them, and the large space
+which their intercourse occupied in the thoughts and labors of both.
+Nor can I, and many present here, forget the many occasions on which
+we have been guided by his counsel and supported by his help in many a
+practical work in which we have depended on his example and
+experience. It is needless to repeat, for it must be present to all
+minds, how many and deep are the differences which separate him from
+the later doctrines of Comte, and how completely he repudiated
+connection with the religious reconstruction of Positivism. We here,
+at any rate, shall claim Mr. Mill for Positivism in no other sense
+than that in which he claimed it for himself in his own latest
+writings. These differences we shall neither exaggerate nor veil. They
+stand all written most clearly for all men to weigh and to use. But
+naturally we shall point, as one of us has already publicly pointed,
+to the cardinal features of agreement, and the vast importance of the
+features for which we may claim the whole weight of his authority. Yet
+I would not pretend that it is only on this side of his connection
+with the founder and principles of Positivism, that we dwell on the
+memory of Mr. Mill with admiration and sympathy. We reverence that
+unfaltering fearlessness of spirit, that warmth of generous emotion,
+that guileless simplicity of nature, which made his life heroic.
+Neither insult, failure, nor abandonment could shake his sense of
+duty, or touch his gentle and serene fortitude. For us his high
+example, his noble philosophic calm, continue to live and to teach.
+He, being dead, yet speaketh. And, if his great heart and brain are no
+longer amongst us as visible and conscious agencies, his spirit lives
+yet in all that he has given to the generation of to-day: the work of
+his spirit is not ended, nor the task of his life accomplished; but we
+feel that his nature is entering on a new and greater life amongst
+us,--one that is entirely spiritual, intellectual, and moral.
+
+FREDERIC HARRISON.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [2] Part of a lecture on "Political Institutions," delivered
+     at the Positivist School, May 11.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.
+
+
+It is always hazardous to forecast the estimation in which any man
+will be held by posterity. In one sense truly we have no right to
+anticipate the judgment of the future, sufficient for us to form
+opinions satisfactory within the limits of our own generation.
+Sometimes, by evil chance, a great name is covered with undeserved
+reproach; and it is reserved for a distant future to do it justice.
+But such a work as Mr. Carlyle did for Cromwell we may confidently
+anticipate will never be required for the name of John Stuart Mill. He
+is already enrolled among the first of contemporary thinkers, and from
+that list his name will never be erased. The nature of Mr. Mill's work
+is such as to make it easy to predict the character of his future
+reputation. His is the kind of philosophy that is destined to become
+the commonplace of the future. We may anticipate that many of his most
+remarkable views will become obsolete in the best sense: they will
+become worked up into practice, and embodied in institutions. Indeed,
+the place that he will hold will probably be closely resembling that
+of the great father of English philosophy,--John Locke. There is
+indeed, amid distinguishing differences, a remarkable similarity
+between the two men, and the character of their influence on the
+world. What Locke was to the liberal movements of the seventeenth
+century, Mr. Mill has more than been to the liberal movement of the
+nineteenth century. The intellectual powers of the two men had much in
+common, and they were exercised upon precisely similar subjects. The
+"Essay on the Human Understanding" covered doubtless a field more
+purely psychological than the "Logic;" but we must remember that the
+"Analysis of the Mind" by the elder Mill had recently carried the
+inductive study of mind to an advanced point. If, however, we regard
+less the topics on which these two illustrious men wrote, than the
+special service rendered by each of them to intellectual progress, we
+may not unfittingly compare the work of Locke--the descent from
+metaphysics to psychology--to the noble purpose of redeeming logic
+from the superstition of the Aristotelians, and exalting it to
+something higher than a mere verbal exercise for school-boys. The
+attack that Locke opened with such tremendous effect on the _a priori_
+school of philosophy was never more ably supported than by the "Logic"
+and controversial writings of Mr. Mill.
+
+The remarkable fact in regard to both these great thinkers--these
+conquerors in the realms of abstract speculation--is their relation to
+politics. Locke was the political philosopher of the Revolution of
+1688; Mr. Mill has been the political philosopher of the democracy of
+the nineteenth century. The vast space that lies between their
+treatises represents a difference, not in the men, but in the times.
+Locke found opposed to the common weal an odious theory of arbitrary
+and absolute power. It is interesting to remember what were the giants
+necessary to be slain in those days. The titles of his first chapters
+on "Government" significantly attest the rudimentary condition of
+political philosophy in Locke's day. Adam was generally considered to
+have had a divine power of government, which was transmitted to a
+favored few of his descendants. Accordingly Locke disposes of Adam's
+title to sovereignty to whatever origin it may have been ascribed,--to
+"creation," "donation," "the subjection of Eve," or "fatherhood."
+There is something almost ludicrous in discussing fundamental
+questions of government with reference to such scriptural topics; and
+it is a striking evidence of the change that has passed over England
+since the Revolution, that, whereas Locke's argument looks like a
+commentary on the Bible, even the bishops now do not in Parliament
+quote the Bible on the question of marriage with a deceased wife's
+sister. Nevertheless Locke clearly propounded the great principle,
+which, in spite of many errors and much selfishness, has been the
+fruitful heritage of the Whig party. "Political power, then, I take to
+be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently
+all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and
+of employing the force of the community in the execution of such laws,
+and in the defence of the commonwealth from foreign injury, _and all
+this only for the public good_." Locke also enounced the maxim, that
+the state of nature is one of equality. Mr. Mill's special views on
+the land question are not without parallel in Locke; for that acute
+thinker distinctively laid down that "labor" was the true ground even
+of property in land. Still it must be confessed that Locke's political
+philosophy is much cruder than Mr. Mill's. His "Essay on Government"
+is as the rough work of a boy of genius, the "Representative
+Government" a finished work of art of the experienced master. And this
+difference corresponds with the rate of political progress. The
+English constitution, as we now understand it, was unknown at the
+Revolution: it had to be slowly created. Now the great task of the
+future is to raise the mass of the people to a higher standard of
+political intelligence and material comfort. To that great end no man
+has contributed so much as Mr. Mill.
+
+Perhaps the one writing for which above all others Mr. Mill's
+disciples will love his memory is his essay "On Liberty." In this
+undertaking Mr. Mill followed the noble precedent of Locke, with
+greater largeness of view and perfection of work. Locke's four letters
+"Concerning Toleration" constitute a splendid manifesto of the
+Liberals of the seventeenth century. The principle, that the ends of
+political society are life, health, liberty, and immunity from harm,
+and not the salvation of souls, has taken nearly two centuries to root
+itself in English law, but has long been recognized by all but the
+shallowest bigots. And yet Locke spoke of "atheism being a crime,
+which, for its madness as well as guilt, ought to shut a man out of
+all sober and civil society." Here again, what a stride does the
+_Liberty_ make? It is, once more, the difference of the times, rather
+than of the men. The same noble and prescient insight into the springs
+of national greatness and social progress characterizes the work of
+both men, but in what different measures? Again, we must say, the
+disciple is greater than the master. Closely bearing on this topic is
+the relation of the two men to Christianity. Locke not only wrote to
+show the "Reasonableness of Christianity," but paraphrased several of
+the books of the New Testament. Mr. Mill has never written one
+sentence to give the least encouragement to Christianity. But,
+although a contrast appears to exist, there is really none. Locke was
+what may be called a Bible Christian. He rejected all theological
+systems, and constructed his religious belief in the truly Protestant
+way,--with the Bible and his inner consciousness. His creed was the
+Bible as conformed to reason; but he never doubted which, in the event
+of a conflict, ought to give way. To him the destructive criticism of
+biblical scholars and the discoveries of geology had given no
+disquietude; and he died with the happy conviction, that, without
+abandoning his religious teaching, he could remain faithful to reason.
+Mr. Mill inherited a vast controversy, and he had to make a choice
+like Locke, he remained faithful only to reason.
+
+Perhaps, it might be urged, this comparison leaves out of account the
+very greatest work of Mr. Mill,--his 'Political Economy.' Locke lived
+too soon to be an Adam Smith; but, curiously enough, the parallel is
+not broken even at this point. In 1691 and again in 1695 he wrote,
+"Some considerations of the consequences of the lowering of interest,
+and raising the value of money," in which he propounded among other
+views, that, "taxes, however contrived, and out of whose hands soever
+immediately taken, do, in a country where the great fund is in land
+for the most part terminate upon land." There is of course no
+comparison between the two men on this head: nevertheless it is
+interesting to note in prototype the germs of the great work of Mr.
+Mill. It shows the remarkable and by no means accidental similarity
+between the men.
+
+The parallel is already too much drawn out, otherwise it would be
+worth observing on the characters and lives of these two men. Enough,
+however, has been said to show that we may not unreasonably anticipate
+for Mr. Mill a future such as has fallen to Locke. His wisdom will be
+the commonplace of other times: his theories will be realized in
+political institutions; and we may hope and believe the working-class
+will rise to such a standard of wealth and culture and political power
+as to realize the generous aspirations of one of England's greatest
+sons.
+
+W.A. HUNTER.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works, by
+Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other Distinguished
+Authors</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works</p>
+<p>Author: Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other Distinguished Authors</p>
+<p>Release Date: March 6, 2005  [eBook #15268]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND WORKS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by<br />
+    the Digital &amp; Multimedia Center, Michigan State University Libraries,<br />
+    Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>JOHN STUART MILL:</h1>
+
+<h1>HIS LIFE AND WORKS</h1>
+
+<h2>TWELVE SKETCHES BY</h2>
+
+<h2><i>Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison</i>,</h2>
+
+<h2>AND OTHER DISTINGUISHED AUTHORS.</h2>
+
+<h3>BOSTON: JAMES R OSGOOD AND COMPANY </h3>
+<h3>(LATE TICKNOR &amp; FIELD AND FIELDS OSGOOD, &amp; Co.)</h3>
+
+<h3>1873</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS" ></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="toc">
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#I"><b>I. - A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>H. R. Fox Bourne</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#II"><b>II. - HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>W. T. Thornton</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#III"><b>III. - HIS MORAL CHARACTER.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>Herbert Spencer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#IV"><b>IV. - HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>Henry Trimen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#V"><b>V. - HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>W. Minto</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VI"><b>VI. - HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>J. H. Levy</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VII"><b>VII. - HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>W. A. Hunter</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#VIII"><b>VIII. - HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>J. E. Cairnes</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#IX"><b>IX. - HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>Henry Fawcett</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#X"><b>X. - HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>Millicent Garrett Fawcett</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XI"><b>XI. - HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>Frederic Harrison</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a href="#XII"><b>XII. - HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.</b></a></td><td align="left"><i>W. A. Hunter</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I" id="I" ></a>I.</h2>
+
+<h3>A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE</h3>
+
+
+<p>John Stuart Mill was born on the 20th of May, 1806. &quot;I am glad,&quot; wrote
+George Grote to him in 1865, with reference to a forthcoming article
+on his &quot;Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,&quot; &quot;to get an
+opportunity of saying what I think about your 'System of Logic' and
+'Essay on Liberty,' but I am still more glad to get (or perhaps to
+<i>make</i>) an opportunity of saying something about your father. It has
+always rankled in my thoughts that so grand and powerful a mind as his
+left behind it such insufficient traces in the estimation of
+successors.&quot; That regret was natural. The grand and powerful mind of
+James Mill left very notable traces, however, in the philosophical
+literature of his country, and in the training of the son who was to
+carry on his work, and to be the most influential teacher in a new
+school of thought and action, by which society is likely to be
+revolutionized far more than it has been by any other agency since
+the period of Erasmus and Martin Luther. James Mill was something more
+than the disciple of Bentham and Ricardo. He was a profound and
+original philosopher, whose depth and breadth of study were all the
+more remarkable because his thoughts were developed and his knowledge
+was acquired mainly by his own exertions. He had been helped out of
+the humble life into which he had been born by Sir John Stuart, who
+assisted him to attend the lectures of Dugald Stewart and others at
+Edinburgh with a view to his becoming a minister in the Church of
+Scotland. Soon finding that calling distasteful to him, he had, in or
+near the year 1800, settled in London as a journalist, resolved by
+ephemeral work to earn enough money to maintain him and his family in
+humble ways while he spent his best energies in the more serious
+pursuits to which he was devoted. His talents soon made him friends,
+and the greatest of these was Jeremy Bentham.</p>
+
+<p>As erroneous opinions have been current as to the relations between
+Bentham and James Mill and have lately been repeated in more than one
+newspaper, it may be well here to call attention to the contradiction
+of them that was published by the son of the latter in &quot;The Edinburgh
+Review&quot; for 1844. &quot;Mr. Mill and his family,&quot; we there read, &quot;lived
+with Mr. Bentham for half of four years at Ford Abbey,&quot;&mdash;that is,
+between 1814 and 1817,&mdash;&quot;and they passed small portions of previous
+summers with him at Barrow Green. His last visit to Barrow Green was
+of not more than a month's duration, and the previous ones all
+together did not extend to more than six months, or seven at most.
+The pecuniary benefit which Mr. Mill derived from his intimacy with
+Bentham consisted in this,&mdash;that he and his family lived with him as
+his guests, while he was in the country, periods amounting in all to
+about two years and a half. I have no reason to think that his
+hospitality was either given or accepted as pecuniary assistance, and
+I will add that the obligation was not exclusively on one side.
+Bentham was not then, as he was afterwards, surrounded by persons who
+courted his society, and were ever ready to volunteer their services,
+and, to a man of his secluded habits, it was no little advantage to
+have near him such a man as Mr. Mill, to whose advice and aid he
+habitually had recourse in all business transactions with the outward
+world of a troublesome or irksome nature. Such as the connection was,
+it was not of Mr. Mill's seeking.&quot; On the same unquestionable
+authority we learn, that &quot;Mr. Mill never in his life was in debt, and
+his income, whatever it might be, always covered his expenses.&quot; It is
+clear, that, from near the commencement of the present century, James
+Mill and Bentham lived for many years on terms of great intimacy, in
+which the poorer man was thoroughly independent, although it suited
+the other to make a fair return for the services rendered to him. A
+very characteristic letter is extant, dated 1814, in which James Mill
+proposes that the relations between him and his &quot;dear friend and
+master&quot; shall be to some extent altered, but only in order that their
+common objects may be the more fully served. &quot;In reflecting,&quot; he says,
+&quot;upon the duty which we owe to our principles,&mdash;to that system of
+important truths of which you have the immortal honor to be the
+author, but of which I am a most faithful and fervent disciple, and
+hitherto, I have fancied, my master's favorite disciple,&mdash;I have
+considered that there was nobody at all so likely to be your real
+successor as myself. Of talents it would be easy to find many
+superior. But, in the first place, I hardly know of anybody who has so
+completely taken up the principles, and is so thoroughly of the same
+way of thinking with yourself. In the next place, there are very few
+who have so much of the necessary previous discipline, my antecedent
+years having been wholly occupied in acquiring it. And, in the last
+place, I am pretty sure you cannot think of any other person whose
+whole life will be devoted to the propagation of the system.&quot; &quot;There
+was during the last few years of Bentham's life,&quot; said James Mill's
+son, &quot;less frequency and cordiality of intercourse than in former
+years, chiefly because Bentham had acquired newer, and to him more
+agreeable intimacies, but Mr. Mill's feeling never altered towards
+him, nor did he ever fail, publicly or privately, in giving due honor
+to Bentham's name and acknowledgment of the intellectual debt he owed
+to him.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Those extracts are made, not only in justice to the memory of James
+Mill, but as a help towards understanding the influences by which his
+son was surrounded from his earliest years. James Mill was living in a
+house at Pentonville when this son was born, and partly because of the
+peculiar abilities that the boy displayed from the first, partly
+because he could not afford to procure for him elsewhere such teaching
+as he was able himself to give him, he took his education entirely
+into his own hands. With what interest&mdash;even jealous interest, it
+would seem&mdash;Bentham watched that education, appears from a pleasant
+little letter addressed to him by the elder Mill in 1812. &quot;I am not
+going to die,&quot; he wrote, &quot;notwithstanding your zeal to come in for a
+legacy. However, if I were to die any time before this poor boy is a
+man, one of the things that would pinch me most sorely would be the
+being obliged to leave his mind unmade to the degree of excellence of
+which I hope to make it. But another thing is, that the only prospect
+which would lessen that pain would be the leaving him in your hands. I
+therefore take your offer quite seriously, and stipulate merely that
+it shall be made as soon as possible; and then we may perhaps leave
+him a successor worthy of both of us.&quot; It was a bold hope, but one
+destined to be fully realized. At the time of its utterance, the &quot;poor
+boy&quot; was barely more than six years old. The intellectual powers of
+which he gave such early proof were carefully, but apparently not
+excessively, cultivated. Mrs. Grote, in her lately-published &quot;Personal
+Life of George Grote,&quot; has described him as he appeared in 1817, the
+year in which her husband made the acquaintance of his father. &quot;John
+Stuart Mill, then a boy of about twelve years old,&quot;&mdash;he was really
+only eleven,&mdash;&quot;was studying, with his father as sole preceptor, under
+the paternal roof. Unquestionably forward for his years, and already
+possessed of a competent knowledge of Greek and Latin, as well as of
+some subordinate though solid attainments, John was, as a boy,
+somewhat repressed by the elder Mill, and seldom took any share in the
+conversation carried on by the society frequenting the house.&quot; It is
+perhaps not strange that a boy of eleven, at any rate a boy who was to
+become so modest a man, should not take much part in general
+conversation; and Mr. Mill himself never, in referring to his father,
+led his hearers to suppose that he had, as a child, been in any way
+unduly repressed by him. The tender affection with which he always
+cherished his father's memory in no way sanctions the belief that he
+was at any time subjected to unreasonable discipline. By him his
+father was only revered as the best and kindest of teachers.</p>
+
+<p>There was a break in the home teaching in 1820. James Mill, after
+bearing bravely with his early difficulties, had acquired so much
+renown by his famous &quot;History of India,&quot; that, in spite of its adverse
+criticisms of the East-India Company, the directors of the Company in
+1817 honorably bestowed upon him a post in the India House, where he
+steadily and rapidly rose to a position which enabled him to pass the
+later years of his life in more comfort than had hitherto been within
+his reach. The new employment, however, interfered with his other
+occupation as instructor to his boy; and for this reason, as well
+probably as for others tending to his advancement, the lad was, in the
+summer of 1820, sent to France for a year and a half. For several
+months he lived in Paris, in the house of Jean Baptiste Say, the
+political economist. The rest of his time was passed in the company of
+Sir Samuel Bentham, Jeremy Bentham's brother. Early in 1822, before he
+was eighteen, he returned to London, soon to enter the India Office as
+a clerk in the department of which his father was chief. In that
+office he remained for five and thirty years, acquitting himself with
+great ability, and gradually rising to the most responsible position
+that could be there held by a subordinate.</p>
+
+<p>But, though he was thus early started in life as a city clerk, his
+self-training and his education by his father were by no means
+abandoned. The ancient and modern languages, as well as the various
+branches of philosophy and philosophical thought in which he was
+afterwards to attain such eminence, were studied by him in the early
+mornings, under the guidance of his father, before going down to pass
+his days in the India Office. During the summer evenings, and on such
+holidays as he could get, he began those pedestrian exploits for which
+he afterwards became famous, and in which his main pleasure appears to
+have consisted in collecting plants and flowers in aid of the
+botanical studies that were his favorite pastime, and something more
+than a pastime, all through his life. His first printed writings are
+said to have been on botany, in the shape of some articles contributed
+to a scientific journal while he was still in his teens, and it is
+probable, that, could they now be detected, we should find in other
+periodicals traces of his work, at nearly if not quite as early a
+period in other lines of study. That he worked early and with
+wonderful ability in at least one very deep line, appears from the
+fact that while he was still only a lad, Jeremy Bentham intrusted to
+him the preparation for the press, and the supplementary annotation,
+of his &quot;Rationale of Judicial Evidence.&quot; That work, for which he was
+highly commended by its author, published in 1827, contains the first
+publicly acknowledged literary work of John Stuart Mill.</p>
+
+<p>While he was producing that result of laborious study in a special and
+intricate subject, his education in all sorts of other ways was
+continued. In evidence of the versatility of his pursuits, the veteran
+author of a short and ungenerous memoir that was published in &quot;The
+Times&quot; of May the 10th contributes one interesting note. &quot;It is within
+our personal knowledge,&quot; he says, &quot;that he was an extraordinary youth
+when, in 1824, he took the lead at the London Debating Club in one of
+the most remarkable collections of 'spirits of the age' that ever
+congregated for intellectual gladiatorship, he being by two or three
+years the junior of the clique. The rivalry was rather in knowledge
+and reasoning than in eloquence, mere declamation was discouraged; and
+subjects of paramount importance were conscientiously thought out.&quot; In
+evidence of his more general studies, we may here repeat a few
+sentences from an account, by an intimate friend of both these great
+men, of the life of Mr. Grote, which was published in our columns two
+years ago. &quot;About this time a small society was formed for readings in
+philosophical subjects. The meetings took place at Mr. Grote's house
+in Threadneedle Street, on certain days from half past eight till ten
+in the morning, at which hour the members (all in official employment)
+had to repair to their respective avocations. The members were Grote,
+John Mill, Roebuck, William Ellice, William Henry Prescott, two
+brothers Whitmore, and George John Graham. The mentor of their
+studies was the elder Mr. Mill. The meetings were continued for two or
+three years. The readings embraced a small manual of logic, by Du
+Trieu, recommended by Mr. Mill, and reprinted for the purpose,
+Whately's Logic, Hobbes's Logic, and Hartley on Man, in Priestley's
+edition. The manner of proceeding was thorough. Each paragraph, on
+being read, was commented on by every one in turn, discussed and
+rediscussed, to the point of total exhaustion. In 1828 the meetings
+ceased; but they were resumed in 1830, upon Mill's 'Analysis of the
+Mind,' which was gone over in the same manner.&quot; These philosophical
+studies were not only of extreme advantage in strengthening and
+developing the merits of Mr. Mill and his friends, nearly all of whom
+were considerably older than he was, they also served to unite the
+friends in close and lasting intimacy of the most refined and
+elevating sort. Mr. Grote, his senior by twelve years, was perhaps the
+most intimate, as he was certainly the ablest, of all the friends whom
+Mr. Mill thus acquired.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these friends were contributors to the original &quot;Westminster
+Review,&quot; which was started by Bentham in 1824. Bentham himself and the
+elder Mill were its chief writers at first; and in 1828, if not
+sooner, the younger Mill joined the number. In that year he reviewed
+Whately's Logic; and it is probable that in the ensuing year he
+contributed numerous other articles. His first literary exploit,
+however, which he cared to reproduce in his &quot;Dissertations and
+Discussions&quot; was an article that appeared in &quot;The Jurist,&quot; in 1833,
+entitled &quot;Corporation and Church Property.&quot; That essay, in some
+respects, curiously anticipated the Irish Church legislation of
+nearly forty years later. In the same year he published, in &quot;The
+Monthly Repository,&quot; a remarkably able and quite a different
+production,&mdash;&quot;Poetry and its Varieties,&quot; showing that in the
+department of <i>belles-lettres</i> he could write with nearly as much
+vigor and originality as in the philosophical and political
+departments of thought to which, ostensibly, he was especially
+devoted. Shortly after that he embarked in a bolder literary venture.
+Differences having arisen concerning &quot;The Westminster Review,&quot; a new
+quarterly journal&mdash;&quot;The London Review&quot;&mdash;was begun by Sir William
+Molesworth, with Mr. Mill for editor, in 1835. &quot;The London&quot; was next
+year amalgamated with &quot;The Westminster,&quot; and then the nominal if not
+the actual editorship passed into the hands of Mr. John Robertson. Mr.
+Mill continued, however, to be one of its most constant and able
+contributors until the Review passed into other hands in 1840. He
+aided much to make and maintain its reputation as the leading organ of
+bold thought on religious and social as well as political matters.
+Besides such remarkable essays as those on Civilization, on Armand
+Carrel, on Alfred de Vigny, on Bentham, and on Coleridge, which, with
+others, have been republished in his collection of minor writings, he
+contributed many of great importance. One on Mr. Tennyson, which was
+published in 1835, is especially noteworthy. Others referred more
+especially to the politics of the day. From one, which appeared in
+1837, reviewing Albany Fonblanque's &quot;England under Seven
+Administrations,&quot; and speaking generally in high terms of the
+politics of &quot;The Examiner,&quot; we may extract a few sentences which
+define very clearly the political ground taken by Mr. Mill, Mr.
+Fonblanque, and those who had then come to be called Philosophical
+Radicals. &quot;There are divers schools of Radicals,&quot; said Mr. Mill.
+&quot;There are the historical Radicals, who demand popular institutions as
+the inheritance of Englishmen, transmitted to us from the Saxons or
+the barons of Runnymede. There are the metaphysical Radicals, who hold
+the principles of democracy, not as means to good government, but as
+corollaries from some unreal abstraction,&mdash;from 'natural liberty' or
+'natural rights.' There are the radicals of occasion and circumstance,
+who are radicals because they disapprove the measures of the
+government for the time being. There are, lastly, the Radicals of
+position, who are Radicals, as somebody said, because they are not
+lords. Those whom, in contradistinction to all these, we call
+Philosophical Radicals, are those who in politics observe the common
+manner of philosophers; that is, who, when they are discussing means,
+begin by considering the end, and, when they desire to produce
+effects, think of causes. These persons became Radicals because they
+saw immense practical evils existing in the government and social
+condition of this country, and because the same examination which
+showed them the evils showed also that the cause of those evils was
+the aristocratic principle in our government,&mdash;the subjection of the
+many to the control of a comparatively few, who had an interest, or
+fancied they had an interest, in perpetuating those evils. These
+inquirers looked still farther, and saw, that, in the present
+imperfect condition of human nature, nothing better than this
+self-preference was to be expected from a dominant few; that the
+interests of the many were sure to be in their eyes a secondary
+consideration to their own ease or emolument. Perceiving, therefore,
+that we are ill-governed, and perceiving that, so long as the
+aristocratic principle continued predominant in our government, we
+could not expect to be otherwise, these persons became Radicals; and
+the motto of their Radicalism was, Enmity to the aristocratical
+principle.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The period of Mr. Mill's most intimate connection with &quot;The London and
+Westminster Review&quot; forms a brilliant episode in the history of
+journalism; and his relations, then and afterwards, with other men of
+letters and political writers,&mdash;some of them as famous as Mr. Carlyle
+and Coleridge, Charles Buller and Sir Henry Taylor, Sir William
+Molesworth, Sir John Bowring, and Mr. Roebuck,&mdash;yield tempting
+materials for even the most superficial biography; but we must pass
+them by for the present. And here we shall content ourselves with
+enumerating, in the order of their publication, those lengthier
+writings with which he chiefly occupied his leisure during the next
+quarter of a century; though that work was frequently diversified by
+important contributions to &quot;The Edinburgh&quot; and &quot;The Westminster
+Review,&quot; &quot;Fraser's Magazine,&quot; and other periodicals. His first great
+work was &quot;A System of Logic,&quot; the result of many years' previous
+study, which appeared in 1843. That completed, he seems immediately to
+have paid chief attention to politico-economical questions. In 1844
+appeared &quot;Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy,&quot;
+which were followed, in 1848, by the &quot;Principles of Political
+Economy.&quot; After that there was a pause of ten years, though the works
+that were issued during the next six years show that he had not been
+idle during the interval. In 1857 were published two volumes of the
+&quot;Dissertations and Discussions,&quot; consisting solely of printed
+articles, the famous essay &quot;On Liberty,&quot; and the &quot;Thoughts on
+Parliamentary Reform.&quot; &quot;Considerations on Representative Government&quot;
+appeared in 1861, &quot;Utilitarianism,&quot; in 1863, &quot;Auguste Comte and
+Positivism&quot; and the &quot;Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
+Philosophy,&quot; in 1865. After that, besides the very welcome &quot;Inaugural
+Address&quot; at St. Andrew's in 1867, his only work of importance was &quot;The
+Subjection of Women,&quot; published in 1869. A fitting conclusion to his
+more serious literary labors appeared also in 1869 in his annotated
+edition of his father's &quot;Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>When we remember how much and what varied knowledge is in those
+learned books, it is almost difficult to believe, that, during most of
+the years in which he was preparing them, Mr. Mill was also a hard
+worker in the India House, passing rapidly, and as the reward only of
+his assiduity and talent, from the drudgery of a junior clerk to a
+position involving all the responsibility, if not quite all the
+dignity, of a secretary of state. One of his most intimate friends,
+and the one who knew far more of him in this respect than any other,
+has in another column penned some reminiscences of his official life;
+but if all the state papers that he wrote, and all the correspondence
+that he carried on with Indian officials and the native potentates of
+the East, could be explored, more than one volume would have to be
+written in supplement to his father's great &quot;History of British
+India.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Having retired from the India House in 1858, Mr. Mill went to spend
+the winter in Avignon, in the hope of improving the broken health of
+the wife to whom he was devotedly attached. He had not been married
+many years, but Mrs. Mill, who was the widow of Mr. John Taylor, a
+London merchant, had been his friend since 1835, or even earlier.
+During more than twenty years he had been aided by her talents, and
+encouraged by her sympathy, in all the work he had undertaken, and to
+her rare merits he afterwards paid more than one tribute in terms that
+have no equal for the intensity of their language, and the depth of
+affection contained in them. Mrs. Mill's weak state of health seems to
+have hardly repressed her powers of intellect. By her was written the
+celebrated essay on &quot;The Enfranchisement of Women&quot; contributed to &quot;The
+Westminster Review,&quot; and afterwards reprinted in the &quot;Dissertations
+and Discussions,&quot; with a preface avowing, that by her Mr. Mill had
+been greatly assisted in all that he had written for some time
+previous. But the assistance was to end now. Mrs. Mill died at Avignon
+on the 3d of November, 1858, and over her grave was placed one of the
+most pathetic and eloquent epitaphs that have been ever penned. &quot;Her
+great and loving heart, her noble soul, her clear, powerful, original,
+and comprehensive intellect,&quot; it was there written, &quot;made her the
+guide and support, the instructor in wisdom, and the example in
+goodness, as she was the sole earthly delight, of those who had the
+happiness to belong to her. As earnest for all public good as she was
+generous and devoted to all who surrounded her, her influence has been
+felt in many of the greatest improvements of the age, and will be in
+those still to come. Were there even a few hearts and intellects like
+hers, this earth would already become the hoped-for heaven.&quot;
+Henceforth, during the fourteen years and a half that were to elapse
+before he should be laid in the same grave, Avignon was the chosen
+haunt of Mr. Mill.</p>
+
+<p>Passing much of his time in the modest house that he had bought, that
+he might be within sight of his wife's tomb, Mr. Mill was also
+frequently in London, whither he came especially to facilitate the new
+course of philosophical and political writing on which he entered. He
+found relief also in excursions, one of which was taken nearly every
+year, in company with his step-daughter, Miss Helen Taylor, into
+various parts of Europe. Italy, Switzerland, and many other districts,
+were explored, partly on foot, with a keen eye both to the natural
+features of the localities, especially in furtherance of those
+botanical studies to which Mr. Mill now returned with the ardor of his
+youth, and also to their social and political institutions. Perhaps
+the longest and most eventful of these excursions was taken in 1862 to
+Greece. On this occasion it had been proposed that his old friend, Mr.
+Grote, should accompany him. &quot;To go through those scenes, and
+especially to go through them in your company,&quot; wrote Mr. Grote in
+January, &quot;would be to me pre-eminently delightful; but, alas! my
+physical condition altogether forbids it. I could not possibly stay
+away from London, without the greatest discomfort, for so long a
+period as two months. Still less could I endure the fatigue of horse
+and foot exercise which an excursion in Greece must inevitably
+entail.&quot; The journey occupied more than two months; but in the autumn
+Mr. Mill was at Avignon; and, returning to London in December, he
+spent Christmas week with Mr. Grote at his residence, Barrow
+Green,&mdash;Bentham's old house, and the one in which Mr. Mill had played
+himself when he was a child. &quot;He is in good health and spirits,&quot; wrote
+Mr. Grote to Sir G.C. Lewis after that visit; &quot;violent against the
+South in this American struggle; embracing heartily the extreme
+Abolitionist views, and thinking about little else in regard to the
+general question.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It was only to be expected that Mr. Mill would take much interest in
+the American civil war, and sympathize strongly with the Abolitionist
+party. His interest in politics had been keen, and his judgment on
+them had been remarkably sound all through life, as his early articles
+in &quot;The Morning Chronicle&quot; and &quot;The London and Westminster Review,&quot;
+and his later contributions to various periodicals, helped to testify;
+but towards the close of his life the interest was perhaps keener, as
+the judgment was certainly more mellowed. It was not strange,
+therefore, that his admirers among the working classes, and the
+advanced radicals of all grades, should have urged him, and that,
+after some hesitation, he should have consented, to become a candidate
+for Westminster at the general election of 1865. That candidature
+will be long remembered as a notable example of the dignified way in
+which an honest man, and one who was as much a philosopher in practice
+as in theory, can do all that is needful, and avoid all that is
+unworthy, in an excited electioneering contest, and submit without
+injury to the insults of political opponents and of political
+time-servers professing to be of his own way of thinking. The result
+of the election was a far greater honor to the electors who chose him
+than to the representative whom they chose; though that honor was
+greatly tarnished by Mr. Mill's rejection when he offered himself for
+re-election three years later.</p>
+
+<p>This is hardly the place in which to review at much length Mr. Mill's
+parliamentary career, though it may be briefly referred to in evidence
+of the great and almost unlooked-for ability with which he adapted
+himself to the requirements of a philosophical politician as distinct
+from a political philosopher. His first speech in the House of
+Commons, delivered very soon after its assembling, was on the occasion
+of the second reading of the Cattle Diseases Bill, on the 14th of
+February, 1866, when he supported Mr. Bright in his opposition to the
+proposals of Mr. Lowe for compensation to their owners for the
+slaughter of such animals as were diseased or likely to spread
+infection. His complaint against the bill was succinctly stated in two
+sentences, which fairly illustrated the method and basis of all his
+arguments upon current politics. &quot;It compensates,&quot; he said, &quot;a class
+for the results of a calamity which is borne by the whole community.
+In justice, the farmers who have not suffered ought to compensate
+those who have; but the bill does what it ought not to have done, and
+leaves undone what it ought to have done, by not equalizing the
+incidence of the burden upon that class, inasmuch as, from the
+operation of the local principle adopted, that portion of an
+agricultural community who have not suffered at all will not have to
+pay at all, and those who have suffered little will have to pay
+little; while those who have suffered most will have to pay a great
+deal.&quot; &quot;An aristocracy,&quot; he added, in words that as truly indicate the
+way in which he subjected all matters of detail to the test of general
+principles of truth and expediency,&mdash;&quot;an aristocracy should have the
+feelings of an aristocracy; and, inasmuch as they enjoy the highest
+honors and advantages, they ought to be willing to bear the first
+brunt of the inconveniences and evils which fall on the country
+generally. This is the ideal character of an aristocracy: it is the
+character with which all privileged classes are accustomed to credit
+themselves; though I am not aware of any aristocracy in history that
+has fulfilled those requirements.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>That, and the later speeches that Mr. Mill delivered on the Cattle
+Diseases Bill, at once announced to the House of Commons and the
+public, if they needed any such announcement, the temper and spirit in
+which he was resolved to execute his legislative functions. The same
+spirit and temper appeared in the speech on the Habeas Corpus
+Suspension (Ireland) Bill, which he delivered on the 17th of February;
+but his full strength as a debater was first manifested during the
+discussion on Mr. Gladstone's Reform Bill of 1866, which was brought
+on for second reading on the 12th of April. His famous speech on that
+occasion, containing the most powerful arguments offered by any
+speaker in favor of the measure, and his shorter speech during its
+discussion on the 31st of May, need not here be recapitulated. They
+were only admirable developments in practical debate of those
+principles of political science which he had already enforced in his
+published works. The other leading topics handled by Mr. Mill during
+the session of 1866 were the expediency of reducing the National Debt,
+which he urged on the occasion of Mr. Neate's proposal on the 17th of
+April; the Tenure and Improvement of Land (Ireland) Bill, on which he
+spoke at length and with force on the 17th of May, then practically
+initiating the movement in favor of land-reform, which he partly
+helped to enforce in part with regard to Ireland, and for the more
+complete adoption of which in England he labored to the last; the
+Jamaica outbreak, and the conduct of Governor Eyre, on which he spoke
+on the 31st of July; and the electoral disabilities of women, which he
+first brought within the range of practical politics by moving, on the
+20th of July, for a return of the numbers of householders, and others
+who, &quot;fulfilling the conditions of property or rental prescribed by
+law as the qualification for the electoral franchise, are excluded
+from the franchise by reason of their sex.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the session of 1867 Mr. Mill took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the Metropolitan Poor Bill; and he spoke on various
+other topics,&mdash;his introduction of the Women's Electoral Disabilities
+Removal Bill being in some respects the most notable: but his chief
+action was with reference to Mr. Disraeli's Reform Bill, several
+clauses of which he criticised and helped to alter in committee.
+Though he was as zealous as ever, however, in his attendance to
+public business, he made fewer great speeches, being content to set a
+wise example to other and less able men in only speaking when he felt
+it absolutely necessary to do so, and in generally performing merely
+the functions of a &quot;silent member.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In 1868 he was, if not more active, somewhat more prominent. On March
+the 6th, on the occasion of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre's motion respecting the
+&quot;Alabama Claims,&quot; he forcibly expressed his opinions as to the wrong
+done by England to the United States during the civil war, and the
+need of making adequate reparation; and on the 12th of the same month
+he spoke with equal boldness on Mr. Maguire's motion for a committee
+to inquire into the state of Ireland, repeating anew and enforcing the
+views he had lately put forward in his pamphlet on Ireland, and
+considerably aiding by anticipation the passage of Mr. Gladstone's two
+great measures of Irish Reform. He took an important part in the
+discussion of the Election Petitions and Corrupt Practices Bill; and
+among a great number of other measures on which he spoke was the
+Married Women's Property Bill of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after that the House of Commons was dissolved, and Mr. Mill's too
+brief parliamentary career came to an end. The episode, however, had
+to some extent helped to quicken his always keen interest in political
+affairs. This was proved, among other ways, by the publication of his
+pamphlet on &quot;England and Ireland&quot; in 1868, and of his treatise &quot;On the
+Subjection of Women&quot; in 1869, as well as by the especial interest
+which he continued to exhibit in two of the most important political
+movements of the day,&mdash;all the more important because they are yet
+almost in their infancy,&mdash;the one for the political enfranchisement
+of women, the other for a thorough reform of our system of land
+tenure. The latest proof of his zeal on the second of these important
+points appeared in the address which he delivered at Exeter Hall on
+the 18th of last March, and in two articles which he contributed to
+&quot;The Examiner&quot; at the commencement of the present year. We may be
+permitted to add that it was his intention to use some of the greater
+quiet that he expected to enjoy during his stay at Avignon in writing
+frequent articles on political affairs for publication in these
+columns. He died while his intellectual powers were as fresh as they
+had ever been, and when his political wisdom was only ripened by
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>In this paper we purposely limit ourselves to a concise narrative of
+the leading events of Mr. Mill's life, and abstain as far as possible
+from any estimate of either the value or the extent of his work in
+philosophy, in economics, in politics, or in any other of the
+departments of thought and study to which, with such depth and breadth
+of mind, he applied himself; but it is impossible for us to lay down
+the pen without some slight reference, however inadequate it may be,
+to the nobility of his character, and the peculiar grace with which he
+exhibited it in all his dealings with his friends and with the whole
+community among whom he lived, and for whom he worked with the
+self-sacrificing zeal of an apostle. If to labor fearlessly and
+ceaselessly for the good of society, and with the completest
+self-abnegation that is consistent with healthy individuality, be the
+true form of religion, Mr. Mill exhibited such genuine and profound
+religion&mdash;so permeating his whole life, and so engrossing his every
+action&mdash;as can hardly be looked for in any other man of this
+generation. Great as were his intellectual qualities, they were
+dwarfed by his moral excellences. He did not, it is true, aim at any
+fanciful ideal, or adopt any fantastic shibboleths. He was only a
+utilitarian. He believed in no inspiration but that of experience. He
+had no other creed or dogma or gospel than Bentham's axiom,&mdash;&quot;The
+greatest happiness of the greatest number.&quot; But many will think that
+herein was the chief of all his claims to the honor of all men, and
+the best evidence of his worth. At any rate, he set a notable example
+of the way in which a man, making the best use in his power of merely
+his own reason and the accumulated reason of those who have gone
+before him, wisely exercising the faculties of which he finds himself
+possessed, and seeking no guidance or support from invisible beacons
+and intangible props, may lead a blameless life, and be one of the
+greatest benefactors of his race. No one who had any personal
+knowledge of him could fail to discern the singular purity of his
+character; and to those who knew him best that purity was most
+apparent. He may have blundered and stumbled in his pursuit of truth;
+but it was part of his belief that stumbling and blundering are
+necessary means towards the finding of truth, and that honesty of
+purpose is the only indispensable requisite for the nearest approach
+towards truth of which each individual is capable. That belief
+rendered him as charitable towards others as he was modest concerning
+his own attainments. He never boasted; and he despised no one. The
+only things really hateful to him were arrogance and injustice, and
+for these he was, to say the least, as willing and eager to find
+excuse as could be the most devout utterer of the prayer, &quot;Father,
+forgive them, for they know not what they do.&quot; We had noted many
+instances, coming within our own very limited observation, of his
+remarkable, almost unparalleled magnanimity and generosity; but such
+details would here be almost out of place, and they who need such will
+doubtless before long receive much more convincing proof of his moral
+excellence.</p>
+
+<p>We shall not here dilate on those minor qualities of mind and heart
+that made Mr. Mill's society so charming to all who were fortunate
+enough to have any share in it; and these, especially in recent years,
+were many. When the first burden of his grief at the loss of his wife
+had passed,&mdash;perhaps partly as a relief from the solitude, save for
+one devoted companion, that would otherwise have been now forced upon
+him,&mdash;he mixed more freely than he had done before in the society of
+all whose company could yield him any satisfaction or by whom his
+friendship was really valued. His genial and graceful bearing towards
+every one who came near him must be within the knowledge of very many
+who will read this column; and they will remember, besides his
+transparent nobility of character, and the genial ways in which it
+exhibited itself, certain intellectual qualities for which he was
+remarkable. We here refer, not to his higher abilities as a thinker,
+but to such powers of mind as displayed themselves in conversation.
+Without any pedantry,&mdash;without any sort of intentional notification to
+those with whom he conversed that he was the greatest logician,
+metaphysician, moralist, and economist of the day,&mdash;his speech was
+always, even on the most trivial subjects, so clear and incisive, that
+it at once betrayed the intellectual vigor of the speaker. Not less
+remarkable also than his uniform refinement of thought, and the
+deftness with which he at all times expressed it, were the grasp and
+keenness of his observation, and the strength of memory with which he
+stored up every thing he had ever seen, heard, or read. Nothing
+escaped his notice at the time of its occurrence: nothing was
+forgotten by him afterwards. His friends often found, to their
+astonishment, that he knew far more about any passages in their lives
+that he had been made aware of than they could themselves remember;
+and, whenever that disclosure was made to them, they must have been
+rejoiced to think, that this memory of his, instead of being, as it
+might well have been, a dangerous garner of severe judgments and
+fairly-grounded prejudices, was a magic mirror, in which their follies
+and foibles were hardly at all reflected, and only kindly
+reminiscences and generous sympathies found full expression.</p>
+
+<p>But he is dead now. Although the great fruits of his life&mdash;a life in
+which mind and heart, in which senses and emotions, were singularly
+well balanced&mdash;are fruits that cannot die, all the tender ties of
+friendship, all the strictly personal qualities that so much aided his
+work as a teacher of the world, as the foremost leader of his
+generation in the search after truth and righteousness, are now
+snapped forever. Only four weeks ago he left London for a
+three-months' stay in Avignon. Two weeks ago he was in his customary
+health. On the 5th of May he was attacked by a virulent form of
+erysipelas. On the 8th he died. On the 10th he was buried in the grave
+to which he had, through fourteen years, looked forward as a pleasant
+resting-place, because during fourteen years there had been in it a
+vacant place beside the remains of the wife whom he so fondly loved.</p>
+
+<p>H. R. FOX BOURNE.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II" id="II" ></a>II.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE</h3>
+
+
+<p>I have undertaken to prepare a sketch of Mr. Mill's official career,
+but find, on inquiry, scarcely any thing to add to the few particulars
+on the subject which have already found their way into print. Of his
+early official associates, all have, with scarcely an exception,
+already passed away; and there is no one within reach to whom I can
+apply for assistance in verifying or correcting my own impressions.
+These are in substance the following.</p>
+
+<p>In the few last decades of its existence, the East-India Company's
+establishment, in Leadenhall Street, consisted of three
+divisions,&mdash;the secretary's, military secretary's, and examiners'
+offices,&mdash;in the last of which most of the despatches and letters were
+composed which were afterwards signed by the directors or the
+secretary. Into this division, in the year 1821, the directors,
+perceiving an infusion of new blood to be very urgently required,
+introduced, as assistant examiners, four outsiders,&mdash;Mr. Strachey
+(father of the present Sir John and Major-Gen. Richard Strachey),
+Thomas Love Peacock (author of &quot;Headlong Hall&quot;), Mr. Harcourt, and
+Mr. James Mill; the selection of the last-named being all the more
+creditable to them, because, in his &quot;History of British India,&quot; he had
+animadverted with much severity on some parts of the Company's
+administration. Two years afterwards, in 1823, the historian's son,
+the illustrious subject of these brief memoirs, then a lad of
+seventeen, obtained a clerkship under his father. According to the
+ordinary course of things in those days, the newly-appointed junior
+would have had nothing to do, except a little abstracting, indexing,
+and searching, or pretending to search, into records; but young Mill
+was almost immediately set to indite despatches to the governments of
+the three Indian Presidencies, on what, in India-House phraseology,
+were distinguished as &quot;political&quot; subjects,&mdash;subjects, that is, for
+the most part growing out of the relations of the said governments
+with &quot;native&quot; states or foreign potentates. This continued to be his
+business almost to the last. In 1828 he was promoted to be assistant
+examiner, and in 1856 he succeeded to the post of chief examiner;
+after which his duty consisted rather in supervising what his
+assistants had written than in writing himself: but for the three and
+twenty years preceding he had had immediate charge of the political
+department, and had written almost every &quot;political&quot; despatch of any
+importance that conveyed the instructions of the merchant princes of
+Leadenhall Street to their pro-consuls in Asia. Of the quality of
+these documents, it is sufficient to say, that they were John Mill's;
+but, in respect to their quantity, it may be worth mentioning that a
+descriptive catalogue of them completely fills a small quarto volume
+of between three hundred and four hundred pages, in their author's
+handwriting, which now lies before me; also that the share of the
+Court of Directors in the correspondence between themselves and the
+Indian governments used to average annually about ten huge
+vellum-bound volumes, foolscap size, and five or six inches thick, and
+that of these volumes two a year, for more than twenty years running,
+were exclusively of Mill's composition; this, too, at times, when he
+was engaged upon such voluntary work in addition as his &quot;Logic&quot; and
+&quot;Political Economy.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In 1857 broke out the Sepoy war, and in the following year the
+East-India Company was extinguished in all but the name, its
+governmental functions being transferred to the Crown. That most
+illustrious of corporations died hard; and with what affectionate
+loyalty Mill struggled to avert its fate is evidenced by the famous
+Petition to Parliament which he drew up for his old masters, and which
+opens with the following effective antithesis: &quot;Your petitioners, at
+their own expense, and by the agency of their own civil and military
+servants, originally acquired for this country its magnificent empire
+in the East. The foundations of this empire were laid by your
+petitioners, at that time neither aided nor controlled by Parliament,
+at the same period at which a succession of administrations under the
+control of Parliament were losing, by their incapacity and rashness,
+another great empire on the opposite side of the Atlantic.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>I am fortunate enough to be the possessor of the original MS. of this
+admirable state paper, which I mention, because I once heard its real
+authorship denied in that quarter of all others in which it might have
+been supposed to be least likely to be questioned. On one of the last
+occasions of the gathering together of the Proprietors of East-India
+Stock, I could scarcely believe my ears, when one of the directors,
+alluding to the petition, spoke of it as having been written by a
+certain other official who was silting by his side, adding, after a
+moment's pause, &quot;with the assistance, as he understood, of Mr. Mill,&quot;
+likewise present. As soon as the Court broke up, I burst into Mill's
+room, boiling over with indignation, and exclaiming, &quot;What an infamous
+shame!&quot; and no doubt adding a good deal more that followed in natural
+sequence on such an exordium. &quot;What's the matter?&quot; replied Mill as
+soon as he could get a word in. &quot;M&mdash;&mdash;[the director] was quite right.
+The petition was the joint work of &mdash;&mdash; and myself.&quot;&mdash;&quot;How can you be
+so perverse?&quot; I retorted. &quot;You know that I know you wrote every word of
+it.&quot;&mdash;&quot;No,&quot; rejoined Mill, &quot;you are mistaken: one whole line on the
+second page was put in by&mdash;&mdash;.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In August, 1858, the East-India Company's doom was pronounced by
+Parliament. The East-India House was completely re-organized, its very
+name being changed into that of the India Office, and a Secretary of
+State in Council taking the place of the Court of Directors. But a
+change of scarcely secondary importance to many of those immediately
+concerned was Mill's retirement on a pension. A few months after he
+had left us an attempt was made to bring him back. At that time only
+one-half of the Council were nominated by the Crown, the other half
+having been elected, and the law prescribing that any vacancy among
+these latter should be filled by election on the part of the remaining
+elected members. On the first occasion of the kind that occurred,
+Mill was immediately proposed; and I had the honor of being
+commissioned to sound him on the subject of the intended offer, and to
+endeavor to overcome the objections to acceptance which it was feared
+he might entertain. I went accordingly to his house at Blackheath, but
+had no sooner broached the subject than I saw that my mission was
+hopeless. The anguish of his recent bereavement was as yet too fresh.
+He sought eagerly for some slight alleviation of despair in hard
+literary labor; but to face the outside world was for the present
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Here my scanty record must end, unless I may be permitted to
+supplement its meagreness by one or two personal&mdash;not to say
+egotistical&mdash;reminiscences. The death of Mr. Mill senior, in 1836, had
+occasioned a vacancy at the bottom of the examiner's office, to which
+I was appointed through the kindness of Sir James Carnac, then
+chairman of the Company, in whose gift it was. Within a few months,
+however, I was transferred to a newly-created branch of the
+secretary's office; owing to which cause, and perhaps also to a little
+(or not a little) mutual shyness, I for some years came so seldom into
+contact with Mr. Mill, that, though he of course knew me by sight, we
+scarcely ever spoke, and generally passed each other without any mark
+of recognition when we happened to meet in or out of doors. Early in
+1846, however, I sent him a copy of a book I had just brought out, on
+&quot;Over-population.&quot; A day or two afterwards he came into my room to
+thank me for it; and during the half-hour's conversation that
+thereupon ensued, sprang up, full grown at its birth, an intimate
+friendship, of which I feel that I am not unduly boasting in declaring
+it to have been equally sincere and fervent on both sides. From that
+time for the next ten or twelve years, a day seldom passed without, if
+I did not go into his room, his coming into mine, often telling me as
+he entered, that he had nothing particular to say; but that, having a
+few minutes to spare, he thought we might as well have a little talk.
+And what talks we have had on such occasions, and on what various
+subjects! and not unfrequently, too, when the room was Mill's, Grote,
+the historian, would join us, first announcing his advent by a
+peculiar and ever-welcome rat-tat with his walking-stick on the door.
+I must not dwell longer over these recollections; but there are two
+special obligations of my own to Mill which I cannot permit myself to
+pass over. When, in 1856, he became examiner, he had made it, as I
+have been since assured by the then chairman of the East-India
+Company, a condition of his acceptance of the post, that I, whose name
+very likely the Chairman had never before heard, should be associated
+with him as one of his assistant examiners; and I was placed, in
+consequence, in charge of the Public-Works Department. Not long
+afterwards, having lapsed into a state of nervous weakness, which for
+nearly a year absolutely incapacitated me for mental labor, I should,
+but for Mill, have been compelled to retire from the service. From
+this, however, he saved me by quietly taking upon himself, and for the
+space of twelve months discharging, the whole of my official duties,
+in addition to his own. Is it wonderful that such a man, supposed by
+those who did not know him to be cold, stern, and dry, should have
+been enthusiastically beloved by those who did?</p>
+
+<p>It is little to say, that my own friendship with him was, from first
+to last, never once ruffled by difference or misunderstanding of any
+kind. Differences of opinion we had in abundance; but my open avowal
+of them was always recognized by him as one of the strongest proofs of
+respect, and served to cement instead of weakening our attachment.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1" ></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+The nearest approach made throughout our intercourse to any thing of
+an unpleasant character was about the time of his retirement from the
+India House. Talking over that one day with two or three of my
+colleagues, I said it would not do to let Mill go without receiving
+some permanently-visible token of our regard. The motion was no sooner
+made than it was carried by acclamation. Every member of the
+examiners' office&mdash;for we jealously insisted on confining the affair
+to ourselves&mdash;came tendering his subscription, scarcely waiting to be
+asked; in half an hour's time some fifty or sixty pounds&mdash;I forget the
+exact sum&mdash;was collected, which in due course was invested in a superb
+silver inkstand, designed by our friend, Digby Wyatt, and manufactured
+by Messrs. Elkington. Before it was ready, however, an unexpected
+trouble arose. In some way or other, Mill had got wind of our
+proceeding, and, coming to me in consequence, began almost to upbraid
+me as its originator. I had never before seen him so angry. He hated
+all such demonstrations, he said, and was quite resolved not to be
+made the subject of them. He was sure they were never altogether
+genuine or spontaneous; there were always several persons who took
+part in them merely because they did not like to refuse; and, in
+short, whatever we might do, he would have none of it. In vain I
+represented how eagerly everybody, without exception, had come
+forward; that we had now gone too far to recede; that, if he would not
+take the inkstand, we should be utterly at a loss what to do with it;
+and that I myself should be in a specially embarrassing position. Mill
+was not to be moved. This was a question of principle, and on
+principle he could not give way. There was nothing left, therefore,
+but resort to a species of force. I arranged with Messrs. Elkington
+that our little testimonial should be taken down to Mr. Mill's house
+at Blackheath by one of their men, who, after leaving it with the
+servant, should hurry away without waiting for an answer. This plan
+succeeded; but I have always suspected, though she never told me so,
+that its success was mainly due to Miss Helen Taylor's good offices.
+But for her, the inkstand would almost certainly have been returned,
+instead of being promoted, as it eventually was, to a place of honor
+in her own and her father's drawing-room.</p>
+
+<p>Mine is scarcely just now the mood in which I should have been
+naturally disposed to relate anecdotes like this; but, in the
+execution of my present task, I have felt bound chiefly to consider
+what would be likely to interest the reader.</p>
+
+<p>W. T. THORNTON.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1" ></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> I may be permitted here, without Mr. Thornton's
+knowledge, to recall a remark made by Mr. Mill only a few weeks ago.
+We were speaking of Mr. Thornton's recently published &quot;Old-fashioned
+Ethics and Common-Sense Metaphysics,&quot; when I remarked on Mr. Mill's
+wide divergence from most of the views contained in it. &quot;Yes,&quot; he
+replied, &quot;it is pleasant to find <i>something</i> on which to differ from
+Thornton.&quot; Mr. Mill's prompt recognition of the importance of Mr.
+Thornton's refutation of the wage-fund theory is only one out of
+numberless instances of his peculiar magnanimity.&mdash;B.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III" id="III" ></a>III.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS MORAL CHARACTER.</h3>
+
+
+<p>To dilate upon Mr. Mill's achievements, and to insist upon the
+wideness of his influence over the thought of his time and
+consequently over the actions of his time, seems to me scarcely
+needful. The facts are sufficiently obvious, and are recognized by all
+who know any thing about the progress of opinion during the last half
+century. My own estimate of him, intellectually considered, has been
+emphatically though briefly given on an occasion of controversy
+between us, by expressing my regret at 'having to contend against the
+doctrine of one whose agreement I should value more than that of any
+other thinker.'</p>
+
+<p>While, however, it is almost superfluous to assert of him that
+intellectual height so generally admitted there is more occasion for
+drawing attention to a moral elevation that is less recognized partly
+because his activities in many directions afforded no occasion for
+exhibiting it, and partly because some of its most remarkable
+manifestations in conduct are known only to those whose personal
+relations with him have called them forth. I feel especially prompted
+to say something on this point, because, where better things might
+have been expected, there has been, not only a grudging recognition of
+intellectual rank, but a marked blindness to those fine traits of
+character, which, in the valuation of men, must go for more than
+superiority of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>It might indeed have been supposed, that even those who never enjoyed
+the pleasure of personal acquaintance with Mr. Mill would have been
+impressed with the nobility of his nature as indicated in his opinions
+and deeds. How entirely his public career has been determined by a
+pure and strong sympathy for his fellow men, how entirely this
+sympathy has subordinated all desires for personal advantage, how
+little even the fear of being injured in reputation or position has
+deterred him from taking the course which he thought equitable or
+generous&mdash;ought to be manifest to every antagonist, however bitter. A
+generosity that might almost be called romantic was obviously the
+feeling prompting sundry of those courses of action which have been
+commented upon as errors. And nothing like a true conception of him
+can be formed, unless, along with dissent from them, there goes
+recognition of the fact that they resulted from the eagerness of a
+noble nature impatient to rectify injustice and to further human
+welfare.</p>
+
+<p>It may perhaps be that my own perception of this pervading warmth of
+feeling has been sharpened by seeing it exemplified, not in the form
+of expressed opinions only, but in the form of private actions, for
+Mr. Mill was not one of those, who, to sympathy with their fellow men
+in the abstract, join indifference to them in the concrete. There came
+from him generous acts that corresponded with his generous sentiments.
+I say this, not from second-hand knowledge, but having in mind a
+remarkable example known only to myself and a few friends. I have
+hesitated whether to give this example, seeing that it has personal
+implications. But it affords so clear an insight into Mr. Mill's
+character, and shows so much more vividly than any description could
+do how fine were the motives swaying his conduct, that I think the
+occasion justifies disclosure of it.</p>
+
+<p>Some seven years ago, after bearing as long as was possible the
+continued losses entailed on me by the publication of the &quot;System of
+Philosophy,&quot; I notified to the subscribers that I should be obliged to
+cease at the close of the volume then in progress. Shortly after the
+issue of this announcement I received from Mr. Mill a letter, in
+which, after expressions of regret, and after naming a plan which he
+wished to prosecute for re-imbursing me, he went on to say, &quot;In the
+next place ... what I propose is, that you should write the next of
+your treatises, and that I should guarantee the publisher against
+loss; i.e., should engage, after such length of time as may be agreed
+on, to make good any deficiency that may occur, not exceeding a given
+sum,&mdash;that sum being such as the publisher may think sufficient to
+secure him.&quot; Now, though these arrangements were of kinds that I could
+not bring myself to yield to, they none the less profoundly impressed
+me with Mr. Mill's nobility of feeling, and his anxiety to further
+what he regarded as a beneficial end. Such proposals would have been
+remarkable even had there been entire agreement of opinion, but they
+were the more remarkable as being made by him under the consciousness
+that there existed between us certain fundamental differences, openly
+avowed. I had, both directly and by implication, combated that form
+of the experiential theory of human knowledge which characterizes Mr.
+Mill's philosophy: in upholding Realism, I had opposed in decided ways
+those metaphysical systems to which his own Idealism was closely
+allied; and we had long carried on a controversy respecting the test
+of truth, in which I had similarly attacked Mr. Mill's positions in an
+outspoken manner. That, under such circumstances, he should have
+volunteered his aid, and urged it upon me, as he did, on the ground
+that it would not imply any personal obligation, proved in him a very
+exceptional generosity.</p>
+
+<p>Quite recently I have seen afresh illustrated this fine trait,&mdash;this
+ability to bear with unruffled temper, and without any diminution of
+kindly feeling, the publicly-expressed antagonism of a friend. The
+last evening I spent at his house was in the company of another
+invited guest, who, originally agreeing with him entirely on certain
+disputed questions, had some fortnight previously displayed his change
+of view,&mdash;nay, had publicly criticised some of Mr. Mill's positions in
+a very undisguised manner. Evidently, along with his own unswerving
+allegiance to truth, there was in Mr. Mill an unusual power of
+appreciating in others a like conscientiousness, and so of suppressing
+any feeling of irritation produced by difference,&mdash;suppressing it, not
+in appearance only, but in reality, and that, too, under the most
+trying circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>I should say indeed, that Mr. Mill's general characteristic,
+emotionally considered, was an unusual predominance of the higher
+sentiments,&mdash;a predominance which tended, perhaps, both in theory and
+practice, to subordinate the lower nature unduly. That rapid advance
+of age which has been conspicuous for some years past, and which
+doubtless prepared the way for his somewhat premature death, may, I
+think, be regarded as the outcome of a theory of life which made
+learning and working the occupations too exclusively considered. But
+when we ask to what ends he acted out this theory, and in so doing too
+little regarded his bodily welfare, we see that even here the excess,
+if such we call it, was a noble one. Extreme desire to further human
+welfare was that to which he sacrificed himself.</p>
+
+<p>HERBERT SPENCER.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV" ></a>IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>If we would have a just idea of any man's character, we should view it
+from as many points, and under as many aspects, as we can. The
+side-lights thrown by the lesser occupations of a life are often very
+strong, and bring out its less obvious parts into startling
+prominence. Much especially is to be learned of character by taking
+into consideration the employment of times of leisure or relaxation;
+the occupation of such hours being due almost solely to the natural
+bent of the individual, without the interfering action of necessity or
+expediency. Most men, perhaps especially eminent men, have a
+&quot;hobby&quot;,&mdash;some absorbing object, the pursuit of which forms the most
+natural avocation of their mind, and to which they turn with the
+certainty of at least satisfaction, if not of exquisite pleasure. The
+man who follows any branch of natural science in this way is almost
+always especially happy in its prosecution; and his mental powers are
+refreshed and invigorated for the more serious and engrossing if less
+congenial occupation of his life. Mr. Mill's hobby was practical field
+botany; surely in all ways one very well suited to him.</p>
+
+<p>Of the tens of thousands who are acquainted with the philosophical
+writings of Mr. Mill, there are probably few beyond the circle of his
+personal friends who are aware that he was also an author in a modest
+way on botanical subjects, and a keen searcher after wild plants. His
+short communications on botany were chiefly if not entirely published
+in a monthly magazine called &quot;The Phytologist,&quot; edited, from its
+commencement in 1841, by the late George Luxford, till his death, in
+1854, and afterwards conducted by Mr. A. Irvine of Chelsea, an
+intimate friend of Mr. Mill's, till its discontinuance in 1863. In the
+early numbers of this periodical especially will be found frequent
+notes and short papers on the facts of plant distribution brought to
+light by Mr. Mill during his botanical rambles. His excursions were
+chiefly in the county of Surrey, and especially in the neighborhood of
+Guildford and the beautiful vale of the Sittingbourne, where he had
+the satisfaction of being the first to notice several plants of
+interest, as <i>Polygonum dumetorum</i>, <i>Isatis tinctoria</i>, and <i>Impatiens
+fulva</i>, an American species of balsam, affording a very remarkable
+example of complete naturalization in the Wey and other streams
+connected with the lower course of the Thames. Mr. Mill says he first
+observed this interloper in 1822 at Albury, a date which probably
+marks about the commencement of his botanical investigations, if not
+that of the first notice of the plant in this country. Mr. Mill's
+copious MS lists of observations in Surrey were subsequently forwarded
+to the late Mr. Salmon of Godalming, and have been since published
+with the large collection of facts made by that botanist in the &quot;Flora
+of Surrey,&quot; printed under the auspices of the Holmesdale (Reigate)
+Natural History Club. Mr. Mill also contributed to the same
+scientific magazine some short notes on Hampshire botany, and is
+believed to have helped in the compilation of Mr. G.G. Mill's
+&quot;Catalogue of the Plants of Great Marlow, Bucks.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The mere recording of isolated facts of this kind of course affords no
+scope for any style in composition. It may, however, be thought worth
+while to reproduce here the concluding paragraph of a short article on
+&quot;Spring Flowers in the South of Europe,&quot; as a sample of Mr. Mill's
+popular manner, as well as for its own sake as a fine description of a
+matchless scene. He is describing the little mountain range of Albano,
+beloved of painters, and, after comparing its vernal flora with that
+in England, goes on:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>'If we would ascend the highest member of the mountain group,
+     the Monte Cavo, we must make the circuit of the north flank
+     of the mountains of Marino, on the edge of the Albano Lake,
+     and Rocca di Tassa, a picturesque village in the hollow
+     mountain side, from which we climb through woods, abounding
+     in <i>Galanthus nivalis</i> and <i>Corydalis cava</i>, to that summit
+     which was the <i>arx</i> of Jupiter Latialis, and to which the
+     thirty Latian cities ascended in solemn procession to offer
+     their annual sacrifice. The place is now occupied by a
+     convent, under the wall of which I gathered <i>Orinthogalum
+     nutans</i>; and from its neighborhood I enjoyed a panoramic
+     view, surely the most glorious, in its combination of
+     natural beauty and grandeur of historical recollections, to
+     be found anywhere on earth. The eye ranged from Terracina on
+     one side to Veii on the other, and beyond Veii to the hills
+     of Sutrium and Nepete, once covered by the Cimmian forests,
+     then deemed an impenetrable barrier between the interior of
+     Etruria and Rome. Below my feet the Alban mountain, with all
+     its forest-covered folds, and in one of them the dark-blue
+     Lake of Nemi; that of Albano, I think, was invisible. To the
+     north, in the dim distance, the Eternal City, to the west
+     the eternal sea, for eastern boundary, the long line of
+     Sabine mountains from Soracte past Tibur and away towards
+     Proeneste. The range then passed behind the Alban group, but
+     re-appeared to the south-east as the mountain crescent of
+     Cora and Pometia, enclosing between its horns the Pontine
+     marshes, which lay spread out below as far as the sea line,
+     extending east and west from Terracina in the bay of Fondi,
+     the Volscian Anxur, to the angle of the coast where rises
+     suddenly, between the marshes and the sea, the mountain
+     promontory of Circeii, celebrated alike in history and in
+     fable. Within the space visible from this one point, the
+     destinies of the human race were decided. It took the Romans
+     nearly five hundred years to vanquish and incorporate the
+     warlike tribes who inhabited that narrow tract, but, this
+     being accomplished, two hundred more sufficed them to
+     complete the conquest of the world.</p></div>
+
+<p>During the frequent and latterly prolonged residence at Avignon, Mr.
+Mill, carrying on his botanical propensities, had become very well
+acquainted with the vegetation of the district, and at the time of his
+death had collected a mass of notes and observations on the subject.
+It is believed to have been his intention to have printed these as the
+foundation of a flora of Avignon.</p>
+
+<p>In the slight contributions to the literature of botany made by Mr.
+Mill, there is nothing which gives any inkling of the great
+intellectual powers of their writer. Though always clear and accurate,
+they are merely such notes as any working botanical collector is able
+to supply in abundance. Mainly content with the pursuit as an outdoor
+occupation, with such an amount of home work as was necessary to
+determine the names and affinities of the species, Mr. Mill never
+penetrated deeply into the philosophy of botany, so as to take rank
+among those who have, like Herbert Spencer, advanced that science by
+original work either of experiment or generalization, or have entered
+into the battle-field where the great biological questions of the day
+are being fought over. The writer of this notice well remembers
+meeting, a few years since, the (at that time) parliamentary logician,
+with his trousers turned up out of the mud, and armed with the tin
+insignia of his craft, busily occupied in the search after a
+marsh-loving rarity in a typical spongy wood on the clay to the north
+of London.</p>
+
+<p>But however followed, the investigation of nature cannot fail to
+influence the mind in the direction of a more just appreciation of the
+necessity of system in arrangement, and of the principles which must
+regulate all attempts to express notions of system in a
+classification. Traces of this are not difficult to find in Mr. Mill's
+writings. It may be safely stated, that the chapters on classification
+in the &quot;Logic&quot; would not have taken the form they have, had not the
+writer been a naturalist as well as a logician. The views expressed so
+clearly in these chapters are chiefly founded on the actual needs
+experienced by the systematic botanist; and the argument is largely
+sustained by references to botanical systems and arrangements. Most
+botanists agree with Mr. Mill in his objections to Dr. Whewell's views
+of a natural classification by resemblance to &quot;types,&quot; instead of in
+accordance with well-selected characters; and indeed the whole of
+these chapters are well deserving the careful study of naturalists,
+notwithstanding that the wonderfully rapid progress in recent years of
+new ideas, lying at the very root of all the natural sciences, may be
+thought by some to give the whole argument, in spite of its logical
+excellence, a somewhat antiquated flavor. How fully Mr. Mill
+recognized the great importance of the study of biological
+classifications, and the influence such a study must have had on
+himself, may be judged from the following quotation:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&quot;Although the scientific arrangements of organic nature
+     afford as yet the only complete example of the true
+     principles of rational classification, whether as to the
+     formation of groups or of series, those principles are
+     applicable to all cases in which mankind are called upon to
+     bring the various parts of any extensive subject into mental
+     co-ordination. They are as much to the point when objects
+     are to be classed for purposes of art or business as for
+     those of science. The proper arrangement, for example, of a
+     code of laws, depends on the same scientific conditions as
+     the classifications in natural history; nor could there be a
+     better preparatory discipline for that important function
+     than the study of the principles of a natural arrangement,
+     not only in the abstract, but in their actual application to
+     the class of phenomena for which they were first elaborated,
+     and which are still the best school for learning their use.
+     Of this, the great authority on codification, Bentham, was
+     perfectly aware; and his early 'Fragment on Government,' the
+     admirable introduction to a series of writings unequalled in
+     their department, contains clear and just views (as far as
+     they go) on the meaning of a natural arrangement, such as
+     could scarcely have occurred to any one who lived anterior
+     to the age of Linnaeus and Bernard de Jussieu&quot; (<i>System of
+     Logic</i>, ed. 6, ii., p. 288).</p></div>
+
+<p>HENRY TRIMEN.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="V" id="V" ></a>V</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC</h3>
+
+
+<p>Mr. Mill's achievements as an economist, logician, psychologist, and
+politician are known more or less vaguely to all educated men; but his
+capacity and his actual work as a critic are comparatively little
+regarded. In the three volumes of his collected miscellaneous
+writings, very few of the papers are general reviews either of books
+or of men; and even these volumes derive their character from the
+essays they contain on the severer subjects with which Mr. Mill's name
+has been more peculiarly associated. Nobody buys his &quot;Dissertations
+and Discussions&quot; for the sake of his theory of poetry, or his essays
+on Armand Carrel and Alfred de Vigny, noble though these are in many
+ways. His essay on Coleridge is very celebrated; but it deals, not
+with Coleridge's place as a poet, but with his place as a
+thinker&mdash;with Coleridge as the antagonistic power to Bentham in
+forming the opinions of the generation now passing away. Still at such
+a time as this it is interesting to make some endeavor to estimate the
+value of what Mr. Mill has done in the way of criticism. It is at
+least worth while to examine whether one who has shown himself
+capable of grappling effectively with the driest and most abstruse
+problems that vex the human intellect was versatile enough to study
+poetry with an understanding heart, and to be alive to the distinctive
+powers of individual poets.</p>
+
+<p>It was in his earlier life, when his enthusiasm for knowledge was
+fresh, and his active mind, &quot;all as hungry as the sea,&quot; was reaching
+out eagerly and strenuously to all sorts of food for
+thought,&mdash;literary, philosophical, and political,&mdash;that Mr. Mill set
+himself, among other things, to study and theorize upon poetry and the
+arts generally. He could hardly have failed to know the most recent
+efflorescence of English poetry, living as he did in circles where the
+varied merits of the new poets were largely and keenly discussed. He
+had lived also for some time in France, and was widely read in French
+poetry. He had never passed through the ordinary course of Greek and
+Latin at school and college, but he had been taught by his father to
+read these languages, and had been accustomed from the first to regard
+their literature as literature, and to read their poetry as poetry.
+These were probably the main elements of his knowledge of poetry. But
+it was not his way to dream or otherwise luxuriate over his favorite
+poets for pure enjoyment. Mr. Mill was not a cultivator of art for
+art's sake. His was too fervid and militant a soul to lose itself in
+serene love and culture of the calmly beautiful. He read poetry for
+the most part with earnest, critical eye, striving to account for it,
+to connect it with the tendencies of the age, or he read to find
+sympathy with his own aspirations after heroic energy. He read De
+Vigny and other French poets of his generation, with an eye to their
+relations to the convulsed and struggling state of France, and because
+they were compelled by their surroundings to take life <i>au s&eacute;rieux</i>,
+and to pursue, with all the resources of their art, something
+different from beauty in the abstract. Luxurious passive enjoyment or
+torpid half-enjoyment must have been a comparatively rare condition of
+his finely-strung, excitable, and fervid system. I believe that his
+moral earnestness was too imperious to permit much of this. He was
+capable indeed of the most passionate admiration of beauty, but even
+that feeling seems to have been interpenetrated by a certain militant
+apostolic fervor; his love was as the love of a religious soldier for
+a patron saint who extends her aid and countenance to him in his wars.
+I do not mean to say that his mind was in a perpetual glow: I mean
+only that this surrender to impassioned transports was more
+characteristic of the man than serene openness to influx of enjoyment.
+His &quot;Thoughts on Poetry and its Varieties,&quot; while clear and strenuous
+as most of his thoughts were, are neither scientifically precise, nor
+do they contain any notable new idea not previously expressed by
+Coleridge, except perhaps the idea, that emotions are the main links
+of association in the poetic mind: still his working out of the
+definition of poetry, his distinction between novels and poems, and
+between poetry and eloquence, is interesting as throwing light upon
+his own poetic susceptibilities. He holds that poetry is the
+delineation of the deeper and more secret workings of human emotion.
+It is curious to find one who is sometimes assailed as the advocate of
+a grovelling philosophy complaining that the chivalrous spirit has
+almost disappeared from books of education, that the youth of both
+sexes of the educated classes are growing up unromantic. &quot;Catechisms,&quot;
+he says, &quot;will be found a poor substitute for the old romances,
+whether of chivalry or faery, which, if they did not give a true
+picture of actual life, did not give a false one, since they did not
+profess to give any, but (what was much better) filled the youthful
+imagination with pictures of heroic men, and of what are at least as
+much wanted,&mdash;heroic women.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>If Mr. Mill did not love poetry with a purely disinterested love, but
+with an eye to its moral causes and effects, neither did he study
+character from mere delight in observing the varieties of mankind.
+Armand Carrel the Republican journalist, Alfred de Vigny the Royalist
+poet, Coleridge the Conservative, and Bentham the Reformer, are taken
+up and expounded, not as striking individuals, but as types of
+influences and tendencies. This habit of keeping in view mind in the
+abstract, or men in the aggregate, may have been in a large measure a
+result of his education by his father; but I am inclined to think that
+he was of too ardent and pre-occupied a disposition, perhaps too much
+disposed to take favorable views of individuals, to be very sensitive
+to differences of character. It should not, however, be forgotten that
+in one memorable case he showed remarkable discrimination. Soon after
+Mr. Tennyson published his second issue of poems, Mr. Mill reviewed
+them in &quot;The Westminster Review&quot; for July, 1835, and, with his usual
+earnestness and generosity, applied all his powers to making a just
+estimate of the new aspirant. To have reprinted this among his
+miscellaneous writings might have seemed rather boastful, as claiming
+credit for the first full recognition of a great poet: still it is a
+very remarkable review; and one would hope it will not be omitted if
+there is to be any further collection of his casual productions. I
+shall quote two passages which seem obvious enough now, but which
+required true insight, as well as courageous generosity, to write them
+in 1835&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&quot;Of all the capacities of a poet, that which seems to have
+     arisen earliest in Mr. Tennyson, and in which he most
+     excels, is that of scene-painting in the higher sense of the
+     term; not the mere power of producing that rather vapid
+     species of composition usually termed descriptive
+     poetry,&mdash;for there is not in these volumes one passage of
+     pure description,&mdash;but the power of creating scenery in
+     keeping with some state of human feeling, so fitted to it as
+     to be the embodied symbol of it, and to summon up the state
+     of feeling itself with a force not to be surpassed by any
+     thing but reality.&quot;</p>
+
+     <hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>     &quot;The poems which we have quoted from Mr. Tennyson prove
+     incontestably that he possesses in an eminent degree the
+     natural endowment of a poet,&mdash;the poetic temperament. And it
+     appears clearly, not only from a comparison of the two
+     volumes, but of different poems in the same volume, that
+     with him the other element of poetic excellence,
+     intellectual culture, is advancing both steadily and
+     rapidly; that he is not destined, like so many others, to be
+     remembered for what he might have done rather than for what
+     he did; that he will not remain a poet of mere temperament,
+     but is ripening into a true artist.... We predict, that, as
+     Mr. Tennyson advances in general spiritual culture, these
+     higher aims will become more and more predominant in his
+     writings; that he will strive more and more diligently, and,
+     even without striving, will be more and more impelled by the
+     natural tendencies of an expanding character, towards what
+     has been described as the highest object of poetry,&mdash;'to
+     incorporate the everlasting reason of man in forms visible
+     to his sense, and suitable to it.'&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>This last sentence might easily be construed into a prediction of &quot;In
+Memoriam&quot; and &quot;The Idyls of the King.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>If it is asked why Mr. Mill, with all his width of knowledge and
+sympathy, has achieved so little of a reputation as a miscellaneous
+writer, part of the reason no doubt is, that he sternly repressed his
+desultory tendencies, and devoted his powers to special branches of
+knowledge, attaining in them a distinction that obscured his other
+writings. Another reason is, that, although his style is extremely
+clear, he was for popular purposes dangerously familiar with terms
+belonging more or less to the schools. He employed these in literary
+generalizations, without remembering that they were not equally
+familiar to his readers; and thus general readers, like Tom Moore, or
+the author of the recent notice in &quot;The Times,&quot; who read more for
+amusement than instruction, were disposed to consider Mr. Mill's style
+&quot;vastly unreadable.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>W. MINTO.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI" ></a>VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY</h3>
+
+
+<p>To a savage contemplating a railway train in motion, the engine would
+present itself as the master of the situation,&mdash;the determining cause
+of the motion and direction of the train. It visibly takes the lead,
+it looks big and important, and it makes a great noise. Even people a
+long way up in the scale of civilization are in the habit of taking
+these attributes, perhaps not as the essential ones of leadership, but
+at all events as those by which a leader may be recognized. Still that
+blustering machine, which puffs and snorts, and drags a vast multitude
+in its wake, is moving along a track determined by a man hidden away
+from the public gaze. A line of rail lies separated from an adjacent
+one, the pointsman moves a handle, and the foaming giant, that would,
+it may be, have sped on to his destruction and that of the passive
+crew who follow in his rear, is shunted to another line running in a
+different direction and to a more desirable goal.</p>
+
+<p>The great intellectual pointsman of our age&mdash;the man who has done more
+than any other of this generation to give direction to the thought of
+his contemporaries&mdash;has passed away; and we are left to measure the
+loss to humanity by the result of his labors. Mr. Mill's achievements
+in both branches of philosophy are such as to give him the foremost
+place in either. Whether we regard him as an expounder of the
+philosophy of mind or the philosophy of society, he is <i>facile
+princeps</i>. Still it is his work in mental science which will, in our
+opinion, be in future looked upon as his great contribution to the
+progress of thought. His work on political economy not only put into
+thorough repair the structure raised by Adam Smith, Malthus, and
+Ricardo, but raised it at least one story higher. His inestimable
+&quot;System of Logic&quot; was a revolution. It hardly needs, of course, to be
+said that he owed much to his predecessors,&mdash;that he borrowed from
+Whewell much of his classification, from Brown the chief lines of his
+theory of causation, from Sir John Herschel the main principles of the
+inductive methods. Those who think this a disparagement of his work
+must have very little conception of the mass of original thought that
+still remains to Mr. Mill's credit, the great critical power that
+could gather valuable truths from so many discordant sources, and the
+wonderful synthetic ability required to weld these and his own
+contributions into one organic whole.</p>
+
+<p>When Mr. Mill commenced his labors, the only logic recognized was the
+syllogistic. Reasoning consisted solely, according to the then
+dominant school, in deducing from general propositions other
+propositions less general. It was even asserted confidently, that
+nothing more was to be expected,&mdash;that an inductive logic was
+impossible. This conception of logical science necessitated some
+general propositions to start with; and these general propositions
+being <i>ex hypothesi</i> incapable of being proved from other
+propositions, it followed, that, if they were known to us at all, they
+must be original data of consciousness. Here was a perfect paradise of
+question begging. The ultimate major premise in every argument being
+assumed, it could of course be fashioned according to the particular
+conclusion it was called in to prove. Thus an 'artificial ignorance,'
+as Locke calls it, was produced, which had the effect of sanctifying
+prejudice by recognizing so-called necessities of thought as the only
+bases of reasoning. It is true, that outside of the logic of the
+schools great advances had been made in the rules of scientific
+investigation; but these rules were not only imperfect in themselves,
+but their connection with the law of causation was but imperfectly
+realized, and their true relation to syllogism hardly dreamt of.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Mill altered all this. He demonstrated that the general type of
+reasoning is neither from generals to particulars, nor from
+particulars to generals, but from particulars to particulars. &quot;If from
+our experience of John, Thomas, &amp;c., who once were living, but are now
+dead, we are entitled to conclude that all human beings are mortal, we
+might surely, without any logical inconsequence, have concluded at
+once from those instances, that the Duke of Wellington is mortal. The
+mortality of John, Thomas, and others is, after all, the whole
+evidence we have for the mortality of the Duke of Wellington. Not one
+iota is added to the proof by interpolating a general proposition.&quot; We
+not only may, according to Mr. Mill, reason from some particular
+instances to others, but we frequently do so. As, however, the
+instances which are sufficient to prove one fresh instance must be
+sufficient to prove a general proposition, it is most convenient to
+at once infer that general proposition, which then becomes a formula
+according to which (but not from which) any number of particular
+inferences may be made. The work of deduction is the interpretation of
+these formulas, and therefore, strictly speaking, is not inferential
+at all. The real inference was accomplished when the universal
+proposition was arrived at.</p>
+
+<p>It will easily be seen that this explanation of the deductive process
+completely turns the tables on the transcendental school. All
+reasoning is shown to be at bottom inductive. Inductions and their
+interpretation make up the whole of logic; and to induction
+accordingly Mr. Mill devoted his chief attention. For the first time
+induction was treated as the <i>opus magnum</i> of logic, and the
+fundamental principles of science traced to their inductive origin. It
+was this, taken with his theory of the syllogism, which worked the
+great change. Both his &quot;System of Logic&quot; and his &quot;Examination of Sir
+William Hamilton's Philosophy&quot; are for the most part devoted to
+fortifying this position, and demolishing beliefs inconsistent with
+it. As a systematic psychologist Mr. Mill has not done so much as
+either Professor Bain or Mr. Herbert Spencer. The perfection of his
+method, its application, and the uprooting of prejudices which stood
+in its way,&mdash;this was the task to which Mr. Mill applied himself with
+an ability and success rarely matched and never surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>The biggest lion in the path was the doctrine of so-called &quot;necessary
+truth.&quot; This doctrine was especially obnoxious to him, as it set up a
+purely subjective standard of truth, and a standard&mdash;as he was easily
+able to show&mdash;varying according to the psychological history of the
+individual. Such thinkers as Dr. Whewell and Mr. Herbert Spencer had
+to be met in intellectual combat. Dr. Whewell held, not that the
+inconceivability of the contradictory of a proposition is a proof of
+its truth co-equal with experience, but that its value transcends
+experience. Experience may tell us what <i>is</i>; but it is by the
+impossibility of conceiving it otherwise that we know it <i>must be</i>.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, too, holds that propositions whose negation is
+inconceivable have &quot;a higher warrant than any other whatever.&quot; It is
+through this door that ontological belief was supposed to enter.
+&quot;Things in themselves&quot; were to be believed in because we could not
+help it. Modern Noumenalists agree that we can know nothing more of
+&quot;things in themselves&quot; than their existence, but this they continue to
+assert with a vehemence only equalled by its want of meaning.</p>
+
+<p>In his &quot;Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,&quot; Mr. Mill
+gives battle to this mode of thought. After reviewing, in an opening
+chapter, the various views which have been held respecting the
+relativity of human knowledge, and stating his own doctrine, he
+proceeds to judge by this standard the philosophy of the absolute and
+Sir William Hamilton's relation to it. The argument is really on the
+question whether we have or have not an intuition of God, though, as
+Mr. Mill says, &quot;the name of God is veiled under two extremely abstract
+phrases,&mdash;'The Infinite' and 'The Absolute.'&quot; So profound and friendly
+a thinker as the late Mr. Grote held this raising of the veil
+inexpedient, but he proved, by a mistake he fell into, the necessity
+of looking at the matter in the concrete. He acknowledged the force of
+Mr. Mill's argument, that &quot;The Infinite&quot; must include &quot;a farrago of
+contradictions;&quot; but so also, he said, does the Finite. Now
+undoubtedly finite things, taken distributively, have contradictory
+attributes, but not as a class. Still less is there any one individual
+thing, &quot;The Finite,&quot; in which these contradictory attributes inhere.
+But it was against a corresponding being, &quot;The Infinite,&quot; that Mr.
+Mill was arguing. It is this that he calls a &quot;fasciculus of
+contradictions,&quot; and regarded as the <i>reductio ad absurdissimum</i> of
+the transcendental philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Mill's religious tendencies may very well be gathered from a
+passage in his review of Auguste Comte, a philosopher with whom he
+agreed on all points save those which are specially M. Comte's.
+&quot;Candid persons of all creeds may be willing to admit, that if a
+person has an ideal object, his attachment and sense of duty towards
+which are able to control and discipline all his other sentiments and
+propensities, and prescribe to him a rule of life, that person has a
+religion; and though every one naturally prefers his own religion to
+any other, all must admit, that if the object of his attachment, and
+of this feeling of duty, is the aggregate of our fellow-creatures,
+this religion of the infidel cannot in honesty and conscience be
+called an intrinsically bad one. Many indeed may be unable to believe
+that this object is capable of gathering round it feelings
+sufficiently strong; but this is exactly the point on which a doubt
+can hardly remain in an intelligent reader of M. Comte: and we join
+with him in contemning, as equally irrational and mean, the conception
+of human nature as incapable of giving its love, and devoting its
+existence, to any object which cannot afford in exchange an eternity
+of personal enjoyment.&quot; Never has the libel of humanity involved in
+the current theology been more forcibly pointed out, with its constant
+appeal to low motives of personal gain, or still lower motives of
+personal fear. Never has the religious sentiment which must take the
+place of the present awe of the unknown been more clearly indicated.
+It is this noble sentiment which shines out from every page of Mr.
+Mill's writings and all his relations to his fellow-creatures: the
+very birds about his dwelling seemed to recognize it. It is this noble
+sentiment which infuses a soul of life into his teachings, and the
+enunciation and acting-out of which constitute him, not only the great
+philosopher, but also the great prophet of our time.</p>
+
+<p>J. H. LEVY.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII" ></a>VII</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE</h3>
+
+
+<p>The two chief characteristics of Mr. Mill's mind are conspicuous in
+the field of morals and jurisprudence. He united in an extraordinary
+degree an intense delight in thinking for its own sake, with an almost
+passionate desire to make his intellectual excursions contribute to
+the amelioration of the lot of mankind, especially of the poorer and
+suffering part of mankind. And yet he never allowed those high aims to
+clash with one another: he did not degrade his intellect to the
+sophistical office of finding reasons for a policy arising from mere
+emotion, nor did he permit it to run waste in barren speculations,
+which might have excited admiration, but never could have done any
+good. This is the reason why so many persons have been unable to
+understand him as the prophet of utilitarianism. A man of such
+exquisite feeling, of such pure conscientiousness, of such
+self-denying life, must surely be an advocate of what is called
+absolute morality. Utilitarianism is the proper creed of hard
+unemotional natures, who do not respond to the more subtle moral
+influences. Such is the view natural to those who cannot dissociate
+the word &quot;utilitarianism&quot; from the narrow meaning of utility, as
+contrasted with the pleasures of art. The infirmity of human language
+excuses such errors; for the language in which controversy is
+conducted is so colored by sentiment that it may well happen that two
+shall agree on the thing, and fight to the death about the word. We
+need the support of such reflections when we recall the history of
+such a word as &quot;pleasure.&quot; To pursue pleasure, say the
+anti-utilitarians, is a swinish doctrine. &quot;Yes,&quot; replied Mr. Mill, &quot;if
+men were swine, and capable only of the pleasures appropriate to that
+species of animals.&quot; Those who could not answer this argument, and at
+the same time cannot divest themselves of the association of pleasure
+with the ignoble, took refuge in the charge of inconsistency, and,
+finding there was not less but more nobility in Mr. Mill's writing
+than their own theory, accused him of abandoning the tradition of his
+school. Mahomet would not go to the mountain, and they pleased
+themselves with the thought that the mountain had gone to Mahomet.
+Such a charge is really tantamount to a confession that popular
+antipathy was more easily excited by the word than by the real
+doctrine. Nevertheless Mr. Mill did an incalculable service in showing
+not less by his whole life, than by his writings, that utilitarianism
+takes account of all that is good in man's nature, and includes the
+highest emotions, as well as those that are more commonplace. He took
+away a certain reproach of narrowness, which was never in the
+doctrine, and which was loudly, though perhaps with little reason,
+urged against some of its most conspicuous supporters. An important
+addition to the theory of morals is also contained in the book on
+&quot;Utilitarianism.&quot; His analysis of &quot;justice&quot; is one of the happiest
+efforts of inductive definition to be found in any book on ethics.
+From any point of view, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to
+the literature of ethical philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The somewhat technical subject of jurisprudence was not too much for
+Mr. Mill's immense power of assimilation. One of his earliest efforts
+was as editor of Bentham's &quot;Rationale of Judicial Evidence.&quot; He must,
+therefore, at an early period, have been master of the most original
+and enlightened theory of judicial evidence that the world has seen.
+He lived to see nearly all the important innovations proposed by
+Bentham become part and parcel of the law of the land; one of the last
+relics of bigotry&mdash;the exclusion of honest atheists (and only of such)
+from the witness-box&mdash;having been removed two or three years ago. Mr.
+Mill, in after years, attended Austin's famous lectures on
+jurisprudence, taking extensive notes; so that he was able to supply
+the matter wanting to complete two important lectures, as they were
+printed in the first edition of Austin's works. Among the
+&quot;Dissertations and Discussions,&quot; is a criticism of Austin's work,
+which shows that he was far more than a scholar,&mdash;a most competent
+judge of his master. He pointed out in Austin's definition of &quot;right&quot;
+a real defect. One of the points that Austin elaborated most was a
+classification such as might serve for a scientific code of law. Mr.
+Mill fully acknowledged the merits of the scheme, but laid his finger
+unerringly on its weakest part. His remarks show, that, if he had
+followed up the subject with an adequate knowledge of any good system
+of law, he would have rivalled or surpassed his achievements in other
+departments of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>W. A. HUNTER.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII" ></a>VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The task of fairly estimating the value of Mr. Mill's achievements in
+political economy&mdash;and indeed the same remark applies to what he has
+done in every department of philosophy&mdash;is rendered particularly
+difficult by a circumstance which constitutes their principal merit.
+The character of his intellectual, no less than of his moral nature,
+led him to strive to connect his thoughts, whatever was the branch of
+knowledge at which he labored, with the previously-existing body of
+speculation, to fit them into the same framework, and exhibit them as
+parts of the same scheme; so that it might be truly said of him, that
+he was at more pains to conceal the originality and independent value
+of his contributions to the stock of knowledge than most writers are
+to set forth those qualities in their compositions. As a consequence
+of this, hasty readers of his works, while recognizing the
+comprehensiveness of his mind, have sometimes denied its originality;
+and in political economy in particular he has been frequently
+represented as little more than an expositor and popularizer of
+Ricardo. It cannot be denied that there is a show of truth in this
+representation; about as much as there would be in asserting that
+Laplace and Herschel were the expositors and popularizers of Newton,
+or that Faraday performed a like office for Sir Humphry Davy. In
+truth, this is an incident of all progressive science. The cultivators
+in each age may, in a sense, be said to be the interpreters and
+popularizers of those who have preceded them; and it is in this sense,
+and in this sense only, that this part can be attributed to Mill. In
+this respect he is to be strongly contrasted with the great majority
+of writers on political economy, who, on the strength perhaps of a
+verbal correction or an unimportant qualification of a received
+doctrine, if not on the score of a pure fallacy, would fain persuade
+us that they have achieved a revolution in economic doctrine, and that
+the entire science must be rebuilt from its foundation in conformity
+with their scheme. This sort of thing has done infinite mischief to
+the progress of economic science; and one of Mill's great merits is,
+that both by example and by precept he steadily discountenanced it.
+His anxiety to affiliate his own speculations to those of his
+predecessors is a marked feature in all his philosophical works, and
+illustrates at once the modesty and comprehensiveness of his mind.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite true that Mill, as an economist, was largely indebted to
+Ricardo; and he has so fully and frequently acknowledged the debt,
+that there is some danger of rating the obligation too highly. As he
+himself used to put it, Ricardo supplied the backbone of the science;
+but it is not less certain that the limbs, the joints, the muscular
+developments,&mdash;all that renders political economy a complete and
+organized body of knowledge,&mdash;have been the work of Mill. In Ricardo's
+great work, the fundamental doctrines of production, distribution, and
+exchange have been laid down, but for the most part in mere outline;
+so much so, that superficial students are in general wholly unable to
+connect his statement of principles with the facts, as we find them,
+of industrial life. Hence we have innumerable &quot;refutations of
+Ricardo,&quot;&mdash;almost invariably refutations of the writers' own
+misconceptions. In Mill's exposition, the connection between
+principles and facts becomes clear and intelligible. The conditions
+and modes of action are exhibited by which human wants and
+desires&mdash;the motive powers of industry&mdash;come to issue in the actual
+phenomena of wealth, and political economy becomes a system of
+doctrines susceptible of direct application to human affairs. As an
+example, I may refer to Mill's development of Ricardo's doctrine of
+foreign trade. In Ricardo's pages, the fundamental principles of that
+department of exchange are indeed laid down with a master's hand; but
+for the majority of readers they have little relation to the actual
+commerce of the world. Turn to Mill, and all becomes clear. Principles
+of the most abstract kind are translated into concrete language, and
+brought to explain familiar facts; and this result is achieved, not
+simply or chiefly by virtue of mere lucidity of exposition, but
+through the discovery and exhibition of modifying conditions and links
+in the chain of causes overlooked by Ricardo. It was in his &quot;Essays on
+Unsettled Questions in Political Economy&quot; that his views upon this
+subject were first given to the world,&mdash;a work of which M. Cherbuliez
+of Geneva speaks as &quot;un travail le plus important et le plus original
+dont la science economique se soit enrichie depuis une vingtaine
+d'ann&eacute;es.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On some points, however, and these points of supreme importance, the
+contributions of Mill to economic science are very much more than
+developments&mdash;even though we understand that term in its largest
+sense&mdash;of any previous writer. No one can have studied political
+economy in the works of its earlier cultivators without being struck
+with the dreariness of the outlook which, in the main, it discloses
+for the human race. It seems to have been Ricardo's deliberate
+opinion, that a substantial improvement in the condition of the mass
+of mankind was impossible. He considered it as the normal state of
+things that wages should be at the <i>minimum</i> requisite to support the
+laborer in physical health and strength, and to enable him to bring up
+a family large enough to supply the wants of the labor-market. A
+temporary improvement indeed, as the consequence of expanding commerce
+and growing capital, he saw that there might be; but he held that the
+force of the principle of population was always powerful enough so to
+augment the supply of labor as to bring wages ever again down to the
+<i>minimum</i> point. So completely had this belief become a fixed idea in
+Ricardo's mind, that he confidently drew from it the consequence, that
+in no case could taxation fall on the laborer, since&mdash;living, as a
+normal state of things, on the lowest possible stipend adequate to
+maintain him and his family&mdash;he would inevitably, he argued, transfer
+the burden to his employer; and a tax nominally on wages would in the
+result become invariably a tax upon profits. On this point Mill's
+doctrine leads to conclusions directly opposed to Ricardo's, and to
+those of most preceding economists. And it will illustrate his
+position as a thinker, in relation to them, if we note how this result
+was obtained. Mill neither denied the premises nor disputed the logic
+of Ricardo's argument: he accepted both; and in particular he
+recognized fully the force of the principle of population; but he took
+account of a further premise which Ricardo had overlooked, and which,
+duly weighed, led to a reversal of Ricardo's conclusion. The <i>minimum</i>
+of wages, even such as it exists in the case of the worst-paid
+laborer, is not the very least sum that human nature can subsist upon:
+it is something more than this; in the case of all above the
+worst-paid class it is decidedly more. The <i>minimum</i> is, in truth, not
+a physical but a moral <i>minimum</i>, and as such, is capable of being
+altered with the changes in the moral character of those whom it
+affects. In a word, each class has a certain standard of comfort below
+which it will not consent to live, or at least to multiply,&mdash;a
+standard, however, not fixed, but liable to modification with the
+changing circumstances of society, and which, in the case of a
+progressive community, is, in point of fact, constantly rising, as
+moral and intellectual influences are brought more and more
+effectually to bear on the masses of the people. This was the new
+premise brought by Mill to the elucidation of the wages question; and
+it sufficed to change the entire aspect of human life regarded from
+the point of view of political economy. The practical deductions made
+from it were set forth in the celebrated chapter on &quot;The Future of
+the Industrial Classes,&quot;&mdash;a chapter which it is no exaggeration to say
+places a gulf between Mill and all who preceded him, and opens an
+entirely new vista to economic speculation.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of the science with which Mill's name has been most
+prominently associated within the last few years is that which relates
+to the economic nature of land, and the consequences to which this
+should lead in practical legislation. It is very commonly believed,
+that on this point Mill has started aside from the beaten highway of
+economic thought, and propounded views wholly at variance with those
+generally entertained by orthodox economists. No economist need be
+told that this is an entire mistake. In truth, there is no portion of
+the economic field in which Mill's originality is less conspicuous
+than in that which deals with the land. His assertion of the peculiar
+nature of landed property, and again his doctrine as to the &quot;unearned
+increment&quot; of value arising from land with the growth of society, are
+simply direct deductions from Ricardo's theory of rent, and cannot be
+consistently denied by any one who accepts that theory. All that Mill
+has done here has been to point the application of principles all but
+universally accepted to the practical affairs of life. This is not the
+place to consider how far the plan proposed by him for this purpose is
+susceptible of practical realization; but it may at least be
+confidently stated, that the scientific basis on which his proposal
+rests is no strange novelty invented by him, but simply a principle as
+fundamental and widely recognized as any within the range of the
+science of which it forms a part.</p>
+
+<p>I have just remarked that Mill's originality is less conspicuous in
+relation to the economic theory of land than in other problems of
+political economy, but the reader must not understand me from this to
+say, that he has not very largely contributed to the elucidation of
+this topic. He has indeed done so, though not, as is commonly
+supposed, by setting aside principles established by his predecessors,
+but, as his manner was, while accepting those principles, by
+introducing a new premise into the argument. The new premise
+introduced in this case was the influence of custom as modifying the
+action of competition. The existence of an active competition, on the
+one hand between farmers seeking farms, on the other between farming
+and other modes of industry as offering inducements to the investment
+of capital, is a constant assumption in the reasoning by which Ricardo
+arrived at his theory of rent. Granting this assumption, it followed
+that farmers as a rule would pay neither higher nor lower rents than
+would leave them in possession of the average profits on their capital
+current in the country. Mill fully acknowledged the force of this
+reasoning, and accepted the conclusion as true wherever the conditions
+assumed were realized; but he proceeded to point out, that, in point
+of fact, the conditions are not realized over the greater portion of
+the world, and, as a consequence, that the rent actually paid by the
+cultivators to the owners of the soil by no means, as a general rule,
+corresponds with that portion of the produce which Ricardo considered
+as properly &quot;rent.&quot; The real regulator of actual rent over the greater
+part of the habitable globe was, he showed, not competition, but
+custom; and he further pointed out that there are countries in which
+the actual rent paid by the cultivators is governed neither by the
+causes set forth by Ricardo, nor yet by custom, but by a third cause
+different from either,&mdash;the absolute will of the owners of the soil,
+controlled only by the physical exigencies of the cultivator, or by
+the fear of his vengeance if disturbed in his holding. The recognition
+of this state of things threw an entirely new light over the whole
+problem of land-tenure, and plainly furnished grounds for legislative
+interference in the contracts between landlords and tenants. Its
+application to Ireland was obvious; and Mill himself, as the world
+knows, did not hesitate to urge the application with all the energy
+and enthusiasm which he invariably threw into every cause that he
+espoused.</p>
+
+<p>In the above remarks, I have attempted to indicate briefly some few of
+the salient features in Mill's contributions to the science of
+political economy. There is still one more which ought not to be
+omitted from even the most meagre summary. Mill was not the first to
+treat political economy as a science; but he was the first, if not to
+perceive, at least to enforce the lesson, that, just because it is a
+science, its conclusions carried with them no obligatory force with
+reference to human conduct. As a science, it tells us that certain
+modes of action lead to certain results; but it remains for each man
+to judge of the value of the results thus brought about, and to decide
+whether or not it is worth while to adopt the means necessary for
+their attainment. In the writings of the economists who preceded Mill,
+it is very generally assumed, that to prove that a certain course of
+conduct tends to the most rapid increase of wealth suffices to entail
+upon all who accept the argument the obligation of adopting the course
+which leads to this result. Mill absolutely repudiated this inference,
+and, while accepting the theoretic conclusion, held himself perfectly
+free to adopt in practice whatever course he preferred. It was not for
+political economy or for any science to say what are the ends most
+worthy of being pursued by human beings; the task of science is
+complete when it shows us the means by which the ends may be attained;
+but it is for each individual man to decide how far the end is
+desirable at the cost which its attainment involves. In a word, the
+sciences should be our servants, and not our masters. This was a
+lesson which Mill was the first to enforce, and by enforcing which he
+may be said to have emancipated economists from the thraldom of their
+own teaching. It is in no slight degree through the constant
+recognition of its truth, that he has been enabled to divest of
+repulsiveness even the most abstract speculations, and to impart a
+glow of human interest to all that he has touched.</p>
+
+<p>J. E. CAIRNES.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX" ></a>IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Some time ago, when there was no reason to suppose that we should so
+soon have to mourn the loss of the great thinker and of the kind
+friend who has just passed away, I had occasion to remark upon the
+influence which Mr. Mill had exercised at the universities. I will
+quote my words as they stand, because it is difficult to write with
+impartiality about one whose recent death we are deploring; and Mr.
+Mill would, I am sure, have been the first to say, that it is
+certainly not honoring the memory of one who is dead to lavish upon
+him praise which would not be bestowed upon him if he were living. I
+will therefore repeat my words exactly as they were written two years
+since: 'Any one who has resided during the last twenty years at either
+of our universities must have noticed that Mr. Mill is the author who
+has most powerfully influenced nearly all the young men of the
+greatest promise.' In thus referring to the powerful influence
+exercised by Mr. Mill's works, I do not wish it to be supposed that
+this influence is to be measured by the extent to which his books form
+a part of the university <i>curriculum</i>. His &quot;Logic&quot; has no doubt
+become a standard examination-book at Oxford. At Cambridge the
+mathematical and classical triposes still retain their former
+<i>prestige</i>. The moral science tripos, though increasing in importance,
+still attracts a comparatively small number of students, and there is
+probably no other examination for which it is necessary to read Mr.
+Mill's &quot;Logic&quot; and &quot;Political Economy.&quot; This fact affords the most
+satisfactory evidence that the influence he has exerted is
+spontaneous, and is therefore likely to be lasting in its effects. If
+students had been driven to read his books by the necessity which
+examinations impose, it is quite possible, that, after the
+examination, the books might never be looked at again. A resident,
+however, at the university can scarcely fail to be struck with the
+fact, that many who perfectly well know that they will never in any
+examination be asked to answer a question in logic or political
+economy are among the most diligent students of Mr. Mill's books. When
+I was an undergraduate, I well remember that most of my friends who
+were likely to take high mathematical honors were already so
+ultimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings, and were so much
+imbued with their spirit, that they might have been regarded as his
+disciples. Many looked up to him as their teacher; many have since
+felt that he then instilled into them principles, which, to a great
+extent, have guided their conduct in after life. Any one who is
+intimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings will readily understand
+how it is that they possess such peculiar attractiveness for the class
+of readers to whom I am now referring. There is nothing more
+characteristic in his writings than generosity and courage. He always
+states his opponent's case with the most judicial impartiality. He
+never shrinks from the expression of opinion because he thinks it
+unpopular; and there is nothing so abhorrent to him as that bigotry
+which prevents a man from appreciating what is just and true in the
+views of those who differ from him. This toleration, which is so
+predominant a feature of his writings, is probably one of the rarest
+of all qualities in a controversialist. Those who do not possess it
+always produce an impression that they are unfair; and this
+impression, once produced, exercises a repelling influence upon the
+young. Another cause of the attractiveness of Mr. Mill's writings is
+the precision with which his views are expressed, and the systematic
+form which is given to his opinions. Confidence is reposed in him as a
+guide, because it is found that there is some definite goal to which
+he is leading his readers: he does not conduct them they know not
+whither, as a traveller who has lost his way in a mist, or a navigator
+who is steering his ship without a compass. The influence exercised by
+Mr. Mill does not chiefly depend upon the originality of his writings.
+He did not make any great discovery which will form an epoch in the
+history of human thought; he did not create a new science, or become
+the founder of a new system of philosophy. There is perhaps not so
+much originality in his &quot;Political Economy&quot; as in Ricardo's; but there
+are thousands who never thought of reading Ricardo who were so much
+attracted by Mr. Mill's book, that its influence might be traced
+throughout the rest of their lives. No doubt one reason of his
+attractiveness as a writer, in addition to other circumstances to
+which allusion has already been made, is the unusual power he
+possessed in applying philosophical principles to the facts of
+ordinary life. To those who believe that the influence Mr. Mill has
+exercised at the universities has been in the highest degree
+beneficial,&mdash;to those who think that his books not only afford the
+most admirable intellectual training, but also are calculated to
+produce a most healthy moral influence,&mdash;it may be some consolation,
+now that we are deploring his death, to know, that, although he has
+passed away, he may still continue to be a teacher and a guide. I
+believe he never visited the English universities: it was consequently
+entirely through his books that he was known. Not one of those who
+were his greatest admirers at Cambridge, when I was an undergraduate,
+ever saw him till many years after they had left the University. I
+remember that we often used to say, that there was nothing we should
+esteem so great a privilege as to spend an hour in Mr. Mill's society.
+There is probably no bond of attachment stronger than that which
+unites a pupil to one who has attracted him to new intellectual
+pursuits, and has awakened in him new interests in life. Some four or
+five years after taking my degree, I met Mr. Mill for the first time;
+and from that hour an intimate friendship commenced, which I shall
+always regard as a peculiarly high privilege to have enjoyed. Intimacy
+with Mr. Mill convinced me, that, if he had happened to live at either
+of the universities, his personal influence would have been no less
+striking than his intellectual influence. Nothing, perhaps, was so
+remarkable in his character as his tenderness to the feelings of
+others, and the deference with which he listened to those in every
+respect inferior to himself. There never was a man who was more
+entirely free from that intellectual conceit which breeds disdain.
+Nothing is so discouraging and heart-breaking to young people as the
+sneer of an intellectual cynic. A sarcasm about an act of youthful
+mental enthusiasm not only often casts a fatal chill over the
+character, but is resented as an injury never to be forgiven. The most
+humble youth would have found in Mr. Mill the warmest and most kindly
+sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, if Mr. Mill has not become the founder of a new
+philosophical school at the universities where must we seek the result
+of his influence? I cannot give any thing like a complete reply to
+this question now; but any one who has observed the marked change
+which has come over the mode of thought in the universities in the
+last few years will be able to form some idea of the kind of influence
+which has been exercised by Mr. Mill. Speaking generally, he has
+obtained a very wide acceptance of the utilitarian doctrines: they
+were presented by Bentham in a form so harsh and unattractive as to
+produce an almost repelling effect. Mr. Mill, on the contrary, showed
+that the utilitarian philosophy might inspire the most active
+benevolence and the most generous enthusiasm. This acceptance of
+utilitarianism has produced a very striking effect in modifying the
+political opinions prevalent in the universities. For many years what
+has been known as the liberalism of young Oxford and Cambridge is in
+many respects fundamentally different from what is known as liberalism
+outside the universities. The liberalism of the universities, as well
+as that of the Manchester school, are both popularly described as
+advanced but between the two there is in many essentials the widest
+possible divergence. What is known as Philosophical Radicalism will
+long bear the impression of Mr. Mill's teaching.</p>
+
+<p>It should be particularly remembered, that, avowing himself a liberal,
+he never forgot that it is the essence of true liberalism to be
+tolerant of opinions from which one differs, and to appreciate the
+advantages of branches of learning to which one has not devoted
+special attention. It is somewhat rare to find that those who profess
+themselves undoubted liberals are prepared to accept a consistent
+application of their principles. There is almost sure to be some
+region of inquiry which they regard as so dangerous that they regret
+that any one should enter upon it. Sometimes it is said that freedom
+of thought, though admirable in politics, is mischievous in theology:
+some, advancing what they believe to be one step further, express a
+general approbation of freedom of thought, but stigmatize
+free-thinkers. Again, it may be not infrequently observed that
+devotion to some particular study makes men illiberal to other
+branches of knowledge. Metaphysicians and physiologists who have never
+taken the trouble to master mathematical principles dogmatically
+denounce the influence of mathematics. Eminent classics and
+mathematicians have too frequently sneered at each other's studies. No
+one was ever more free from this kind of bigotry than Mr. Mill, and it
+probably constitutes one of the main causes of his influence. Some
+years ago I happened to be conversing at Cambridge with three men who
+were respectively of great eminence in mathematics, classics, and
+physiology. We were discussing the inaugural address which Mr. Mill
+had just delivered as rector of the St. Andrew's University. The
+mathematician said, that he had never seen the advantages to be
+derived from the study of mathematics so justly and so forcibly
+described; the same remark was made by the classic about classics, and
+by the physiologist about natural science. No more fitting homage can
+probably be offered to the memory of one to whom so many of us are
+bound by the strongest ties of gratitude and affection, than if,
+profiting by his example, we endeavor to remember, that above all
+things he was just to his opponents, that he appreciated opinions from
+which he differed, and that one of his highest claims to our
+admiration was his general sympathy with all branches of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>HENRY FAWCETT.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="X" id="X" ></a>X.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Every one must be familiar with the often expressed opinion, that, as
+a practical politician, Mr. Mill's career was essentially a failure.
+It has been said a thousand times that the principal result of his
+brief representation of Westminster was to furnish an additional
+proof, if one were wanted, that a philosopher is totally incapable of
+exercising any useful influence in the direction of practical
+politics. It is proposed briefly to examine this opinion, though it
+may, indeed, with truth be urged that the present time is not
+calculated to make the examination an impartial one. The inquiry
+involves an almost constant reference, either expressed or implied, to
+Mr. Mill's personal character and influence, and it is hardly possible
+for those who are mourning him as a friend to speak of these
+dispassionately. It is perhaps hardly necessary at such a time as this
+to ask the indulgence of the reader if this unworthy tribute to the
+memory of a great man is colored by personal reverence and gratitude.</p>
+
+<p>When, it is said that Mr. Mill failed as a practical politician,
+there are two questions to be asked: &quot;Who says he has failed?&quot; And
+&quot;What is it said that he failed in?&quot; Now, it seems that the persons
+who are loudest in the assertion of his failure are precisely those to
+whom the reforms advocated by Mr. Mill in his writings are
+distasteful. They are those who pronounce all schemes of electoral
+reform embodying the principle of proportional representation to be
+the result of a conspiracy of fools and rogues; they are those who
+sneer at the &quot;fanciful rights of women;&quot; they are those who think our
+present land tenure eminently calculated to make the rich contented,
+and keep the poor in their proper places; they are those who believe
+that republicans and atheists ought to be treated like vermin, and
+exterminated accordingly; they are those who think that all must be
+well with England if her imports and exports are increasing, and that
+we are justified in repudiating our foreign engagements, if to
+maintain them would have an injurious effect upon trade. The assertion
+of failure coming from such persons does not mean that Mr. Mill failed
+to promote the practical success of those objects the advocacy of
+which forms the chief feature of his political writings. It is rather
+a measure of his success in promoting these objects, and of the
+disgust with which his success is regarded by those who are opposed to
+his political ideas. It was known, or ought to have been known, by
+every one who supported Mr. Mill's candidature in 1865, that he was a
+powerful advocate of proportional representation, and that he
+attributed the very greatest importance to the political, industrial,
+and social emancipation of women; he advocated years ago, in his
+&quot;Political Economy,&quot; the scheme of land tenure reform with which his
+name is now practically associated; his essay &quot;On Liberty&quot; left no
+doubt as to his opinions upon the value of maintaining freedom of
+thought and speech, his article entitled &quot;A Few Words on
+Non-intervention&quot; might have warned the partisans of the Manchester
+school that he had no sympathy with their views on foreign policy.
+There is little doubt that the majority of Mr. Mill's supporters in
+1865 did not know what his political opinions were, and that they
+voted for him simply on his reputation as a great thinker. A large
+number, however, probably supported him, knowing in a general way the
+views advocated in his writings, but thinking that he would probably
+be like many other politicians, and not allow his practice to be in
+the least degree influenced by his theories. Just as radical heirs
+apparent are said to lay aside all inconvenient revolutionary opinions
+when they come to the throne, it was believed that Mr. Mill in
+Parliament would be an entirely different person from Mr. Mill in his
+study. It was one thing to write an essay in favor of proportional
+representation it was another thing to assist in the insertion of the
+principle of proportional representation in the Reform Bill, and to
+form a school of practical politicians who took care to insure the
+adoption of this principle in the school board elections. It was one
+thing to advocate theoretically the claims of women to representation
+it was another to introduce the subject into the House of Commons, to
+promote an active political organization in its favor, and thus to
+convert it, from a philosophical dream, into a question of pressing
+and practical importance. It was one thing to advocate freedom of
+thought and discussion in all political and religious questions it was
+another to speak respectfully of Mr. Odger, and to send Mr. Bradlaugh
+a contribution toward the expenses of his candidature for Northampton.
+The discovery that Mr. Mill's chief objects in Parliament were the
+same as his chief objects out of Parliament branded him at once as an
+unpractical man: and his success in promoting these objects
+constituted his &quot;failure&quot; as a politician. His fearless disregard of
+unpopularity, as manifested in his prosecution, in conjunction with
+Mr. P.A. Taylor, of Ex-Governor Eyre, was another proof that he was
+entirely unlike the people who call themselves &quot;practical
+politicians.&quot; His persistency in conducting this prosecution was one
+of the main causes of his defeat at the election of 1868.</p>
+
+<p>If to be unpopular because he promoted the practical success of the
+opinions his life had been spent in advocating is to have failed, then
+Mr. Mill failed. If, however, the success of a politician is to be
+measured by the degree in which he is able personally to influence the
+course of politics, and attach to himself a school of political
+thought, then Mr. Mill, in the best meaning of the words, has
+succeeded. If Mr. Mill had died ten years ago, is it probable that his
+views on representative reform would have received so much practical
+recognition as they have obtained during the last five years? If he
+had never entered the House of Commons, would the women's-suffrage
+question be where it now is? Before he introduced the subject into the
+House of Commons in 1867, it may be said to have had no political
+existence in this country. The whole question was held in such
+contempt by &quot;practical politicians,&quot; that the House would probably
+have refused to listen to any member, except Mr. Mill, who advocated
+the removal of the political disabilities of women. Mr. Mill was the
+one member of Parliament whose high intellectual position enabled him
+to raise the question without being laughed down as a fool. To every
+one's astonishment, seventy-four members followed Mr. Mill into the
+lobby: the most sanguine estimate, previous to the division, of the
+number of his supporters had been thirty. Since that time, the
+movement in favor of women's suffrage has made rapid and steady
+progress. Like all genuine political movements, it has borne fruit in
+many measures which are intended to remove the grievances of which
+those who advocate the movement complain: among these collateral
+results of the agitation for women's suffrage, may be enumerated the
+Married Women's Property Act, the Custody of Infants Bill, and the
+admission of women to the municipal and educational franchises and to
+seats upon school-boards. A large part of the present anxiety to
+improve the education of girls and women is also due to the conviction
+that the political disabilities of women will not be maintained. In
+this question of the general improvement of the position of women, Mr.
+Mill's influence can scarcely be over-estimated. All through his life
+he regarded it as a question of first-rate importance; and the extent
+to which he was able practically to promote it is sufficient in itself
+to make his career as a politician a success. A strong proof of the
+vitality of the movement, of which he was the principal originator, is
+that his death cannot injuriously affect its activity or its prospects
+of ultimate success. What he has done for women is final: he gave to
+their service the best powers of his mind and the best years of his
+life. His death consecrates the gift: it can never lessen its value.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of Mr. Mill's influence on the women's-suffrage question
+is true also of the other political movements in which he took an
+active interest. He was able in all of these powerfully to influence
+the political history of his day in the direction in which he desired
+to influence it. If this is failure, failure is worth much more than
+success.</p>
+
+<p>Of the influence of Mr. Mill's personal character on those who were
+his political associates, it is difficult to speak too warmly. No one
+could be with him or work with him without being conscious of
+breathing a purer moral atmosphere: he made mean personal ambitions
+and rivalries seem despicable and ridiculous, not so much by any thing
+that he said directly on the subject, as by contrast with his own
+noble, strong, and generous nature. It is almost impossible to imagine
+that any one could be so insensible to the high morality of Mr. Mill's
+character as to suggest to him any course of conduct that was not
+entirely upright and consistent. A year or two ago, however, a story
+was told of a gentleman who asked Mr. Mill to stand for an Irish
+constituency, and stated that the only opinion it would be necessary
+for him to change was the one he had so often expressed against
+denominational education. A smile at the man's stupidity, and the
+remark, &quot;I should like to have seen Mill's face when he heard this
+suggestion,&quot; is the almost invariable comment on this story. It is a
+very suggestive indication of the impression Mr. Mill's moral
+influence made on those who knew him.</p>
+
+<p>An apology is due to the readers of these pages that the task of
+speaking of Mr. Mill as a practical politician has not fallen into
+more competent hands. No one can be more deeply sensible of my
+inability to deal adequately with the subject than I am myself. This
+sketch ought to have been written by one who is in every way more
+qualified to speak of Mr. Mill's political career than I am.
+Unavoidable circumstances, however, prevented his undertaking the
+work; and as the time was too short to allow of any being spent in a
+search that might have proved fruitless, the honor of writing these
+lines has devolved upon me.</p>
+
+<p>MILLICENT GARRETT FAWCETT.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XI" id="XI" ></a>XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2" ></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></h3>
+
+<p>The present course of lectures on a special subject has made no
+pretension to present the religious aspect of Positivism, and I shall
+not venture to intrude on one of its gravest functions the due
+commemoration of the dead. But nothing that is spoken here should have
+a merely scientific form, nor can I be satisfied until I have tried to
+give expression to the feeling which must be foremost in the minds of
+all present. It is impossible to forget that it was by Mr. Mill that
+Comte was first made known in this country, and that by him first in
+this country the great doctrines of positive thought, the supreme
+reign of law in the moral and social world, no less than in the
+intellectual world, were reduced to system and life. This conception
+as a whole has been gradually forming in the minds of all modern
+thinkers; but its full scope and force were presented to Englishmen
+for the first time by Mr. Mill. The growth of my own mind, and of that
+of all those with whom I have been associated, has been simply the
+recognition of this truth in all its bearings and force; and it was
+in minds saturated with this principle by the teaching of Mr. Mill
+that the great phases of English thought have germinated in our day.
+In this place it is impossible to forget, that, in introducing to the
+English world the principles of Comte, Mr. Mill so clearly and
+ardently professed the positive philosophy at that time restricted to
+its earlier phase alone. In this place it is impossible, too, to
+forget the generous assistance which he extended to Comte, whereby he
+was enabled to continue his labors in philosophy, impossible also to
+forget the active communion of mind between them, and the large space
+which their intercourse occupied in the thoughts and labors of both.
+Nor can I, and many present here, forget the many occasions on which
+we have been guided by his counsel and supported by his help in many a
+practical work in which we have depended on his example and
+experience. It is needless to repeat, for it must be present to all
+minds, how many and deep are the differences which separate him from
+the later doctrines of Comte, and how completely he repudiated
+connection with the religious reconstruction of Positivism. We here,
+at any rate, shall claim Mr. Mill for Positivism in no other sense
+than that in which he claimed it for himself in his own latest
+writings. These differences we shall neither exaggerate nor veil. They
+stand all written most clearly for all men to weigh and to use. But
+naturally we shall point, as one of us has already publicly pointed,
+to the cardinal features of agreement, and the vast importance of the
+features for which we may claim the whole weight of his authority. Yet
+I would not pretend that it is only on this side of his connection
+with the founder and principles of Positivism, that we dwell on the
+memory of Mr. Mill with admiration and sympathy. We reverence that
+unfaltering fearlessness of spirit, that warmth of generous emotion,
+that guileless simplicity of nature, which made his life heroic.
+Neither insult, failure, nor abandonment could shake his sense of
+duty, or touch his gentle and serene fortitude. For us his high
+example, his noble philosophic calm, continue to live and to teach.
+He, being dead, yet speaketh. And, if his great heart and brain are no
+longer amongst us as visible and conscious agencies, his spirit lives
+yet in all that he has given to the generation of to-day: the work of
+his spirit is not ended, nor the task of his life accomplished; but we
+feel that his nature is entering on a new and greater life amongst
+us,&mdash;one that is entirely spiritual, intellectual, and moral.</p>
+
+<p>FREDERIC HARRISON.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2" ></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Part of a lecture on &quot;Political Institutions,&quot; delivered
+at the Positivist School, May 11.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="XII" id="XII" ></a>XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is always hazardous to forecast the estimation in which any man
+will be held by posterity. In one sense truly we have no right to
+anticipate the judgment of the future, sufficient for us to form
+opinions satisfactory within the limits of our own generation.
+Sometimes, by evil chance, a great name is covered with undeserved
+reproach; and it is reserved for a distant future to do it justice.
+But such a work as Mr. Carlyle did for Cromwell we may confidently
+anticipate will never be required for the name of John Stuart Mill. He
+is already enrolled among the first of contemporary thinkers, and from
+that list his name will never be erased. The nature of Mr. Mill's work
+is such as to make it easy to predict the character of his future
+reputation. His is the kind of philosophy that is destined to become
+the commonplace of the future. We may anticipate that many of his most
+remarkable views will become obsolete in the best sense: they will
+become worked up into practice, and embodied in institutions. Indeed,
+the place that he will hold will probably be closely resembling that
+of the great father of English philosophy,&mdash;John Locke. There is
+indeed, amid distinguishing differences, a remarkable similarity
+between the two men, and the character of their influence on the
+world. What Locke was to the liberal movements of the seventeenth
+century, Mr. Mill has more than been to the liberal movement of the
+nineteenth century. The intellectual powers of the two men had much in
+common, and they were exercised upon precisely similar subjects. The
+&quot;Essay on the Human Understanding&quot; covered doubtless a field more
+purely psychological than the &quot;Logic;&quot; but we must remember that the
+&quot;Analysis of the Mind&quot; by the elder Mill had recently carried the
+inductive study of mind to an advanced point. If, however, we regard
+less the topics on which these two illustrious men wrote, than the
+special service rendered by each of them to intellectual progress, we
+may not unfittingly compare the work of Locke&mdash;the descent from
+metaphysics to psychology&mdash;to the noble purpose of redeeming logic
+from the superstition of the Aristotelians, and exalting it to
+something higher than a mere verbal exercise for school-boys. The
+attack that Locke opened with such tremendous effect on the <i>a priori</i>
+school of philosophy was never more ably supported than by the &quot;Logic&quot;
+and controversial writings of Mr. Mill.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable fact in regard to both these great thinkers&mdash;these
+conquerors in the realms of abstract speculation&mdash;is their relation to
+politics. Locke was the political philosopher of the Revolution of
+1688; Mr. Mill has been the political philosopher of the democracy of
+the nineteenth century. The vast space that lies between their
+treatises represents a difference, not in the men, but in the times.
+Locke found opposed to the common weal an odious theory of arbitrary
+and absolute power. It is interesting to remember what were the giants
+necessary to be slain in those days. The titles of his first chapters
+on &quot;Government&quot; significantly attest the rudimentary condition of
+political philosophy in Locke's day. Adam was generally considered to
+have had a divine power of government, which was transmitted to a
+favored few of his descendants. Accordingly Locke disposes of Adam's
+title to sovereignty to whatever origin it may have been ascribed,&mdash;to
+&quot;creation,&quot; &quot;donation,&quot; &quot;the subjection of Eve,&quot; or &quot;fatherhood.&quot;
+There is something almost ludicrous in discussing fundamental
+questions of government with reference to such scriptural topics; and
+it is a striking evidence of the change that has passed over England
+since the Revolution, that, whereas Locke's argument looks like a
+commentary on the Bible, even the bishops now do not in Parliament
+quote the Bible on the question of marriage with a deceased wife's
+sister. Nevertheless Locke clearly propounded the great principle,
+which, in spite of many errors and much selfishness, has been the
+fruitful heritage of the Whig party. &quot;Political power, then, I take to
+be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently
+all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and
+of employing the force of the community in the execution of such laws,
+and in the defence of the commonwealth from foreign injury, <i>and all
+this only for the public good</i>.&quot; Locke also enounced the maxim, that
+the state of nature is one of equality. Mr. Mill's special views on
+the land question are not without parallel in Locke; for that acute
+thinker distinctively laid down that &quot;labor&quot; was the true ground even
+of property in land. Still it must be confessed that Locke's political
+philosophy is much cruder than Mr. Mill's. His &quot;Essay on Government&quot;
+is as the rough work of a boy of genius, the &quot;Representative
+Government&quot; a finished work of art of the experienced master. And this
+difference corresponds with the rate of political progress. The
+English constitution, as we now understand it, was unknown at the
+Revolution: it had to be slowly created. Now the great task of the
+future is to raise the mass of the people to a higher standard of
+political intelligence and material comfort. To that great end no man
+has contributed so much as Mr. Mill.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the one writing for which above all others Mr. Mill's
+disciples will love his memory is his essay &quot;On Liberty.&quot; In this
+undertaking Mr. Mill followed the noble precedent of Locke, with
+greater largeness of view and perfection of work. Locke's four letters
+&quot;Concerning Toleration&quot; constitute a splendid manifesto of the
+Liberals of the seventeenth century. The principle, that the ends of
+political society are life, health, liberty, and immunity from harm,
+and not the salvation of souls, has taken nearly two centuries to root
+itself in English law, but has long been recognized by all but the
+shallowest bigots. And yet Locke spoke of &quot;atheism being a crime,
+which, for its madness as well as guilt, ought to shut a man out of
+all sober and civil society.&quot; Here again, what a stride does the
+<i>Liberty</i> make? It is, once more, the difference of the times, rather
+than of the men. The same noble and prescient insight into the springs
+of national greatness and social progress characterizes the work of
+both men, but in what different measures? Again, we must say, the
+disciple is greater than the master. Closely bearing on this topic is
+the relation of the two men to Christianity. Locke not only wrote to
+show the &quot;Reasonableness of Christianity,&quot; but paraphrased several of
+the books of the New Testament. Mr. Mill has never written one
+sentence to give the least encouragement to Christianity. But,
+although a contrast appears to exist, there is really none. Locke was
+what may be called a Bible Christian. He rejected all theological
+systems, and constructed his religious belief in the truly Protestant
+way,&mdash;with the Bible and his inner consciousness. His creed was the
+Bible as conformed to reason; but he never doubted which, in the event
+of a conflict, ought to give way. To him the destructive criticism of
+biblical scholars and the discoveries of geology had given no
+disquietude; and he died with the happy conviction, that, without
+abandoning his religious teaching, he could remain faithful to reason.
+Mr. Mill inherited a vast controversy, and he had to make a choice
+like Locke, he remained faithful only to reason.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps, it might be urged, this comparison leaves out of account the
+very greatest work of Mr. Mill,&mdash;his 'Political Economy.' Locke lived
+too soon to be an Adam Smith; but, curiously enough, the parallel is
+not broken even at this point. In 1691 and again in 1695 he wrote,
+&quot;Some considerations of the consequences of the lowering of interest,
+and raising the value of money,&quot; in which he propounded among other
+views, that, &quot;taxes, however contrived, and out of whose hands soever
+immediately taken, do, in a country where the great fund is in land
+for the most part terminate upon land.&quot; There is of course no
+comparison between the two men on this head: nevertheless it is
+interesting to note in prototype the germs of the great work of Mr.
+Mill. It shows the remarkable and by no means accidental similarity
+between the men.</p>
+
+<p>The parallel is already too much drawn out, otherwise it would be
+worth observing on the characters and lives of these two men. Enough,
+however, has been said to show that we may not unreasonably anticipate
+for Mr. Mill a future such as has fallen to Locke. His wisdom will be
+the commonplace of other times: his theories will be realized in
+political institutions; and we may hope and believe the working-class
+will rise to such a standard of wealth and culture and political power
+as to realize the generous aspirations of one of England's greatest
+sons.</p>
+
+<p>W. A. HUNTER.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND WORKS***</p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works, by
+Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other Distinguished
+Authors
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: John Stuart Mill; His Life and Works
+
+Author: Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison and Other
+Distinguished Authors
+
+Release Date: March 6, 2005  [eBook #15268]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND
+WORKS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State
+University Libraries, Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+
+
+
+JOHN STUART MILL: HIS LIFE AND WORKS
+
+Twelve Sketches by
+
+Herbert Spencer, Henry Fawcett, Frederic Harrison,
+and Other Distinguished Authors
+
+Boston: James R Osgood and Company
+(Late Ticknor & Field and Fields Osgood, & Co.)
+
+1873
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+JOHN STUART MILL
+
+   I. A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE.
+         H. R. Fox Bourne
+
+  II. HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE.
+         W. T. Thornton
+
+ III. HIS MORAL CHARACTER.
+         Herbert Spencer
+
+  IV. HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.
+         Henry Trimen
+
+   V. HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC.
+         W. Minto
+
+  VI. HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY.
+         J. H. Levy
+
+ VII. HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE.
+         W. A. Hunter
+
+VIII. HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+         J. E. Cairnes
+
+  IX. HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.
+         Henry Fawcett
+
+   X. HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.
+         Millicent Garrett Fawcett
+
+  XI. HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.
+         Frederic Harrison
+
+ XII. HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.
+         W. A. Hunter
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE
+
+
+John Stuart Mill was born on the 20th of May, 1806. "I am glad," wrote
+George Grote to him in 1865, with reference to a forthcoming article
+on his "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," "to get an
+opportunity of saying what I think about your 'System of Logic' and
+'Essay on Liberty,' but I am still more glad to get (or perhaps to
+_make_) an opportunity of saying something about your father. It has
+always rankled in my thoughts that so grand and powerful a mind as his
+left behind it such insufficient traces in the estimation of
+successors." That regret was natural. The grand and powerful mind of
+James Mill left very notable traces, however, in the philosophical
+literature of his country, and in the training of the son who was to
+carry on his work, and to be the most influential teacher in a new
+school of thought and action, by which society is likely to be
+revolutionized far more than it has been by any other agency since
+the period of Erasmus and Martin Luther. James Mill was something more
+than the disciple of Bentham and Ricardo. He was a profound and
+original philosopher, whose depth and breadth of study were all the
+more remarkable because his thoughts were developed and his knowledge
+was acquired mainly by his own exertions. He had been helped out of
+the humble life into which he had been born by Sir John Stuart, who
+assisted him to attend the lectures of Dugald Stewart and others at
+Edinburgh with a view to his becoming a minister in the Church of
+Scotland. Soon finding that calling distasteful to him, he had, in or
+near the year 1800, settled in London as a journalist, resolved by
+ephemeral work to earn enough money to maintain him and his family in
+humble ways while he spent his best energies in the more serious
+pursuits to which he was devoted. His talents soon made him friends,
+and the greatest of these was Jeremy Bentham.
+
+As erroneous opinions have been current as to the relations between
+Bentham and James Mill and have lately been repeated in more than one
+newspaper, it may be well here to call attention to the contradiction
+of them that was published by the son of the latter in "The Edinburgh
+Review" for 1844. "Mr. Mill and his family," we there read, "lived
+with Mr. Bentham for half of four years at Ford Abbey,"--that is,
+between 1814 and 1817,--"and they passed small portions of previous
+summers with him at Barrow Green. His last visit to Barrow Green was
+of not more than a month's duration, and the previous ones all
+together did not extend to more than six months, or seven at most.
+The pecuniary benefit which Mr. Mill derived from his intimacy with
+Bentham consisted in this,--that he and his family lived with him as
+his guests, while he was in the country, periods amounting in all to
+about two years and a half. I have no reason to think that his
+hospitality was either given or accepted as pecuniary assistance, and
+I will add that the obligation was not exclusively on one side.
+Bentham was not then, as he was afterwards, surrounded by persons who
+courted his society, and were ever ready to volunteer their services,
+and, to a man of his secluded habits, it was no little advantage to
+have near him such a man as Mr. Mill, to whose advice and aid he
+habitually had recourse in all business transactions with the outward
+world of a troublesome or irksome nature. Such as the connection was,
+it was not of Mr. Mill's seeking." On the same unquestionable
+authority we learn, that "Mr. Mill never in his life was in debt, and
+his income, whatever it might be, always covered his expenses." It is
+clear, that, from near the commencement of the present century, James
+Mill and Bentham lived for many years on terms of great intimacy, in
+which the poorer man was thoroughly independent, although it suited
+the other to make a fair return for the services rendered to him. A
+very characteristic letter is extant, dated 1814, in which James Mill
+proposes that the relations between him and his "dear friend and
+master" shall be to some extent altered, but only in order that their
+common objects may be the more fully served. "In reflecting," he says,
+"upon the duty which we owe to our principles,--to that system of
+important truths of which you have the immortal honor to be the
+author, but of which I am a most faithful and fervent disciple, and
+hitherto, I have fancied, my master's favorite disciple,--I have
+considered that there was nobody at all so likely to be your real
+successor as myself. Of talents it would be easy to find many
+superior. But, in the first place, I hardly know of anybody who has so
+completely taken up the principles, and is so thoroughly of the same
+way of thinking with yourself. In the next place, there are very few
+who have so much of the necessary previous discipline, my antecedent
+years having been wholly occupied in acquiring it. And, in the last
+place, I am pretty sure you cannot think of any other person whose
+whole life will be devoted to the propagation of the system." "There
+was during the last few years of Bentham's life," said James Mill's
+son, "less frequency and cordiality of intercourse than in former
+years, chiefly because Bentham had acquired newer, and to him more
+agreeable intimacies, but Mr. Mill's feeling never altered towards
+him, nor did he ever fail, publicly or privately, in giving due honor
+to Bentham's name and acknowledgment of the intellectual debt he owed
+to him."
+
+Those extracts are made, not only in justice to the memory of James
+Mill, but as a help towards understanding the influences by which his
+son was surrounded from his earliest years. James Mill was living in a
+house at Pentonville when this son was born, and partly because of the
+peculiar abilities that the boy displayed from the first, partly
+because he could not afford to procure for him elsewhere such teaching
+as he was able himself to give him, he took his education entirely
+into his own hands. With what interest--even jealous interest, it
+would seem--Bentham watched that education, appears from a pleasant
+little letter addressed to him by the elder Mill in 1812. "I am not
+going to die," he wrote, "notwithstanding your zeal to come in for a
+legacy. However, if I were to die any time before this poor boy is a
+man, one of the things that would pinch me most sorely would be the
+being obliged to leave his mind unmade to the degree of excellence of
+which I hope to make it. But another thing is, that the only prospect
+which would lessen that pain would be the leaving him in your hands. I
+therefore take your offer quite seriously, and stipulate merely that
+it shall be made as soon as possible; and then we may perhaps leave
+him a successor worthy of both of us." It was a bold hope, but one
+destined to be fully realized. At the time of its utterance, the "poor
+boy" was barely more than six years old. The intellectual powers of
+which he gave such early proof were carefully, but apparently not
+excessively, cultivated. Mrs. Grote, in her lately-published "Personal
+Life of George Grote," has described him as he appeared in 1817, the
+year in which her husband made the acquaintance of his father. "John
+Stuart Mill, then a boy of about twelve years old,"--he was really
+only eleven,--"was studying, with his father as sole preceptor, under
+the paternal roof. Unquestionably forward for his years, and already
+possessed of a competent knowledge of Greek and Latin, as well as of
+some subordinate though solid attainments, John was, as a boy,
+somewhat repressed by the elder Mill, and seldom took any share in the
+conversation carried on by the society frequenting the house." It is
+perhaps not strange that a boy of eleven, at any rate a boy who was to
+become so modest a man, should not take much part in general
+conversation; and Mr. Mill himself never, in referring to his father,
+led his hearers to suppose that he had, as a child, been in any way
+unduly repressed by him. The tender affection with which he always
+cherished his father's memory in no way sanctions the belief that he
+was at any time subjected to unreasonable discipline. By him his
+father was only revered as the best and kindest of teachers.
+
+There was a break in the home teaching in 1820. James Mill, after
+bearing bravely with his early difficulties, had acquired so much
+renown by his famous "History of India," that, in spite of its adverse
+criticisms of the East-India Company, the directors of the Company in
+1817 honorably bestowed upon him a post in the India House, where he
+steadily and rapidly rose to a position which enabled him to pass the
+later years of his life in more comfort than had hitherto been within
+his reach. The new employment, however, interfered with his other
+occupation as instructor to his boy; and for this reason, as well
+probably as for others tending to his advancement, the lad was, in the
+summer of 1820, sent to France for a year and a half. For several
+months he lived in Paris, in the house of Jean Baptiste Say, the
+political economist. The rest of his time was passed in the company of
+Sir Samuel Bentham, Jeremy Bentham's brother. Early in 1822, before he
+was eighteen, he returned to London, soon to enter the India Office as
+a clerk in the department of which his father was chief. In that
+office he remained for five and thirty years, acquitting himself with
+great ability, and gradually rising to the most responsible position
+that could be there held by a subordinate.
+
+But, though he was thus early started in life as a city clerk, his
+self-training and his education by his father were by no means
+abandoned. The ancient and modern languages, as well as the various
+branches of philosophy and philosophical thought in which he was
+afterwards to attain such eminence, were studied by him in the early
+mornings, under the guidance of his father, before going down to pass
+his days in the India Office. During the summer evenings, and on such
+holidays as he could get, he began those pedestrian exploits for which
+he afterwards became famous, and in which his main pleasure appears to
+have consisted in collecting plants and flowers in aid of the
+botanical studies that were his favorite pastime, and something more
+than a pastime, all through his life. His first printed writings are
+said to have been on botany, in the shape of some articles contributed
+to a scientific journal while he was still in his teens, and it is
+probable, that, could they now be detected, we should find in other
+periodicals traces of his work, at nearly if not quite as early a
+period in other lines of study. That he worked early and with
+wonderful ability in at least one very deep line, appears from the
+fact that while he was still only a lad, Jeremy Bentham intrusted to
+him the preparation for the press, and the supplementary annotation,
+of his "Rationale of Judicial Evidence." That work, for which he was
+highly commended by its author, published in 1827, contains the first
+publicly acknowledged literary work of John Stuart Mill.
+
+While he was producing that result of laborious study in a special and
+intricate subject, his education in all sorts of other ways was
+continued. In evidence of the versatility of his pursuits, the veteran
+author of a short and ungenerous memoir that was published in "The
+Times" of May the 10th contributes one interesting note. "It is within
+our personal knowledge," he says, "that he was an extraordinary youth
+when, in 1824, he took the lead at the London Debating Club in one of
+the most remarkable collections of 'spirits of the age' that ever
+congregated for intellectual gladiatorship, he being by two or three
+years the junior of the clique. The rivalry was rather in knowledge
+and reasoning than in eloquence, mere declamation was discouraged; and
+subjects of paramount importance were conscientiously thought out." In
+evidence of his more general studies, we may here repeat a few
+sentences from an account, by an intimate friend of both these great
+men, of the life of Mr. Grote, which was published in our columns two
+years ago. "About this time a small society was formed for readings in
+philosophical subjects. The meetings took place at Mr. Grote's house
+in Threadneedle Street, on certain days from half past eight till ten
+in the morning, at which hour the members (all in official employment)
+had to repair to their respective avocations. The members were Grote,
+John Mill, Roebuck, William Ellice, William Henry Prescott, two
+brothers Whitmore, and George John Graham. The mentor of their
+studies was the elder Mr. Mill. The meetings were continued for two or
+three years. The readings embraced a small manual of logic, by Du
+Trieu, recommended by Mr. Mill, and reprinted for the purpose,
+Whately's Logic, Hobbes's Logic, and Hartley on Man, in Priestley's
+edition. The manner of proceeding was thorough. Each paragraph, on
+being read, was commented on by every one in turn, discussed and
+rediscussed, to the point of total exhaustion. In 1828 the meetings
+ceased; but they were resumed in 1830, upon Mill's 'Analysis of the
+Mind,' which was gone over in the same manner." These philosophical
+studies were not only of extreme advantage in strengthening and
+developing the merits of Mr. Mill and his friends, nearly all of whom
+were considerably older than he was, they also served to unite the
+friends in close and lasting intimacy of the most refined and
+elevating sort. Mr. Grote, his senior by twelve years, was perhaps the
+most intimate, as he was certainly the ablest, of all the friends whom
+Mr. Mill thus acquired.
+
+Many of these friends were contributors to the original "Westminster
+Review," which was started by Bentham in 1824. Bentham himself and the
+elder Mill were its chief writers at first; and in 1828, if not
+sooner, the younger Mill joined the number. In that year he reviewed
+Whately's Logic; and it is probable that in the ensuing year he
+contributed numerous other articles. His first literary exploit,
+however, which he cared to reproduce in his "Dissertations and
+Discussions" was an article that appeared in "The Jurist," in 1833,
+entitled "Corporation and Church Property." That essay, in some
+respects, curiously anticipated the Irish Church legislation of
+nearly forty years later. In the same year he published, in "The
+Monthly Repository," a remarkably able and quite a different
+production,--"Poetry and its Varieties," showing that in the
+department of _belles-lettres_ he could write with nearly as much
+vigor and originality as in the philosophical and political
+departments of thought to which, ostensibly, he was especially
+devoted. Shortly after that he embarked in a bolder literary venture.
+Differences having arisen concerning "The Westminster Review," a new
+quarterly journal--"The London Review"--was begun by Sir William
+Molesworth, with Mr. Mill for editor, in 1835. "The London" was next
+year amalgamated with "The Westminster," and then the nominal if not
+the actual editorship passed into the hands of Mr. John Robertson. Mr.
+Mill continued, however, to be one of its most constant and able
+contributors until the Review passed into other hands in 1840. He
+aided much to make and maintain its reputation as the leading organ of
+bold thought on religious and social as well as political matters.
+Besides such remarkable essays as those on Civilization, on Armand
+Carrel, on Alfred de Vigny, on Bentham, and on Coleridge, which, with
+others, have been republished in his collection of minor writings, he
+contributed many of great importance. One on Mr. Tennyson, which was
+published in 1835, is especially noteworthy. Others referred more
+especially to the politics of the day. From one, which appeared in
+1837, reviewing Albany Fonblanque's "England under Seven
+Administrations," and speaking generally in high terms of the
+politics of "The Examiner," we may extract a few sentences which
+define very clearly the political ground taken by Mr. Mill, Mr.
+Fonblanque, and those who had then come to be called Philosophical
+Radicals. "There are divers schools of Radicals," said Mr. Mill.
+"There are the historical Radicals, who demand popular institutions as
+the inheritance of Englishmen, transmitted to us from the Saxons or
+the barons of Runnymede. There are the metaphysical Radicals, who hold
+the principles of democracy, not as means to good government, but as
+corollaries from some unreal abstraction,--from 'natural liberty' or
+'natural rights.' There are the radicals of occasion and circumstance,
+who are radicals because they disapprove the measures of the
+government for the time being. There are, lastly, the Radicals of
+position, who are Radicals, as somebody said, because they are not
+lords. Those whom, in contradistinction to all these, we call
+Philosophical Radicals, are those who in politics observe the common
+manner of philosophers; that is, who, when they are discussing means,
+begin by considering the end, and, when they desire to produce
+effects, think of causes. These persons became Radicals because they
+saw immense practical evils existing in the government and social
+condition of this country, and because the same examination which
+showed them the evils showed also that the cause of those evils was
+the aristocratic principle in our government,--the subjection of the
+many to the control of a comparatively few, who had an interest, or
+fancied they had an interest, in perpetuating those evils. These
+inquirers looked still farther, and saw, that, in the present
+imperfect condition of human nature, nothing better than this
+self-preference was to be expected from a dominant few; that the
+interests of the many were sure to be in their eyes a secondary
+consideration to their own ease or emolument. Perceiving, therefore,
+that we are ill-governed, and perceiving that, so long as the
+aristocratic principle continued predominant in our government, we
+could not expect to be otherwise, these persons became Radicals; and
+the motto of their Radicalism was, Enmity to the aristocratical
+principle."
+
+The period of Mr. Mill's most intimate connection with "The London and
+Westminster Review" forms a brilliant episode in the history of
+journalism; and his relations, then and afterwards, with other men of
+letters and political writers,--some of them as famous as Mr. Carlyle
+and Coleridge, Charles Buller and Sir Henry Taylor, Sir William
+Molesworth, Sir John Bowring, and Mr. Roebuck,--yield tempting
+materials for even the most superficial biography; but we must pass
+them by for the present. And here we shall content ourselves with
+enumerating, in the order of their publication, those lengthier
+writings with which he chiefly occupied his leisure during the next
+quarter of a century; though that work was frequently diversified by
+important contributions to "The Edinburgh" and "The Westminster
+Review," "Fraser's Magazine," and other periodicals. His first great
+work was "A System of Logic," the result of many years' previous
+study, which appeared in 1843. That completed, he seems immediately to
+have paid chief attention to politico-economical questions. In 1844
+appeared "Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy,"
+which were followed, in 1848, by the "Principles of Political
+Economy." After that there was a pause of ten years, though the works
+that were issued during the next six years show that he had not been
+idle during the interval. In 1857 were published two volumes of the
+"Dissertations and Discussions," consisting solely of printed
+articles, the famous essay "On Liberty," and the "Thoughts on
+Parliamentary Reform." "Considerations on Representative Government"
+appeared in 1861, "Utilitarianism," in 1863, "Auguste Comte and
+Positivism" and the "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
+Philosophy," in 1865. After that, besides the very welcome "Inaugural
+Address" at St. Andrew's in 1867, his only work of importance was "The
+Subjection of Women," published in 1869. A fitting conclusion to his
+more serious literary labors appeared also in 1869 in his annotated
+edition of his father's "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind."
+
+When we remember how much and what varied knowledge is in those
+learned books, it is almost difficult to believe, that, during most of
+the years in which he was preparing them, Mr. Mill was also a hard
+worker in the India House, passing rapidly, and as the reward only of
+his assiduity and talent, from the drudgery of a junior clerk to a
+position involving all the responsibility, if not quite all the
+dignity, of a secretary of state. One of his most intimate friends,
+and the one who knew far more of him in this respect than any other,
+has in another column penned some reminiscences of his official life;
+but if all the state papers that he wrote, and all the correspondence
+that he carried on with Indian officials and the native potentates of
+the East, could be explored, more than one volume would have to be
+written in supplement to his father's great "History of British
+India."
+
+Having retired from the India House in 1858, Mr. Mill went to spend
+the winter in Avignon, in the hope of improving the broken health of
+the wife to whom he was devotedly attached. He had not been married
+many years, but Mrs. Mill, who was the widow of Mr. John Taylor, a
+London merchant, had been his friend since 1835, or even earlier.
+During more than twenty years he had been aided by her talents, and
+encouraged by her sympathy, in all the work he had undertaken, and to
+her rare merits he afterwards paid more than one tribute in terms that
+have no equal for the intensity of their language, and the depth of
+affection contained in them. Mrs. Mill's weak state of health seems to
+have hardly repressed her powers of intellect. By her was written the
+celebrated essay on "The Enfranchisement of Women" contributed to "The
+Westminster Review," and afterwards reprinted in the "Dissertations
+and Discussions," with a preface avowing, that by her Mr. Mill had
+been greatly assisted in all that he had written for some time
+previous. But the assistance was to end now. Mrs. Mill died at Avignon
+on the 3d of November, 1858, and over her grave was placed one of the
+most pathetic and eloquent epitaphs that have been ever penned. "Her
+great and loving heart, her noble soul, her clear, powerful, original,
+and comprehensive intellect," it was there written, "made her the
+guide and support, the instructor in wisdom, and the example in
+goodness, as she was the sole earthly delight, of those who had the
+happiness to belong to her. As earnest for all public good as she was
+generous and devoted to all who surrounded her, her influence has been
+felt in many of the greatest improvements of the age, and will be in
+those still to come. Were there even a few hearts and intellects like
+hers, this earth would already become the hoped-for heaven."
+Henceforth, during the fourteen years and a half that were to elapse
+before he should be laid in the same grave, Avignon was the chosen
+haunt of Mr. Mill.
+
+Passing much of his time in the modest house that he had bought, that
+he might be within sight of his wife's tomb, Mr. Mill was also
+frequently in London, whither he came especially to facilitate the new
+course of philosophical and political writing on which he entered. He
+found relief also in excursions, one of which was taken nearly every
+year, in company with his step-daughter, Miss Helen Taylor, into
+various parts of Europe. Italy, Switzerland, and many other districts,
+were explored, partly on foot, with a keen eye both to the natural
+features of the localities, especially in furtherance of those
+botanical studies to which Mr. Mill now returned with the ardor of his
+youth, and also to their social and political institutions. Perhaps
+the longest and most eventful of these excursions was taken in 1862 to
+Greece. On this occasion it had been proposed that his old friend, Mr.
+Grote, should accompany him. "To go through those scenes, and
+especially to go through them in your company," wrote Mr. Grote in
+January, "would be to me pre-eminently delightful; but, alas! my
+physical condition altogether forbids it. I could not possibly stay
+away from London, without the greatest discomfort, for so long a
+period as two months. Still less could I endure the fatigue of horse
+and foot exercise which an excursion in Greece must inevitably
+entail." The journey occupied more than two months; but in the autumn
+Mr. Mill was at Avignon; and, returning to London in December, he
+spent Christmas week with Mr. Grote at his residence, Barrow
+Green,--Bentham's old house, and the one in which Mr. Mill had played
+himself when he was a child. "He is in good health and spirits," wrote
+Mr. Grote to Sir G.C. Lewis after that visit; "violent against the
+South in this American struggle; embracing heartily the extreme
+Abolitionist views, and thinking about little else in regard to the
+general question."
+
+It was only to be expected that Mr. Mill would take much interest in
+the American civil war, and sympathize strongly with the Abolitionist
+party. His interest in politics had been keen, and his judgment on
+them had been remarkably sound all through life, as his early articles
+in "The Morning Chronicle" and "The London and Westminster Review,"
+and his later contributions to various periodicals, helped to testify;
+but towards the close of his life the interest was perhaps keener, as
+the judgment was certainly more mellowed. It was not strange,
+therefore, that his admirers among the working classes, and the
+advanced radicals of all grades, should have urged him, and that,
+after some hesitation, he should have consented, to become a candidate
+for Westminster at the general election of 1865. That candidature
+will be long remembered as a notable example of the dignified way in
+which an honest man, and one who was as much a philosopher in practice
+as in theory, can do all that is needful, and avoid all that is
+unworthy, in an excited electioneering contest, and submit without
+injury to the insults of political opponents and of political
+time-servers professing to be of his own way of thinking. The result
+of the election was a far greater honor to the electors who chose him
+than to the representative whom they chose; though that honor was
+greatly tarnished by Mr. Mill's rejection when he offered himself for
+re-election three years later.
+
+This is hardly the place in which to review at much length Mr. Mill's
+parliamentary career, though it may be briefly referred to in evidence
+of the great and almost unlooked-for ability with which he adapted
+himself to the requirements of a philosophical politician as distinct
+from a political philosopher. His first speech in the House of
+Commons, delivered very soon after its assembling, was on the occasion
+of the second reading of the Cattle Diseases Bill, on the 14th of
+February, 1866, when he supported Mr. Bright in his opposition to the
+proposals of Mr. Lowe for compensation to their owners for the
+slaughter of such animals as were diseased or likely to spread
+infection. His complaint against the bill was succinctly stated in two
+sentences, which fairly illustrated the method and basis of all his
+arguments upon current politics. "It compensates," he said, "a class
+for the results of a calamity which is borne by the whole community.
+In justice, the farmers who have not suffered ought to compensate
+those who have; but the bill does what it ought not to have done, and
+leaves undone what it ought to have done, by not equalizing the
+incidence of the burden upon that class, inasmuch as, from the
+operation of the local principle adopted, that portion of an
+agricultural community who have not suffered at all will not have to
+pay at all, and those who have suffered little will have to pay
+little; while those who have suffered most will have to pay a great
+deal." "An aristocracy," he added, in words that as truly indicate the
+way in which he subjected all matters of detail to the test of general
+principles of truth and expediency,--"an aristocracy should have the
+feelings of an aristocracy; and, inasmuch as they enjoy the highest
+honors and advantages, they ought to be willing to bear the first
+brunt of the inconveniences and evils which fall on the country
+generally. This is the ideal character of an aristocracy: it is the
+character with which all privileged classes are accustomed to credit
+themselves; though I am not aware of any aristocracy in history that
+has fulfilled those requirements."
+
+That, and the later speeches that Mr. Mill delivered on the Cattle
+Diseases Bill, at once announced to the House of Commons and the
+public, if they needed any such announcement, the temper and spirit in
+which he was resolved to execute his legislative functions. The same
+spirit and temper appeared in the speech on the Habeas Corpus
+Suspension (Ireland) Bill, which he delivered on the 17th of February;
+but his full strength as a debater was first manifested during the
+discussion on Mr. Gladstone's Reform Bill of 1866, which was brought
+on for second reading on the 12th of April. His famous speech on that
+occasion, containing the most powerful arguments offered by any
+speaker in favor of the measure, and his shorter speech during its
+discussion on the 31st of May, need not here be recapitulated. They
+were only admirable developments in practical debate of those
+principles of political science which he had already enforced in his
+published works. The other leading topics handled by Mr. Mill during
+the session of 1866 were the expediency of reducing the National Debt,
+which he urged on the occasion of Mr. Neate's proposal on the 17th of
+April; the Tenure and Improvement of Land (Ireland) Bill, on which he
+spoke at length and with force on the 17th of May, then practically
+initiating the movement in favor of land-reform, which he partly
+helped to enforce in part with regard to Ireland, and for the more
+complete adoption of which in England he labored to the last; the
+Jamaica outbreak, and the conduct of Governor Eyre, on which he spoke
+on the 31st of July; and the electoral disabilities of women, which he
+first brought within the range of practical politics by moving, on the
+20th of July, for a return of the numbers of householders, and others
+who, "fulfilling the conditions of property or rental prescribed by
+law as the qualification for the electoral franchise, are excluded
+from the franchise by reason of their sex."
+
+In the session of 1867 Mr. Mill took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the Metropolitan Poor Bill; and he spoke on various
+other topics,--his introduction of the Women's Electoral Disabilities
+Removal Bill being in some respects the most notable: but his chief
+action was with reference to Mr. Disraeli's Reform Bill, several
+clauses of which he criticised and helped to alter in committee.
+Though he was as zealous as ever, however, in his attendance to
+public business, he made fewer great speeches, being content to set a
+wise example to other and less able men in only speaking when he felt
+it absolutely necessary to do so, and in generally performing merely
+the functions of a "silent member."
+
+In 1868 he was, if not more active, somewhat more prominent. On March
+the 6th, on the occasion of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre's motion respecting the
+"Alabama Claims," he forcibly expressed his opinions as to the wrong
+done by England to the United States during the civil war, and the
+need of making adequate reparation; and on the 12th of the same month
+he spoke with equal boldness on Mr. Maguire's motion for a committee
+to inquire into the state of Ireland, repeating anew and enforcing the
+views he had lately put forward in his pamphlet on Ireland, and
+considerably aiding by anticipation the passage of Mr. Gladstone's two
+great measures of Irish Reform. He took an important part in the
+discussion of the Election Petitions and Corrupt Practices Bill; and
+among a great number of other measures on which he spoke was the
+Married Women's Property Bill of Mr. Shaw-Lefevre.
+
+Soon after that the House of Commons was dissolved, and Mr. Mill's too
+brief parliamentary career came to an end. The episode, however, had
+to some extent helped to quicken his always keen interest in political
+affairs. This was proved, among other ways, by the publication of his
+pamphlet on "England and Ireland" in 1868, and of his treatise "On the
+Subjection of Women" in 1869, as well as by the especial interest
+which he continued to exhibit in two of the most important political
+movements of the day,--all the more important because they are yet
+almost in their infancy,--the one for the political enfranchisement
+of women, the other for a thorough reform of our system of land
+tenure. The latest proof of his zeal on the second of these important
+points appeared in the address which he delivered at Exeter Hall on
+the 18th of last March, and in two articles which he contributed to
+"The Examiner" at the commencement of the present year. We may be
+permitted to add that it was his intention to use some of the greater
+quiet that he expected to enjoy during his stay at Avignon in writing
+frequent articles on political affairs for publication in these
+columns. He died while his intellectual powers were as fresh as they
+had ever been, and when his political wisdom was only ripened by
+experience.
+
+In this paper we purposely limit ourselves to a concise narrative of
+the leading events of Mr. Mill's life, and abstain as far as possible
+from any estimate of either the value or the extent of his work in
+philosophy, in economics, in politics, or in any other of the
+departments of thought and study to which, with such depth and breadth
+of mind, he applied himself; but it is impossible for us to lay down
+the pen without some slight reference, however inadequate it may be,
+to the nobility of his character, and the peculiar grace with which he
+exhibited it in all his dealings with his friends and with the whole
+community among whom he lived, and for whom he worked with the
+self-sacrificing zeal of an apostle. If to labor fearlessly and
+ceaselessly for the good of society, and with the completest
+self-abnegation that is consistent with healthy individuality, be the
+true form of religion, Mr. Mill exhibited such genuine and profound
+religion--so permeating his whole life, and so engrossing his every
+action--as can hardly be looked for in any other man of this
+generation. Great as were his intellectual qualities, they were
+dwarfed by his moral excellences. He did not, it is true, aim at any
+fanciful ideal, or adopt any fantastic shibboleths. He was only a
+utilitarian. He believed in no inspiration but that of experience. He
+had no other creed or dogma or gospel than Bentham's axiom,--"The
+greatest happiness of the greatest number." But many will think that
+herein was the chief of all his claims to the honor of all men, and
+the best evidence of his worth. At any rate, he set a notable example
+of the way in which a man, making the best use in his power of merely
+his own reason and the accumulated reason of those who have gone
+before him, wisely exercising the faculties of which he finds himself
+possessed, and seeking no guidance or support from invisible beacons
+and intangible props, may lead a blameless life, and be one of the
+greatest benefactors of his race. No one who had any personal
+knowledge of him could fail to discern the singular purity of his
+character; and to those who knew him best that purity was most
+apparent. He may have blundered and stumbled in his pursuit of truth;
+but it was part of his belief that stumbling and blundering are
+necessary means towards the finding of truth, and that honesty of
+purpose is the only indispensable requisite for the nearest approach
+towards truth of which each individual is capable. That belief
+rendered him as charitable towards others as he was modest concerning
+his own attainments. He never boasted; and he despised no one. The
+only things really hateful to him were arrogance and injustice, and
+for these he was, to say the least, as willing and eager to find
+excuse as could be the most devout utterer of the prayer, "Father,
+forgive them, for they know not what they do." We had noted many
+instances, coming within our own very limited observation, of his
+remarkable, almost unparalleled magnanimity and generosity; but such
+details would here be almost out of place, and they who need such will
+doubtless before long receive much more convincing proof of his moral
+excellence.
+
+We shall not here dilate on those minor qualities of mind and heart
+that made Mr. Mill's society so charming to all who were fortunate
+enough to have any share in it; and these, especially in recent years,
+were many. When the first burden of his grief at the loss of his wife
+had passed,--perhaps partly as a relief from the solitude, save for
+one devoted companion, that would otherwise have been now forced upon
+him,--he mixed more freely than he had done before in the society of
+all whose company could yield him any satisfaction or by whom his
+friendship was really valued. His genial and graceful bearing towards
+every one who came near him must be within the knowledge of very many
+who will read this column; and they will remember, besides his
+transparent nobility of character, and the genial ways in which it
+exhibited itself, certain intellectual qualities for which he was
+remarkable. We here refer, not to his higher abilities as a thinker,
+but to such powers of mind as displayed themselves in conversation.
+Without any pedantry,--without any sort of intentional notification to
+those with whom he conversed that he was the greatest logician,
+metaphysician, moralist, and economist of the day,--his speech was
+always, even on the most trivial subjects, so clear and incisive, that
+it at once betrayed the intellectual vigor of the speaker. Not less
+remarkable also than his uniform refinement of thought, and the
+deftness with which he at all times expressed it, were the grasp and
+keenness of his observation, and the strength of memory with which he
+stored up every thing he had ever seen, heard, or read. Nothing
+escaped his notice at the time of its occurrence: nothing was
+forgotten by him afterwards. His friends often found, to their
+astonishment, that he knew far more about any passages in their lives
+that he had been made aware of than they could themselves remember;
+and, whenever that disclosure was made to them, they must have been
+rejoiced to think, that this memory of his, instead of being, as it
+might well have been, a dangerous garner of severe judgments and
+fairly-grounded prejudices, was a magic mirror, in which their follies
+and foibles were hardly at all reflected, and only kindly
+reminiscences and generous sympathies found full expression.
+
+But he is dead now. Although the great fruits of his life--a life in
+which mind and heart, in which senses and emotions, were singularly
+well balanced--are fruits that cannot die, all the tender ties of
+friendship, all the strictly personal qualities that so much aided his
+work as a teacher of the world, as the foremost leader of his
+generation in the search after truth and righteousness, are now
+snapped forever. Only four weeks ago he left London for a
+three-months' stay in Avignon. Two weeks ago he was in his customary
+health. On the 5th of May he was attacked by a virulent form of
+erysipelas. On the 8th he died. On the 10th he was buried in the grave
+to which he had, through fourteen years, looked forward as a pleasant
+resting-place, because during fourteen years there had been in it a
+vacant place beside the remains of the wife whom he so fondly loved.
+
+H. R. FOX BOURNE.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+HIS CAREER IN THE INDIA HOUSE
+
+
+I have undertaken to prepare a sketch of Mr. Mill's official career,
+but find, on inquiry, scarcely any thing to add to the few particulars
+on the subject which have already found their way into print. Of his
+early official associates, all have, with scarcely an exception,
+already passed away; and there is no one within reach to whom I can
+apply for assistance in verifying or correcting my own impressions.
+These are in substance the following.
+
+In the few last decades of its existence, the East-India Company's
+establishment, in Leadenhall Street, consisted of three
+divisions,--the secretary's, military secretary's, and examiners'
+offices,--in the last of which most of the despatches and letters were
+composed which were afterwards signed by the directors or the
+secretary. Into this division, in the year 1821, the directors,
+perceiving an infusion of new blood to be very urgently required,
+introduced, as assistant examiners, four outsiders,--Mr. Strachey
+(father of the present Sir John and Major-Gen. Richard Strachey),
+Thomas Love Peacock (author of "Headlong Hall"), Mr. Harcourt, and
+Mr. James Mill; the selection of the last-named being all the more
+creditable to them, because, in his "History of British India," he had
+animadverted with much severity on some parts of the Company's
+administration. Two years afterwards, in 1823, the historian's son,
+the illustrious subject of these brief memoirs, then a lad of
+seventeen, obtained a clerkship under his father. According to the
+ordinary course of things in those days, the newly-appointed junior
+would have had nothing to do, except a little abstracting, indexing,
+and searching, or pretending to search, into records; but young Mill
+was almost immediately set to indite despatches to the governments of
+the three Indian Presidencies, on what, in India-House phraseology,
+were distinguished as "political" subjects,--subjects, that is, for
+the most part growing out of the relations of the said governments
+with "native" states or foreign potentates. This continued to be his
+business almost to the last. In 1828 he was promoted to be assistant
+examiner, and in 1856 he succeeded to the post of chief examiner;
+after which his duty consisted rather in supervising what his
+assistants had written than in writing himself: but for the three and
+twenty years preceding he had had immediate charge of the political
+department, and had written almost every "political" despatch of any
+importance that conveyed the instructions of the merchant princes of
+Leadenhall Street to their pro-consuls in Asia. Of the quality of
+these documents, it is sufficient to say, that they were John Mill's;
+but, in respect to their quantity, it may be worth mentioning that a
+descriptive catalogue of them completely fills a small quarto volume
+of between three hundred and four hundred pages, in their author's
+handwriting, which now lies before me; also that the share of the
+Court of Directors in the correspondence between themselves and the
+Indian governments used to average annually about ten huge
+vellum-bound volumes, foolscap size, and five or six inches thick, and
+that of these volumes two a year, for more than twenty years running,
+were exclusively of Mill's composition; this, too, at times, when he
+was engaged upon such voluntary work in addition as his "Logic" and
+"Political Economy."
+
+In 1857 broke out the Sepoy war, and in the following year the
+East-India Company was extinguished in all but the name, its
+governmental functions being transferred to the Crown. That most
+illustrious of corporations died hard; and with what affectionate
+loyalty Mill struggled to avert its fate is evidenced by the famous
+Petition to Parliament which he drew up for his old masters, and which
+opens with the following effective antithesis: "Your petitioners, at
+their own expense, and by the agency of their own civil and military
+servants, originally acquired for this country its magnificent empire
+in the East. The foundations of this empire were laid by your
+petitioners, at that time neither aided nor controlled by Parliament,
+at the same period at which a succession of administrations under the
+control of Parliament were losing, by their incapacity and rashness,
+another great empire on the opposite side of the Atlantic."
+
+I am fortunate enough to be the possessor of the original MS. of this
+admirable state paper, which I mention, because I once heard its real
+authorship denied in that quarter of all others in which it might have
+been supposed to be least likely to be questioned. On one of the last
+occasions of the gathering together of the Proprietors of East-India
+Stock, I could scarcely believe my ears, when one of the directors,
+alluding to the petition, spoke of it as having been written by a
+certain other official who was silting by his side, adding, after a
+moment's pause, "with the assistance, as he understood, of Mr. Mill,"
+likewise present. As soon as the Court broke up, I burst into Mill's
+room, boiling over with indignation, and exclaiming, "What an infamous
+shame!" and no doubt adding a good deal more that followed in natural
+sequence on such an exordium. "What's the matter?" replied Mill as
+soon as he could get a word in. "M----[the director] was quite right.
+The petition was the joint work of ---- and myself."--"How can you be
+so perverse?" I retorted. "You know that I know you wrote every word of
+it."--"No," rejoined Mill, "you are mistaken: one whole line on the
+second page was put in by----."
+
+In August, 1858, the East-India Company's doom was pronounced by
+Parliament. The East-India House was completely re-organized, its very
+name being changed into that of the India Office, and a Secretary of
+State in Council taking the place of the Court of Directors. But a
+change of scarcely secondary importance to many of those immediately
+concerned was Mill's retirement on a pension. A few months after he
+had left us an attempt was made to bring him back. At that time only
+one-half of the Council were nominated by the Crown, the other half
+having been elected, and the law prescribing that any vacancy among
+these latter should be filled by election on the part of the remaining
+elected members. On the first occasion of the kind that occurred,
+Mill was immediately proposed; and I had the honor of being
+commissioned to sound him on the subject of the intended offer, and to
+endeavor to overcome the objections to acceptance which it was feared
+he might entertain. I went accordingly to his house at Blackheath, but
+had no sooner broached the subject than I saw that my mission was
+hopeless. The anguish of his recent bereavement was as yet too fresh.
+He sought eagerly for some slight alleviation of despair in hard
+literary labor; but to face the outside world was for the present
+impossible.
+
+Here my scanty record must end, unless I may be permitted to
+supplement its meagreness by one or two personal--not to say
+egotistical--reminiscences. The death of Mr. Mill senior, in 1836, had
+occasioned a vacancy at the bottom of the examiner's office, to which
+I was appointed through the kindness of Sir James Carnac, then
+chairman of the Company, in whose gift it was. Within a few months,
+however, I was transferred to a newly-created branch of the
+secretary's office; owing to which cause, and perhaps also to a little
+(or not a little) mutual shyness, I for some years came so seldom into
+contact with Mr. Mill, that, though he of course knew me by sight, we
+scarcely ever spoke, and generally passed each other without any mark
+of recognition when we happened to meet in or out of doors. Early in
+1846, however, I sent him a copy of a book I had just brought out, on
+"Over-population." A day or two afterwards he came into my room to
+thank me for it; and during the half-hour's conversation that
+thereupon ensued, sprang up, full grown at its birth, an intimate
+friendship, of which I feel that I am not unduly boasting in declaring
+it to have been equally sincere and fervent on both sides. From that
+time for the next ten or twelve years, a day seldom passed without, if
+I did not go into his room, his coming into mine, often telling me as
+he entered, that he had nothing particular to say; but that, having a
+few minutes to spare, he thought we might as well have a little talk.
+And what talks we have had on such occasions, and on what various
+subjects! and not unfrequently, too, when the room was Mill's, Grote,
+the historian, would join us, first announcing his advent by a
+peculiar and ever-welcome rat-tat with his walking-stick on the door.
+I must not dwell longer over these recollections; but there are two
+special obligations of my own to Mill which I cannot permit myself to
+pass over. When, in 1856, he became examiner, he had made it, as I
+have been since assured by the then chairman of the East-India
+Company, a condition of his acceptance of the post, that I, whose name
+very likely the Chairman had never before heard, should be associated
+with him as one of his assistant examiners; and I was placed, in
+consequence, in charge of the Public-Works Department. Not long
+afterwards, having lapsed into a state of nervous weakness, which for
+nearly a year absolutely incapacitated me for mental labor, I should,
+but for Mill, have been compelled to retire from the service. From
+this, however, he saved me by quietly taking upon himself, and for the
+space of twelve months discharging, the whole of my official duties,
+in addition to his own. Is it wonderful that such a man, supposed by
+those who did not know him to be cold, stern, and dry, should have
+been enthusiastically beloved by those who did?
+
+It is little to say, that my own friendship with him was, from first
+to last, never once ruffled by difference or misunderstanding of any
+kind. Differences of opinion we had in abundance; but my open avowal
+of them was always recognized by him as one of the strongest proofs of
+respect, and served to cement instead of weakening our attachment.[1]
+The nearest approach made throughout our intercourse to any thing of
+an unpleasant character was about the time of his retirement from the
+India House. Talking over that one day with two or three of my
+colleagues, I said it would not do to let Mill go without receiving
+some permanently-visible token of our regard. The motion was no sooner
+made than it was carried by acclamation. Every member of the
+examiners' office--for we jealously insisted on confining the affair
+to ourselves--came tendering his subscription, scarcely waiting to be
+asked; in half an hour's time some fifty or sixty pounds--I forget the
+exact sum--was collected, which in due course was invested in a superb
+silver inkstand, designed by our friend, Digby Wyatt, and manufactured
+by Messrs. Elkington. Before it was ready, however, an unexpected
+trouble arose. In some way or other, Mill had got wind of our
+proceeding, and, coming to me in consequence, began almost to upbraid
+me as its originator. I had never before seen him so angry. He hated
+all such demonstrations, he said, and was quite resolved not to be
+made the subject of them. He was sure they were never altogether
+genuine or spontaneous; there were always several persons who took
+part in them merely because they did not like to refuse; and, in
+short, whatever we might do, he would have none of it. In vain I
+represented how eagerly everybody, without exception, had come
+forward; that we had now gone too far to recede; that, if he would not
+take the inkstand, we should be utterly at a loss what to do with it;
+and that I myself should be in a specially embarrassing position. Mill
+was not to be moved. This was a question of principle, and on
+principle he could not give way. There was nothing left, therefore,
+but resort to a species of force. I arranged with Messrs. Elkington
+that our little testimonial should be taken down to Mr. Mill's house
+at Blackheath by one of their men, who, after leaving it with the
+servant, should hurry away without waiting for an answer. This plan
+succeeded; but I have always suspected, though she never told me so,
+that its success was mainly due to Miss Helen Taylor's good offices.
+But for her, the inkstand would almost certainly have been returned,
+instead of being promoted, as it eventually was, to a place of honor
+in her own and her father's drawing-room.
+
+Mine is scarcely just now the mood in which I should have been
+naturally disposed to relate anecdotes like this; but, in the
+execution of my present task, I have felt bound chiefly to consider
+what would be likely to interest the reader.
+
+W.T. THORNTON.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [1] I may be permitted here, without Mr. Thornton's
+     knowledge, to recall a remark made by Mr. Mill only a few
+     weeks ago. We were speaking of Mr. Thornton's recently
+     published "Old-fashioned Ethics and Common-Sense
+     Metaphysics," when I remarked on Mr. Mill's wide divergence
+     from most of the views contained in it. "Yes," he replied,
+     "it is pleasant to find _something_ on which to differ from
+     Thornton." Mr. Mill's prompt recognition of the importance
+     of Mr. Thornton's refutation of the wage-fund theory is only
+     one out of numberless instances of his peculiar
+     magnanimity.--B.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+HIS MORAL CHARACTER.
+
+
+To dilate upon Mr. Mill's achievements, and to insist upon the
+wideness of his influence over the thought of his time and
+consequently over the actions of his time, seems to me scarcely
+needful. The facts are sufficiently obvious, and are recognized by all
+who know any thing about the progress of opinion during the last half
+century. My own estimate of him, intellectually considered, has been
+emphatically though briefly given on an occasion of controversy
+between us, by expressing my regret at 'having to contend against the
+doctrine of one whose agreement I should value more than that of any
+other thinker.'
+
+While, however, it is almost superfluous to assert of him that
+intellectual height so generally admitted there is more occasion for
+drawing attention to a moral elevation that is less recognized partly
+because his activities in many directions afforded no occasion for
+exhibiting it, and partly because some of its most remarkable
+manifestations in conduct are known only to those whose personal
+relations with him have called them forth. I feel especially prompted
+to say something on this point, because, where better things might
+have been expected, there has been, not only a grudging recognition of
+intellectual rank, but a marked blindness to those fine traits of
+character, which, in the valuation of men, must go for more than
+superiority of intelligence.
+
+It might indeed have been supposed, that even those who never enjoyed
+the pleasure of personal acquaintance with Mr. Mill would have been
+impressed with the nobility of his nature as indicated in his opinions
+and deeds. How entirely his public career has been determined by a
+pure and strong sympathy for his fellow men, how entirely this
+sympathy has subordinated all desires for personal advantage, how
+little even the fear of being injured in reputation or position has
+deterred him from taking the course which he thought equitable or
+generous--ought to be manifest to every antagonist, however bitter. A
+generosity that might almost be called romantic was obviously the
+feeling prompting sundry of those courses of action which have been
+commented upon as errors. And nothing like a true conception of him
+can be formed, unless, along with dissent from them, there goes
+recognition of the fact that they resulted from the eagerness of a
+noble nature impatient to rectify injustice and to further human
+welfare.
+
+It may perhaps be that my own perception of this pervading warmth of
+feeling has been sharpened by seeing it exemplified, not in the form
+of expressed opinions only, but in the form of private actions, for
+Mr. Mill was not one of those, who, to sympathy with their fellow men
+in the abstract, join indifference to them in the concrete. There came
+from him generous acts that corresponded with his generous sentiments.
+I say this, not from second-hand knowledge, but having in mind a
+remarkable example known only to myself and a few friends. I have
+hesitated whether to give this example, seeing that it has personal
+implications. But it affords so clear an insight into Mr. Mill's
+character, and shows so much more vividly than any description could
+do how fine were the motives swaying his conduct, that I think the
+occasion justifies disclosure of it.
+
+Some seven years ago, after bearing as long as was possible the
+continued losses entailed on me by the publication of the "System of
+Philosophy," I notified to the subscribers that I should be obliged to
+cease at the close of the volume then in progress. Shortly after the
+issue of this announcement I received from Mr. Mill a letter, in
+which, after expressions of regret, and after naming a plan which he
+wished to prosecute for re-imbursing me, he went on to say, "In the
+next place ... what I propose is, that you should write the next of
+your treatises, and that I should guarantee the publisher against
+loss; i.e., should engage, after such length of time as may be agreed
+on, to make good any deficiency that may occur, not exceeding a given
+sum,--that sum being such as the publisher may think sufficient to
+secure him." Now, though these arrangements were of kinds that I could
+not bring myself to yield to, they none the less profoundly impressed
+me with Mr. Mill's nobility of feeling, and his anxiety to further
+what he regarded as a beneficial end. Such proposals would have been
+remarkable even had there been entire agreement of opinion, but they
+were the more remarkable as being made by him under the consciousness
+that there existed between us certain fundamental differences, openly
+avowed. I had, both directly and by implication, combated that form
+of the experiential theory of human knowledge which characterizes Mr.
+Mill's philosophy: in upholding Realism, I had opposed in decided ways
+those metaphysical systems to which his own Idealism was closely
+allied; and we had long carried on a controversy respecting the test
+of truth, in which I had similarly attacked Mr. Mill's positions in an
+outspoken manner. That, under such circumstances, he should have
+volunteered his aid, and urged it upon me, as he did, on the ground
+that it would not imply any personal obligation, proved in him a very
+exceptional generosity.
+
+Quite recently I have seen afresh illustrated this fine trait,--this
+ability to bear with unruffled temper, and without any diminution of
+kindly feeling, the publicly-expressed antagonism of a friend. The
+last evening I spent at his house was in the company of another
+invited guest, who, originally agreeing with him entirely on certain
+disputed questions, had some fortnight previously displayed his change
+of view,--nay, had publicly criticised some of Mr. Mill's positions in
+a very undisguised manner. Evidently, along with his own unswerving
+allegiance to truth, there was in Mr. Mill an unusual power of
+appreciating in others a like conscientiousness, and so of suppressing
+any feeling of irritation produced by difference,--suppressing it, not
+in appearance only, but in reality, and that, too, under the most
+trying circumstances.
+
+I should say indeed, that Mr. Mill's general characteristic,
+emotionally considered, was an unusual predominance of the higher
+sentiments,--a predominance which tended, perhaps, both in theory and
+practice, to subordinate the lower nature unduly. That rapid advance
+of age which has been conspicuous for some years past, and which
+doubtless prepared the way for his somewhat premature death, may, I
+think, be regarded as the outcome of a theory of life which made
+learning and working the occupations too exclusively considered. But
+when we ask to what ends he acted out this theory, and in so doing too
+little regarded his bodily welfare, we see that even here the excess,
+if such we call it, was a noble one. Extreme desire to further human
+welfare was that to which he sacrificed himself.
+
+HERBERT SPENCER.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+HIS BOTANICAL STUDIES.
+
+
+If we would have a just idea of any man's character, we should view it
+from as many points, and under as many aspects, as we can. The
+side-lights thrown by the lesser occupations of a life are often very
+strong, and bring out its less obvious parts into startling
+prominence. Much especially is to be learned of character by taking
+into consideration the employment of times of leisure or relaxation;
+the occupation of such hours being due almost solely to the natural
+bent of the individual, without the interfering action of necessity or
+expediency. Most men, perhaps especially eminent men, have a
+"hobby",--some absorbing object, the pursuit of which forms the most
+natural avocation of their mind, and to which they turn with the
+certainty of at least satisfaction, if not of exquisite pleasure. The
+man who follows any branch of natural science in this way is almost
+always especially happy in its prosecution; and his mental powers are
+refreshed and invigorated for the more serious and engrossing if less
+congenial occupation of his life. Mr. Mill's hobby was practical field
+botany; surely in all ways one very well suited to him.
+
+Of the tens of thousands who are acquainted with the philosophical
+writings of Mr. Mill, there are probably few beyond the circle of his
+personal friends who are aware that he was also an author in a modest
+way on botanical subjects, and a keen searcher after wild plants. His
+short communications on botany were chiefly if not entirely published
+in a monthly magazine called "The Phytologist," edited, from its
+commencement in 1841, by the late George Luxford, till his death, in
+1854, and afterwards conducted by Mr. A. Irvine of Chelsea, an
+intimate friend of Mr. Mill's, till its discontinuance in 1863. In the
+early numbers of this periodical especially will be found frequent
+notes and short papers on the facts of plant distribution brought to
+light by Mr. Mill during his botanical rambles. His excursions were
+chiefly in the county of Surrey, and especially in the neighborhood of
+Guildford and the beautiful vale of the Sittingbourne, where he had
+the satisfaction of being the first to notice several plants of
+interest, as _Polygonum dumetorum_, _Isatis tinctoria_, and _Impatiens
+fulva_, an American species of balsam, affording a very remarkable
+example of complete naturalization in the Wey and other streams
+connected with the lower course of the Thames. Mr. Mill says he first
+observed this interloper in 1822 at Albury, a date which probably
+marks about the commencement of his botanical investigations, if not
+that of the first notice of the plant in this country. Mr. Mill's
+copious MS lists of observations in Surrey were subsequently forwarded
+to the late Mr. Salmon of Godalming, and have been since published
+with the large collection of facts made by that botanist in the "Flora
+of Surrey," printed under the auspices of the Holmesdale (Reigate)
+Natural History Club. Mr. Mill also contributed to the same
+scientific magazine some short notes on Hampshire botany, and is
+believed to have helped in the compilation of Mr. G.G. Mill's
+"Catalogue of the Plants of Great Marlow, Bucks."
+
+The mere recording of isolated facts of this kind of course affords no
+scope for any style in composition. It may, however, be thought worth
+while to reproduce here the concluding paragraph of a short article on
+"Spring Flowers in the South of Europe," as a sample of Mr. Mill's
+popular manner, as well as for its own sake as a fine description of a
+matchless scene. He is describing the little mountain range of Albano,
+beloved of painters, and, after comparing its vernal flora with that
+in England, goes on:--
+
+     'If we would ascend the highest member of the mountain group,
+     the Monte Cavo, we must make the circuit of the north flank
+     of the mountains of Marino, on the edge of the Albano Lake,
+     and Rocca di Tassa, a picturesque village in the hollow
+     mountain side, from which we climb through woods, abounding
+     in _Galanthus nivalis_ and _Corydalis cava_, to that summit
+     which was the _arx_ of Jupiter Latialis, and to which the
+     thirty Latian cities ascended in solemn procession to offer
+     their annual sacrifice. The place is now occupied by a
+     convent, under the wall of which I gathered _Orinthogalum
+     nutans_; and from its neighborhood I enjoyed a panoramic
+     view, surely the most glorious, in its combination of
+     natural beauty and grandeur of historical recollections, to
+     be found anywhere on earth. The eye ranged from Terracina on
+     one side to Veii on the other, and beyond Veii to the hills
+     of Sutrium and Nepete, once covered by the Cimmian forests,
+     then deemed an impenetrable barrier between the interior of
+     Etruria and Rome. Below my feet the Alban mountain, with all
+     its forest-covered folds, and in one of them the dark-blue
+     Lake of Nemi; that of Albano, I think, was invisible. To the
+     north, in the dim distance, the Eternal City, to the west
+     the eternal sea, for eastern boundary, the long line of
+     Sabine mountains from Soracte past Tibur and away towards
+     Proeneste. The range then passed behind the Alban group, but
+     re-appeared to the south-east as the mountain crescent of
+     Cora and Pometia, enclosing between its horns the Pontine
+     marshes, which lay spread out below as far as the sea line,
+     extending east and west from Terracina in the bay of Fondi,
+     the Volscian Anxur, to the angle of the coast where rises
+     suddenly, between the marshes and the sea, the mountain
+     promontory of Circeii, celebrated alike in history and in
+     fable. Within the space visible from this one point, the
+     destinies of the human race were decided. It took the Romans
+     nearly five hundred years to vanquish and incorporate the
+     warlike tribes who inhabited that narrow tract, but, this
+     being accomplished, two hundred more sufficed them to
+     complete the conquest of the world.
+
+During the frequent and latterly prolonged residence at Avignon, Mr.
+Mill, carrying on his botanical propensities, had become very well
+acquainted with the vegetation of the district, and at the time of his
+death had collected a mass of notes and observations on the subject.
+It is believed to have been his intention to have printed these as the
+foundation of a flora of Avignon.
+
+In the slight contributions to the literature of botany made by Mr.
+Mill, there is nothing which gives any inkling of the great
+intellectual powers of their writer. Though always clear and accurate,
+they are merely such notes as any working botanical collector is able
+to supply in abundance. Mainly content with the pursuit as an outdoor
+occupation, with such an amount of home work as was necessary to
+determine the names and affinities of the species, Mr. Mill never
+penetrated deeply into the philosophy of botany, so as to take rank
+among those who have, like Herbert Spencer, advanced that science by
+original work either of experiment or generalization, or have entered
+into the battle-field where the great biological questions of the day
+are being fought over. The writer of this notice well remembers
+meeting, a few years since, the (at that time) parliamentary logician,
+with his trousers turned up out of the mud, and armed with the tin
+insignia of his craft, busily occupied in the search after a
+marsh-loving rarity in a typical spongy wood on the clay to the north
+of London.
+
+But however followed, the investigation of nature cannot fail to
+influence the mind in the direction of a more just appreciation of the
+necessity of system in arrangement, and of the principles which must
+regulate all attempts to express notions of system in a
+classification. Traces of this are not difficult to find in Mr. Mill's
+writings. It may be safely stated, that the chapters on classification
+in the "Logic" would not have taken the form they have, had not the
+writer been a naturalist as well as a logician. The views expressed so
+clearly in these chapters are chiefly founded on the actual needs
+experienced by the systematic botanist; and the argument is largely
+sustained by references to botanical systems and arrangements. Most
+botanists agree with Mr. Mill in his objections to Dr. Whewell's views
+of a natural classification by resemblance to "types," instead of in
+accordance with well-selected characters; and indeed the whole of
+these chapters are well deserving the careful study of naturalists,
+notwithstanding that the wonderfully rapid progress in recent years of
+new ideas, lying at the very root of all the natural sciences, may be
+thought by some to give the whole argument, in spite of its logical
+excellence, a somewhat antiquated flavor. How fully Mr. Mill
+recognized the great importance of the study of biological
+classifications, and the influence such a study must have had on
+himself, may be judged from the following quotation:--
+
+     "Although the scientific arrangements of organic nature
+     afford as yet the only complete example of the true
+     principles of rational classification, whether as to the
+     formation of groups or of series, those principles are
+     applicable to all cases in which mankind are called upon to
+     bring the various parts of any extensive subject into mental
+     co-ordination. They are as much to the point when objects
+     are to be classed for purposes of art or business as for
+     those of science. The proper arrangement, for example, of a
+     code of laws, depends on the same scientific conditions as
+     the classifications in natural history; nor could there be a
+     better preparatory discipline for that important function
+     than the study of the principles of a natural arrangement,
+     not only in the abstract, but in their actual application to
+     the class of phenomena for which they were first elaborated,
+     and which are still the best school for learning their use.
+     Of this, the great authority on codification, Bentham, was
+     perfectly aware; and his early 'Fragment on Government,' the
+     admirable introduction to a series of writings unequalled in
+     their department, contains clear and just views (as far as
+     they go) on the meaning of a natural arrangement, such as
+     could scarcely have occurred to any one who lived anterior
+     to the age of Linnaeus and Bernard de Jussieu" (_System of
+     Logic_, ed. 6, ii., p. 288).
+
+HENRY TRIMEN.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+HIS PLACE AS A CRITIC
+
+
+Mr. Mill's achievements as an economist, logician, psychologist, and
+politician are known more or less vaguely to all educated men; but his
+capacity and his actual work as a critic are comparatively little
+regarded. In the three volumes of his collected miscellaneous
+writings, very few of the papers are general reviews either of books
+or of men; and even these volumes derive their character from the
+essays they contain on the severer subjects with which Mr. Mill's name
+has been more peculiarly associated. Nobody buys his "Dissertations
+and Discussions" for the sake of his theory of poetry, or his essays
+on Armand Carrel and Alfred de Vigny, noble though these are in many
+ways. His essay on Coleridge is very celebrated; but it deals, not
+with Coleridge's place as a poet, but with his place as a
+thinker--with Coleridge as the antagonistic power to Bentham in
+forming the opinions of the generation now passing away. Still at such
+a time as this it is interesting to make some endeavor to estimate the
+value of what Mr. Mill has done in the way of criticism. It is at
+least worth while to examine whether one who has shown himself
+capable of grappling effectively with the driest and most abstruse
+problems that vex the human intellect was versatile enough to study
+poetry with an understanding heart, and to be alive to the distinctive
+powers of individual poets.
+
+It was in his earlier life, when his enthusiasm for knowledge was fresh,
+and his active mind, "all as hungry as the sea," was reaching out
+eagerly and strenuously to all sorts of food for thought,--literary,
+philosophical, and political,--that Mr. Mill set himself, among other
+things, to study and theorize upon poetry and the arts generally. He
+could hardly have failed to know the most recent efflorescence of
+English poetry, living as he did in circles where the varied merits of
+the new poets were largely and keenly discussed. He had lived also for
+some time in France, and was widely read in French poetry. He had
+never passed through the ordinary course of Greek and Latin at school
+and college, but he had been taught by his father to read these
+languages, and had been accustomed from the first to regard their
+literature as literature, and to read their poetry as poetry. These
+were probably the main elements of his knowledge of poetry. But it
+was not his way to dream or otherwise luxuriate over his favorite
+poets for pure enjoyment. Mr. Mill was not a cultivator of art for
+art's sake. His was too fervid and militant a soul to lose itself in
+serene love and culture of the calmly beautiful. He read poetry for
+the most part with earnest, critical eye, striving to account for it,
+to connect it with the tendencies of the age, or he read to find
+sympathy with his own aspirations after heroic energy. He read De
+Vigny and other French poets of his generation, with an eye to their
+relations to the convulsed and struggling state of France, and because
+they were compelled by their surroundings to take life _au serieux_,
+and to pursue, with all the resources of their art, something
+different from beauty in the abstract. Luxurious passive enjoyment or
+torpid half-enjoyment must have been a comparatively rare condition of
+his finely-strung, excitable, and fervid system. I believe that his
+moral earnestness was too imperious to permit much of this. He was
+capable indeed of the most passionate admiration of beauty, but even
+that feeling seems to have been interpenetrated by a certain militant
+apostolic fervor; his love was as the love of a religious soldier for
+a patron saint who extends her aid and countenance to him in his wars.
+I do not mean to say that his mind was in a perpetual glow: I mean
+only that this surrender to impassioned transports was more
+characteristic of the man than serene openness to influx of enjoyment.
+His "Thoughts on Poetry and its Varieties," while clear and strenuous
+as most of his thoughts were, are neither scientifically precise, nor
+do they contain any notable new idea not previously expressed by
+Coleridge, except perhaps the idea, that emotions are the main links
+of association in the poetic mind: still his working out of the
+definition of poetry, his distinction between novels and poems, and
+between poetry and eloquence, is interesting as throwing light upon
+his own poetic susceptibilities. He holds that poetry is the
+delineation of the deeper and more secret workings of human emotion.
+It is curious to find one who is sometimes assailed as the advocate of
+a grovelling philosophy complaining that the chivalrous spirit has
+almost disappeared from books of education, that the youth of both
+sexes of the educated classes are growing up unromantic. "Catechisms,"
+he says, "will be found a poor substitute for the old romances,
+whether of chivalry or faery, which, if they did not give a true
+picture of actual life, did not give a false one, since they did not
+profess to give any, but (what was much better) filled the youthful
+imagination with pictures of heroic men, and of what are at least as
+much wanted,--heroic women."
+
+If Mr. Mill did not love poetry with a purely disinterested love, but
+with an eye to its moral causes and effects, neither did he study
+character from mere delight in observing the varieties of mankind.
+Armand Carrel the Republican journalist, Alfred de Vigny the Royalist
+poet, Coleridge the Conservative, and Bentham the Reformer, are taken
+up and expounded, not as striking individuals, but as types of
+influences and tendencies. This habit of keeping in view mind in the
+abstract, or men in the aggregate, may have been in a large measure a
+result of his education by his father; but I am inclined to think that
+he was of too ardent and pre-occupied a disposition, perhaps too much
+disposed to take favorable views of individuals, to be very sensitive
+to differences of character. It should not, however, be forgotten that
+in one memorable case he showed remarkable discrimination. Soon after
+Mr. Tennyson published his second issue of poems, Mr. Mill reviewed
+them in "The Westminster Review" for July, 1835, and, with his usual
+earnestness and generosity, applied all his powers to making a just
+estimate of the new aspirant. To have reprinted this among his
+miscellaneous writings might have seemed rather boastful, as claiming
+credit for the first full recognition of a great poet: still it is a
+very remarkable review; and one would hope it will not be omitted if
+there is to be any further collection of his casual productions. I
+shall quote two passages which seem obvious enough now, but which
+required true insight, as well as courageous generosity, to write them
+in 1835--
+
+     "Of all the capacities of a poet, that which seems to have
+     arisen earliest in Mr. Tennyson, and in which he most
+     excels, is that of scene-painting in the higher sense of the
+     term; not the mere power of producing that rather vapid
+     species of composition usually termed descriptive
+     poetry,--for there is not in these volumes one passage of
+     pure description,--but the power of creating scenery in
+     keeping with some state of human feeling, so fitted to it as
+     to be the embodied symbol of it, and to summon up the state
+     of feeling itself with a force not to be surpassed by any
+     thing but reality."
+
+            *       *       *       *       *
+
+     "The poems which we have quoted from Mr. Tennyson prove
+     incontestably that he possesses in an eminent degree the
+     natural endowment of a poet,--the poetic temperament. And it
+     appears clearly, not only from a comparison of the two
+     volumes, but of different poems in the same volume, that
+     with him the other element of poetic excellence,
+     intellectual culture, is advancing both steadily and
+     rapidly; that he is not destined, like so many others, to be
+     remembered for what he might have done rather than for what
+     he did; that he will not remain a poet of mere temperament,
+     but is ripening into a true artist.... We predict, that, as
+     Mr. Tennyson advances in general spiritual culture, these
+     higher aims will become more and more predominant in his
+     writings; that he will strive more and more diligently, and,
+     even without striving, will be more and more impelled by the
+     natural tendencies of an expanding character, towards what
+     has been described as the highest object of poetry,--'to
+     incorporate the everlasting reason of man in forms visible
+     to his sense, and suitable to it.'"
+
+This last sentence might easily be construed into a prediction of "In
+Memoriam" and "The Idyls of the King."
+
+If it is asked why Mr. Mill, with all his width of knowledge and
+sympathy, has achieved so little of a reputation as a miscellaneous
+writer, part of the reason no doubt is, that he sternly repressed his
+desultory tendencies, and devoted his powers to special branches of
+knowledge, attaining in them a distinction that obscured his other
+writings. Another reason is, that, although his style is extremely
+clear, he was for popular purposes dangerously familiar with terms
+belonging more or less to the schools. He employed these in literary
+generalizations, without remembering that they were not equally
+familiar to his readers; and thus general readers, like Tom Moore, or
+the author of the recent notice in "The Times," who read more for
+amusement than instruction, were disposed to consider Mr. Mill's style
+"vastly unreadable."
+
+W. MINTO.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+HIS WORK IN PHILOSOPHY
+
+
+To a savage contemplating a railway train in motion, the engine would
+present itself as the master of the situation,--the determining cause
+of the motion and direction of the train. It visibly takes the lead,
+it looks big and important, and it makes a great noise. Even people a
+long way up in the scale of civilization are in the habit of taking
+these attributes, perhaps not as the essential ones of leadership, but
+at all events as those by which a leader may be recognized. Still that
+blustering machine, which puffs and snorts, and drags a vast multitude
+in its wake, is moving along a track determined by a man hidden away
+from the public gaze. A line of rail lies separated from an adjacent
+one, the pointsman moves a handle, and the foaming giant, that would,
+it may be, have sped on to his destruction and that of the passive
+crew who follow in his rear, is shunted to another line running in a
+different direction and to a more desirable goal.
+
+The great intellectual pointsman of our age--the man who has done more
+than any other of this generation to give direction to the thought of
+his contemporaries--has passed away; and we are left to measure the
+loss to humanity by the result of his labors. Mr. Mill's achievements
+in both branches of philosophy are such as to give him the foremost
+place in either. Whether we regard him as an expounder of the
+philosophy of mind or the philosophy of society, he is _facile
+princeps_. Still it is his work in mental science which will, in our
+opinion, be in future looked upon as his great contribution to the
+progress of thought. His work on political economy not only put into
+thorough repair the structure raised by Adam Smith, Malthus, and
+Ricardo, but raised it at least one story higher. His inestimable
+"System of Logic" was a revolution. It hardly needs, of course, to be
+said that he owed much to his predecessors,--that he borrowed from
+Whewell much of his classification, from Brown the chief lines of his
+theory of causation, from Sir John Herschel the main principles of the
+inductive methods. Those who think this a disparagement of his work
+must have very little conception of the mass of original thought that
+still remains to Mr. Mill's credit, the great critical power that
+could gather valuable truths from so many discordant sources, and the
+wonderful synthetic ability required to weld these and his own
+contributions into one organic whole.
+
+When Mr. Mill commenced his labors, the only logic recognized was the
+syllogistic. Reasoning consisted solely, according to the then
+dominant school, in deducing from general propositions other
+propositions less general. It was even asserted confidently, that
+nothing more was to be expected,--that an inductive logic was
+impossible. This conception of logical science necessitated some
+general propositions to start with; and these general propositions
+being _ex hypothesi_ incapable of being proved from other
+propositions, it followed, that, if they were known to us at all, they
+must be original data of consciousness. Here was a perfect paradise of
+question begging. The ultimate major premise in every argument being
+assumed, it could of course be fashioned according to the particular
+conclusion it was called in to prove. Thus an 'artificial ignorance,'
+as Locke calls it, was produced, which had the effect of sanctifying
+prejudice by recognizing so-called necessities of thought as the only
+bases of reasoning. It is true, that outside of the logic of the
+schools great advances had been made in the rules of scientific
+investigation; but these rules were not only imperfect in themselves,
+but their connection with the law of causation was but imperfectly
+realized, and their true relation to syllogism hardly dreamt of.
+
+Mr. Mill altered all this. He demonstrated that the general type of
+reasoning is neither from generals to particulars, nor from
+particulars to generals, but from particulars to particulars. "If from
+our experience of John, Thomas, &c., who once were living, but are now
+dead, we are entitled to conclude that all human beings are mortal, we
+might surely, without any logical inconsequence, have concluded at
+once from those instances, that the Duke of Wellington is mortal. The
+mortality of John, Thomas, and others is, after all, the whole
+evidence we have for the mortality of the Duke of Wellington. Not one
+iota is added to the proof by interpolating a general proposition." We
+not only may, according to Mr. Mill, reason from some particular
+instances to others, but we frequently do so. As, however, the
+instances which are sufficient to prove one fresh instance must be
+sufficient to prove a general proposition, it is most convenient to
+at once infer that general proposition, which then becomes a formula
+according to which (but not from which) any number of particular
+inferences may be made. The work of deduction is the interpretation of
+these formulas, and therefore, strictly speaking, is not inferential
+at all. The real inference was accomplished when the universal
+proposition was arrived at.
+
+It will easily be seen that this explanation of the deductive process
+completely turns the tables on the transcendental school. All
+reasoning is shown to be at bottom inductive. Inductions and their
+interpretation make up the whole of logic; and to induction
+accordingly Mr. Mill devoted his chief attention. For the first time
+induction was treated as the _opus magnum_ of logic, and the
+fundamental principles of science traced to their inductive origin. It
+was this, taken with his theory of the syllogism, which worked the
+great change. Both his "System of Logic" and his "Examination of Sir
+William Hamilton's Philosophy" are for the most part devoted to
+fortifying this position, and demolishing beliefs inconsistent with
+it. As a systematic psychologist Mr. Mill has not done so much as
+either Professor Bain or Mr. Herbert Spencer. The perfection of his
+method, its application, and the uprooting of prejudices which stood
+in its way,--this was the task to which Mr. Mill applied himself with
+an ability and success rarely matched and never surpassed.
+
+The biggest lion in the path was the doctrine of so-called "necessary
+truth." This doctrine was especially obnoxious to him, as it set up a
+purely subjective standard of truth, and a standard--as he was easily
+able to show--varying according to the psychological history of the
+individual. Such thinkers as Dr. Whewell and Mr. Herbert Spencer had
+to be met in intellectual combat. Dr. Whewell held, not that the
+inconceivability of the contradictory of a proposition is a proof of
+its truth co-equal with experience, but that its value transcends
+experience. Experience may tell us what _is_; but it is by the
+impossibility of conceiving it otherwise that we know it _must be_.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, too, holds that propositions whose negation is
+inconceivable have "a higher warrant than any other whatever." It is
+through this door that ontological belief was supposed to enter.
+"Things in themselves" were to be believed in because we could not
+help it. Modern Noumenalists agree that we can know nothing more of
+"things in themselves" than their existence, but this they continue to
+assert with a vehemence only equalled by its want of meaning.
+
+In his "Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," Mr. Mill
+gives battle to this mode of thought. After reviewing, in an opening
+chapter, the various views which have been held respecting the
+relativity of human knowledge, and stating his own doctrine, he
+proceeds to judge by this standard the philosophy of the absolute and
+Sir William Hamilton's relation to it. The argument is really on the
+question whether we have or have not an intuition of God, though, as
+Mr. Mill says, "the name of God is veiled under two extremely abstract
+phrases,--'The Infinite' and 'The Absolute.'" So profound and friendly
+a thinker as the late Mr. Grote held this raising of the veil
+inexpedient, but he proved, by a mistake he fell into, the necessity
+of looking at the matter in the concrete. He acknowledged the force of
+Mr. Mill's argument, that "The Infinite" must include "a farrago of
+contradictions;" but so also, he said, does the Finite. Now
+undoubtedly finite things, taken distributively, have contradictory
+attributes, but not as a class. Still less is there any one individual
+thing, "The Finite," in which these contradictory attributes inhere.
+But it was against a corresponding being, "The Infinite," that Mr.
+Mill was arguing. It is this that he calls a "fasciculus of
+contradictions," and regarded as the _reductio ad absurdissimum_ of
+the transcendental philosophy.
+
+Mr. Mill's religious tendencies may very well be gathered from a
+passage in his review of Auguste Comte, a philosopher with whom he
+agreed on all points save those which are specially M. Comte's.
+"Candid persons of all creeds may be willing to admit, that if a
+person has an ideal object, his attachment and sense of duty towards
+which are able to control and discipline all his other sentiments and
+propensities, and prescribe to him a rule of life, that person has a
+religion; and though every one naturally prefers his own religion to
+any other, all must admit, that if the object of his attachment, and
+of this feeling of duty, is the aggregate of our fellow-creatures,
+this religion of the infidel cannot in honesty and conscience be
+called an intrinsically bad one. Many indeed may be unable to believe
+that this object is capable of gathering round it feelings
+sufficiently strong; but this is exactly the point on which a doubt
+can hardly remain in an intelligent reader of M. Comte: and we join
+with him in contemning, as equally irrational and mean, the conception
+of human nature as incapable of giving its love, and devoting its
+existence, to any object which cannot afford in exchange an eternity
+of personal enjoyment." Never has the libel of humanity involved in
+the current theology been more forcibly pointed out, with its constant
+appeal to low motives of personal gain, or still lower motives of
+personal fear. Never has the religious sentiment which must take the
+place of the present awe of the unknown been more clearly indicated.
+It is this noble sentiment which shines out from every page of Mr.
+Mill's writings and all his relations to his fellow-creatures: the
+very birds about his dwelling seemed to recognize it. It is this noble
+sentiment which infuses a soul of life into his teachings, and the
+enunciation and acting-out of which constitute him, not only the great
+philosopher, but also the great prophet of our time.
+
+J. H. LEVY.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+HIS STUDIES IN MORALS AND JURISPRUDENCE
+
+
+The two chief characteristics of Mr. Mill's mind are conspicuous in
+the field of morals and jurisprudence. He united in an extraordinary
+degree an intense delight in thinking for its own sake, with an almost
+passionate desire to make his intellectual excursions contribute to
+the amelioration of the lot of mankind, especially of the poorer and
+suffering part of mankind. And yet he never allowed those high aims to
+clash with one another: he did not degrade his intellect to the
+sophistical office of finding reasons for a policy arising from mere
+emotion, nor did he permit it to run waste in barren speculations,
+which might have excited admiration, but never could have done any
+good. This is the reason why so many persons have been unable to
+understand him as the prophet of utilitarianism. A man of such
+exquisite feeling, of such pure conscientiousness, of such
+self-denying life, must surely be an advocate of what is called
+absolute morality. Utilitarianism is the proper creed of hard
+unemotional natures, who do not respond to the more subtle moral
+influences. Such is the view natural to those who cannot dissociate
+the word "utilitarianism" from the narrow meaning of utility, as
+contrasted with the pleasures of art. The infirmity of human
+language excuses such errors; for the language in which controversy
+is conducted is so colored by sentiment that it may well happen
+that two shall agree on the thing, and fight to the death about
+the word. We need the support of such reflections when we recall
+the history of such a word as "pleasure." To pursue pleasure, say the
+anti-utilitarians, is a swinish doctrine. "Yes," replied Mr. Mill, "if
+men were swine, and capable only of the pleasures appropriate to that
+species of animals." Those who could not answer this argument, and at
+the same time cannot divest themselves of the association of pleasure
+with the ignoble, took refuge in the charge of inconsistency, and,
+finding there was not less but more nobility in Mr. Mill's writing
+than their own theory, accused him of abandoning the tradition of his
+school. Mahomet would not go to the mountain, and they pleased
+themselves with the thought that the mountain had gone to Mahomet.
+Such a charge is really tantamount to a confession that popular
+antipathy was more easily excited by the word than by the real
+doctrine. Nevertheless Mr. Mill did an incalculable service in showing
+not less by his whole life, than by his writings, that utilitarianism
+takes account of all that is good in man's nature, and includes the
+highest emotions, as well as those that are more commonplace. He took
+away a certain reproach of narrowness, which was never in the
+doctrine, and which was loudly, though perhaps with little reason,
+urged against some of its most conspicuous supporters. An important
+addition to the theory of morals is also contained in the book on
+"Utilitarianism." His analysis of "justice" is one of the happiest
+efforts of inductive definition to be found in any book on ethics.
+From any point of view, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to
+the literature of ethical philosophy.
+
+The somewhat technical subject of jurisprudence was not too much for
+Mr. Mill's immense power of assimilation. One of his earliest efforts
+was as editor of Bentham's "Rationale of Judicial Evidence." He must,
+therefore, at an early period, have been master of the most original
+and enlightened theory of judicial evidence that the world has seen.
+He lived to see nearly all the important innovations proposed by
+Bentham become part and parcel of the law of the land; one of the last
+relics of bigotry--the exclusion of honest atheists (and only of such)
+from the witness-box--having been removed two or three years ago. Mr.
+Mill, in after years, attended Austin's famous lectures on
+jurisprudence, taking extensive notes; so that he was able to supply
+the matter wanting to complete two important lectures, as they were
+printed in the first edition of Austin's works. Among the
+"Dissertations and Discussions," is a criticism of Austin's work,
+which shows that he was far more than a scholar,--a most competent
+judge of his master. He pointed out in Austin's definition of "right"
+a real defect. One of the points that Austin elaborated most was a
+classification such as might serve for a scientific code of law. Mr.
+Mill fully acknowledged the merits of the scheme, but laid his finger
+unerringly on its weakest part. His remarks show, that, if he had
+followed up the subject with an adequate knowledge of any good system
+of law, he would have rivalled or surpassed his achievements in other
+departments of knowledge.
+
+W. A. HUNTER.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+HIS WORK IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.
+
+
+The task of fairly estimating the value of Mr. Mill's achievements in
+political economy--and indeed the same remark applies to what he has
+done in every department of philosophy--is rendered particularly
+difficult by a circumstance which constitutes their principal merit.
+The character of his intellectual, no less than of his moral nature,
+led him to strive to connect his thoughts, whatever was the branch of
+knowledge at which he labored, with the previously-existing body of
+speculation, to fit them into the same framework, and exhibit them as
+parts of the same scheme; so that it might be truly said of him, that
+he was at more pains to conceal the originality and independent value
+of his contributions to the stock of knowledge than most writers are
+to set forth those qualities in their compositions. As a consequence
+of this, hasty readers of his works, while recognizing the
+comprehensiveness of his mind, have sometimes denied its originality;
+and in political economy in particular he has been frequently
+represented as little more than an expositor and popularizer of
+Ricardo. It cannot be denied that there is a show of truth in this
+representation; about as much as there would be in asserting that
+Laplace and Herschel were the expositors and popularizers of Newton,
+or that Faraday performed a like office for Sir Humphry Davy. In
+truth, this is an incident of all progressive science. The cultivators
+in each age may, in a sense, be said to be the interpreters and
+popularizers of those who have preceded them; and it is in this sense,
+and in this sense only, that this part can be attributed to Mill. In
+this respect he is to be strongly contrasted with the great majority
+of writers on political economy, who, on the strength perhaps of a
+verbal correction or an unimportant qualification of a received
+doctrine, if not on the score of a pure fallacy, would fain persuade
+us that they have achieved a revolution in economic doctrine, and that
+the entire science must be rebuilt from its foundation in conformity
+with their scheme. This sort of thing has done infinite mischief to
+the progress of economic science; and one of Mill's great merits is,
+that both by example and by precept he steadily discountenanced it.
+His anxiety to affiliate his own speculations to those of his
+predecessors is a marked feature in all his philosophical works, and
+illustrates at once the modesty and comprehensiveness of his mind.
+
+It is quite true that Mill, as an economist, was largely indebted to
+Ricardo; and he has so fully and frequently acknowledged the debt,
+that there is some danger of rating the obligation too highly. As he
+himself used to put it, Ricardo supplied the backbone of the science;
+but it is not less certain that the limbs, the joints, the muscular
+developments,--all that renders political economy a complete and
+organized body of knowledge,--have been the work of Mill. In Ricardo's
+great work, the fundamental doctrines of production, distribution, and
+exchange have been laid down, but for the most part in mere outline;
+so much so, that superficial students are in general wholly unable to
+connect his statement of principles with the facts, as we find them,
+of industrial life. Hence we have innumerable "refutations of
+Ricardo,"--almost invariably refutations of the writers' own
+misconceptions. In Mill's exposition, the connection between
+principles and facts becomes clear and intelligible. The conditions
+and modes of action are exhibited by which human wants and
+desires--the motive powers of industry--come to issue in the actual
+phenomena of wealth, and political economy becomes a system of
+doctrines susceptible of direct application to human affairs. As an
+example, I may refer to Mill's development of Ricardo's doctrine of
+foreign trade. In Ricardo's pages, the fundamental principles of that
+department of exchange are indeed laid down with a master's hand; but
+for the majority of readers they have little relation to the actual
+commerce of the world. Turn to Mill, and all becomes clear. Principles
+of the most abstract kind are translated into concrete language, and
+brought to explain familiar facts; and this result is achieved, not
+simply or chiefly by virtue of mere lucidity of exposition, but
+through the discovery and exhibition of modifying conditions and links
+in the chain of causes overlooked by Ricardo. It was in his "Essays on
+Unsettled Questions in Political Economy" that his views upon this
+subject were first given to the world,--a work of which M. Cherbuliez
+of Geneva speaks as "un travail le plus important et le plus original
+dont la science economique se soit enrichie depuis une vingtaine
+d'annees."
+
+On some points, however, and these points of supreme importance, the
+contributions of Mill to economic science are very much more than
+developments--even though we understand that term in its largest
+sense--of any previous writer. No one can have studied political
+economy in the works of its earlier cultivators without being struck
+with the dreariness of the outlook which, in the main, it discloses
+for the human race. It seems to have been Ricardo's deliberate
+opinion, that a substantial improvement in the condition of the mass
+of mankind was impossible. He considered it as the normal state of
+things that wages should be at the _minimum_ requisite to support the
+laborer in physical health and strength, and to enable him to bring up
+a family large enough to supply the wants of the labor-market. A
+temporary improvement indeed, as the consequence of expanding commerce
+and growing capital, he saw that there might be; but he held that the
+force of the principle of population was always powerful enough so to
+augment the supply of labor as to bring wages ever again down to the
+_minimum_ point. So completely had this belief become a fixed idea in
+Ricardo's mind, that he confidently drew from it the consequence, that
+in no case could taxation fall on the laborer, since--living, as a
+normal state of things, on the lowest possible stipend adequate to
+maintain him and his family--he would inevitably, he argued, transfer
+the burden to his employer; and a tax nominally on wages would in the
+result become invariably a tax upon profits. On this point Mill's
+doctrine leads to conclusions directly opposed to Ricardo's, and to
+those of most preceding economists. And it will illustrate his
+position as a thinker, in relation to them, if we note how this result
+was obtained. Mill neither denied the premises nor disputed the logic
+of Ricardo's argument: he accepted both; and in particular he
+recognized fully the force of the principle of population; but he took
+account of a further premise which Ricardo had overlooked, and which,
+duly weighed, led to a reversal of Ricardo's conclusion. The _minimum_
+of wages, even such as it exists in the case of the worst-paid
+laborer, is not the very least sum that human nature can subsist upon:
+it is something more than this; in the case of all above the
+worst-paid class it is decidedly more. The _minimum_ is, in truth, not
+a physical but a moral _minimum_, and as such, is capable of being
+altered with the changes in the moral character of those whom it
+affects. In a word, each class has a certain standard of comfort below
+which it will not consent to live, or at least to multiply,--a
+standard, however, not fixed, but liable to modification with the
+changing circumstances of society, and which, in the case of a
+progressive community, is, in point of fact, constantly rising, as
+moral and intellectual influences are brought more and more
+effectually to bear on the masses of the people. This was the new
+premise brought by Mill to the elucidation of the wages question; and
+it sufficed to change the entire aspect of human life regarded from
+the point of view of political economy. The practical deductions made
+from it were set forth in the celebrated chapter on "The Future of
+the Industrial Classes,"--a chapter which it is no exaggeration to say
+places a gulf between Mill and all who preceded him, and opens an
+entirely new vista to economic speculation.
+
+The doctrine of the science with which Mill's name has been most
+prominently associated within the last few years is that which relates
+to the economic nature of land, and the consequences to which this
+should lead in practical legislation. It is very commonly believed,
+that on this point Mill has started aside from the beaten highway of
+economic thought, and propounded views wholly at variance with those
+generally entertained by orthodox economists. No economist need be
+told that this is an entire mistake. In truth, there is no portion of
+the economic field in which Mill's originality is less conspicuous
+than in that which deals with the land. His assertion of the peculiar
+nature of landed property, and again his doctrine as to the "unearned
+increment" of value arising from land with the growth of society, are
+simply direct deductions from Ricardo's theory of rent, and cannot be
+consistently denied by any one who accepts that theory. All that Mill
+has done here has been to point the application of principles all but
+universally accepted to the practical affairs of life. This is not the
+place to consider how far the plan proposed by him for this purpose is
+susceptible of practical realization; but it may at least be
+confidently stated, that the scientific basis on which his proposal
+rests is no strange novelty invented by him, but simply a principle as
+fundamental and widely recognized as any within the range of the
+science of which it forms a part.
+
+I have just remarked that Mill's originality is less conspicuous in
+relation to the economic theory of land than in other problems of
+political economy, but the reader must not understand me from this to
+say, that he has not very largely contributed to the elucidation of
+this topic. He has indeed done so, though not, as is commonly
+supposed, by setting aside principles established by his predecessors,
+but, as his manner was, while accepting those principles, by
+introducing a new premise into the argument. The new premise
+introduced in this case was the influence of custom as modifying the
+action of competition. The existence of an active competition, on the
+one hand between farmers seeking farms, on the other between farming
+and other modes of industry as offering inducements to the investment
+of capital, is a constant assumption in the reasoning by which Ricardo
+arrived at his theory of rent. Granting this assumption, it followed
+that farmers as a rule would pay neither higher nor lower rents than
+would leave them in possession of the average profits on their capital
+current in the country. Mill fully acknowledged the force of this
+reasoning, and accepted the conclusion as true wherever the conditions
+assumed were realized; but he proceeded to point out, that, in point
+of fact, the conditions are not realized over the greater portion of
+the world, and, as a consequence, that the rent actually paid by the
+cultivators to the owners of the soil by no means, as a general rule,
+corresponds with that portion of the produce which Ricardo considered
+as properly "rent." The real regulator of actual rent over the greater
+part of the habitable globe was, he showed, not competition, but
+custom; and he further pointed out that there are countries in which
+the actual rent paid by the cultivators is governed neither by the
+causes set forth by Ricardo, nor yet by custom, but by a third cause
+different from either,--the absolute will of the owners of the soil,
+controlled only by the physical exigencies of the cultivator, or by
+the fear of his vengeance if disturbed in his holding. The recognition
+of this state of things threw an entirely new light over the whole
+problem of land-tenure, and plainly furnished grounds for legislative
+interference in the contracts between landlords and tenants. Its
+application to Ireland was obvious; and Mill himself, as the world
+knows, did not hesitate to urge the application with all the energy
+and enthusiasm which he invariably threw into every cause that he
+espoused.
+
+In the above remarks, I have attempted to indicate briefly some few of
+the salient features in Mill's contributions to the science of
+political economy. There is still one more which ought not to be
+omitted from even the most meagre summary. Mill was not the first to
+treat political economy as a science; but he was the first, if not to
+perceive, at least to enforce the lesson, that, just because it is a
+science, its conclusions carried with them no obligatory force with
+reference to human conduct. As a science, it tells us that certain
+modes of action lead to certain results; but it remains for each man
+to judge of the value of the results thus brought about, and to decide
+whether or not it is worth while to adopt the means necessary for
+their attainment. In the writings of the economists who preceded Mill,
+it is very generally assumed, that to prove that a certain course of
+conduct tends to the most rapid increase of wealth suffices to entail
+upon all who accept the argument the obligation of adopting the course
+which leads to this result. Mill absolutely repudiated this inference,
+and, while accepting the theoretic conclusion, held himself perfectly
+free to adopt in practice whatever course he preferred. It was not for
+political economy or for any science to say what are the ends most
+worthy of being pursued by human beings; the task of science is
+complete when it shows us the means by which the ends may be attained;
+but it is for each individual man to decide how far the end is
+desirable at the cost which its attainment involves. In a word, the
+sciences should be our servants, and not our masters. This was a
+lesson which Mill was the first to enforce, and by enforcing which he
+may be said to have emancipated economists from the thraldom of their
+own teaching. It is in no slight degree through the constant
+recognition of its truth, that he has been enabled to divest of
+repulsiveness even the most abstract speculations, and to impart a
+glow of human interest to all that he has touched.
+
+J. E. CAIRNES.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+HIS INFLUENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES.
+
+
+Some time ago, when there was no reason to suppose that we should so
+soon have to mourn the loss of the great thinker and of the kind
+friend who has just passed away, I had occasion to remark upon the
+influence which Mr. Mill had exercised at the universities. I will
+quote my words as they stand, because it is difficult to write with
+impartiality about one whose recent death we are deploring; and Mr.
+Mill would, I am sure, have been the first to say, that it is
+certainly not honoring the memory of one who is dead to lavish upon
+him praise which would not be bestowed upon him if he were living. I
+will therefore repeat my words exactly as they were written two years
+since: 'Any one who has resided during the last twenty years at either
+of our universities must have noticed that Mr. Mill is the author who
+has most powerfully influenced nearly all the young men of the
+greatest promise.' In thus referring to the powerful influence
+exercised by Mr. Mill's works, I do not wish it to be supposed that
+this influence is to be measured by the extent to which his books form
+a part of the university _curriculum_. His "Logic" has no doubt
+become a standard examination-book at Oxford. At Cambridge the
+mathematical and classical triposes still retain their former
+_prestige_. The moral science tripos, though increasing in importance,
+still attracts a comparatively small number of students, and there is
+probably no other examination for which it is necessary to read Mr.
+Mill's "Logic" and "Political Economy." This fact affords the most
+satisfactory evidence that the influence he has exerted is
+spontaneous, and is therefore likely to be lasting in its effects. If
+students had been driven to read his books by the necessity which
+examinations impose, it is quite possible, that, after the
+examination, the books might never be looked at again. A resident,
+however, at the university can scarcely fail to be struck with the
+fact, that many who perfectly well know that they will never in any
+examination be asked to answer a question in logic or political
+economy are among the most diligent students of Mr. Mill's books. When
+I was an undergraduate, I well remember that most of my friends who
+were likely to take high mathematical honors were already so
+ultimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings, and were so much
+imbued with their spirit, that they might have been regarded as his
+disciples. Many looked up to him as their teacher; many have since
+felt that he then instilled into them principles, which, to a great
+extent, have guided their conduct in after life. Any one who is
+intimately acquainted with Mr. Mill's writings will readily understand
+how it is that they possess such peculiar attractiveness for the class
+of readers to whom I am now referring. There is nothing more
+characteristic in his writings than generosity and courage. He always
+states his opponent's case with the most judicial impartiality. He
+never shrinks from the expression of opinion because he thinks it
+unpopular; and there is nothing so abhorrent to him as that bigotry
+which prevents a man from appreciating what is just and true in the
+views of those who differ from him. This toleration, which is so
+predominant a feature of his writings, is probably one of the rarest
+of all qualities in a controversialist. Those who do not possess it
+always produce an impression that they are unfair; and this
+impression, once produced, exercises a repelling influence upon the
+young. Another cause of the attractiveness of Mr. Mill's writings is
+the precision with which his views are expressed, and the systematic
+form which is given to his opinions. Confidence is reposed in him as a
+guide, because it is found that there is some definite goal to which
+he is leading his readers: he does not conduct them they know not
+whither, as a traveller who has lost his way in a mist, or a navigator
+who is steering his ship without a compass. The influence exercised by
+Mr. Mill does not chiefly depend upon the originality of his writings.
+He did not make any great discovery which will form an epoch in the
+history of human thought; he did not create a new science, or become
+the founder of a new system of philosophy. There is perhaps not so
+much originality in his "Political Economy" as in Ricardo's; but there
+are thousands who never thought of reading Ricardo who were so much
+attracted by Mr. Mill's book, that its influence might be traced
+throughout the rest of their lives. No doubt one reason of his
+attractiveness as a writer, in addition to other circumstances to
+which allusion has already been made, is the unusual power he
+possessed in applying philosophical principles to the facts of
+ordinary life. To those who believe that the influence Mr. Mill has
+exercised at the universities has been in the highest degree
+beneficial,--to those who think that his books not only afford the
+most admirable intellectual training, but also are calculated to
+produce a most healthy moral influence,--it may be some consolation,
+now that we are deploring his death, to know, that, although he has
+passed away, he may still continue to be a teacher and a guide. I
+believe he never visited the English universities: it was consequently
+entirely through his books that he was known. Not one of those who
+were his greatest admirers at Cambridge, when I was an undergraduate,
+ever saw him till many years after they had left the University. I
+remember that we often used to say, that there was nothing we should
+esteem so great a privilege as to spend an hour in Mr. Mill's society.
+There is probably no bond of attachment stronger than that which
+unites a pupil to one who has attracted him to new intellectual
+pursuits, and has awakened in him new interests in life. Some four or
+five years after taking my degree, I met Mr. Mill for the first time;
+and from that hour an intimate friendship commenced, which I shall
+always regard as a peculiarly high privilege to have enjoyed. Intimacy
+with Mr. Mill convinced me, that, if he had happened to live at either
+of the universities, his personal influence would have been no less
+striking than his intellectual influence. Nothing, perhaps, was so
+remarkable in his character as his tenderness to the feelings of
+others, and the deference with which he listened to those in every
+respect inferior to himself. There never was a man who was more
+entirely free from that intellectual conceit which breeds disdain.
+Nothing is so discouraging and heart-breaking to young people as the
+sneer of an intellectual cynic. A sarcasm about an act of youthful
+mental enthusiasm not only often casts a fatal chill over the
+character, but is resented as an injury never to be forgiven. The most
+humble youth would have found in Mr. Mill the warmest and most kindly
+sympathy.
+
+It may be said, if Mr. Mill has not become the founder of a new
+philosophical school at the universities where must we seek the result
+of his influence? I cannot give any thing like a complete reply to
+this question now; but any one who has observed the marked change
+which has come over the mode of thought in the universities in the
+last few years will be able to form some idea of the kind of influence
+which has been exercised by Mr. Mill. Speaking generally, he has
+obtained a very wide acceptance of the utilitarian doctrines: they
+were presented by Bentham in a form so harsh and unattractive as to
+produce an almost repelling effect. Mr. Mill, on the contrary, showed
+that the utilitarian philosophy might inspire the most active
+benevolence and the most generous enthusiasm. This acceptance of
+utilitarianism has produced a very striking effect in modifying the
+political opinions prevalent in the universities. For many years what
+has been known as the liberalism of young Oxford and Cambridge is in
+many respects fundamentally different from what is known as liberalism
+outside the universities. The liberalism of the universities, as well
+as that of the Manchester school, are both popularly described as
+advanced but between the two there is in many essentials the widest
+possible divergence. What is known as Philosophical Radicalism will
+long bear the impression of Mr. Mill's teaching.
+
+It should be particularly remembered, that, avowing himself a liberal,
+he never forgot that it is the essence of true liberalism to be
+tolerant of opinions from which one differs, and to appreciate the
+advantages of branches of learning to which one has not devoted
+special attention. It is somewhat rare to find that those who profess
+themselves undoubted liberals are prepared to accept a consistent
+application of their principles. There is almost sure to be some
+region of inquiry which they regard as so dangerous that they regret
+that any one should enter upon it. Sometimes it is said that freedom
+of thought, though admirable in politics, is mischievous in theology:
+some, advancing what they believe to be one step further, express a
+general approbation of freedom of thought, but stigmatize
+free-thinkers. Again, it may be not infrequently observed that
+devotion to some particular study makes men illiberal to other
+branches of knowledge. Metaphysicians and physiologists who have never
+taken the trouble to master mathematical principles dogmatically
+denounce the influence of mathematics. Eminent classics and
+mathematicians have too frequently sneered at each other's studies. No
+one was ever more free from this kind of bigotry than Mr. Mill, and it
+probably constitutes one of the main causes of his influence. Some
+years ago I happened to be conversing at Cambridge with three men who
+were respectively of great eminence in mathematics, classics, and
+physiology. We were discussing the inaugural address which Mr. Mill
+had just delivered as rector of the St. Andrew's University. The
+mathematician said, that he had never seen the advantages to be
+derived from the study of mathematics so justly and so forcibly
+described; the same remark was made by the classic about classics, and
+by the physiologist about natural science. No more fitting homage can
+probably be offered to the memory of one to whom so many of us are
+bound by the strongest ties of gratitude and affection, than if,
+profiting by his example, we endeavor to remember, that above all
+things he was just to his opponents, that he appreciated opinions from
+which he differed, and that one of his highest claims to our
+admiration was his general sympathy with all branches of knowledge.
+
+HENRY FAWCETT.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+HIS INFLUENCE AS A PRACTICAL POLITICIAN.
+
+
+Every one must be familiar with the often expressed opinion, that, as
+a practical politician, Mr. Mill's career was essentially a failure.
+It has been said a thousand times that the principal result of his
+brief representation of Westminster was to furnish an additional
+proof, if one were wanted, that a philosopher is totally incapable of
+exercising any useful influence in the direction of practical
+politics. It is proposed briefly to examine this opinion, though it
+may, indeed, with truth be urged that the present time is not
+calculated to make the examination an impartial one. The inquiry
+involves an almost constant reference, either expressed or implied, to
+Mr. Mill's personal character and influence, and it is hardly possible
+for those who are mourning him as a friend to speak of these
+dispassionately. It is perhaps hardly necessary at such a time as this
+to ask the indulgence of the reader if this unworthy tribute to the
+memory of a great man is colored by personal reverence and gratitude.
+
+When, it is said that Mr. Mill failed as a practical politician,
+there are two questions to be asked: "Who says he has failed?" And
+"What is it said that he failed in?" Now, it seems that the persons
+who are loudest in the assertion of his failure are precisely those to
+whom the reforms advocated by Mr. Mill in his writings are
+distasteful. They are those who pronounce all schemes of electoral
+reform embodying the principle of proportional representation to be
+the result of a conspiracy of fools and rogues; they are those who
+sneer at the "fanciful rights of women;" they are those who think our
+present land tenure eminently calculated to make the rich contented,
+and keep the poor in their proper places; they are those who believe
+that republicans and atheists ought to be treated like vermin, and
+exterminated accordingly; they are those who think that all must be
+well with England if her imports and exports are increasing, and that
+we are justified in repudiating our foreign engagements, if to
+maintain them would have an injurious effect upon trade. The assertion
+of failure coming from such persons does not mean that Mr. Mill failed
+to promote the practical success of those objects the advocacy of
+which forms the chief feature of his political writings. It is rather
+a measure of his success in promoting these objects, and of the
+disgust with which his success is regarded by those who are opposed to
+his political ideas. It was known, or ought to have been known, by
+every one who supported Mr. Mill's candidature in 1865, that he was a
+powerful advocate of proportional representation, and that he
+attributed the very greatest importance to the political, industrial,
+and social emancipation of women; he advocated years ago, in his
+"Political Economy," the scheme of land tenure reform with which his
+name is now practically associated; his essay "On Liberty" left no
+doubt as to his opinions upon the value of maintaining freedom of
+thought and speech, his article entitled "A Few Words on
+Non-intervention" might have warned the partisans of the Manchester
+school that he had no sympathy with their views on foreign policy.
+There is little doubt that the majority of Mr. Mill's supporters in
+1865 did not know what his political opinions were, and that they
+voted for him simply on his reputation as a great thinker. A large
+number, however, probably supported him, knowing in a general way the
+views advocated in his writings, but thinking that he would probably
+be like many other politicians, and not allow his practice to be in
+the least degree influenced by his theories. Just as radical heirs
+apparent are said to lay aside all inconvenient revolutionary opinions
+when they come to the throne, it was believed that Mr. Mill in
+Parliament would be an entirely different person from Mr. Mill in his
+study. It was one thing to write an essay in favor of proportional
+representation it was another thing to assist in the insertion of the
+principle of proportional representation in the Reform Bill, and to
+form a school of practical politicians who took care to insure the
+adoption of this principle in the school board elections. It was one
+thing to advocate theoretically the claims of women to representation
+it was another to introduce the subject into the House of Commons, to
+promote an active political organization in its favor, and thus to
+convert it, from a philosophical dream, into a question of pressing
+and practical importance. It was one thing to advocate freedom of
+thought and discussion in all political and religious questions it was
+another to speak respectfully of Mr. Odger, and to send Mr. Bradlaugh
+a contribution toward the expenses of his candidature for Northampton.
+The discovery that Mr. Mill's chief objects in Parliament were the
+same as his chief objects out of Parliament branded him at once as an
+unpractical man: and his success in promoting these objects
+constituted his "failure" as a politician. His fearless disregard of
+unpopularity, as manifested in his prosecution, in conjunction with
+Mr. P.A. Taylor, of Ex-Governor Eyre, was another proof that he was
+entirely unlike the people who call themselves "practical
+politicians." His persistency in conducting this prosecution was one
+of the main causes of his defeat at the election of 1868.
+
+If to be unpopular because he promoted the practical success of the
+opinions his life had been spent in advocating is to have failed, then
+Mr. Mill failed. If, however, the success of a politician is to be
+measured by the degree in which he is able personally to influence the
+course of politics, and attach to himself a school of political
+thought, then Mr. Mill, in the best meaning of the words, has
+succeeded. If Mr. Mill had died ten years ago, is it probable that his
+views on representative reform would have received so much practical
+recognition as they have obtained during the last five years? If he
+had never entered the House of Commons, would the women's-suffrage
+question be where it now is? Before he introduced the subject into the
+House of Commons in 1867, it may be said to have had no political
+existence in this country. The whole question was held in such
+contempt by "practical politicians," that the House would probably
+have refused to listen to any member, except Mr. Mill, who advocated
+the removal of the political disabilities of women. Mr. Mill was the
+one member of Parliament whose high intellectual position enabled him
+to raise the question without being laughed down as a fool. To every
+one's astonishment, seventy-four members followed Mr. Mill into the
+lobby: the most sanguine estimate, previous to the division, of the
+number of his supporters had been thirty. Since that time, the
+movement in favor of women's suffrage has made rapid and steady
+progress. Like all genuine political movements, it has borne fruit in
+many measures which are intended to remove the grievances of which
+those who advocate the movement complain: among these collateral
+results of the agitation for women's suffrage, may be enumerated the
+Married Women's Property Act, the Custody of Infants Bill, and the
+admission of women to the municipal and educational franchises and to
+seats upon school-boards. A large part of the present anxiety to
+improve the education of girls and women is also due to the conviction
+that the political disabilities of women will not be maintained. In
+this question of the general improvement of the position of women, Mr.
+Mill's influence can scarcely be over-estimated. All through his life
+he regarded it as a question of first-rate importance; and the extent
+to which he was able practically to promote it is sufficient in itself
+to make his career as a politician a success. A strong proof of the
+vitality of the movement, of which he was the principal originator, is
+that his death cannot injuriously affect its activity or its prospects
+of ultimate success. What he has done for women is final: he gave to
+their service the best powers of his mind and the best years of his
+life. His death consecrates the gift: it can never lessen its value.
+
+What is true of Mr. Mill's influence on the women's-suffrage question
+is true also of the other political movements in which he took an
+active interest. He was able in all of these powerfully to influence
+the political history of his day in the direction in which he desired
+to influence it. If this is failure, failure is worth much more than
+success.
+
+Of the influence of Mr. Mill's personal character on those who were
+his political associates, it is difficult to speak too warmly. No one
+could be with him or work with him without being conscious of
+breathing a purer moral atmosphere: he made mean personal ambitions
+and rivalries seem despicable and ridiculous, not so much by any thing
+that he said directly on the subject, as by contrast with his own
+noble, strong, and generous nature. It is almost impossible to imagine
+that any one could be so insensible to the high morality of Mr. Mill's
+character as to suggest to him any course of conduct that was not
+entirely upright and consistent. A year or two ago, however, a story
+was told of a gentleman who asked Mr. Mill to stand for an Irish
+constituency, and stated that the only opinion it would be necessary
+for him to change was the one he had so often expressed against
+denominational education. A smile at the man's stupidity, and the
+remark, "I should like to have seen Mill's face when he heard this
+suggestion," is the almost invariable comment on this story. It is a
+very suggestive indication of the impression Mr. Mill's moral
+influence made on those who knew him.
+
+An apology is due to the readers of these pages that the task of
+speaking of Mr. Mill as a practical politician has not fallen into
+more competent hands. No one can be more deeply sensible of my
+inability to deal adequately with the subject than I am myself. This
+sketch ought to have been written by one who is in every way more
+qualified to speak of Mr. Mill's political career than I am.
+Unavoidable circumstances, however, prevented his undertaking the
+work; and as the time was too short to allow of any being spent in a
+search that might have proved fruitless, the honor of writing these
+lines has devolved upon me.
+
+MILLICENT GARRETT FAWCETT.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+HIS RELATION TO POSITIVISM.[2]
+
+The present course of lectures on a special subject has made no
+pretension to present the religious aspect of Positivism, and I shall
+not venture to intrude on one of its gravest functions the due
+commemoration of the dead. But nothing that is spoken here should have
+a merely scientific form, nor can I be satisfied until I have tried to
+give expression to the feeling which must be foremost in the minds of
+all present. It is impossible to forget that it was by Mr. Mill that
+Comte was first made known in this country, and that by him first in
+this country the great doctrines of positive thought, the supreme
+reign of law in the moral and social world, no less than in the
+intellectual world, were reduced to system and life. This conception
+as a whole has been gradually forming in the minds of all modern
+thinkers; but its full scope and force were presented to Englishmen
+for the first time by Mr. Mill. The growth of my own mind, and of that
+of all those with whom I have been associated, has been simply the
+recognition of this truth in all its bearings and force; and it was
+in minds saturated with this principle by the teaching of Mr. Mill
+that the great phases of English thought have germinated in our day.
+In this place it is impossible to forget, that, in introducing to the
+English world the principles of Comte, Mr. Mill so clearly and
+ardently professed the positive philosophy at that time restricted to
+its earlier phase alone. In this place it is impossible, too, to
+forget the generous assistance which he extended to Comte, whereby he
+was enabled to continue his labors in philosophy, impossible also to
+forget the active communion of mind between them, and the large space
+which their intercourse occupied in the thoughts and labors of both.
+Nor can I, and many present here, forget the many occasions on which
+we have been guided by his counsel and supported by his help in many a
+practical work in which we have depended on his example and
+experience. It is needless to repeat, for it must be present to all
+minds, how many and deep are the differences which separate him from
+the later doctrines of Comte, and how completely he repudiated
+connection with the religious reconstruction of Positivism. We here,
+at any rate, shall claim Mr. Mill for Positivism in no other sense
+than that in which he claimed it for himself in his own latest
+writings. These differences we shall neither exaggerate nor veil. They
+stand all written most clearly for all men to weigh and to use. But
+naturally we shall point, as one of us has already publicly pointed,
+to the cardinal features of agreement, and the vast importance of the
+features for which we may claim the whole weight of his authority. Yet
+I would not pretend that it is only on this side of his connection
+with the founder and principles of Positivism, that we dwell on the
+memory of Mr. Mill with admiration and sympathy. We reverence that
+unfaltering fearlessness of spirit, that warmth of generous emotion,
+that guileless simplicity of nature, which made his life heroic.
+Neither insult, failure, nor abandonment could shake his sense of
+duty, or touch his gentle and serene fortitude. For us his high
+example, his noble philosophic calm, continue to live and to teach.
+He, being dead, yet speaketh. And, if his great heart and brain are no
+longer amongst us as visible and conscious agencies, his spirit lives
+yet in all that he has given to the generation of to-day: the work of
+his spirit is not ended, nor the task of his life accomplished; but we
+feel that his nature is entering on a new and greater life amongst
+us,--one that is entirely spiritual, intellectual, and moral.
+
+FREDERIC HARRISON.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+     [2] Part of a lecture on "Political Institutions," delivered
+     at the Positivist School, May 11.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+HIS POSITION AS A PHILOSOPHER.
+
+
+It is always hazardous to forecast the estimation in which any man
+will be held by posterity. In one sense truly we have no right to
+anticipate the judgment of the future, sufficient for us to form
+opinions satisfactory within the limits of our own generation.
+Sometimes, by evil chance, a great name is covered with undeserved
+reproach; and it is reserved for a distant future to do it justice.
+But such a work as Mr. Carlyle did for Cromwell we may confidently
+anticipate will never be required for the name of John Stuart Mill. He
+is already enrolled among the first of contemporary thinkers, and from
+that list his name will never be erased. The nature of Mr. Mill's work
+is such as to make it easy to predict the character of his future
+reputation. His is the kind of philosophy that is destined to become
+the commonplace of the future. We may anticipate that many of his most
+remarkable views will become obsolete in the best sense: they will
+become worked up into practice, and embodied in institutions. Indeed,
+the place that he will hold will probably be closely resembling that
+of the great father of English philosophy,--John Locke. There is
+indeed, amid distinguishing differences, a remarkable similarity
+between the two men, and the character of their influence on the
+world. What Locke was to the liberal movements of the seventeenth
+century, Mr. Mill has more than been to the liberal movement of the
+nineteenth century. The intellectual powers of the two men had much in
+common, and they were exercised upon precisely similar subjects. The
+"Essay on the Human Understanding" covered doubtless a field more
+purely psychological than the "Logic;" but we must remember that the
+"Analysis of the Mind" by the elder Mill had recently carried the
+inductive study of mind to an advanced point. If, however, we regard
+less the topics on which these two illustrious men wrote, than the
+special service rendered by each of them to intellectual progress, we
+may not unfittingly compare the work of Locke--the descent from
+metaphysics to psychology--to the noble purpose of redeeming logic
+from the superstition of the Aristotelians, and exalting it to
+something higher than a mere verbal exercise for school-boys. The
+attack that Locke opened with such tremendous effect on the _a priori_
+school of philosophy was never more ably supported than by the "Logic"
+and controversial writings of Mr. Mill.
+
+The remarkable fact in regard to both these great thinkers--these
+conquerors in the realms of abstract speculation--is their relation to
+politics. Locke was the political philosopher of the Revolution of
+1688; Mr. Mill has been the political philosopher of the democracy of
+the nineteenth century. The vast space that lies between their
+treatises represents a difference, not in the men, but in the times.
+Locke found opposed to the common weal an odious theory of arbitrary
+and absolute power. It is interesting to remember what were the giants
+necessary to be slain in those days. The titles of his first chapters
+on "Government" significantly attest the rudimentary condition of
+political philosophy in Locke's day. Adam was generally considered to
+have had a divine power of government, which was transmitted to a
+favored few of his descendants. Accordingly Locke disposes of Adam's
+title to sovereignty to whatever origin it may have been ascribed,--to
+"creation," "donation," "the subjection of Eve," or "fatherhood."
+There is something almost ludicrous in discussing fundamental
+questions of government with reference to such scriptural topics; and
+it is a striking evidence of the change that has passed over England
+since the Revolution, that, whereas Locke's argument looks like a
+commentary on the Bible, even the bishops now do not in Parliament
+quote the Bible on the question of marriage with a deceased wife's
+sister. Nevertheless Locke clearly propounded the great principle,
+which, in spite of many errors and much selfishness, has been the
+fruitful heritage of the Whig party. "Political power, then, I take to
+be a right of making laws with penalties of death, and consequently
+all less penalties, for the regulating and preserving of property, and
+of employing the force of the community in the execution of such laws,
+and in the defence of the commonwealth from foreign injury, _and all
+this only for the public good_." Locke also enounced the maxim, that
+the state of nature is one of equality. Mr. Mill's special views on
+the land question are not without parallel in Locke; for that acute
+thinker distinctively laid down that "labor" was the true ground even
+of property in land. Still it must be confessed that Locke's political
+philosophy is much cruder than Mr. Mill's. His "Essay on Government"
+is as the rough work of a boy of genius, the "Representative
+Government" a finished work of art of the experienced master. And this
+difference corresponds with the rate of political progress. The
+English constitution, as we now understand it, was unknown at the
+Revolution: it had to be slowly created. Now the great task of the
+future is to raise the mass of the people to a higher standard of
+political intelligence and material comfort. To that great end no man
+has contributed so much as Mr. Mill.
+
+Perhaps the one writing for which above all others Mr. Mill's
+disciples will love his memory is his essay "On Liberty." In this
+undertaking Mr. Mill followed the noble precedent of Locke, with
+greater largeness of view and perfection of work. Locke's four letters
+"Concerning Toleration" constitute a splendid manifesto of the
+Liberals of the seventeenth century. The principle, that the ends of
+political society are life, health, liberty, and immunity from harm,
+and not the salvation of souls, has taken nearly two centuries to root
+itself in English law, but has long been recognized by all but the
+shallowest bigots. And yet Locke spoke of "atheism being a crime,
+which, for its madness as well as guilt, ought to shut a man out of
+all sober and civil society." Here again, what a stride does the
+_Liberty_ make? It is, once more, the difference of the times, rather
+than of the men. The same noble and prescient insight into the springs
+of national greatness and social progress characterizes the work of
+both men, but in what different measures? Again, we must say, the
+disciple is greater than the master. Closely bearing on this topic is
+the relation of the two men to Christianity. Locke not only wrote to
+show the "Reasonableness of Christianity," but paraphrased several of
+the books of the New Testament. Mr. Mill has never written one
+sentence to give the least encouragement to Christianity. But,
+although a contrast appears to exist, there is really none. Locke was
+what may be called a Bible Christian. He rejected all theological
+systems, and constructed his religious belief in the truly Protestant
+way,--with the Bible and his inner consciousness. His creed was the
+Bible as conformed to reason; but he never doubted which, in the event
+of a conflict, ought to give way. To him the destructive criticism of
+biblical scholars and the discoveries of geology had given no
+disquietude; and he died with the happy conviction, that, without
+abandoning his religious teaching, he could remain faithful to reason.
+Mr. Mill inherited a vast controversy, and he had to make a choice
+like Locke, he remained faithful only to reason.
+
+Perhaps, it might be urged, this comparison leaves out of account the
+very greatest work of Mr. Mill,--his 'Political Economy.' Locke lived
+too soon to be an Adam Smith; but, curiously enough, the parallel is
+not broken even at this point. In 1691 and again in 1695 he wrote,
+"Some considerations of the consequences of the lowering of interest,
+and raising the value of money," in which he propounded among other
+views, that, "taxes, however contrived, and out of whose hands soever
+immediately taken, do, in a country where the great fund is in land
+for the most part terminate upon land." There is of course no
+comparison between the two men on this head: nevertheless it is
+interesting to note in prototype the germs of the great work of Mr.
+Mill. It shows the remarkable and by no means accidental similarity
+between the men.
+
+The parallel is already too much drawn out, otherwise it would be
+worth observing on the characters and lives of these two men. Enough,
+however, has been said to show that we may not unreasonably anticipate
+for Mr. Mill a future such as has fallen to Locke. His wisdom will be
+the commonplace of other times: his theories will be realized in
+political institutions; and we may hope and believe the working-class
+will rise to such a standard of wealth and culture and political power
+as to realize the generous aspirations of one of England's greatest
+sons.
+
+W.A. HUNTER.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN STUART MILL; HIS LIFE AND
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