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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/15304-8.txt b/15304-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..af3a44d --- /dev/null +++ b/15304-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8608 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III (of +3), by Thomas Clarkson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III (of 3) + +Author: Thomas Clarkson + +Release Date: March 9, 2005 [EBook #15304] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, *** + + + + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. This file was produced from images generously +made available by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) +at http://gallica.bnf.fr. + + + + + + +A +PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM. + +TAKEN FROM A VIEW +OF THE +EDUCATION AND DISCIPLINE, +SOCIAL MANNERS, +CIVIL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, +RELIGIOUS PRINCIPLES +AND +CHARACTER, +OF THE + +Society of Friends + + + * * * * * + + +BY THOMAS CLARKSON, M.A. + +AUTHOR OF SEVERAL ESSAYS ON THE SLAVE TRADE. + +VOL. III. + +CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME. + + * * * * * + +GREAT TENETS. + +CHAPTER I. + +_Civil government--Governors have no right to interfere in matters of +religion--Nor are the governed bound to obey, where their consciences +are oppressed by doing it--but they are to be willing to suffer the +penalties annexed to their disobedience--and they are on no account to +resist them by force of arms,_ + +CHAPTER II. + +_Oaths--Christians are not to take civil oaths--Reasons of the Quakers +for their disuse of them,_ + +CHAPTER III. + +SECT. I. _War--Unlawful for Christians to fight--Scriptural passages in +support of this tenet--Answers to these and replies,_ + +SECT. II. _These passages supported by the opinions and practice of the +early Christians,_ + +SECT. III. _Objection to the motive assigned for this practice--Reply to +this objection--Motive confirmed,_ + +SECT. IV. _Conduct of the early Christians further examined--While +Christianity continued pure, they held it unlawful to fight--As it +became less pure, their scruples against it declined--As it became +corrupt, they ceased,_ + +SECT. V. _Reflections of the author on the foregoing subject--Supposed +conversation with a superior being in another region--New arguments from +thence,_ + +SECT. VI. _Subject further considered--Erroneous conceptions of those +who argue in favor of the necessity of war--This necessary only where +the policy of the world is pursued--Nature of this policy--But not +necessary where men act on the policy of the Gospel,_ + +SECT. VII. _This doctrine confirmed by historical cases,_ + +SECT. VIII. _Final examination of the subject,_ + +CHAPTER IV. + +SECT. I. _Maintenance of a Gospel ministry--Quakers hold it unlawful to +pay their own ministers, or those of any other denomination, for their +Gospel labours--Scriptural passages and historical facts relative to +this doctrine,_ + +SECT. II. _Additional reasons against the payment of those of another +denomination, as collected from a history of tithes,_ + +SECT. III. _A more particular statement of these reasons,_ + + + * * * * * + +CHARACTER. + +CHAPTER I. + +_Character of the Quakers--Difficulties in the proper estimation of +character--These removable in the present case,_ + +CHAPTER II. _Character general or particular--General is that of a moral +people,_ + +CHAPTER III. + +SECT. I. _Character particular--First of the particular traits is +benevolence to man in his temporal capacity,_ + +SECT. II. _Second is benevolence to man in his religious capacity,_ + +SECT. III. _Third is benevolence, or a tender feeling for the brute +creation,_ + +CHAPTER IV. + +_Fourth is complacency of mind and manners,_ + +CHAPTER V. + +_Fifth is, that they do not sacrifice their consciences, as a body of +Christians, where they believe a compliance with any law or custom to be +wrong,_ + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Sixth is, that in political affairs they reason upon principle, and not +upon consequences,_ + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Seventh is independence of mind,_ + +CHAPTER VIII. + +SECT. I. _Eighth is courage in life,_ + +SECT. II. _Ninth is courage in death,_ + +CHAPTER IX. + +_Tenth is punctuality to words and engagements,_ + +CHAPTER X. + +_Imperfect traits--These are either intellectually or morally +defective--First of these is a deficiency in literature and science, +when compared with other people,_ + +CHAPTER XI. + +_Second is superstition--Distinctions on this subject,_ + +CHAPTER XII. + +_Third is obstinacy--No foundation for this trait,_ + +CHAPTER XIII. + +SECT. I. _Fourth is a money-getting spirit--This spirit seldom +chargeable with avarice,_ + +SECT. II. _Practicable methods suggested for the extirpation of it,_ + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Fifth is a want of animation or affection--This an appearance only. + +CHAPTER XV. + +Sixth is evasiveness in speech--No foundation for this trait. + +CHAPTER XVI. Seventh is shyness--This an appearance only. + +CHAPTER XVII. + +Eighth is a disregard of truth--Inconsistency of the imputation of this +trait. + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +SECT. I. Character of the Quaker women--Women share in the virtues of +the men, but do not partake of all their reputed imperfections. + +SECT. II. Quaker women have a public character--Influence of this upon +their minds. + + + * * * * * + +MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. + +CHAPTER I. + +Quakers a happy people--Subordinate causes of this happiness. + +CHAPTER II. + +Good, which the Quakers have done as a society upon earth. + +CHAPTER III. + +Quakers in England on the decline in point of numbers, as a religious +society--Certain causes of this decline. + +CHAPTER IV. + +Supposed remedies for the diminution of some of these causes--These of +various kinds--One of these a superior education--Supposed effect of +this education. + + +CHAPTER V. + +_Component parts of this education--Favourable state of the society for +the admission of it,_ + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Various arguments against it--These examined,_ + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who may have had thoughts +of leaving the society,_ + +CHAPTER VIII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who may be called the +world,_ + + + + +GREAT TENETS +OF THE +QUAKERS. + + + + +CHAP. I. + +_Civil government--First tenet is, that governors have no right to +interfere with the governed on the subject of Religion--and that if they +interfere, and insist upon things which the conscience disapproves, the +governed ought to refuse a compliance with them, and to bear patiently +all the penalties annexed to such a refusal, but never to resist the +governors by violence on this or any other account._ + + +The Quakers hold four principles, which I shall distinguish by the name +of Great Tenets. These are considered as arising out of the implied or +positive injunctions of Christianity, and were insisted upon as +essentials on the formation of the society. The first of these is on the +subject of Civil Government. + +Civil Government had existed long before the appearance of Christianity +in the world. Legislators since that era, as they have imbibed its +spirit, so they have introduced this spirit more or less into their +respective codes. But, no nation has ever professed to change its system +of jurisprudence, or to model it anew, in consequence of the new light +which Christianity has afforded: neither have the alterations been so +numerous in any nation, however high its profession of Christianity, +with respect to laws, as to enable us to say, that there is any +government in the known world, of Christian origin, or any government +wholly upon the principles of the gospel. + +If all men were to become real Christians, civil government would become +less necessary. As there would be then no offences, there would be no +need of magistracy or of punishment. As men would then settle any +differences between them amicably, there would be no necessity for +courts of law. As they would then never fight, there would be no need of +armies. As they would then consider their fellow-creatures as brethren, +they would relieve them as such, and there would be no occasion of laws +for the poor. As men would then have more solicitude for the public +good, and more large and liberal notions, than at any former time, they +would of themselves conceive and raise all necessary public institutions +and works. Government then is not so necessary for real Christians. It +is necessary principally, as the apostle says, for evil-doers. But if it +be chiefly necessary for evil-doers, then governors ought to be careful +how they make laws, which may vex, harrass, and embarrass Christians, +whom they will always find to be the best part of their communities, or, +in other words, how they make laws, which Christians, on account of +their religious scruples, cannot conscientiously obey. + +It is a tenet of the Quakers, on the subject of government, that the +civil magistrate has no right to interfere in religious matters, so as +either to force any particular doctrines upon men, or to hinder them +from worshipping God in their own way, provided that, by their creeds +and worship, they do no detriment to others. The Quakers believe, +however, that Christian churches may admonish such members as fall into +error, and may even cut them off from membership, but this must be done +not by the temporal, but by the spiritual sword. + +This tenet the Quakers support, first, by reason. Religion, they say, is +a matter solely, between God and man, that is, between God and that man +who worships him. This must be obvious, they conceive, because man is +not accountable to man for his religious opinions, except he binds +himself to the discipline of any religious society, but to God alone. It +must be obvious again, they say, because no man can be a judge over the +conscience of another. He can know nothing of the sincerity or hypocrisy +of his heart. He can be neither an infallible judge, nor an infallible +correcter of his religious errors. "The conscience of man, says Barclay, +is the seat and throne of God in him, of which he alone is the proper +and infallible judge, who, by his power and spirit, can rectify its +mistakes." It must be obvious again, they say, from the consideration +that, if it were even possible for one man to discern the conscience of +another, it is impossible for him to bend or controul it. But conscience +is placed both out of his sight and of his reach. It is neither visible +nor tangible. It is inaccessible by stripes or torments. Thus, while the +body is in bondage, on account of the religion of the soul, the soul +itself is free, and, while it suffers under torture, it enjoys the +divinity, and feels felicity in his presence. But if all these things +are so, it cannot be within the province either of individual +magistrates or of governments, consisting of fallible men, to fetter the +consciences of those who may live under them. And any attempt to this +end is considered by the Quakers as a direct usurpation of the +prerogative of God. + +This tenet the Quakers adopt again on a contemplation of the conduct and +doctrines of Jesus Christ and of his apostles. They find nothing in +these, which can give the least handle to any man to use force in the +religious concerns of another. During the life of Jesus Christ upon +earth, it is no where recorded of him, that he censured any man for his +religion. It is true that he reproved the Scribes and Pharisees, but +this was on account of their hypocrisy, because they pretended to be +what they were not. But he no where condemned the devout Jew, who was +sincere in his faith. But if he be found no where to have censured +another for a difference in religious opinions, much less was it ever +said of him, that he forced him to the adoption of his own. In the +memorable instance, where James and John were willing to have called +fire from Heaven, to burn those who refused to receive him, he rebuked +them by an assurance, that "they knew not what spirit they were of." +And, with respect to his doctrines, nothing can be more full to the +point than his saying, that "his kingdom was not of this world," by +which he meant that his dominion was wholly of a spiritual nature, and +that men must cast off all worldly imaginations, and become spiritually +minded, before, they could belong to him. But no application of outward +force, in the opinion of the Quakers, can thus alter the internal man. +Nor can even the creeds and doctrines of others produce this effect, +except they become sanctioned by the divine influence on the heart. + +Neither is it recorded of any of the apostles, that they used any other +weapons than those of persuasion and the power of God in the propagation +of their doctrines, leaving such as did not choose to follow them to +their own way. They were explicit also in stating the spiritual nature +of Christ's kingdom, from whence an inference similar to the former is +deducible, namely, that no compulsory interference can be effectual in +matters of religion. And St. Paul, in particular, tells the Corinthians, +that, in his spiritual services to them, he does not consider himself +[1]"as having any dominion over their faith, but as helpers of their +joy." + +[Footnote 1: 2 Cor. i. 24.] + +But if neither Jesus Christ, who was the author of that religion, which +many civil governments have established, nor the apostles, who +afterwards propagated it, forced their doctrines upon other men, or +hindered them by force from worshipping in their own way, even though +the former could have called legions of angels to his support, it +certainly does not become weak, ignorant, and fallible men, because they +are placed in the situation of governors, to set up their own creeds as +supreme, and to throw penalties and restrictions in the way of the +religious exercise of others. + +But if governors, contrary to the example of Jesus Christ and of his +apostles, should interfere in religious matters, and impose laws upon +the governed, of which, as Christians, they cannot but disapprove, then +the Quakers are of opinion, that the governed ought always to obey the +laws of Jesus Christ, rather than the laws of any governors, who are +only men. Thus when Peter and John were commanded by the rulers of the +Jews to speak no more in the name of Jesus, they dared not yield +obedience to their commands, reasoning thus,[2] "Whether it be right in +the sight of God to hearken unto you more than unto God, judge ye." + +[Footnote 2: Acts iv. 19.] + +And as the governed in such case ought, in obedience to God, the Supreme +Ruler of the Universe, and the King of Kings, to refuse a compliance +with the laws of their own governors, so they ought to be prepared +patiently to submit to the penalties which are annexed to such refusal, +and on no account, if just representations made in the meek and quiet +spirit of their religion, are not likely to be effectual, to take up +arms or resist them by force. And this doctrine they ground, first, on +the principle, that it is not only more noble, but more consistent with +their duty as Christians, to suffer, than to give growth to the passions +of revenge, or by open resistance to become the occasion of loss of life +to others. And, secondly, on the example of Jesus Christ, and of the +apostles and primitive Christians, all of whom patiently submitted to +the pains and penalties inflicted upon them by the governments of their +respective times for the exercise of their religion. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Oaths--Quakers conceive it unlawful for Christians to take an +oath--their sufferings on this account--Consider oaths as +unnecessary--as having an immoral tendency, which even the Heathens +allowed--and as having been forbidden by Jesus Christ--Explanation of +the scriptural passages cited on this occasion--Christianity not so +perfect with the lawfulness of oaths as without it--Other reasons taken +from considerations relative to the ancient oath "by the name of God"_ + + +A second tenet, which the Quakers hold, is, that it is unlawful for +Christians to take a civil oath. + +Many and grievous were the sufferings of the Quakers, in the early part +of their history, on account of their refusing to swear before the civil +magistrate. They were insulted, fined, and imprisoned. Some of the +judges too indulged a rancour against them on this account, unworthy of +their high office, which prescribed justice impartially to all. For when +they could not convict them of the offences laid to their charge, they +administered to them the oath of allegiance, knowing that they would not +take it, and that confiscation of property and imprisonment would +ensue. But neither ill usage, nor imprisonment, nor loss of property, +ever made any impression upon the Quakers, so as to induce them to swear +in judicial cases, and they continued to suffer, till the legislature, +tired out with the cries of their oppression, decreed, that their +affirmation should in all cases except criminal, or in that of serving +upon juries, or in that of qualifications for posts of honour or +emolument under government, be received as equivalent to their oath. And +this indulgence towards them is continued to them by law to the present +day. + +The Quakers have an objection to oaths, as solemn appeals to God, +because they are unnecessary. + +It is an old saying among the Quaker writers, that "truth was before all +oaths." By this they mean, there was a time, when men's words were +received as truths, without the intervention of an oath. Ancient fable, +indeed, tells us, that there were no oaths in the golden age, but that, +when men departed from their primitive simplicity, and began to quarrel +with one another, they had recourse to falsehood to substantiate their +own case, after which it became necessary, that some expedient should be +devised, in the case of disputes, for the ascertaining the truth. Hence +Hesiod makes the god of oaths the son of Esis or of contention. This, +account differs but little from that of Polybuis, who says, that the use +of oaths in judgment was rare among the ancients, but that, as perfidy +grew, oaths increased. + +And as it is a saying of the Quakers, that "truth was before all oaths," +so they believe, that truth would be spoken, if oaths were done away. +Thus, that which is called honour by the world, will bind men to the +truth, who perhaps know but little of religion. But if so, then he, who +makes Christianity his guide, will not be found knowingly in a +falsehood, though he be deprived of the opportunity of swearing. + +But if it be true, that truth existed before the invention of oaths, and +that truth would still be spoken, even if all oaths were abolished, then +the Quakers say, that oaths are not so necessary as some have imagined, +because they have but a secondary effect in the production of the truth. +This conclusion they consider also as the result of reason. For good men +will speak truth without an oath, and bad men will hardly be influenced +by one. And where oaths are regarded, it is probable that truth is +forced out of men, not so much, because they consider them as solemn +appeals to God, as that they consider the penalties, which will follow +their violation; so that a simple affirmation, under the same pains and +penalties, would be equally productive of the truth. + +The Quakers consider oaths again as very injurious to morality. For +first, they conceive it to be great presumption in men to summon God as +a witness in their trilling and earthly concerns. + +They believe, secondly, that, if men accustom themselves to call upon +God on civil occasions, they render his name so familiar to them, that +they are likely to lose the reverence due to it, or so to blend +religious with secular considerations, that they become in danger of +losing sight of the dignity, solemnity, and awfulness of devotion. And +it is not an unusual remark, that persons, most accustomed to oaths, are +the most likely to perjury. A custom-house oath has become proverbial in +our own country. I do not mean by this to accuse mercantile men in +particular, but to state it as a received opinion, that, where men make +solemn things familiar, there is a danger of their moral degradation. +Hence the Quakers consider the common administration of oaths to have a +tendency that is injurious to the moral interests of men. + +This notion relative to the bad tendency of oaths, the Quakers state to +have prevailed even in the Gentile world. As Heathen philosophy became +pure, it branded the system of swearing as pernicious to morals. It was +the practice of the Persians to give each other their right hand as a +token of their speaking the truth. He, who gave his hand deceitfully, +was accounted more detestable than if he had sworn the Scythians, in +their conference with Alexander the Great, addressed him thus: "Think +not that the Scythians confirm their friendship by an oath. They swear +by keeping their word." The Phrygians were wholly against oaths. They +neither took them themselves, nor required them of others. Among the +proverbs of the Arabs, this was a celebrated one, "Never swear, but let +thy word be yes or no." So religious was Hercules, says Plutarch, that +he never swore but once. Clinias, a Greek philosopher, and a scholar of +Pythagoras, is said to have dreaded an oath so much, that, when by +swearing he could have escaped a fine of three talents, he chose rather +to pay the money than do it, though he was to have sworn nothing but the +truth. Indeed, throughout all Greece, the system of swearing was +considered as of the most immoral tendency, the very word, which +signified "perjured," in the Greek language, meaning, when analysed, "he +that adds oath to oath," or "the taker of many oaths." + +But, above all, the Quakers consider oaths as unlawful for Christians, +having been positively forbidden by Jesus Christ. + +The words, in which they conceived this prohibition to have been +contained, they take from the sermon on the Mount. + +[3] "Again, ye have heard, that it hath been said by them of old time, +Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shall perform unto the Lord thine +oaths." + +[Footnote 3: Matt. v. 33.] + +"But I say unto you, swear not at all, neither by heaven, because it is +God's throne." + +"Nor by the earth, for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem, for it +is the city of the great King." + +"Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one +hair white or black." + +"But let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay: for whatsoever is +more than this cometh of evil." + +It is said by those, who oppose the Quakers on this subject, that these +words relate, not to civil oaths, but to such as are used by profane +persons in the course of their conversation. But the Quakers deny this, +because the disciples, as Jews, must have known that profane swearing +had been unlawful long before this prohibition of Jesus Christ. They +must relate, therefore, to something else, and to something, which had +not before been forbidden. + +They deny it also on account of the construction of the sentences, and +of the meaning of the several words in these. For the words, "Swear not +at all," in the second of the verses, which have been quoted, have an +immediate reference to the words in the first. Thus they relate to the +word "forswear," in the first. But if they relate to the word +"forswear," they must relate to perjury, and if to perjury, then to a +civil oath, or to an oath, where an appeal is made to God by man, as to +something relating to himself. The word oath also is explicitly +mentioned in the first of these verses, and mentioned as an oath which +had been allowed. Now there was one oath, which had been allowed in +ancient time. The Jews had been permitted, in matters of judgment, to +swear by the name of God. This permission was given them, for one, among +other reasons, that they might be prevented from swearing by the name of +those idols by which their neighbours swore; for a solemn appeal to any +Heathen god necessarily includes an acknowledgment of the omnipresence +of the same. + +That they related to this oath in particular, the Quakers conceive to be +obvious from the prohibition in the verses which have been cited, of +swearing by heaven, by earth, and by other things. The Jews, knowing the +sacredness of the name of God, had an awful notion of the consequences +of perjury, if committed after an appeal to it, and therefore had +recourse to the names of the creatures, in case they should swear +falsely. But even the oaths, thus substituted by them, are forbidden by +Jesus Christ; and they are forbidden upon this principle, as we find by +a subsequent explanation given by St. Matthew, that whosoever swore by +these creatures, really and positively swore by the name of God. But if +they are forbidden, because swearing by these creatures is the same +thing as swearing by God who made them, then the oath "by the name of +God," which had been permitted to the Jews of old, was intended by Jesus +Christ to be discontinued, or to have no place in his new religion. + +The Quakers then, considering the words in question to have the meaning +now annexed to them, give the following larger explanation of what was +the intention of our Saviour upon this occasion. + +In his sermon on the Mount, of which these words on the subject of oaths +are a part, he inculcated into his disciples a system of morality, far +exceeding that of the Jews, and therefore in the verses which precede +those upon this subject, he tells them, that whereas it was said of old, +"thou shall not kill," he expected of them, that they should not even +entertain the passion of revenge. And whereas it was said of old, "thou +shalt not commit adultery," he expected, that they should not even lust +after others, if they were married, or after those in a married state. +Thus he brings both murder and adultery from act to thought. He attaches +a criminality to unlawful feelings if not suppressed, or aims at the +subjugation of the passions, as the springs of the evil actions of men. +Going on to shew the farther superiority of his system of morality over +that of the Jews, he says again, whereas it was said of old, "thou +shall not forswear thyself," he expects that they should not swear at +all, not even by the name of God, which had been formerly allowed, for +that he came to abrogate the ancient law, and perjury with it. It was +his object to make the word of his true disciples equal to the ancient +oath. Thus he substituted truth for oaths. And he made this essential +difference between a Jew and a Christian, that, whereas the one swore in +order that he might be believed; the other was to speak truth in order +that he might not swear. Such was the intended advance from Jew to +Christian, or from Moses to Christ. + +The Quakers are farther confirmed in their ideas upon this subject, by +believing, that Christianity would not have been as perfect as they +apprehend it to have been intended to be, without this restriction upon +oaths. Is it possible, they say, that Jesus Christ would have left it to +Christians to imagine, that their words were to be doubted on any +occasion? Would he have left it to them to think so dishonourably of one +another, or of their new vocation, that their words were to be tried by +the touchstone of oaths, when his religion was to have a greater effect +than any former system of morality ever known, in the production of +truth? Is it possible, when oaths sprung out of fraud and falsehood, as +he himself witnesses, (for whatever is more than yea and nay, cometh of +evil) that he would have left this remnant of antiquity standing, as if +his religion was not intended to extirpate the very ground-work of it? + +Finally, the Quakers are confirmed in their ideas upon this subject from +a belief that oaths were to cease, either at the coming of Jesus Christ, +or as men became Christians. For, in the first place, the oath "by the +name of God," is considered by some, as I have before noticed, to have +been permitted to the Jews during their weak state, that they might not +swear by the idols of their cotemporary neighbours, and thus lose sight +of the only and true God. But what Christian stands in need of any +preservative against idolatry, or of any commemorative of the existence +and superintendence of an almighty, wise, beneficent, and moral Governor +of the world? Some again have imagined, that, as the different +purifications among the Jews, denoting the holiness of God, signified +that it became men to endeavour to be holy, so the oath "by the name of +God," denoting the verity of God, signified, that it became men to +devote themselves to the truth. But no true Christian stands in need of +such symbols, to make him consider his word as equivalent to his oath. +Others again have imagined, that the oath "by the name of God," typified +the truth, or the eternal word. But as the type ceases when the +antitype appears, so the coming of Jesus Christ, who in the gospel +language is called both the truth and the eternal word, may be +considered as putting an end to this, as to other types and shadows, of +the Jewish church. + + + + +CHAP. III. + + +SECT. I. + +_War--Tenet on war--Quakers hold it unlawful for Christians to +fight--Scriptural passages, which they produce in support of this +tenet--Arguments which others produce from scriptural authority against +it--Reply of the Quakers to these arguments._ + + +The next of the great tenets which the Quakers hold, is on the subject +of war. They believe it unlawful for Christians to engage in the +profession of arms, or indeed to bear arms under any circumstances of +hostility whatever. Hence there is no such character as that of a Quaker +soldier. A Quaker is always able to avoid the regular army, because the +circumstance of entering into it is a matter of choice. But where he has +no such choice, as is the case in the militia, he either submits, if he +has property, to distraints upon it, or, if he has not, to prison.[4] + +[Footnote 4: The Quakers have been charged with inconsistency in +refusing military service, and yet in paying those taxes, which are +expressly for the support of wars. To this charge they reply, that they +believe it to be their duty to render to Caesar the things which are +Caesar's, and to leave the application of them to Caesar himself, as he +judges best for the support of government. This duty they collect from +the example of Jesus Christ, who paid the tribute money himself, and +ordered his disciples to do it, and this to a government, not only +professedly military, but distinguished for its idolatry and despotism. +Personal service, however, they conceive to militate against a positive +command by our Saviour, as will be explained in this chapter.] + +The Quakers ground the illicitness of war on several passages, which are +to be found in the New Testament. I shall not quote all the texts they +bring forward, but shall make a selection of them on this occasion. + +Jesus Christ, in the famous sermon, which he preached upon the Mount, +took occasion to mention specifically some of the precepts of the Jewish +law, and to inform his hearers, that he expected of those, who were to +be his true disciples, that they would carry these to a much higher +extent in their practice under the new dispensation, which he was then +affording them. Christianity required a greater perfection of the human +character than under the law. Men were not only not to kill, but not +even to cherish the passion of revenge.[5] And "whereas it was said of +old, an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, I say unto you, says +Christ, that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy +right cheek, turn to him the other also." And farther on in the same +chapter, he says, "Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love +thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy: But I say unto you, love your +enemies,[6] bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, +and pray for them that despitefully use you and persecute you. For if ye +love them which love you, what reward have you? do not even the +Publicans the same? Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which +is in heaven is perfect." Now the Quakers are of opinion, that no man +can receive this doctrine his heart, and assist either offensively or +defensively in the operations of war. + +[Footnote 5: Matt. v. 38.] + +[Footnote 6: The Heathen nations, on account of their idolatry, were +called enemies by the Jews.] + +Other passages, quoted by the Quakers, in favour of their tenet on war, +are taken from the apostles Paul and James conjointly. + +The former, in his[7] second epistle to the Corinthians, says, "For +though we walk in the flesh, we do not war after the flesh: For the +weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the +pulling down of strong holds, to the casting down imaginations, and +every high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God, and +bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ." From +hence the Quakers argue, that the warfare of Christianity, or that which +Christianity recognises, is not carnal, but spiritual, and that it +consists in the destruction of the evil imaginations, or of the evil +lusts and passions of men. That is, no man can be a true soldier of +Christ, unless his lusts are subdued, or unless the carnal be done away +by the spiritual mind. Now this position having been laid down by St. +Paul, or the position having been established in Christian morals, that +a state of subjugated passions is one of the great characteristic marks +of a true Christian, the Quakers draw a conclusion from it by the help +of the words of St. James. This apostle, in his letter to the dispersed +tribes, which were often at war with each other, as well as with the +Romans, says,[8] "From whence come wars and fightings among you? Come +they not hence even of your lusts that war in your members?" But if wars +come from the lusts of men, then the Quakers say, that those who have +subdued their lusts, can no longer engage in them, or, in other words, +that true Christians, being persons of this description, or being such, +according to St. Paul, as are redeemed out of what St. James calls the +very grounds and occasions of wars, can no longer fight. And as this +proposition is true in itself, so the Quakers conceive the converse of +it to be true also: For if there are persons, on the other hand, who +deliberately engage in the wars and fightings of the world, it is a +proof, that their lusts are not yet subjugated, or that, though they may +be nominal, they are not yet arrived at the stature of true or of +full-grown Christians. + +[Footnote 7: 2 Cor. x. 3, 4, 5.] + +[Footnote 8: James iv. I.] + +A third quotation, made by the Quakers, is taken from St. Paul +exclusively.[9] "Now if any man have not the spirit of Christ, he is +none of his." That is, if men have not the same disposition which Jesus +Christ manifested in the different situations of his life, the same +spirit of humility and of forbearance, and of love, and of forgiveness +of injuries, or if they do not follow him as a pattern, or if they do +not act as he would have done on any similar occasion, they are not +Christians. Now they conceive, knowing what the spirit of Jesus was by +those things which have been recorded of him, that he could never have +been induced or compelled, by any earthly consideration or power, to +have engaged in the wars of the world. They are aware that his mission, +which it became him to fulfil, and which engrossed all his time, would +not have allowed him the opportunity of a military life. But they +believe, independently of this, that the spirit which he manifested upon +earth, would have been of itself a sufficient bar to such an employment. +This they judge from his opinions and his precepts. For how could he +have taken up arms to fight, who enjoined in the new dispensation, that +men were not to resist evil; that they were to love their enemies; that +they were to bless those who cursed them, and to do good to those who +hated them? This they judge also from his practice. For how could he +have lifted up his arm against another, who, "when he was reviled, +reviled not again;" and who, in his very agony upon the Cross, prayed +for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for they know not +what they do." But if Jesus Christ could not have been induced or +compelled to have engaged in a profession, which would have subjected +him to take away the life of another, so neither can any Christian; "for +if a man have not the spirit of Christ, he is none of his." + +[Footnote 9: Rom. viii. 9.] + +Three arguments are usually brought against the Quakers on this subject. + +The first is, that John the Baptist,[10] when the soldiers demanded of +him what they should do, did not desire them to leave the service in +which they were engaged, but, on the other hand, to be content with +their wages. To this the Quakers reply, that John told them also, "to do +violence to no man." But even if he had not said this, they apprehend +that nothing could be deduced from his expressions, which could become +binding upon Christians. For John was the last prophet of the old +dispensation, but was never admitted into the new. He belonged to the +system which required an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, but +not to that which required no resistance to evil, and which insisted +upon the love of enemies as well as of friends. Hence Jesus Christ said +of him, that "he who was least in the kingdom of heaven, was greater +than he." + +[Footnote 10: Luke iii. 14.] + +The second argument brought against the Quakers on this occasion, is of +a similar nature with the former. It is said that, if war had been +unlawful, our Saviour, when the centurion[11] came to him at Capernaum, +would have found fault with his profession; but he did not do this, but +on the other hand he highly commended him for his religion. In answer to +this the Quakers observe, first, that no solid argument can be drawn +from silence on any occasion. Secondly, that Jesus Christ seems, for +wise purposes, to have abstained from meddling with many of the civil +institutions of his time, though in themselves wicked, thinking +probably, that it was sufficient to have left behind him such general +precepts, as, when applied properly, would be subversive of them all. +And, thirdly, that he never commended the centurion on account of his +military situation, but on account of his profession of his faith. + +[Footnote 11: Matt. viii. 5.] + +They say farther, that they can bring an argument of a much more +positive nature than that just mentioned, from an incident which took +place, and where Jesus was again concerned. When Peter cut off the ear +of one of the servants of the high priest, who was concerned in the +apprehension of his Lord, he was not applauded, but reprimanded for the +part which he thus took in his defence in the following words:[12] "Put +up again thy sword in its place, for all they that take the sword, shall +perish by the sword." Now the Quakers conceive, that much more is to be +inferred against the use of the sword from this instance, than from the +former in favour of it. + +[Footnote 12: Matt. xxvi, 52.] + +The last argument, which is usually adduced against the Quakers on this +subject, is, that they have mistaken the meaning of the words of the +famous sermon upon the Mount. These words teach us the noble lesson, +that it is more consistent with the character of a Christian to forgive, +than to resist an injury. They are, it is said, wholly of private +import, and relate solely to private occurrences in life. But the +Quakers have extended the meaning of them beyond private to public +injuries or wars. + +The Quakers, in answer to this observe, that they dare not give to the +words in question a less extensive meaning. They relate to every one who +reads them. They relate to the poor. They relate to the rich. They +relate to, every potentate who may be the ruler of a land. They relate +to every individual of his council. There is no exception, or +dispensation to any one, in favour of any case. + +That they relate to public as well as private wars, or that they extend +themselves naturally to those which are public, the Quakers conceive it +reasonable to suppose from the following consideration. No man, they +apprehend, can possess practically the divine principle of loving an +individual enemy at home, or of doing good to the man who hates him, but +he must of necessity love his enemy in any and every other place. He +must have gone so for forward on the road to Christian perfection, as to +be unable to bear arms against any other person whatsoever, and +particularly when, according to the doctrines of the New Testament, no +geographical boundaries fix the limits of love and enmity between man +and man, but the whole human race are considered as the children of the +same parent, and therefore as brothers to one another. But who can truly +love an enemy and kill him? And where is the difference, under the +Gospel dispensation, between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, bond +and free? + +That these words were meant to extend to public as well as to private +ware, the Quakers believe again from the views which they entertain +relative to the completion of prophecy. They believe that a time will +come, in one or other of the succeeding ages, "when men shall bent their +swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, and when +nation shall not lift up sword against nation, and they shall not learn +war any more." Now other Christians, who differ from them in the +interpretation of the words in question, believe equally with them, that +the times thus predicted will come to pass. The question then is, +whether the more enlarged interpretation of these words, as insisted +upon by the Quakers, or of the less enlarged as insisted upon by others, +be the most consistent with the belief of the future accomplishment of +the prophecy just mentioned. And in this case the Quakers are of +opinion, that if wars were ever to cease, one ought to expect that some +foundation would have been previously laid in Christianity for this +great and important end. The subjugation of the passions, which it is +the direct tendency of Christianity to effect, would produce this end. +And so far such a foundation has already been laid in this system. But +as the admission of moral precepts into the education of man, so as to +form habits of moral opinion, is another, way of influencing conduct in +life, the Quakers think it likely that some such maxim as "that +Christians should not fight," would have been introduced also, because +the adoption of such a maxim would have had a similar tendency with the +subjugation of the passions in producing the same end. For it seems +absurd, they conceive, to suppose that wars should cease, and that no +precept should have been held out that they were wrong. But the more +enlarged interpretation of the words in question furnishes such a +precept, and therefore another foundation seems to have been laid in +Christianity for the same end. They admit, therefore, the larger +interpretation as included in the less, because it comports more with +the design of Providence, who, by the mouth of his prophets wills +universal peace, that the prohibition of public as well as of private +wars should be understood as a Christian doctrine, than that the words +in question should be confined to private injuries alone. + +The last reason, which the Quakers give for adopting the larger +interpretation of the words in the sermon upon the Mount, as well as the +less, is the following. They are of opinion, that, as Christians, they +ought not to lessen the number of the moral obligations of the Gospel. +They ought not to abridge its dignity, nor to put limits to its +benevolence. If it was the desire of Jesus Christ, that men should love +their enemies, it is their duty to believe, that his wish could not have +been otherwise than universal. If it was an object with him to cure +moral evil, it is their duty to suppose, that it was his desire to +destroy it, not partially, but to the utmost possible extent. If it was +his design to give happiness to man, it is their duty to determine, that +he intended to give it not in a limited proportion, but in the largest +measure. But when they consider the nature of wars, that they militate +against the law of preservation, that they include the commission of a +multitude of crimes, that they produce a complication of misery and +suffering to man, they conceive they would not be doing their duty as +Christians, or giving to Christianity its due honour, if they were not +to admit the larger meaning of the words in question as well as the +less. Reason too, pleads for the one as well as for the other. +Consistency of moral doctrine again demands both. But if we admit the +restricted interpretation, and exclude the larger, we offend reason. All +consistency is at an end. Individual responsibility for moral turpitude +will be taken from man. Crimes, clearly marked and defined in the page +of Christianity, will cease to be crimes at the will of princes. One +contradiction will rush in after another; and men will have two +different standards of morality, as they adhere to the commands of the +Gospel, or to the customs of governments or of the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_Meaning of the scriptural passages advanced by the Quakers, supported +by the opinions and practice of the early Christians--Early Christian +writers held it unlawful for Christians to fight, as appears from +Justin--Tatian--Clemens--and others--Christians would not enter into the +armies for more than two centuries, as appears from Ireneus--Tertullian +--Celsus--Origen and others--and generally left the military service, +if they happened to be converted in it. + + +It may be presumed to be difficult for Christians, who have been in the +habit of seeing wars entered into and carried on by their own and other +Christian governments, and without any other censure than that they +might be politically wrong, to see the scriptural passages of +"non-resistance to evil and love of enemies," but through a vitiated +medium. The prejudices of some, the interests of others, and custom with +all, will induce a belief among them, that these have no relation to +public wars. At least they will be glad to screen themselves under such +a notion. But the question is, what a Heathen would have said to these +passages, who, on his conversion to Christianity, believed that the New +Testament was of divine origin, that it was the book of life, and that +the precepts, which it contained, were not to be dispensed with, to suit +particular cases, without the imputation of evil. Now such a trial, the +Quakers say, has been made. It was made by the first Christians, and +they affirm, that these interpreted the passages, which have been +mentioned, differently from those of most of the Christians of the +present age; for that both their opinions and their practice spoke +loudly against the lawfulness of war. + +Upon this new subject I shall enter next. And I confess I shall enter +upon it willingly. First, because I know of none that is more important. +Secondly, because, though controversy may have thrown some light upon +it, much remains to be added. And, thirdly, because the assertions of +the Quakers on this point are disputed by many at the present day. With +respect to the opinions of the early Quakers, which I shall notice +first, it must be premised, that such of them as have written books, +have not all of them entered on this subject. Some of them have not had +even occasion to mention it. But where they have, and where they have +expressed an opinion, I believe that this will be found unfavourable to +the continuance of war. + +Justin the Martyr, one of the earliest writers in the second century, +considers war as unlawful. He makes also the devil "the author of all +war." No severer sentence could have been passed upon it than this, when +we consider it as coming from the lips of an early Christian. The +sentiment too was contrary to the prevailing sentiments of the times, +when, of all professions, that of war was most honourable, and was the +only one that was considered to lead to glory. It resulted, therefore, +in all probablity, from the new views, which Justin had acquired by a +perusal of such of the scriptures, as had then fallen into his hands. + +Tatian, who was the disciple of Justin, in his oration to the Greeks, +speaks precisely in the same terms on the same subject. + +From the different expressions of Clemens of Alexandria, a contemporary +of the latter, we collect his opinion to be decisive against the +lawfulness of war. + +Tertullian, who may be mentioned next in order of time, strongly +condemned the practice of bearing arms, as it related to Christians. I +shall give one or two extracts from him on this subject. In his +dissertation on the worship of idols, he says, "Though the soldiers came +to John, and received a certain form to be observed, and though the +centurion believed, yet Jesus Christ, by disarming Peter, disarmed every +soldier afterwards: for custom never sanctions an illicit act." And in +his "Soldier's Garland," he says, "Can a soldier's life be lawful, when +Christ has pronounced, that he who lives by the sword shall perish by +the sword? Can one, who professes the peaceable doctrines of the Gospel, +be a soldier, when it is his duty not so much as to go to law? and shall +he, who is not to revenge his own wrongs, be instrumental in bringing +others into chains, imprisonment, torment, death?" + +Cyprian, in his Epistle to Donatus, takes a view of such customs in his +own times, as he conceived to be repugnant to the spirit or the letter +of the Gospel. In looking at war, which was one of them, he speaks thus: +"Suppose thyself, says he, with me on the top of some very exalted +eminence, and from thence looking down upon the appearances of things +beneath thee. Let our prospect take in the whole horizon, and let us +view, with the indifference of persons not concerned in them, the +various motions and agitations of human life. Thou wilt then, I dare +say, have a real compassion for the circumstances of mankind, and for +the posture in which this view will represent them. And when thou +reflectest upon thy condition, thy thoughts will rise in transports of +gratitude and praise to God for having made thy escape from the +pollutions of the world. The things thou wilt principally observe, will +be the highways beset with robbers, the seas with pirates, encampments, +marches, and all the terrible forms of war and, bloodshed. When a single +murder is committed, it shall be deemed perhaps a crime; but that crime +shall commence a virtue, when committed under the shelter of public +authority, so that punishment is not rated by the measure of guilt, but +the more enormous the size of the wickedness is, so much the greater is +the chance for impunity." These are the sentiments of Cyprian, and that +they were the result of his views of Christianity, as taken from the +divine writings, there can be little doubt. If he had stood upon the +same eminence, and beheld the same sights previously to his conversion, +he might, like others, have neither thought piracy dishonourable, nor +war inglorious. + +Lactantius, who lived some time after Cyprian, in his treatise +"Concerning the True Worship of God," says, "It can never be lawful for +a righteous man to go to war, whose warfare is in righteousness itself," +And in another part of the same treatise he observes, that "no exception +can be made with respect to this command of God. It can never be lawful +to kill a man, whose person the Divine Being designed to be sacred as to +violence." + +It will be unnecessary to make extracts from other of the early +Christian writers, who mention this subject. I shall therefore only +observe, that the names of Origen, Archelaus, Ambrose, Chrysostom, +Jerom, and Cyril, may be added, to those already mentioned, as the names +of persons who gave it as their opinion, that it was unlawful for +Christians to go to war. + +With respect to the practice of the early Christians, which is the next +point to be considered, it may be observed, that there is no well +authenticated instance upon record, of Christians entering into the army +for the first two centuries; but it is true, on the other hand, that +they declined the military profession, as one in which it was not lawful +for them to engage. + +The first species of evidence, which I shall produce to this point, may +be found in the following facts, which reach from the year 169 to the +year 198, Avidius Crassus had rebelled against the emperor Verus, and +was slain in a short time afterwards. Clodius Albinus in one part of the +world, and Pescenninus Niger in another, rebelled against the emperor +Severus, and both were slain likewise. Now suspicion fell, as it always +did in these times, if any thing went wrong, upon the Christians, as +having been concerned upon these occasions. But Tertullian, in his +Discourse to Scapula, tells us, that no Christians were to be found in +these armies. And yet these armies were extensive. Crassus was master of +all Syria, with its four legions, Niger of the Asiatic and Egyptian +legions, and Albinus of those of Britain, which legions together +contained between a third and an half of the standing legions of Rome. +And the fact, that no Christians were to be found in these, is the more +remarkable, because, according to the same Tertullian, Christianity had +reached all the places, in which these armies were. + +A second species of evidence, as far as it goes, may be collected from +expressions and declarations in the works of certain authors of those +times. Justin the Martyr, and Tatian, make distinctions between +soldiers and Christians; and the latter says, that the Christians +declined even military commands. Clemens of Alexandria, gives the +Christians, who were cotemporary with him, the appellation of +"peaceable, or of the followers of peace," thus distinguishing them from +the soldiers of his age. And he says expressly, that "those, who were +the followers of peace, used none of the instruments of war." + +A third species of evidence, which is of the highest importance in this +case, is the belief which the writers of these times had, that the +prophecy of Isaiah, which stated, that men should turn their swords into +ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, was then in the act +of completion. + +Irenæus, who flourished about the year 180, affirms, that this famous +prophecy had been completed in his time; "for the Christians, says he, +have changed their swords and their lances into instruments of peace, +and they know not how to fight," Justin Martyr, who was cotemporary with +Irenæus, asserted the same thing, which he could not have done if the +Christians in his time had engaged in war. "That the prophecy, says he, +is fulfilled, you have good reason to believe, for we, who in times past +killed one another, do not now fight with our enemies." And here it is +observable, that the word "fight" does not mean to strike, or to beat, +or to give a blow, but to fight as in war; and the word "enemy" does +not mean a common adversary, or one who has injured us, but an enemy of +the state; and the sentence, which follows that which has been given, +puts the matter again out of all doubt. Tertullian, who lived after +these, speaks in those remarkable words: "Deny that these (meaning the +turning of swords into ploughshares) are the things prophesied of, when +you see what you see, or that they are the things fulfilled, when you +read what you read; but if you deny neither of these positions, then you +must confess, that the prophecy has been accomplished, as far as the +practice of every individual is concerned, to whom it is applicable." I +might go from Tertullian even as far as Theoderet, if it were necessary, +to shew, that the prophecy in question was considered as in the act of +completion in those times. + +The fourth and last proof will be found in the assertions of Celsus, and +in the reply of Origen to that writer. Celsus, who lived at the end of +the second century, attacked the Christian religion. He made it one of +his charges against the Christians, that they refused in his time to +bear arms for the emperor, even in the case of necessity, and when their +services would have been accepted. He told them farther, that if the +rest of the empire were of their opinion, it would soon be overrun by +the Barbarians. Now Celsus dared not have brought this charge against +the Christians, if the fact had not been publicly known. But let us see +whether it was denied by those, who were of opinion that his work +demanded a reply. The person, who wrote against him in favour of +Christianity, was Origen, who lived in the third century. But Origen, in +his answer, admits the fact as stated by Celsus, that the Christians +would not bear arms, and justifies them for refusing the practice on the +principle of the unlawfulness of war. + +And as the early Christians would not enter into the armies, so there is +good ground to suppose, that, when they became converted in them, they +relinquished their profession. Human nature was the same both in and out +of the armies, and would be equally worked upon, in this new state of +things, in both cases. Accordingly we find, from Tertullian, in his +"Soldier's Garland," that many in his time, immediately on their +conversion, quitted the military service. We are told also, by +Archelaus, who flourished under Probus in the year 278, that many Roman +soldiers, who had embraced Christianity, after having witnessed the +piety and generosity of Marcellus, immediately forsook the profession of +arms. We are told also by Eusebius, that, about the same time, "Numbers +laid aside a military life, and became private persons, rather than +abjure their religion." And here it may not be unworthy of remark, that +soldiers, after their conversion, became so troublesome in the army, +both on account of their scruples against the idolatrous practices +required of the soldiery, and their scruples against fighting, that they +were occasionally dismissed the service on these accounts. + + +SECT. III. + +_Objection to the foregoing statement, that the idolatry, which was then +connected with the military service, and not the unlawfulness of war, +was the reason why Christians declined it--Idolatry admitted to be a +cause--Instance in Marinus--But the belief of the unlawfulness of +fighting was another, and an equally powerful cause--Instances in +Maximilian--Marcellus--Cassian--Marlin--The one scruple as much then a +part of the Christian religion as the other._ + + +As an objection may be made to the foregoing statement, I think it +proper to notice it in this place. + +It will be said, that the military oath, which all were obliged to take +alike in the Roman armies, and which was to be repeated annually, was +full of idolatry; that the Roman standards were all considered as gods, +and had divine honours paid to them by the soldiery; and that the images +also of the emperors, which were either fixed upon these standards, or +placed in the midst of them in a temple in the camp, were to be adored +in the same manner. Now these customs were interwoven with the military +service. No Roman soldier was exempted from them. It will be urged, +therefore, that no Christian could submit to these services. Indeed when +a person was suspected of being a Christian in those times, he was +instantly taken to the altars to sacrifice, it being notorious, that if +he were a Christian he would not sacrifice, though at the hazard of his +life. Is it not, therefore, to be presumed, that these idolatrous tests +operated as the great cause, why Christians refused to enter into the +army, or why they left it when converted as described in the former +section? + +That these tests operated as a cause, we must allow. And let this be +considered as an insuperable argument against those, who contend that +there were Christian soldiers in these times, for no Christian could +submit to such idolatrous homage; but, if so, no Christian could be a +soldier. + +That these tests must have operated as a cause, we may infer from the +history of Marinus. Marinus, according to Eusebius, was a man of family +and fortune, and an officer in a legion, which, in the year 260, was +stationed at Caesarea of Palestine. One of the centurion's rods happened +to become vacant in this legion, and Marinus was appointed to it. But +just at this moment another, next to him in rank, accused him before the +tribunal of being a Christian, stating, that "the laws did not allow a +Christian, who refused to sacrifice to the emperors, to hold any dignity +in the army." Achæus, the judge, asked Marinus if it was true, that he +had become a Christian. He acknowledged it. Three hours were then +allowed him to consider, whether he would sacrifice or die. When the +time was expired, he chose the latter. Indeed, so desirous were the +early Christians of keeping clear of idolatry in every shape, that they +avoided every custom that appeared in the least degree connected with +it. Thus when a largess was given in honour of the emperors, L. +Septimius Severus the father, and M. Aurelius Caracalla the son, a +solitary soldier, as we learn from Tertullian, was seen carrying the +garland, which had been given him on that occasion, in his hand, while +the rest wore it upon their heads. On being interrogated by the +commander, why he refused wearing it, he replied, that[13] he had become +a Christian. He was immediately punished before the army, and sent into +prison. What became of him afterwards is not related. But it must be +clear, if he lived and cherished his Christian feelings, that, when the +day of the renewal of his oath, or of the worshipping of the standards, +or of any sacrifice in the camp, should arrive, he would have refused +these services, or abandoned his profession. + +[Footnote 13: The priests wore the garland, when they sacrificed to the +Heathen gods.] + +But though unquestionably the idolatrous services, required of the +soldiers of those times, hindered Christians from entering into the +armies, and compelled those, who were converted in them, to leave them, +nothing is more true, than that the belief, that it was unlawful for +Christians to fight, occasioned an equal abhorrence of a military life. +One of the first effects, which Christianity seems to have produced upon +its first converts, when it was pure and unadulterated, and unmixed +with the interpretations of political men, was a persuasion, that it +became them, in obedience to the divine commands, to abstain from all +manner of violence, and to become distinguishable as the followers of +peace. We find accordingly from Athenagoras, and other early writers, +that the Christians of his time, abstained, when they were struck, from +striking again, and that they carried their principles so far, as even +to refuse to go to law with those who injured them. We find also, from +the same Athenagoras, and from Theophilus Antiochenus, Tatian, Minucius +Felix, and others, that they kept away from the shews of the gladiators. +This they did, not only because these shews were cruel; but because, as +Theophilus says, "lest we should become partakers of the murders +committed there." A similar reason is also given by Athenagoras on this +occasion: "Who is there, says he, that does not prize the shews of the +gladiators, which your emperors make for the people? But we, thinking +that there is very little difference whether a man be the author or +spectator of murder, keep away from all such sights." And here it may be +observed, that the gladiators themselves were, generally prisoners of +war, or reputed enemies, and that the murder of these was by public +authority, and sanctioned; as in war, by the state. Now what conclusion +are we to draw from these premises? Can we think it possible, that +those, who refused to strike again, or to go to law with those who +injured them, and who thought an attendance at the gladiatorial +spectacles criminal on the principle, that he who stood by was a +murderer, though the murder was sanctioned by law; should not have an +objection to the military service, on the principle, that it was +unlawful to fight? + +In short, the belief of the unlawfulness of war, was universal among +Christians in those times. Every Christian writer of the second century, +who notices the subject, makes it unlawful for Christians to bear arms. +And if the Christian writers of this age were of this opinion, contrary +to all their sentiments before their conversion, and wholly from their +knowledge of divine truths, why should not others, who had a common +nature with these, be impressed, on receiving the same truths, in a +similar manner? And so undoubtedly they were. And as this belief was +universal among the Christians of those times, so it operated with them +as an impediment to a military life, quite as much as the idolatry, that +was connected with it, of which the following instances, in opposition +to that of Marinus, may suffice. + +The first case I propose to mention shall be, where there was an +objection to entering into the military service upon this principle. And +here, I apprehend none can be more in point than that of Maximilian, as +preserved in the acts of Ruinart. + +Maximilian, having been brought before the tribunal, in order to be +enrolled as a soldier, Dion, the proconsul, asked him his name. +Maximilian, turning to him, replied, "Why wouldst thou know my name? I +am a Christian, and cannot fight." + +Then Dion ordered him to be enrolled, and when he was enrolled, it was +recited out of the register, that he was five feet ten inches high. +Immediately after this, Dion bade the officer mark him. But Maximilian +refused to be marked, still asserting that he was a Christian. Upon +which Dion instantly replied, "Bear arms, or thou shalt die." + +To this Maximilian answered, "I cannot fight, if I die. I am not a +soldier of this world, but a soldier of God." Dion then said, "Who has +persuaded thee to behave thus?" Maximilian answered, "My own mind, and +he who called me." Dion then spoke to his father, and bade him persuade +his son. But his father observed, that his son knew his own mind, and +what it was best for him to do. + +After this had passed, Dion addressed Maximilian again in these words, +"Take thy arms, and receive the mark." "I can receive, says Maximilian, +no such mark. I have already the mark of Christ." Upon which Dion said, +"I will send thee quickly to thy Christ." "Thou mayest do so, said +Maximilian, but the glory will be mine." + +Dion then bade the officer mark him. But Maximilian still persisted in +refusing, and spoke thus: "I cannot receive the mark of this world, and +if thou shouldst give me the mark, I will destroy it. It will avail +nothing. I am a Christian, and it is not lawful for me to wear such a +mark about my neck, when I have received the saving mark of the Lord +Jesus Christ, the Son of the living God, whom thou, knowest not, who +died to give us life, and whom God gave for our sins. Him all we +Christians obey. Him we follow as the restorer of our life, and the +author of our salvation." + +Dion instantly replied to this, "Take thy arms, and receive the mark, or +thou shalt suffer a miserable death."--"But I shall not perish, said +Maximilian. My name is already enrolled with Christ. I cannot fight." + +Dion said, "Consider then thy youth, and bear arms. The profession of +arms becomes a young man." Maximilian replied, "My arms are with the +Lord. I cannot fight for any earthly consideration. I am now a +Christian." + +Dion the proconsul, said, "Among the life-guards of our masters +Dioclesian and Maximian, and Constantius and Maximus, there are +Christian soldiers, and they fight." Maximilian answered, "They know +best what is expedient for them, but I am a Christian, and it is +unlawful to do evil." + +Dion said, "Take thy arms. Despise not the profession of a soldier, lest +thou perish miserably."--"But I shall not perish, says Maximilian; and +if I should leave this world, my soul will live with Christ the Lord." + +Dion then ordered his name to be struck from the roll, and, when this +was done, he proceeded, "Because, out of thy rebellious spirit, thou +hast refused to bear arms, thou shall be punished according to thy +deserts for an example to others." And then he delivered the following +sentence: "Maximilian! because thou hast with a rebellious spirit +refused to bear arms, thou art to die by the sword." Maximilian replied, +"Thanks be to God." + +He was twenty years, three months, and seventeen days old, and when he +was led to the place of execution, he spoke thus: "My dear brethren, +endeavour with all your might, that it may be your portion to see the +Lord, and that he may give you such a crown;" and then, with a pleasant +countenance, he said to his father, "Give the executioner the soldier's +coat thou hast gotten for me, and when I shall receive thee in the +company of the blessed martyrs, we may also rejoice together with the +Lord." + +After this he suffered. His mother Pompeiana obtained his body of the +judge, and conveyed it to Carthage, and buried it near the place where +the body of Cyprian the Martyr lay. And thirteen days after this his +mother died, and was buried in the came place. And Victor, his father, +returned to his habitation, rejoicing and praising God, that he had sent +before such a gift to the Lord, himself expecting to follow after. + +I shall only observe, upon this instance, that it is nearly pure and +unmixed, or that it is but little connected with idolatrous +circumstances, or rather, that the unlawfulness of fighting was +principally urged by Maximilian as a reason against entering upon a +military life. Let us now find a case, where, when a person was +converted in the army, he left it, pleading this principle, as one among +others, for his dereliction of it. + +Marcellus was a centurion in the legion called "Trajana." On a festival, +given in honour of the birth-day of Galerius, he threw down his military +belt at the head of the legion, and in the face of the standards, +declared with a loud voice, that he would no longer serve in the army, +for that he had become a Christian. "I hold in detestation, said he, +addressing himself to all the soldiers, the worship of your gods: gods, +which are made of wood and stone, gods which are deaf and dumb." So far +Marcellus, it appears, seems to have been influenced in his desertion of +a military life by the idolatry connected with it. But let us hear him +farther on this subject. "It is not lawful, says he, for a Christian, +who is the servant of Christ the Lord, to bear arms for any earthly +consideration." After a delay of more than three months in prison after +this transaction, which delay was allowed for the purpose of sparing +him, he was brought before the prefect. There he had an opportunity of +correcting his former expressions. But as he persisted in the same +sentiments, he suffered. It is remarkable, that, almost immediately +after his execution, Cassian, who, was the notary to the same legion, +refused to serve any longer, by publicly throwing his pen and +accompt-book upon the ground, and declaring, at the same time, that the +sentence of Marcellus was unjust. When taken up by the order of +Aurelianus Agricolanus, he is described by the record, preserved by +Ruinart, to have avowed the same sentiments as Marcellus, and, like him, +to have suffered death. + +It may not be necessary, perhaps, to cite any other instances, as +opposed to that of Marinus, to the point in question. But, as another +occurs, which may be related in few words, I will just mention it in +this place. Martin, of whom Sulpicius Severus says so much, had been +bred to the profession of arms, but, on his conversion to Christianity, +declined it. In the answer, which he gave to Julian the Apostate for his +conduct on this occasion, we find him making use only of these words, "I +am a Christian, and therefore I cannot fight." + +Now this answer of Martin is detached from all notions of idolatry. The +unlawfulness of fighting is given as the only motive for his +resignation. And there is no doubt, that the unlawfulness of fighting +was as much a principle of religion in the early times of Christianity, +as the refusal of sacrifice to the Heathen gods; and that they operated +equally to prevent men from entering into the army, and to drive them +out of it on their conversion. Indeed these principles generally went +together, where the profession of arms presented itself as an occupation +for a Christian. He, who refused the profession on account of the +idolatry connected with it, would have refused it on account of the +unlawfulness of fighting. And he, who refused it on account of the guilt +of fighting, would have refused it oh account of the idolatrous services +it required. Both and each of them were impediments, in the early times +of Christianity, to a military life. + + +SECT. IV. + +_Early Christians then declined the army on account, of one, among other +persuasions, that it was unlawful for Christians to fight--Their +practice examined farther, or into the fourth century--shewn from hence, +that while Christianity continued pure, Christians still declined the +military profession--but as it became less pure, their scruples against +it became less--and when it became corrupt, their scruples against it +ceased--Manner in which the Quakers make the practice of these early +times support the meaning of the scriptural passages, which they adduce +in favour of their tenet on war._ + + +As it will now probably be admitted, that the early Christians refused +to enter into the army, and that they left it after their conversion, on +account of one, among other persuasions, that it was unlawful for them +to fight, I must examine their practice, as it related to this subject, +still farther, or I must trace it down to a later period, before I can +show how the Quakers make the practice of these early times support the +meaning of the scriptural passages, which they advance in favour of +their tenet on war. + +It may be considered as a well founded proposition, that, as the lamp of +Christianity burnt bright, in those early times, so those, who were +illuminated by it, declined the military profession; and, that, as its +flame shone less clear, they had less objection to it. Thus, in the two +first centuries, when Christianity was the purest, there were no +Christian soldiers. In the third century, when it became less pure, +there is frequent mention of such soldiers. And in the fourth, when its +corruption was fixed, Christians entered upon the profession of arms +with as little hesitation, as they entered upon any other occupation in +life. + +That there were no Christian soldiers in the first and second centuries, +has already been made apparent. + +That Christianity also was purest in these times, there can be no doubt. +Let us look at the character which is given of the first Christians by +Athenagoras, Justin Martyr, Minucius Felix, and others of the early +Christian writers. According to these they were plain and neat in their +apparel, and frugal in their furniture. They were temperate in their +eating and drinking. They relinquished all the diversions of the times, +in which they saw any tendency to evil. They were chaste in their +conversation, tempering mirth with gravity. They were modest and chaste +in their deportment and manners. They were punctual to their words and +engagements. They were such lovers of the truth, that, on being asked, +if they were Christians, they never denied it, though death was the +consequence of such a religious profession. They loved each other as +brethren, and called one another by that name. They were kind, and +courteous, and charitable, beyond all example, to others. They abstained +from all manner of violence. They prayed for those who persecuted them. +They were patterns of humility and patience. They made no sacrifice of +their consciences, but would persevere in that which was right, never +refusing to die for their religion. This is the character, which is +uniformly given of them by the Christian writers of those times. + +That their conduct was greatly altered in the third century, where we +are now to view it, we may collect from indisputable authority. I stated +in the former section, that a Christian soldier was punished for +refusing to wear a garland, like the rest of his comrades, on a public +occasion. This man, it appears, had been converted in the army, and +objected to the ceremony on that account. Now Tertullian tells us, that +this soldier was blamed for his unseasonable zeal, as it was called, by +some of the Christians at that time, though all Christians before +considered the wearing of such a garland as unlawful and profane. In +this century there is no question but the Christian discipline began to +relax. To the long peace the church enjoyed from the death of Antoninus +to the tenth year of Severus, is to be ascribed the corruption that +ensued. This corruption we find to have spread rapidly; for the same +Tertullian was enabled to furnish us with the extraordinary instance of +manufacturers of idols being admitted into the ecclesiastical order. +Many corruptions are also noticed in this century by other writers. +Cyprian complained of them, as they existed in the middle, and Eusebius, +as they existed at the end of it, and both attributed it to the peace, +or to the ease and plenty, which the Christians had enjoyed. The latter +gives us a melancholy account of their change. They had begun to live in +fine houses, and to indulge in luxuries. But, above all, they had begun +to be envious, and quarrelsome, and to dissemble, and to cheat, and to +falsify their word, so that they lost the character, which Pliny, an +adversary to their religion, had been obliged to give of them, and which +they had retained for more than a century, as appears by their own +writers. + +That there were Christian soldiers in this more corrupt century of the +church, it is impossible to deny. For such frequent mention is made of +them in the histories, which relate to this period, that we cannot +refuse our assent to one or other of the propositions, either that there +were men in the armies, who called themselves Christians, or that there +were men in them, who had that name given them by others. That they were +Christians, however, is another question. They were probably such +Christians, as Dion mentioned to have been among the life-guards of +Dioclesian and Maximian, and of Constantius and Maximus, of whom +Maximilian observed, "These men may know what it is expedient for them +to do, but I am a Christian, and therefore I cannot fight." Indeed, that +real Christians could have been found in the army in this century is +impossible, for the military oath, which was full of idolatry, and the +adoration of the standards, and the performance of sacrifice, still +continued as services[14] not to be dispensed with by the soldiery. No +one, therefore, can believe, that men in the full practice of Pagan +idolatry, as every legionary soldier must then have been, were real +Christians, merely because it is recorded in history, that men, calling +themselves Christians, were found in the army in those times. On the +other hand, if any soldiers professed Christianity at this period, or +are related by authors to have professed it, and yet to have remained +soldiers, it may be directly pronounced, that they could only have been +nominal or corrupted Christians. + +[Footnote 14: The military oath was not altered for Christians till the +next century, when they were allowed to swear "by God, by Christ, and by +the Holy Spirit, and by the majesty of the emperor, which, next to God, +is to be loved and honoured by mankind."] + +That Christianity was more degenerate in the fourth than in the third +century (which is the next position) we have indubitable proof. One of +the first facts, that strikes us, is an extraordinary one related by +Lactantius, in his "Death of the persecuted," that there were Christians +at this time, who, having probably a superstitious belief, that the sign +of the Cross would be a preventive of pollution, were present, and even +assisted at some of the Heathen sacrifices. But it is not necessary to +detail these or other particulars. Almost every body knows, that more +evils sprang up to the church in this century, than in any other, some +of which remain at the present day. Indeed, the corruption of +Christianity was fixed as it were by law in the age now mentioned. +Constantine, on his conversion, introduced many of the Pagan ceremonies +and, superstitions, in which he had been brought up, into the Christian +religion. The Christians, rejoiced at seeing an emperor of their own +persuasion, under whom they had hopes of restoration to equal privileges +with others, and of freedom from persecution, submitted, in order to +please or flatter him, to his idolatrous customs and opinions, thus +sacrificing their consciences to their ease and safety. Many, on the +other hand, who had always been Heathens, professed themselves +Christians at once out of compliment to their emperor, and without any +real conversion of the heart. Thus there was a mixture of Christianity +and Paganism in the church, which had never been known before. +Constantine too did not dispense with the blasphemous titles of +Eternity, Divinity, and Pontifex Maximus, as they had been given to his +predecessors. After his death, he was considered also as a god. And if +Philostorgius is to be believed, the Christians, for so he calls them, +prayed to and worshipped him as such. + +Now in this century, when the corruption of the church may be +considered to have been fixed, we scarcely find any mention of Christian +soldiers, or we find the distinction between them and others gradually +passing away. The truth is, that, when the Christians of this age had +submitted to certain innovations upon their religion, they were in a fit +state to go greater lengths; and so it happened, for as Heathens, who +professed to be Christians out of compliment to their emperor, had no +objection to the military service, so Christians, who had submitted to +Heathenism on the same principle, relaxed, in their scruples concerning +it. The latter too were influenced by the example of the former. Hence +the unlawfulness of fighting began to be given up. We find, however, +that here and there an ancient father still retained it as a religious +tenet, but these dropping off one after another, it ceased at length to +be a doctrine of the church. + +Having now traced the practice of the Christians down to the fourth +century, as far as the profession of arms is concerned, I shall state in +few words the manner in which the Quakers make this practice support the +meaning of the scriptural passages, which they produce in favour of +their tenet on war. + +The Quakers then lay it down as a position, that the Christians of the +first and second centuries, as we had already observed, gave the same +interpretation, as they themselves give, of the passages in question. + +Now they say first, that if there were any words or expressions in the +original manuscripts of the Evangelists or Apostles, which might throw +light upon the meaning of these or other passages on the same subject, +but which words and expressions were not in the copies which came after, +then many of those who lived in the first and second centuries, had +advantages with respect to knowledge on this subject, which their +successors had not, inasmuch as the former were soon afterwards lost. + +They say secondly, that if there was any thing in tradition which might +help to explain these passages more satisfactorily, those of the first +and second centuries had advantages again, because they lived nearer to +these traditions, or to the time when they were more pure, than those +Christians did, who succeeded them. + +They say thirdly, that, if primitive practice be to be considered as the +best interpreter of the passages in question, then those of the first +and second centuries had their advantages again, because many of them +lived in the times of the Evangelists and the Apostles, and all of them +nearer to those who succeeded the Evangelists and Apostles, than those +in the subsequent ages of the Christian era. + +But in direct inference, they conceive, is to be drawn from these +premises, namely, that the opinions of those who lived in the first and +second centuries, relative to the meaning of the passages in question, +are likely to be more correct on these several accounts, than those of +Christians in any of the ages that followed. + +And as in the first and second centuries of the church, when +Christianity was purest, there were no Christian soldiers, but as in the +fourth century, when it became corrupt, Christians had lost their +objections to a military life, they conceive the opinions of the former +to be more correct than those of the latter, because the opinions of +real Christians, willing to make any sacrifice for their religion, must +be always less biassed and more pure, than those of persons calling +themselves Christians, but yet submitting to the idolatrous and other +corrupt practices of the world. + +And as they conceive this to be true of the opinions of the second +century, when compared with those of the fourth, so they conceive it to +be true of the opinions of the second, when compared with those of the +moderns upon this subject, because, whatever our progress in +Christianity may be, seeing that it is not equal to that of the first +Christians, it is certain, besides the distance of time, that we have +prejudices arising from the practice of fourteen centuries, during all +which time it has been held out, except by a few individuals, as lawful +for Christians to fight. + + +SECT.V. + +_Reflections of the author on the foregoing subject--Case of a superior +being supposed, who should reside in the planet nearest to us, and see +war carried on by men no larger than the race of ants--His enquiry as to +the origin of these wars--their duration--and other circumstances--supposed +answers to these questions--New arguments, from this supposed +conversation, against war._ + + +I have now stated the principal arguments, by which the Quakers are +induced to believe it to be a doctrine of Christianity, that men should +abstain from war, and I intended to close the subject in the last +section. But when I consider the frequency of modern wars; when I +consider that they are scarcely over, before others rise up in their +place; when I consider again, that they come like the common diseases, +which belong to our infirm nature, and that they are considered by men +nearly in a similar light, I should feel myself criminal, if I were not +to avail myself of the privilege of an author, to add a few observations +of my own upon this subject. + +Living as we do in an almost inaccessible island, and having therefore +more than ordinary means of security to our property and our persons +from hostile invasion, we do not seem to be sufficiently grateful to the +Divine Being for the blessings we enjoy. We do not seem to make a right +use of our benefits by contemplating the situation, and by feeling a +tender anxiety for the happiness of others. We seem to make no proper +estimates of the miseries of war. The latter we feel principally in +abridgments of a pecuniary nature. But if we were to feel them in the +conflagration of our towns and villages, or in personal wounds, or in +the personal sufferings of fugitive misery and want, we should be apt to +put a greater value than we do, upon the blessings of peace. And we +should be apt to consider the connexion between war and misery, and +between war and moral evil, in a light so much stronger than we do at +present, that we might even suppose the precepts of Jesus Christ to be +deficient, unless they were made to extend to wars, as well as to +private injuries. + +I wonder what a superior being, living in the nearest planet to our +earth, and seeing us of the size of ants, would say, if he were enabled +to get any insight into the nature of modern wars. + +It must certainly strike him, if he were to see a number of such +diminutive persons chasing one another in bodies over different parts of +the hills and vallies of the earth, and following each other in little +nut-shells, as it were upon the ocean, as a very extraordinary sight, +and as mysterious, and hard to be explained. He might, at first, +consider them as occupied in a game of play, or as emigrating for more +food, or for a better climate. But when he saw them stop and fight, and +destroy one another, and was assured that they were actually engaged in +the solemn game of death, and this at such a distance from their own +homes, he would wonder at the causes of these movements, and the reason +of this destruction, and, not knowing that they possessed rational +faculties, he would probably consider them as animals, destined by +nature to live upon one another. + +I think the first question he would ask would be, And from whence do +these fightings come? It would be replied of course, that they came from +their lusts; that these beings, though diminutive in their appearance, +were men; that they had pride, and ambition; that they had envy and +jealousy; that they indulged also hatred, and malice, and avarice, and +anger; and that, on account of some or other of these causes, they +quarrelled and fought with one another. + +Well, but the superior being would say, is there no one on the earth, +which I see below me, to advise them to conduct themselves better, or +are the passions you speak of eternally uppermost, and never to be +subdued? The reply would of course be, that in these little beings, +called men, there had been implanted the faculty of reason, by the use +of which they must know that their conduct was exceptionable, but that, +in these cases, they seldom minded it. It would also be added in reply, +that they had a religion, which was not only designed by a spirit from +heaven, who had once lived among them, but had been pronounced by him as +efficacious to the end proposed; that one of the great objects of this +religion was a due subjugation of their passions; and this was so much +insisted upon, that no one of them was considered to have received this +religion truly, unless his passions were subdued. But here the superior +being would enquire, whether they acknowledged the religion spoken of, +and the authority from whence it came? To which it would of course be +replied, that they were so tenacious of it, notwithstanding their +indulgence of their passions, and their destruction of one another, that +you could; not offend them more grievously than by telling them, that +they did not belong to the religion they professed. + +It is not difficult to foresee what other questions the superior being +would ask, and probably the first of these would be, the duration of the +lives of these little beings, and the length and frequency of their +wars? It would be replied to this, that their lives were but as a +vapour, which appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away, and +that a quarter, and sometimes half of their time on earth, was spent in +those destructive pursuits. The superior being would unquestionably be +grieved at this account, because he would feel, that they really +frustrated their own happiness, or that they lost by their own fault a +considerable portion of the enjoyment of their lives. + +In this impatience and anxiety for their future comfort, he would +probably ask again, if they had any notion of any generous end for which +they were born, for it is impossible they could suppose, that they came +into the world to destroy one another. It would be replied, that they +could not be ignorant of the true object or end; for the same religion, +in which they believed, and which was said before to have been given +them by a spirit sent from heaven, inculcated that they were sent there +on a life of trial, and that in a future existence they were to give an +account of their conduct, and were to be rewarded or punished +accordingly. The same religion, it would be replied, also inculcated, +notwithstanding their fightings, the utmost benevolence from one towards +another. It wished so much every one of them to live peaceably, that it +enjoined it as a duty rather to put up with an injury than to resent it, +and it carried its benevolence so far, that it made no distinction +between others of the same species, who spoke a different language, or +lived in other districts or parts of the same world. + +But here the superior being would interrupt.--What, he would say! Are +they not to resent injuries, and yet do they go to war? And are they not +afraid of fighting in this manner, when they are to give an account of +their conduct in a future state? It would be replied, No: they have +their philosophers among them, and most of these have determined, that, +in this particular case, responsibility lies at the door of those who +employ them. But, notwithstanding this, there are others living among +them, who think otherwise. These are of opinion, that those who employ +them cannot take the responsibility upon themselves without taking it +from those whom they thus employ. But the religion of the Great Spirit +no where says, that any constituted authorities among them can take away +the responsibility of individual creatures, but, on the other hand, in +the most positive terms, that every individual creature is responsible +wholly for himself. And this religion does not give any creature an +exemption on account of any force which may be used against him; because +no one, according to its precepts, is to do evil, not even that good may +come. But if he be persecuted, he is to adhere to that which is right, +and to expect his reward in the other state. The impossibility, +therefore, of breaking or dissolving individual responsibility, in the +case of immoral action, is an argument to many, of the unlawfulness of +these wars. And those who reason in this manner, think they have +reasoned right, when they consider besides, that, if any of the beings +in question were to kill one of his usually reputed enemies in the time +of peace, he would suffer death for it, and be considered as accountable +also for his crime in a future state. They cannot see, therefore, how +any constituted authorities among them can alter the nature of things, +or how these beings can kill others in time of war, without the +imputation of a crime, whom they could not kill without such an +imputation in time of peace. They see in the book of the Great Spirit no +dispensation given to societies to after the nature of actions, which +are pronounced to be crimes. + +But the superior being would say, is it really defined, and is it +defined clearly in the great book of the Spirit, that if one of them +should kill another, he is guilty of a crime! It would be replied, not +only of a crime, but of the greatest of all crimes, and that no +dispensation is given to any of them to commit it in any case. And it +would be observed farther, that there are other crimes, which these +fightings generally include, which are equally specified and forbidden +in the great book, but which they think it proper to sanction in the +present case. Thus, all kinds of treachery and deceit are considered to +be allowable, for a very ancient philosopher among them has left a maxim +upon record, and it has not yet been beaten out of their heads, +notwithstanding the precepts of the great book, in nearly the following +words: "Who thinks of requiring open courage of an enemy, or that +treachery is not equally allowable in war?"[15] + +[Footnote 15: Dolus an virtus quis in hoste requirat?] + +Strange! the superior being would reply. They seem to me to be reversing +the order of their nature, and the end of their existence. But how do +they justify themselves on these occasions? It would be answered, that +they not only justify themselves, but they even go so far as to call +these fightings honourable. The greater the treachery, if it succeeds, +and the greater the number of these beings killed, the more glorious is +the action esteemed. + +Still more strange! the superior being would reply. And is it possible, +he would add, that they enter into this profession With a belief, that +they are entering into an honourable employ? Some of them, it would be +replied, consider it as a genteel employ. And hence they engage in it. +Others, of a lazy disposition, prefer it to any other. Others are +decoyed into it by treachery in various ways. There are also strong +drinks, which they are fond of, and if they are prevailed upon to take +these to excess, they lose their reason, and then they are obliged to +submit to it. It must be owned too, that when these wars begin, the +trades of many of these little beings are stopped, so that, to get a +temporary livelihood, they go out and fight. Nor must it be concealed, +that many are forced to go, both against their judgment and against +their will. + +The superior being, hurt at these various accounts, would probably ask, +and what then does the community get by these wars, as a counterbalance +for the loss of so much happiness, and the production of so much evil? +It would be replied, nothing. The community is generally worse off at +the end of these wars, than when it began to contend. But here the +superior being would wish to hear no more of the system. He would +suddenly turn away his face, and retire into one of the deep valleys of +his planet, either with exclamations against the folly, or with emotions +of pity for the situation, or with expressions of disgust at the +wickedness, of these little creatures. + + "O for a lodge in some vast wilderness, + Some boundless contiguity of shade, + Where tumour of oppression and deceit, + Of unsuccessful or successful war, + Might never reach me more! My ear is pain'd, + My soul is sick with every day's report, + Of wrong and outrage, with which earth is fill'd. + Lands, intersected by a narrow frith, + Abhor each other. Mountains interpos'd, + Make enemies of nations who had else, + Like kindred drops, been mingled into one. + Thus men devotes his brother, and destroys-- + Then what is man? And what man, seeing this, + And having human feelings, does not blush, + And hang his head, to think himself a man?" + +COWPER + + +SECT. VI. + +_Subject farther considered--Sad conceptions of those relative to the +Divine Being, and the nature of the Gospel, who plead for the necessity +of war--War necessary, where statesmen pursue the policy of the +world--Nature and tendency of this policy--but not necessary where they +pursue the policy of the Gospel--Nature and tendency of this +policy--This tendency farther confirmed by a supposed case of a few +Quakers becoming the governors of the world._ + + +It is now an old maxim, and time with all its improvements has not worn +it away, that wars are necessary in the present constitution of the +world. It has not even been obliterated, that they are necessary, in +order to sweep off mankind on account of the narrow boundaries of the +earth. But they, who make use of this argument, must be aware, that, in +espousing it, they declare no less, than that God, in the formation of +his system, had only half calculated or half provided for its +continuance, and that they charge him with a worse cruelty than is +recorded of the worst of men: because, if he told men to increase and +multiply, and gave them passions accordingly, it would appear as if he +had created them only to enjoy an eternal feast in the sight of their +destruction. Nor do they make him a moral governor of the world, if he +allows men to butcher one another without an individual provocation or +offence. + +Neither do persons, arguing for the necessity of wars, do less than set +themselves above the prophecies or oracles of God, which declare, that +such warfare shall some time or other cease. + +Neither do they, when they consider wars as necessary, and as never to +be done away on account of the wicked passions of men, do less than +speak blasphemy against the Gospel of Jesus Christ, because they +proclaim it to be inadequate to the end proposed. For the proper +subjugation of these, among other purposes, it was that the Gospel was +promulgated. If it be thought a miracle, that the passions of men should +be subdued, it is still a miracle, which Christianity professes to work; +which it has worked since the hour of its institution; which it has +worked in men, who have placed their highest reputation in martial +glory; and which it continues to work, at the present day. Those, +therefore, who promote wars, and excite the passions of men for this +purpose, attempt to undo what it is the object of Christianity to do, +and to stop the benign influence of the Gospel in the hearts of men. + +That wars are necessary, or rather that they will be begun and +continued, I do not mean to deny, while statesmen pursue the wisdom or +policy of the world. + +What this wisdom or policy is, it will not be difficult to trace. And +first, when any matter is in dispute among the rulers of nations, is it +not a maxim, that a high tone is desirable in the settlement of it, in +order that the parties may seem to betray neither fear nor weakness, and +that they may not be thought to lose any of their dignity or their +spirit? Now as the human passions are constituted, except they have +previously been brought under due regulation by Christianity, what is +more likely than that a high tone of language on one side should beget a +similar tone on the other, or that spirit, once manifested, should, +produce spirit in return, and that each should fly off, as it were, at a +greater distance from accommodation than before, and that, when once +exasperation has begun, it should increase. Now what is the chance, if +such policy be resorted to on such occasions, of the preservation of +peace between them? + +And, secondly, is it not also a received maxim, that, in controversies +of this sort, a nation, even during the discussion, should arm itself, +in order that it may shew itself prepared? But if any one nation arms +during the discussion; if it fits out armies or fleets of observation +with a view of deterring, or of being ready in case of necessity of +striking, as it is called, the first blow; what is more probable, than +that the other will arm also, and that it will fit out its own armies +and fleets likewise? But when both are thus armed, pride and spirit will +scarcely suffer them to relax, and what is then more probable, than that +they will begin to fight? + +And, thirdly, is it not a maxim also, that, even during the attempt to +terminate the dispute, the public mind should be prepared? Are not the +public papers let loose to excite and propagate a flame? And are not +the deeds of our ancestors ushered into our ears to produce a martial +spirit? But if the national temper is roused on both sides, and if +preparations are carrying on at the same time with the utmost vigour, +where again is the hope of the prevention of war between them? + +And, fourthly, after hostilities are commenced, is it not a maxim also +to perpetuate the enmity, which has been thus begun, and to give it a +deeper root, and even to make it eternal by connecting it with religion? +Thus flag-staffs are exhibited upon steeples, bells are rung to announce +victories, and sermons are preached as occasions arise, as if the places +allotted for Christian worship, were the most proper from whence to +issue the news of human suffering, or to excite the passions of men for +the destruction of one another. Nor is this all. The very colours of the +armies are consecrated. I do not mean to say, that like the banners in +the Praetorian tents, they are actually worshipped, but that an attempt +is made to render them holy in the eyes of those who are present. An +attempt is made, wonderful to relate, to incorporate war into the +religion of Jesus Christ, and to perpetuate enmity on the foundation of +the Gospel! + +Now this is the policy of the world, and can it be seriously imagined, +that such a system as this can ever lead to peace? For while +discussions relative to matters of national dispute are carried on in a +high tone, because a more humble tone would betray weakness or fear; +while again, during this discussion, preparations for war are going on, +because the appearance of being prepared would convey the idea of +determined resolution, and of more than ordinary strength; while again, +during the same discussion, the national spirit is awakened and +inflamed; and while again, when hostilities have commenced, measures are +resorted to, to perpetuate a national enmity, so that the parties +consider themselves as natural enemies even in the succeeding peace, +what hope is there of the extermination of war on earth? + +But let us now look at the opposite policy, which is that of the Gospel. +Now this policy would consist in the practice of meekness, moderation, +love, patience, and forbearance, with a strict regard to justice, so +that no advantages might be taken on either side. But if these +principles, all of which are preventive of irritation, were to be +displayed in our negotiations abroad, in the case of any matter in +dispute, would they not annihilate the necessity of wars? For what is +the natural tendency of such principles? What is their tendency, for +instance, in private life? And who are the negotiators on these +occasions but men? Which kind of conduct is most likely to disarm an +opponent, that of him who holds up his arm to strike, if his opponent +should not comply with his terms, or of him who argues justly, who +manifests a temper of love and forbearance, and who professes that he +will rather suffer than resist, and that he will do every thing sooner +than that the affair shall not be amicably settled? The Apostle Paul, +who knew well the human heart, says, "If thine enemy hunger, feed him, +for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head." That is, +thou shall cause him, by thy amiable conduct, to experience burning +feelings within himself, which, while they torment him with the +wickedness of his own conduct, shall make him esteem thee, and bring him +over to thy side. Thus thou shalt overcome his evil by thy good. Or, in +other words, as fire melts the hardest metals, so thy kindness shall +melt his anger. Thus Parnell-- + + "So artists melt the sullen ore of lead, + By heaping coals of fire upon its head. + Touch'd by the warmth, the metal teams to glow, + And pure from dress, the silver tang below." + +This policy again would consist of the practical duty of attempting to +tranquillize the minds of the people, while the discussion was going on, +of exhorting them to await the event with composure, of declaring +against the folly and wickedness of wars, as if peace only could be the +result, of abstaining from all hostile preparations, and indeed from all +appearance of violence. Now what influence would such conduct have +again, but particularly when known to the opposite party? If the +opposite party were to see those alluded to keeping down the passions of +their people, would they inflame the passions of their own? If they were +to be convinced, that these were making no preparations for war, would +they put themselves to the expence of arming? Can we see any other +termination of such a contest than the continuance of peace? + +That the policy of the Gospel, if acted upon by statesmen, would render +wars unnecessary, we may infer from supposed cases. And, first, I would +ask this simple question, whether, if all the world were Quakers, there +would be any more wars? I am sure the reply would be, no. But why not? +Because nations of Quakers, it would be replied, would discuss matters +in dispute between them with moderation, with temper, and with +forbearance. They would never make any threats. They would never arm, +and consequently they would never fight. It would be owing then to these +principles, or, in other words, to the adoption of the policy of the +Gospel in preference of the policy of the world, that, if the globe were +to be peopled by Quakers, there would be no wars. Now I would ask, what +are Quakers but men, and might not all, if they would suffer themselves +to be cast in the same mould as the Quakers, come out of it of the same +form and character? + +But I will go still farther. I will suppose that any one of the four +continents, having been previously divided into three parts, was +governed only by three Quakers, and that these had the same authority +over their subjects, as their respective sovereigns have at present. And +I win maintain, that there would never be, upon this continent, during +their respective administrations, another war. For, first, many of the +causes of war would be cut off. Thus, for instance, there would be no +disputes about insults offered to flags. There would be none again about +the balance of power. In short, it would be laid down as a position, +that no one was to do evil, that good might come. But as, +notwithstanding, there might still be disputes from other causes, these +would be amicably settled. For first, the same Christian disposition +would be manifest in the discussion as in the former case. And, +secondly, if the matter should be of an intricate nature, so that one +Quaker government could not settle it with another, these would refer +it, according to their constitution, to a third. This would be the "ne +plus ultra" of the business. Both the discussion and the dispute would +end here. What a folly then to talk of the necessity of wars, when, if +but three Quakers were to rule a continent, they would cease there? +There can be no plea for such language, but the impossibility of taming +the human passions. But the subjugation of these is the immediate object +of our religion. To confess, therefore, that wars must be, is either to +utter a libel against Christianity, or to confess that we have not yet +arrived at the stature of real Christians. + + +SECT. VII. + +_Subject farther examined--Case allowed, that if a cabinet of good men +had to negotiate with a cabinet of good men, there might be no wars--but +what would be the issue if good had to deal with bad--Case of American +settlers, who adopted the policy of the world, and were always at +war--and of other American settlers, who adopted the policy of the +Gospel, and were always at peace--No case stronger, than where +civilized men had to deal with savage American tribes._ + + +I believe it will be allowed, that the Quaker instances, mentioned in +the last section, are in point. But I am aware also, it will be said +that, though different cabinets, all having the same Christian +disposition, would settle their disputes in a friendly manner, how would +a cabinet, consisting of spiritually minded men, settle with a cabinet +of other men, who had not brought their passions under due regulation, +and who, besides, had no notion of the unlawfulness of war. + +I apprehend that it will not be denied, that men, as ferocious as any +recorded in history, were those, who were found in America, when that +continent was discovered. We hear nothing of Africans, or of Asiatics, +which would induce us to suppose, that they were as wild and as +barbarous as these. And nothing is more true of these, than they, were +frequently concerned in wars. I shall therefore take these for an +example, and I shall shew by the opposite conduct of two different +communities towards them, that it rests with men to live peaceably or +not, as they cultivate the disposition to do it, or as they follow the +policy of the Gospel in preference of the policy of the world. + +When the English, Dutch, and others, began to people America, they +purchased land of the natives. But when they went to that continent, +notwithstanding there were amiable persons among them, and friends to +civil and religious liberty, they went with the notions of worldly +policy, and they did not take with them the Christian wisdom of the +unlawfulness of war. They acted on the system of preparation, because +there might be danger. They never settled without palisadoes and a fort. +They kept their nightly watches, though unmolested. They were, in short, +in the midst of war, though no injury had been offered them by the +natives, and though professedly in the midst of peace. + +In the peopling of Connecticut, for I must begin with some one state, it +was ordered at an English court,[16] "holden at Dorchester, on the +seventh day of June, 1736, that every town should keep a watch, and be +well supplied with ammunition. The constables were directed to warn the +watches in their turns, and to make it their care, that they should be +kept according to the direction of the court. They were required also to +take care that the inhabitants were well furnished with arms and +ammunition, and kept in a constant state of defence." As these infant +settlements, the author observes, "were filled and surrounded with +numerous savages, the people conceived themselves in danger, when they +lay down, and when they rose up, when they went out, and when they came +in. Their circumstances were such, that it was judged necessary for +every man to be a soldier." + +[Footnote 16: Trumbull's History of Connecticut, p. 56.] + +I find from this author, looking farther into his history, that +previously to the order of the court at Dorchester, which did nothing +more than enjoin a more strict execution of the original plan, which was +that of military preparation and defence, some of the settlers had been +killed by the natives. The provocation which the natives received, is +not mentioned. But it was probably provocation enough to savage Indians, +to see people settle in their country with all the signs and symptoms of +war. Was such a system likely to have any other effect than that of +exciting their jealousy? They could see that these settlers had at least +no objection to the use of arms. They could see that these arms could +never be intended but against other persons, and there were no other +persons there but themselves. Judging therefore by outward +circumstances, they could draw no inference of a peaceable disposition +in their new neighbours. War soon followed. The Pequots were attacked. +Prisoners were made on both sides. The Indians treated those settlers +barbarously, who fell into their hands, for they did not see, on the +capture of their own countrymen, any better usage on the part of the +settlers themselves; for these settlers, again, had not the wisdom to +use the policy of the Gospel, but preferred the policy of the world.[17] +"Though the first planters of New-England and Connecticut, says the same +author, were men of eminent piety and strict morals, yet, like other +good men, they were subject to misconception, and the influence of +passion. Their beheading sachems whom they took in war, killing the male +captives, and enslaving the women and children, was treating them with a +severity, which, on the benevolent principles of Christianity, it will +be difficult to justify." + +[Footnote 17: P. 112.] + +After this treatment, war followed war. And as other settlements were +made by others in other states on the same principles, war fell to their +portion likewise. And the whole history of the settlement of America, +where these principles were followed, or where the policy of the world +was adopted, is full of the wars between the settlers and the Indians, +which have continued more or less, and this nearly up to the present +day. + +But widely different was the situation of the settlers under William +Penn. When he and his fellow Quakers went to this continent, they went +with the principles of Christian wisdom, or they adopted the policy of +the Gospel instead of the policy of the world. They had to deal with the +same savage Indians as the other settlers. They had the same fury to +guard against, and were in a situation much more exposed to attack, and +of course much more creative of alarm; for they had neither sword nor +musket, nor pallisadoe, nor fort. They judged it neither necessary to +watch, nor to be provided with ammunition, nor to become soldiers. They +spoke the language of peace to the natives, and they proved the +sincerity of their language by their continuance in a defenceless +condition. They held out also, that all wars were unlawful, and that, +whatever injuries were offered them, they would sooner bear them, than +gratify the principle of revenge. It is quite needless to go farther +into the system of this venerable founder of Pennsylvania. But it may be +observed, that no Quaker settlers, when known to be such,[18] were +killed, and, whatever attacks were made upon the possessors of land in +their neighbourhood, none were ever made upon those who settled on the +lands purchased by William Penn. + +[Footnote 18: "The Indians shot him who had the gun, says Storey in his +Journal, and when they knew the young man they killed was a Quaker, they +seemed sorry for it, but blamed him for carrying a gun. For they knew +the Quakers would not fight, or do them any harm, and therefore, by +carrying a gun, they took him for an enemy." This instance, which was in +after times, confirms still more strongly all that has been said on this +subject. Quakers at this time occasionally armed themselves against the +wild beasts of the country.] + +It may not be improper to observe farther, that the harmonious +intercourse between the Quakers and the Indians continues uninterrupted +to the present day. In matters of great and public concern, of which I +could mention instances, it has been usual with the Indians to send +deputies to the Quakers for advice, and the former have even been +prevailed upon by the latter to relinquish wars, which they had it in +contemplation to undertake. It is usual also for some of these to send +their children to the Quakers for education. And so great is the +influence of the Quakers over some of these tribes, that many +individuals belonging to them, and now living together, have been +reclaimed from a savage life. These have laid aside the toilsome +occupations of the chase. They raise horses, cattle, and sheep. They +cultivate wheat and flax. They weave and spin. They have houses, barns, +and saw-mills among them. They have schools also, and civilization is +taking place of the grossest barbarism. + +These facts, when contrasted, speak for themselves. A cabinet of Quaker +ministers, acting upon the policy of the Gospel, has been seated in the +heart of a savage and warlike nation, and peace has been kept with them +for ever. A cabinet of other settlers, acting on the policy of the +world, has been seated in the heart of nations of a similar description, +and they have almost constantly, been embroiled in wars. If Christian +policy has had its influence on Barbarians, it would be libellous to +say, that it would not have its influence upon those who profess to be +Christians. Let us then again, from the instances which have been now +recited, deprecate the necessity of wars. Let us not think so meanly of +the Christian religion, as that it does not forbid, nor so meanly of its +power, as that it is not ante to prevent, their continuance. Let us not +think, to the disgrace of our religion, that the human heart, under its +influence, should be so retrogade, that the expected blessing of +universal peace should be thought no improvement in our moral condition, +or that our feelings under its influence should continue so impure, +that, when it arrives, we should regard it not so much a blessing, as a +cures. But let us, on the other hand, hope and believe, that, as an +opposite and purer policy is acted upon, it will do good to our own +natures, good to the peace and happiness of the world, and honour to the +religion of the Gospel. + + +SECT. VIII + +_Subject finally considered--Authors of wars generally justify their own +as defensive--and state that, if any nation were to give up the practice +of war, or to act on the policy of the Gospel, it would be overrun by +others, which acted upon the policy of the world--Reason to believe, +that such a nation would be held in veneration by others, and applied to +by them for the settlement of their disputes--Sentiments of Bishop +Butler in a supposed case--Case of Antoninus Pius--Conclusion._ + + +Having now said all that I intended to say on the supposed necessity of +wars, I shall for a short time direct the attention of the reader to two +points, the only two, that I purpose to notice on this subject. + +It is usually said, first, that the different powers, who go to war, +give it out that their wars are defensive, or that they justify +themselves on this principle. + +I shall observe in reply to this, that it is frequently difficult to +determine, where actual aggression begins. Even old aggressions, of long +standing, have their bearings in these disputes. Not shall we find often +any clue to a solution of the difficulty in the manifestoes of either +party, for each makes his own case good in these; and if we were to +decide on the merits of the question by the contents of these, we should +often come to the conclusion, that both the parties were wrong. Thus, +for instance, a notion may have been guilty of an offence to another. So +far the cause of the other is a just one. But if the other should arm +first, and this during an attempt at accommodation, it will be a +question, whether it does not forfeit its pretensions to a just case, +and whether both are not then to be considered as aggressors on the +occasion? + +When a nation avows its object in a war, and changes its object in the +course of it, the presumption is, that such a nation has been the +aggressor. And where any nation goes to war upon no other avowed +principle, than that of the balance of power, such a nation, however +right according to the policy of the world, is an aggressor according to +the policy of the Gospel, because it proceeds upon the principle, that +it is lawful to do evil, that good may come. + +If a nation hires or employs the troops of another to fight for it, +though it is not the aggressor in any war, yet it has the crime upon its +head of making those aggressors, whom it employs. + +But, generally speaking, few modern wars can be called defensive. A war, +purely defensive, is that in which the inhabitants of a nation remain +wholly at home to repel the attacks of another, and content themselves +with sending protection to the settlements which belong to it. But few +instance are recorded of such wars. + +But if there be often a difficulty in discerning between aggressive and +defensive wars, and if, moreover, there is reason to suppose, that most +of the modern wars are aggressive, or that both patties become +aggressors in the course of the dispute, it becomes the rulers of +nations to pause, and to examine their own consciences with fear and +trembling, before they allow the Sword to bedrawn, lest a dreadful +responsibility should fall upon their heads for all the destruction of +happiness, all the havoc of life, and all the slaughter of morals that +may ensue. + +It is said, secondly, that if any nation were publicly to determine to +relinquish the practice if war, or to act on the policy of the Gospel, +it would be overrun by other nations which might act on the policy of +the world. + +This argument is neither more nor less than that of the Pagan Celsus, +who said in the second century, that, if the rest of the Roman empire +were Christians, it would be overrun by the Barbarians. + +Independently of the protection, which such a nation might count upon +from the moral Governor of the world, let us enquire, upon rational +principles, what would be likely to be its fate. + +Armies, we know, are kept up by one nation, principally because they are +kept up by another. + +And in proportion as one rival nation adds to its standing armies, it is +thought by the other to be consistent with the policy of the world to do +the same. But if one nation were to decline keeping any armies at all, +where would be the violence, to reason to suppose, that the other would +follow the example? Who would not be glad to get rid of the expence of +keeping them, if they could do it with safety? Nor is it likely, that +any powerful nation, professing to relinquish war, would experience the +calamities of it. Its care to avoid provocation would be so great, and +its language would be so temperate, and reasonable, and just, and +conciliatory, in the case of any dispute which might arise, that it +could hardly fail of obtaining an accommodation. And the probability is, +that such a nation would grow so high in esteem with other nations, that +they would have recourse to it in their disputes with one another, and +would abide by its decision. "Add the general influence, says the great +Bishop Butler in his Analogy, which each a kingdom would have over the +face of the earth, by way of example particularly, and the reverence +which would be paid to it. It would plainly be superior to all others, +and the world must gradually come under its empire, not by means of +lawless violence, but partly by what must be allowed to be just +conquest, and partly by other kingdoms submitting themselves voluntarily +to it, throughout a course of ages, and claiming its protection one +after another in successive exigencies. The head of it would be an +universal monarch in another sense than any other mortal has yet been, +and the eastern style would be literally applicable to him, "that all +people, nations, and languages, should serve him." Now Bishop Butler +supposes this would be the effect, where the individuals of a nation +were perfectly virtuous. But I ask much less for my hypothesis. I only +ask that the ruling members of the cabinet of any great nation (and +perhaps these would only amount to three or four) should consist of real +Christians, or of such men as would implicitly follow the policy of the +Gospel, and I believe the result would be as I have described it. + +Nor indeed are we without instances of the kind. The goodness of the +emperor Antoninus Pius was so great, that he was said to have outdone +all example. He had no war in the course of a long reign of twenty-four +years, so that he was compared to Numa. And nothing is more true, than +that princes referred their controversies to his decision. + +Nor most I forget again to bring to the notice of the reader the +instance, though on a smaller scale, of the colonists and descendants of +William Penn. The Quakers have uniformly conducted themselves towards +the Indians in such a manner, as to have given them from their earliest +intercourse, an exulted idea of their character. And the consequence is, +as I stated in a former section, that the former, in affairs of +importance, are consulted by the latter at the present day. But why, if +the cabinet of any one powerful nation were to act upon the noble +principle of relinquishing war, should we think the other cabinets so +lost to good feelings, as not to respect its virtue? Let us instantly +abandon this thought; for the supposition of a contrary sentiment would +make them worse than the savages I have mentioned. + +Let us then cherish the fond hope, that human animosities are not to be +eternal, and that man is not always to be made a tiger to man. Let us +hope that the government of some one nation (and when we consider the +vast power of the British empire, the nature of its constitution and +religion, and the general humanity of its inhabitants, none would be +better qualified than our own) will set the example of the total +dereliction of wars. And let us, in all our respective situations, +precede the anticipated blessing, by holding out the necessity of the +subjugation of the passions, and by inculcating the doctrine of +universal benevolence to man, so that when we look upon the beautiful +islands, which lie scattered as so many ornaments of the ocean, we may +wish their several inhabitants no greater injury than the violence of +their own waves; or that, when we view continents at a distance from us, +we may consider them as inhabited by our brothers; or that when we +contemplate the ocean itself, which may separate them from our sight, we +may consider it, not as separating our love, but as intended by +Providence to be the means of a quicker intercourse for the exchange of +reciprocal blessings. + + + + +CHAP. IV. + + +SECT. 1. + +_Fourth tenet is on the subject of a pecuniary maintenance of a Gospel +ministry--Example and precepts of Jesus Christ--Also of Paul and +Peter--Conclusions from these premises--These conclusions supported by +the primitive practice--Great tenet resulting from these conclusions, +and this primitive practice is, that the Quakers hold it unlawful to pay +their own ministers, and also others of any other denomination, for +their Gospel labours._ + + +The fourth and last tenet of the Quakers is on the subject of the +unlawfulness of a pecuniary maintenance of a Gospel ministry. + +In explaining this tenet, I am aware that I am treading upon delicate +ground. The great majority of Christians have determined, that the +spiritual labourer is worthy of his hire; that if men relinquish the +usual occupations by which a livelihood is obtained, in order that they +may devote themselves to the service of religion, they are entitled to a +pecuniary maintenance; and that, if they produce a rich harvest from +what they sow, they are of all men, considering their usefulness to man +to be greater in this than in any other service they can render him, the +most worthy of encouragement and support. I am aware also of the +possibility of giving offence to some in the course of the explanation +of this tenet. To these I can only say, that I have no intention of +hurting the feelings of any; that in the church there are those whom I +esteem and love, and whom of all others I should be sorry to offend. But +it must be obvious to these, and indeed to all, that it is impossible +for me, in writing a history of the manners and opinions of the Quakers, +to pass over in silence the tenet that is now before me; and if I notice +it, they must be sensible, that it becomes me to state fully and fairly +all the arguments which the Quakers give for the difference of opinion, +which they manifest from the rest of their fellow-citizens, on this +subject. + +It does not appear then, the Quakers say, by any records that can be +produced, that Jesus Christ ever received any payment for the doctrines +which he taught, neither does it appear, as far as his own instructions, +which are recorded by the Evangelists, can be collected on this subject, +that he considered any pecuniary stipend as necessary or proper for +those who were to assist in the promotion of his religion. + +Jesus Christ, on the erection of his Gospel ministry, gave rules to his +disciples, how they were to conduct themselves in the case before us. He +enjoined the twelve, before he sent them on this errand, as we collect +from St. Matthew and St. Luke, that,[19] "as they had received freely, +so they were to give freely; that they were to provide neither gold, nor +silver, nor brass in their purses, nor scrip, nor other things for their +journey; for that the workman was worthy of his meat." And, on their +return from their mission, he asked them,[20] "When I sent you without +purse, and scrip, and shoes, lacked ye any thing? And they said, +nothing. Then said he unto them, but now he that hath a purse let him +take it, and likewise his scrip." + +[Footnote 19: Matt x. 8. Luke ix. 1.] + +[Footnote 20: Luke xxii. 35.] + +In a little time afterwards, Jesus Christ sent out other seventy as +disciples, to whom he gave instructions similar to the former, that they +should not take scrip, clothes, and money with them. But to these he +said additionally, that[21] "wheresoever they were received, they were +to eat such things as were given them; but where they were not received, +they were to go their way, and say, even the dust of your city, which +cleaveth on us, we do wipe off against you." And as on that occasion he +compared the ministers of his Gospel to the labourers, whom a man sends +to the harvest, he told them they were at liberty to eat what was set +before them, because the labourer was worthy of his hire. + +[Footnote 21: Luke x.] + +This the Quakers conceive to be the substance of all that Jesus Christ +taught upon this subject. They go therefore next to St. Paul for a +farther elucidation of it. + +They are of opinion, that St. Paul, in his Epistle to[22] Timothy, and +to the Corinthians, and Galatians, acknowledges the position, that the +spiritual labourer is worthy of his hire. + +[Footnote 22: 1 Cor. ix.--1 Tim. v.--Gal. vi.] + +The same Apostle, however, says, "that[23] if any would not work, +neither should he eat." From this text the Quakers draw two conclusions, +first, that when ministers of the Gospel are idle, they are not entitled +to bodily sustenance; and, secondly, that those only, who receive them, +are expected to support them. The same Apostle says also,[24] "Let him +that is taught in the word, communicate unto him that teacheth in all +good things," but he nowhere says, "to him that teacheth not." + +[Footnote 23: 2 Thes. iii. 10.] + +[Footnote 24: Gal. vi. 6.] + +But though men, who faithfully spend their time in preaching the Gospel, +are entitled to bodily maintenance from those who receive them, yet St. +Paul, the Quakers say, as far as his own practice was concerned thought +it more consistent with the spirit of Christianity, and less detrimental +to its interests, to support himself by the labour of his own hands, +than to be supported by that of others. And he advises others to do the +same, and not to make their preaching chargeable,[25] "not because, says +he we have not power, but to make ourselves an ensample to you to follow +us." + +[Footnote 25: 2 Thes. iii. 0.] + +This power the Quakers consider ministers of the Gospel to abuse, who +make their preaching chargeable, if by any means, they can support +themselves; for St. Paul says farther, [26] "What is my reward then? +Verily that, when I preach the Gospel, I may make the Gospel of Christ +without charge, that I abuse not my power in the Gospel." Thus the +Apostle, they conceive, looks up to God and not to men for the reward of +his spiritual labours. And the same Apostle makes it a characteristic of +the false teachers, that they make merchandize of their hearers.[27] + +[Footnote 26: 1 Cor. ix. 18.] + +[Footnote 27: 2 Pet. ii. 3.] + +It is objected to the Quakers, on this occasion, that St. Paul received +relief from the brethren at Philippi, as well as from others, when he +did not preach. But their reply is, that this relief consisted of +voluntary and affectionate presents sent to him in circumstances of +distress. In this case the Apostle states, that he never desired these +gifts, but that it was pleasant to him to see his religious instruction +produce a benevolence of disposition that would abound to their +account.[28] + +[Footnote 28: Philip. iv. 17.] + +St. Peter is the only other person, who is mentioned in the New +Testament as speaking on this subject. Writing to those, who had been +called to the spiritual oversight of the churches, he advises as +follows:[29] "Feed the flock of God, which is among you, taking the +oversight thereof not by constraint but willingly, not for filthy lucre, +but of a ready mind, neither as being lords over God's heritage, but +being examples to the flock. And when the chief Shepherd shall appear, +ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away." Upon these +words the Quakers make three observations; that ministers should not +make a gain of the Gospel; that they should look to God for their +reward, and not to men; and that Peter himself must have preached, like +St. Paul, without fee or reward, or he could not consistently have +recommended such a practice to others. + +[Footnote 29: 1 Pet. v. 2.] + +The Quakers, therefore, from the example and precepts of Jesus Christ, +and of the Apostles Paul and Peter, come to the following conclusions on +this subject. First, that God raises up his own ministers. Secondly, +that these are to dispense his Gospel freely. Thirdly, that they are to +take, whereever they are received, such things as are given them, which +things they deserve while in the exercise of their calling, as much as +the labourer his hire, but that no bargains are to be made about +religion; that they are not to compel men to give, neither are they to +take away any thing from those who are unwilling to receive them, but, +in this case, to go their ways, and shake the dust from their feet +against them, or, in other words, to declare that they have done their +own duty in going to them with the word of God, and that the fault lies +with them in refusing to hear it. Neither, when they return from their, +missions, or are idle at home, are they to receive any thing, but to use +their own scrips and purses, and clothes. And fourthly, that though it +be lawful for them to receive such sustenance, under such limitations, +during the exercise of their ministry, it would be more consistent with +the spirit of Christianity, if they would give their spiritual labours +freely, and look up to God for their reward, thus avoiding the character +of false teachers, and the imputation of an abuse of their power in the +Gospel. + +Now these conclusions, the Quakers say, seem to have been sanctioned, in +a great measure, by the primitive practice for the three first centuries +of the church, or till the darkness of apostacy began to overwhelm the +religious world. + +In the very early times of the Gospel, many Christians, both at +Jerusalem and Alexandria in Egypt, sold their possessions, and lived +together on the produce of their common stock. Others in Antioch, +Galatia, and Pontus, retained their estates in their possession, but +established a fund, consisting of weekly or monthly offerings, for the +support of the church. This fund continued in after times. But it was +principally for the relief of poor and distressed saints, in which the +ministers of the Gospel, if in that situation, might also share. +Tertullian, in speaking of such funds, gives the following account: +"Whatsoever we have, says he, in the treasury of our churches, is not +raised by taxation, as though we put men to ransom their religion, but +every man once a month, or when it pleaseth him, bestoweth what he +thinks proper, but not except he be willing. For no man is compelled, +but left free to his own discretion. And that, which is thus given, is +not bestowed in vanity, but in relieving the poor, and upon children +destitute of parents, and in the maintenance of aged and feeble persons, +and of men wrecked by sea, and of such as have been condemned to +metallic mines, or have been banished to islands, or have been cast into +prison, professing the Christian faith." + +In process of time, towards the close of the third century, some lands +began to be given to the church. The revenue from these was thrown into +the general treasury or fund, and was distributed, as other offerings +were, by the deacons and elders, but neither bishops nor ministers of +the Gospel were allowed to have any concern with it. It appears from +Origen, Cyprian, Urban, Prosper, and others, that if in those times such +ministers were able to support themselves, they were to have nothing +from this fund. The fund was not for the benefit of any particular +person. But if such ministers stood in need of sustenance, they might +receive from it; but they were to be satisfied with simple diet, and +necessary apparel. And so sacred was this fund held to the purposes of +its institution, that the first Christian emperors, who did as the +bishops advised them, had no recourse to it, but supplied the wants of +ministers of the Gospel from their own revenues, as Eusebius, Theodoret, +and Sozomen relate. + +The council of Antioch, in the year 340, finding fault with the deacons +relative to the management of the funds of the churches, ordained that +the bishops might distribute them, but that they should take no part of +them to themselves, or for the use of the priests and brethren who lived +with them, unless necessity required it, using the words of the Apostle, +"Having food and raiment, be therewith content." + +In looking at other instances, cited by the Quakers, I shall mention +one, which throws light for a few years farther upon this subject. In +the year 359, Constantine, the emperor, having summoned a general +council of bishops to Arminium in Italy, and provided for their +subsistence there, the British and French bishops, judging it not fit to +live on the public, chose rather to live at their own expence. Three +only out of Britain, compelled by want, but yet refusing assistance +offered to them by the rest, accepted the emperor's provision, judging +it more proper to subsist by public than by private support. This +delicate conduct of the bishops is brought to shew, that, where +ministers of the Gospel had the power of maintaining themselves, they +had no notion of looking to the public. In short, in those early times, +ministers were maintained only where their necessities required it, and +this out of the fund for the poor. Those, who took from the fund, had +the particular application given them of "sportularii," or +basket-clerks, because, according to Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, and +others, they had their portion of sustenance, given them in baskets. +These portions consisted but of a small pittance, sufficient only for +their livelihood, and were given them on the principle laid down by St. +Matthew, that the ministers of Jesus Christ were to eat and drink only +such things as were set before them. + +In process of time new doctrines were advanced relative to the +maintenance of the ministry, which will be hereafter explained. But as +these were the inventions of men, and introduced during the apostacy, +the Quakers see no reason, why they should look up to these in +preference to those of Jesus Christ, and of the Apostles, and of the +practice of Christians in the purest periods of the church. They +believe, on the other hand, that the latter only are to be relied upon +as the true doctrines. These were founded in divine wisdom on the +erection of the Gospel ministry, and were unmixed with the inventions of +men. They were founded on the genius and spirit of Christianity, and not +on the genius or spirit of the world. The Quakers therefore, looking up +to these as to the surer foundation, have adopted the following tenets +on this subject. + +They believe, first, that it would be inconsistent in them as +Christians, to make a pecuniary payment to their own ministers for their +Gospel labours. And they regulate their practice accordingly upon this +principle. No one is ever paid by the Quakers for the performance of any +office in the church. If a minister lives at home, and attends the +meeting to which he belongs, he supports himself, as St. Paul did, by +his own trade. If he goes on the ministry to other meetings, he is +received by the Quakers as he travels along, and he finds meat and drink +at the houses of these. His travelling expenses also are generally +defrayed in this particular case. But he receives no reward, or fixed or +permanent stipend, for his services on these or on any other such +occasions. + +And as the Quakers cannot pay their own ministers, so it is a tenet with +them, that they cannot pay those of other denominations for their Gospel +labours upon the same principle; that is, they believe, that all +ministers of every description ought to follow the example, which St. +Paul gave and enjoined them, of maintaining themselves by their own +hands; they ought to look up to God and not to men for their reward; +they ought to avoid the character of false teachers, and the imputation +of abusing their power in the Gospel. And to these they add a particular +reason, drawn from the texts quoted, which is not applicable in the +former case, namely, that ministers are not authorised to take meat and +drink from those who are not willing to receive them. + + +SECT. II. + +_Other reasons why Quakers cannot pay ministers of the Gospel of a +different denomination from themselves--These arise out of the nature of +the payments made to them, or out of the nature of tithes--History of +tithes from the fourth century to the reign of Henry the eighth, when +they were definitively consolidated into the laws of the land._ + + +But the Quakers have other reasons, besides the general reasons, and the +particular one which has been given, why as Christians they cannot pay +ministers of a different denomination from themselves for their Gospel +labours, or why they cannot pay ministers of the established church. +These arise out of the nature of the payments which are made to them, or +out of the nature of tithes. But to see these in their proper light, +some notion should be given of the origin of this mode of their +maintenance. I shall therefore give a very concise history of tithes +from the fourth century, to which period I have already brought the +reader, to the reign of Henry the eighth, when they took a station in +the laws of the land, from which they have never yet been displaced. + +It has already appeared that, between the middle and the close of the +fourth century, such ministers of the Gospel as were able, supported +themselves, but that those who were not able, were supported out of the +fund for the poor. The latter, however, had no fixed or determined +proportion of this fund allotted them, but had only a bare livelihood +from it, consisting of victuals served out to them in baskets, as before +explained. This fund too consisted of voluntary offerings, or of +revenues from land voluntarily bequeathed. And the principle, on which +these gifts or voluntary offerings were made, was the duty of charity to +the poor. One material innovation, however, had been introduced, as I +remarked before, since its institution, namely, that the bishops, and +not the deacons, had now the management of this fund. + +At the latter end of the fourth century, and from this period to the +eighth, other changes took place in the system of which I have been +speaking. Ministers of the Gospel began to be supported, all of them +without distinction, from the funds of the poor. This circumstance +occasioned a greater number of persons to be provided for than before. +The people therefore were solicited for greater contributions than had +been ordinarily given. Jerom and Omrysostom, out of good and pious +motives, exhorted them in turn to give bountifully to the poor, and +double honour to those who laboured in the lord's work. And though they +left the people at liberty to bestow what they pleased, they gave it as +their opinion, that they ought not to be less liberal than the ancient +Jews, who, under the Levitical law, gave a tenth of their property to +the priesthood and to the poor. Ambrose, in like manner, recommended +tenths, as now necessary, and as only a suitable donation for these +purposes. + +The same line of conduct continued to be pursued by those who succeeded +in the government of the church, by Augustin, bishop of Hippo, by Pope +Leo, by Gregory, by Severin among the Christians, in Pannonia, and by +others. Their exhortations, however, on this subject, were now mixed +with promises and, threats. Pardon of sins and future rewards were held +out on the one hand, and it was suggested on the other, that the people, +themselves would be reduced to a tenth, and the blood of all the poor +who died, would be upon their heads, if they gave less than a tenth of +their incomes to holy uses. By exhortations of this sort, reiterated for +three centuries, it began at length to be expected of the people, that +they would not give less than tenths of what they possessed. No right +however was alleged to such a proportion of their income, nor was +coercion ever spoken of. These tenths also were for holy uses, which +chiefly included the benefit of the poor. They were called the Lord's +goods in consequence, and were also denominated the patrimony of the +poor. + +Another change took place within the period assigned, which I must now +mention as of great concern. Ministers of the Gospel now living wholly +out of the tenths, which with legacies constituted the fund of the poor, +a determined portion of this fund, contrary to all former usage, was set +apart for their use. Of this fund, one fourth was generally given to the +poor, one fourth to the repairs of churches, one fourth to officiating +ministers, and one fourth to the[30] bishops with whom they lived. Hence +the maintenance of ministers, as consisting of these two orders, and +the repairs of churches, took now the greatest part of it, so that the +face of things began to be materially altered. For whereas formerly this +fund went chiefly to the poor, out of which ministers of the Gospel were +provided, it now went chiefly to the church, out of which there came a +provision for the poor. Another change also must be noticed with respect +to the principle on which the gifts towards this fund were offered. For +whereas tenths were formerly solicited on the Christian duty of charity +to the poor, they were now solicited on the principle, that by the law +of Moses they ought to be given for holy uses, in which the benefit of +the fatherless, the stranger, and the widow, were included. From this +time I shall use the word tithes for tenths, and the word clergy instead +of ministers of the Gospel. + +[Footnote 30: In process of time, as the bishops became otherwise +provided for, the fund was divided into three parts for the other three +purposes just mentioned.] + +In the eighth century, matters were as I have now represented them. The +people had been brought into a notion, that they were to give no less +than a tenth of their income to holy uses. Bishops generally at this +time, and indeed long previously to this, lived in monasteries. Their +clergy lived also with them in these monasteries, and went from thence +to preach in the country within the diocese. It must be also noticed, +that there were, at this time, other monasteries under abbots or priors, +consisting mostly of lay persons, and distinct from those mentioned, and +supported by offerings and legacies in the same manner. The latter, +however, not having numerous ecclesiastics to support, laid out more of +their funds than the former were enabled to do, towards the +entertainment of strangers, and towards the maintenance of the poor. Now +it must be observed, that, when these two kinds of monasteries existed, +the people were at liberty to pay their tithes to either of them as they +pleased, and that, having this permission, they generally favoured the +latter. To these they not only paid their tithes, but gave their +donations by legacy. This preference of the lay abbies to the +ecclesiastical arose from a knowledge that the poor, for whose benefit +tithes had been originally preached up, would be more materially served. +Other circumstances too occurred, which induced the people to continue +the same preference. For the bishops in many places began to abuse their +trust, as the deacons had done before, by attaching the bequeathed lands +to their sees, so that the inferior clergy, and the poor became in a +manner dependent upon them for their daily bread. In other places the +clergy had seized all to their own use. The people therefore so +thoroughly favoured the lay abbies in preference to those of the church, +that the former became daily richer, while the, latter did little more +than maintain their ground. + +This preference, however, which made such a difference in the funds of +the ecclesiastical, and of the lay monasteries, was viewed with a +jealous eye by the clergy of those times, and measures were at length +taken to remove it. In a council under Pope Alexander the third, in the +year 1180, it was determined, that the liberty of the people should be +restrained with respect to their tithes. They were accordingly forbidden +to make appropriations to religious houses without the consent of the +bishop, in whose diocese they lived. But even this prohibition did not +succeed. The people still favoured the lay abbies, paying their tithes +there, till Pope Innocent the third, in the year 1200, ordained, and he +enforced it by ecclesiastical censures, that every one should pay his +tithes to those who administered to him spiritual things in his own +parish. In a general council also held at Lyons, in the year 1274, it +was decreed, that it was no longer lawful for men to pay their tithes +where they pleased, as before, but that they should pay them to mother +church. And the principle, on which they had now been long demanded, was +confirmed by the council of Trent under Pope Pius the fourth, in the +year 1560, which was, that they were due by divine right. In the course +of forty years after the payment of tithes had been forced by +ecclesiastical censures and excommunications, prescription was set up. +Thus the very principle, in which tithes had originated, was changed. +Thus free will-offerings became dues, to be exacted by compulsion. And +thus the fund of the poor was converted almost wholly into a fund for +the maintenance of the church. + +Having now traced the origin of tithes, as far as a part of the +continent of Europe is concerned, I shall trace it as far as they have +reference to our own country. And here I may instantly observe, and in a +few words, that the same system and the same changes are conspicuous. +Free will-offerings and donations of land constituted a fund for the +poor, out of which the clergy were maintained. In process of time, +tenths or tithes followed. Of these, certain proportions were allotted +to the clergy, the repairs of the churches, and the poor. This was the +state of things in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, towards the close +of the eighth century, when that prince, having caused Ethelbert, king +of the East Angles, to be treacherously murdered, fled to the Pope for +pardon, to please whom, and to expiate his own sin, he caused those +tithes to become dues in his own dominions, which were only at the will +of the donors before. + +About sixty years afterwards, Ethelwolf, a weak and superstitious +prince, was worked upon by the clergy to extend tithes as dues to the +whole kingdom; and he consented to it under the notion, that he was thus +to avert the judgments of God, which they represented as visible in the +frequent ravages of the Danes. Poor laymen, however, were still to be +supported out of these tithes, and the people were still at liberty to +pay them to whichever religious persons they pleased. + +About the close of the tenth century, Edgar took from the people the +right of disposing of their tithes at their own discretion, and directed +that they should be paid to the parish churches. But the other +monasteries or lay-houses resisting, his orders became useless for a +time. At this period the lay monasteries were rich, but the parochial +clergy poor. Pope Innocent, however, by sending out his famous decree +before mentioned to king John, which was to be observed in England as +well as in other places under his jurisdiction, and by which it was +enacted, that every man was to pay his tithes to those only, who +administered spiritual help to him in his own parish, settled the +affair; for he set up ecclesiastical courts, thundered out his +interdicts, and frightened both king and people.[31] + +[Footnote 31: To shew the principles, upon which princes acted with +respect to tithes in these times, the following translation of a +preamble to a grant of king Stephen may be produced: "Because, through +the providence of Divine Mercy, we know it to be so ordered, and by the +churches publishing it far and near, every body has heard, that, by the +distribution of alms, persons may be absolved from the bonds of sin, and +acquire the rewards of heavenly joys, I, Stephen, by the grace of God, +king of England, being willing to have a share with those, who by a +happy kind of commerce exchange heavenly things for earthly, and smitten +with the love of God, and for the salvation of my own soul, and the +souls of my father and mother, and all my forefathers and ancestors," +&c.] + +Richard the second confirmed these tithes to the parishes, as thus +settled by this pope, but it was directed by an act, that, in all +appropriations of churches, the bishop of the diocese should ordain a +convenient sum of money to be distributed out of the fruits and profits +of every living among the poor parishioners annually, in aid of their +living and sustenance. "Thus it seems, says Judge Blackstone, the people +were frequently sufferers by the withholding of those alms, for which, +among other purposes, the payment of tithes was originally imposed." At +length tithes were finally confirmed, and, in a more explicit manner, by +the famous act of Henry the eighth on this subject. And here I must just +observe, that, whereas from the eighth century to this reign, tithes +were said to be due, whenever the reason of them was expressed, by +divine right as under the Levitical law, so, in the preamble to the act +of Henry the eighth, they are founded on the same principle, being +described therein, "as due to God and the church." Thus, both on the +continent of Europe, as well as in our own country, were these changes +brought about, which have been described. And they were brought about +also by the same means, for they were made partly by the exhortations +and sermons of monks, partly by the decrees of popes, partly by the +edicts of popish kings, and partly by the determinations of popish +councils. + +It is not necessary, that I should trace this subject farther, or that I +should make distinctions relative to tithes, whether they may be +rectorial, or vicarial, or whether they may belong to lay persons, I +have already developed enough of their history for my purpose. I shall +therefore hasten to state those other reasons, which the Quakers have to +give, why they cannot pay other ministers of the Gospel for their +spiritual labours, or rather, why they cannot consent to the payment of +tithes, as the particular species of payment demanded by the church. + + +SECT. III + +_The other reasons then, as deducible from the history of tithes, are +the following--First, that they are not in equity dues of the +church--Secondly, that the payment of them being compulsory, it would, +if acceded to, be an acknowledgment that the civil magistrate has a +right to use force in matters of religion--And thirdly, that being +claimed upon an act which holds them forth as of divine right, any +payment of them would be an acknowledgment of the Jewish religion, and +that Christ had not yet actually come._ + + +The other reasons then, which the Quakers have to give for refusing to +support other ministers of the Gospel, may be now deduced from the +nature of tithes, as explained in the former section. + +The early Quakers rejected the payment of tithes for three reasons; +and, first, because they were demanded of them as dues of the church. + +Against this doctrine, they set their faces as a religious body. They +contended that, if they were due at all, they were due to the poor, from +whom they had been forcibly taken, and to whom in equity they still +belonged; that no prince could alter the nature of right and wrong that +tithes were not justly due to the church, because Offa wished them to be +so, to expiate his own crimes; or because Ethelwolf wished them to be +so, from a superstitious notion, that he might thus prevent the +incursions of the Danes; or because Stephen wished them to be so, as his +own grant expresses, on the principle, that "the bonds of sin might be +dissolved, and that he might have a part with those, who by a happy kind +of commerce exchanged heavenly things for earthly;" or because the popes +of Rome wished them to be so, from whose jurisdiction all the subjects +of England were discharged by law. + +They resisted the payment of them, because, secondly, tithes had become +of a compulsory nature, or because they were compelled to pay them. + +They contended on this head, that tithes had been originally free +will-offerings, but that by violence they had been changed into dues, +to be collected by force; that nothing could be more clear, than that +ministers of the Gospel, if the instructions of Jesus to his disciples +were to be regarded, were not authorized even to demand, much less to +force, a maintenance from others; and that any constrained payment of +these, while it was contrary to his intention, would be an infringement +of their great tenet, by which they hold, that, Christ's kingdom being +of a spiritual nature, the civil magistrate had no right to dictate a +religion to any one, nor to enforce payment from individuals for the +same, and that any interference in those matters, which were solely +between God and man, was neither more nor less than an usurpation of the +prerogative of God. + +They resisted the payment of them, because, thirdly, they were demanded +on the principle, as appeared by the preamble of the act of Henry the +eighth, that they were due as under the Levitical law by divine right. + +Against this they urged, first, that, if they were due as the Levitical +tithes were, they must have been subject to the same conditions. They +contended that, if the Levites had a right to tithes, they had +previously given up to the community their own right to a share of the +land, but that the clergy claimed a tenth of the produce of the lands of +others, but had given up none of their own. They contended also, that +tithes by the Levitical law were for the strangers, the fatherless, and +the widows, as well as for the Levites, but that the clergy, by taking +tithes, had taken that which had been for the maintenance of the poor, +and had appropriated it solely to their own use, leaving them thus to +become a second burthen upon the land. + +But they contended, that the principle itself was false. They +maintained, that the Levitical priesthood and tithes with it, had ceased +on the coming of Jesus Christ, as appeared by his own example and that +of his Apostles; that it became them, therefore, as Christians, to make +a stand against this principle, for that, by acquiescing in the notion +that the Jewish law extended to them, they conceived they would be +acknowledging that the priesthood of Aaron still existed, and that +Christ had not actually come. + +This latter argument, by which it was insisted upon, that tithes ceased +with the Jewish dispensation, and that those who acknowledged them, +acknowledged the Jewish religion for Christians, was not confined to the +early Quakers, but admitted among many other serious Christians of those +times. The great John Milton himself, in a treatise which he wrote +against tithes, did not disdain to use it. "Although, says he, hire to +the labourer be of moral and perpetual right, yet that special kind of +hire, the tenth, can be of no right or necessity but to that special +labour for which God ordained it. That special labour was the Levitical +and ceremonial service of the tabernacle, which is now abolished. The +right, therefore, of that special hire, must needs be withal abolished, +as being also ceremonial. That tithes were ceremonial is plain, not +being given to the Levites till they had been first offered an heave +offering to the Lord. He then, who by that law brings tithes into the +Gospel, of necessity brings in withal a sacrifice and an altar, without +which tithes by that law were unsanctified and polluted, and therefore +never thought of in the first Christian times, nor till ceremonies, +altars, and oblations had been brought back. And yet the Jews, ever +since their temple was destroyed, though they have rabbies and teachers +of their law, yet pay no tithes, as having no Levites to whom, no temple +where, to pay them, nor altar whereon to hallow them; which argues, that +the Jews themselves never thought tithes moral, but ceremonial only. +That Christians therefore should take them up, when Jews have laid them +down, must needs be very absurd and preposterous." + +Having now stated the three great reasons, which the early Quakers gave, +in addition to those mentioned in a former section, why they could not +contribute towards the maintenance of an alien ministry, or why they +could not submit to the payment of tithes, as the peculiar payment +demanded by the established church, I shall only observe, that these are +still insisted upon by their descendants, but more particularly the +latter, because all the more, modern acts upon this subject take the act +of Henry the eighth as the great ground-work or legal foundation of +tithes, in the preamble of which it is inserted, that "they are due to +God and the church." Now this preamble, the Quakers assert, has never +been done away, nor has any other principle been acknowledged instead of +that in this preamble, why tithes have been established by law. The +Quakers therefore conceive, that tithes are still collected on the +foundation of divine right, and therefore that it is impossible for them +as Christians to pay them, for that by every such payment, they would +not only be acknowledging the Jewish religion for themselves, but would +be agreeing in sentiment with the modern Jews, that Jesus Christ has not +yet made his appearance upon earth. + + + + +CHARACTER +OF THE +QUAKERS + + + + +CHAP. I. + +_Character of the Quakers--Character of great importance in life--yet +often improperly estimated--This the case with that of the +Quakers--Attempt to appreciate it duly--Many outward circumstances in +the constitution of the Quakers, which may be referred to as certain +helps in the promotion of this attempt_. + + +Nothing is of more importance to an individual, than a good character, +during life. Posthumous reputation, however desirable it may be thought, +is of no service to the person whom it follows. But a living character, +if it be excellent, is inestimable, on account of the good which it +produces to him who possesses it. It procures him attention, civility, +love, and respect from others. Hence virtue may be said to have its +reward in the present life. This account will be also true of bodies, +and particularly of religious bodies, of men. It will make a difference +to the individuals of these, whether they be respected, as a body, by +the individuals of other religious denominations, or by the government +under which they live. + +But though character be of so much importance in life, there are few who +estimate it, either when they view it individually or collectively, as +if really is. It is often, on the one hand, heightened by partiality, +and, on the other, lowered by prejudice. Other causes also combine to +afford wrong apprehensions concerning it. For as different diseases +throw out often the same symptoms, and the judgment of the physician is +baffled, so different motives produce frequently similar actions, and +the man who tries to develop a character, even if he wishes to speak +truth, finds himself at a loss to pronounce justly upon it. + +As these failings and difficulties have attended men in estimating the +character of individuals, so they seem to have attended those who have +attempted to delineate that of the society of the Quakers. Indeed, if we +were to take a view of the different traits which have been assigned to +the latter, we could not but conclude, that there must have been some +mistake concerning them. We should have occasion to observe, that some +of these were so different in their kind, that they could not reasonably +be supposed to exist in the same persons. We should find that others +could scarcely be admitted among a body of professing Christians. The +Quaker character, in short, as it has been exhibited to the world, is a +strange medley of consistency and contradiction, and of merit and +defect. + +Amidst accounts, which have been so incongruous, I shall attempt the +task of drawing the character of the Quakers. I shall state, first, all +the excellencies, that have been said to belong to it. I shall state +also, all the blemishes with which it has been described to be +chargeable. I shall then enquire how far it is probable that any of +these, and in what degree they are true. In this enquiry, some little +reliance must be placed upon my personal knowledge of the Quakers, and +upon my desire not to deceive. It is fortunate, however, that I shall be +able, in this case, to apply to a test, which will be more satisfactory +to the world, than any opinion of my own upon this subject. I mean to +say that the Quakers, like others, are the creatures of their own +education and habits, or that there are circumstances in their +constitution, the knowledge of which will assist us in the discussion of +this question; circumstances, which will speak for themselves and to +which we way always refer in the case of difficulty or doubt. Their +moral education, for example, which has been already explained, cannot +but have an influence on the minds of those who receive it. Their +discipline also, which has appeared to be of so extraordinary a nature, +and to be conducted in so extraordinary a manner, cannot but have an +effect of its own kind. The peculiar customs, in which they have been +described to have been born and educated, and which must of course act +upon them as a second nature, must have a correspondent influence again. +From these, and other prominent and distinguishing features in their +constitution, I may hope to confirm some of the truths which have been +told, and to correct some of the errors that have been stated, on the +subject which is now before us. + +Nor am I without the hope, that the discussion of this subject upon such +principles, will be acceptable to many. To those, who love truth, this +attempt to investigate it will be interesting. To the Quakers it will +be highly useful. For they will see, in the glass or mirror which I +shall set before them, the appearance which they make in the world. And +if they shall learn, in consequence, any of the causes either of their +merits or of their failings, they will have learnt a lesson, which they +may make useful by the farther improvement of their moral character. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Good part of the character of the Quakers--This general or +particular--Great general trait is, that they are a moral people--This +opinion of the world accounted for and confirmed by a statement of some +of the causes that operate in the production of character--One of these +causes is, the discipline peculiar to this society._ + + +I come, according to my design, to the good part of the character of the +Quakers. This may be divided into two sorts, into that which is general, +and into that which is particular. On the subject of their general good +character I shall first speak. + +It is admitted by the world, as I had occasion to observe in the first +chapter of the first volume, that whatever other objections might be +brought against the Quakers as a body, they deserved the character of a +moral people. + +Though this fact be admitted, and there would therefore appear to be no +necessity for confirming it, I shall endeavour, according to the plan +proposed, to shew, by means of the peculiar system of the Quakers as a +religious body, that this is one of the traits given them by the world, +which cannot be otherwise than true. + +The Quakers believe, in the first place, that the Spirit of God, acting +in man, is one of the wises of virtuous character. They believe it to +be, of all others, the purest and sublimest source. It is that spring, +they conceive, to good action, and of course to exalted character, in +which man can have none but a passive concern. It is neither hereditary +nor factitious. It can neither be perpetuated in generation by the +father to the child, nor be given by human art. It is considered by the +Quakers as the great and distinguishing mark of their calling. Neither +dress, nor language, nor peculiar customs, constitute the Quaker, but +the spiritual knowledge which he possesses. Hence all pious men may be +said to have been Quakers. Hence the patriarchs were Quakers, that is, +because they professed to be led by the Spirit of God. Hence the +Apostles and primitive Christians were Quakers. Hence the virtuous +among the Heathens, who knew nothing of Christianity, were Quakers also. +Hence Socrates may be ranked in profession with the members of this +society. He believed in the agency of the Divine Spirit. It was said of +him, "that he had the guide of his life within him; that this spirit +furnished him with divine knowledge; and that it often impelled him to +address and exhort the people." Justin the Martyr had no scruple in +calling both Socrates and Heraclitus Christians, though they lived long +before Christ; "for all such as these, says he, who lived according to +the divine word within them, and which word was in all men, were +Christians." Hence also, since the introduction of Christianity, many of +our own countrymen have been Quakers, though undistinguished by the +exterior marks of dress or language. Among these we may reckon the great +and venerable Milton. His works are full of the sentiments of[32] +Quakerism. And hence, in other countries and in other ages, there have +been men, who might be called Quakers, though the word Quakerism was +unknown. + +[Footnote 32: Milton not only considered the Spirit of God as a divine +teacher, but that the scriptures were not to be spiritually understood +but by the means of this spirit. He believed also, that human learning +was not necessary for the qualification of a minister of the Gospel. +And he wrote an essay against tithes.] + +But independently of the agency of the Spirit of God, which the Quakers +thus consider to be the purest cause of a good life and character, we +may reckon a subordinate cause, which may be artificial, and within the +contrivance and wisdom of man. When the early Quakers met together as a +religious body, though they consisted of spiritually minded men, they +resolved on a system of discipline, which should be followed by those +who became members of the society. This discipline we have already seen. +We have seen how it attempts to secure obedience to Christian precepts. +How it marks its offences. How it takes cognizance of them when +committed. How it tries to reclaim and save. How, in short, by +endeavouring to keep up the members of the society to a good life, it +becomes instrumental in the production or preservation of a good +character. + +From hence it will appear, that the virtue of the Quakers, and of course +that their character may be distinguished into two kinds, as arising +from two sources. It may arise from spiritual knowledge on the one hand, +or from their discipline on the other. That which arises from the first, +will be a perfect virtue. It will produce activity in excellence. That +which arises from the second, will be inferior and sluggish. But, +however it may be subject to this lower estimation, it will always be +able to produce for those who have it, a certain degree of moral +reputation in the opinion of the world. + +These distinctions having been made as to the sources of virtuous +character, there will be no difficulty in shewing, that the world has +not been deceived in the point in question. For if it be admitted that +the Divine Spirit, by means of its agency on the heart of man, is really +a cause of virtuous character, it will then be but reasonable to +suppose, that the Quakers, who lay themselves open for its reception +more than others, both by frequent private retirements, and by their +peculiar mode of public worship, should bear at least as fair a +reputation as others, on account of the purity of their lives. But the +discipline, which is unquestionably a guardian of morals, is peculiar to +themselves. Virtue therefore is kept up among the Quakers by an +extraordinary cause, or by a cause which does not act among many other +bodies of men. It ought therefore to be expected, while this +extraordinary cause exists, that an extraordinary result should follow, +or that more will be kept apparently virtuous among the Quakers, in +proportion to their numbers, than among those where no such discipline +can be found, or, in other words, that, whenever the Quakers are +compared with those of the world at large, they will obtain the +reputation of a moral people. + + + + +CHAP. III. + + +SECT. I. + +_Particular traits in the Quaker character--The first of these is +benevolence--This includes good will to man in his temporal +capacity--Reasons why the world has bestowed this trait upon the +Quakers--Probability of its existence--from their ignorance of many +degrading diversions of the world--from their great tenet on war--from +their discipline which inculcates equality--and watchfulness over +morals--and from their doctrine that man is the temple of the Holy +Spirit._ + + +[33]Of the good traits in the Quaker character, which may be called +particular, I shall first notice that of benevolence. This benevolence +will include, first, good will to man in his temporal capacity, or a +tender feeling for him as a fellow creature in the varied situations of +his life. + +[Footnote 33: The reader must be aware, that all Quakers do not partake +of this good part of the character. That the generality do, I believe. +That all ought to do, I know, because their principles, as will be +clearly seen, lead to such a character. Those, therefore, who do not, +will see their own deficiency, or how much they have yet to attain, +before they can become Quakers.] + +The epithet of benevolent has been long given to this society. Indeed I +know of no point, where the judgment of the world has been called forth, +in which it has been more unanimous, than in the acknowledgment of this +particular trait, as a part of the Quaker character. + +The reasons for the application of this epithet to the society, may be +various. + +It has been long known, that as the early Christians called each other +brethren, and loved each other as such, so there runs through the whole +society of the Quakers a system of similar love, their affection for one +another having been long proverbial. + +It has been long known again, that as the early Christians extended +their benevolence out of the pale of their own society to others who +lived around them, so the Quakers manifest a similar disposition towards +their countrymen at large. In matters of private distress, where persons +of a different religious denomination have been the objects, and where +such objects have been worthy, their purses have been generally open, +and they have generally given as largely in proportion to their +abilities as other people. To public charities in their respective +places of residence, they have generally administered their proper +share. But of late years, as they have mixed more with the world, this +character of the society has become more conspicuous or better known. In +the cases of dearth and distress, which happened a few years ago, it is +a matter of publicity, that they were among the foremost in the +metropolis, and in same other towns in the kingdom, not only in +pecuniary contributions, but in frequent and regular attendances for the +proper distribution of them. And if their character has ever stood +higher for willingness to contribute to the wants of others at any one +time than at another, it stands the highest, from whatever cause it may +happen, at the present day. + +It has been long known again, that as the early Christians extended +their love beyond their own society, and beyond those of the world who +lived around them, to those who were reputed natural enemies in their +own times, so the Quakers do not confine their benevolence to their own +countrymen, but extend it to the various inhabitants of the globe, +without any discrimination, whether they are reputed hostile to the +government under which they live. In times of war we never see them +bearing arms, and in times of victory we never see them exulting, like +other people. We never see them illuminating their houses, or running up +and down the streets, frantic with joy upon such occasions. Their joy, +on the other hand, is wounded by the melancholy consideration of the +destruction of the human race, when they lament, with almost equal +sympathy, over the slaughter of enemies and friends. + +But this character of a benevolent people has been raised higher of late +years in the estimation of the public by new circumstances or by the +unanimous and decided part, which they have taken as a body, in behalf +of the abolition of the slave-trade. For where has the injured African +experienced more sympathy than from the hearts of Quakers? In this great +cause the Quakers have been singularly conspicuous. They have been +actuated as it were by one spring. In the different attempts, made for +the annihilation of this trade, they have come forward with a religious +zeal. They were at the original formation of the committee for this +important object, where they gave an almost unexampled attendance for +years. I mentioned in the preceding volume, that near a century ago, +when this question had not awakened the general attention, it had +awakened that of the Quakers as a body; and that they had made +regulations in their commercial concerns with a view of keeping +themselves clear of the blood of this cruel traffic. And from that time +to the present day they have never forgotten this subject. Their yearly +epistles notice it, whenever such notice is considered to be useful. And +they hold themselves in readiness, on all fit occasions, to unite their +efforts for the removal of this great and shocking source of suffering +to their fellow-creatures. + +But whether these be the reasons, or whether they be not the reasons, +why the Quakers have been denominated benevolent, nothing is more true +than that this appellation has been bestowed upon them, and this by the +consent of their countrymen. For we have only to examine our public +prints, to prove the truth of the assertion. We shall generally find +there, that when there is occasion to mention the society, the word +"benevolent" accompanies it. + +The reader will perhaps be anxious to know how it happens, that the +Quakers should possess this general feeling of benevolence in a degree +so much stronger than the general body of their countrymen, that it +should have become an acknowledged feature in their character. He will +naturally ask, does their education produce it? Does their discipline +produce it? Do their religious tenets produce it? What springs act upon +the Quakers, which do not equally act upon other people? The +explanation of this phenomenon will be perfectly consistent with my +design; for I purpose, as I stated before, to try the truth or falsehood +of the different traits assigned to the character of the Quakers, by the +test of probabilities as arising from the nature of the customs or +opinions which they adopt. I shall endeavour therefore to show, that +there are circumstances, connected with their constitution, which have a +tendency to make them look upon man in a less degraded and hostile, and +in a more kindred and elevated light, than many others. And when I shall +have accomplished this, I shall have given that explanation of the +phenomenon, or that confirmation of the trait, which, whether it may or +may not satisfy others, has always satisfied myself. + +The Quakers, in the first place, have seldom seen a man degraded but by +his vices. Unaccustomed to many of the diversions of the world, they +have seldom, if ever, seen him in the low condition of a hired buffoon +or mimic. Men, who consent to let others degrade themselves for their +sport, become degraded in their turn. And this degradation increases +with the frequency of the spectacle. Persons in such habits are apt to +lose sight of the dignity of mankind, and to consider them as made for +administration to their pleasures, or in an animal or a reptile light. +But the Quakers, who know nothing of such spectacles, cannot, at least +as far as these are concerned, lose either their own dignity of mind, +or behold others lose it. They cannot therefore view men under the +degrading light of animals for sport, or of purchasable play-things. + +And as they are not accustomed to consider their fellow-creatures as +below themselves, so neither are they accustomed to look with enmity +towards them. Their tenet on the subject of war, which has been so amply +detailed, prevents any disposition of this kind. For they interpret +those words of Jesus Christ, as I have before shewn, which relate to +injuries, as extending not to their fellow-citizens alone, but to every +individual in the world, and his precept of loving enemies, as extending +not only to those individuals of their own country, who may have any +private resentment against them, but to those who become reputed enemies +in the course of wars, so that they fix no boundaries of land or ocean, +and no limits of kindred, to their love, but consider Jew and Gentile, +Greek and Barbarian, bond and free, as their brethren. Hence neither +fine nor imprisonment can induce them to learn the use of arms, so as to +become qualified to fight against these, or to shed their blood. And +this principle of love is not laid as it were upon the shelf, like a +volume of obsolete laws, so that it may be forgotten, but is kept alive +in their memories by the testimony which they are occasionally called to +bear or by the sufferings they undergo by distraints upon their +property, and sometimes by short imprisonments, for refusing military +service. + +But while these circumstances may have some influence in the production +of this trait of benevolence to man in the character of the Quakers, the +one by preventing the hateful sight of the loss of his dignity, and the +other by destroying the seeds of enmity towards him, there are others, +interwoven into their constitution, which will have a similar, though a +stronger tendency towards it. + +The great system of equality, which their discipline daily teaches and +enforces, will make them look with an equal eye towards all of the human +race. Who can be less than a man in the Quaker society, when the rich +and poor have an equal voice in the exercise of its discipline, and when +they fill equally the important offices that belong to it? And who is +there out of the society, whom the Quakers esteem more than human? They +bow their knees or, their bodies, as I have before noticed, to no man. +They flatter no man on account of his riches or his station. They pay +homage to no man on account of his rank or title. Stripped of all +trappings, they view the creature man. If then they view him in this +abstracted light, they can view him only as an equal. Bit in what other +society is it, that a similar estimate is made of him? The world are +apt in general to make too much of those in an elevated station, and +those again in this station are apt to make less of others beneath them +than they ought. Thus an under or an over valuation of individuals +generally takes place in society; from whence it will unavoidably +happen, that if some men are classed a little below gods, others will be +classed but a little above the brutes of the field. Their discipline, +again, has a tendency to produce in them an anxious concern for the good +of their fellow-creatures. Man is considered, in the theory of this +discipline, as a being, for whose spiritual welfare the members are +bound to watch. They are to take an interest in his character and his +happiness. If he be overtaken in a fault, he is not to be deserted, but +reclaimed. No endeavour is to be spared for his restoration. He is +considered, in short, as a creature, worthy of all the pains and efforts +that can be bestowed upon him. + +The religion of the Quakers furnishes also a cause, which occasions them +to consider man in an elevated light. They view him, as may be collected +from the preceding volume, as a temple of the Spirit of God. There is no +man, so mean in station, who is not made capable by the Quakers of +feeling the presence of the Divinity within him. Neither sect, nor +country, nor colour, excludes him, in their opinion, from this +presence. But it is impossible to view man as a tabernacle, in which the +Divinity may reside, without viewing him in a dignified manner. And +though this doctrine of the agency of the Spirit dwelling in man belongs +to many other Christian societies, yet it is no where so systematically +acted upon as by that of the Quakers. + +These considerations may probably induce the reader to believe, that the +trait of benevolence, which has been affixed to the Quaker character, +has not been given it in vain. There can be no such feeling for the +moral interests of man, or such a benevolent attention towards him in +his temporal capacity, where men have been accustomed to see one another +in low and degrading characters, as where no such spectacles have +occurred. Nor can there be such a genuine or well founded love towards +him, where men, on a signal given by their respective governments, +transform their pruning-hooks into spears, and become tygers to one +another without any private provocation, as where they can be brought +under no condition whatever, to lift up their arm to the injury of any +of the human race. There must, in a practical system of equality, be a +due appreciation of man as man. There must, in a system where it is a +duty to watch over him, for his good, be a tender attention towards him +as a fellow creature. And in a system, which considers him as a temple +in which the Divine Being may dwell, there must be a respect towards +him, which will have something like the appearance of a benevolent +disposition to the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_Trait of benevolence includes again good will towards man in his +religious capacity--Quakers said to have no spirit of persecution, nor +to talk with bitterness, with respect to other religious sects--This +trait probable--because nothing in their doctrines that narrows +love--their sufferings on the other hand--and their law against +detraction--and their aversion to making religion a subject of common +talk--all in favour of this trait._ + + +The word benevolence, when mentioned as a trait in the character of the +Quakers, includes also good will to man in his religious capacity. + +It has often been observed of the Quakers, that they shew no spirit of +persecution, and that you seldom hear them talk with bitterness, with +respect to other religious societies. + +On the first part of this trait it may be observed, that the Quakers +have never had any great power of exercising dominion over others in +matters of religion. In America, where they have had the greatest, they +have conducted themselves well. William Penn secured to every colonist +the full rights of men as to religious opinion and worship. If the +spirit of persecution is ever to be traced to the Quakers, it must be +found in their writings on the subject of religion. In one or two of the +productions of their first authors, who were obliged to support their +opinions by controversy, there is certainly an appearance of an improper +warmth of temper; but it remarkable that, since these times, scarcely a +book has appeal written by a Quaker against the religion of another. +Satisfied with their own religious belief, they seem to have wished only +to be allowed to enjoy it in peace. For when they have appeared as +polemical writers, it has been principally in the defence of themselves. + +On the second part of the trait I may remark, that it is possible, in +the case of tithes, where their temper has been tried by expensive +distraints, and hard imprisonments, that they may utter a harsh +expression against a system which they believe to be anti-Christian, and +which they consider also as repugnant to equity, inasmuch as it compels +them to pay labourers, who perform work in their own harvest; but this +feeling is only temporary, and is seldom extended beyond the object +that produces it. They have never, to my knowledge, spoken with +bitterness against churchmen on this account. Nor have I ever heard +them, in such a season of suffering, pass the slightest reflection upon +their faith. + +That this trait of benevolence to man in his religious capacity is +probably true, I shall endeavour to shew according to the method I have +proposed. + +There is nothing, in the first place, in the religious doctrines of the +Quakers, which can produce a narrowness of mind in religion, or a +contempt for the creeds of others. I have certainly, in the course of my +life, known some bigots in religion, though, like the Quakers, I censure +no man for his faith. I have known some, who have considered baptism and +the sacrament of the supper as such essentials in Christianity, as to +deny that those who scrupled to admit them, were Christians. I have +known others pronouncing an anathema against persons, because they did +not believe the atonement in their own way. I have known others again, +who have descended into the greatest depths of election and reprobation, +instead of feeling an awful thankfulness for their own condition as the +elect, and the most tender and affectionate concern for those whom they +considered to be the reprobate, indulging a kind of spiritual pride on +their own account, which has ended in a contempt for others. Thus the +doctrines of Christianity, wonderful to relate, have been made to narrow +the love of Christians! The Quaker religion, on the other hand, knows no +such feelings as these. It considers the Spirit of God as visiting all +men in their day, and as capable of redeeming all, and this without any +exception of persons, and that the difference of creeds, invented by the +human understanding, will make no difference in the eternal happiness of +man. Thus it does not narrow the sphere of salvation. It does not +circumscribe it either by numerical or personal limits. There does not +appear therefore to be in the doctrines of the Quaker religion any thing +that should narrow their love to their fellow creatures, or any thing +that should generate a spirit of rancour or contempt towards others on +account of the religion they profess. + +There are, on the contrary, circumstances, which have a tendency to +produce an opposite effect. + +I see, in the first place, no reason why the general spirit of +benevolence to man in his temporal capacity, which runs through the +whole society, should not be admitted as having some power in checking a +bitter spirit towards him in his religious character. + +I see again, that the sufferings, which the Quakers so often undergo on +account of their religious opinions, ought to have an influence with +them in making them tender towards others on the same subject. Virgil, +who was a great master of the human mind, makes the queen of Carthage +say to Aeneas, "Haud ignara mali, miseris succurere disco," or, "not +unacquainted with misfortunes myself, I learn to succour the +unfortunate." So one would hope that the Quakers, of all other people, +ought to know how wrong it is to be angry with another for his religion. + +With respect to that part of the trait, which relates to speaking +acrimoniously of other sects, there are particular circumstances in the +customs and discipline of the Quakers, which seem likely to prevent it. + +It is a law of the society, enforced by their discipline, as I shewed in +a former volume, that no Quaker is to be guilty of detraction or +slander. Any person, breaking this law, would come under admonition, if +found out. This induces an habitual caution or circumspection in speech, +where persons are made the subject of conversation. And I have no doubt +that this law would act as a preventive in the case before us. + +It is not a custom, again, with the Quakers, to make religion a subject +of common talk. Those, who know them, know well how difficult it is to +make them converse, either upon their own faith, or upon the faith of +others. They believe, that topics on religion, familiarly introduced, +tend to weaken its solemnity upon the mind. They exclude subjects also +from ordinary conversation upon another principle. For they believe, +that religion should not be introduced at these times, unless it can be +made edifying. But, if it is to be made edifying, it is to come, they +conceive, not through the medium of the activity of the imagination of +man, but through the passiveness of the soul under the influence of the +Divine Spirit. + + +SECT. III. + +_Trait of benevolence includes again a tender feeling toward the brute +creation--Quakers remarkable for their tenderness to animals--This +feature produced from their doctrine, that animals are not mere +machines, but the creatures of God, the end of whose existence is always +to be attended to in their treatment--and from their opinion as to what +ought to be the influence of the Gospel, as recorded in their own +summary_. + + +The word benevolence, when applied to the character of the Quakers, +includes also a tender feeling towards the brute creation. + +It has frequently been observed by those who are acquainted with the +Quakers, that all animals belonging to them are treated with a tender +consideration, and are not permitted to be abused, and that they feel, +in like manner, for those which may be oppressed by others, so that +their conduct is often influenced in some way or other upon such +occasions. + +It will be obvious, in enquiring into the truth of this trait in the +character of the Quakers, that the same principles, which I have +described as co-operating to produce benevolence towards man, are not +applicable to the species in question. But benevolence, when once rooted +in the heart, will grow like a fruitful plant, from whatever causes it +may spring, and enlarge itself in time. The man, who is remarkable for +his kindness towards man, will always be found to extend it towards the +creatures around him. It is an ancient saying, that "a righteous man +regards the life of his beast, but the tender mercies of the wicked are +cruel." + +But, independently of this consideration, there is a principle in the +Quaker constitution, which, if it be attended to, cannot but give birth +to the trait in question. + +It has been shewn in the first Volume, on the subject of the diversions +of the field, that the Quakers consider animals, not as mere machines, +to be used at discretion, but in the sublime light of the creatures of +God, of whose existence the use and intention ought always to be +considered, and to whom rights arise from various causes, any violation +of which is a violation of a moral law. + +This principle, if attended-to by the Quakers, must, as I have just +observed, secure all animals which may belong to them, from oppression. +They must so consider the end of their use, as to defend them from +abuse. They must so calculate their powers and their years, as to shield +them from excessive labour. They must so anticipate their feelings, as +to protect them from pain. They must so estimate their instinct, and +make an allowance for their want of understanding, as not to attach to +their petty mischiefs the necessity of an unbecoming revenge. They must +act towards them, in short, as created for special ends, and must +consider themselves as their guardians, that these ends may not be +perverted, but attained. + +To this it may be added, that the printed summary of the religion of the +society constantly stares them in the face, in which it is recorded, +what ought to be the influence of Christianity on this subject. "We are +also clearly of the judgment, that, if the benevolence of the Gospel +were generally prevalent in the minds of men, it would even influence +their conduct in the treatment of the brute creation, which would no +longer groan, the victims of their avarice, or of their false ideas of +pleasure." + + + + +CHAP. IV. + +_Second trait is that of complacency of mind or quietness of +character--This trait confirmed by circumstances in their education, +discipline, and public worship, which are productive of quiet personal +habits--and by their disuse of the diversions of the world--by the mode +of the settlement of their differences--by their efforts in the +subjugation of the will--by their endeavour to avoid all activity of +mind during their devotional exercises--all of which are productive of a +quiet habitude of mind_. + + +A second trait in the character of the Quakers is that of complacency, +or evenness, or quietness of mind and manner. + +This trait is, I believe, almost as generally admitted by the world, as +that of benevolence. It is a matter of frequent observation, that you +seldom see an irascible Quaker. And it is by no means uncommon to hear +persons, when Quakers are the subject of conversation, talking of the +mysteries of their education, or wondering how it happens, that they +should be able to produce in their members such a calmness and quietness +of character. + +There will be no difficulty in substantiating this second trait. + +There are circumstances, in the first place, in the constitution of the +Quaker system, which, as it must have already appeared, must be +generative of quiet personal habits. Among these may be reckoned their +education. They are taught, in early youth, to rise in the morning in +quietness, to go about their ordinary occupations in quietness, and to +retire in quietness to their beds. We may reckon also their discipline. +They are accustomed by means of this, when young, to attend the monthly +and quarterly meetings, which are often of long continuance. Here they +are obliged to sit patiently. Here they hear the grown up members of the +society speak in order, and without any interruption of one another. We +may reckon again their public worship. Here they are accustomed +occasionally to silent meetings, or to sit quietly for a length of time, +when not a word is spoken. + +There are circumstances again in the constitution of the Quakers, which +are either preventive of mental activity, and excitement of passion, or +productive of a quiet habitude of mind. Forbidden the use of cards, and +of music, and of dancing, and of the theatre, and of novels, it must be +obvious, that they cannot experience the same excitement of the +passions, as they who are permitted the use of these common amusements +of the world. In consequence of an obligation to have recourse to +arbitration, as the established mode of decision in the case of +differences with one another, they learn to conduct themselves with +temper and decorum in exasperating cases. They avoid, in consequence, +the frenzy of him who has recourse to violence, and the turbid state of +mind of him who engages in suits at law. It may be observed also, that +if, in early youth, their evil passions are called forth by other +causes, it is considered as a duty to quell them. The early subjugation +of the will is insisted upon in all genuine Quaker families. The +children of Quakers are rebuked, as I have had occasion to observe, for +all expressions of anger, as tending to raise those feelings, which +ought to be suppressed. A raising even of their voice is discouraged, as +leading to the disturbance of their minds. This is done to make them +calm and passive, that they may be in a state to receive the influence +of the pure principle. It may be observed again, that in their meetings +for worship, whether silent or vocal, they endeavour to avoid all +activity of the mind for the same reason. + +These different circumstances then, by producing quiet personal habits +on the one hand, and quiet mental ones on the other, concur in producing +a complacency of mind and manner, so that a Quaker is daily as it were +at school, as far as relates to the formation of a quiet character. + + + + +CHAP. V. + +_Third trait is, that they do not temporize, or do that which they +believe to be improper as a body of Christians--Subjects, in which this +trait is conspicuous--Civil oaths--Holy or consecrated days--War--Tithes +--Language--Address--Public illuminations--Utility of this trait to the +Quaker character._ + + +It is a third trait in the character of the Quakers, that they refuse to +do whatever as a religious body they believe to be wrong. + +I shall have no occasion to state any of the remarks of the world to +shew their belief of the existence of this trait, nor to apply to +circumstances within the Quaker constitution to confirm it. The trait is +almost daily conspicuous in some subject or another. It is kept alive by +their discipline. It is known to all who know Quakers. I shall satisfy +myself therefore with a plain historical relation concerning it. + +It has been an established rule with the Quakers, from the formation of +their society, not to temporize, or to violate their consciences, or, in +other words, not to do that which as a body of Christians they believe +to be wrong, though the usages of the world, or the government of the +country under which they live, should require it, but rather to submit +to the frowns and indignation of the one, and the legal penalties +annexed to their disobedience by the other. This suffering in preference +of the violation of their consciences, is what the Quakers call "the +bearing of their testimony," or a demonstration to the world, by the +"testimony of their own example," that they consider it to be the duty +of Christians rather to suffer, than to have any concern with that which +they conceive to be evil. + +The Quakers, in putting this principle into practice, stand, I believe, +alone. For I know of no other Christians, who as a body[34] pay this +homage to their scruples, or who determine upon an ordeal of suffering +in preference of a compromise with their ease and safety. + +[Footnote 34: The Moravians, I believe, protest against war upon +scriptural grounds. But how far in this, or in any other case, they bear +a testimony, like the Quakers, by suffering, I do not know.] + +The subjects, in which this trait is conspicuous, are of two kinds, +first as they relate to things enjoined by the government, and secondly +as they relate to things enjoined by the customs or fashions of the +world. + +In the first case there was formerly much more suffering than there is +at present, though the Quakers still refuse a compliance with as many +injunctions of the law as they did in their early times. + +It has been already stated that they refused, from the very institution +of their society, to take a civil oath. The sufferings, which they +underwent in consequence, have been explained also. But happily, by the +indulgence of the legislature, they are no longer persecuted for this +scruple, though they still persevere in it, their affirmation having +been made equal to an oath in civil cases. + +It has been stated again, that they protested against the religious +observance of many of those days, which the government of the country +for various considerations had ordered to be kept as holy. In +consequence of this they were grievously oppressed in the early times of +their history. For when their shops were found open on Christmas day, +and on Good Friday, and on the different fast-days which had been +appointed, they were taken up and punished by the magistrates on the one +hand, and insulted and beaten by the people on the other. But, +notwithstanding this ill usage, they persevered as rigidly in the +non-observance of particular days and times, as in their non-compliance +with oaths, and they still persevere in it. It does not appear, however, +that their bearing of their testimony in this case is any longer a +source of much vexation or trouble to them: for though the government of +the country still sanctions the consecration of particular days, and, +the great majority of the people join in it, there seems, to have been a +progressive knowledge or civilization in both, which has occasioned them +to become tender on account of this singular deviation from their own +practice. + +But though the Quakers have been thus relieved by the legislature, and +by the more mild and liberal disposition of the people, from so much +suffering in bearing their testimony on the two occasions which have +been mentioned, yet there are others, where the laws of government are +concerned, on which they find themselves involved in a struggle between +the violation of their consciences and a state of suffering, and where +unfortunately there is no remedy at hand, without the manifestation of +greater partiality towards them, than it may be supposed an equal +administration of justice to all would warrant. + +Hie first of these occasions is when military service, is enjoined. The +Quakers, when drawn for the militia, refuse either to serve, or to +furnish substitutes. For this refusal they come under the cognizance of +the laws. Their property, where they have any, is of course distrained +upon, and a great part of a little substance is sometimes taken from +them on, this account. Where they have not distrainable property, which +is occasionally the case, they never fly, but submit to the known +punishment, and go patiently to prison. The legislature, however, has +not been inattentive to the Quakers even upon this occasion; for it has +limited their confinement to three months. The government also of the +country afforded lately, in a case in which the Quakers were concerned, +an example of attention to religious scruples upon this subject. In the +late bill for arming the country _en masse_, both the Quakers and the +Moravians were exempted from military service. This homage to religious +principle did the authors of these exemptions the highest honour. And it +certainly becomes the Quakers to be grateful for this unsolicited +favour; and as it was bestowed upon them upon the full belief that they +were the people they professed themselves, they should be particularly +careful that they do not, by any inconsistency of conduct, tarnish the +high reputation, which has been attached to them by the government under +which they live. + +The second occasion is, when tithes or other dues are demanded by the +church. The Quakers refuse the payment of these upon principles, which +have been already explained. They come of course again under the +cognizance of the laws. Their property is annually distrained upon by +warrant from justices of the peace, where the demand does not exceed the +value of ten pounds, and this is their usual suffering in this case. But +there have not been wanting instances where an unusual hardness, of +heart has suggested a process, still allowable by the law, which has +deprived them of all their property, and consigned them for life to the +habitation of a prison.[35] + +[Footnote 35: One died, not a great while ago, in York Castle, and +others, who were confined with him, would have shared his fate, but for +the interference of the king. + +It is surprising, that the clergy should not unite in promoting a bill +in parliament, to extend the authority of the justices to grant warrants +of distraint for tithes to more than the value of ten pounds, and to any +amount, as this is the most cheap and expeditious way for themselves. If +they apply to the ecclesiastical courts, they can enforce no payment of +their tithes then. They can put the poor Quaker into prison, but they +cannot obtain their debt. If they apply to the exchequer, they may find +themselves, at the conclusion of their suit, and this after a delay of +three years, liable to the payment of extra costs, to the amount of +forty or fifty pounds, with which they cannot charge the Quaker, though +they may confine him for life. Some, to my knowledge, have been glad to +abandon these suits, and put up with the costs, incurred in them; rather +than continue them. Recourse to such courts occasion the clergy +frequently to be charged with cruelty, when, if they had only understood +their own interests better, they would have avoided them.] + +But it is not only in cases, of which the laws of the land take +cognizance, that the Quakers prefer suffering to doing that which their +consciences disapprove. There are other cases, connected, as I observed +before, with the opinion of the world, where they exhibit a similar +example. If they believe any custom or fashion of the world to be evil +in itself, or to be attended with evil, neither popular applause nor +popular fury can make them follow it, but they think it right to bear +their testimony against it by its disuse, and to run the hazard of all +the ridicule, censure, or persecution, which may await them for so +doing. + +In these cases, as in the former, it must be observed, that the +sufferings of the Quakers have been much diminished, though they still +refuse a compliance in as many instances as formerly, with the fashions +of the world. + +It was stated in the first volume, that they substituted the word Thou +for You, in order that they might avoid by their words, as well as by +their actions, any appearance of flattery to men. It was stated also, +that they suffered on this account; that many magistrates, before whom +they were carried in the early times of their institution, occasioned +their punishment to be more severe, and that they were often abused and +beaten by others, and put in danger of their lives. This persecution, +however, for this singularity in their language, has long ceased; and +the substitution of Thou for You is now only considered as an innocent +distinction between Quakers and other people. + +It was stated again in the same volume, that the Quakers abstained from +the usual address of the world, such as from pulling off their hats, and +from bowing the body, and from their ceremonious usages. It was +explained also, that they did this upon two principles. First, because, +as such ceremonies were no real marks of obeisance, friendship or +respect, they ought to be discouraged by a people, whose religion +required that no image should be held out, which was not a faithful +picture of its original, and that no action should be resorted to, which +was not correspondent with the feelings of the heart. Secondly, because +all such ceremonies were of a complimentary or flattering nature, and +were expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ. It was stated also, that, on +account of their rejection of such outward usages, their hats were +forcibly taken from their heads and thrown away; that they were beaten +and imprisoned on this sole account; and that the world refused to deal +with them as tradesmen, in consequence of which many could scarcely +supply their families with bread. But this deviation from the general +practice, though it still characterizes the members of this society, is +no longer a source of suffering. Magistrates sometimes take care that +their hats shall be taken gently from their heads on public occasions, +and private persons expect now no such homage from Quakers, when they +meet them. + +There is, however, a custom, against which the Quakers anciently bore +their testimony, and against which they continue to bear it, which +subjects them occasionally to considerable inconvenience and loss. In +the case of a general illumination, they never light up their houses, +but have the courage to be singular in this respect, whatever may be the +temper of the mob. + +They believe that the practice of general illuminations cannot be +adopted consistently by persons, who are lovers of the truth. They +consider it as no certain criterion of joy. For, in the first place, how +many light up their houses, whose hearts are overwhelmed with sorrow? +And, in the second place, the event which is celebrated, may not always +be a matter of joy to good minds. The birth-day of a prince, for +example, may be ushered in as welcome, and the celebration of it may +call his actions to mind, upon which a reflection may produce pleasure, +but the celebration of the slaughter or devastation of mankind can +afford no happiness to the Christian. + +They consider the practice again, accompanied as it is with all its +fiery instruments, as dangerous and cruel. For how many accidents have +happened, and how many lives have been lost upon such occasions? + +They consider it again as replete with evil. The wild uproar which it +creates, the mad and riotous joy which it produces, the licentiousness +which it favours, the invidious comparisons which it occasions, the +partial favour which it fixes on individuals who have probably no moral +merit, the false joys which it holds out, and the enmity which it has on +some occasions a tendency to perpetuate; are so many additional +arguments against it in the opinion of the Quakers. + +For these and other reasons they choose not to submit to the custom, but +to bear their testimony against it, and to run the hazard of having +their windows broken, or their houses pillaged, as the populace may +dictate: And in the same manner, if there be any other practice, in +which the world may expect them to coincide, they reject it, fearless of +the consequences, if they believe it to be productive of evil. + +This noble practice of bearing testimony, by which a few individuals +attempt to stem the torrent of immorality by opposing themselves to its +stream, and which may be considered as a living martyrdom, does, in a +moral point of view, a great deal of good to those, who conscientiously +adopt it. It recalls first principles to their minds. It keeps in their +remembrance the religious rights of man. It teaches them to reason upon +principle, and to make their estimates by a moral standard. It is +productive both of patience and of courage. It occasions them to be kind +and attentive, and merciful to those who are persecuted and oppressed. +It throws them into the presence of the Divinity when they are +persecuted themselves. In short, it warms their moral feelings, and +elevates their religious thoughts. Like oil, it keeps them from rusting. +Like a whetstone, it gives them a new edge. Take away this practice from +the constitution of the Quakers, and you pull down a considerable +support of their moral character. It is a great pity that, as professing +Christians, we should not, more of us, incorporate this noble principle +individually into our religion. We concur unquestionably in customs, +through the fear of being reputed singular, of which our hearts do not +always approve, though nothing is more true, than that a Christian is +expected to be singular with respect to the corruptions of the world. +What an immensity of good would be done, if cases of persons, choosing +rather to suffer than to temporize, were so numerous as to attract the +general notice of men! Would not every case of suffering operate as one +of the most forcible lessons that could be given to those who should see +it? And how long would that infamous system have to live, which makes a +distinction between political expediency and moral right? + + + + +CHAP. VI. + +_A fourth trait is, that, in political affairs, they reason upon +principle, and not from consequences--This mode of reasoning insures the +adoption of the maxim of not doing evil that good may come--Had Quakers +been legislators, many public evils had been avoided, which are now +known in the world--Existence of this trait probable from the influence +of the former trait--and from the influence of the peculiar customs of +the Quakers--and from the influence of their system of discipline upon +their minds._ + + +The next trait, which I shall lay open to the world as belonging to the +Quaker character, is, that in all those cases, which may be called +political, the Quakers generally reason upon principle, and but seldom +upon consequences. + +I do not know of any trait, which ever impressed me more than this in +all my intercourse with the members of this society. It was one of those +which obtruded itself to my notice on my first acquaintance with them, +and it has continued equally conspicuous to the present time. + +If an impartial philosopher, from some unknown land, and to whom our +manners, and opinions, and history, were unknown, were introduced +suddenly into our metropolis, and were to converse with the Quakers +there on a given political subject, and to be directly afterwards +conveyed to the west end of the town, and there to converse with +politicians, or men of fashion, or men of the world, upon the same, he +could not fail to be greatly surprised. If he thought the former wise, +or virtuous, or great, he would unavoidably consider the latter as +foolish, or vicious, or little. Two such opposite conclusions, as he +would hear deduced from the reasonings of each, would impress him with +an idea, that he had been taken to a country inhabited by two different +races of men. He would never conceive, that they had been educated in +the same country, or under the same government. If left to himself, he +would probably imagine, that they had embraced two different religions. +But if he were told that they professed the same, he would then say, +that the precepts of this religion had been expressed in such doubtful +language, that they led to two sets of principles contradictory to one +another. I need scarcely inform the reader, that I allude to the two +opposite conclusions, which will almost always be drawn, where men +reason from motives of policy or from moral right. + +If it be true that the Quakers reason upon principle in political +affairs, and not upon consequences, it will follow as a direct +inference, that they will adopt the Christian maxim, that men ought not +to do evil that good may come. And this is indeed the maxim, which you +find them adopting in the course of their conversation on such subjects, +and which I believe they would have uniformly adopted, if they had been +placed in political situations in life. Had the Quakers been the +legislators of the world, we should never have seen many of the public +evils that have appeared in it. It was thought formerly, for example, a +glorious thing to attempt to drive Paganism from the Holy Land, but +Quakers would never have joined in any of the crusades for its +expulsion. It has been long esteemed, again, a desideratum in politics, +that among nations, differing in strength and resources, a kind of +balance of power should be kept up, but Quakers would never have engaged +in any one war to preserve it. It has been thought again, that it would +contribute to the happiness of the natives of India, if the blessings of +the British constitution could be given them instead of their own. But +Quakers would never have taken possession of their territories for, the +accomplishment of such a good. It has been long thought again a matter +of great political importance, that our West-Indian settlements should +be cultivated by African labourers. But Quakers would never have +allowed a slave-trade for such a purpose. It has been thought again, and +it is still thought, a desirable thing, that our property should be +secured from the petty depredations of individuals. But Quakers would +never have consented to capital punishments for such an end. In short, +few public evils would have arisen among mankind, if statesmen had +adopted the system, upon which the Quakers reason in political affairs, +or if they had concurred with an ancient Grecian philosopher in +condemning to detestation the memory of the man, who first made a +distinction between expediency and moral right. + +[36]That this trait of reasoning upon principle, regardless of the +consequences, is likely to be a feature in the character of the Quakers, +we are warranted in pronouncing, when we discover no less than three +circumstances in the constitution of the Quakers, which may be causes in +producing it. + +[Footnote 36: The Sierra Leone Company, which was founded for laudable +purposes, ought have been filled by Quakers; but when they understood +that there was to be a fort and depot of arms in the settlement, they +declined becoming proprietors.] + +This trait seems, in the first place, to be the direct and legitimate +offspring of the trait explained in the last chapter. For every time a +Quaker is called upon to bear his testimony by suffering, whether in the +case of a refusal to comply with the laws, or with the customs and +fashions of the land, he is called upon to refer to his own conscience, +against his own temporal interest, and against the opinion of the world. +The moment he gives up principle for policy in the course of his +reasoning upon such occasions, then he does as many others do, that is, +he submits to the less inconvenience, and then he ceases to be a Quaker. +But while he continues to bear his testimony, it is a proof that he +makes expediency give way to what he imagines to be right. The bearing +therefore of testimony, where it is conscientiously done, is the parent, +as it is also the bulwark and guardian of reasoning upon principle. It +throws out a memento whenever it is practised, and habituates the +subject of it to reason in this manner. But this trait is nourished and +supported again by other causes, and first by the influence, which the +peculiar customs of the Quakers must occasionally have upon their minds. +A Quaker cannot go out of doors, but he is reminded of his own +singularity, or of his difference in a variety of respects from his +fellow-citizens. Now every custom, in which he is singular, whether it +be that of dress or of language, or of address, or any other, is +founded, in his own mind, on moral principle, and in direct opposition +to popular opinion and applause. He is therefore perpetually reminded, +in almost all his daily habits, of the two opposite systems of +reasoning, and is perpetually called upon as it were to refer to the +principles, which originally made the difference between him and another +citizen of the world. + +Neither has the discipline of the Quakers a less tendency to the +production of the trait in question. For the business, which is +transacted in the monthly and quarterly and yearly meetings, is +transacted under the deliberations of grave and serious men, who +consider themselves as frequently under the divine influence, or as +spiritually guided on such occasions. In such assemblies it would be +thought strange if any sentiment were uttered, which savoured of +expediency in opposition to moral right. The youth therefore, who are +present, see no other determination of any question than by a religious +standard. Hence these meetings operate as schools, in which they are +habituated to reason upon principle, and to the exclusion of all worldly +considerations, which may suggest themselves in the discussion of any +point. + + + + +CHAP. VII. + +_A fifth trait is, that they have an extraordinary independence of +mind--This probable, because the result of the farmer trait--because +likely to be produced by their discipline--by their peculiar custom--and +by their opinions on the supposed dignity of situations in life--because +again, they are not vulnerable by the seduction of governments--or by +the dominion of the church--or by the power of fashion and of the +opinion of the world._ + + +The next trait, conspicuous in the character of the Quakers, and which +is nearly allied to the former, is that of independence of mind. + +This trait is of long standing, having been coeval with the society +itself. It was observed by Cromwell, that "he could neither win the +Quakers by money, nor by honours, nor by places, as he could other +people." A similar opinion is entertained of them at the present day. +For of all people it is generally supposed that they are the least +easily worked upon, or the least liable to be made tools or instruments +in the bands of others. Who, for example, could say, on any +electioneering occasion, whatever his riches might be, that he could +command their votes? + +There will be no difficulty in believing this to be a real feature in +the character of the Quakers. For when men are accustomed to refer +matters to their reason, and to reason upon principle, they will always +have an independence of mind, from a belief that they are right. And +wherever it be a maxim with them not to do evil that good may come, they +will have a similar independence from a consciousness, that they have +never put themselves into the power of the world. Hence this +independence of mind must be a result of the trait explained in the +former chapter. + +But in looking into the constitution of the Quakers, we shall find it +full of materials for the production of this noble trait. + +Their discipline has an immediate tendency to produce it. For in no +community does a man feel himself so independent as a man. A Quaker is +called upon in his own society to the discharge of important offices. He +sits as a representative, a legislator, and a judge. In looking round +him, he finds all equal in privileges, but none superior, to himself. + +Their peculiar customs have the same tendency, for they teach them to +value others, who are not of the society, by no higher standard than +that by which they estimate themselves. They neither pull off their +hats, nor bow, nor scrape. In their speech they abstain from the use of +flattering words and of titles. In their letters, they never subscribe +themselves the humble servants of any one. They never use, in short, any +action or signature, which, serving as a mark of elevation to others, +has any influence towards the degradation of themselves. + +Their opinions also upon the supposed dignity of situations in life +contribute towards the promotion of this independence of their minds. + +They value no man, in the first place, on account of his earthly title. +They pay respect to magistrates, and to all the nobility of the land, in +their capacity of legislators, whom the chief magistrate has appointed; +but they believe that the mere letters in a schedule of parchment can +give no more intrinsic worth to a person, than they possess themselves, +and they think with Juvenal, that "the only true nobility is virtue." +Hence titles, in the glare of which some people lose the dignity of +their vision, have no magical effect upon Quakers. + +They value no man again on account of the antiquity of his family +exploits. They believe, that there are people now living in low and +obscure situations, whose ancestors performed in the childhood of +history, when it was ignorant and incapable of perpetuating traditions, +as great feats as those, which in its greater maturity it has recorded. +And as far as these exploits of antiquity may be such as were performed +in wars, they would not be valued by them as ornaments to men, of whose +worth they can only judge by their virtuous or their Christian +character. + +They value no man again on account of the antiquity of his ancestry. +Believing revelation to contain the best account of the rise of man, +they consider all families as equally old in their origin, because they +believe them to have sprung from the same two parents, as their common +source. + +But this independence of mind, which is said to belong to the Quakers, +may be fostered again by other circumstances, some of which are peculiar +to themselves. + +Many men allow the independence of their minds to be broken by an +acceptance of the honours offered to them by the governments, under +which they live; but no Quaker could accept of any of the honours of the +world. + +Others allow the independence of their minds to be invaded by the +acceptance of places and pensions from the same quarter. But Quakers, +generally speaking, are in a situation too independent in consequence +of their industry, to need any support of this kind; and no Quaker could +accept it on the terms on which it is usually given. + +Others again suffer their opinions to be fettered by the authority of +ecclesiastical dominion, but the Quakers have broken all such chains. +They depend upon no minister of the Gospel for their religion, nor do +they consider the priesthood, as others do, as a distinct order of men. + +Others again come under the dominion of fashion and of popular opinion, +so that they dare only do that which they see others do, or are hurried +from one folly to another, without having the courage to try to resist +the stream. But the life of a Quaker is a continual state of +independence in this respect, being a continual protest against many of +the customs and opinions of the world. + +I shall now only observe upon this subject, that this trait of +independence of mind, which is likely to be generated by some, and which +is preserved by other of the causes which have been mentioned, is not +confined to a few members, but runs through the society. It belongs to +the poor as well as to the rich, and to the servants of a family as well +as to those who live in poverty by themselves. If a poor Quaker were to +be introduced to a man of rank, he would neither degrade himself by +flattery on the one hand, nor by any unbecoming submission on the +other. He would neither be seduced into that which was wrong, nor +intimidated from doing that which was right, by the splendour or +authority of appearances about him. He would still preserve the +independence of his mind, though he would behave with respect. You would +never be able to convince him, that he had been talking with a person, +who had been fashioned differently from himself. This trait of +independence cannot but extend itself to the poor. For having the same +rights and privileges in the discipline, and the same peculiar customs, +and the same views of men and manners as the rest of the society, a +similar disposition must be found in these, unless it be counteracted by +other causes. But as Quaker servants, who live in genuine Quaker +families, wear no liveries, nor any badges of poverty or servitude, +there is nothing in the opposite scale to produce an opposite feature in +their character. + + + + +CHAP. VIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_A sixth trait is that of courage--This includes, first, courage in +life--Courage not confined to military exploits--Quakers seldom +intimidated or abashed--dare to say what they think--and to do what +they believe to be right--This trait may arise from that of bearing +their testimony--and from those circumstances which produced +independence of mind--and from the peculiar customs of the society_. + + +Another trait in the character of the Quakers, which is nearly allied to +independence of mind, is courage. This courage is conspicuous both in +life and in the hour of death. That, which belongs to the former +instance, I shall consider first. + +If courage in life were confined solely to military exploits, the +Quakers would have no pretensions to this character. But courage +consists of presence of mind in many situations of peril different from +those in war. It consists often in refusing to do that which is wrong, +in spite of popular opinion. Hence the man, who refuses a challenge, and +whom men of honour would brand with cowardice on that account, may have +more real courage in so doing, and would have it in the estimation of +moral men, than the person who sends it. It may consist also in an +inflexible perseverance in doing that which is right, when persecution +is to follow. Such was the courage of martyrdom. As courage then may +consist in qualities different from that of heroism, we shall see what +kind of courage it is that has been assigned to the Quakers, and how far +they may be expected to be entitled to such a trait. + +There is no question, in the first place, that Quakers have great +presence of mind on difficult and trying occasions. To frighten or to +put them off their guard would be no easy task. Few people have ever +seen an innocent Quaker disconcerted or abashed. + +They have the courage also to dare to say, at all times and in all +places, what they believe to be right. + +I might appeal for the truth of this, as far as the early Quakers are +concerned, to the different conversations which George Fox had with +Oliver Cromwell, or to the different letters which be wrote to him as +protector, or to those which he afterwards wrote to king Charles the +second. + +I might appeal again to the address of Edward Burroughs to the same +monarch. + +I might appeal again to the bold but respectful language, which the +early Quakers used to the magistrates, when they were carried before +them, and to the intrepid and dignified manner in which they spoke to +their judges, in the coarse of the numerous trials to which they were +brought in those early times. + +I might appeal also to Barclay's address to the king, which stands at +the head of his Apology. + +"As it is inconsistent, says Barclay to king Charles the second, with +the truth I bear, so it is far from me to use this letter as an engine +to flatter thee, the usual design of such works, and therefore I can +neither dedicate it to thee, nor crave thy patronage, as if thereby I +might have more confidence to present it to the world, or be more +hopeful of its success. To God alone I owe what I have, and that more +immediately in matters spiritual, and therefore to him alone, and the +service of his truth, I dedicate whatever work he may bring forth in me, +to whom only the praise and honour appertain, whose truth needs not the +patronage of worldly princes; his arm and power being that alone by +which it is propagated, established, and confirmed." + +And farther on, he says, "Thou hast tasted of prosperity and adversity; +thou knowest what it is to be banished thy native country, to be +overruled, as well as to rule, and to sit upon the throne; and, being +oppressed, thou hast reason to know how hateful the oppression is both +to God and man. If, after all these warnings and advertisements, thou +dost not turn unto the Lord with all thy heart, but forget him who +remembered thee in distress, and give up thyself to follow lust and +vanity; surely great will be thy condemnation." + +And this courage to dare to say what they believe to be right, as it was +an eminent feature in the character of the primitive, so it is +unquestionably a trait in that of the modern Quakers. They use no +flattery even in the presence of the king; and when the nation has +addressed him in favour of new wars, the Quakers have sometimes had the +courage to oppose the national voice on such an occasion, and to go +before the same great personage, and in a respectful and dignified +manner, to deliver a religious petition against the shedding of human +blood. + +They have the courage also to dare to do as well as to say what they +consider to be right. + +It is recorded of the early Quakers, that, in the times of the hottest +persecution, they stood to their testimony in the places appointed for +their worship. They never assembled in private rooms, or held private +conventicles, employing persons to watch at the doors, to keep out spies +and informers, or to prevent surprise from the magistrates. But they +worshipped always in public, and with their doors open. Nor, when armed +men were sent to dissolve their meetings, did they ever fly, but, on +the summons to break up and depart, they sat motionless, and, regardless +of threats and blows, never left their devotions, but were obliged to be +dragged out, one by one, from their places. And even when their +meeting-houses were totally destroyed by the magistrates, they sometimes +met the next meeting-day, and worshipped publicly on the ruins, +notwithstanding, they knew that they were subject by so doing, to fines, +and scourges, and confinements, and banishment, and that, like many +others of their members who had been persecuted, they might die in +prison. + +This courage of the early Quakers has descended as far as circumstances +will allow us to judge, to their posterity, or to those who profess the +same faith. For happily, on account of the superior knowledge which has +been diffused among us since those times, and on account of the progress +of the benign influence of Christianity, both of which may be supposed +to have produced among the members of our legislature a spirit of +liberality in religion, neither the same trials; nor the same number of +them, can be afforded for the courage of the modern Quakers, as were +afforded for that of the Quakers of former days. But as far as there are +trials, the former exhibit courage proportioned to their weight. This +has been already conspicuous in the bearing of their testimony, either +in those cases where they run the hazard of suffering by opposing the +customs of the world, or where, by refusing a compliance with legal +demands which they believe to be antichristian, they actually suffer. +Nor are these sufferings often slight, when we consider that they may be +made, even in these days of toleration, to consist of confinement, as +the law now stands, for years, and it may happen even for life, in +prison. + +This trait of courage in life, which has been attached to the character +of the Quakers, is the genuine offspring of the trait of "the bearing of +their testimony." For by their testimony it becomes their religion to +suffer, rather than comply with many of the laws and customs of the +land. But every time they get through their sufferings, if they suffer +conscientiously, they gain a victory, which gives them courage to look +other sufferings in the face, and to bid defiance to other persecutions. + +This trait is generated again by all those circumstances which have been +enumerated, as producing the quality of independence of mind, and it is +promoted again by the peculiar customs of the society. For a Quaker is a +singular object among his countrymen. His dress, his language, and his +customs mark him. One person looks at him. Another perhaps derides him. +He must summon resolution, or he cannot stir out of doors and be +comfortable. Resolution, once summoned, begets resolution again, till at +length he acquires habits superior to the looks and frowns, and +ridicule, of the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_The trait of courage includes also courage in death--This trait +probably--from the lives which the Quakers lead--and from circumstances +connected with their religious faith_. + + +The trait of courage includes also courage in death, or it belongs to +the character of the Quakers, that they shew great indifference with +respect to death, or that they possess great intrepidity, when sensible +of the approach of it. + +I shall do no more on this subject, than state what may be the causes of +this trait. + +The dissolution of all our vital organs, and of the cessation to be, so +that we move no longer upon the face of the earth, and that our places +know us no more, or the idea of being swept away suddenly into eternal +oblivion, and of being as though we had never been, cannot fail of +itself of producing awful sensations upon our minds. But still more +awful will these be, where men believe in a future state, and where, +believing in future rewards and punishments, they contemplate what may +be their allotment in eternity. There are considerations, however, which +have been found to support men, even under these awful reflections, and +to enable them to meet with intrepidity their approaching end. + +It may certainly be admitted, that, in proportion as we cling to the +things of the world, we shall be less willing to leave them, which may +induce an appearance of fear with respect to departing out of life; and +that, in proportion as we deny the world and its pleasures, or mortify +the affections of the flesh, we shall be more willing to exchange our +earthly for spiritual enjoyments, which may induce an appearance of +courage with respect to death. + +It may be admitted again, that, in proportion as we have filled our +moral stations in life, that is, as we have done justly, and loved +mercy, and this not only with respect to our fellow-creature man, but to +the different creatures of God, there will be a conscious rectitude +within us, which will supply us with courage, when we believe ourselves +called upon to leave them. + +It may be admitted again, that, in proportion as we have endeavoured to +follow the divine commands, as contained in the sacred writings, and as +we have followed these through faith, fearless of the opinions and +persecutions of men, so as to have become sufferers for the truth, we +shall have less fear or more courage, when we suppose the hour of our +dissolution to be approaching. + +Now, without making any inviduous comparisons, I think it will follow +from hence, when we consider the Quakers to be persons of acknowledged +moral character, when we know that they deny themselves for the sake of +becoming purer beings, the ordinary pleasures and gratifications of the +world, and when almost daily experience testifies to us, that they +prefer bearing their testimony, or suffering as a Christian body, to a +compliance with customs, which they conceive the Christian religion to +disapprove, that they will have as fair pretensions to courage in the +hour of death, as any other people, as a body, from the same causes. + +There are other circumstances, however, which may be taken into +consideration in this account, and, in looking over these, I find none +of more importance than those which relate to the religious creeds which +may be professed by individuals or communities of men. + +Much, in the first place, will depend upon the circumstance, how far men +are doubtful and wavering in their creeds, or how far they depend upon +others for their faith, or how far, in consequence of reasoning or +feeling, they depend upon themselves. If their creeds are not in their +own power, they will be liable to be troubled with every wind of +doctrine that blows, and to be unhappy, when the thought of their +dissolution is brought before them. But the Quakers, having broken the +power or dominion of the priesthood, what terrors can fanaticism hold +out to them, which shall appal their courage in their later hours? + +It is also of great importance to men what may be the nature of their +creeds. Some creeds are unquestionably more comfortable to the mind than +others. To those, who believe in the doctrine of election and +reprobation, and imagine themselves to be of the elect, no creed can +give greater courage in the hour of death; and to those who either doubt +or despair of their election, none can inspire more fear. But the +Quakers, on the other hand, encourage the doctrine of perfection, or +that all may do the will of God, if they attend to the monitions of his +grace. They believe that God is good, and just, and merciful; that he +visits all with a view to this perfection without exception of persons; +that he enables all, through the sacrifice of Christ, to be saved; and +that he will make an allowance for all according to his attributes; for +that he is not willing that any should perish, but that all should +inherit eternal life. + + + + +CHAP. IX. + +_Last good trait is that of punctuality to words and engagements--This +probable from the operation of all those principles, which have produced +for the Quakers the character of a moral people--and from the operation +of their discipline._ + + +The last good trait, which I shall notice in the character of the +Quakers, is that of punctuality to their words and engagements. + +This is a very ancient trait. Judge Forster entertained this opinion of +George Fox, that if he would consent to give his word for his +appearance, he would keep it. Trusted to go at large without any bail, +and solely on his bare word, that he would be forth coming on a given +day, he never violated his promise. And he was known also to carry his +own commitment himself. In those days also, it was not unusual for +Quakers to carry their own warrants, unaccompanied by constables or +others, which were to consign them to a prison. + +But it was not only in matters which related to the laws of the land, +where the early Quakers held their words and engagements sacred. This +trait was remarked to be true of them in their concerns in trade. On +their first appearance as a society, they suffered as tradesmen, +because others, displeased with the peculiarity of their manners, +withdrew their custom from their shops. But in a little time, the great +outcry against them was, that they got the trade of the country into +their hands. This outcry arose in part from a strict execution of all +commercial appointments and agreements between them and others, and +because they never asked two prices for the commodities which they sold. +And the same character attaches to them as a commercial body, though +there may be individual exceptions, at the present day. + +Neither has this trait been confined to them as the inhabitants of their +own country. They have carried it with them wherever they have gone. The +treaty of William Penn was never violated. And the estimation, which the +Indians put upon the word of this great man and his companions, +continues to be put by them upon that of the modern Quakers in America, +so that they now come in deputations, out of their own settlements, to +consult them on important occasions. + +The existence of this trait is probable both from general and from +particular considerations. + +If, for example, any number of principles should have acted so forcibly +and in such a manner upon individuals, as to have procured for them as a +body the reputation of a moral people, they must have produced in them a +disposition to keep their faith.[37] + +[Footnote 37: This character was given by Pliny to the first Christians. +They were to avoid fraud, theft, and adultery. They were never to deny +any trust, when required to deliver it up, nor to falsify their word on +any occasion.] + +But the discipline of the Quakers has a direct tendency to produce this +feature in their character, and to make it an appendage of Quakerism. +For punctuality to words and engagements is a subject of one of the +periodical enquiries. It is therefore publicly handed to the notice of +the members, as a Christian virtue, that is expected of them, in their +public meetings for discipline. And any violation in this respect would +be deemed a breach, and cognizable as such, of the Quaker laws. + + + + +CHAP. X. + +_Imperfect traits in the Quaker character--Some of these may be called +intellectually defective traits--First imputation of this kind is, that +the Quakers are deficient in learning compared with other people--This +trait not improbable on account of their devotion to trade--and on +account of their controversies and notions about human learning--and of +other causes._ + + +The world, while it has given to the Quakers as a body, as it will have +now appeared, a more than ordinary share of virtue, has not been without +the belief that there are blemishes in their character. What these +traits or blemishes are, may be collected partly from books, partly from +conversation, and partly from vulgar sayings. They are divisible into +two kinds, into intellectually defective, and into morally defective +traits; the former relating to the understanding, the latter to the +heart. + +The first of the intellectually defective traits consists in the +imputation, that the Quakers are deficient in the cultivation of the +intellect of their children, or that, when they grow up in life, they +are found to have less knowledge than others in the higher branches of +learning. By this I mean, that they are understood to have but a +moderate classical education, to know but little of the different +branches of philosophy, and to have, upon the whole, less variety of +knowledge than others of their countrymen in the corresponding stations +of life. + +This trait seems to have originated with the world in two supposed +facts. The first is, that there has never been any literary writer of +eminence born in the society, Penn, Barclay and others having come into +it by convincement, and brought their learning with them. The second is, +that the society has never yet furnished a philosopher, or produced any +material discovery. It is rather a common remark, that if the education +of others had been as limited as that of the Quaker, we should have been +probably at this day without a Newton, and might have been strangers to +those great discoveries, whether of the art of navigation, or of the +circulation of the blood, or of any other kind, which have proved so +eminently useful to the comfort, health, and safety of many of the human +race. + +This trait will be true, or it will be false, as it is applied to the +different classes, which may be found in the society of the Quakers. The +poor, who belong to it, are all taught to read, and are therefore better +educated than the poor belonging to other bodies of men. They who +spring from parents whose situation does not entitle them to rank with +the middle class, but yet keeps them out of the former, are generally +educated, by the help of a[38] subscription, at Ackworth school, and may +be said to have more school learning than others in a similar situation +in life. The rest, whatever may be their situation, are educated wholly +at the expence of their parents, who send them either to private Quaker +seminaries, or to schools in the neighbourhood, as they judge it to be +convenient or proper. It is upon this body of the Quakers that the +imputation can only fall; and as far as these are concerned, I think it +may be said with truth, that they possess a less portion of what is +usually called liberal knowledge than others in a corresponding station +in life. There may be here and there a good classical, or a good +mathematical scholar. But in general there are but few Quakers, who +excel in these branches of learning. I ought, however, to add, that this +character is not likely to remain long with the society. For the young +Quakers of the present day seem to me to be sensible of the inferiority +of their own education, and to be making an attempt towards the +improvement of their minds, by engaging in those, which are the most +entertaining, instructive, and useful, I mean, philosophical pursuits. + +[Footnote 38: Their parents pay a small annual sum towards their board +and clothing. The rest is made up by a subscription among the society, +and by the funds of the school.] + +That deficiency in literature and science is likely to be a trait in the +character of the Quakers, we may pronounce, if we take into +consideration circumstances which have happened, and notions which have +prevailed, in this society. + +The Quakers, like the Jews of old, whether they be rich or poor, are +brought up, in obedience to their own laws, to some employment. They are +called of course at an early age from their books. It cannot therefore +be expected of them, that they should possess the same literary +character as those who spend years at our universities, or whose time is +not taken up by the concerns of trade. + +It happens also in this society, that persons of the poor and middle +classes are frequently through industry becoming rich. While these were +gaining but a moderate support, they gave their children but a moderate +education. But when they came into possession of a greater substance, +their children had finished their education, having grown up to men. + +The ancient controversy too, relative to the necessity of human learning +as a qualification for ministers of the Gospel, has been detrimental to +the promotion of literature and science among the Quakers. This +controversy was maintained with great warmth and obstinacy on both +sides, that is, by the early Quakers, who were men of learning, on the +one hand, and by the divines of our universities on the other. The less +learned in the society, who read this controversy, did not make the +proper distinction concerning it. They were so interested in keeping up +the doctrine, that learning was not necessary for the priesthood, that +they seemed to have forgotten that it was necessary at all. Hence +knowledge began to be cried down in the society; and though the +proposition was always meant to be true with respect to the priesthood +only, yet many mistook or confounded its meaning, so that they gave +their children but a limited education on that account. + +The opinions also of the Quakers relative to classical authors, have +been another cause of impeding in some degree their progress in +learning, that is, in the classical part of it. They believe these to +have inculcated a system of morality frequently repugnant to that of the +Christian religion. And the Heathen mythology, which is connected with +their writings, and which is fabulous throughout, they conceive to have +disseminated romantic notions among youth, and to have made them +familiar with fictions, to the prejudice of an unshaken devotedness to +the love of truth. + + + + +CHAP. XI. + +_Second trait is, that they are a superstitious people--Circumstances +that have given birth to this trait--Quakerism, where it is understood, +is seldom chargeable with superstition--Where it is misunderstood, it +leads to it--Subjects in which it may be misunderstood are those of the +province of the Spirit--and of dress and language--Evils to be +misapprehended from a misunderstanding of the former subject._ + + +It may seem wonderful at first sight, that persons, who have discarded +an undue veneration for the saints, and the saints days, and the relics +of the Roman Catholic religion, who have had the resolution to reject +the ceremonials of Protestants, such as baptism and the sacrament of the +supper, and who have broken the terrors of the dominion of the +priesthood, should, of all others, be chargeable with superstition. But +so it is. The world has certainly fixed upon them the character of a +superstitious people. Under this epithet much is included. It is +understood that Quakers are more ready than others to receive mystical +doctrines, more apt to believe in marvellous appearances more willing to +place virtue in circumstances, where many would place imposition; and +that, independently of all this, they are more scrupulous with respect +to the propriety of their ordinary movements, waiting for religious +impulses, when no such impulses are expected by other religious people. + +This trait of superstition is an ancient trait in the character of the +Quakers, and has arisen from the following causes. + +It has been long imagined, that where a people devote themselves so +exclusively to the influence of the Spirit as the Quakers appear to do, +they will not be sufficiently on their guard to make the proper +distinctions between imagination and revelation, and that they will be +apt to confound impressions, and to bring the divine Spirit out of its +proper sphere into the ordinary occurrences of their lives. And in this +opinion the world considers itself to have been confirmed by an +expression said to have been long in use among Quakers, which is, "that +they will do such and such things if they have liberty to do them." Now +by this expression the Quakers may mean only, that all human things are +so uncertain, and so many unforeseen events may happen, that they dare +make no promises, but they will do the things in question if no obstacle +should arise to prevent them. And this caution in language runs through +the whole society; for they seldom promise but provisionally in any +case. But the world has interpreted the expression differently, and +maintains that the Quakers mean by it, that they will do such and such +things, if they feel that they have liberty or permission from the +Spirit of God. + +Two other circumstances, which have given birth to this trait in the +character of the Quakers, are the singularities of their dress and +language. For when they are spoken of by the world, they are usually +mentioned under the name of the idolatry or superstition of the Quaker +language, or the idolatry or superstition of the Quaker dress. + +Now this trait, which has originated in the three causes that have been +mentioned, is considered by the world to have been still more confirmed +by a circumstance which happened but a few years ago, namely, that when +animal magnetism was in fashion, there were more of this society worked +upon by these delusions, than of any other. + +With respect to the truth of this trait, I believe it cannot easily be +made out, as for as animal magnetism is concerned. For though +undoubtedly there were Quakers so superstitious as to be led away on +this occasion, yet they were very few in number, and not more in +proportion than others of other religious denominations. The conduct of +these was also considered as reprehensible by the society at large, and +some pains were taken to convince them of their error, and of the +unsuitableness of such doctrines with the religion they professed. + +With respect to the truth of this trait, as it may have existed on other +occasions, it may be laid down as a position generally true, that where +Quakers understand their own constitution, it can have no place among +them. But where they do not understand it, there are few people among +whom it is more likely to exist, as we may see from the following +account. + +It is the doctrine of Quakerism on the subject of the Spirit, that it is +an infallible guide to men in their spiritual concerns. But I do not see +where it is asserted by any of the Quaker writers, that it is to be a +guide to man in all the temporal concerns of his life, or that he is to +depreciate the value of human reason. George Fox was very apprehensive +that even in matters of religion, which constitute the immediate +province of the divine Spirit, men might mistake their own enthusiastic +feelings for revelation; and he censured some, to use his own +expression, "for having gone out into imaginations." The society also +have been apprehensive of the same consequences. Hence one among other +reasons for the institution of the office of elders. It is the duty of +these to watch over the doctrine of the ministers to see that they +preach soundly, and that they do not mistake their own imaginations for +the Spirit of God, and mix his wisdom with the waywardness of their own +wills. They therefore, who believe in the doctrine of the agency of the +Spirit, and at the same time in the necessity of great caution and +watchfulness that they may not confound its operations with that of +their own fancies, will never incur the charge, which has been brought +against the body at large. But if there are others, on the other hand, +who give themselves up to this agency without the necessary caution, +they will gradually mix their impressions, and will, in time, refer most +of them to the same source. They will bring the Divine Being by degrees +out of his spiritual province, and introduce him into all the trivial +and worthless concerns of their lives. Hence a belief will arise, which +cannot fail of binding their minds in the chains of delusion and +superstition. + +It is the doctrine of Quakerism again on the subject of dress, that +plainness and simplicity are required of those who profess the Christian +character; that any deviation from these is unwarrantable, if it be made +on the plea of conformity to the fashions of the world; that such +deviation bespeaks the beginning of an unstable mind; and, if not +noticed, may lead into many evils. They therefore, who consider dress in +this point of view, will never fall into any errors of mind in their +contemplation of this subject. But if there are members, on the other +hand, who place virtue in the colour and shape of their cloathing, as +some of the Jews did in the broad phylacteries on their garments, they +will place it in lifeless appearances and forms, and bring their minds +under vassalage to a false religion. And in the same manner it may be +observed with respect to language, that if persons in the society lay an +undue stress upon it, that is, if they believe truth or falsehood to +exist inherently in lifeless words, and this contrary to the sense in +which they know they will be understood by the world, so that they dare +not pronounce them for religion's sake, they will be in danger of +placing religion where it is not, and of falling into errors concerning +it, which will be denominated superstition by the world. + +As I am now on the subject of superstition, as capable of arising from +the three causes that have been mentioned, I shall dwell for a short +time on some of the evils which may arise from one of them, or from a +misunderstanding of the doctrine of the agency of the Spirit. + +I believe it possible, in the first place, for those who receive this +doctrine without the proper limitations, that is, for those who +attribute every thing exclusively to the Spirit of God, and who draw no +line between revelation and the suggestions of their own will, to be +guilty of evil actions and to make the Divine Being the author of them +all. + +I have no doubt, for example, that many of those, who engaged in the +crusades, considered themselves as led into them by the Spirit of God. +But what true Quaker, in these days, would wish to make the Almighty the +author of all the bloodshed in the wars that were undertaken on this +account? + +The same may be said with respect to martyrdoms. For there is reason to +believe, that many who were instrumental in shedding the blood of their +fellow-creatures, because they happened to differ from them in religious +opinion, conceived that they were actuated by the divine Spirit, and +that they were doing God service, and aiding the cause of religion by +their conduct on such occasions. But what true Quaker would believe that +the Father of justice and mercy was the author of these bloody +persecutions, or that, if men were now to feel an impulse in their own +minds to any particular action, they ought to obey it, if it were to +lead them to do evil that good might come? + +The same may be said with respect to many of the bad laws, which are to +be found in the codes of the different nations of the world. Legislators +no doubt have often thought themselves spiritually guided when they made +them. And judges, who have been remarkable for appealing to the divine +Spirit in the course of their lives, have made no hesitation to execute +them. This was particularly the case with Sir Matthew Hale. If there be +any one, whose writings speak a more than ordinary belief in the agency +of the Spirit of God, it is this great and estimable man. This spirit he +consulted not only in the spiritual, but in the temporal concerns, of +his life. And yet he sentenced to death a number of persons, because +they were reputed to be witches. But what true Quaker believes in +witchcraft? or does he not rather believe, that the Spirit of God, it +rightly understood, would have protested against condemnation for a +crime, which does not exist? + +But the mischief, if a proper distinction be not made between the agency +of the Spirit and that of the will of man, may spread farther, and may +reach the man himself, and become injurious both to his health, his +intellect, and his usefulness, and the Divine Being may be made again +the author of it all. + +Many, we all know, notwithstanding their care and attention, have found +that they have gone wrong in their affairs in various instances of their +lives, that is, events have shewn that they have taken a wrong course. +But if there be those who suppose themselves in these instances to have +been acted upon by the Spirit or God, what is more likely than that they +may imagine that they have lost his favour, and that looking upon +themselves as driven by him into the wrong road, they may fall into the +belief, that they are among the condemned reprobate, and pine away, +deprived of their senses, in a state of irretrievable misery and +despair? + +Others again may injure their health, and diminish their comfort and +their utility in another way. And here I may remark, that if I have seen +what the world would call superstition among the Quakers, it has been +confined principally to a few females, upon whose constitution, more +delicate than that of men, an attention to undistinguished impressions, +brought on in a course of time by a gradual depreciation of human +reason, has acted with considerable force. I fear that some of these, in +the upright intention of their hearts to consult the Almighty on all +occasions as the sole arbiter of every thing that is good, have fostered +their own infirmities, and gone into retirements so frequent, as to have +occasioned these to interfere with the duties of domestic comfort and +social good, and that they have been at last so perplexed with doubts +and an increasing multitude of scruples, that they have been afraid of +doing many things, because they have not had a revelation for them. The +state of such worthy persons is much to be pitied. What must be their +feelings under such a conflict, when they are deserted by human reason? +What an effect will not such religious doubts and perplexities have +upon their health? What impediments do they not throw in the way of +their own utility? + +I should be sorry if by any observations, such as the preceding, I +should be thought to censure any one for the morality of his feelings. +And still more sorry should I be, if I were to be thought to have any +intention of derogating from the character of the Supreme Being. I am +far from denying his omniscience, for I believe that he sees every +sparrow that falls to the ground, and even more, that he knows the +innermost thoughts of men. I deny not his omnipresence, for I believe +that he may be seen in all his works. I deny neither his general nor his +particular providence, nor his hearing of our prayers, nor his right +direction in our spiritual concerns, nor his making of all things work +together for good to those who love him. Neither do I refuse to admit +him either into our journies, or into our walks, or into our chambers, +for he can make all the things we see subservient to our moral +instruction, and his own glory. But I should be sorry to have him +considered as a clock, that is to inform us about the times of our +ordinary movements, or to make him a prompter in all our worldly +concerns, or to oblige him to take his seat in animal magnetism, or to +reside in the midst marvellous delusions. Why should we expect a +revelation in the most trivial concerns of our lives, where our reason +will inform us? Why, like the waggoner, apply to Jupiter, when we may +remove the difficulty by putting our own shoulders to the wheels? If we +are reasonable creatures, we can generally tell, whether we ought to go +forwards or backwards, or to begin, or to postpone, whether our actions +are likely to be innocent or hurtful, or whether we are going on an +errand of benevolence or of evil. In fact, there can be no necessity for +this constant appeal to the Spirit in all our worldly concerns, while we +possess our reason as men. And unless some distinction be made between +the real agency of God and our own volitions, which distinction true +Quakerism suggests, we shall be liable to be tossed to and fro by every +wind that blows, and to become the creatures of a superstition, that may +lead us into great public evils, while it may be injurious to our health +and intellect, and to the happiness and utility of our lives. + + + + +CHAP. XII. + +_Morally defective traits--First of these is that of obstinacy--This +was attached also to the early Christians--No just foundation for the +existence of this trait._ + + +I come now to the consideration of those which I have denominated +morally defective traits. + +The first trait of this kind, which is attached to the character of the +Quakers, is that of an obstinate spirit. + +This trait is a very ancient one. It was observed in the time of George +Fox, of the members of this society, that they were as "stiff as trees," +and this idea concerning them has come down to the present day. + +The origin of this trait must be obvious to all. The Quakers, as we have +seen, will neither pay tithes, nor perform military service, nor +illuminate their houses, like other people, though they are sure of +suffering by their refusal to comply with custom in these cases. Now, +when individuals, few in number, become singular, and differ from the +world at large, it is generally considered that the majority are in the +right, and that the minority are in the wrong. But obstinacy may be +defined to be a perseverance in that which is generally considered to be +wrong. + +This epithet has attached, and will attach to those who resist the +popular opinion, till men are better educated, or till they lose their +prejudices, or have more correct and liberal notions on religion. The +early Christians were themselves accused of obstinacy, and this even by +the enlightened Pliny. He tells, us, that they would not use wine and +frankincense before the statues of the emperors; and that "there was no +question that for such obstinacy they deserved punishment."[39] + +[Footnote 39: "Pervicaciam certe et inflexibitem obstinationem debere +puniri."] + +In judging of the truth of this trait, two queries will arise. First, +whether the Quakers, in adhering rigidly to those singularities which +have produced it, are really wrong as a body of Christians? And, +secondly, whether they do not conscientiously believe themselves to be +right? + +In the case of the early Christians, which has been mentioned, we, who +live at this day, have no doubt that Pliny put a false estimate on their +character. We believe them to have done their duty, and we believe also +that they considered themselves as doing it, when they refused divine +honours to the emperors. And the action, therefore, which Pliny +denominated obstinacy, would, if it had been left to us to name it, have +been called inflexible virtue, as arising out of a sense of the +obligations imposed upon them by the Christian religion. + +In the same manner we may argue with respect to the Quakers. Who, for +example, if he will try to divest himself of the prejudices of custom, +and of the policy of the world, feels such a consciousness of his own +powers as positively to pronounce, that the notions of the Quakers are +utterly false, as to the illicitness of wars under the Christian system? +The arguments of the Quakers on this subject are quite as good, in my +apprehension, as any that I have heard advanced on the other side of the +question. These arguments too are unquestionably much more honourable to +Christianity, and much more consistent with the nature and design of the +Gospel dispensation. They are supported also by the belief and the +practice of the earliest Christians. They are arguments again, which +have suggested themselves to many good men, who were not Quakers, and +which have occasioned doubts in some instances, and conviction in +others, against the prejudice of education and the dominion of custom. +And if the event should ever come to pass, which most Christians expect, +that men will one day or other turn their swords and their spears into +ploughshares and pruning-hooks, they, who live in that day, will applaud +the perseverance of the Quakers in this case, and weep over the +obstinacy and inconsistency of those who combated their opinions. + +But the great question after all is, whether the Quakers believe +themselves in this or in any other of their religious scruples, to be +right, as a Christian body? If there are those among them who do not, +they give into the customs of the world, and either leave the society +themselves, or become disowned. It is therefore only a fair and a just +presumption, that all those who continue in the society, and who keep up +to these scruples to the detriment of their worldly interest, believe +themselves to be right. But this belief of their own rectitude, even if +they should happen to be wrong, is religion to them, and ought to be +estimated so by us in matters in which an interpretation of Gospel +principles is concerned. This is but an homage due to conscience, after +all the blood that has been shed in the course of Christian +persecutions, and after all the religious light that has been diffused +among us since the reformation of our religion. + + + + +CHAP. XIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_Next trait is that of a money-getting spirit--Probability of the truth +of this trait examined--An undue eagerness after money not unlikely to +be often the result of the frugal and commercial habits of the +society--but not to the extent, as insisted on by the world--This +eagerness, wherever it exists, seldom chargeable with avarice._ + + +The next trait in the character of the Quakers is that of a +money-getting spirit, or of a devotedness to the acquisition of money in +their several callings and concerns. + +This character is considered as belonging so generally to the +individuals of this society, that it is held by the world to be almost +inseparable from Quakerism. A certain writer has remarked, that they +follow their concerns in pursuit of riches, "with a step as steady as +time, and with an appetite as keen as death." + +I do not know what circumstances have given birth to this trait. That +the Quakers are a thriving body we know. That they may also appear, when +known to be a domestic people, and to have discarded the amusements of +the world, to be more in their shops and counting-houses than others, +is probable. And it is not unlikely, that, in consequence of this +appearance, connected with this worldly prosperity, they may be thought +to be more intent than others upon the promotion of their pecuniary +concerns. There are circumstances, however, belonging to the character +and customs of the society, which would lead to an opposite conclusion. +The Quakers, in the first place, are acknowledged to be a charitable +people. But if so, they ought not to be charged, at least, with that +species of the money-getting spirit, which amounts to avarice. It is +also an undoubted fact, that they give up no small portion of their +time, and put themselves to no small expence, on account of their +religion. In country places they allot one morning in the week, and in +the towns generally two, besides the Sunday, to their religious worship. +They have also their monthly meetings, and after these their quarterly, +to attend, on account of their discipline. And this they do frequently +at a great distance, and after a considerable absence as tradesmen, from +their homes. I do not mean to insinuate by this latter instance, that +men become pious, and therefore proof against the influence of money, +exactly in proportion as they attend their religious meetings, but that, +where they are voraciously intent upon the getting of money, they could +hardly be expected to make such a sacrifice of their time. + +But whatever may be the appearance on either side, the question is, +whether the imputation of the trait, which is now under our +consideration, be founded in fact. What circumstances make in favour of +it? What circumstances make against it? And which of these preponderate +on the whole? + +We may say then, at the first sight, that the precepts of Quakerism make +decidedly against it. And we may say again, that it ought to be +expected, that all those principles and circumstances, which have an +influence in the production of moral character, or of such a character +as belongs to the Quakers as a body, should work together either towards +its prevention or its cure. + +On the other hand, if we examine the situation of the society, we shall +find circumstances, the operation of which is directly in favour of such +a trait. + +And first, in looking into the human heart, we seem to discover a +circumstance, which, on account of the situation alluded to, may operate +as a spring in producing it. Men, generally speaking, love consequence. +Now the Quakers, though they have consequence in their own society, have +none in the world. They can be neither legislators nor magistrates. They +can take no titles to distinguish them. They pass therefore in the +world, like the common and undistinguished herd, except from the +circumstances of their dress. But riches give all men consequence. And +it is not clear to me, but that this circumstance may have its operation +on the minds of some who are called Quakers, in contributing to the +production of the money-getting spirit, inasmuch as it may procure them +a portion of estimation, which they cannot otherwise have, while they +remain in their own body. + +In looking again into the human heart, we find another, and this a +powerful spring, connected with the situation of the society, for the +production of such a trait. + +The Quakers, as I have observed before, are mostly in trade. Now they +are generally a sedate, thoughtful, sober, diligent, and honest people. +It is not then too much to say, with these qualifications, that they +will be as successful in trade as others. Hence their incomes will be as +great, in proportion to their capitals, as those of others, from the +same source. + +But let us look for a moment at their outgoings. They neither spend nor +lose their money at cards, or at horse-races, or by any other species of +gaming. They do not waste their substance either in drinking at taverns +or at home. Not having, in general, an enlarged education, or a taste +for literature, they have no expensive libraries. They buy no costly +paintings. They neither powder their hair, nor dress in a splendid +manner. They use no extravagant furniture. They keep no packs of hounds +for their diversion. They are never seen at the theatres. They have +neither routes, balls, nor music meetings. They have neither expensive +liveries nor equipages. Hence it must follow, that their outgoings, as +far as their living is concerned, cannot in general be as great as those +of others in a similar condition of life. But if their inlets are +greater than their outlets of money, when compared with those of other +persons, a greater overplus of money beyond the expences of living, will +be the constant result, or there will be a greater increasing +accumulation of money, upon the whole, than falls within the possession +of others. Now a question arises here, founded on a knowledge of the +infirmity of our nature. Are men likely, in general, constituted as they +are, to see the golden idol constantly rising in dimensions before them, +and to refrain front worshipping it, or, are they likely to see it +without a corruption of their moral vision? It is observed[40] by one of +the scriptural writers, "A merchant shall hardly keep himself from doing +wrong, and a huckster shall not be free from sin." And where is it, that +this old saying, except the mind be strongly fortified by religion, will +not be found equally true in the present, as in former times? The truth +is, that the old maxim, Creseit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia +creseit, is a just one. That is, it is true, "that the coming in of +money in an undue proportion begets the love of it", that the love of +money again leads to the getting of more; that the getting of more again +generally increases the former love. And hence a round is kept up of +circumstances and feelings, till a money-getting spirit creeps into the +character of him, who is placed in a situation so unfortunate for the +purity of his heart. + +[Footnote 40: Ecclesiasticus xxvi. 29.] + +These then are the acting and the counteracting circumstances on both +sides. Which of the two are likely to be predominant, we must +conjecture. When men have become full grown Quakers, the latter will +lose their power. But where they have not (and it is to be presumed that +there are many in the society who have not reached this stature, and +many again who bear only the name of their profession) they will +frequently prevail. I own I fear that precepts, though there may be a +general moral bias, will not always be found successful against those, +which are considered to be the most powerful of the temptations, to +which our nature is exposed. I own, when I consider that the Quakers, in +consequence of their commercial and frugal habits, have greater +pecuniary accumulations before their eyes than others in a similar +condition of life, when I consider how few are able to bear these +accumulations without moral injury to themselves, and that even the +early Christians began to relax in their character when they begun to +be prosperous, I am of opinion, that there is some foundation far the +existence of such a spirit, though not to the extent, as insisted on by +the world; or, that there is in the society, notwithstanding the many +bright and amiable exceptions that are to be found in it, greater +eagerness after wealth than is consistent with its religious profession. +And to this opinion I am inclined from another consideration, which +cannot be overlooked in the present case. The book of Extracts itself +acknowledges the existence of such a spirit, for it characterises it +under the name of "hastening to be rich," and it calls it "a growing +evil." + +But when I say that I so for accede to the opinion of the world, as to +allow that the money-getting spirit may be fixed upon a part of the +society, I feel that I ought to make a proper distinction concerning it. +I must observe, that the money-getting spirit, wherever it may be +chargeable upon Quakers, seldom belongs to that species which is called +avarice. It is by no means incongruous to suppose, that there may be in +the same person an unreasonable love of money, and yet a shew of +benevolence. The money-getting spirit will have a different effect, as +it operates upon different persons. Upon those, who have been brought up +in an ignorant and unfeeling manner, it will operate to make them hoard +their substance, and to keep it exclusively to themselves. But it will +not always hinder those who have been humanely educated, though it may +lead them to unreasonable accumulations, from dispensing a portion of +their gains. In the first instance it is highly criminal, because it +keeps the whole of its talent in a napkin. In the second, though less +criminal, it is greatly to be deplored, but more particularly in a +Quaker, who, making a higher profession of Christianity than many +others, ought to give to the world the example of a purer mind. + + +SECT. II. + +_Farther observations on the subject of the former trait--Practicable +methods suggested for its extirpation--These methods not destructive, +but promotive, of the temporal interests of the members of this society, +and consistent with the religion they profess._ + + +As the Quakers appear to me, in consequence of their commercial and +frugal habits, to be in danger of contracting a money-getting spirit, +and as this spirit is the worst feature that can exist in the Quaker +character, I shall allot a few pages to the farther consideration of the +subject, with a view of the prevention of such an evil. + +That it is the worst feature that can exist in the character of the +society, I repeat. It is worse than a want of knowledge, or than +superstition, because these relate to the understanding, while this is +confined to the heart. It renders the system of the moral education of +the Quakers almost nugatory. For what is the use of keeping the mind in +a state of spiritual purity by means of prohibitions, or by attempting +to shut it out from the knowledge of corruptive amusements, if it be +afterwards to be rendered impure by the love of money? It occasions them +again to bear their testimony as it were against their own religion. For +a Quaker is not in the situation of on ordinary person. He looks upon +himself as a highly professing Christian; as one, who is not to conform +to the fashions of the world; as one, who is to lead a life of +self-denial; as one, who is to go forward in virtue, his belief being +that of a possibility of perfection even in the present life. He +considers himself too as a representative of the early Christians, and +holds himself ready to follow them by the bearing of his testimony, into +suffering, and even unto death. But what Christian can harbour a +money-getting spirit, or be concerned in an extensive accumulation of +wealth? If a Quaker therefore should go into the common road, and fall +down before the idol mammon, like any other ordinary person, how can the +world give him any pretension but to an ordinary religion? + +My object in the present consideration of the subject, will be to shew +the Quakers in general, and those in particular who may need it, some +practical cure for this evil, and to convince them, that the mode of +effecting it will not be detrimental to the temporal interests of their +families, but promotive of their spiritual, and consistent with the +religion they profess. + +The first method, which I would recommend to those who are in trade, and +who know their own habits of life, and the extent of their families, +would be to fix upon a certain sum, which they may think sufficient for +a future decent and moderate competency, and to leave off business, as +soon as this should be obtained. Such a step would be useful. It would +be making room for others to live as well as themselves. It would be +honourable, for it would be generous. And it would operate as a certain +preventive of the money-getting spirit, as well as of the imputation of +it. For if such a retreat from trade, were laid down and known as a +general custom of the society, the Quakers might bid their hearts rise +in defiance against the corruptions of money, and their reputation +against the clamours of the world. + +This step, hard and difficult as it may appear to those who are thriving +in the world, is, notwithstanding, not a novel one, if we may judge +either by the example of many of the pure minded Christians of other +denominations, or by that of many estimable persons in this society. +John Woolman, among many others, was uneasy on account of his business +"growing cumbersome," for so he expresses it, lest it should hurt the +purity of his mind. And he contracted it, leaving himself only enough of +it, and this by the labour of his own hands, for a decent support. And +here I might mention other individuals of this society, if I had no +objection to offend the living by praise, who, following his example, +have retired upon only a moderate competency, though in the way of +great accumulations, for no other reason than because they were afraid, +lest such accumulations should interfere with their duty, or injure +their character, as Christians. + +But if this measure should not be approved of under an idea that men +ought to have employments for their time, or that in these days of +increasing taxes and of progressively expensive living, they cannot +specify the sum that may be sufficient for their future wants, I have +another to propose, in consequence of which they may still follow their +commercial pursuits, and avoid the imputation in question. I mean that +the Quakers ought to make it a rule, after the annual expences of living +have been settled, to lay by but small savings. They ought never to +accustom their eyes to behold an undue accumulation of money, but +liberally to deal it out in charity to the poor and afflicted in +proportion to their gains, thus making their occupations a blessing to +mankind. No other measure will be effectual but this, if the former be +not resolved upon, while they continue in trade. Their ordinary charity, +it is clear, will not do. Large as it may have been, it has not been +found large enough to prove a corrective of this spirit in the opinion +of the world. Indeed, it matters not how large a charitable donation may +seem, if we view it either as a check upon this spirit, or as an act of +merit, but how large it is, when compared with the bulk of the savings +that are left. A hundred pounds, given away annually in benevolence, may +appear something, and may sound handsomely in the ears of the public. +But if this sum be taken from the savings of two thousand, it will be +little less than a reproach to the donor as a Christian. In short, no +other way than the estimation of the gift by the surplus-saving will do +in the case in question. But this would certainly be effectual to the +end proposed. It would entirely keep down the money-getting spirit. It +would also do away the imputation of it in the public mind. For it is +impossible in this case, that the word Quakerism should not become +synonimous with charity, as it ought to be, if Quakerism be a more than +ordinary profession of the Christian religion. + +Now these methods are not chimerical, but practicable. There can be no +reasonable objection against them, because they allow of the acquisition +of a decent and moderate competency. The only one that can be started +will be, that Quakers may injure the temporal interests of their +children, or that they cannot, upon this plan, leave them independent at +their deaths ... + +That independence for children is the general aim of the world, I know +well. But I know also, in reply to this objection, that Christianity has +no such word as independence in her book. For of what do people wish to +make their children independent? Certainly not of Providence, for that +would be insanity indeed. Of the poor then shall I say? That is +impossible, for how could they get their daily bread? Of the rich, then, +like themselves? That would be folly, for where would they form their +friendships or their connubial connections, in which they must place a +portion of the happiness of their lives? Do they wish then to make them +independent of society at large, so as not to do it good? That is +against all religion. In short it is impossible, while we exist in this +life, to be independent one of another. We are bound by Christianity in +one great chain, every link of which is to support the next; or the band +is broken. But if they mean by independence such a moneyed situation as +shall place their children out of the reach of the frowns, and crosses, +and vicissitudes of the world, so that no thought or care shall be +necessary for the means of their own livelihood, I fear they are +procuring a situation for them, which will be injurious even to their +temporal interests as men. + +The matter then seems to me to be brought to this question, whether it +is better, I mean as a general proposition, to bring up children with +the expectation of such a moderate portion of wealth, that they shall +see the necessity of relying upon their own honest endeavours and the +Divine support, or to bring them up with such notions of independence, +that, in the pride and exultation of their hearts, they may be induced +to count themselves mighty, and to lose sight of the power and +providence of God? + +If we were to look into the world for an answer to this question, we +should find no greater calamity than that of leaving to children an +affluent independence. Such persons, when grown up, instead of becoming +a blessing, are generally less useful than others. They are frequently +proud and haughty, fancying themselves omnipotent, they bid defiance to +the opinions of the virtuous part of the community. To the laws of +honour and fashion they pay a precise obedience, but trample under foot, +as of little consequence, the precepts of the Christian religion. Having +sensual gratifications in their power, they indulge to excess. By +degrees they ruin their health and fortunes, and get wisdom by +experience, when it is too late to use it. How many young persons have I +known, and I wish I could make a different statement, whose ruin +originated wholly in a sense of their own independence of the world! + +Neither, if we look into the society of the Quakers, shall we find a +different account. It is undoubtedly true, though there are many amiable +exceptions, that the worst examples in it are generally among the +children of the rich. These presently take wings, and fly away, so that, +falling into the corruptive and destructive fashions of the times, their +parents have only been heaping up riches; not knowing who were to gather +them. And here it may be remarked, that the Quaker education, by means +of its prohibitions, greatly disqualifies its young members, who may +desert from the society, from acting prudently afterwards. They will be, +in general, but children, and novices in the world. Kept within bounds +till this period, what is more probable than that, when they break out +of them, they will bunch-into excess. A great river may be kept in its +course by paying attention to its banks, but if you make a breach in +these restrictive walls, you let it loose, and it deluges the plains +below. + +In short, whether we turn our eyes to the Quaker society, or to the +world at large, we cannot consider an affluent independence as among the +temporal advantages of youth. And as they, who only leave their children +a moderate portion of substance, so that they shall see the necessity of +relying upon their own honest endeavours, and the Divine support, act +wisely in their own generation, so they act only consistently with the +religion they profess. For what does the religion of the Quakers hold +out to them as the best attainment in life? Is it not spiritual +knowledge? Is it not that knowledge, which shall fit them best for the +service of their Maker? But such knowledge is utterly unattainable while +a money-getting spirit exists; for it has been declared by the highest +authority, that we cannot serve God and mammon. + + + + +CHAP. XIV. + +_Another trait is that of a want of animation or affection--This an +appearance only, and not a reality, arising from a proper subjugation of +the passions--from the prohibitions relative to dress--and address--and +the amusements of the world._ + + +It is said next of the Quakers, that they are a cold and inanimate +people; and that they have neither the ordinary affection, nor the +gradation of affection, of other people. + +I may immediately pronounce upon this trait, that it is merely an +outward appearance. The Quakers have as warm feelings as the rest of +their countrymen. Their love of their fellow-creatures, more conspicuous +in them than in many others, as has been amply shewn, gives them a claim +to the possession of warm and affectionate feeling. The Quakers too have +the character of a domestic people; but surely, if they do not possess +affection, and this in a very high degree, they must have miserable +homes. There is indeed a want of gradation in their affections, which +may be traced upon some occasions. In making their wills, for example, +they are not apt to raise up an eldest son to the detriment of the rest +of their offspring. And this certainly is a proof, that they do not +possess the gradation of affection of many other people! Happy is it +for their own comfort and the welfare of their families, that they give +this proof to the world of this equal affection for their children. + +That this trait is only an appearance, and not a reality, I shall shew, +by staring many outward circumstances, in the Quaker constitution, which +may be preventive of apparent animation, but which can have no influence +on the heart. + +We must all of us be sensible, that both opinions and customs have an +influence on the warmth or coldness of our characters. Who would expect, +if two faithful portraits could have been handed down to us from +antiquity, to find the same gravity or coldness of countenance and +manners in an Athenian, as in a Spartan? And in the same manner who can +expect, that there will not be a difference in the appearance of Quakers +and other people? + +The truth is, that the discipline and education of the Quakers produce +an appearance of a want of animation, and this outward appearance the +world has falsely taken as a symbol of the character of the heart. Can +we expect that a due subjugation of the passions, which is insisted upon +in true Quaker families, will give either warmth to the countenance, or +spirit to the outward manners? Do not the passions animate, and give a +tone to the characters of men? Can we see then the same variety of +expression in the faces of the Quakers as in those of others on this +account? The actions of men, again, enliven their outward appearances, +but Quakers, being forbidden to use the address of the world, can assume +no variety of action in their intercourse with others. The amusements, +again, of the world, such as of music and the theatre, reach the mind, +and, animating it, give a greater expression to the countenance, on +which the contemplation afterwards produces a similar though a slighter +effect. But in what Quakers can you see sensibility from the same cause? +The dress too, of the members of this society gives them an appearance +of gravity and dulness. It makes them also shy of their fellow citizens. +But gravity, and dulness, and shyness, have generally, each of them, the +appearance of coldness of manners. + + + + +CHAP. XV. + +_Another trait is that of evasiveness in speech--This an appearance +only, arising from a peculiar regard to truth--and from a caution about +the proper use of words, induced by circumstances in the discipline, and +by the peculiarities in the Quaker language._ + + +It is alleged against the Quakers, as another bad trait in their +character, that they are not plain and direct, but that they are evasive +in their answers to any questions that may be asked them. + +There is no doubt but that the world, who know scarcely any thing about +the Quakers, will have some reason, if they judge from their outward +manner of expression, to come to such a conclusion. There is often a +sort of hesitation in their speech, which has the appearance of +evasiveness. But though there may be such an appearance, their answers +to questions are full and accurate when finally given; and +unquestionably there is no intention in them either to hold back any +thing, or to deceive. + +This outward appearance, strange to relate, arises in part from an +amiable trait in the character of the Quakers!! Their great desire to +speak the truth, and not to exceed it, occasions often a sort of +doubtfulness of speech. It occasions them also, instead of answering a +question immediately, to ask other questions, that they may see the true +bearings of the thing intended to be known. The same appearance of +doubt runs also through the whole society in all those words which +relate to promises, from the same cause. For the Quakers, knowing the +uncertainty of all human things, and the impossibility of fulfilling but +provisionally, seldom, as I have observed before, promise any thing +positively, that they may not come short of the truth. The desire +therefore of uttering the truth has in part brought this accusation upon +their heads. + +Other circumstances also to be found within the Quaker constitution have +a tendency to produce the same effect. + +In their monthly and quarterly and annual meetings for discipline, they +are taught by custom to watch the propriety of the expressions that are +used in the wording of their minutes, that these may accurately +represent the sense of the persons present. And this habit of caution +about the use of words in the affairs of their own society naturally +begets a caution concerning it also in their intercourse with the world. + +The peculiarities of their language produce also a similar +circumspection. For where people are restrained from the use of +expressions which are gene rally adopted by others, and this in the +belief that, as a highly professing people, they ought to be watchful +over their words as well as their actions, a sort of hesitation will +accompany them, or a sort of pause will be perceptible, while they are +choosing as it were the proper words for a reply to any of the questions +that may be asked them. + + + + +CHAP. XVI. + +_Another trait is that of shyness--This an appearance only, arising from +the former trait--and from that of coldness of manners--and from the +great sobriety of the Quaker character._ + + +Another bad trait, which the world has fixed upon the Quakers, is that +of being a sly people. This trait has been long given them. We find it +noticed by Pope: + + "The Quaker sly, the Presbyterian sour." + +This charge is grounded on appearances. It arises in part from the last +mentioned trait in their character; for if men be thought cautious in +the use of their words, and evasive in their answers, whether they be +so or not, they will be marked as sly. + +It arises again from the trait of want of animation or of coldness of +manners. For if men of good understanding, in consequence of the +subjugation of their passions, appear always to be cool, they will have +an appearance of wariness. + +It arises again from the great sobriety of the Quakers. For where men +are always sober, they appear to be always on their guard, and men, who +are always on their guard, are reputed cunning. + +These circumstances of coolness and sobriety, when called into action, +will only confirm the world in the opinion of the existence of the trait +in question. For it will not be easy to deceive a man of but moderate +understanding, who never loses his senses either by intoxication or by +passion. And what man, in such habits, will not make a better bargain +than one who is hot in his temper, or who is accustomed to be +intoxicated? + +Hence the trait arises from appearances, which are the result of +circumstances, favourable to the morality of the Quaker character. + + + + +CHAP. XVII. + +_Last bad trait is a disregard of truth--Apparent rise of this +trait--Falsehood of it probable from considerations on the language of +the Quakers--from their prohibition of detraction--their rejection of +romantic books--their punctuality to words and engagements--and their +ideas with respect to the unlawfulness of civil oaths._ + + + +The last charge against the Quakers will be seen in a vulgar expression, +which should have had no place in this book, if it had not been a +saying in almost every body's mouth. The expression, is, "Though they +will not swear, they will lie." + +This trait has arisen in part from those different circumstances, which +have produced the appearance of evasiveness. For if people are thought +evasive, they will always be thought liars. Evasiveness and lying are +almost synonimous terms. It is not impossible also, if Quakers should +appear to give a doubtful answer, that persons may draw false +conclusions from thence, and therefore may suppose them to have spoken +falsely. These two circumstances of an apparent evasiveness, and +probably of a deduction of conclusions from doubtful or imaginary +premises, have, I apprehend, produced an appearance, which the world has +interpreted into evil. + +No trait, however, can be more false than this. I know of no people, who +regard truth more than the Quakers. Their whole system bends and directs +to truth. One of the peculiarities of their language, or their rejection +of many of the words which other people use, because they consider them +as not religiously appropriate to the objects of which they are the +symbols, serves as a constant admonition to them to speak the truth. + +Their prohibition of all slanderous reports, as mentioned in a former +volume, has a tendency to produce the same effect; for detraction is +forbidden partly on the idea, that all such rumours on character may be +false. + +They reject also the reading of plays and novels, partly under a notion, +that the subjects and circumstances in these are fictitious, and that a +taste therefore, for the reading, of these, if acquired, might +familiarize their youth with fictions, and produce in them a romantic +and lying spirit. + +It is a trait, again, in the character of the Quakers, as we have seen, +that they are remarkable for their punctuality in the performance of +their words and engagements. But such punctuality implies neither more +nor less, than that the words spoken by Quakers are generally fulfilled; +and, if they are generally fulfilled, then the inference is, that all +such words have been generally truths. + +To this I may add, that the notions of the Quakers on the subject of +oaths, and their ideas of the character which it becomes them to sustain +in life, must have a powerful effect upon them in inducing an attention +to the truth; for they consider Jesus Christ to have abolished civil +oaths, because he wished to introduce a more excellent system than that +of old, that is, because he meant it to be understood by his disciples, +that he laid such an eternal obligation upon them to speak truth, that +oaths were to be rendered unnecessary, where persons make a profession +of his religion. + + + + +CHAP. XVIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_Character of the Quaker women--This differs a little from that of the +men--Women share in the virtues of the former--but do not always partake +of all their reputed imperfections--are not chargeable with a want of +knowledge--nor with the money-getting spirit--Modesty a feature in their +character._ + + + +Having now amply enquired into the character of the men, I shall say a +few words on the subject of that of the women of this society. For +though it might be supposed at the first sight (the Quakers being cast +as it were in one mould) that the same character would attach to both, +yet it must be obvious, on farther consideration, that it cannot be +wholly applicable to the female sex. + +It may be laid down as a position, that the women of this society share +in the virtues of the men. They possess their benevolence, their +independence of mind, and the other good traits in their moral +character. But they do not always partake of all their reputed +imperfections. + +The want of knowledge, which was reckoned among the failings of the +men, can have no room as a charge against the women. + +For, first, let us compare the Quaker women with the Quaker men. Now it +generally happens in the world, that men have more literary knowledge +than women, but this is not so generally the case in this society. As +the women here are not taken from their books, like the men, at an early +age, and put into trade, they have no bar, like these, to the farther +improvement of their minds. They advance often in the acquisition of +knowledge, while the latter, in consequence of their attention to +business, are kept stationary. Hence it almost uniformly happens, that +they are quite as well informed, and that they have as great a variety +of knowledge as these, so that they suffer no disparagement, as the women +of the world do, by a comparison with the other sex. + +Neither will the Quaker women be considered as deficient in knowledge, +if compared with women of other religious denominations. It is too much +the practice, but particularly in the higher circles, to educate females +for shew. We too seldom see a knowledge of the domestic duties. To dance +well, to sing well, and to play well, these are the usual +accomplishments that are insisted on, and they are insisted upon with an +earnestness, as if they included all the valuable purposes of life. Thus +the best part of youth is spent in the acquirement of trivial things: +or rather the acquirement of such things takes up so much time, as to +leave but little for the moral and intellectual improvement of the mind. +The great object, on the other hand, of the education of the Quaker +females, is utility and not shew. They are taught domestic economy, or +the cares and employments of a house. They are taught to become good +wives and good mothers. Prohibited the attainments of music and dancing, +and many of the corruptive amusements of the world, they have ample time +for the improvement of the understanding. Thus they have in general as +good an education as other females, as far as literary acquirements are +concerned; so that, whether they are compared with Quaker men, or with +the other women of the island, they will not incur the imputation of a +deficiency of knowledge. + +It must be obvious too, that the money-getting spirit, which the world +has fixed upon as a trait in the character of some of the men, can +seldom be a trait in that of the women of this society. For men are the +principals in trade. They lay their plans for the getting of money. They +see the accumulating surplus rise. They handle it. They count it. They +remember it. The women, on the other hand, see it only in the +disposition of their husbands or parents, who make probably a larger +allowance for domestic wants or gratifications than before. Hence a +charge cannot be so frequently brought against them of a want of that +spiritual mindedness, which is the great characteristic of Quakerism, as +they have but little to do with the mammon of the world. + +To these exceptions in Quaker women from the reputed imperfections of +Quaker men, I cannot help adding in this place, that the females of this +society are peculiarly distinguishable for that which has been at all +times considered as one of the brightest ornaments of their sex. Modesty +is particularly conspicuous in their looks and in their whole outward +demeanour. It is conspicuous in their conversation. It is conspicuous +also in their dress. And here it may not be improper to observe, that, +whatever objections may be made to the Quaker apparel, it is estimable, +as far as it gives this appearance of modesty to the females who wear +it, or rather as far as it hinders them from wearing the loose and +indelicate garments, which are frequently worn, without any scruple, by +many of the females of the world. + + + +SECT. II. + +_Quaker women, besides their private, have a public character--Low +light in which women have been held--Importance given them by +chivalry--and by the revival of learning in Europe--and by the +introduction of Christianity--but still held in an inferior +light--Quakers have given them their due importance in society--Influence +of their public character on their minds._ + + +The Quaker women, independently of their private, have that which no +other body of women have, a public character. This is a new era in +female history. I shall therefore make a few observations on this, +before I proceed to another subject. + +It is melancholy, when we look into the history of women, to see the low +estimation in which they have been held from the earliest times. It is +possible, because they have not possessed the strength of constitution, +that they may have been thought not to have had the intellect of men. It +is possible, because domestic cares and the rearing of children have +been consigned to them, that other occupations may not have been +considered as falling within the province of their stations. But +whatever may have been the causes, polygamy or concubinage has +unquestionably been the greatest, in hindering women from occupying an +useful, dignified, and important station in society. This custom has +held them up as little better than slaves, or than living toys or +play-things. And this custom has prevailed over a great portion of the +globe from times of the earliest antiquity to the present day. + +Among the many circumstances which contributed to give importance to +women in Europe, we may reckon the introduction of chivalry. Honour and +humanity were the characteristics of this institution. Hence weakness +was to be protected by it. And as weakness was more particularly the lot +of women, so these became more peculiarly the objects of its care. Hence +women began to feel a consequence, which had been hitherto denied them. +They were treated with politeness and tenderness by all, and men began +to be even solicitous of their applause. But though this was the case, +chivalry did not elevate them beyond a certain height. It rendered a +polite attention to them essential. But this attention was an homage to +the weakness of females, and not to their intellect. It presupposed no +capacity of usefulness in them, for every thing, in fact, was to be done +for them, and they were to do but little for themselves. + +The revival of learning in the twelfth century was another cause of +adding to the importance of women. As men became more learned, they +began to respect the power of the human understanding. They began to be +acquainted, by means of history, with the talents of women in former +ages. They began to give a better education to their families. These +circumstances produced a more enlarged opinion of female genius. Hence +learning became an instrument of giving new consequence to women. But it +gave it to them on a principle different from that of chivalry: for +whereas chivalry insisted upon a polite attention to them on account of +the weakness of their constitutions, learning insisted upon it on +account of the strength of their understanding, or because they were +intellectual and reasonable beings. But that which contributed most to +make women important in society, was the introduction of the Christian +religion. By the mild spirit which it diffused, it produced a certain +suavity of behaviour towards them. By the abolition of polygamy it +allowed of no division of a man's love among many women, but limited it +to one. Thus it made one woman dearer than another, and of course every +individual woman of consequence. By the abolition of polygamy, it added +to their consequence again, by raising them from the rank of slaves to +that of the companions of men. This importance it increased again by the +inculcation of specific duties towards them, and by the doctrine, that, +as all, without exception, were equally accountable for their actions, +and the Divine Being was no respecter of persons, so all, whether men or +women, were of equal importance in his sight. + +But though Christianity has operated, as it always will, where it is +felt in the heart, to the production of a tender attention to women, and +to the procuring of an honourable station for them in society, we have +yet to lament, that this operation has not been more general, +considering our public profession of this religion, than we find it at +the present day. Women are still seldom appreciated as they ought to be. +They are still weighed in a different scale from men. Their education is +still limited, as if their understandings, notwithstanding the +honourable testimony which history has borne concerning them, were +incapable of high attainments. If homage be paid to their beauty, very +little is paid to their opinions. Limits also are assigned to the sphere +of their utility. To engage in other pursuits than they do would be +thought strange. In short, the education they receive marks the inferior +situation for which they are considered to be designed. Its tendency is +mostly to outward shew. Formed like dolls or play-things, which are +given to children to captivate by outside appearances, they are +generally rendered incapable of exhibiting great talents, or of +occupying an important station in life. + +But it seems to have been reserved for the Quakers us a religious body, +to insist upon that full practical treatment and estimation of women, +which ought to take place wherever Christianity is professed. They have +accordingly given to the females of their own society their proper +weight in the scale of created beings. Believing them to have adequate +capacities, and to be capable of great usefulness, they have admitted +them to a share in the administration of almost all the offices which +belong to their religious discipline, so that, independently of their +private, they have a public character, like the men. + +In the first volume, I had occasion to observe, when treating on the +subject of the discipline, that representatives were chosen by the men +out of their own body to the different meetings which were then named. +Just so it is with the Quaker women. Representatives are appointed out +of these by the other women on similar occasions. I stated also that, at +certain times, the men assembled by themselves; that they discussed the +business that came before them; that they replied to those who supported +opposite opinions to their own; and that the young men were present +during these discussions. So it is with the women. They sit in council +by themselves. They argue and reply in like manner. The young females +are also present. I stated also, that during these meetings of the men, +one of them held the office of drawing up and recording the minutes of +the proceedings or resolutions that had taken place. The women also +appoint one of their own body to the same office. I stated again, that, +in these meetings of the men, some were chosen as a committee to act in +particular cases. So also are women chosen to act as a committee by +their own meetings. I explained the nature of the office of overseer, +and I observed that there were overseers among the men. There are also +overseers among the women. I explained the nature of the office of +elder, and I observed that there were elders among the men. The women +have their elders likewise. The men were said to preach as in other +societies. The women are permitted to preach also. In short, if the men +consider themselves to be qualified for any office belonging their +religious discipline, they believe their women to be equally capable of +holding the same. No distinction is made as to the powers of usefulness +between the men and the women of this society. There are few offices +held by men, but there is a corresponding one for those of the other +sex.[41] + +[Footnote 41: The principal exceptions are, that they are not +correspondents, arbitrators, legislators, or on committees of appeal.] + +The execution of these and other, public offices, by which the Quaker +women have an important station allotted them in society, cannot but +have an important influence on their minds. It gives them, in fact, a +new cast of character. It imparts to them, in the first place, a +considerable knowledge of human nature. It produces in them thought, and +foresight, and judgment. It creates in them a care and concern for the +distressed. It elevates their ideas. It raises in them a sense of their +own dignity and importance as human beings, which sets them above every +thing that is little and trifling, and above all idle parade and shew. +Fond as they are of the animal creation, you do not see them lavishing +their caresses on lap-dogs, to the contempt of the poor and miserable of +their own species. You never see them driving from shop to shop to make +up a morning's amusement, by examining and throwing out of order the +various articles of tradesmen, giving them great trouble, and buying +nothing in return. You never find them calling upon those whom they know +to be absent from their homes, thus making their mimic visits, and +leaving their useless cards. Nothing, in short, so ridiculous or +degrading, is known among them. Their pursuits are rational, useful, and +dignified. And they may be said in general to exhibit a model for the +employment of time, worthy of the character they profess. + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS +RELATIVE TO THE +QUAKERS + + +_Quakers a happy people--Subordinate causes of this happiness--namely, +their comfortable situation--their attachment to domestic life--their +almost constant employment--this happiness not broken like that of +others, by an interruption of the routine of constituted pleasures--or +by anger and other passions or by particular enquiries and notions about +religion._ + + + + +If a person were to judge of the Quakers by the general gravity of +their countenances, and were to take into consideration, at the same +time, the circumstance, that they never partook of the amusements of the +world, in which he placed a part of his own pleasures, he would be +induced to conclude, that they had dull and gloomy minds, and that they +could not be upon the whole a happy people. Such a conclusion, however, +would be contrary to the fact. On my first acquaintance with them I was +surprised, seeing the little variety of their pursuits, at the happiness +which they appeared to enjoy, but as I came to a knowledge of the +constitution and state of the society, the solution of the problem +became easy. + +It will not be difficult to develope the subordinate causes of this +happiness.[42] To shew the first of these, I shall view the society in +the three classes of the rich, the middle, and the poor. Of the rich, I +may observe, that they are not so affluent in general as the rich of +other bodies. Of the middle, that they are upon the whole in better +circumstances than others of the same class in life. Of the poor, that +they are not so poor as others in a similar condition. Now the rich in +the Quaker society have of course as many of the comforts of life in +their power as they desire. The middle classes in this society have more +of these than the middle classes of other denominations. The poor in the +same society have also more of these, in consequence of the handsome +provision which is made for them, than others in a similar situation +with themselves. There is therefore upon the whole a greater +distribution of the comforts of life, among all the ranks of this +society, than is to be found in any other community, in proportion to +their numbers. But this superior state, in point of comfortable +circumstances, ought to be undoubtedly a source of superior happiness. +For where the comforts of life are wanting, it is in vain to suppose men +can be happy, unless their minds are more than usually comforted by +their religion. + +[Footnote 42: Religion, which includes positive virtues, and an absence +from vices, joined to a peaceful conscience and a well grounded hope of +a better life, is the first and greatest cause of happiness, and may +belong to all. But I confine myself, in this chapter, to such causes +only as may be called subordinate, and in which the Quakers are more +particularly concerned.] + +Another source of their happiness may be found in their domestic +situation. The Quakers, as I have observed before, in consequence of +denying themselves the pleasures of the world, have been obliged to +cherish those which are found in domestic life. In the fashionable +world, men and their wives seldom follow their pleasures together. They +resemble the little wooden figures of the man and the woman, which, by +moving backwards and forwards in a small painted house, denote the +changes of the weather. While one of these is within, the other is out +of doors. But this is not the case with the Quakers. The husband and +wife are not so easily separable. They visit generally together. They +are remarked as affectionate. You never hear of intrigues among them. +They are long in each others society at a time, and they are more at +home than almost any other people. For neither the same pleasures, nor +the same occupations, separate these as others. The husband is never +seen at a play, nor at a tavern, nor at a dance. Neither the naval nor +the military profession summons him abroad. He is seldom concerned in +voyages as a mariner. Hence he must of necessity be much at home. Add to +this, that the Quakers have generally families, with the power of +providing for them. But these circumstances render their homes agreeable +to them, and increase their domestic delights. + +A third source of the happiness of the Quakers arises from the +circumstance of their being almost constantly employed. Few are so +miserable as those who have nothing to do, or who, unable to find +employment, feel a dull vacuum in their time. And the converse of this +proposition is equally true, that the time of those flies pleasantly +away, who can employ it rationally. But there is rarely such a being +among the Quakers as a lazy person, gaping about for amusement. Their +trades or callings occupy the greater portion of their time. Their +meetings of discipline, as has been already shewn, occupy their time +again. The execution of the various offices to which they may be +appointed, such as of overseers, or elders, or committee-men, or +arbitrators in disputes, occupies more. Few Quakers, but particularly +the more respectable, have many vacant hours. And here it may not be +improper to remark, that the discipline of the society, organized as it +is, is productive of a cheerful and friendly intercourse of the +members, or of a sociable manner of spending their time, one with +another. The monthly meetings usually bring two or three particular +meetings together. The members of these, when they have dispatched their +business, retire to the houses of their friends, where they take their +refreshment, and indulge in the pleasures of conversation. The quarterly +meetings again bring the monthly meetings of the county into one. Here +again, when the business is over, they partake of a similar repast. +Hence a renewal of conversation and of friendship. The yearly meeting +again brings many, from the quarterly together. And here the Quakers +from all parts of the kingdom have an opportunity of seeing and +conversing with one another. I may add too, that many individuals in the +interim, who travel, whether on business or on pleasure, or on religious +errands, enlarge this friendly intercourse; for few Quakers pass through +the towns where Quakers live, without calling upon these, so that there +are many sources within the customs and constitution of the society, +that are productive of cheerful hours.[43] + +[Footnote 43: It may be mentioned here, that the Quakers acknowledge +their relations to a much farther degree of consanguinity, than other +people. This relationship, where it can be distinctly traced, is +commemorated by the appellation of cousin. This custom therefore is a +cause of endearment when they meet, and of course of additional +pleasure.] + +But here it will probably be said, that these sources of happiness, +which have been hitherto described, are common to many others. I grant +they are to individuals, but not to communities at large. No society has +probably so many of the comforts of life in its power, number for +number, and rank for rank, as that of the Quakers. None probably so +wholly domestic. None, where the members of it have such frequent +intercourse with each other, or where they are so connected in the bonds +of brotherly love, and none, as far as I know men, who have such +constant employment for their time. + +Having explained some of those, which may be considered as positive +sources of happiness to the Quakers, I shall now shew what may be causes +of unhappiness to others, and that the Quakers seldom partake of these. +Such an exposition, however strange it may appear at the first sight, +will be materially to the point. For though an exemption from the causes +of the uneasiness of others can never be admitted as a proof of the +existence of positive enjoyment among the Quakers, yet if the latter +have solid sources of happiness of their own, and these are not in any +material degree diminished by the causes of the uneasiness of the +former, there will be left to them, because there will be no drawback, a +certain portion of happiness with less alloy. And here it is obvious at +the first sight, that the Quakers have not the same, nor so many wants +as others, with respect to their pleasures, and that they do not admit +the same things to be component parts of them. Hence they have not the +same causes of uneasiness from the chance of interruption. Hence also +their happiness is more in their own power. What individual can +annihilate the comforts which arise from their own industry, or their +domestic enjoyments, or their friendly intercourse with each other, or +their employments, which arise from their discipline, and from their +trade and callings? But how easily are many of the reputed enjoyments of +the world to be broken? Some people place their happiness in a routine +of constituted pleasures. In proportion as these have been frequently +resorted to, they will have got into the habit as the necessary +enjoyments of life. Take away then from persons in such habits the power +of these their ordinary gratifications, and you will make them languid, +and even wretched. There will be a wide chasm, which they will not know +how to fill up; a dull vacuum of time, which will make their existence +insipid; a disappointment, which will carry with it a lacerating sting. +In some of the higher circles of life, accustomed to such rounds of +pleasure, who does not know that the Sunday is lamented as the most +cruel interrupter of their enjoyments?--No shopping in the morning--no +theatre or route in the evening--Nothing but dull heavy church stares +them in the face. But I will not carry this picture to the length to +which I am capable. I shall only observe that, where persons adopt a +routine of constituted pleasures, they are creating fictitious wants for +themselves, and making their own happiness subject to interruption, and +putting it into the power of others. The Quakers, however, by the total +rejection of all the amusements included in the routine alluded to, know +nothing of the drawbacks or disadvantages described. + +The Quakers again are exempt from several of the causes of uneasiness, +which attach to the world at large. Some go to the gaming-table, and +ruin themselves and their families, and destroy the peace of their +minds. But the Quakers are never found injuring their fortunes or their +happiness by such disreputable means. + +Others disturb the harmony of their lives by intemperate sallies of +passion. It has been well observed, that, whatever may be the duration +of a man's anger, so much time he loses of the enjoyment of his life. +The Quakers, however, have but few miserable moments on this account. A +due subjugation of the passions has been generally instilled into them +from early youth. Provocation seldom produces in them any intemperate +warmth, or takes away, in any material degree, from the apparent +composure of their minds. + +Others again, by indulging their anger, are often hurried into actions +of which the consequences vex and torment them, and of which they often +bitterly repent. But the Quakers endeavour to avoid quarrelling, and +therefore they often steer clear of the party and family feuds of +others. They avoid also, as much as possible, the law, so that they have +seldom any of the lawsuits to harass and disturb them, which interrupt +the tranquillity of others by the heavy expence, and by the lasting +enmities they occasion. + +The Quakers again are exempt from many of the other passions which +contribute to the unhappiness of the world at large. Some men have an +almost boundless ambition. They are desirous of worldly honours, or of +eminent stations, or of a public name, and pursue these objects in their +passage through life with an avidity which disturbs the repose of their +minds. But the Quakers scarcely know any such feeling as that of +ambition, and of course scarcely any of the torments that belong to it. +They are less captivated by the splendour of honours than any other +people, and they had rather live in the memory of a few valuable +friends, than be handed down to posterity for those deeds, which +generally constitute the basis of public character. + +Others again, who cannot obtain these honourable distractions, envy +those who possess them. They envy the very coronet upon the coach, as it +passes by. But the Quakers can have no such feelings as these. They pass +in their pilgrimage through life regardless of such distinctions, or +they estimate them but as the baubles of the, day. It would be folly +therefore to suppose, that they could be envious of that which they do +not covet. + +The Quakers again are exempt from some of the occasions of uneasiness +which arise to others from considerations on the subject of religion. +Some people, for example, pry into what are denominated mysteries. The +more they look into these, the less they understand them, or rather, the +more they are perplexed and confounded. Such an enquiry too, while it +bewilders the understanding, generally affects the mind. But the Quakers +avoid all such curious enquiries as these, and therefore they suffer no +interruption of their enjoyment from this source. Others again, by the +adoption of gloomy creeds, give rise frequently to melancholy, and thus +lay in for themselves a store of fuel for the torment of their own +minds. But the Quakers espouse no doctrines, which, while they conduct +themselves uprightly, can interrupt the tranquillity of their lives. It +is possible there may be here and mere an instance where their feelings +may be unduly affected, in consequence of having carried the doctrine of +the influence of the Spirit, as far as it relates to their own +condition, beyond its proper bounds. But individuals, who may fell into +errors of this nature, are, it is to be hoped, but few; because any +melancholy, which may arise from these causes, must be the effect, not +of genuine Quakerism, but of a degenerate superstition. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Good, which the Quakers have done as a society upon earth--by their +general good example--by shewing that persecution for religion is +ineffectual--by shewing the practicability of the subjugation of the +will of man--the influence of Christianity on character--the inefficacy +of capital punishments--the best object of punishment--the +practicability of living, either in a private or a public capacity, in +harmony and peace--the superiority of the policy of the Gospel over the +policy of the world._ + + +When we consider man as distinguished from other animals by the rational +and spiritual faculties which he possesses, we cannot but conceive it to +be a reproach to his nature, if he does not distinguish himself from +these, or, if he does not leave some trace behind him, that he has +existed rationally and profitably both to himself and others. But if +this be expected of man, considered abstractedly as man, much more will +it be expected of him, if he has had the advantages of knowing the +doctrines of Christianity, and the sublime example of the great Author +of that religion. And the same observation, I apprehend, will hold true +with respect to societies of men. For if they have done no good during +their existence, we cannot see how they can escape censure, or that it +would not have been better that they had not existed at all. This +consideration leads me to enquire, what good the Quakers have done since +their institution, as a society, upon earth. + +It was said of the Quakers in George Fox's time, after their character +had been established, that, "if they did not stand, the nation would run +into debauchery." By this I apprehend it was meant, that it was a +desirable thing to have a people to look up to, who, residing in the +'midst of a vicious community, professed to be followers of that which +was right, and to resist the current of bad example in their own times; +or that such a people might be considered as a leaven, that might leaven +the whole lump, but that, if this leaven were lost, the community might +lose one of its visible incitements to virtue. Now in this way the +Quakers have had a certain general usefulness in the world. They have +kept more, I apprehend, to first principles, than any other people. They +have afforded a moral example. This example ought to have been useful to +others. To those who were well inclined, it should have been as a torch +to have lighted up their virtue, and it should have been a perpetual +monument for reproof to others, who were entering upon a career of vice. + +The first particular good, after the general one now stated, which the +Quakers have done, has been, that they have shewn to those who have been +spectators of their conduct, that all persecution for matters of +religion, as it is highly criminal in the eyes of the Supreme Being, so +it is inadequate to the end proposed. This proposition, indeed, seems to +be tolerably Well understood at the present day. At least they whose +minds have been well informed, acknowledge it. The history of martyrdom, +by which we learn how religion soars above all suffering, how the +torments inflicted on the body are unable to reach the mind, how the +moral Governor of the world reigns triumphant upon earth, how tyranny +and oppression fall prostrate before virtue, losing their malignant aim, +has been one, among other causes, of this knowledge. But as history is +known but to few, and is not remembered by all, the Quakers are +particularly useful by holding up the truth of the proposition to our +daily sight, that is, by the example they continue to afford us of +bearing their testimony in all cases where the civil magistrate is +concerned on the one hand, and their consciences on the other. + +A second good, which the Quakers have done, is by shewing, as a whole +body, the power of Christianity in the subjugation of the will of men, +and its influence on their character. + +They are living proofs, in the first instance, that human nature is not +the stubborn thing, which many have imagined it to be; that, however it +may be depraved, it is still corrigible; and that this correction is +universally practicable, for that there are as various dispositions in +this society as in any other in proportion to its numbers. They shew, +that Christianity can alter the temper, that it can level enmities, and +that there is no just occasion for any to despair. And they are living +proofs, in the second, as to what kind of character Christianity, where +it is rightly received, will produce; They are living proofs, that it +can produce sobriety, inoffensiveness, simplicity, charity, peace, and +the domestic and other virtues. Now though every private Christian can +shew in himself an example of these effects, yet the Quakers shew it, +not by producing solitary instances, but as a body; the temper of the +great mass of their members being apparently cast in the same mould, and +their character, as a society, being acknowledged to be that of a moral +people. + +And here I cannot but stop for a moment to pay a just tribute to the +Quaker system, as one of the best modes of the Christian Religion; for +whether the doctrines which belong to it, or whether the discipline +which it promotes, or whether both of them conjointly, produce the +effects which have been just related, certain it is, that they are +produced.[44] But that system of religion is surely the most excellent, +which produces, first, the greatest, and, secondly, the most universal +effect upon those who profess it. For what is the use of any particular +creed, or where is the advantage of any one creed above another, if it +cannot give the great characteristic marks of a Christian, a subjugated +mind and a moral character? What signifies the creed of any particular +description of Christian professors, if it has no influence on the +heart, or if we see professors among these giving way to their passions, +or affording an inconsistent example to the world. + +[Footnote 44: Many of the Quakers in America, influenced by custom, +Adopted the practice of holding slaves. But on a due recurrence to their +principles they gave freedom to these unconditionally, thus doing +another public good in the world, and giving another example of the +power of religion on the mind.] + +The Quakers have given, again, in the reforms, which, in the first +volume, I described them to have introduced into legislation, a +beautiful and practical lesson of jurisprudence to the governors of all +nations. They have shewn the inefficacy of capital punishments; that the +best object in the punishment of offenders is their reformation; that +this accords best with the genius and spirit of the Christian Religion; +and that while such a system, when followed, restores the abandoned to +usefulness in society, it diminishes the number of crimes.[45] + +[Footnote 45: See Vol. I, Sect. 4, p. 198.] + +They have shewn again, by their own example, that it is not so difficult +for men to live peaceably together, as has been usually believed; and +they have exhibited the means by which they have effected this desirable +end in life. And as they have proved, that this is practicable in +private, so they have proved, as has appeared in this volume, that it is +practicable in public life, or, which is the same thing, they have +shewn, that in the intercourse which exists between nations, there is no +necessity for wars. + +They have shewn and established again by the two latter instances, both +of which relate to government, a proposition which seems scarcely to be +believed, if we judge by the practice of statesmen, but the truth of +which ought for ever to be insisted upon, that the policy of the Gospel +is superior to the policy of the world. + +This is a portion of the good which the Quakers have done since their +appearance as a society in the world. What other good they have done it +is not necessary to specify. And as to what they would do, if they were +permitted to become universal legislators, it may be a pleasing subject +for contemplation, but it does not fall within the limits of the present +chapter. + + + + +CHAP. III. + +_General opinion, that the Quakers are on the decline as a +society--Observations upon this subject--Opinion believed, upon the +whole, to be true--Causes of this supposed declension--Mixed +marriages--Tithes--Pursuit of trade, as connected with the peculiar +habits of the society, and a residence in the towns--Education._ + + +I have often heard it suggested as matter for conversation, whether the +Quakers were increasing or decreasing in their number, and the result +has always been an opinion, that they were a declining body. + +When we consider the simplicity and even philosophy of the Quaker +religion, the preservation it affords against the follies and +difficulties of life, and the happiness to which it ultimately leads, we +shall wonder that the progress of the society, in point of number, has +not been greater than we find it. And when we consider, on the other +hand, how difficult it is to be a Quaker, how much it is against the +temper and disposition of man to be singular, or to resist the tide of +custom and fashion, and to undergo an ordeal of suffering on these +accounts, we shall wonder that it has not been long ago extinct. + +That many are disowned by the society, in consequence of which its +numbers are diminished, is true. That others come into it from other +quarters, by which an increase is given to it, independently of its own +natural population, is true also. But whether the new members exceed the +disowned, or the disowned the new, is the question to be resolved. Now +no people have had better opportunities of ascertaining this point, +than the Quakers themselves. By means of their monthly meetings they +might with ease have instituted a census on a given day. They might have +renewed such a census. They might have compared the returns in every +case. But as no such census has ever been made, the Quakers themselves, +though they have their ideas, cannot speak with particular accuracy, on +this subject. + +The general opinion, however, is, and the Quakers, I apprehend, will not +deny but lament it, that those who go out of the society are upon the +whole more numerous than those who come into it by convincement, and +therefore that there is, upon the whole, a decrease among them. + +Of the truth of this opinion, some have adduced as a proof, that the +quarterly meetings have been reduced to three fourths of their original +number. But this is not to be considered as a certain criterion of the +fact. For it is by no means uncommon to find, if the Quakers decrease in +one county, that they increase in another. It has also been adduced, +that many particular meetings have been broken up, or that +meeting-houses in the country are standing deserted, or without Quakers +to worship in them. But neither can this be considered as any +infallible proof of the point. For it frequently happens, that if the +Quakers become less numerous in any particular village, they become more +so in some of the towns of the same county. Thus no true judgment can be +formed upon these principles. The Quaker population, in this respect, on +account of its movements, resembles the sea, which, while it loses on +one part of its shores or boundaries, gains upon another. + +There are, however, considerations, which may be more decisive of the +fact. + +In the time of George Fox the number of those converted to his +principles was immense.[46] This number, if we consult all the facts +that might be adduced on the occasion, continued to be large in after +times. Now it must be observed, that the Quakers are a sober and +temperate people, that they generally marry at a proper age, and that +they have large families. It is therefore impossible, if the descendants +of the early Quakers had continued in the society, that their number +should not have been much larger than we find it at the present day, +and, if so, there must have been a secession or an expulsion, amounting, +notwithstanding all influx by conversion, to a decrease. + +[Footnote 46: Although the remark may be just, that in the time of +George Fox "a great number were converted to his principles," yet a +small portion of those were actually received into membership, and the +same remark may correctly be made even in the present day: as it is +believed that immense numbers are convinced of the truth as held by the +Quakers, but owing to their "not being willing to undergo an ordeal of +suffering on account of their principles," a small portion of those +apply to be admitted into the society. AMERICAN EDITOR.] + +It is obvious again that the Quakers, in consequence of their industry +and their frugal habits, must almost unavoidably grow rich. Now if the +descendants of the early Quakers had remained in the society, we should +have seen more overgrown fortunes in it, than among others in proportion +to their numbers. But this is contrary to the fact. The very richest, as +the world now goes, would not be considered to be particularly rich; and +it is a truth that those who are affluent among them have generally been +the founders, by means of their industry and integrity, of their own +fortunes. + +It is, again, a matter of observation among the Quakers, now grown into +a truth, that if men grow rich in the society, their grand-children +generally leave it. But surely this amounts to a confession, that in a +particular part of the society there are the seeds of a regular and +successive decrease. + +That the Quakers then upon the whole are a declining body, there can be +no doubt.[47] While I state it, I lament it. I lament that there should +be any diminution of number among those who have done so much good in +the world, and who have so justly obtained the reputation of a moral +people. This consideration will lead me to enquire into the causes of +this decline. It will impel me also to enquire into the means of remedy. +How far I may be successful in the latter attempt, I am unable to say. +But it will always be a pleasing consideration to me, to have tried to +prevent the decrease of a virtuous people. + +[Footnote 47: Against this decrease we cannot set off any great increase +by admission into membership. The dress, the language, the fear of being +singular, the discipline with its various restraints, the unwillingness +of men to suffer where suffering can be avoided, these and other +circumstances are great impediments in the way of an entrance into this +society; and to this I may add, that applications for admission into it +are not always complied with.] + +With respect then to the causes of this decline, to which I shall +confine myself in this chapter, they will be found in the causes of +disownment. Now of these, some may be called original and immediate, and +others original and remote. + +Of original and immediate, the first is what the Quakers call mixed +marriage. It has been before stated, that those who marry out of the +society are disowned, and the reasons for such disownments have been +given. + +A second will be found in tithes. They who pay these are ultimately +disowned. And they are disowned as well for the payment of lay-tithes, +as of those which are ecclesiastical. + +Of the original and remote, a very prolific cause is the pursuit of +trade, connected as it is with the peculiar habits of the society, and a +residence in the towns.[48] + +[Footnote 48: Owing perhaps to the causes alleged by the author, the +society may have decreased in England, yet it is certain that in this +country the number of Quakers has very considerably increased. AMERICAN +EDITOR.] + +To shew this I must observe, first, that the poor, comparatively +speaking, are seldom disowned, for they know that they[49] shall never +be so well provided for in any other society. I must observe again, that +the members of the middle classes are also, comparatively speaking, but +seldom disowned. These must live by trade, but if so, they cannot be +better off than as Quakers. The direct conclusion then, from these +observations, will be, that the greater number of those who are +disowned, will be found among the rich, or among such as are growing +rich. Hence it appears, that, as far as this original and remote cause +is concerned, my enquiry must be, how it happens, that members of this +particular class should be excluded from membership more than those of +any other. + +[Footnote 49: I by no means intend to say, that the poor do not remain +in the society from an attachment to its principles, but that this may +be a political motive also.] + +In answer to this enquiry I must say, as I have observed before, that +Quakers in trade, having as good abilities, and as much diligence and +integrity as others, will succeed as well as others in it, but that, +having less sources of outgoings, their savings will be generally +greater. Hence they will have before their eyes the sight of a greater +accumulation of wealth. But in proportion as such accumulation of +substance is beheld, the love of it increases. Now while this love +increases, or while their hearts are unduly fixed on the mammon of the +world, they allow many little inconsistencies in their children to +escape their reproof. But, besides this, as the religion and the love of +the mammon of the world are at variance, they have a less spiritual +discernment than before. Hence they do not see the same irregularities +in the same light. From this omission to check these irregularities on +the one hand, and from this decay of their spiritual vision on the +other, their children have greater liberties allowed them than others in +the same society. But as these experience this indulgence, or as these +admit the customs and fashions of the world, they grow more fond of +them. Now, as they live in towns, the spark that is excited is soon +fanned into a flame. Fashions and fashionable things, which they cannot +but see daily before their eyes, begin to get the dominion. When they +are visited by wholesome advisers, they dislike the interference. They +know they shall be rich. They begin to think the discipline of the +society a cruel restraint. They begin to dislike the society itself, +and, committing irregularities, they are sometimes in consequence +disowned. But, if they should escape disownment themselves, they entail +it generally upon their children. These are brought up in a still looser +manner than themselves. The same process goes on with these as with +their parents, but in a still higher degree, till a conduct utterly +inconsistent with the principles of the society occasions them to be +separated from it. Thus in the same manner, as war, according to the old +saying, begets poverty, and poverty peace, so the pursuit of trade, with +the peculiar habits of the society, leads to riches, riches to fashion +and licentiousness, and fashion and licentiousness to disownment, so +that many Quakers educate their children as if there were to be no +Quakers in the second generation from themselves. And thus, though, +strictly speaking, irregularities are the immediate occasion of these +disownments, they are ultimately to be attributed to the original and +remote cause as now described.[50] + +[Footnote 50: I hope I shall not be understood as involving the rich in +a promiscuous censure. I know as amiable examples among these and among +their children, as among others of the society. But we must naturally +expect more deviations among the rich, number for number, than among +others.] + +That this is by no means an unreasonable account, I shall shew in some +measure by an appeal to facts. The American Quakers sprang from the +English. The English, though drained in consequence, were still +considerable, when compared with the former. But it is remarkable, that +the American Quakers exceed the English by at least five times their +number at the present day. Now it must undoubtedly be confessed, that +the Americans have advantages, as far as this fact is concerned, which +the English have not. They have no tithes as a cause of disownment. +Their families also, I believe, increase more rapidly. Many persons +also, as will be the case in a country that is not fully settled, live +in the neighbourhoods of the Quakers, but at a distance from those of +other religious denominations, and therefore, wishing to worship +somewhere, seek membership with them. But I apprehend that a great cause +of this disparity of number lies in this difference of the situation of +the two, that whereas the great Quaker population in England is in the +towns with but a remnant in the country, the great Quaker population in +America is in the country with but a remnant in the towns.[51] And that +the Americans themselves believe, that the place of the residence of +their members is connected in some measure with the increase and +decrease of their society, it is fair to presume, from this +circumstance, that, in several of the quarterly meetings in America, +advice has been given to parents to bring up their children in the +country, and, as little as possible, in the towns. + +[Footnote 51: The number of the Quakers is undoubtedly great in one or +two of the cities in America, but the whole town-population is not +great, when compared with the whole country-population there.] + +Another of the original and remote causes is education. This, as it +becomes promotive of the diminution of the society, is of two kinds. The +first may be called alien. The second is such as is afforded in the +society itself. + +Some parents, growing rich, and wishing to give their children a better +education, than they can get in their own schools, send them to others +to be instructed. Now the result has not been desirable, where it has +been designed, that such children should be continued Quakers. For how +is a poor solitary Quaker boy to retain the peculiarities belonging to +his religious profession, in the face of the whole school? Will not his +opinions and manners be drowned as it were in the torrent of the +opinions and manners of the rest? How can he get out of this whirlpool +pure? How, on his return, will he harmonize with his own society? Will +not either he, or his descendants, leave it? Such an education may make +him undoubtedly both a good and an enlightened man, and so far one of +the most desirable objects in life will have been accomplished, but it +certainly tends to destroy the peculiar institution of Quakerism. + +The education, which is afforded in the society itself, is divisible +again into two kinds, into that which is moral or religious, and into +that which is literary or philosophical. + +It must undoubtedly be confessed, in looking into that which is moral or +religious, that sufficient care is not always taken with regard to +youth. We sometimes see fathers and sons, and mothers and daughters, so +different in their appearance and deportment, that we should scarcely +have imagined them to be of the same family. I am not now speaking of +those parents, who may live in the towns, and who may be more than +ordinarily devoted to the mammon of the world, but of some who, living +both in town and country, give an example of a liberal and amiable +spirit, and of a blameless conduct to the world. That the former should +neglect and lose sight of their offspring, when their moral vision is +clouded by an undue eagerness after money, is not to be wondered at, but +that the latter should do it, is surprising. It is certainly true that +some of these are too indulgent in their families, contrary to the plan +and manner of their own education, or that they do not endeavour to nip +all rising inconsistencies in the bud. The consequence is, that their +children get beyond control in time, when they lament in vain their +departure from the simplicity of the society. Hence the real cause of +their disownment, which occasionally follows, is not in the children +running out of bounds, but in the parents running out of bounds in the +manners of their children. And here I may add, that some parents, +dwelling too much on the disuse of forms in religion, because such +disuse is inculcated by their own doctrines, run into the opposite +extreme, and bring up their children in too much ignorance of the +general plan of Christianity, as it is laid down in the letter of the +scriptures. + +With respect to education, as for it is literary or philosophical, it is +frequently sufficient for those upon whom it is bestowed. But it does +not appear to me to be carried to its proper extent, in the case of the +children of the rich, when I consider how friendly it might be made +towards the promotion of virtue. Some, we know, growing wealthy, have +had children when they were poorer, and, when in this poorer state, they +have given them an education which has been suitable to it, not +calculating upon their future rise in life. But their children, having +had such a limited education, have not had that which has been proper +for their subsequent station in life. Others again, who have been born +in better circumstances, have, on account of an undue depreciation of +human knowledge, educated their children as improperly for their +station as the former. The children then, in both these cases, have not +had an education sufficient, with the prospect of riches before them, to +keep them out of the way of harm. They have not had, in addition to any +religious instruction, that taste given them for sublime pursuits, which +should make them despise those which were frivolous. Thus many of the +corruptive opinions, fashions, and amusements of the world have charmed +them. Giving way to these, they have been overcome. When overcome, they +have run into excesses, and for these excesses they have been disowned. +But surely, with a better education, they would have thought all such +corruptive opinions, fashions, and amusements, as below their notice, +and unworthy of their countenance and support. + + + + +CHAP. IV. + +_Supposed remedies for the diminution of some of these +causes--Regulations in the case of mixed marriages--Measures to be +adopted in the pursuit of trade--Education, as it is moral or +religious, to be more strictly enforced in some families--as it is +literary or philosophical, to be carried to a greater extent among the +children of the rich--Object of this latter education--Nature of it as +consisting both knowledge and prohibitions--How it would operate against +the fascinating allurements of the world, or to the end proposal._ + + +I Purpose now to suggest, as briefly as I can, such opinions, as, if +adopted, might possibly operate as remedies to some of the evils which +have been described. In doing this I am aware of the difficulties that +await me. I am sensible that I ought not to be too sanguine as to the +result of all my observations upon this subject and yet, I cannot but +think, that I may be successful in some of them. Arduous, however, as +the task, and dubious as my success may be, I am encouraged, on the +prospect of being but partially useful, to undertake it. + +On the first of the original and immediate causes which have been +mentioned, I mean mixed marriages, I shall have but little to say. I do +not see how it is possible, while the society means to keep up a due +subordination among its members, not to disown such as may marry out of +it. In mixed families, such as these marriages produce, it is in vain to +expect that the discipline can be carried on, as has been shewn in the +second volume. And, without this discipline, the society would hardly +keep up, in the extensive manner it does, the character of a moral +people. I think, however, that some good might be done by regulations to +be universally observed. Thus they, who are deputed to inform the +disowned of their exclusion from membership, should be of the most +amiable temper and conciliatory manners. Every unqualified person should +be excluded from these missions. Permission should be solicited for both +the married persons to be present on such occasions. It is difficult to +estimate the good effect which the deputed, if of sweet and tender +dispositions, or the bad effects which the deputed, if of cold and +austere manners, might have upon those they visited, or what bias it +might give the one in particular, who had never been in membership, for +or against the society. Permission also might be solicited, even when +the mission was over for future friendly opportunities or visits, which +would shew in the society itself a tender regard and solicitude for the +welfare of its former members. It is not at all improbable, from the +impression which such apparent regard and solicitude might occasion, +that the children of the visited, though not members, might be brought +up in the rules of membership. And finally it appears to me to be +desirable, that the disowned, if they should give proof by their own +lives and the education of their children, of their attachment to the +principles of the society, and should solicit restoration to membership, +should be admitted into it again without any acknowledgment of past +errors, and wholly as new and convinced members. + +With respect to the second of the immediate and original causes, which +is to be found in tithes, I may observe that it is, as for as I can +collect, but a small and an inferior one, few being disowned on this +account, and still fewer now than formerly. It would be desirable, +however, few as these instances may be, to prevent them. But I fear that +no remedy can be pointed out, in which the Quakers would acquiesce, +except it could be shewn, that a distinction might be made between the +payment of ecclesiastical and lay-tithes, which would not interfere with +the great tenets of the society on this subject. + +A third cause of disownment, but this belongs to the original and +remote, was shewn to be the pursuit of trade, connected as it is with +the peculiar habits of the society and a residence in the towns. I may +propose as remedies for this, first, that parents should be careful to +exhibit a good example to their children. Secondly, as I have before +observed, that they should prescribe to themselves moderation in the +acquisition of wealth, either by relinquishing trade at a given time, or +by dealing out the profits of it more liberally than common in the way +of benevolence, so that their children, in each case, may never have the +misfortune of the prospect of a large moneyed independence before their +eyes. Or lastly, that they should give them a better education than +they do at present, on which subject, according to the prescribed order +of things, I am now to speak. + +A fourth cause then, but this belongs also to the original and remote, +was shewn to exist in education. And education, as it was promotive of +the diminution of the society, was of two kinds. + +With respect to that part of it which is alien, the remedy is easy. +There has been great difficulty in procuring proper schoolmasters, I +mean such as have been Quakers. Two reasons may be given for this. The +first is, that the society having been backward in affording due +encouragement to learning, few of any great literary acquisitions have +been brought up in it. The second is, that persons have found, that they +could make much less of their time in such a line of employment than in +the way of trade. But surely the Quakers, as a body in comfortable and +independent circumstances, might easily remedy the evil. Does not a man, +who devotes his time to the instruction of youth, deserve to be made as +comfortable as the man who sells silver utensils, or bracelets, or +ear-rings, or other articles of trade? Is there any comparison between +the moral usefulness of these? Is there any profession more useful than +that which forms the youthful mind? or rather, is it not the most +important profession in the state?[52] + +[Footnote 52: It is but justice to the Quakers to observe, that they are +taking more pains than formerly in the promotion of this object. I am +told that there are more private seminaries now kept by Quakers for the +education of the youth of their own society, than even before the +institution of Ackworth school.] + +With respect to the education which is acquired in the society itself, +the remedy is not difficult. This education was shewn to be of two +kinds. + +On that part of it, which is moral or religious, I may observe, that the +remedy is in the parents themselves. The first thing to be recommended +is an universal vigilance over the disposition and manners of children, +so that no censurable appearance, whether in temper or in conduct, may +be allowed to pass without suitable notice or reproof, or that the bud, +which promises to be corruptive of morals, should no sooner make its +appearance, than it should be cut off. In cases of so much importance, +as where the happiness both of parents and children is concerned, the +former should be peculiarly circumspect. They should not talk about +things, but insist upon them, on all proper occasions. They should not +point out, but redress. They should not lop off the branches, but lay +the axe to the root. And surely youth is the best season for such +wholesome interference. It is, in the first place, the season in which +a remedy is practicable; for we are assured, "if we train up a child in +the way he should go, that, when he is old, he will not depart from it." +It is, secondly, the season in which it is most practicable; for can we +hope to bend the tree so easily to our form, as the sapling from whence +it came? and, thirdly, it is the season in which it is practicable only, +for will not a small irregularity grow, if uncontrolled, to a greater? +Will not one irregularity also, if not properly checked, give birth to +others? And may not these be so incorporated into the inner man in a +course of time, that it may be as difficult for parents to eradicate +them, as for the Ethiopian to change his colour, or the leopard his +spots? But surely the Quakers ought to know the impropriety of undue +indulgences in their families, as well as any other people? Is not the +early subjugation of the will a doctrine more particularly adopted by +them as a society? Without such a subjugation do they not conceive the +mind to be in an unfit state to receive the admonitions of the pure +principle, and of course to make a true proficiency in religion? Do they +not consider themselves also as a highly professing people, and do they +not know that the world expects more from them than from others? But how +can their children ever perpetuate this extraordinary character after +them, or shew that their parents possessed it, unless they are brought +up in a peculiarly guarded manner? In addition to these observations it +may be recommended, that parents should be careful to give their +children what may be called a literal instruction in Christianity, in +contradistinction to pure theism, or to those doctrines which they +conceive may come from the teachings of the Holy Spirit, so that they +may have a more intimate knowledge of all their principles, as a +Christian body. + +With respect to that part of education which may consist of knowledge +as it is literary or philosophical, I conceive it might be attended with +advantage to carry it to a greater extent than has hitherto been +practised in the society, but particularly the latter. Nothing is so +delightful to youth as experimental philosophy, by which they see the +causes of things unfolded to their view. No science takes their +attention more, or inclines them, in the farther pursuit of it, to be +satisfied with home. And yet I doubt whether this branch of learning be +not almost wholly neglected in the Quaker schools. The education which +is received in the society, as it consists of the two kinds of knowledge +described, is not, in my apprehension, carried far enough, so as to suit +the peculiar situation of the children of the rich. These are they, who +are most in danger. These are they, who, having the prospect of wealth +before them, have the prospect of being able to procure destructive +pleasures. These are they, who, having the prospect of independence, do +not fear the opinion of the world or the loss of reputation in it, like +those, who have their livelihood to obtain by their own industry. Now it +should be the particular object of the education of these, as indeed it +should be of all rich persons, so to instruct them, that, while they are +obliged to live in the world, they may be enabled to live out of it, or +deny it; so that, when seated amidst its corrupt opinions, amusements, +and fashions, they should estimate them as below their notice, and as +utterly unworthy of their countenance and support. + +I should be sorry if, in holding up this species of education to a +farther encouragement, as a preservative of the morals of the children +of rich parents amidst the various temptations of life, I were to be +thought to endeavour to take away in any degree the necessity of the +influence of the Holy Spirit on the mind of man, or to deny that this +Spirit ought not to be resorted to as the first and best guide, both by +rich and poor, during their pilgrimage upon earth. For who can teach us +best to deny the world? Who can teach us best to estimate its pursuits? +Who can instruct us best to resist its temptations? To the Divine Being +then we are first to look up, as to him who can be the best author of +all our good, and the surest averter of all our evils, who can apply the +best remedy to the imperfections of our nature, and who, while he leads +us in safety, can lead us into the way of truth. But when we consider +how many are inattentive, on account of the cares, and pleasures, and +fashions, and prejudices, and customs of the world, to the secret +notices of his grace, I cannot help considering that we may be allowed +to have secondary and subordinate helps to our virtue. As the discipline +of the Quaker society may produce and preserve a certain purity of life, +so may a literary and philosophical education operate to the same end. +Such an education is in its general tendency a friend to the promotion +of virtue and to the discouragement of vice. It sets us often +unquestionably above many of the corruptive opinions and customs in the +midst of which we live. It leads us also frequently to the contemplation +of the Divine Being in all the variety of his works. It gives us +amiable, awful, and sublime conceptions of him. As far, therefore, as it +is capable of doing this, it is a useful, though it be only a +subordinate source of our purity, and we may therefore adopt it +innocently. But we are never to forget, at the same time, that, though +it may help us occasionally to resist corrupt temptations, and to +encourage desirable propensities, yet it cannot do every thing for us +that is necessary, and that we are never to overlook, on this account, +the necessity of the influence of the Holy Spirit. + +To shew in what the education, which under these limitations I am going +to propose, may consist, I shall revive the controversy between the +philosophical moralists and the Quakers, as described in the eighth +chapter of the first volume. The philosophical moralists contended, that +knowledge was to be preferred, as being more to be relied upon than +prohibitions: that prohibitions were often causes of greater evils than +they were intended to prevent; that they themselves were friends to +occasional indulgencies; that they saw nothing necessarily or inherently +mischievous in the amusements of the world; that it was not wise to +anticipate danger by looking to distant prospects, where the things were +innocent in themselves; that ignorance of vice was no guardian of +morals; that causes, and not sub-causes, were to be contended against; +and that there was no certain security but in knowledge and in a love of +virtue. To this the Quakers replied, that prohibitions were sanctioned +by divine authority; that as far as they related to the corrupt +amusements of the world, they were implied in the spirit of +Christianity; that the knowledge, which should be promotive of virtue, +could not be inculcated without them; that knowledge again, if it were +to be acquired by the permission of occasional indulgences, or by being +allowed to pass through scenes which might be dangerous to virtue, +would be more ruinous than ignorance by a prohibition of vice; that +ignorance of vice was an essential in Christian morals; and that +prohibitions therefore were indispensably necessary, and better to be +relied upon, than any corrupt knowledge, which might arise from an +acquaintance with the customs of the world. + +This then was the state of the controversy, as described in the first +volume. And in this state it was left. But, to explain the education +which I have in view, I shall now bring it to a conclusion. + +I must observe then, that the philosophical moralists had the advantage +of the Quakers in this controversy, inasmuch as they supposed that +knowledge was a better safeguard to morals than a mere ignorance of +vice; but they failed in this, that they permitted this knowledge to be +acquired by passing through scenes which might not be friendly to +virtue. Now this latter permission is inadmissible in a Christian +education; for no Christian youth ought to be permitted to see or to +hear that which ought not to be uttered or exhibited by a Christian. The +Quakers, on the other hand, had the advantage of the philosophical +moralists, inasmuch as they considered ignorance to be better than +corrupted knowledge; but they failed in this, that they seemed to rely +upon ignorance of vice as a safeguard against it, without a proper +portion of knowledge. The education then, to which I allude, ought to +embrace the most valuable positions of both. It should consist of +knowledge, and it should consist of wise prohibitions also. Knowledge +and prohibitions are inseparable. While the mind is gaining knowledge, +it should be kept innocent. And while it is kept innocent, it should be +gaining knowledge. Youth should have that kind of knowledge instilled +into them, by which they should discern the value of the prohibitions +which are enjoined them. They should have such and so much knowledge, +that if they were accidentally placed in the way of the things +prohibited, they should be able to look them in the face, and pass +through them without injury. This is that education, which, without +superseding the necessity of the influence of the Holy Spirit, has a +tendency to enable persons, while they live in the world, to live out of +it or deny it. + +But lest I should not be clearly understood upon this subject, I will +exemplify how such an education would act or operate to the end +proposed. + +And, first of all, knowledge may be acquired by reading. Now there are +two kinds of reading, the one useful, the other dangerous. By the +premises, I am to adopt the first, and to prohibit the last. If then I +accustom my child to the best and purest models of ancient and modern +literature, I give him a certain taste for composition. If I accustom +him to the purest and most amiable sentiments, as contained in these, I +give him a love of virtue. If I heighten these sentiments by beautiful +selections from the more pure and amiable sentiments of Christianity, I +increase that love. If I give him in my own conduct an example, he sees +me practise that which I recommend. I give him then a taste for the +purest reading, and the choicest compositions, and I offer to his +notice, at the same time, a certain system of morality, which he cannot +but gradually adopt as his own. Now I would ask, what influence could a +novel have upon a mind formed in this manner, if thrown accidentally in +his way. If its composition were but moderate, as is the case with most +of them, it would not suit the taste of my child. If its sentiments were +impure, it would disgust him. These would be so contrary to the taste +and to the feelings he had acquired, that the poison in such a book, +like a ball, fired at a globular surface, would slide off without +detriment to the morals of my child. + +Knowledge again may be acquired in the course of amusements, and of such +as may be resorted to within doors. Now of these again there are two +kinds, the innocent and the corruptive. By the premises I am to be +concerned with the first only. If then I accustom my child to +mathematical and philosophical pursuits, if I incite him to experiments +in these, if I assist him in measuring the motions of the heavenly +bodies, and in discovering the wisdom and power of Omnipotence as +displayed in these, if I occasion him to be interested in, the +contemplation of such subjects, what have I done for my child? Have I +not called out his intellectual faculties? Have I not laid in him the +foundation of a serious and a thoughtful mind? Have I not accustomed him +to solid things, in opposition to those that are light, and to sublime +things, in opposition to those that are frivolous? Have I not inculcated +in him a love for science? But take my child, after he has been +accustomed to such thoughts and such subjects, to the theatre. Let the +pantomime display its various attracting scenes to his view. And will he +not think his entertainment low and superficial, in comparison of that +which he left at home. + +Knowledge again may be acquired by amusements which are out of doors. +These again may be innocent or exceptionable. As before, I have nothing +to do but with the former. If then I accustom my child to range the +fields, as an employment promotive of his health, and connect this +healthy exercise with the entertainment of botanical pursuits, do I +not, in examining with him the shape, the colour, and the mechanism of +plants and flowers, confirm in him his former love of the works of +nature? Do I not confirm his former notion of the wisdom and power of +omnipotence? Do I not teach him by these, and the other pursuits which +have been mentioned, that all recreations should be innocent, and that +time should be wisely employed? But hark! another amusement, and one of +those which are followed out of doors, is at hand. The hounds are in +view, and fast approaching. My son is accidentally solicited to join +them. He would ask my permission, but I am absent. At length he goes. He +follows them in wild tumult and uproar for an hour. He sees some +galloping over hedges and ditches like madmen, and hazarding their +persons in a presumptuous manner. He sees others ride over the +cultivated fields of their neighbours, and injure the rising corn. He +finds that all this noise and tumult, all this danger and injury, are +occasioned by the pursuit of a little hare, whose pain is in proportion +to the joy of those who follow it. Now can this diversion, educated as +my child has been, fascinate him? Will he not question its innocence? +And will he not question its consistency as a natural pursuit, or as an +employment for his time? + +It is thus then that knowledge will be found to operate as an artificial +and innocent preservative against the destructive pleasures of the +world. But prohibitions without knowledge will be but of little avail, +where there is a prospect of riches, and the power of gratifying any +improper appetites as they may arise. But by knowledge we shall be able +to discover the beauty of things, so that their opposites, or the things +prohibited, will cease to charm us. By knowledge we shall be able to +discern the ugliness of the things prohibited, so that we shall be +enabled to loathe them, if they should come into our way. And thus an +education, conducted upon the principles of knowledge, may operate to +the end proposed. + + + + +CHAP. V. + +_Education continued, as consisting of knowledge and prohibitions--Good, +which the Quakers have done by prohibitions, without any considerable +knowledge--Greater good, which they would do with it--Knowledge then a +great desideratum in the Quaker education--Favourable state of the +society for the communication of it with purity, or without detriment to +morals--In what this knowledge should consist--General advantages of +it--Peculiar advantages, which it would bring to the society._ + + +When we consider that men have all the same moral nature, we wonder, at +the first sight, at the great difference of conduct which they exhibit +upon earth. But when we consider the power of education upon the mind, +we seem to lose our surprize. If men in all countries were educated +alike, we should find a greater resemblance in their character. It is, +in short, education, which makes the man. And as education appears to me +to be of so much importance in life, I shall make it the subject of this +and the succeeding chapter. + +All education should have two objects in view, the opening of the +understanding and the improvement of the heart. Of the two, the latter +is most important. There cannot be a question, whether the person of the +most desirable character be the virtuous or the learned man. Without +virtue knowledge loses half its value. Wisdom, without virtue, may be +said to be merely political; and such wisdom, whenever it belongs to a +man, is little better than the cunning or craftiness of a fox. A man of +a cultivated mind, without an unshaken love of virtue, is but a dwarf of +a man. His food has done him no good, as it has not contributed to his +growth. And it would have been better, for the honour of literature, if +he had never been educated at all. The talents of man, indeed, +considering him as a moral being, ought always to be subservient to +religion. "All philosophy, says the learned Cudworth, to a wise man, to +a truly sanctified mind, as he in Plutarch speaketh, is but matter for +divinity to work upon. Religion is the queen of all those inward +endowments of the soul: and all pure natural knowledge, all virgin and +undeflowered arts and sciences, are her handmaids, that rise up and call +her blessed." + +Now if the opening of the understanding, and the improvement of the +heart, be the great objects to be attained, it will follow, that both +knowledge and wise prohibitions should always be component parts of the +education of youth. The latter the Quakers have adopted ever since the +institution of their society. The former they have been generally +backward to promote, at least to any considerable extent. That they have +done good, however, by their prohibitions, though unaccompanied by any +considerable knowledge, it would be disingenuous not to acknowledge. But +this goad has been chiefly confined to the children of those who have +occupied middle stations in the society. Such children have undoubtedly +arrived at the true wisdom of life at an early age, as I described in +the first volume, and have done honour to the religion they professed. +But prohibitions, without knowledge, have not been found to answer so +well among the children of those who have had the prospect of a large +moneyed independence before them, and who have not been afraid either of +the bad opinion of their own society, or of the bad opinion of the +world. It has been shewn, however, that knowledge with prohibitions +would, in all probability, be useful to these; that it would have a +tendency to enable them, in the perilous situation in which they are +placed, to stand against the corrupt opinions and fashions, and while +they were living in the world, to live out of it, or to deny it. + +Peculiarly situated as the Quakers are, they have opportunities, beyond +any other people, of ingrafting knowledge into their system of education +without danger, or, in other words, of giving knowledge to their +children with the purity which Christianity would prescribe. The great +misfortune in the world is, that a learned education is frequently +thought more of than a virtuous one; that youth, while they are +obtaining knowledge, are not properly watched and checked; and that they +are suffered to roam at large in the pursuit of science, and to +cultivate or not, at their own option, the science, if I may so call it, +of religion. Hence it will happen, that, where we see learned men, we +shall not always see these of the most exemplary character. But the +Quakers have long ago adopted a system of prohibitions, as so many +barriers against vice, or preservatives of virtue. Their constitution +forbids all indulgences that appear unfriendly to morals. The Quakers +therefore, while they retain the prohibitions which belong to their +constitution, may give encouragement to knowledge, without a fear that +it will be converted to the purposes of vice. + +The Quakers, again, have opportunities or advantages, which others have +not, in another point of view. In the great public seminary at Ackworth, +which belongs to them, and which is principally for those who are of the +poor and middle classes, every thing is under the inspection and +guidance of committees, which can watch and enforce an observance of any +rules that may be prescribed. Why then, if public seminaries were +instituted for the reception of the children of the rich, or if the rich +were to give encouragement to large private seminaries for the same +purposes, should they not be placed under the visiting discipline of the +society? Why should they not be placed under the care of committees +also? Why should not these committees see that the two great objects of +the education proposed were going on at the same time, or that, while +knowledge was obtaining, discipline had not been relaxed. Why should not +such seminaries produce future Penns, and Barclays, and others, who, +while they were men capable of deep literary researches, should be +exemplary for their virtue? + +As knowledge then ought to form a part of the proposed education, on a +much larger scale than has been hitherto encouraged, I shall say a few +words as to the component parts of it, and as to the general advantages +of these, and I shall afterwards speak to the advantages which the +society in particular would derive from such a change. + +In the education I propose, I do not mean, in the slightest manner, to +break in upon the moral system of the Quakers, as described in the first +volume. I do not propose to them the polite arts. I do not recommend +them to make children musicians, or that they should learn, under the +dancing-master, to step gracefully. I advise only such knowledge as will +be strictly innocent and useful. + +In the first place, I recommend a better classical education. Classical +knowledge gives the foundation both of particular and universal grammar. +While it gives the acquisition of the dead languages, it is the root, +and thereforce facilitates the acquisition of many of the living. As +most of the technical terms in the professions and sciences are borrowed +from these languages, it renders them easily understood. The study of +the structure and combination of words and sentences calls forth the +reflecting powers of youth, and expands their genius. It leads to +penetration and judgement. It induces habits of diligence and patience. +By means of this knowledge we have access to the sacred writings in the +languages in which they were written, and we are therefore not liable to +be imposed upon, for the sense of them, by others. We become acquainted +also, by means of it, with the sentiments and knowledge of the ancients. +We see their thoughts and expressions. We acquire a literary taste. + +A knowledge of ancient history is necessarily conpected with the former. +To this, however, should be added that of the modern. History, while it +entertains us, instructs us morally. We cannot see the rise and fall of +empires, or the causes of their formation and dissolution, or read the +histories of good and bad men, without impressions of moral importance +to ourselves. + +A philosophical education is peculiarly important. By this I mean, a +general knowledge of the mathematics, of mechanics, optics, +hydrostatics, astronomy, chemistry, botany, and the like. The teaching +of these should be accompanied by experiments. Experimental philosophy, +as I observed before, is peculiarly interesting to youth. Such knowledge +teaches us the causes of things. Mysteries, hitherto hidden both in the +garden and in the field, and in the heaven and in the air, lie unfolded +to our view. Every walk we take, while the surface of the earth remains +as it is, and the canopy of the firmament is spread over us, gives its +the opportunity, in all the innumerable objects presented to our view, +of almost endless investigation and delight. And the deeper we go into +the hidden things of nature, and the more we unfold them, have we not a +better belief of the existence of the Creator, and grander notions of +the symmetry, order, beauty, and wisdom of his works? Such knowledge +leads also, as it has always done, to discoveries, by which we may make +ourselves useful to mankind. And, besides the utility, of which it may +make us capable, can discoveries of the principles of nature lessen oar +love and admiration of the first great Cause? + +To philosophical knowledge should be added general reading. Such reading +should be of the purest kind. Of knowledge, acquired in this manner, it +maybe said, that it opens new sources of right views and sentiments, and +this even independently of Christianity, from which our most valuable +information is derived. Thus at a time, when as a nation we professed to +be Christians, we shed the blood of the martyrs. Thus when even such men +as the great Sir Matthew Hale, one of the brightest Christian patterns +in our country, were at the head of it, we condemned persons to death +for witchcraft. But knowledge superior to that of those times, has +taught us better things. By means of it we perceive, that persecution +does not destroy, but that it propagates opinions, and that the belief +of the existence of witchcraft is absurd. + +These then appear to me to be the general advantages, or such as are +inseparable from education when composed of the various branches of +knowledge which have been described. I shall now endeavour to shew the +peculiar advantages, which the Quakers would derive from it. + +It will appear then, if we look back into the character of the Quakers, +as described in this volume, that the world charges them, I mean the +more affluent part of them, with having less learning, than others in a +similar rank of life. But surely the education I propose would remove +this intellectual defect. + +The world again, as we have seen, has fixed another intellectual blemish +upon them by the imputation of superstition. But how does superstition +enter, but where there is a want of knowledge? Does not all history bear +testimony, that in proportion as men have been more or less enlightened, +they have been less or more liable to this charge? It is knowledge then, +which must banish this frightful companion of the mind. Wherever +individuals acknowledge, in a more extensive degree than others, the +influence of the Divine Spirit in man, these, of all other people, will +find the advantages of it. Knowledge leads to a solution of things, as +they are connected with philosophy, or the theory of the human mind. It +enables men to know their first and their second causes, so as to +distinguish between causes and occasions. It fixes the nature of action +and of thought; and, by referring effects to their causes, it often +enables men to draw the line between the probability of fancy and +inspiration. How many good men are there, who, adopting a similar creed +with that of the Quakers on this subject, make themselves uneasy, by +bringing down the Divine Being, promiscuously and without due +discrimination, into the varied concerns of their lives? How many are +there, who attribute to him that which is easily explained by the +knowledge of common causes? Thus, for instance, there are appearances in +nature, which a person of an uninformed mind, but who should adopt the +doctrine of the influence of the Spirit, would place among signs, and +wonders, and divine notices, which others, acquainted with the +philosophy of nature, would almost instantly solve. Thus again there may +be occasions, which persons, carrying the same doctrine to an undue +extent, might interpret into warning or prophetic voices, but which a +due exercise of the intellect, where such exercise has been properly +encouraged, would easily explain. This reminds me of a singular +occurrence: A friend of mine was lately walking in a beautiful vale. In +approaching a slate-quarry he heard an explosion, and a mass of stone, +which had been severed by gunpowder, fell near him as he walked along. +He went immediately to the persons employed. He represented the +impropriety of their conduct in not having given proper notice to such +as were passing by, and concluded by declaring emphatically, that they +themselves would be soon destroyed. It happened, but six weeks +afterwards, that two of these men were blown to pieces. The words then +of my friend were verified. Now I have no doubt that ignorant persons, +in the habit of referring every thing promiscuously to the Divine +interference, would consider my friend as a prophet, and his words as a +divinely forewarning voice. But what did my friend mean? or where did he +get his foresight on this occasion? The answer is, that my friend, being +accustomed to the exercise of his rational faculties, concluded, that if +the people in question were so careless with respect to those who should +be passing by in such times of danger, they would by custom become +careless with respect to themselves, and that ultimately some mischief +would befal them. It is knowledge, then, acquired by a due exercise of +the intellectual powers, and through the course of an enlightened +education, which will give men just views of the causes and effects of +things, and which, while it teaches them to discover and acknowledge the +Divine Being in all his wondrous works, and properly to distinguish him +in his providences, preserves them from the miseries of superstition. + +The world again has fixed the moral blemish of the money-getting, spirit +upon the Quaker character. But knowledge would step in here also as a +considerable corrector of the evil. It would shew, that there were other +objects besides money, which were worthy of pursuit. Nor would it point +out only new objects, but it would make a scale of their comparative +importance. It would fix intellectual attachments, next to religion, in +the highest class. Thus money would sink in importance as a pursuit, or +be valued only as it was the means of comfort to those who had it, or of +communicating comfort to others. Knowledge also would be useful in +taking off, to a certain degree, the corruptive effects of this spirit, +for it would prevent it by the more liberal notions it would introduce, +from leaving the whole of its dregs of pollution upon the mind. + +The Quakers again, as we have seen, have been charged with a want of +animation, from whence an unjust inference has been drawn of the +coldness of their hearts. But knowledge would diminish this appearance. +For, in the first place, it would enlarge the powers, and vary the +topics of conversation. It would enliven the speaker. It would give him +animation in discourse. Animation again would produce a greater +appearance of energy, and energy of the warmth of life. And there are +few people, whatever might be the outward cold appearance of the person +with whom they conversed, whose prejudices would not die away, if they +found a cheerful and an agreeable companion. + +Another charge against the Quakers was obstinacy. This was shewn to be +unjust. The trait, in this case, should rather have been put down as +virtue. Knowledge, however, would even operate here as a partial remedy. +For while the Quakers are esteemed deficient in literature, their +opposition to the customs of the world, will always be characterized as +folly. But if they were to bear in the minds of their countrymen a +different estimation as to intellectual attainments, the trait might be +spoken of under another name. For persons are not apt to impute +obstinacy to the actions of those, however singular, whom they believe +to have paid a due attention to the cultivation of their minds. + +It is not necessary to bring to recollection the other traits that were +mentioned, to see the operation of a superior education upon these. It +must have already appeared, that, whatever may be the general +advantages of learning, they would be more than usually valuable to the +Quaker character. + + + + +CHAP. VI. + +_Arguments of those of the society examined, who may depreciate human +knowledge--This depreciation did not originate with the first +Quakers--with Barclay--Penn--Ellwood--but arose afterwards--Reputed +disadvantages of a classical education--Its heathen mythology and +morality--Disadvantages of a philosophical one--Its scepticism--General +disadvantages of human learning--Inefficiency of all the arguments +advanced._ + + +Having shewn the advantages, which generally accompany a superior +education, I shall exhibit the disadvantages which may be thought to +attend it, or I shall consider those arguments, which some persons of +this society, who have unfortunately depreciated human learning, though +with the best intentions, might use against it, if they were to see the +contents of the preceding chapter. + +But, before I do this, I shall exonerate the first Quakers from the +charge of such a depreciation. These exhibited in their own persons the +practicability of the union of knowledge and virtue. While they were +eminent for their learning, they were distinguished for the piety of +their lives. They were indeed the friends of both. They did not +patronize the one to the prejudice and expulsion of the other.[53] + +[Footnote 53: George Fox was certainly an exception to this as a +scholar. He was also not friendly to classical learning on account of +some of the indelicate passages contained in the classical authors, +which he and Farley and Stubbs, took some pains to cite, but, if these +had been removed, I believe his objections would have ceased.] + +Barclay, in his celebrated apology, no where condemns the propriety or +usefulness of human learning, or denies it to be promotive of the +temporal comforts of man. He says that the knowledge of Latin, Greek and +Hebrew, or of logic and philosophy, or of ethics, or of physics and +metaphysics, is not necessary. But not necessary for what? Mark his own +meaning. Not necessary to make a minister of the Gospel. But where does +he say that knowledge, which he himself possessed to such a considerable +extent, was not necessary, or that it did not contribute to the innocent +pleasures of life? What would have been the character of his own book, +or what would have been its comparative value and usefulness, if he had +not been able to quote so many authors to his purpose in their original +texts, or to have detected so many classical errors, or to have +introduced such apposite history, or to have drawn up his propositions +with so much logical and mathematical clearness and precision, or if he +had not been among the first literary characters of his day? + +William Penn was equally celebrated with Barclay as a scholar. His works +afford abundant proof of his erudition, or of the high cultivation of +his mind. Like the rest of his associates, he was no advocate for +learning, as a qualification for a minister of the Gospel, but he was +yet a friend to it, on the principle, that it enlarged the +understanding, and that it added to the innocent pleasures of the mind. +He entreated his wife, in the beautiful letter which he left her, before +he embarked on his first voyage to America, "not to be sparing of +expence in procuring learning for his children, for that by such +parsimony all was lost that was saved." And he recommended also in the +same letter the mathematical or philosophical education which I have +described. + +Thomas Ellwood, a celebrated writer among the early Quakers, and the +friend of the great John Milton, was so sensible of the disadvantages +arising from a want of knowledge, that he revived his learning, with +great industry, even after he had become a Quaker. Let us hear the +account which he gives of himself in his own Journal. "I mentioned +before, says he, that, when I was a boy, I made some progress in +learning, and that I lost it all again before I came to be a man. Nor +was I slightly sensible of my last therein, till I came amongst the +Quakers. But then I both saw my loss, and lamented it; and applied +myself with the utmost diligence, at all leisure times to recover it. So +false I found that charge to be, which in those times was east as a +reproach upon the Quakers, that they despised and decried all human +learning, because they denied it to be essentially necessary to a Gospel +ministry, which was one of the controversies of those times." + +"But though I toiled hard, and spared no pains to regain what I had once +been master of, yet I found it a matter of so great difficulty, that I +was ready to say, as the noble eunuch to Philip, in another case, how +can I, unless I had some man to guide me?" + +"This I had formerly complained of to my especial friend Isaac +Pennington, but now more earnestly; which put him upon considering and +contriving a means for my assistance." + +"He had an intimate acquaintance with Dr. Paget, a physician of note in +London, and he with John Milton, a gentleman of great note for learning, +throughout the learned world, for the accurate pieces he had Written on +various subjects and occasions." + +"This person, having filled a public station in the former times, lived +now a private and retired life in London; and, having wholly lost his +sight, kept always a man to read to him, which usually was the son of +some gentleman of his acquaintance, whom in kindness he took to improve +in his learning." + +"Thus by the mediation of my friend Isaac Pennington with Dr. Paget, and +of Dr. Paget with John Milton, was I admitted to come to him; not as a +servant to him (which at that time he needed not) nor to be in the house +with him; but only to have the liberty of coming to his house at certain +hours, when I would, and to read to him what books he should appoint me, +which was all the favour I desired." + +By means of this extract, made from the life of Thomas Ellwood, we come +to three conclusions. First, that the early Quakers were generally men +of eminent learning. Secondly, that they did not decry or depreciate +human knowledge. And thirdly, that the calumny of such a depreciation by +them arose from the controversy which they thought it right to maintain, +in which they denied it to be necessary as a qualification for a Gospel +minister. + +This latter conclusion brings me round again to the point. And here I +must observe, that, though this famous controversy occasioned the first +Quakers to be unduly blamed on account of such a depreciation, yet it +contributed to make some of their immediate successors, as I stated in a +former volume, justly chargeable with it. But whether this was or was +not the real cause, it is not material to the question. Many of the +society, from came cause or other, did undoubtedly, in the age +immediately succeeding that of their founders, begin to depreciate human +knowledge, the effects of which, though gradually dissipating, have not +been wholly done away at the present day. The disadvantages, therefore, +of human learning, or the arguments which would be advanced against it +by those who may undervalue it, I shall now consider. + +These arguments may be divided into particular and general. On the +former I shall first speak. + +A classical education is considered to be objectionable, first, on +account of the Heathen mythology that is necessarily connected with it. +Its tendency, as it relates to fabulous occurrences, is thought to be +unfavourable, as it may lead to a romantic propensity, and a turn for +fiction. But surely the meaning of such occurrences cannot be well +mistaken. If they are represented to our view in fable, they have had +their foundation in truth. Many of them again are of such importance, +that we could not wish to see them annihilated. Let us refer, for +example, to the story of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Is it not one among the +many outward confirmations of the truth of the history of Moses? Or do +we not trace in it additional proofs of the deluge, and of the renewal +of mankind? + +Its tendency again, as it relates to the fabulous history of the Heathen +gods, their number, their offices, and their character, is considered as +degrading and exceptionable. I will concede this for a moment. But may +it not, on the other hand, be rendered instructive and useful? May not +the retention of such an history be accompanied with great moral +advantages to our children? The emperor Theodosius commanded the idol +temples to be destroyed. Instead of devoting them to the use of the +Christians of those times, by which they might have been preserved to +future generations, the most beautiful remains of antiquity were +reduced to ruins. But would it not have been better, if Theodosius had +brought good out of evil by retaining them? Would it not have been a +high moral gratification to those who knew the fact, that temples, +appropriated to the worship of idols, had been devoted to the service of +the only true God? Would it not have been a matter of joy to these to +have reflected upon the improving condition of mankind? And, while they +looked up to these beautiful structures of art, might not the sight of +them have contributed to the incitement of their virtue? If it be the +tendency of the corrupt part of our nature to render innocent things +vicious, it is, on the other hand, in the essence of our nature to +render vicious things in process of time innocent, so that the very +remnants of idolatry may be made subservient to our moral improvement. +"If, as I observed in the first volume, we were to find an alter which +had been sacred to Moloch, but which had been turned into a +stepping-stone to help the aged and infirm upon their horses, why should +we destroy it? Might it not be made useful to our morality, as for as it +could be made to excite sorrow for the past and gratitude for the +present?" And in the same manner the retention of the Heathen mythology +might be made serviceable. Ought it not, whenever we contemplate it, to +make us thankful, that we have not the dark and cheerless path of our +ancestors to tread; that we have clearer light; that we have surer +prospects; that we have a steadier ground of hope; and ought we not, on +a contemplation of these superior advantages, brought to us by +revelation, to be roused into the practice of a superior virtue. + +Classical education again is considered as objectionable by the Quakers +on account of the Heathen notions, which it may spread. Thus the highest +reputation of man is placed in deeds of martial achievement, and a +martial ardour is in consequence infused into youth, which it is +difficult to suppress. That such notions and effect are produced, there +can be no doubt; but how are we to avoid these whilst we are obliged to +live in the world? The expulsion of the classics would not expel them. +Our own newspapers, which are open to all, spread the same opinions, and +are instrumental of course in producing the same excitements, but they +do it in a much more objectionable way than the classical authors, that +is, they do it with less delicacy, and with a more sanguinary applause. +But where, as I observed before, shall we retire from such impressions? +Does not the recruiting drum propagate them in all our towns? Do not the +ringing of the bells, and the illuminations, which occasionally take +place in the time of war, propagate them also? And do we not find these, +both in war and in peace, the sentiments and impressions of the world? +Our own notions then, our own writings, and our own customs, are more to +be blamed in this respect, than the literary compositions of ancient +times. But this, of all others, ought to be least an objection with the +Quakers to such an education; because, to their honour, they have a +constant counteraction of the effects of such sentiments and impressions +in the principles of their own constitution, and which counteraction +cannot cease, while, by the bearing of their testimony, they live in a +continual protest against them. + +The last objection to a classical education is, that the system of the +Heathen morality is generally too deficient for those who are to be +brought up as Christians. To this I answer, that it is quite as good as +the system of the morality of the world. I could procure purer +sentiments, and this generally from the Heathen authors usually +called[54] classical, than I can collect from many, even of the admired +publications of our own times. The morality of the heathens is not so +deficient as many have imagined. If their best opinions were duly +selected and brought into one view, the only matter of surprise would +be, how, with no other than the law written upon the heart, they had +made such sublime discoveries. It was principally in their theology, +where the law written upon the heart could not reach, that the ancients +were deficient. They knew but little of the one true God. They did not +know that he was a Spirit, and that he was to be worshiped in spirit and +in truth. They were ignorant of his attributes. They had learnt nothing +of the true origin, nature, and condition of man, or of the scheme of +creation and redemption. These things were undoubtedly hidden from the +eyes of the ancient philosophers. And it was in knowledge of this kind +chiefly, that their deficiency was apparent. But how is this particular +deficiency detrimental to youth, or how rather might it not be rendered +useful to them in the way described? What a sublime contrast does +knowledge, as exhibited by revelation, afford to the ignorance of those +times, and what joy and gratitude ought we not to feel in the +comparison? And this is the only use which can be made of their +mythology? For when we send youth to the classical authors, we send them +to learn the languages, and this through a medium where the morality is +both useful and respectable, but we do not send them, living where the +blessings of revelation are enjoyed, to be instructed in religion. + +[Footnote 54: It must however be acknowledged, that, amidst beautiful +sentiments, such as are indelicate are occasionally interspersed. But +the quakers might remedy this objection by procuring a new edition of +the purest classics only, in which particular passages might be omitted. +They might also add new Latin notes, founded on Christian principles, +where any ideas were found to be incorrect, and thus make Heathenism +itself useful, as a literal teacher of a moral system. The world, I +believe, would be obliged to the Quakers for such an edition, and it +would soon obtain in most of the schools of the kingdom.] + +The principal argument against a philosophical education, which is the +next subject for consideration, is, that men, who cultivate such +studies, require often more proofs of things than can always be had, and +that, if these are wanting, they suspend their belief. And as this is +true in philosophy, so it may be true in religion. Hence persons +accustomed to such pursuits, are likely to become sceptics or infidels. +To this I answer, that the general tendency of philosophy is favourable +to religion. Its natural tendency is to give the mind grand and sublime +ideas, and to produce in it a belief of the existence of one great +cause, which is not visible among men. Thus, for example, I find that +the planets perform a certain round! They perform it with a certain +velocity. They do not wander at random, but they are kept to their +orbits. I find the forces which act upon them for this purpose. I find, +in short, that they are subject to certain laws. Now, if the planets +were living agents, they might have prescribed these laws to themselves. +But I know that this, when I believe them to consist of material +substances, is impossible. If then, as material substances, they are +subject to laws, such laws must have been given them. There must have +been some lawgiver. In this manner then I am led to some other great, +and powerful, and invisible Agent or Cause. And here it may be observed, +that if philosophers were ever baffled in their attempts at discovery, +or in their attempts after knowledge, as they frequently are, they would +not, on this account, have any doubt with respect to the being of a God. +If they had found, after repeated discoveries, that the ideas acquired +from thence were repeatedly or progressively sublime, and that they led +repeatedly or progressively to a belief of the existence of a superior +Power, is it likely that they would all at once discard this belief, +because there researches were unsuccessful? If they were to do this, +they would do it against all the rules of philosophizing, and against +the force of their own habits. I say, that analogical is a part of +philosophical reasoning, and that they would rather argue, that, as such +effects had been uniformly produced, so they would probably still be +produced, if their researches were crowned with success. The tendency +then of philosophical knowledge is far otherwise than has been supposed. +And it makes highly in favour of the study of these sciences, that those +who have cultivated them the most, such as Newton, and Boyle, and +others, have been found among the ablest advocates for religion.[55] + +[Footnote 55: I by no means intend to say, that philosophy leads to the +religion called Christianity, but that it does to Theism, which is the +foundation of it.] + +I come now, to the general arguments used by the Quakers against human +learning, the first of which is, that they who possess it are too apt to +reduce religion to reason, and to strip it of the influence of the +Spirit. But this is contrary, as a general position, to all fact. We +find no mention of this in history. The fathers of the church were the +most eminent for learning in their own days, and these insisted upon the +Influence of the Spirit in spiritual concerns, as one of the first +articles of their faith. The reformers, who succeeded these, were men of +extensive erudition also, and acknowledged the same great principle. And +nine-tenths, I believe, of the Christians of the present, day, among +whom we ought to reckon nine-tenths of the men of learning also, adopt a +similar creed. + +Another general argument is, that learning is apt to lead to conceit and +pride, or to a presumed superiority of intellect, in consequence of +which men raise themselves in their own estimation, and look down upon +others as creatures of an inferior order of race. To this I may answer, +that as prodigies are daily produced in nature, though they may be but +as one to a hundred thousand when compared with the perfect things of +their own kind, so such phenomena may occasionally make their appearance +in the world. But as far as my own experience goes, I believe the true +tendency of learning to be quite the reverse. I believe the most learned +to be generally the most humble, and to be the most sensible of their +own ignorance. Men, in the course of their studies, daily find something +new. Every thing new shews them only their former ignorance, and how +much there is yet to learn. The more they persevere, in their +researches, the more they acknowledge the latter fact. The longer they +live, the more they lament the shortness of life, during which, man with +all his industry, can attain so little, and that, when he is but just +beginning to know, he is cut off. They see, in short, their own +nothingness, and, however they may be superior in their attainments, +they are convinced that their knowledge is, after all, but a shadow; +that it is but darkness; that it is but the absence of light; and that +it no sooner begins to assume an appearance than it is gone. + +The last general argument against learning is, that it does not lead to +morality, or that learned men do not always exhibit an example of the +best character. In answer to this I must observe, that the natural +tendency of learning is to virtue. If learned men are not virtuous, I +presume their conduct is an exception to the general effect of knowledge +upon the mind. That there are, however, persons of such unnatural +character, I must confess. But any deficiency in their example is not to +be attributed to their learning. It is to be set down, on the other +hand, to the morally defective education they have received. They have +not been accustomed to wise restraints. More pains have been taken to +give them knowledge, than to instruct them in religion. But where an +education has been bestowed upon persons, in which their morals have +been duly attended to, where has knowledge been found to be at variance, +or rather where has it not been found to be in union, with virtue? Of +this union the Quakers can trace some of the brightest examples in their +own society. Where did knowledge, for instance, separate herself from +religion in Barclay, or in Penn, or in Burroughs, or in Pennington, or +in Ellwood, or in Arscott, or in Claridge, or in many others who might +be named. And as this has been the case in the Quaker society, where a +due care has been taken of morals, so it has been the case where a +similar care has been manifested in the great society of the world. + + "Piety has found + Friends In the friends of Science, and true pray'r + Has flow'd from lips wet with Castalian dews. + Such was thy wisdom, Newton, childlike sage! + Sagacious reader of the works of God, + And in his word sagacious. Such too thine, + Milton, whose genius had angelic wings, + And fed on manna. And such thine, in whom + Our British Themis gloried with just cause, + Immortal Hale! for deep discernment prais'd + And sound integrity not more, than fam'd + For sanctity of manners undefil'd." Cowper. + +It appears then, if I have reasoned properly, that the arguments usually +adduced against the acquisition of human knowledge are but of little +weight. If I have reasoned falsely upon this subject, so have the early +Quakers. As they were friends to virtue, so they were friends to +science. If they have at any time put a low estimate upon the latter, it +has been only as a qualification for a minister of the Gospel. Here they +have made a stand. Here they have made a discrimination. But I believe +it will no where be found, that they have denied, either that learning +might contribute to the innocent pleasures of life, or that it might be +made a subordinate and auxiliary instrument towards the promotion of +virtue. + + + + +CHAP. VII. + +_Conclusion of the work--Conclusionary remarks divided into two +kinds--First, as they relate to those who may have had thoughts of +leaving the society--Advantages, which these may have proposed to +themselves by such a change--These advantages either religious or +temporal--The value of them considered._ + + +Having now gone through all the subjects, which I had prescribed to +myself at the beginning of this work, I purpose to close it. But as it +should be the wish of every author to render his production useful, I +shall add a few observations for this purpose. My remarks then, which +will be thus conclusory, relate to two different sorts of persons. They +will relate, first, to those who may have had thoughts of leaving the +society, or, which is the same thing, who persist in a course of +irregularities, knowing beforehand, and not regretting it, that they +shall be eventually disowned. It will relate, secondly, to all other +persons, or to those who may be called the world. To the former I shall +confine my attention in this chapter. + +I have often heard persons of great respectability, and these even in +the higher circles of life, express a wish, that they had been brought +up as Quakers. The steady and quiet deportment of the members of this +society, the ease with which they appear to get through life, the +simplicity and morality of their character, were the causes which +produced the expression of such a wish. "But why then, I have observed, +if you feel such a disposition as this wish indicates, do you not become +Quakers?" "Because, it has been replied, we are too old to be singular. +Dressing with sufficient simplicity ourselves, we see no good reason for +adopting the dress of the society. It would be as foolish in us to +change the colour and fashion of our clothing, as it would be criminal +in the Quakers, with their notions, to come to the use of that which +belongs to us. Endeavouring also to be chaste in our conversation, we +cannot adopt their language. It would be as inconsistent in us to speak +after the manner of the Quakers, as it would be inconsistent in them to +leave their own language for ours. But we wish we had been born Quakers. +And, if we had been born Quakers, we would never have deserted the +society." + +Perhaps they to whom I shall confine my remarks in this chapter, are not +aware, that such sentiments as these are floating in the minds of many. +They are not aware, that it is considered as one of the strongest things +for those who have been born in the society, and been accustomed to its +particularities, to leave it. And least of all are they aware of the +worthless motives, which the world attributes to them for an intended +separation from it. + +There is, indeed, something seemingly irreconcileable in the thought of +such a dereliction or change. To leave the society of a moral people, +can it be a matter of any credit? To diminish the number of those who +protest against war, and who have none of the guilt upon their heads of +the sanguinary progress of human destruction which is going on in the +world, is it desirable, or rather, ought it not to be a matter of +regret? And to leave it at a time, when its difficulties are over, is it +a proof of a wise and a prudent choice? If persons had ever had it in +contemplation to leave the society in its most difficult and trying +times, or in the days of its persecution, when only for the adoption of +innocent singularities its members were insulted, and beaten, and +bruised, and put in danger of their lives, it had been no matter of +surprise: but to leave it, when all prejudices against them are +gradually decreasing, when they are rising in respectability in the eyes +of the government under which they live, and when, by the weight of +their own usefulness and character, they are growing in the esteem of +the world, is surely a matter of wonder, and for which it is difficult +to account. + +This brings me to the point in question, or to the examination of those +arguments, which may at times have come into the heads of those who have +had thoughts of ceasing to be members of this society. + +In endeavouring to discover these, we can only suppose them to be +actuated by one motive, for no other will be reasonable, namely, that +they shall derive advantages from the change. Now all advantages are +resolvable into two kinds, into such as are religious, and into such as +are temporal. The first question then is, what advantages do they gain +in the former case, or do they actually come into the possession of a +better religion? + +I am aware that to enter into this subject, though but briefly, is an +odious task. But I shall abstain from all comparisons, by which I might +offend any. If I were to be asked which, among the many systems of the +Christian religion, I should prefer, I should say, that I see in all of +them much to admire, but that no one of them, perhaps, does wholly, or +in every part of it, please me; that is, there is no one, in which I do +not see some little difficulty, which I cannot solve, though this is no +impediment to my faith. But, if I were pressed more particularly upon +this point, I should give the following answer. I should say, that I +should prefer that, which, first of all, would solve the greatest number +of difficulties, as far as scriptural texts were concerned, in +conformity with the Divine attributes, which, secondly, would afford the +most encouraging and consolatory creed, if it were equally well founded +with any other; and which, thirdly, either by its own operation, or by +the administration of it, would produce the post perfect Christian +character. Let us then judge of the religion of the Quakers by this +standard. + +That there are difficulties with respect to texts of scripture, must be +admitted; for if all men were to understand them alike, there would be +but one profession of the Christian religion. One man endeavours to make +his system comport wholly with human reason, and the consequence is, +that texts constantly stare him in the face, which militate against it. +Another discards reason, with a determination to abide literally by +that, which is revealed, and the consequence is, that, in his literal +interpretation of some passages, he leaves others wholly irreconcileable +with his scheme. Now the religion, of the Quakers has been explained, +and this extensively. In its doctrinal parts it is simple. It is +spiritual. It unites often philosophy with revelation. It explains a +great number of the difficult texts with clearness and consistency. That +it explains all of them I will not aver. But these which it does +explain, it explains in the strictest harmony with the love, goodness, +justice, mercy, and wisdom of God. + +As to the creed of the Quakers, we have seen its effects. We have seen +it to be both encouraging and consolatory. We have seen it produce +happiness in life, and courage in death. The doctrine of the possibility +of human perfection, where it is believed, must be a perpetual stimulus +to virtue, it must encourage hope and banish fear. But it may be said, +that stimulative and consolatory as it may be, it wants one of the marks +which I have insisted upon, namely, a sound foundation. But surely they, +who deny it, will have as many scriptural texts against them as they who +acknowledge it, and will they not be rendering their own spiritual +situation perilous? But what do the Quakers mean by perfection? Not the +perfection of God, to which there are no limits, as has been before +explained, but that which arises to man from the possibility of keeping +the divine commands. They mean that perfection, such as Noah, and Job, +and Zacharias, and Elizabeth, attained, and which the Jewish rabbies +distinguished by the name of Redemption, and which they conceived to be +effected by the influence of the Holy Spirit, or that state of man in +Christian morals, which, if he arrives at it, the Divine Being (outward +redemption having taken place by the sacrifice of Christ) is pleased to +accept as sufficient, or as the most pure state at which man, under the +disadvantages of the frailty of his nature, can arrive. And is not this +the practicable perfection, which Jesus himself taught in these words, +"Be ye perfect, even as your Father, which is in heaven is perfect." Not +that he supposed it possible, that any human being could be as perfect +as the Divine Nature. But he proposed, by these expressions, the highest +conceivable model of human excellence, of which our natures were +capable, well knowing that the higher our aspirations the higher we +should ascend, and the sooner we should reach that best state of +humanity that was attainable. And here it is, that Christianity, as a +rule of moral conduct, surpasses all others. Men, in general, look up to +men for models. Thus Homer makes one of his heroes, when giving counsel +to his son, say, "Always emulate the best." Thus also we should say to +our children, if a person of extraordinary character were to live in our +neighbourhood, "This is the pattern for your virture." But Jesus Christ +says, aim at perfection beyond that which is human, alluding to the +attributes of God, and thus you will attain a higher excellence than the +study of any other model can produce. + +With respect to the formation of man according to the model which +Christianity prescribes, the system of the Quakers is no where to be +excelled. No one, that we know of, is more powerful in the production of +a subjugated mind and of a moral character. By this I mean, that there +is none which is more universally powerful. It is the tendency of +Christianity, whatever denomination it may assume, to produce these +effects. But there is full as general an appearance of these among the +Quakers, as in any other Christian profession. + +It will appear then, that, if the three criterions, which have been +specified, should be admitted to be those by which a judgment may be +formed in the present case, they, who have had thoughts of leaving the +society, will not be much better off by an exchange of their religion. + +Let us see next, what would be the greater temporal advantages, which +they would obtain. These may be summed up in two essential ingredients +of happiness, in tranquillity of mind, in consequence of which we pass +through the troubles of life in the most placid manner, and in a +moderate pecuniary independence, in consequence of which we know none of +the wants and hardships, but enjoy the reasonable comforts of it. + +With respect to tranquillity of mind, we have shown this to be +constitutional with the Quakers. It arises from their domestic +enjoyments, from seldom placing their pleasures or their fortunes in the +power of others, from freedom from the ambition and envyings of the +world, from the regulation of the temper, from avoiding quarrels and +lawsuits, and from other causes. And with respect to a moderate +pecuniary independence, we have shewn not only that this is the general +portion of the society, but that it is in the very nature of their +habits to acquire it. Now these essential ingredients of happiness, or +these temporal advantages, do not belong to the present Quakers only. +They have always belonged to Quakers; and they will be perpetuated as an +inheritance to their children, as long as Quakerism lasts. By this I +mean to say, that if any Quakers, now living, could be sure that their +descendants would keep to the wholesome regulations of the society for +ten generations to come, they might have the comfort of believing, that +tranquillity of mind would accompany them, as an effect of the laws and +constitution belonging it, and that at any rate an easy pecuniary +situation in life would be preserved to them. For if it be no difficult +thing, with the natural habits of the society, to acquire an +independence, it is much easier to preserve that which has been left +them. But will they, who have had it in contemplation to leave the +society, be able to say this for their children, when they adopt the +world for their home? What certainty is there, that these will +experience tranquillity, unless they are seen, quite as far as manhood, +in the habits of religion? Will the cares of the world, its ambition, +its thirst after honours, and its unbridled affections and passions, +give them no uneasiness? And can the fortunes transmitted to them, +subject as they will be to its destructive fashions and pleasures, be +insured to them for even half of their times? How many have we seen, who +have been in the prime of health in the morning, who have fallen before +night in the duel? And how many have we seen in a state of affluence at +night, who have been ruined by gaming in the morning? + +But it is possible that they, who may have had thoughts of leaving the +society; may picture to themselves another advantage, which I have not +yet mentioned. It is possible, that there may be yet one which they may +distinguish by such a name. They may possibly think it to be a gain to +get rid of the restraint of the discipline of the society, and to enjoy +the freedom of the world. + +That the discipline is a restraint, I do not deny. But it must never be +forgotten, that its object is moral good, and its effect the +preservation of a moral character. But, come you, who complain of this +heavy burden imposed upon you, and let us converse together for a +moment, and let us see, if, when you relinquish it, you do not impose +upon yourself a worse. Are you sure that, when you get rid of this +discipline, you will not come under the discipline of fashion? And who +is Fashion? Is she not of all mistresses the most imperious, and +unreasonable, and cruel? You may be pleased with her for a while, but +you will eventually feel her chains. With her iron whip, brandished over +your head, she will issue out her commands, and you must obey them. She +will drive you, without mercy, through all her corruptive customs, and +through all her chameleon changes, and this against your judgment and +against your will. Do you keep an equipage? You must alter the very +shape of your carriage, if she prescribes it. Is the livery of your +postilion plain? You must make it of as many colours as she dictates. If +you yourself wear corbeau or raven colour to-day, you must change it, if +she orders you, to that of puce, or the flea, to-morrow. But it is not +only, in your equipage and your dress, that she will put you under her +control. She will make you obedient to her in your address and manners. +She will force upon you rules for your intercourse with others. She will +point out to you her amusements, and make you follow them. She will +place you under her cruel laws of honour, from which she will disown +you, if you swerve. Now I beseech you, tell me, which you think you +would prefer, the discipline of the goddess Fashion, or that of the good +old mistress, which you may have wished to leave? The one kindly points +out to you, and invites and warns you to avoid, every dangerous +precipice, that may be before you. The other is not satisfied, but with +your destruction. She will force you, for a single word, uttered in a +thoughtless moment, to run the hazard of your life, or to lose what she +calls your character. The one, by preserving you in innocence, preserves +you happy. The greater your obedience to her, the greater is your +freedom; and it is the best species of freedom, because it is freedom +from the pollutions of the world. The other awakens your conscience, and +calls out its stings. The more obedient you are to her, the greater is +your slavery, and it is the worst species of slavery, because it is +often slavery to vice. In consequence of the freedom which the one +bestows upon you, you are made capable of enjoying nature and its +various beauties, and by the contemplation of these, of partaking of an +endless feast. In consequence of the freedom which the one bestows upon +you, you are made capable of enjoying nature, and its various beauties, +and, by the contemplation, of these, of partaking of an endless feast. +In consequence of the slavery to which the other reduces you, you are +cramped as to such enjoyments. By accustoming you to be pleased with +ridiculous and corruptive objects, and silly and corruptive changes, she +confines your relish to worthless things. She palsies your vision, and +she corrupts your taste. You see nature before you, and you can take no +pleasure in it. Thus she unfits you for the most rational of the +enjoyments of the world, in which you are designed to live. + + + + +CHAP. VIII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who compose the world at +large--Advantages, which these may derive from the contents of this +work--from a view of many of the customs--and of the principles +explained in it--from seeing practically the influence of these customs +and principles in the production of character and happiness--and from +seeing the manner of their operation, or how they produce the effects +described._ + + +I shall now endeavour to make my conclusory remarks useful as they may +relate to those who may be called the world. + +To state the object, which I have in view, I shall observe at once, that +men are divided in opinion as to the lawfulness, or expediency, or +wholesomeness of many of the customs, fashions, and accomplishments of +the world. We find some encouraging in their families, and this without +any hesitation, and to an almost unlimited extent, those which many, on +account of religious considerations, have expelled. We find others again +endeavouring to steer a course between the opinions and practice of +these. The same diversity of sentiment prevails also with respect to +principles. The virtuous or moral are adopted by some. The political by +others. That the political often obtain both in education and in +subsequent life, there is no question. Thus, for example, a young man is +thought by some to be more likely to make his way in the world with the +address which fashionable accomplishments may give him, even if he be a +little dissipated, than one of strict virtue with unpolished manners. +Thus again in actions and transactions, policy is often preferred to +express and open declarations of the truth. Others again are of opinion, +that the general basis of principle should be virtue, but that a +latitude may be, allowed for a seasonable policy. Thus an education is +going on under Christian parents, as if Christianity had objects in +view, which were totally opposite to each other. + +It is in this point of view chiefly, that I can hope to be useful in +this conclusory part of my work. We have seen in the course of it both +customs and principles laid open and explained. We have seen the +tendencies and bearings of these. We have seen them probed, and examined +by a moral standard. We have seen their influence on character and +happiness. We have seen the manner in which they act, or how these +effects are produced. A revision therefore of these cannot but be +useful, but more particularly to parents, as it may enable some of +these, in conjunction with the knowledge they possess, to form probably +a more correct system than they may have had it in contemplation to +adopt, for the education of their youth. + +The first advantage then, which those who compose the world at large may +derive from the contents of this work, will be from a review of some of +the customs which have been censured in it. + +In looking into customs, the first that obtrudes itself upon our notice, +is that of allowing to children those amusements, which, on account of +the use of them, may be called gaming. A view is offered to us here, +which is divested of all superstition. It is no where contended at +random, in speaking against these, that their origin is objectionable. +It is no where insisted upon, that there is evil in them considered +abstractedly by themselves, or that they may not be used innocently, or +that they may not be made the occasion of innocent mirth. The evil is +candidly stated to arise from their abuse. The nature of this evil is +unfolded. Thus the malevolent passions, such as anger, envy, hatred, +revenge, and even avarice, are stirred up, where they should be +particularly prevented, in the youthful breast. A spirit of gaming, +which may be destructive of fortune, health, and morals, is engendered. +A waste of time[56] is occasioned, inasmuch as other pursuits might be +followed, which would be equally amusing, but conducive to the +improvement of the mind. The nature of the abuse is unfolded likewise. +It consists of making games of chance productive of loss and gain. Thus +they hold up speedy pecuniary acquisitions, and speedy repairs of +misfortune. Thus they excite hope and fear, and give birth to pain and +disappointment. The prevention also of the abuse, and that alone which +can be effectual, is pointed out. This consists of a separation of +emolument from chance, or of the adoption of the maxim, that no youth +ought to be permitted to lay a wager, or to reap advantage from any +doubtful event by a previous agreement on a moneyed stake. Now if the +reader be not disposed to go the length which the Quakers do, by the +abolition of such amusements, he will at least have had the advantage of +seeing that there may be evil in them, and where it lies, and the +extent (if he will only look at the historical instances cited) to which +it may proceed, and its infallible prevention or its cure. + +[Footnote 56: This argument is usually applied to grown up people, but +may be applicable to youth, when we consider the ingenious inventions of +modern times, such as maps of dissected geography, historical and other +games, which, while they afford pleasure, promote improvement.] + +The next subject which offers itself to our view, is music, and this +comes before us in two forms, either as it is instrumental or vocal. + +With respect to instrumental, it is no where insisted upon that its +origin is evil, or that it is not productive of a natural delight, or +that it does not soothe and tranquilize the passions, or that it may not +be innocently used, or that it may not be made, under limitations, a +cheerful companion in solitude. But it is urged against it, that it does +not tend, like many other studies, to the improvement of the mind; that +it affords no solid ground of comfort either in solitude or affliction; +that it is a sensual gratification; and that sensual gratifications, if +indulged in leisure hours, take up the time which should be devoted to +those of a higher nature, that is, intellectual and moral pursuits. It +is urged against it again, that, if abused, it is chargeable with a +criminal waste of time, and a criminal impairing of health; that this +abuse, in consequence of proficiency being insisted upon (without which +it ceases to be delightful) is at the present day almost inseparable +from its use; and that where the abuse of a thing, either in consequence +of fashion, or its own seductive nature, or any other cause, is either +necessarily or very generally connected with the use of it, watchfulness +to avoid it is as much a duty in Christian morals, as it is a duty +against the common dangers of life. + +On vocal again we observe a proper distinction attempted. We find, that +the singing is no more criminal than the reading of a song, being but +another mode of expressing it, and that, the morality of it therefore +will depend upon the words and sentiments it contains. If these are +indelicate, or unchaste, or hold out false and corruptive ideas, as has +been shewn to be the case with a variety of songs, then singing may from +an innocent become a vicious amusement. But it has been observed, that +youth seldom make any discrimination or selection with respect to songs, +but that they pick up all that come in their way, whatever may be the +impropriety of the words or sentiments, which they may contain. + +Now then, whether we speak of instrumental or vocal music, if the reader +should not be willing totally to discard this science as the Quakers +do, he will at least have learnt some good from the observation which +the work will have held out to him on this subject. He will see that +evil may unquestionably be produced by the cultivation of it. He will +see the absolute necessity of guarding his children against the learning +of it to professional precision, as it is now unfortunately taught, to +the detriment of their health, and of the acquisition of more important +knowledge. He will see also the necessity of great vigilance with +respect to the purity of the words and sentiments which may be connected +with it. + +The important subject, which is brought next before us, is that of the +theatre. Here we are taught, that, though dramatic pieces had no +censurable origin, the best of the ancient moralists condemned them. We +are taught, that, even in the most favourable light in which we can view +them, they have been thought objectionable, that is, that where they +have pretended to teach morality, they have inculcated rather the +refined virtue of heathenism, than the strict though mild morality of +the Gospel; and where they have attempted to extirpate vice, they have +done it rather by making it appear ridiculous, than by teaching men to +avoid it as evil, or for the love of virtue. We are taught, that, as it +is our duty to love our neighbour, and to be solicitous for his +spiritual welfare, we ought not, under a system which requires +simplicity and truth, to encourage him to be what he is not, or to +personate a character which is not his own. We are taught that it is the +general tendency of the diversions of the stage, by holding out false +morals and prospects, to weaken the sinews of morality; by disqualifying +for domestic enjoyments, to wean from a love of home; by accustoming to +light thoughts and violent excitement of the passions, to unfit for the +pleasures of religion. We are taught that diversions of this nature +particularly fascinate, and that, if they fascinate, they suggest +repetitions. And finally we are taught, that the early Christians on +their conversion, though before this time they had followed them as +among the desirable pleasures of their lives, relinquished them on the +principles now explained. + +The next subject, which comes to us in order, is dancing. This is handed +down to us, under two appearances, either as it is simple, or as it is +connected with preparations and accompaniments. + +In viewing it in its simple state, it is no where contended, if it be +encouraged on the principle of promoting such an harmonious carriage of +the body, or use of the limbs, as maybe more promotive of health, that +it is objectionable, though it is supposed that it is not necessary for +such purposes, and that, without music and its other usual +accompaniments, it would not be pleasant. Neither is it contended that a +simple dance upon the green, if it were to arise suddenly and without +its usual preparations, may not be innocent, or that if may not be +classed with an innocent game at play, or with innocent exercise in the +fields, though it is considered, that it would hardly be worthy of those +of riper years, because they who are acknowledged to have come to the +stature of men, are expected to abandon amusements for pursuits of +usefulness, and particularly where they make any profession of the +Christian name. + +In viewing it with its preparations, and with its subsequent +accompaniments, as usually displayed in the ball-room, we see it in a +less favourable light. We see it productive, where it is habitually +resorted to, of a frivolous levity, of vanity and pride, and of a +littleness of mind and character. We see it also frequently becoming the +occasion of the excitement of the malevolent passions, such as anger, +envy, hatred, jealousy, malice, and revenge. We find it also frequently +leading to[57] indisposition. We find lastly, that, in consequence of +the vexation of mind, which may arise from a variety of causes, but more +particularly from disappointment and the ascendency of some of the +passions that have been mentioned, more pleasure is generally perceived +in the anticipation of these amusements, than in the actual taste or use +of them. + +[Footnote 57: Not only colds, head-aches, and a general lassitude, ore +the result Of dancing in ball-rooms, but occasionally serious +indisposition. I have known the death of two young persons attributed to +it by the physicians who attended them in their illness.] + +The subject of novels is presented next to our view. And here it has +appeared, that no objection can be truly adduced against these on +account of the fictitious nature of their contents. Novels also are not +all of them promiscuously condemned. It is contended, however, from a +variety of causes which were shewn, that they are very generally +censurable. We are taught again, that the direct tendency of those which +are censurable is to produce conceit and affectation, a romantic spirit, +and a perverted morality among youth. We are taught again, that, on +account of the peculiar construction of these, inasmuch as they have +plot and character like dramatic compositions, they fascinate, and this +to such a degree, that youth wait for no selection, but devour +promiscuously all that come in their way. Hence the conclusion is, that +the effects, alleged against novels, cannot but be generally produced. +We are presented also with this fact, that, on account of the high +seasoning and gross stimulants they contain, all other writings, however +useful, become insipid. Hence the novel reader, by becoming indisposed +to the perusal of more valuable books, excludes himself from the +opportunity of moral improvement, and, if immoral sentiments are +contracted, from the chance of any artificial corrective or cure. + +The diversions of the field offer themselves next to our notice. We are +taught, on the discussion which has arisen on this subject, that we are +not permitted to take away the lives of animals wantonly but only as +they may be useful for food, or as they may be dangerous to ourselves +and to the other animals which may belong to us, and that a condition is +annexed to the original grant or charter, by which permission was given +to kill, which is never to be dispensed with, or, in other words, that +we are to take away their lives as speedily as we can. Hence rights have +sprung up on the part of animals, and duties on the part of men, any +breach of which is the violation of a moral law. Hence the diversions of +the field become often objectionable, because life is not thus taken +away as speedily as it might otherwise have been, and because food or +noxiousness is not often the object of the destruction of animals, but +mere pleasure or sport. We are taught also to consider animals, not as +mere machines, but as the creatures of God. We are taught also, that as +they were designed to have their proper share of happiness during the +time of their existence, any wanton interruption of this is an +innovation of their rights as living beings. And we are taught finally, +that the organic nature of men and animals being the same, as far as a +feeling of pain is concerned, the sympathy which belongs to our nature, +and the divine law of doing as we would be done by, which will hold as +far as we can enter into the perceptions either of man or brutes, impose +upon us the duty of anticipating their feelings, and of treating them in +a corresponding or tender manner. + +If we take a view of other customs, into which the Quakers have thought +it right to introduce regulations with a view of keeping their members +pure and innocent, we learn other lessons of usefulness. Thus, for +example, the reader, if he does not choose to adopt their dress, may +obtain desirable knowledge upon this subject. He will see that the two +great objects of dress are decency and comfort. He will see, though +Christianity prescribes neither colour nor shape for the clothing, that +it is not indifferent about it. It enjoins simplicity and plainness, +because, where men pay an undue attention to the exterior, they are in +danger of injuring the dignity of their minds. It discards ornaments +from the use of apparel, because these, by puffing up the creature, may +be productive of vanity and pride. It forbids all unreasonable changes +on the plea of conformity with fashion, because the following of fashion +begets a worldly spirit, and because, in proportion as men indulge this +spirit, they are found to follow the loose and changeable morality of +the world, instead of the strict and steady morality of the Gospel. + +On the subject of language, though the reader may be unwilling to adopt +all the singularities of the Quakers, he may collect a lesson that may +be useful to him in life. He may discover the necessity of abstaining +from all expressions of flattery, because the use of these may be +morally injurious to himself by abridging the independence of his mind, +and by promoting superstition; while it may be injurious to others, by +occasioning them to think more highly of themselves than they ought, and +more degradingly of their fellow-creatures. He may discover also the +necessity of adhering to the truth in all expressions, whether in his +conversation or in his letters; that there is always a consistency in +truth, and an inconsistency in falsehood; that as expressions accord +with the essences, qualities, properties and characters of things, they +are more or less proper; and that an attempt to adhere to the truth is +productive of moral good, while a departure from it may lead into error, +independently of its injury as a moral evil. + +With respect to the address, or the complimentary gestures or ceremonies +of the world, if he be not inclined to reject them totally as the +Quakers do, he may find that there may be unquestionably evil in them, +if they are to be adjudged by the purity of the Christian system. He may +perceive, that there may be as much flattery and as great a violation of +truth through the medium of the body, as through the medium of the +tongue, and that the same mental degradation, or toss of dignified +independence of mind, may insensibly follow. + +On the subject of conversation and manners, he may learn the propriety +of caution as to the use of idle words; of abstaining from scandal and +detraction; of withholding his assent to customs when started, however +fashionable, if immoral; of making himself useful by the dignity of the +topic he introduces, and by the decorum with which he handles it; of +never allowing his sprightliness to border upon folly, or his wit upon +lewdness, but to clothe all his remarks in an innocent and a simple +manner. + +From the subject of customs connected with meals, such as that, for +example, of saying grace, he may team that this is a devotional act; +that it is not to be said as a mere ceremony, by thanking the Supreme +Being in so many words while the thoughts are roving on other subjects, +but that it should be said with seriousness and feeling, and that it +should never come as an oblation from the tongue, except it come also +an oblation from the heart. And on that which relates to the drinking of +toasts, he may see the moral necessity of an immediate extirpation of +it. He may see that this custom has not one useful or laudable end in +view; that it is a direct imitation of Pagans in the worst way in which +we can follow them--their enjoyment of sensual pleasures; that it leads +directly and almost inevitably to drunkenness, and of course to the +degradation of the rational and moral character. + +A second advantage, which they who compose the world may derive on this +occasion, will be seen from a recapitulation of some of the principles +which the work contains. The advantage in question will chiefly consist +in this, that, whatever these principles may be, they may be said to be +such as have been adopted by a moral people, and this after serious +deliberation, and solely on a religious ground. It is of great +importance from whence principles come recommended to our notice. If +they come from the inconsiderate and worthless, they lose their value. +If from the sober and religious, we receive them under the impression, +that they may be promotive of our good. I shall give therefore a summary +of these, as they may be collected from the work. + +God has imparted to men a portion of his own Spirit, though he has +given it to them indifferent degrees. Without this Spirit it would be +impossible for them to discern spiritual things. Without this it would +be impossible for them to know spiritually, even that the Scriptures +were of divine authority, or spiritually to understand them. This Spirit +performs its office of a teacher by internal monitions, and, if +encouraged, even by the external objects of creation. It is also a +primary and infallible guide. It is given to all without exception. It +is given to all sufficiently. They who resist it, quench it, and this to +their own condemnation. They who encourage it receive it more +abundantly, and are in the way of salvation and redemption. This Spirit +therefore becomes a Redeemer also. Redemption may he considered in two +points of view, as it is either by outward or inward means, or as it +relates to past sins or to sins to come. Jesus Christ effected +redemption of the first kind, or that from past sins, while he was +personally upon earth, by the sacrifice of himself. But it is this +Spirit, or Christ within, as the Quakers call it, which effects the +latter, or which preserves from future transgressions. It is this Spirit +which leads, by means of its inward workings, to a new birth, and +finally to the highest perfection of which our nature is capable. In +this office of an inward Redeemer, it visits all, so that all may be +saved, if they will attend to its saving operations, God being not +willing that any should perish, but that all should inherit eternal +life. + +This Spirit also qualifies men for the ministry. It qualifies women also +for this office as well as men. It dictates the true season for silence, +and the true season for utterance, both in public and private worship. + +Jesus Christ was man because he took flesh, and inhabited the body which +had been prepared for him; but he was Divinity, because he was the Word. + +A resurrection will be effected, but not of the body as it is. Rewards +and punishments will follow, but guilt will not be imputed to men till +they have actually committed sin. + +Baptism and the Lord's Supper are essentials of the Christian religion. +They are not, however, essentials as outward ordinances, but only as +they are administered by the Holy Spirit. + +Civil government is for the protection of virtue and for the removal of +vice. Obedience should be paid to all its laws, where the conscience is +not violated in doing it. To defraud it in any manner of its revenues, +or to take up arms on any consideration against it, is unlawful. But if +men cannot conscientiously submit to any one or more of its ordinances, +they are not to temporize, but to obey Jesus Christ rather than their +own governors in this particular case. They are, however, to be willing +to submit to all the penalties which the latter may inflict upon them +for so doing. And as no Christian ought to temporize in the case of any +laws enjoined him by the government under which he lives, so neither +ought he to do it in the case of any of the customs or fashions, which +may be enjoined him by the world. + +All civil oaths are forbidden in Christianity. The word of every +Christian should be equivalent to his oath. + +It is not lawful to return evil for evil, nor to shed the blood of man. +All wars are forbidden. + +It is more honourable, and more consistent with the genius and spirit of +Christianity, and the practice of Jesus Christ and of his Apostles, and +of the primitive Christians, that men should preach the Gospel freely, +than that they should live by it, as by a profession or by a trade. + +All men are brethren by creation. Christianity makes no difference in +this respect between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, bond and +free. No geographical boundaries, nor colour of the skin or person, nor +difference of religious sentiment, can dissolve this relationship +between them. + +All men are born equal with respect to privileges. But as they fall into +different situations and ranks of life, they become distinguished. In +Christianity, however, there is no respect of persons, or no distinction +of them, but by their virtue. Nobility and riches can never confer +worth, nor can poverty screen from a just appropriation of disgrace. + +Man is a temple in which the Divinity may reside. He is therefore to be +looked upon and treated with due respect. No Christian ought to lower +his dignity, or to suffer him, if he can help it, to become the +instrument of his own degradation. + +Man is a being, for whose spiritual welfare every Christian should be +solicitous, and a creature therefore worthy of all the pains that can be +bestowed upon him for the preservation of his moral character. + +The first object in the education of man should be the proper +subjugation of his will. + +No man ought to be persecuted or evil spoken of for a difference in +religious opinion. Nor is detraction or slander allowable in any case. + +Every religious community should consider the poor belonging to it as +members of the same family, for whose wants and comforts it is a duty +to provide. The education also of the children of these should be +provided for. + +It is enjoined us to live in peace with all men. All quarrels therefore +are to be avoided between man and man. But if differences arise, they +are to be adjusted by arbitration, and not, except it be otherwise +impossible, by going to law, and never by violence. + +If men offend against the laws, they should be prevented from doing +injuries in future, but never by the punishment of the loss of life. The +reformation of a criminal, which includes a prevention of a repetition +of such injuries, is the great object to be regarded in the +jurisprudence of Christians. + +In political matters there is no safe reasoning but upon principle. No +man is to do evil that good may come. The policy of the Gospel is never +to be deserted, whatever may be the policy of the world. + +Trade is an employment, by means of which we are permitted to gain a +livelihood. But all trades are not lawful. Men are responsible, as +Christians, for engaging in those which are immoral, or far continuing +in those which they may carry on either to the moral detriment of +themselves or of others. Abstinence from hazardous enterprises by the +failure of which innocent persons might be injured, and honesty in +dealing, and punctuality to words and engagements, are essentials in +the prosecution of trade. + +Having made observations on the customs, and brought to the view of the +reader some of the prominent principles of the Quakers, a third +advantage will arise from knowing the kind of character, which these in +conjunction will produce. + +On this subject we might be permitted our conjectures. We might insist +upon the nature and immediate tendencies of these customs and +principles, and we might draw our conclusions from thence, or we might +state how they were likely to operate, so as probably not to be far from +the truth. But we are spared both the trouble of such a task, and are +relieved from the fear of having the accuracy of our conclusions +doubted. The Quaker character has been made up from the acknowledgments +of others. It has been shewn that they are a moral people; that they are +sober, and inoffensive, and quiet; that they are benevolent to man in +his religious and temporal capacity; that they are kind or +tender-hearted to animals; that they do not make sacrifices of their +consciences to others; that in political affairs they reason upon +principle; that they are punctual to their words and engagements; and +that they have independence of mind, and courage. Their character, as it +is defective, has been explained also. It has been probed, and tried by +a proper touchstone. Appearances have been separated from realities. The +result has been, that a deficiency in literature and science, and that +superstition, and that an undue eagerness after money, has been fixed +upon a portion of them. The two former, however, it is to be +recollected, are only intellectually defective traits, and maybe +remedied by knowledge. The latter, it is to be presumed, belongs rather +to individuals than to the society at large. But whatever drawbacks may +be made from the perfect by the imperfect qualities that have been +stated, there is a great preponderancy on the side of virtue. And where, +when we consider the evil propensities of our nature, and the difficulty +of keeping these in due order, are we to took for a fairer character? +That men, as individuals, may be more perfect, both in and out of the +society, is not to be denied. But where shall we find them purer as a +body? and where shall we find a faulty character, where the remedy is +more easily at hand? + +The next advantage will be in seeing the manner of the operation of +these customs and principles, or how they act. To go over the whole +character of the Quakers with this view would be both tedious and +unnecessary. I shall therefore only select one or two parts of it for my +purpose. And first, how do these customs and principles produce +benevolence? I reply thus: The Quakers, in consequence of their +prohibitions against all public amusements, have never seen man in the +capacity of a hired buffoon or mimic, or as a purchasable plaything. +Hence they have never viewed him in a low and degrading light. In +consequence of their tenet on war, they have never viewed him as an +enemy. In consequence of their disciplinary principles, they have viewed +him as an equal. Hence it appears, that they have no prejudices against +him from causes which often weigh with others, either on account of +rank, or station, or many of the customs of the world. Now I conceive, +that the dereliction of prejudice against man is as necessary, as a +first measure, to the production of benevolence towards him, as the +dereliction of vice towards the production of virtue. We see then their +minds free from bias on this subject. But what is there on the other +side to operate actively towards the promotion of this trait? They view +man, in the first place, as the temple in which the Divinity may reside. +This procures him respect. Secondly, as a being for whose spiritual +welfare they ought to be solicitous. This produces a concern for him. +And thirdly, as a brother. This produces relationship. We see then the +ground cleared. We see all noxious weeds extirpated. We see good seed +sown in their places; that is, we see prejudices removed from the heart, +and we see the ideas of respect, concern, and relationship implanted in +it. Now it is impossible that these ideas, under these circumstances, +should not as naturally and immediately produce a general benevolence to +man, as common seeds, when all obstructive weeds are removed, should +produce their corresponding saplings or flowers. + +How again are these customs and principles of the Quakers promotive of +independence of mind? I answer thus: There is a natural independence of +mind in man, but it is often broken and weakened. Some men injure it by +the solicitation and acceptance of honours, and pensions, and places; +others by flattery and falsehood; others by customs of obeisance; others +by their obedience to fashion. But the independence of mind of the +Quakers is not stunted in its growth by the chiding blasts of such +circumstances and habits. It is invigorated, on the other hand, by their +own laws. No servility is allowed either in word or gesture. Neither +that which is written, nor that which is uttered, is to please the +vanity of the persons addressed, or to imply services never intended to +be performed. The knee is not to be bent to any one. It is strengthened +again and made to shoot by their own maxims. Is it possible to be in the +habit of viewing all men as equal in privileges, and no one as superior +to another but by his virtue, and not to feel a disposition that must +support it? Can the maxim of never doing evil that good may come, when +called into exercise, do otherwise than cherish it? And can reasoning +upon principle have any other effect than that of being promotive of +its growth? + +These then are the ways in which these customs and principles operate. +Now the advantage to be derived from seeing this manner of their +operation, consists in this: First, that we know to a certainty, that +they act towards the production of virtue. Knowing again what these +customs and principles are, we know those which we are bound to cherish. +We find also, that there are various springs which act upon the moral +constitution for the formation of character. We find some of these great +and powerful, and others inferior. This consideration should teach us +not to despise even those which are the least, if they have but a +tendency to promote our purity. For if the effect of any of them be only +small, a number of effects of little causes or springs, when added +together, may be as considerable as a large one. Of these again we +observe, that some are to be round where many would hardly have expected +them. This consideration should make us careful to look into all our +customs and principles, that we may not overlook any one which we may +retain for our moral good. And as we learn the lesson of becoming +vigilant to discover every good spring, and not to neglect the least of +these, however subtle its operation, so we learn the necessity of +vigilance to detect every spring or cause, and this even the least, +whether in our customs or our principles, if it should in its tendency +be promotive of vice. + +And in the same manner we may argue with respect to other productions of +these customs and principles of the Quakers. As we have seen the latter +lead to character, so we have seen them lead to happiness. The manner of +their operation to this end has been also equally discernible. As we +value them because they produce the one, so we should value them because +they produce the other. We have seen also which of them to value. And we +should be studious to cherish the very least of these, as we should be +careful to discard the least of those which are productive of real and +merited unhappiness to the mind. + +And now, having expended my observations on the tendencies of the +customs and principles of the Quakers, I shall conclude by expressing a +wish, that the work which I have written may be useful. I have a wish, +that it may be useful to those who may be called the world, by giving +them an insight into many excellent institutions, of which they were +before ignorant, but which may be worthy of their support and their +patronage. I have a wish also, that it may be useful to the Quakers +themselves, first, by letting them see how their own character may be +yet improved; and secondly, by preserving them, in some measure, both +from unbecoming remarks, and from harsh usage, on the part of their +fellow-citizens of a different denomination from themselves. For surely +when it is known, as I hope it is by this time, that they have moral and +religious grounds for their particularities, we shall no longer hear +their scruples branded with the name of follies and obstinacies, or see +magistrates treating them with a needless severity, but giving[58] them, +on the other hand, all the indulgences they can, consistently with the +execution of the laws. In proportion as this utility is produced, my +design will be answered in the production of the work, and I shall +receive pleasure in having written it. And this pleasure will be subject +only to one drawback, which will unavoidably arise in the present case; +for I cannot but regret that I have not had more time to bestow upon it, +or that some other person has not appeared, who possessing an equal +knowledge of the Quakers with myself, but better qualified in other +respects, might have employed his talents more to the advantage of the +subjects upon which I have treated in these volumes. + +[Footnote 58: Some magistrates, much to their honour, treat them with +tenderness; and no people are more forward than the Quakers in +acknowledging any attention that may be shewn them, but particularly +where their religious scruples may be concerned.] + + +END OF THE THIRD VOLUME + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III +(of 3), by Thomas Clarkson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, *** + +***** This file should be named 15304-8.txt or 15304-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/3/0/15304/ + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. 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Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/15304-8.zip b/15304-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a19bd46 --- /dev/null +++ b/15304-8.zip diff --git a/15304.txt b/15304.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd9ecfd --- /dev/null +++ b/15304.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8608 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III (of +3), by Thomas Clarkson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III (of 3) + +Author: Thomas Clarkson + +Release Date: March 9, 2005 [EBook #15304] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, *** + + + + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. This file was produced from images generously +made available by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) +at http://gallica.bnf.fr. + + + + + + +A +PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM. + +TAKEN FROM A VIEW +OF THE +EDUCATION AND DISCIPLINE, +SOCIAL MANNERS, +CIVIL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, +RELIGIOUS PRINCIPLES +AND +CHARACTER, +OF THE + +Society of Friends + + + * * * * * + + +BY THOMAS CLARKSON, M.A. + +AUTHOR OF SEVERAL ESSAYS ON THE SLAVE TRADE. + +VOL. III. + +CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME. + + * * * * * + +GREAT TENETS. + +CHAPTER I. + +_Civil government--Governors have no right to interfere in matters of +religion--Nor are the governed bound to obey, where their consciences +are oppressed by doing it--but they are to be willing to suffer the +penalties annexed to their disobedience--and they are on no account to +resist them by force of arms,_ + +CHAPTER II. + +_Oaths--Christians are not to take civil oaths--Reasons of the Quakers +for their disuse of them,_ + +CHAPTER III. + +SECT. I. _War--Unlawful for Christians to fight--Scriptural passages in +support of this tenet--Answers to these and replies,_ + +SECT. II. _These passages supported by the opinions and practice of the +early Christians,_ + +SECT. III. _Objection to the motive assigned for this practice--Reply to +this objection--Motive confirmed,_ + +SECT. IV. _Conduct of the early Christians further examined--While +Christianity continued pure, they held it unlawful to fight--As it +became less pure, their scruples against it declined--As it became +corrupt, they ceased,_ + +SECT. V. _Reflections of the author on the foregoing subject--Supposed +conversation with a superior being in another region--New arguments from +thence,_ + +SECT. VI. _Subject further considered--Erroneous conceptions of those +who argue in favor of the necessity of war--This necessary only where +the policy of the world is pursued--Nature of this policy--But not +necessary where men act on the policy of the Gospel,_ + +SECT. VII. _This doctrine confirmed by historical cases,_ + +SECT. VIII. _Final examination of the subject,_ + +CHAPTER IV. + +SECT. I. _Maintenance of a Gospel ministry--Quakers hold it unlawful to +pay their own ministers, or those of any other denomination, for their +Gospel labours--Scriptural passages and historical facts relative to +this doctrine,_ + +SECT. II. _Additional reasons against the payment of those of another +denomination, as collected from a history of tithes,_ + +SECT. III. _A more particular statement of these reasons,_ + + + * * * * * + +CHARACTER. + +CHAPTER I. + +_Character of the Quakers--Difficulties in the proper estimation of +character--These removable in the present case,_ + +CHAPTER II. _Character general or particular--General is that of a moral +people,_ + +CHAPTER III. + +SECT. I. _Character particular--First of the particular traits is +benevolence to man in his temporal capacity,_ + +SECT. II. _Second is benevolence to man in his religious capacity,_ + +SECT. III. _Third is benevolence, or a tender feeling for the brute +creation,_ + +CHAPTER IV. + +_Fourth is complacency of mind and manners,_ + +CHAPTER V. + +_Fifth is, that they do not sacrifice their consciences, as a body of +Christians, where they believe a compliance with any law or custom to be +wrong,_ + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Sixth is, that in political affairs they reason upon principle, and not +upon consequences,_ + + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Seventh is independence of mind,_ + +CHAPTER VIII. + +SECT. I. _Eighth is courage in life,_ + +SECT. II. _Ninth is courage in death,_ + +CHAPTER IX. + +_Tenth is punctuality to words and engagements,_ + +CHAPTER X. + +_Imperfect traits--These are either intellectually or morally +defective--First of these is a deficiency in literature and science, +when compared with other people,_ + +CHAPTER XI. + +_Second is superstition--Distinctions on this subject,_ + +CHAPTER XII. + +_Third is obstinacy--No foundation for this trait,_ + +CHAPTER XIII. + +SECT. I. _Fourth is a money-getting spirit--This spirit seldom +chargeable with avarice,_ + +SECT. II. _Practicable methods suggested for the extirpation of it,_ + +CHAPTER XIV. + +Fifth is a want of animation or affection--This an appearance only. + +CHAPTER XV. + +Sixth is evasiveness in speech--No foundation for this trait. + +CHAPTER XVI. Seventh is shyness--This an appearance only. + +CHAPTER XVII. + +Eighth is a disregard of truth--Inconsistency of the imputation of this +trait. + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +SECT. I. Character of the Quaker women--Women share in the virtues of +the men, but do not partake of all their reputed imperfections. + +SECT. II. Quaker women have a public character--Influence of this upon +their minds. + + + * * * * * + +MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS. + +CHAPTER I. + +Quakers a happy people--Subordinate causes of this happiness. + +CHAPTER II. + +Good, which the Quakers have done as a society upon earth. + +CHAPTER III. + +Quakers in England on the decline in point of numbers, as a religious +society--Certain causes of this decline. + +CHAPTER IV. + +Supposed remedies for the diminution of some of these causes--These of +various kinds--One of these a superior education--Supposed effect of +this education. + + +CHAPTER V. + +_Component parts of this education--Favourable state of the society for +the admission of it,_ + +CHAPTER VI. + +_Various arguments against it--These examined,_ + +CHAPTER VII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who may have had thoughts +of leaving the society,_ + +CHAPTER VIII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who may be called the +world,_ + + + + +GREAT TENETS +OF THE +QUAKERS. + + + + +CHAP. I. + +_Civil government--First tenet is, that governors have no right to +interfere with the governed on the subject of Religion--and that if they +interfere, and insist upon things which the conscience disapproves, the +governed ought to refuse a compliance with them, and to bear patiently +all the penalties annexed to such a refusal, but never to resist the +governors by violence on this or any other account._ + + +The Quakers hold four principles, which I shall distinguish by the name +of Great Tenets. These are considered as arising out of the implied or +positive injunctions of Christianity, and were insisted upon as +essentials on the formation of the society. The first of these is on the +subject of Civil Government. + +Civil Government had existed long before the appearance of Christianity +in the world. Legislators since that era, as they have imbibed its +spirit, so they have introduced this spirit more or less into their +respective codes. But, no nation has ever professed to change its system +of jurisprudence, or to model it anew, in consequence of the new light +which Christianity has afforded: neither have the alterations been so +numerous in any nation, however high its profession of Christianity, +with respect to laws, as to enable us to say, that there is any +government in the known world, of Christian origin, or any government +wholly upon the principles of the gospel. + +If all men were to become real Christians, civil government would become +less necessary. As there would be then no offences, there would be no +need of magistracy or of punishment. As men would then settle any +differences between them amicably, there would be no necessity for +courts of law. As they would then never fight, there would be no need of +armies. As they would then consider their fellow-creatures as brethren, +they would relieve them as such, and there would be no occasion of laws +for the poor. As men would then have more solicitude for the public +good, and more large and liberal notions, than at any former time, they +would of themselves conceive and raise all necessary public institutions +and works. Government then is not so necessary for real Christians. It +is necessary principally, as the apostle says, for evil-doers. But if it +be chiefly necessary for evil-doers, then governors ought to be careful +how they make laws, which may vex, harrass, and embarrass Christians, +whom they will always find to be the best part of their communities, or, +in other words, how they make laws, which Christians, on account of +their religious scruples, cannot conscientiously obey. + +It is a tenet of the Quakers, on the subject of government, that the +civil magistrate has no right to interfere in religious matters, so as +either to force any particular doctrines upon men, or to hinder them +from worshipping God in their own way, provided that, by their creeds +and worship, they do no detriment to others. The Quakers believe, +however, that Christian churches may admonish such members as fall into +error, and may even cut them off from membership, but this must be done +not by the temporal, but by the spiritual sword. + +This tenet the Quakers support, first, by reason. Religion, they say, is +a matter solely, between God and man, that is, between God and that man +who worships him. This must be obvious, they conceive, because man is +not accountable to man for his religious opinions, except he binds +himself to the discipline of any religious society, but to God alone. It +must be obvious again, they say, because no man can be a judge over the +conscience of another. He can know nothing of the sincerity or hypocrisy +of his heart. He can be neither an infallible judge, nor an infallible +correcter of his religious errors. "The conscience of man, says Barclay, +is the seat and throne of God in him, of which he alone is the proper +and infallible judge, who, by his power and spirit, can rectify its +mistakes." It must be obvious again, they say, from the consideration +that, if it were even possible for one man to discern the conscience of +another, it is impossible for him to bend or controul it. But conscience +is placed both out of his sight and of his reach. It is neither visible +nor tangible. It is inaccessible by stripes or torments. Thus, while the +body is in bondage, on account of the religion of the soul, the soul +itself is free, and, while it suffers under torture, it enjoys the +divinity, and feels felicity in his presence. But if all these things +are so, it cannot be within the province either of individual +magistrates or of governments, consisting of fallible men, to fetter the +consciences of those who may live under them. And any attempt to this +end is considered by the Quakers as a direct usurpation of the +prerogative of God. + +This tenet the Quakers adopt again on a contemplation of the conduct and +doctrines of Jesus Christ and of his apostles. They find nothing in +these, which can give the least handle to any man to use force in the +religious concerns of another. During the life of Jesus Christ upon +earth, it is no where recorded of him, that he censured any man for his +religion. It is true that he reproved the Scribes and Pharisees, but +this was on account of their hypocrisy, because they pretended to be +what they were not. But he no where condemned the devout Jew, who was +sincere in his faith. But if he be found no where to have censured +another for a difference in religious opinions, much less was it ever +said of him, that he forced him to the adoption of his own. In the +memorable instance, where James and John were willing to have called +fire from Heaven, to burn those who refused to receive him, he rebuked +them by an assurance, that "they knew not what spirit they were of." +And, with respect to his doctrines, nothing can be more full to the +point than his saying, that "his kingdom was not of this world," by +which he meant that his dominion was wholly of a spiritual nature, and +that men must cast off all worldly imaginations, and become spiritually +minded, before, they could belong to him. But no application of outward +force, in the opinion of the Quakers, can thus alter the internal man. +Nor can even the creeds and doctrines of others produce this effect, +except they become sanctioned by the divine influence on the heart. + +Neither is it recorded of any of the apostles, that they used any other +weapons than those of persuasion and the power of God in the propagation +of their doctrines, leaving such as did not choose to follow them to +their own way. They were explicit also in stating the spiritual nature +of Christ's kingdom, from whence an inference similar to the former is +deducible, namely, that no compulsory interference can be effectual in +matters of religion. And St. Paul, in particular, tells the Corinthians, +that, in his spiritual services to them, he does not consider himself +[1]"as having any dominion over their faith, but as helpers of their +joy." + +[Footnote 1: 2 Cor. i. 24.] + +But if neither Jesus Christ, who was the author of that religion, which +many civil governments have established, nor the apostles, who +afterwards propagated it, forced their doctrines upon other men, or +hindered them by force from worshipping in their own way, even though +the former could have called legions of angels to his support, it +certainly does not become weak, ignorant, and fallible men, because they +are placed in the situation of governors, to set up their own creeds as +supreme, and to throw penalties and restrictions in the way of the +religious exercise of others. + +But if governors, contrary to the example of Jesus Christ and of his +apostles, should interfere in religious matters, and impose laws upon +the governed, of which, as Christians, they cannot but disapprove, then +the Quakers are of opinion, that the governed ought always to obey the +laws of Jesus Christ, rather than the laws of any governors, who are +only men. Thus when Peter and John were commanded by the rulers of the +Jews to speak no more in the name of Jesus, they dared not yield +obedience to their commands, reasoning thus,[2] "Whether it be right in +the sight of God to hearken unto you more than unto God, judge ye." + +[Footnote 2: Acts iv. 19.] + +And as the governed in such case ought, in obedience to God, the Supreme +Ruler of the Universe, and the King of Kings, to refuse a compliance +with the laws of their own governors, so they ought to be prepared +patiently to submit to the penalties which are annexed to such refusal, +and on no account, if just representations made in the meek and quiet +spirit of their religion, are not likely to be effectual, to take up +arms or resist them by force. And this doctrine they ground, first, on +the principle, that it is not only more noble, but more consistent with +their duty as Christians, to suffer, than to give growth to the passions +of revenge, or by open resistance to become the occasion of loss of life +to others. And, secondly, on the example of Jesus Christ, and of the +apostles and primitive Christians, all of whom patiently submitted to +the pains and penalties inflicted upon them by the governments of their +respective times for the exercise of their religion. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Oaths--Quakers conceive it unlawful for Christians to take an +oath--their sufferings on this account--Consider oaths as +unnecessary--as having an immoral tendency, which even the Heathens +allowed--and as having been forbidden by Jesus Christ--Explanation of +the scriptural passages cited on this occasion--Christianity not so +perfect with the lawfulness of oaths as without it--Other reasons taken +from considerations relative to the ancient oath "by the name of God"_ + + +A second tenet, which the Quakers hold, is, that it is unlawful for +Christians to take a civil oath. + +Many and grievous were the sufferings of the Quakers, in the early part +of their history, on account of their refusing to swear before the civil +magistrate. They were insulted, fined, and imprisoned. Some of the +judges too indulged a rancour against them on this account, unworthy of +their high office, which prescribed justice impartially to all. For when +they could not convict them of the offences laid to their charge, they +administered to them the oath of allegiance, knowing that they would not +take it, and that confiscation of property and imprisonment would +ensue. But neither ill usage, nor imprisonment, nor loss of property, +ever made any impression upon the Quakers, so as to induce them to swear +in judicial cases, and they continued to suffer, till the legislature, +tired out with the cries of their oppression, decreed, that their +affirmation should in all cases except criminal, or in that of serving +upon juries, or in that of qualifications for posts of honour or +emolument under government, be received as equivalent to their oath. And +this indulgence towards them is continued to them by law to the present +day. + +The Quakers have an objection to oaths, as solemn appeals to God, +because they are unnecessary. + +It is an old saying among the Quaker writers, that "truth was before all +oaths." By this they mean, there was a time, when men's words were +received as truths, without the intervention of an oath. Ancient fable, +indeed, tells us, that there were no oaths in the golden age, but that, +when men departed from their primitive simplicity, and began to quarrel +with one another, they had recourse to falsehood to substantiate their +own case, after which it became necessary, that some expedient should be +devised, in the case of disputes, for the ascertaining the truth. Hence +Hesiod makes the god of oaths the son of Esis or of contention. This, +account differs but little from that of Polybuis, who says, that the use +of oaths in judgment was rare among the ancients, but that, as perfidy +grew, oaths increased. + +And as it is a saying of the Quakers, that "truth was before all oaths," +so they believe, that truth would be spoken, if oaths were done away. +Thus, that which is called honour by the world, will bind men to the +truth, who perhaps know but little of religion. But if so, then he, who +makes Christianity his guide, will not be found knowingly in a +falsehood, though he be deprived of the opportunity of swearing. + +But if it be true, that truth existed before the invention of oaths, and +that truth would still be spoken, even if all oaths were abolished, then +the Quakers say, that oaths are not so necessary as some have imagined, +because they have but a secondary effect in the production of the truth. +This conclusion they consider also as the result of reason. For good men +will speak truth without an oath, and bad men will hardly be influenced +by one. And where oaths are regarded, it is probable that truth is +forced out of men, not so much, because they consider them as solemn +appeals to God, as that they consider the penalties, which will follow +their violation; so that a simple affirmation, under the same pains and +penalties, would be equally productive of the truth. + +The Quakers consider oaths again as very injurious to morality. For +first, they conceive it to be great presumption in men to summon God as +a witness in their trilling and earthly concerns. + +They believe, secondly, that, if men accustom themselves to call upon +God on civil occasions, they render his name so familiar to them, that +they are likely to lose the reverence due to it, or so to blend +religious with secular considerations, that they become in danger of +losing sight of the dignity, solemnity, and awfulness of devotion. And +it is not an unusual remark, that persons, most accustomed to oaths, are +the most likely to perjury. A custom-house oath has become proverbial in +our own country. I do not mean by this to accuse mercantile men in +particular, but to state it as a received opinion, that, where men make +solemn things familiar, there is a danger of their moral degradation. +Hence the Quakers consider the common administration of oaths to have a +tendency that is injurious to the moral interests of men. + +This notion relative to the bad tendency of oaths, the Quakers state to +have prevailed even in the Gentile world. As Heathen philosophy became +pure, it branded the system of swearing as pernicious to morals. It was +the practice of the Persians to give each other their right hand as a +token of their speaking the truth. He, who gave his hand deceitfully, +was accounted more detestable than if he had sworn the Scythians, in +their conference with Alexander the Great, addressed him thus: "Think +not that the Scythians confirm their friendship by an oath. They swear +by keeping their word." The Phrygians were wholly against oaths. They +neither took them themselves, nor required them of others. Among the +proverbs of the Arabs, this was a celebrated one, "Never swear, but let +thy word be yes or no." So religious was Hercules, says Plutarch, that +he never swore but once. Clinias, a Greek philosopher, and a scholar of +Pythagoras, is said to have dreaded an oath so much, that, when by +swearing he could have escaped a fine of three talents, he chose rather +to pay the money than do it, though he was to have sworn nothing but the +truth. Indeed, throughout all Greece, the system of swearing was +considered as of the most immoral tendency, the very word, which +signified "perjured," in the Greek language, meaning, when analysed, "he +that adds oath to oath," or "the taker of many oaths." + +But, above all, the Quakers consider oaths as unlawful for Christians, +having been positively forbidden by Jesus Christ. + +The words, in which they conceived this prohibition to have been +contained, they take from the sermon on the Mount. + +[3] "Again, ye have heard, that it hath been said by them of old time, +Thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shall perform unto the Lord thine +oaths." + +[Footnote 3: Matt. v. 33.] + +"But I say unto you, swear not at all, neither by heaven, because it is +God's throne." + +"Nor by the earth, for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem, for it +is the city of the great King." + +"Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one +hair white or black." + +"But let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay: for whatsoever is +more than this cometh of evil." + +It is said by those, who oppose the Quakers on this subject, that these +words relate, not to civil oaths, but to such as are used by profane +persons in the course of their conversation. But the Quakers deny this, +because the disciples, as Jews, must have known that profane swearing +had been unlawful long before this prohibition of Jesus Christ. They +must relate, therefore, to something else, and to something, which had +not before been forbidden. + +They deny it also on account of the construction of the sentences, and +of the meaning of the several words in these. For the words, "Swear not +at all," in the second of the verses, which have been quoted, have an +immediate reference to the words in the first. Thus they relate to the +word "forswear," in the first. But if they relate to the word +"forswear," they must relate to perjury, and if to perjury, then to a +civil oath, or to an oath, where an appeal is made to God by man, as to +something relating to himself. The word oath also is explicitly +mentioned in the first of these verses, and mentioned as an oath which +had been allowed. Now there was one oath, which had been allowed in +ancient time. The Jews had been permitted, in matters of judgment, to +swear by the name of God. This permission was given them, for one, among +other reasons, that they might be prevented from swearing by the name of +those idols by which their neighbours swore; for a solemn appeal to any +Heathen god necessarily includes an acknowledgment of the omnipresence +of the same. + +That they related to this oath in particular, the Quakers conceive to be +obvious from the prohibition in the verses which have been cited, of +swearing by heaven, by earth, and by other things. The Jews, knowing the +sacredness of the name of God, had an awful notion of the consequences +of perjury, if committed after an appeal to it, and therefore had +recourse to the names of the creatures, in case they should swear +falsely. But even the oaths, thus substituted by them, are forbidden by +Jesus Christ; and they are forbidden upon this principle, as we find by +a subsequent explanation given by St. Matthew, that whosoever swore by +these creatures, really and positively swore by the name of God. But if +they are forbidden, because swearing by these creatures is the same +thing as swearing by God who made them, then the oath "by the name of +God," which had been permitted to the Jews of old, was intended by Jesus +Christ to be discontinued, or to have no place in his new religion. + +The Quakers then, considering the words in question to have the meaning +now annexed to them, give the following larger explanation of what was +the intention of our Saviour upon this occasion. + +In his sermon on the Mount, of which these words on the subject of oaths +are a part, he inculcated into his disciples a system of morality, far +exceeding that of the Jews, and therefore in the verses which precede +those upon this subject, he tells them, that whereas it was said of old, +"thou shall not kill," he expected of them, that they should not even +entertain the passion of revenge. And whereas it was said of old, "thou +shalt not commit adultery," he expected, that they should not even lust +after others, if they were married, or after those in a married state. +Thus he brings both murder and adultery from act to thought. He attaches +a criminality to unlawful feelings if not suppressed, or aims at the +subjugation of the passions, as the springs of the evil actions of men. +Going on to shew the farther superiority of his system of morality over +that of the Jews, he says again, whereas it was said of old, "thou +shall not forswear thyself," he expects that they should not swear at +all, not even by the name of God, which had been formerly allowed, for +that he came to abrogate the ancient law, and perjury with it. It was +his object to make the word of his true disciples equal to the ancient +oath. Thus he substituted truth for oaths. And he made this essential +difference between a Jew and a Christian, that, whereas the one swore in +order that he might be believed; the other was to speak truth in order +that he might not swear. Such was the intended advance from Jew to +Christian, or from Moses to Christ. + +The Quakers are farther confirmed in their ideas upon this subject, by +believing, that Christianity would not have been as perfect as they +apprehend it to have been intended to be, without this restriction upon +oaths. Is it possible, they say, that Jesus Christ would have left it to +Christians to imagine, that their words were to be doubted on any +occasion? Would he have left it to them to think so dishonourably of one +another, or of their new vocation, that their words were to be tried by +the touchstone of oaths, when his religion was to have a greater effect +than any former system of morality ever known, in the production of +truth? Is it possible, when oaths sprung out of fraud and falsehood, as +he himself witnesses, (for whatever is more than yea and nay, cometh of +evil) that he would have left this remnant of antiquity standing, as if +his religion was not intended to extirpate the very ground-work of it? + +Finally, the Quakers are confirmed in their ideas upon this subject from +a belief that oaths were to cease, either at the coming of Jesus Christ, +or as men became Christians. For, in the first place, the oath "by the +name of God," is considered by some, as I have before noticed, to have +been permitted to the Jews during their weak state, that they might not +swear by the idols of their cotemporary neighbours, and thus lose sight +of the only and true God. But what Christian stands in need of any +preservative against idolatry, or of any commemorative of the existence +and superintendence of an almighty, wise, beneficent, and moral Governor +of the world? Some again have imagined, that, as the different +purifications among the Jews, denoting the holiness of God, signified +that it became men to endeavour to be holy, so the oath "by the name of +God," denoting the verity of God, signified, that it became men to +devote themselves to the truth. But no true Christian stands in need of +such symbols, to make him consider his word as equivalent to his oath. +Others again have imagined, that the oath "by the name of God," typified +the truth, or the eternal word. But as the type ceases when the +antitype appears, so the coming of Jesus Christ, who in the gospel +language is called both the truth and the eternal word, may be +considered as putting an end to this, as to other types and shadows, of +the Jewish church. + + + + +CHAP. III. + + +SECT. I. + +_War--Tenet on war--Quakers hold it unlawful for Christians to +fight--Scriptural passages, which they produce in support of this +tenet--Arguments which others produce from scriptural authority against +it--Reply of the Quakers to these arguments._ + + +The next of the great tenets which the Quakers hold, is on the subject +of war. They believe it unlawful for Christians to engage in the +profession of arms, or indeed to bear arms under any circumstances of +hostility whatever. Hence there is no such character as that of a Quaker +soldier. A Quaker is always able to avoid the regular army, because the +circumstance of entering into it is a matter of choice. But where he has +no such choice, as is the case in the militia, he either submits, if he +has property, to distraints upon it, or, if he has not, to prison.[4] + +[Footnote 4: The Quakers have been charged with inconsistency in +refusing military service, and yet in paying those taxes, which are +expressly for the support of wars. To this charge they reply, that they +believe it to be their duty to render to Caesar the things which are +Caesar's, and to leave the application of them to Caesar himself, as he +judges best for the support of government. This duty they collect from +the example of Jesus Christ, who paid the tribute money himself, and +ordered his disciples to do it, and this to a government, not only +professedly military, but distinguished for its idolatry and despotism. +Personal service, however, they conceive to militate against a positive +command by our Saviour, as will be explained in this chapter.] + +The Quakers ground the illicitness of war on several passages, which are +to be found in the New Testament. I shall not quote all the texts they +bring forward, but shall make a selection of them on this occasion. + +Jesus Christ, in the famous sermon, which he preached upon the Mount, +took occasion to mention specifically some of the precepts of the Jewish +law, and to inform his hearers, that he expected of those, who were to +be his true disciples, that they would carry these to a much higher +extent in their practice under the new dispensation, which he was then +affording them. Christianity required a greater perfection of the human +character than under the law. Men were not only not to kill, but not +even to cherish the passion of revenge.[5] And "whereas it was said of +old, an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, I say unto you, says +Christ, that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy +right cheek, turn to him the other also." And farther on in the same +chapter, he says, "Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love +thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy: But I say unto you, love your +enemies,[6] bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, +and pray for them that despitefully use you and persecute you. For if ye +love them which love you, what reward have you? do not even the +Publicans the same? Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which +is in heaven is perfect." Now the Quakers are of opinion, that no man +can receive this doctrine his heart, and assist either offensively or +defensively in the operations of war. + +[Footnote 5: Matt. v. 38.] + +[Footnote 6: The Heathen nations, on account of their idolatry, were +called enemies by the Jews.] + +Other passages, quoted by the Quakers, in favour of their tenet on war, +are taken from the apostles Paul and James conjointly. + +The former, in his[7] second epistle to the Corinthians, says, "For +though we walk in the flesh, we do not war after the flesh: For the +weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the +pulling down of strong holds, to the casting down imaginations, and +every high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge of God, and +bringing into captivity every thought to the obedience of Christ." From +hence the Quakers argue, that the warfare of Christianity, or that which +Christianity recognises, is not carnal, but spiritual, and that it +consists in the destruction of the evil imaginations, or of the evil +lusts and passions of men. That is, no man can be a true soldier of +Christ, unless his lusts are subdued, or unless the carnal be done away +by the spiritual mind. Now this position having been laid down by St. +Paul, or the position having been established in Christian morals, that +a state of subjugated passions is one of the great characteristic marks +of a true Christian, the Quakers draw a conclusion from it by the help +of the words of St. James. This apostle, in his letter to the dispersed +tribes, which were often at war with each other, as well as with the +Romans, says,[8] "From whence come wars and fightings among you? Come +they not hence even of your lusts that war in your members?" But if wars +come from the lusts of men, then the Quakers say, that those who have +subdued their lusts, can no longer engage in them, or, in other words, +that true Christians, being persons of this description, or being such, +according to St. Paul, as are redeemed out of what St. James calls the +very grounds and occasions of wars, can no longer fight. And as this +proposition is true in itself, so the Quakers conceive the converse of +it to be true also: For if there are persons, on the other hand, who +deliberately engage in the wars and fightings of the world, it is a +proof, that their lusts are not yet subjugated, or that, though they may +be nominal, they are not yet arrived at the stature of true or of +full-grown Christians. + +[Footnote 7: 2 Cor. x. 3, 4, 5.] + +[Footnote 8: James iv. I.] + +A third quotation, made by the Quakers, is taken from St. Paul +exclusively.[9] "Now if any man have not the spirit of Christ, he is +none of his." That is, if men have not the same disposition which Jesus +Christ manifested in the different situations of his life, the same +spirit of humility and of forbearance, and of love, and of forgiveness +of injuries, or if they do not follow him as a pattern, or if they do +not act as he would have done on any similar occasion, they are not +Christians. Now they conceive, knowing what the spirit of Jesus was by +those things which have been recorded of him, that he could never have +been induced or compelled, by any earthly consideration or power, to +have engaged in the wars of the world. They are aware that his mission, +which it became him to fulfil, and which engrossed all his time, would +not have allowed him the opportunity of a military life. But they +believe, independently of this, that the spirit which he manifested upon +earth, would have been of itself a sufficient bar to such an employment. +This they judge from his opinions and his precepts. For how could he +have taken up arms to fight, who enjoined in the new dispensation, that +men were not to resist evil; that they were to love their enemies; that +they were to bless those who cursed them, and to do good to those who +hated them? This they judge also from his practice. For how could he +have lifted up his arm against another, who, "when he was reviled, +reviled not again;" and who, in his very agony upon the Cross, prayed +for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for they know not +what they do." But if Jesus Christ could not have been induced or +compelled to have engaged in a profession, which would have subjected +him to take away the life of another, so neither can any Christian; "for +if a man have not the spirit of Christ, he is none of his." + +[Footnote 9: Rom. viii. 9.] + +Three arguments are usually brought against the Quakers on this subject. + +The first is, that John the Baptist,[10] when the soldiers demanded of +him what they should do, did not desire them to leave the service in +which they were engaged, but, on the other hand, to be content with +their wages. To this the Quakers reply, that John told them also, "to do +violence to no man." But even if he had not said this, they apprehend +that nothing could be deduced from his expressions, which could become +binding upon Christians. For John was the last prophet of the old +dispensation, but was never admitted into the new. He belonged to the +system which required an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth, but +not to that which required no resistance to evil, and which insisted +upon the love of enemies as well as of friends. Hence Jesus Christ said +of him, that "he who was least in the kingdom of heaven, was greater +than he." + +[Footnote 10: Luke iii. 14.] + +The second argument brought against the Quakers on this occasion, is of +a similar nature with the former. It is said that, if war had been +unlawful, our Saviour, when the centurion[11] came to him at Capernaum, +would have found fault with his profession; but he did not do this, but +on the other hand he highly commended him for his religion. In answer to +this the Quakers observe, first, that no solid argument can be drawn +from silence on any occasion. Secondly, that Jesus Christ seems, for +wise purposes, to have abstained from meddling with many of the civil +institutions of his time, though in themselves wicked, thinking +probably, that it was sufficient to have left behind him such general +precepts, as, when applied properly, would be subversive of them all. +And, thirdly, that he never commended the centurion on account of his +military situation, but on account of his profession of his faith. + +[Footnote 11: Matt. viii. 5.] + +They say farther, that they can bring an argument of a much more +positive nature than that just mentioned, from an incident which took +place, and where Jesus was again concerned. When Peter cut off the ear +of one of the servants of the high priest, who was concerned in the +apprehension of his Lord, he was not applauded, but reprimanded for the +part which he thus took in his defence in the following words:[12] "Put +up again thy sword in its place, for all they that take the sword, shall +perish by the sword." Now the Quakers conceive, that much more is to be +inferred against the use of the sword from this instance, than from the +former in favour of it. + +[Footnote 12: Matt. xxvi, 52.] + +The last argument, which is usually adduced against the Quakers on this +subject, is, that they have mistaken the meaning of the words of the +famous sermon upon the Mount. These words teach us the noble lesson, +that it is more consistent with the character of a Christian to forgive, +than to resist an injury. They are, it is said, wholly of private +import, and relate solely to private occurrences in life. But the +Quakers have extended the meaning of them beyond private to public +injuries or wars. + +The Quakers, in answer to this observe, that they dare not give to the +words in question a less extensive meaning. They relate to every one who +reads them. They relate to the poor. They relate to the rich. They +relate to, every potentate who may be the ruler of a land. They relate +to every individual of his council. There is no exception, or +dispensation to any one, in favour of any case. + +That they relate to public as well as private wars, or that they extend +themselves naturally to those which are public, the Quakers conceive it +reasonable to suppose from the following consideration. No man, they +apprehend, can possess practically the divine principle of loving an +individual enemy at home, or of doing good to the man who hates him, but +he must of necessity love his enemy in any and every other place. He +must have gone so for forward on the road to Christian perfection, as to +be unable to bear arms against any other person whatsoever, and +particularly when, according to the doctrines of the New Testament, no +geographical boundaries fix the limits of love and enmity between man +and man, but the whole human race are considered as the children of the +same parent, and therefore as brothers to one another. But who can truly +love an enemy and kill him? And where is the difference, under the +Gospel dispensation, between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, bond +and free? + +That these words were meant to extend to public as well as to private +ware, the Quakers believe again from the views which they entertain +relative to the completion of prophecy. They believe that a time will +come, in one or other of the succeeding ages, "when men shall bent their +swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, and when +nation shall not lift up sword against nation, and they shall not learn +war any more." Now other Christians, who differ from them in the +interpretation of the words in question, believe equally with them, that +the times thus predicted will come to pass. The question then is, +whether the more enlarged interpretation of these words, as insisted +upon by the Quakers, or of the less enlarged as insisted upon by others, +be the most consistent with the belief of the future accomplishment of +the prophecy just mentioned. And in this case the Quakers are of +opinion, that if wars were ever to cease, one ought to expect that some +foundation would have been previously laid in Christianity for this +great and important end. The subjugation of the passions, which it is +the direct tendency of Christianity to effect, would produce this end. +And so far such a foundation has already been laid in this system. But +as the admission of moral precepts into the education of man, so as to +form habits of moral opinion, is another, way of influencing conduct in +life, the Quakers think it likely that some such maxim as "that +Christians should not fight," would have been introduced also, because +the adoption of such a maxim would have had a similar tendency with the +subjugation of the passions in producing the same end. For it seems +absurd, they conceive, to suppose that wars should cease, and that no +precept should have been held out that they were wrong. But the more +enlarged interpretation of the words in question furnishes such a +precept, and therefore another foundation seems to have been laid in +Christianity for the same end. They admit, therefore, the larger +interpretation as included in the less, because it comports more with +the design of Providence, who, by the mouth of his prophets wills +universal peace, that the prohibition of public as well as of private +wars should be understood as a Christian doctrine, than that the words +in question should be confined to private injuries alone. + +The last reason, which the Quakers give for adopting the larger +interpretation of the words in the sermon upon the Mount, as well as the +less, is the following. They are of opinion, that, as Christians, they +ought not to lessen the number of the moral obligations of the Gospel. +They ought not to abridge its dignity, nor to put limits to its +benevolence. If it was the desire of Jesus Christ, that men should love +their enemies, it is their duty to believe, that his wish could not have +been otherwise than universal. If it was an object with him to cure +moral evil, it is their duty to suppose, that it was his desire to +destroy it, not partially, but to the utmost possible extent. If it was +his design to give happiness to man, it is their duty to determine, that +he intended to give it not in a limited proportion, but in the largest +measure. But when they consider the nature of wars, that they militate +against the law of preservation, that they include the commission of a +multitude of crimes, that they produce a complication of misery and +suffering to man, they conceive they would not be doing their duty as +Christians, or giving to Christianity its due honour, if they were not +to admit the larger meaning of the words in question as well as the +less. Reason too, pleads for the one as well as for the other. +Consistency of moral doctrine again demands both. But if we admit the +restricted interpretation, and exclude the larger, we offend reason. All +consistency is at an end. Individual responsibility for moral turpitude +will be taken from man. Crimes, clearly marked and defined in the page +of Christianity, will cease to be crimes at the will of princes. One +contradiction will rush in after another; and men will have two +different standards of morality, as they adhere to the commands of the +Gospel, or to the customs of governments or of the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_Meaning of the scriptural passages advanced by the Quakers, supported +by the opinions and practice of the early Christians--Early Christian +writers held it unlawful for Christians to fight, as appears from +Justin--Tatian--Clemens--and others--Christians would not enter into the +armies for more than two centuries, as appears from Ireneus--Tertullian +--Celsus--Origen and others--and generally left the military service, +if they happened to be converted in it. + + +It may be presumed to be difficult for Christians, who have been in the +habit of seeing wars entered into and carried on by their own and other +Christian governments, and without any other censure than that they +might be politically wrong, to see the scriptural passages of +"non-resistance to evil and love of enemies," but through a vitiated +medium. The prejudices of some, the interests of others, and custom with +all, will induce a belief among them, that these have no relation to +public wars. At least they will be glad to screen themselves under such +a notion. But the question is, what a Heathen would have said to these +passages, who, on his conversion to Christianity, believed that the New +Testament was of divine origin, that it was the book of life, and that +the precepts, which it contained, were not to be dispensed with, to suit +particular cases, without the imputation of evil. Now such a trial, the +Quakers say, has been made. It was made by the first Christians, and +they affirm, that these interpreted the passages, which have been +mentioned, differently from those of most of the Christians of the +present age; for that both their opinions and their practice spoke +loudly against the lawfulness of war. + +Upon this new subject I shall enter next. And I confess I shall enter +upon it willingly. First, because I know of none that is more important. +Secondly, because, though controversy may have thrown some light upon +it, much remains to be added. And, thirdly, because the assertions of +the Quakers on this point are disputed by many at the present day. With +respect to the opinions of the early Quakers, which I shall notice +first, it must be premised, that such of them as have written books, +have not all of them entered on this subject. Some of them have not had +even occasion to mention it. But where they have, and where they have +expressed an opinion, I believe that this will be found unfavourable to +the continuance of war. + +Justin the Martyr, one of the earliest writers in the second century, +considers war as unlawful. He makes also the devil "the author of all +war." No severer sentence could have been passed upon it than this, when +we consider it as coming from the lips of an early Christian. The +sentiment too was contrary to the prevailing sentiments of the times, +when, of all professions, that of war was most honourable, and was the +only one that was considered to lead to glory. It resulted, therefore, +in all probablity, from the new views, which Justin had acquired by a +perusal of such of the scriptures, as had then fallen into his hands. + +Tatian, who was the disciple of Justin, in his oration to the Greeks, +speaks precisely in the same terms on the same subject. + +From the different expressions of Clemens of Alexandria, a contemporary +of the latter, we collect his opinion to be decisive against the +lawfulness of war. + +Tertullian, who may be mentioned next in order of time, strongly +condemned the practice of bearing arms, as it related to Christians. I +shall give one or two extracts from him on this subject. In his +dissertation on the worship of idols, he says, "Though the soldiers came +to John, and received a certain form to be observed, and though the +centurion believed, yet Jesus Christ, by disarming Peter, disarmed every +soldier afterwards: for custom never sanctions an illicit act." And in +his "Soldier's Garland," he says, "Can a soldier's life be lawful, when +Christ has pronounced, that he who lives by the sword shall perish by +the sword? Can one, who professes the peaceable doctrines of the Gospel, +be a soldier, when it is his duty not so much as to go to law? and shall +he, who is not to revenge his own wrongs, be instrumental in bringing +others into chains, imprisonment, torment, death?" + +Cyprian, in his Epistle to Donatus, takes a view of such customs in his +own times, as he conceived to be repugnant to the spirit or the letter +of the Gospel. In looking at war, which was one of them, he speaks thus: +"Suppose thyself, says he, with me on the top of some very exalted +eminence, and from thence looking down upon the appearances of things +beneath thee. Let our prospect take in the whole horizon, and let us +view, with the indifference of persons not concerned in them, the +various motions and agitations of human life. Thou wilt then, I dare +say, have a real compassion for the circumstances of mankind, and for +the posture in which this view will represent them. And when thou +reflectest upon thy condition, thy thoughts will rise in transports of +gratitude and praise to God for having made thy escape from the +pollutions of the world. The things thou wilt principally observe, will +be the highways beset with robbers, the seas with pirates, encampments, +marches, and all the terrible forms of war and, bloodshed. When a single +murder is committed, it shall be deemed perhaps a crime; but that crime +shall commence a virtue, when committed under the shelter of public +authority, so that punishment is not rated by the measure of guilt, but +the more enormous the size of the wickedness is, so much the greater is +the chance for impunity." These are the sentiments of Cyprian, and that +they were the result of his views of Christianity, as taken from the +divine writings, there can be little doubt. If he had stood upon the +same eminence, and beheld the same sights previously to his conversion, +he might, like others, have neither thought piracy dishonourable, nor +war inglorious. + +Lactantius, who lived some time after Cyprian, in his treatise +"Concerning the True Worship of God," says, "It can never be lawful for +a righteous man to go to war, whose warfare is in righteousness itself," +And in another part of the same treatise he observes, that "no exception +can be made with respect to this command of God. It can never be lawful +to kill a man, whose person the Divine Being designed to be sacred as to +violence." + +It will be unnecessary to make extracts from other of the early +Christian writers, who mention this subject. I shall therefore only +observe, that the names of Origen, Archelaus, Ambrose, Chrysostom, +Jerom, and Cyril, may be added, to those already mentioned, as the names +of persons who gave it as their opinion, that it was unlawful for +Christians to go to war. + +With respect to the practice of the early Christians, which is the next +point to be considered, it may be observed, that there is no well +authenticated instance upon record, of Christians entering into the army +for the first two centuries; but it is true, on the other hand, that +they declined the military profession, as one in which it was not lawful +for them to engage. + +The first species of evidence, which I shall produce to this point, may +be found in the following facts, which reach from the year 169 to the +year 198, Avidius Crassus had rebelled against the emperor Verus, and +was slain in a short time afterwards. Clodius Albinus in one part of the +world, and Pescenninus Niger in another, rebelled against the emperor +Severus, and both were slain likewise. Now suspicion fell, as it always +did in these times, if any thing went wrong, upon the Christians, as +having been concerned upon these occasions. But Tertullian, in his +Discourse to Scapula, tells us, that no Christians were to be found in +these armies. And yet these armies were extensive. Crassus was master of +all Syria, with its four legions, Niger of the Asiatic and Egyptian +legions, and Albinus of those of Britain, which legions together +contained between a third and an half of the standing legions of Rome. +And the fact, that no Christians were to be found in these, is the more +remarkable, because, according to the same Tertullian, Christianity had +reached all the places, in which these armies were. + +A second species of evidence, as far as it goes, may be collected from +expressions and declarations in the works of certain authors of those +times. Justin the Martyr, and Tatian, make distinctions between +soldiers and Christians; and the latter says, that the Christians +declined even military commands. Clemens of Alexandria, gives the +Christians, who were cotemporary with him, the appellation of +"peaceable, or of the followers of peace," thus distinguishing them from +the soldiers of his age. And he says expressly, that "those, who were +the followers of peace, used none of the instruments of war." + +A third species of evidence, which is of the highest importance in this +case, is the belief which the writers of these times had, that the +prophecy of Isaiah, which stated, that men should turn their swords into +ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, was then in the act +of completion. + +Irenaeus, who flourished about the year 180, affirms, that this famous +prophecy had been completed in his time; "for the Christians, says he, +have changed their swords and their lances into instruments of peace, +and they know not how to fight," Justin Martyr, who was cotemporary with +Irenaeus, asserted the same thing, which he could not have done if the +Christians in his time had engaged in war. "That the prophecy, says he, +is fulfilled, you have good reason to believe, for we, who in times past +killed one another, do not now fight with our enemies." And here it is +observable, that the word "fight" does not mean to strike, or to beat, +or to give a blow, but to fight as in war; and the word "enemy" does +not mean a common adversary, or one who has injured us, but an enemy of +the state; and the sentence, which follows that which has been given, +puts the matter again out of all doubt. Tertullian, who lived after +these, speaks in those remarkable words: "Deny that these (meaning the +turning of swords into ploughshares) are the things prophesied of, when +you see what you see, or that they are the things fulfilled, when you +read what you read; but if you deny neither of these positions, then you +must confess, that the prophecy has been accomplished, as far as the +practice of every individual is concerned, to whom it is applicable." I +might go from Tertullian even as far as Theoderet, if it were necessary, +to shew, that the prophecy in question was considered as in the act of +completion in those times. + +The fourth and last proof will be found in the assertions of Celsus, and +in the reply of Origen to that writer. Celsus, who lived at the end of +the second century, attacked the Christian religion. He made it one of +his charges against the Christians, that they refused in his time to +bear arms for the emperor, even in the case of necessity, and when their +services would have been accepted. He told them farther, that if the +rest of the empire were of their opinion, it would soon be overrun by +the Barbarians. Now Celsus dared not have brought this charge against +the Christians, if the fact had not been publicly known. But let us see +whether it was denied by those, who were of opinion that his work +demanded a reply. The person, who wrote against him in favour of +Christianity, was Origen, who lived in the third century. But Origen, in +his answer, admits the fact as stated by Celsus, that the Christians +would not bear arms, and justifies them for refusing the practice on the +principle of the unlawfulness of war. + +And as the early Christians would not enter into the armies, so there is +good ground to suppose, that, when they became converted in them, they +relinquished their profession. Human nature was the same both in and out +of the armies, and would be equally worked upon, in this new state of +things, in both cases. Accordingly we find, from Tertullian, in his +"Soldier's Garland," that many in his time, immediately on their +conversion, quitted the military service. We are told also, by +Archelaus, who flourished under Probus in the year 278, that many Roman +soldiers, who had embraced Christianity, after having witnessed the +piety and generosity of Marcellus, immediately forsook the profession of +arms. We are told also by Eusebius, that, about the same time, "Numbers +laid aside a military life, and became private persons, rather than +abjure their religion." And here it may not be unworthy of remark, that +soldiers, after their conversion, became so troublesome in the army, +both on account of their scruples against the idolatrous practices +required of the soldiery, and their scruples against fighting, that they +were occasionally dismissed the service on these accounts. + + +SECT. III. + +_Objection to the foregoing statement, that the idolatry, which was then +connected with the military service, and not the unlawfulness of war, +was the reason why Christians declined it--Idolatry admitted to be a +cause--Instance in Marinus--But the belief of the unlawfulness of +fighting was another, and an equally powerful cause--Instances in +Maximilian--Marcellus--Cassian--Marlin--The one scruple as much then a +part of the Christian religion as the other._ + + +As an objection may be made to the foregoing statement, I think it +proper to notice it in this place. + +It will be said, that the military oath, which all were obliged to take +alike in the Roman armies, and which was to be repeated annually, was +full of idolatry; that the Roman standards were all considered as gods, +and had divine honours paid to them by the soldiery; and that the images +also of the emperors, which were either fixed upon these standards, or +placed in the midst of them in a temple in the camp, were to be adored +in the same manner. Now these customs were interwoven with the military +service. No Roman soldier was exempted from them. It will be urged, +therefore, that no Christian could submit to these services. Indeed when +a person was suspected of being a Christian in those times, he was +instantly taken to the altars to sacrifice, it being notorious, that if +he were a Christian he would not sacrifice, though at the hazard of his +life. Is it not, therefore, to be presumed, that these idolatrous tests +operated as the great cause, why Christians refused to enter into the +army, or why they left it when converted as described in the former +section? + +That these tests operated as a cause, we must allow. And let this be +considered as an insuperable argument against those, who contend that +there were Christian soldiers in these times, for no Christian could +submit to such idolatrous homage; but, if so, no Christian could be a +soldier. + +That these tests must have operated as a cause, we may infer from the +history of Marinus. Marinus, according to Eusebius, was a man of family +and fortune, and an officer in a legion, which, in the year 260, was +stationed at Caesarea of Palestine. One of the centurion's rods happened +to become vacant in this legion, and Marinus was appointed to it. But +just at this moment another, next to him in rank, accused him before the +tribunal of being a Christian, stating, that "the laws did not allow a +Christian, who refused to sacrifice to the emperors, to hold any dignity +in the army." Achaeus, the judge, asked Marinus if it was true, that he +had become a Christian. He acknowledged it. Three hours were then +allowed him to consider, whether he would sacrifice or die. When the +time was expired, he chose the latter. Indeed, so desirous were the +early Christians of keeping clear of idolatry in every shape, that they +avoided every custom that appeared in the least degree connected with +it. Thus when a largess was given in honour of the emperors, L. +Septimius Severus the father, and M. Aurelius Caracalla the son, a +solitary soldier, as we learn from Tertullian, was seen carrying the +garland, which had been given him on that occasion, in his hand, while +the rest wore it upon their heads. On being interrogated by the +commander, why he refused wearing it, he replied, that[13] he had become +a Christian. He was immediately punished before the army, and sent into +prison. What became of him afterwards is not related. But it must be +clear, if he lived and cherished his Christian feelings, that, when the +day of the renewal of his oath, or of the worshipping of the standards, +or of any sacrifice in the camp, should arrive, he would have refused +these services, or abandoned his profession. + +[Footnote 13: The priests wore the garland, when they sacrificed to the +Heathen gods.] + +But though unquestionably the idolatrous services, required of the +soldiers of those times, hindered Christians from entering into the +armies, and compelled those, who were converted in them, to leave them, +nothing is more true, than that the belief, that it was unlawful for +Christians to fight, occasioned an equal abhorrence of a military life. +One of the first effects, which Christianity seems to have produced upon +its first converts, when it was pure and unadulterated, and unmixed +with the interpretations of political men, was a persuasion, that it +became them, in obedience to the divine commands, to abstain from all +manner of violence, and to become distinguishable as the followers of +peace. We find accordingly from Athenagoras, and other early writers, +that the Christians of his time, abstained, when they were struck, from +striking again, and that they carried their principles so far, as even +to refuse to go to law with those who injured them. We find also, from +the same Athenagoras, and from Theophilus Antiochenus, Tatian, Minucius +Felix, and others, that they kept away from the shews of the gladiators. +This they did, not only because these shews were cruel; but because, as +Theophilus says, "lest we should become partakers of the murders +committed there." A similar reason is also given by Athenagoras on this +occasion: "Who is there, says he, that does not prize the shews of the +gladiators, which your emperors make for the people? But we, thinking +that there is very little difference whether a man be the author or +spectator of murder, keep away from all such sights." And here it may be +observed, that the gladiators themselves were, generally prisoners of +war, or reputed enemies, and that the murder of these was by public +authority, and sanctioned; as in war, by the state. Now what conclusion +are we to draw from these premises? Can we think it possible, that +those, who refused to strike again, or to go to law with those who +injured them, and who thought an attendance at the gladiatorial +spectacles criminal on the principle, that he who stood by was a +murderer, though the murder was sanctioned by law; should not have an +objection to the military service, on the principle, that it was +unlawful to fight? + +In short, the belief of the unlawfulness of war, was universal among +Christians in those times. Every Christian writer of the second century, +who notices the subject, makes it unlawful for Christians to bear arms. +And if the Christian writers of this age were of this opinion, contrary +to all their sentiments before their conversion, and wholly from their +knowledge of divine truths, why should not others, who had a common +nature with these, be impressed, on receiving the same truths, in a +similar manner? And so undoubtedly they were. And as this belief was +universal among the Christians of those times, so it operated with them +as an impediment to a military life, quite as much as the idolatry, that +was connected with it, of which the following instances, in opposition +to that of Marinus, may suffice. + +The first case I propose to mention shall be, where there was an +objection to entering into the military service upon this principle. And +here, I apprehend none can be more in point than that of Maximilian, as +preserved in the acts of Ruinart. + +Maximilian, having been brought before the tribunal, in order to be +enrolled as a soldier, Dion, the proconsul, asked him his name. +Maximilian, turning to him, replied, "Why wouldst thou know my name? I +am a Christian, and cannot fight." + +Then Dion ordered him to be enrolled, and when he was enrolled, it was +recited out of the register, that he was five feet ten inches high. +Immediately after this, Dion bade the officer mark him. But Maximilian +refused to be marked, still asserting that he was a Christian. Upon +which Dion instantly replied, "Bear arms, or thou shalt die." + +To this Maximilian answered, "I cannot fight, if I die. I am not a +soldier of this world, but a soldier of God." Dion then said, "Who has +persuaded thee to behave thus?" Maximilian answered, "My own mind, and +he who called me." Dion then spoke to his father, and bade him persuade +his son. But his father observed, that his son knew his own mind, and +what it was best for him to do. + +After this had passed, Dion addressed Maximilian again in these words, +"Take thy arms, and receive the mark." "I can receive, says Maximilian, +no such mark. I have already the mark of Christ." Upon which Dion said, +"I will send thee quickly to thy Christ." "Thou mayest do so, said +Maximilian, but the glory will be mine." + +Dion then bade the officer mark him. But Maximilian still persisted in +refusing, and spoke thus: "I cannot receive the mark of this world, and +if thou shouldst give me the mark, I will destroy it. It will avail +nothing. I am a Christian, and it is not lawful for me to wear such a +mark about my neck, when I have received the saving mark of the Lord +Jesus Christ, the Son of the living God, whom thou, knowest not, who +died to give us life, and whom God gave for our sins. Him all we +Christians obey. Him we follow as the restorer of our life, and the +author of our salvation." + +Dion instantly replied to this, "Take thy arms, and receive the mark, or +thou shalt suffer a miserable death."--"But I shall not perish, said +Maximilian. My name is already enrolled with Christ. I cannot fight." + +Dion said, "Consider then thy youth, and bear arms. The profession of +arms becomes a young man." Maximilian replied, "My arms are with the +Lord. I cannot fight for any earthly consideration. I am now a +Christian." + +Dion the proconsul, said, "Among the life-guards of our masters +Dioclesian and Maximian, and Constantius and Maximus, there are +Christian soldiers, and they fight." Maximilian answered, "They know +best what is expedient for them, but I am a Christian, and it is +unlawful to do evil." + +Dion said, "Take thy arms. Despise not the profession of a soldier, lest +thou perish miserably."--"But I shall not perish, says Maximilian; and +if I should leave this world, my soul will live with Christ the Lord." + +Dion then ordered his name to be struck from the roll, and, when this +was done, he proceeded, "Because, out of thy rebellious spirit, thou +hast refused to bear arms, thou shall be punished according to thy +deserts for an example to others." And then he delivered the following +sentence: "Maximilian! because thou hast with a rebellious spirit +refused to bear arms, thou art to die by the sword." Maximilian replied, +"Thanks be to God." + +He was twenty years, three months, and seventeen days old, and when he +was led to the place of execution, he spoke thus: "My dear brethren, +endeavour with all your might, that it may be your portion to see the +Lord, and that he may give you such a crown;" and then, with a pleasant +countenance, he said to his father, "Give the executioner the soldier's +coat thou hast gotten for me, and when I shall receive thee in the +company of the blessed martyrs, we may also rejoice together with the +Lord." + +After this he suffered. His mother Pompeiana obtained his body of the +judge, and conveyed it to Carthage, and buried it near the place where +the body of Cyprian the Martyr lay. And thirteen days after this his +mother died, and was buried in the came place. And Victor, his father, +returned to his habitation, rejoicing and praising God, that he had sent +before such a gift to the Lord, himself expecting to follow after. + +I shall only observe, upon this instance, that it is nearly pure and +unmixed, or that it is but little connected with idolatrous +circumstances, or rather, that the unlawfulness of fighting was +principally urged by Maximilian as a reason against entering upon a +military life. Let us now find a case, where, when a person was +converted in the army, he left it, pleading this principle, as one among +others, for his dereliction of it. + +Marcellus was a centurion in the legion called "Trajana." On a festival, +given in honour of the birth-day of Galerius, he threw down his military +belt at the head of the legion, and in the face of the standards, +declared with a loud voice, that he would no longer serve in the army, +for that he had become a Christian. "I hold in detestation, said he, +addressing himself to all the soldiers, the worship of your gods: gods, +which are made of wood and stone, gods which are deaf and dumb." So far +Marcellus, it appears, seems to have been influenced in his desertion of +a military life by the idolatry connected with it. But let us hear him +farther on this subject. "It is not lawful, says he, for a Christian, +who is the servant of Christ the Lord, to bear arms for any earthly +consideration." After a delay of more than three months in prison after +this transaction, which delay was allowed for the purpose of sparing +him, he was brought before the prefect. There he had an opportunity of +correcting his former expressions. But as he persisted in the same +sentiments, he suffered. It is remarkable, that, almost immediately +after his execution, Cassian, who, was the notary to the same legion, +refused to serve any longer, by publicly throwing his pen and +accompt-book upon the ground, and declaring, at the same time, that the +sentence of Marcellus was unjust. When taken up by the order of +Aurelianus Agricolanus, he is described by the record, preserved by +Ruinart, to have avowed the same sentiments as Marcellus, and, like him, +to have suffered death. + +It may not be necessary, perhaps, to cite any other instances, as +opposed to that of Marinus, to the point in question. But, as another +occurs, which may be related in few words, I will just mention it in +this place. Martin, of whom Sulpicius Severus says so much, had been +bred to the profession of arms, but, on his conversion to Christianity, +declined it. In the answer, which he gave to Julian the Apostate for his +conduct on this occasion, we find him making use only of these words, "I +am a Christian, and therefore I cannot fight." + +Now this answer of Martin is detached from all notions of idolatry. The +unlawfulness of fighting is given as the only motive for his +resignation. And there is no doubt, that the unlawfulness of fighting +was as much a principle of religion in the early times of Christianity, +as the refusal of sacrifice to the Heathen gods; and that they operated +equally to prevent men from entering into the army, and to drive them +out of it on their conversion. Indeed these principles generally went +together, where the profession of arms presented itself as an occupation +for a Christian. He, who refused the profession on account of the +idolatry connected with it, would have refused it on account of the +unlawfulness of fighting. And he, who refused it on account of the guilt +of fighting, would have refused it oh account of the idolatrous services +it required. Both and each of them were impediments, in the early times +of Christianity, to a military life. + + +SECT. IV. + +_Early Christians then declined the army on account, of one, among other +persuasions, that it was unlawful for Christians to fight--Their +practice examined farther, or into the fourth century--shewn from hence, +that while Christianity continued pure, Christians still declined the +military profession--but as it became less pure, their scruples against +it became less--and when it became corrupt, their scruples against it +ceased--Manner in which the Quakers make the practice of these early +times support the meaning of the scriptural passages, which they adduce +in favour of their tenet on war._ + + +As it will now probably be admitted, that the early Christians refused +to enter into the army, and that they left it after their conversion, on +account of one, among other persuasions, that it was unlawful for them +to fight, I must examine their practice, as it related to this subject, +still farther, or I must trace it down to a later period, before I can +show how the Quakers make the practice of these early times support the +meaning of the scriptural passages, which they advance in favour of +their tenet on war. + +It may be considered as a well founded proposition, that, as the lamp of +Christianity burnt bright, in those early times, so those, who were +illuminated by it, declined the military profession; and, that, as its +flame shone less clear, they had less objection to it. Thus, in the two +first centuries, when Christianity was the purest, there were no +Christian soldiers. In the third century, when it became less pure, +there is frequent mention of such soldiers. And in the fourth, when its +corruption was fixed, Christians entered upon the profession of arms +with as little hesitation, as they entered upon any other occupation in +life. + +That there were no Christian soldiers in the first and second centuries, +has already been made apparent. + +That Christianity also was purest in these times, there can be no doubt. +Let us look at the character which is given of the first Christians by +Athenagoras, Justin Martyr, Minucius Felix, and others of the early +Christian writers. According to these they were plain and neat in their +apparel, and frugal in their furniture. They were temperate in their +eating and drinking. They relinquished all the diversions of the times, +in which they saw any tendency to evil. They were chaste in their +conversation, tempering mirth with gravity. They were modest and chaste +in their deportment and manners. They were punctual to their words and +engagements. They were such lovers of the truth, that, on being asked, +if they were Christians, they never denied it, though death was the +consequence of such a religious profession. They loved each other as +brethren, and called one another by that name. They were kind, and +courteous, and charitable, beyond all example, to others. They abstained +from all manner of violence. They prayed for those who persecuted them. +They were patterns of humility and patience. They made no sacrifice of +their consciences, but would persevere in that which was right, never +refusing to die for their religion. This is the character, which is +uniformly given of them by the Christian writers of those times. + +That their conduct was greatly altered in the third century, where we +are now to view it, we may collect from indisputable authority. I stated +in the former section, that a Christian soldier was punished for +refusing to wear a garland, like the rest of his comrades, on a public +occasion. This man, it appears, had been converted in the army, and +objected to the ceremony on that account. Now Tertullian tells us, that +this soldier was blamed for his unseasonable zeal, as it was called, by +some of the Christians at that time, though all Christians before +considered the wearing of such a garland as unlawful and profane. In +this century there is no question but the Christian discipline began to +relax. To the long peace the church enjoyed from the death of Antoninus +to the tenth year of Severus, is to be ascribed the corruption that +ensued. This corruption we find to have spread rapidly; for the same +Tertullian was enabled to furnish us with the extraordinary instance of +manufacturers of idols being admitted into the ecclesiastical order. +Many corruptions are also noticed in this century by other writers. +Cyprian complained of them, as they existed in the middle, and Eusebius, +as they existed at the end of it, and both attributed it to the peace, +or to the ease and plenty, which the Christians had enjoyed. The latter +gives us a melancholy account of their change. They had begun to live in +fine houses, and to indulge in luxuries. But, above all, they had begun +to be envious, and quarrelsome, and to dissemble, and to cheat, and to +falsify their word, so that they lost the character, which Pliny, an +adversary to their religion, had been obliged to give of them, and which +they had retained for more than a century, as appears by their own +writers. + +That there were Christian soldiers in this more corrupt century of the +church, it is impossible to deny. For such frequent mention is made of +them in the histories, which relate to this period, that we cannot +refuse our assent to one or other of the propositions, either that there +were men in the armies, who called themselves Christians, or that there +were men in them, who had that name given them by others. That they were +Christians, however, is another question. They were probably such +Christians, as Dion mentioned to have been among the life-guards of +Dioclesian and Maximian, and of Constantius and Maximus, of whom +Maximilian observed, "These men may know what it is expedient for them +to do, but I am a Christian, and therefore I cannot fight." Indeed, that +real Christians could have been found in the army in this century is +impossible, for the military oath, which was full of idolatry, and the +adoration of the standards, and the performance of sacrifice, still +continued as services[14] not to be dispensed with by the soldiery. No +one, therefore, can believe, that men in the full practice of Pagan +idolatry, as every legionary soldier must then have been, were real +Christians, merely because it is recorded in history, that men, calling +themselves Christians, were found in the army in those times. On the +other hand, if any soldiers professed Christianity at this period, or +are related by authors to have professed it, and yet to have remained +soldiers, it may be directly pronounced, that they could only have been +nominal or corrupted Christians. + +[Footnote 14: The military oath was not altered for Christians till the +next century, when they were allowed to swear "by God, by Christ, and by +the Holy Spirit, and by the majesty of the emperor, which, next to God, +is to be loved and honoured by mankind."] + +That Christianity was more degenerate in the fourth than in the third +century (which is the next position) we have indubitable proof. One of +the first facts, that strikes us, is an extraordinary one related by +Lactantius, in his "Death of the persecuted," that there were Christians +at this time, who, having probably a superstitious belief, that the sign +of the Cross would be a preventive of pollution, were present, and even +assisted at some of the Heathen sacrifices. But it is not necessary to +detail these or other particulars. Almost every body knows, that more +evils sprang up to the church in this century, than in any other, some +of which remain at the present day. Indeed, the corruption of +Christianity was fixed as it were by law in the age now mentioned. +Constantine, on his conversion, introduced many of the Pagan ceremonies +and, superstitions, in which he had been brought up, into the Christian +religion. The Christians, rejoiced at seeing an emperor of their own +persuasion, under whom they had hopes of restoration to equal privileges +with others, and of freedom from persecution, submitted, in order to +please or flatter him, to his idolatrous customs and opinions, thus +sacrificing their consciences to their ease and safety. Many, on the +other hand, who had always been Heathens, professed themselves +Christians at once out of compliment to their emperor, and without any +real conversion of the heart. Thus there was a mixture of Christianity +and Paganism in the church, which had never been known before. +Constantine too did not dispense with the blasphemous titles of +Eternity, Divinity, and Pontifex Maximus, as they had been given to his +predecessors. After his death, he was considered also as a god. And if +Philostorgius is to be believed, the Christians, for so he calls them, +prayed to and worshipped him as such. + +Now in this century, when the corruption of the church may be +considered to have been fixed, we scarcely find any mention of Christian +soldiers, or we find the distinction between them and others gradually +passing away. The truth is, that, when the Christians of this age had +submitted to certain innovations upon their religion, they were in a fit +state to go greater lengths; and so it happened, for as Heathens, who +professed to be Christians out of compliment to their emperor, had no +objection to the military service, so Christians, who had submitted to +Heathenism on the same principle, relaxed, in their scruples concerning +it. The latter too were influenced by the example of the former. Hence +the unlawfulness of fighting began to be given up. We find, however, +that here and there an ancient father still retained it as a religious +tenet, but these dropping off one after another, it ceased at length to +be a doctrine of the church. + +Having now traced the practice of the Christians down to the fourth +century, as far as the profession of arms is concerned, I shall state in +few words the manner in which the Quakers make this practice support the +meaning of the scriptural passages, which they produce in favour of +their tenet on war. + +The Quakers then lay it down as a position, that the Christians of the +first and second centuries, as we had already observed, gave the same +interpretation, as they themselves give, of the passages in question. + +Now they say first, that if there were any words or expressions in the +original manuscripts of the Evangelists or Apostles, which might throw +light upon the meaning of these or other passages on the same subject, +but which words and expressions were not in the copies which came after, +then many of those who lived in the first and second centuries, had +advantages with respect to knowledge on this subject, which their +successors had not, inasmuch as the former were soon afterwards lost. + +They say secondly, that if there was any thing in tradition which might +help to explain these passages more satisfactorily, those of the first +and second centuries had advantages again, because they lived nearer to +these traditions, or to the time when they were more pure, than those +Christians did, who succeeded them. + +They say thirdly, that, if primitive practice be to be considered as the +best interpreter of the passages in question, then those of the first +and second centuries had their advantages again, because many of them +lived in the times of the Evangelists and the Apostles, and all of them +nearer to those who succeeded the Evangelists and Apostles, than those +in the subsequent ages of the Christian era. + +But in direct inference, they conceive, is to be drawn from these +premises, namely, that the opinions of those who lived in the first and +second centuries, relative to the meaning of the passages in question, +are likely to be more correct on these several accounts, than those of +Christians in any of the ages that followed. + +And as in the first and second centuries of the church, when +Christianity was purest, there were no Christian soldiers, but as in the +fourth century, when it became corrupt, Christians had lost their +objections to a military life, they conceive the opinions of the former +to be more correct than those of the latter, because the opinions of +real Christians, willing to make any sacrifice for their religion, must +be always less biassed and more pure, than those of persons calling +themselves Christians, but yet submitting to the idolatrous and other +corrupt practices of the world. + +And as they conceive this to be true of the opinions of the second +century, when compared with those of the fourth, so they conceive it to +be true of the opinions of the second, when compared with those of the +moderns upon this subject, because, whatever our progress in +Christianity may be, seeing that it is not equal to that of the first +Christians, it is certain, besides the distance of time, that we have +prejudices arising from the practice of fourteen centuries, during all +which time it has been held out, except by a few individuals, as lawful +for Christians to fight. + + +SECT.V. + +_Reflections of the author on the foregoing subject--Case of a superior +being supposed, who should reside in the planet nearest to us, and see +war carried on by men no larger than the race of ants--His enquiry as to +the origin of these wars--their duration--and other circumstances--supposed +answers to these questions--New arguments, from this supposed +conversation, against war._ + + +I have now stated the principal arguments, by which the Quakers are +induced to believe it to be a doctrine of Christianity, that men should +abstain from war, and I intended to close the subject in the last +section. But when I consider the frequency of modern wars; when I +consider that they are scarcely over, before others rise up in their +place; when I consider again, that they come like the common diseases, +which belong to our infirm nature, and that they are considered by men +nearly in a similar light, I should feel myself criminal, if I were not +to avail myself of the privilege of an author, to add a few observations +of my own upon this subject. + +Living as we do in an almost inaccessible island, and having therefore +more than ordinary means of security to our property and our persons +from hostile invasion, we do not seem to be sufficiently grateful to the +Divine Being for the blessings we enjoy. We do not seem to make a right +use of our benefits by contemplating the situation, and by feeling a +tender anxiety for the happiness of others. We seem to make no proper +estimates of the miseries of war. The latter we feel principally in +abridgments of a pecuniary nature. But if we were to feel them in the +conflagration of our towns and villages, or in personal wounds, or in +the personal sufferings of fugitive misery and want, we should be apt to +put a greater value than we do, upon the blessings of peace. And we +should be apt to consider the connexion between war and misery, and +between war and moral evil, in a light so much stronger than we do at +present, that we might even suppose the precepts of Jesus Christ to be +deficient, unless they were made to extend to wars, as well as to +private injuries. + +I wonder what a superior being, living in the nearest planet to our +earth, and seeing us of the size of ants, would say, if he were enabled +to get any insight into the nature of modern wars. + +It must certainly strike him, if he were to see a number of such +diminutive persons chasing one another in bodies over different parts of +the hills and vallies of the earth, and following each other in little +nut-shells, as it were upon the ocean, as a very extraordinary sight, +and as mysterious, and hard to be explained. He might, at first, +consider them as occupied in a game of play, or as emigrating for more +food, or for a better climate. But when he saw them stop and fight, and +destroy one another, and was assured that they were actually engaged in +the solemn game of death, and this at such a distance from their own +homes, he would wonder at the causes of these movements, and the reason +of this destruction, and, not knowing that they possessed rational +faculties, he would probably consider them as animals, destined by +nature to live upon one another. + +I think the first question he would ask would be, And from whence do +these fightings come? It would be replied of course, that they came from +their lusts; that these beings, though diminutive in their appearance, +were men; that they had pride, and ambition; that they had envy and +jealousy; that they indulged also hatred, and malice, and avarice, and +anger; and that, on account of some or other of these causes, they +quarrelled and fought with one another. + +Well, but the superior being would say, is there no one on the earth, +which I see below me, to advise them to conduct themselves better, or +are the passions you speak of eternally uppermost, and never to be +subdued? The reply would of course be, that in these little beings, +called men, there had been implanted the faculty of reason, by the use +of which they must know that their conduct was exceptionable, but that, +in these cases, they seldom minded it. It would also be added in reply, +that they had a religion, which was not only designed by a spirit from +heaven, who had once lived among them, but had been pronounced by him as +efficacious to the end proposed; that one of the great objects of this +religion was a due subjugation of their passions; and this was so much +insisted upon, that no one of them was considered to have received this +religion truly, unless his passions were subdued. But here the superior +being would enquire, whether they acknowledged the religion spoken of, +and the authority from whence it came? To which it would of course be +replied, that they were so tenacious of it, notwithstanding their +indulgence of their passions, and their destruction of one another, that +you could; not offend them more grievously than by telling them, that +they did not belong to the religion they professed. + +It is not difficult to foresee what other questions the superior being +would ask, and probably the first of these would be, the duration of the +lives of these little beings, and the length and frequency of their +wars? It would be replied to this, that their lives were but as a +vapour, which appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth away, and +that a quarter, and sometimes half of their time on earth, was spent in +those destructive pursuits. The superior being would unquestionably be +grieved at this account, because he would feel, that they really +frustrated their own happiness, or that they lost by their own fault a +considerable portion of the enjoyment of their lives. + +In this impatience and anxiety for their future comfort, he would +probably ask again, if they had any notion of any generous end for which +they were born, for it is impossible they could suppose, that they came +into the world to destroy one another. It would be replied, that they +could not be ignorant of the true object or end; for the same religion, +in which they believed, and which was said before to have been given +them by a spirit sent from heaven, inculcated that they were sent there +on a life of trial, and that in a future existence they were to give an +account of their conduct, and were to be rewarded or punished +accordingly. The same religion, it would be replied, also inculcated, +notwithstanding their fightings, the utmost benevolence from one towards +another. It wished so much every one of them to live peaceably, that it +enjoined it as a duty rather to put up with an injury than to resent it, +and it carried its benevolence so far, that it made no distinction +between others of the same species, who spoke a different language, or +lived in other districts or parts of the same world. + +But here the superior being would interrupt.--What, he would say! Are +they not to resent injuries, and yet do they go to war? And are they not +afraid of fighting in this manner, when they are to give an account of +their conduct in a future state? It would be replied, No: they have +their philosophers among them, and most of these have determined, that, +in this particular case, responsibility lies at the door of those who +employ them. But, notwithstanding this, there are others living among +them, who think otherwise. These are of opinion, that those who employ +them cannot take the responsibility upon themselves without taking it +from those whom they thus employ. But the religion of the Great Spirit +no where says, that any constituted authorities among them can take away +the responsibility of individual creatures, but, on the other hand, in +the most positive terms, that every individual creature is responsible +wholly for himself. And this religion does not give any creature an +exemption on account of any force which may be used against him; because +no one, according to its precepts, is to do evil, not even that good may +come. But if he be persecuted, he is to adhere to that which is right, +and to expect his reward in the other state. The impossibility, +therefore, of breaking or dissolving individual responsibility, in the +case of immoral action, is an argument to many, of the unlawfulness of +these wars. And those who reason in this manner, think they have +reasoned right, when they consider besides, that, if any of the beings +in question were to kill one of his usually reputed enemies in the time +of peace, he would suffer death for it, and be considered as accountable +also for his crime in a future state. They cannot see, therefore, how +any constituted authorities among them can alter the nature of things, +or how these beings can kill others in time of war, without the +imputation of a crime, whom they could not kill without such an +imputation in time of peace. They see in the book of the Great Spirit no +dispensation given to societies to after the nature of actions, which +are pronounced to be crimes. + +But the superior being would say, is it really defined, and is it +defined clearly in the great book of the Spirit, that if one of them +should kill another, he is guilty of a crime! It would be replied, not +only of a crime, but of the greatest of all crimes, and that no +dispensation is given to any of them to commit it in any case. And it +would be observed farther, that there are other crimes, which these +fightings generally include, which are equally specified and forbidden +in the great book, but which they think it proper to sanction in the +present case. Thus, all kinds of treachery and deceit are considered to +be allowable, for a very ancient philosopher among them has left a maxim +upon record, and it has not yet been beaten out of their heads, +notwithstanding the precepts of the great book, in nearly the following +words: "Who thinks of requiring open courage of an enemy, or that +treachery is not equally allowable in war?"[15] + +[Footnote 15: Dolus an virtus quis in hoste requirat?] + +Strange! the superior being would reply. They seem to me to be reversing +the order of their nature, and the end of their existence. But how do +they justify themselves on these occasions? It would be answered, that +they not only justify themselves, but they even go so far as to call +these fightings honourable. The greater the treachery, if it succeeds, +and the greater the number of these beings killed, the more glorious is +the action esteemed. + +Still more strange! the superior being would reply. And is it possible, +he would add, that they enter into this profession With a belief, that +they are entering into an honourable employ? Some of them, it would be +replied, consider it as a genteel employ. And hence they engage in it. +Others, of a lazy disposition, prefer it to any other. Others are +decoyed into it by treachery in various ways. There are also strong +drinks, which they are fond of, and if they are prevailed upon to take +these to excess, they lose their reason, and then they are obliged to +submit to it. It must be owned too, that when these wars begin, the +trades of many of these little beings are stopped, so that, to get a +temporary livelihood, they go out and fight. Nor must it be concealed, +that many are forced to go, both against their judgment and against +their will. + +The superior being, hurt at these various accounts, would probably ask, +and what then does the community get by these wars, as a counterbalance +for the loss of so much happiness, and the production of so much evil? +It would be replied, nothing. The community is generally worse off at +the end of these wars, than when it began to contend. But here the +superior being would wish to hear no more of the system. He would +suddenly turn away his face, and retire into one of the deep valleys of +his planet, either with exclamations against the folly, or with emotions +of pity for the situation, or with expressions of disgust at the +wickedness, of these little creatures. + + "O for a lodge in some vast wilderness, + Some boundless contiguity of shade, + Where tumour of oppression and deceit, + Of unsuccessful or successful war, + Might never reach me more! My ear is pain'd, + My soul is sick with every day's report, + Of wrong and outrage, with which earth is fill'd. + Lands, intersected by a narrow frith, + Abhor each other. Mountains interpos'd, + Make enemies of nations who had else, + Like kindred drops, been mingled into one. + Thus men devotes his brother, and destroys-- + Then what is man? And what man, seeing this, + And having human feelings, does not blush, + And hang his head, to think himself a man?" + +COWPER + + +SECT. VI. + +_Subject farther considered--Sad conceptions of those relative to the +Divine Being, and the nature of the Gospel, who plead for the necessity +of war--War necessary, where statesmen pursue the policy of the +world--Nature and tendency of this policy--but not necessary where they +pursue the policy of the Gospel--Nature and tendency of this +policy--This tendency farther confirmed by a supposed case of a few +Quakers becoming the governors of the world._ + + +It is now an old maxim, and time with all its improvements has not worn +it away, that wars are necessary in the present constitution of the +world. It has not even been obliterated, that they are necessary, in +order to sweep off mankind on account of the narrow boundaries of the +earth. But they, who make use of this argument, must be aware, that, in +espousing it, they declare no less, than that God, in the formation of +his system, had only half calculated or half provided for its +continuance, and that they charge him with a worse cruelty than is +recorded of the worst of men: because, if he told men to increase and +multiply, and gave them passions accordingly, it would appear as if he +had created them only to enjoy an eternal feast in the sight of their +destruction. Nor do they make him a moral governor of the world, if he +allows men to butcher one another without an individual provocation or +offence. + +Neither do persons, arguing for the necessity of wars, do less than set +themselves above the prophecies or oracles of God, which declare, that +such warfare shall some time or other cease. + +Neither do they, when they consider wars as necessary, and as never to +be done away on account of the wicked passions of men, do less than +speak blasphemy against the Gospel of Jesus Christ, because they +proclaim it to be inadequate to the end proposed. For the proper +subjugation of these, among other purposes, it was that the Gospel was +promulgated. If it be thought a miracle, that the passions of men should +be subdued, it is still a miracle, which Christianity professes to work; +which it has worked since the hour of its institution; which it has +worked in men, who have placed their highest reputation in martial +glory; and which it continues to work, at the present day. Those, +therefore, who promote wars, and excite the passions of men for this +purpose, attempt to undo what it is the object of Christianity to do, +and to stop the benign influence of the Gospel in the hearts of men. + +That wars are necessary, or rather that they will be begun and +continued, I do not mean to deny, while statesmen pursue the wisdom or +policy of the world. + +What this wisdom or policy is, it will not be difficult to trace. And +first, when any matter is in dispute among the rulers of nations, is it +not a maxim, that a high tone is desirable in the settlement of it, in +order that the parties may seem to betray neither fear nor weakness, and +that they may not be thought to lose any of their dignity or their +spirit? Now as the human passions are constituted, except they have +previously been brought under due regulation by Christianity, what is +more likely than that a high tone of language on one side should beget a +similar tone on the other, or that spirit, once manifested, should, +produce spirit in return, and that each should fly off, as it were, at a +greater distance from accommodation than before, and that, when once +exasperation has begun, it should increase. Now what is the chance, if +such policy be resorted to on such occasions, of the preservation of +peace between them? + +And, secondly, is it not also a received maxim, that, in controversies +of this sort, a nation, even during the discussion, should arm itself, +in order that it may shew itself prepared? But if any one nation arms +during the discussion; if it fits out armies or fleets of observation +with a view of deterring, or of being ready in case of necessity of +striking, as it is called, the first blow; what is more probable, than +that the other will arm also, and that it will fit out its own armies +and fleets likewise? But when both are thus armed, pride and spirit will +scarcely suffer them to relax, and what is then more probable, than that +they will begin to fight? + +And, thirdly, is it not a maxim also, that, even during the attempt to +terminate the dispute, the public mind should be prepared? Are not the +public papers let loose to excite and propagate a flame? And are not +the deeds of our ancestors ushered into our ears to produce a martial +spirit? But if the national temper is roused on both sides, and if +preparations are carrying on at the same time with the utmost vigour, +where again is the hope of the prevention of war between them? + +And, fourthly, after hostilities are commenced, is it not a maxim also +to perpetuate the enmity, which has been thus begun, and to give it a +deeper root, and even to make it eternal by connecting it with religion? +Thus flag-staffs are exhibited upon steeples, bells are rung to announce +victories, and sermons are preached as occasions arise, as if the places +allotted for Christian worship, were the most proper from whence to +issue the news of human suffering, or to excite the passions of men for +the destruction of one another. Nor is this all. The very colours of the +armies are consecrated. I do not mean to say, that like the banners in +the Praetorian tents, they are actually worshipped, but that an attempt +is made to render them holy in the eyes of those who are present. An +attempt is made, wonderful to relate, to incorporate war into the +religion of Jesus Christ, and to perpetuate enmity on the foundation of +the Gospel! + +Now this is the policy of the world, and can it be seriously imagined, +that such a system as this can ever lead to peace? For while +discussions relative to matters of national dispute are carried on in a +high tone, because a more humble tone would betray weakness or fear; +while again, during this discussion, preparations for war are going on, +because the appearance of being prepared would convey the idea of +determined resolution, and of more than ordinary strength; while again, +during the same discussion, the national spirit is awakened and +inflamed; and while again, when hostilities have commenced, measures are +resorted to, to perpetuate a national enmity, so that the parties +consider themselves as natural enemies even in the succeeding peace, +what hope is there of the extermination of war on earth? + +But let us now look at the opposite policy, which is that of the Gospel. +Now this policy would consist in the practice of meekness, moderation, +love, patience, and forbearance, with a strict regard to justice, so +that no advantages might be taken on either side. But if these +principles, all of which are preventive of irritation, were to be +displayed in our negotiations abroad, in the case of any matter in +dispute, would they not annihilate the necessity of wars? For what is +the natural tendency of such principles? What is their tendency, for +instance, in private life? And who are the negotiators on these +occasions but men? Which kind of conduct is most likely to disarm an +opponent, that of him who holds up his arm to strike, if his opponent +should not comply with his terms, or of him who argues justly, who +manifests a temper of love and forbearance, and who professes that he +will rather suffer than resist, and that he will do every thing sooner +than that the affair shall not be amicably settled? The Apostle Paul, +who knew well the human heart, says, "If thine enemy hunger, feed him, +for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head." That is, +thou shall cause him, by thy amiable conduct, to experience burning +feelings within himself, which, while they torment him with the +wickedness of his own conduct, shall make him esteem thee, and bring him +over to thy side. Thus thou shalt overcome his evil by thy good. Or, in +other words, as fire melts the hardest metals, so thy kindness shall +melt his anger. Thus Parnell-- + + "So artists melt the sullen ore of lead, + By heaping coals of fire upon its head. + Touch'd by the warmth, the metal teams to glow, + And pure from dress, the silver tang below." + +This policy again would consist of the practical duty of attempting to +tranquillize the minds of the people, while the discussion was going on, +of exhorting them to await the event with composure, of declaring +against the folly and wickedness of wars, as if peace only could be the +result, of abstaining from all hostile preparations, and indeed from all +appearance of violence. Now what influence would such conduct have +again, but particularly when known to the opposite party? If the +opposite party were to see those alluded to keeping down the passions of +their people, would they inflame the passions of their own? If they were +to be convinced, that these were making no preparations for war, would +they put themselves to the expence of arming? Can we see any other +termination of such a contest than the continuance of peace? + +That the policy of the Gospel, if acted upon by statesmen, would render +wars unnecessary, we may infer from supposed cases. And, first, I would +ask this simple question, whether, if all the world were Quakers, there +would be any more wars? I am sure the reply would be, no. But why not? +Because nations of Quakers, it would be replied, would discuss matters +in dispute between them with moderation, with temper, and with +forbearance. They would never make any threats. They would never arm, +and consequently they would never fight. It would be owing then to these +principles, or, in other words, to the adoption of the policy of the +Gospel in preference of the policy of the world, that, if the globe were +to be peopled by Quakers, there would be no wars. Now I would ask, what +are Quakers but men, and might not all, if they would suffer themselves +to be cast in the same mould as the Quakers, come out of it of the same +form and character? + +But I will go still farther. I will suppose that any one of the four +continents, having been previously divided into three parts, was +governed only by three Quakers, and that these had the same authority +over their subjects, as their respective sovereigns have at present. And +I win maintain, that there would never be, upon this continent, during +their respective administrations, another war. For, first, many of the +causes of war would be cut off. Thus, for instance, there would be no +disputes about insults offered to flags. There would be none again about +the balance of power. In short, it would be laid down as a position, +that no one was to do evil, that good might come. But as, +notwithstanding, there might still be disputes from other causes, these +would be amicably settled. For first, the same Christian disposition +would be manifest in the discussion as in the former case. And, +secondly, if the matter should be of an intricate nature, so that one +Quaker government could not settle it with another, these would refer +it, according to their constitution, to a third. This would be the "ne +plus ultra" of the business. Both the discussion and the dispute would +end here. What a folly then to talk of the necessity of wars, when, if +but three Quakers were to rule a continent, they would cease there? +There can be no plea for such language, but the impossibility of taming +the human passions. But the subjugation of these is the immediate object +of our religion. To confess, therefore, that wars must be, is either to +utter a libel against Christianity, or to confess that we have not yet +arrived at the stature of real Christians. + + +SECT. VII. + +_Subject farther examined--Case allowed, that if a cabinet of good men +had to negotiate with a cabinet of good men, there might be no wars--but +what would be the issue if good had to deal with bad--Case of American +settlers, who adopted the policy of the world, and were always at +war--and of other American settlers, who adopted the policy of the +Gospel, and were always at peace--No case stronger, than where +civilized men had to deal with savage American tribes._ + + +I believe it will be allowed, that the Quaker instances, mentioned in +the last section, are in point. But I am aware also, it will be said +that, though different cabinets, all having the same Christian +disposition, would settle their disputes in a friendly manner, how would +a cabinet, consisting of spiritually minded men, settle with a cabinet +of other men, who had not brought their passions under due regulation, +and who, besides, had no notion of the unlawfulness of war. + +I apprehend that it will not be denied, that men, as ferocious as any +recorded in history, were those, who were found in America, when that +continent was discovered. We hear nothing of Africans, or of Asiatics, +which would induce us to suppose, that they were as wild and as +barbarous as these. And nothing is more true of these, than they, were +frequently concerned in wars. I shall therefore take these for an +example, and I shall shew by the opposite conduct of two different +communities towards them, that it rests with men to live peaceably or +not, as they cultivate the disposition to do it, or as they follow the +policy of the Gospel in preference of the policy of the world. + +When the English, Dutch, and others, began to people America, they +purchased land of the natives. But when they went to that continent, +notwithstanding there were amiable persons among them, and friends to +civil and religious liberty, they went with the notions of worldly +policy, and they did not take with them the Christian wisdom of the +unlawfulness of war. They acted on the system of preparation, because +there might be danger. They never settled without palisadoes and a fort. +They kept their nightly watches, though unmolested. They were, in short, +in the midst of war, though no injury had been offered them by the +natives, and though professedly in the midst of peace. + +In the peopling of Connecticut, for I must begin with some one state, it +was ordered at an English court,[16] "holden at Dorchester, on the +seventh day of June, 1736, that every town should keep a watch, and be +well supplied with ammunition. The constables were directed to warn the +watches in their turns, and to make it their care, that they should be +kept according to the direction of the court. They were required also to +take care that the inhabitants were well furnished with arms and +ammunition, and kept in a constant state of defence." As these infant +settlements, the author observes, "were filled and surrounded with +numerous savages, the people conceived themselves in danger, when they +lay down, and when they rose up, when they went out, and when they came +in. Their circumstances were such, that it was judged necessary for +every man to be a soldier." + +[Footnote 16: Trumbull's History of Connecticut, p. 56.] + +I find from this author, looking farther into his history, that +previously to the order of the court at Dorchester, which did nothing +more than enjoin a more strict execution of the original plan, which was +that of military preparation and defence, some of the settlers had been +killed by the natives. The provocation which the natives received, is +not mentioned. But it was probably provocation enough to savage Indians, +to see people settle in their country with all the signs and symptoms of +war. Was such a system likely to have any other effect than that of +exciting their jealousy? They could see that these settlers had at least +no objection to the use of arms. They could see that these arms could +never be intended but against other persons, and there were no other +persons there but themselves. Judging therefore by outward +circumstances, they could draw no inference of a peaceable disposition +in their new neighbours. War soon followed. The Pequots were attacked. +Prisoners were made on both sides. The Indians treated those settlers +barbarously, who fell into their hands, for they did not see, on the +capture of their own countrymen, any better usage on the part of the +settlers themselves; for these settlers, again, had not the wisdom to +use the policy of the Gospel, but preferred the policy of the world.[17] +"Though the first planters of New-England and Connecticut, says the same +author, were men of eminent piety and strict morals, yet, like other +good men, they were subject to misconception, and the influence of +passion. Their beheading sachems whom they took in war, killing the male +captives, and enslaving the women and children, was treating them with a +severity, which, on the benevolent principles of Christianity, it will +be difficult to justify." + +[Footnote 17: P. 112.] + +After this treatment, war followed war. And as other settlements were +made by others in other states on the same principles, war fell to their +portion likewise. And the whole history of the settlement of America, +where these principles were followed, or where the policy of the world +was adopted, is full of the wars between the settlers and the Indians, +which have continued more or less, and this nearly up to the present +day. + +But widely different was the situation of the settlers under William +Penn. When he and his fellow Quakers went to this continent, they went +with the principles of Christian wisdom, or they adopted the policy of +the Gospel instead of the policy of the world. They had to deal with the +same savage Indians as the other settlers. They had the same fury to +guard against, and were in a situation much more exposed to attack, and +of course much more creative of alarm; for they had neither sword nor +musket, nor pallisadoe, nor fort. They judged it neither necessary to +watch, nor to be provided with ammunition, nor to become soldiers. They +spoke the language of peace to the natives, and they proved the +sincerity of their language by their continuance in a defenceless +condition. They held out also, that all wars were unlawful, and that, +whatever injuries were offered them, they would sooner bear them, than +gratify the principle of revenge. It is quite needless to go farther +into the system of this venerable founder of Pennsylvania. But it may be +observed, that no Quaker settlers, when known to be such,[18] were +killed, and, whatever attacks were made upon the possessors of land in +their neighbourhood, none were ever made upon those who settled on the +lands purchased by William Penn. + +[Footnote 18: "The Indians shot him who had the gun, says Storey in his +Journal, and when they knew the young man they killed was a Quaker, they +seemed sorry for it, but blamed him for carrying a gun. For they knew +the Quakers would not fight, or do them any harm, and therefore, by +carrying a gun, they took him for an enemy." This instance, which was in +after times, confirms still more strongly all that has been said on this +subject. Quakers at this time occasionally armed themselves against the +wild beasts of the country.] + +It may not be improper to observe farther, that the harmonious +intercourse between the Quakers and the Indians continues uninterrupted +to the present day. In matters of great and public concern, of which I +could mention instances, it has been usual with the Indians to send +deputies to the Quakers for advice, and the former have even been +prevailed upon by the latter to relinquish wars, which they had it in +contemplation to undertake. It is usual also for some of these to send +their children to the Quakers for education. And so great is the +influence of the Quakers over some of these tribes, that many +individuals belonging to them, and now living together, have been +reclaimed from a savage life. These have laid aside the toilsome +occupations of the chase. They raise horses, cattle, and sheep. They +cultivate wheat and flax. They weave and spin. They have houses, barns, +and saw-mills among them. They have schools also, and civilization is +taking place of the grossest barbarism. + +These facts, when contrasted, speak for themselves. A cabinet of Quaker +ministers, acting upon the policy of the Gospel, has been seated in the +heart of a savage and warlike nation, and peace has been kept with them +for ever. A cabinet of other settlers, acting on the policy of the +world, has been seated in the heart of nations of a similar description, +and they have almost constantly, been embroiled in wars. If Christian +policy has had its influence on Barbarians, it would be libellous to +say, that it would not have its influence upon those who profess to be +Christians. Let us then again, from the instances which have been now +recited, deprecate the necessity of wars. Let us not think so meanly of +the Christian religion, as that it does not forbid, nor so meanly of its +power, as that it is not ante to prevent, their continuance. Let us not +think, to the disgrace of our religion, that the human heart, under its +influence, should be so retrogade, that the expected blessing of +universal peace should be thought no improvement in our moral condition, +or that our feelings under its influence should continue so impure, +that, when it arrives, we should regard it not so much a blessing, as a +cures. But let us, on the other hand, hope and believe, that, as an +opposite and purer policy is acted upon, it will do good to our own +natures, good to the peace and happiness of the world, and honour to the +religion of the Gospel. + + +SECT. VIII + +_Subject finally considered--Authors of wars generally justify their own +as defensive--and state that, if any nation were to give up the practice +of war, or to act on the policy of the Gospel, it would be overrun by +others, which acted upon the policy of the world--Reason to believe, +that such a nation would be held in veneration by others, and applied to +by them for the settlement of their disputes--Sentiments of Bishop +Butler in a supposed case--Case of Antoninus Pius--Conclusion._ + + +Having now said all that I intended to say on the supposed necessity of +wars, I shall for a short time direct the attention of the reader to two +points, the only two, that I purpose to notice on this subject. + +It is usually said, first, that the different powers, who go to war, +give it out that their wars are defensive, or that they justify +themselves on this principle. + +I shall observe in reply to this, that it is frequently difficult to +determine, where actual aggression begins. Even old aggressions, of long +standing, have their bearings in these disputes. Not shall we find often +any clue to a solution of the difficulty in the manifestoes of either +party, for each makes his own case good in these; and if we were to +decide on the merits of the question by the contents of these, we should +often come to the conclusion, that both the parties were wrong. Thus, +for instance, a notion may have been guilty of an offence to another. So +far the cause of the other is a just one. But if the other should arm +first, and this during an attempt at accommodation, it will be a +question, whether it does not forfeit its pretensions to a just case, +and whether both are not then to be considered as aggressors on the +occasion? + +When a nation avows its object in a war, and changes its object in the +course of it, the presumption is, that such a nation has been the +aggressor. And where any nation goes to war upon no other avowed +principle, than that of the balance of power, such a nation, however +right according to the policy of the world, is an aggressor according to +the policy of the Gospel, because it proceeds upon the principle, that +it is lawful to do evil, that good may come. + +If a nation hires or employs the troops of another to fight for it, +though it is not the aggressor in any war, yet it has the crime upon its +head of making those aggressors, whom it employs. + +But, generally speaking, few modern wars can be called defensive. A war, +purely defensive, is that in which the inhabitants of a nation remain +wholly at home to repel the attacks of another, and content themselves +with sending protection to the settlements which belong to it. But few +instance are recorded of such wars. + +But if there be often a difficulty in discerning between aggressive and +defensive wars, and if, moreover, there is reason to suppose, that most +of the modern wars are aggressive, or that both patties become +aggressors in the course of the dispute, it becomes the rulers of +nations to pause, and to examine their own consciences with fear and +trembling, before they allow the Sword to bedrawn, lest a dreadful +responsibility should fall upon their heads for all the destruction of +happiness, all the havoc of life, and all the slaughter of morals that +may ensue. + +It is said, secondly, that if any nation were publicly to determine to +relinquish the practice if war, or to act on the policy of the Gospel, +it would be overrun by other nations which might act on the policy of +the world. + +This argument is neither more nor less than that of the Pagan Celsus, +who said in the second century, that, if the rest of the Roman empire +were Christians, it would be overrun by the Barbarians. + +Independently of the protection, which such a nation might count upon +from the moral Governor of the world, let us enquire, upon rational +principles, what would be likely to be its fate. + +Armies, we know, are kept up by one nation, principally because they are +kept up by another. + +And in proportion as one rival nation adds to its standing armies, it is +thought by the other to be consistent with the policy of the world to do +the same. But if one nation were to decline keeping any armies at all, +where would be the violence, to reason to suppose, that the other would +follow the example? Who would not be glad to get rid of the expence of +keeping them, if they could do it with safety? Nor is it likely, that +any powerful nation, professing to relinquish war, would experience the +calamities of it. Its care to avoid provocation would be so great, and +its language would be so temperate, and reasonable, and just, and +conciliatory, in the case of any dispute which might arise, that it +could hardly fail of obtaining an accommodation. And the probability is, +that such a nation would grow so high in esteem with other nations, that +they would have recourse to it in their disputes with one another, and +would abide by its decision. "Add the general influence, says the great +Bishop Butler in his Analogy, which each a kingdom would have over the +face of the earth, by way of example particularly, and the reverence +which would be paid to it. It would plainly be superior to all others, +and the world must gradually come under its empire, not by means of +lawless violence, but partly by what must be allowed to be just +conquest, and partly by other kingdoms submitting themselves voluntarily +to it, throughout a course of ages, and claiming its protection one +after another in successive exigencies. The head of it would be an +universal monarch in another sense than any other mortal has yet been, +and the eastern style would be literally applicable to him, "that all +people, nations, and languages, should serve him." Now Bishop Butler +supposes this would be the effect, where the individuals of a nation +were perfectly virtuous. But I ask much less for my hypothesis. I only +ask that the ruling members of the cabinet of any great nation (and +perhaps these would only amount to three or four) should consist of real +Christians, or of such men as would implicitly follow the policy of the +Gospel, and I believe the result would be as I have described it. + +Nor indeed are we without instances of the kind. The goodness of the +emperor Antoninus Pius was so great, that he was said to have outdone +all example. He had no war in the course of a long reign of twenty-four +years, so that he was compared to Numa. And nothing is more true, than +that princes referred their controversies to his decision. + +Nor most I forget again to bring to the notice of the reader the +instance, though on a smaller scale, of the colonists and descendants of +William Penn. The Quakers have uniformly conducted themselves towards +the Indians in such a manner, as to have given them from their earliest +intercourse, an exulted idea of their character. And the consequence is, +as I stated in a former section, that the former, in affairs of +importance, are consulted by the latter at the present day. But why, if +the cabinet of any one powerful nation were to act upon the noble +principle of relinquishing war, should we think the other cabinets so +lost to good feelings, as not to respect its virtue? Let us instantly +abandon this thought; for the supposition of a contrary sentiment would +make them worse than the savages I have mentioned. + +Let us then cherish the fond hope, that human animosities are not to be +eternal, and that man is not always to be made a tiger to man. Let us +hope that the government of some one nation (and when we consider the +vast power of the British empire, the nature of its constitution and +religion, and the general humanity of its inhabitants, none would be +better qualified than our own) will set the example of the total +dereliction of wars. And let us, in all our respective situations, +precede the anticipated blessing, by holding out the necessity of the +subjugation of the passions, and by inculcating the doctrine of +universal benevolence to man, so that when we look upon the beautiful +islands, which lie scattered as so many ornaments of the ocean, we may +wish their several inhabitants no greater injury than the violence of +their own waves; or that, when we view continents at a distance from us, +we may consider them as inhabited by our brothers; or that when we +contemplate the ocean itself, which may separate them from our sight, we +may consider it, not as separating our love, but as intended by +Providence to be the means of a quicker intercourse for the exchange of +reciprocal blessings. + + + + +CHAP. IV. + + +SECT. 1. + +_Fourth tenet is on the subject of a pecuniary maintenance of a Gospel +ministry--Example and precepts of Jesus Christ--Also of Paul and +Peter--Conclusions from these premises--These conclusions supported by +the primitive practice--Great tenet resulting from these conclusions, +and this primitive practice is, that the Quakers hold it unlawful to pay +their own ministers, and also others of any other denomination, for +their Gospel labours._ + + +The fourth and last tenet of the Quakers is on the subject of the +unlawfulness of a pecuniary maintenance of a Gospel ministry. + +In explaining this tenet, I am aware that I am treading upon delicate +ground. The great majority of Christians have determined, that the +spiritual labourer is worthy of his hire; that if men relinquish the +usual occupations by which a livelihood is obtained, in order that they +may devote themselves to the service of religion, they are entitled to a +pecuniary maintenance; and that, if they produce a rich harvest from +what they sow, they are of all men, considering their usefulness to man +to be greater in this than in any other service they can render him, the +most worthy of encouragement and support. I am aware also of the +possibility of giving offence to some in the course of the explanation +of this tenet. To these I can only say, that I have no intention of +hurting the feelings of any; that in the church there are those whom I +esteem and love, and whom of all others I should be sorry to offend. But +it must be obvious to these, and indeed to all, that it is impossible +for me, in writing a history of the manners and opinions of the Quakers, +to pass over in silence the tenet that is now before me; and if I notice +it, they must be sensible, that it becomes me to state fully and fairly +all the arguments which the Quakers give for the difference of opinion, +which they manifest from the rest of their fellow-citizens, on this +subject. + +It does not appear then, the Quakers say, by any records that can be +produced, that Jesus Christ ever received any payment for the doctrines +which he taught, neither does it appear, as far as his own instructions, +which are recorded by the Evangelists, can be collected on this subject, +that he considered any pecuniary stipend as necessary or proper for +those who were to assist in the promotion of his religion. + +Jesus Christ, on the erection of his Gospel ministry, gave rules to his +disciples, how they were to conduct themselves in the case before us. He +enjoined the twelve, before he sent them on this errand, as we collect +from St. Matthew and St. Luke, that,[19] "as they had received freely, +so they were to give freely; that they were to provide neither gold, nor +silver, nor brass in their purses, nor scrip, nor other things for their +journey; for that the workman was worthy of his meat." And, on their +return from their mission, he asked them,[20] "When I sent you without +purse, and scrip, and shoes, lacked ye any thing? And they said, +nothing. Then said he unto them, but now he that hath a purse let him +take it, and likewise his scrip." + +[Footnote 19: Matt x. 8. Luke ix. 1.] + +[Footnote 20: Luke xxii. 35.] + +In a little time afterwards, Jesus Christ sent out other seventy as +disciples, to whom he gave instructions similar to the former, that they +should not take scrip, clothes, and money with them. But to these he +said additionally, that[21] "wheresoever they were received, they were +to eat such things as were given them; but where they were not received, +they were to go their way, and say, even the dust of your city, which +cleaveth on us, we do wipe off against you." And as on that occasion he +compared the ministers of his Gospel to the labourers, whom a man sends +to the harvest, he told them they were at liberty to eat what was set +before them, because the labourer was worthy of his hire. + +[Footnote 21: Luke x.] + +This the Quakers conceive to be the substance of all that Jesus Christ +taught upon this subject. They go therefore next to St. Paul for a +farther elucidation of it. + +They are of opinion, that St. Paul, in his Epistle to[22] Timothy, and +to the Corinthians, and Galatians, acknowledges the position, that the +spiritual labourer is worthy of his hire. + +[Footnote 22: 1 Cor. ix.--1 Tim. v.--Gal. vi.] + +The same Apostle, however, says, "that[23] if any would not work, +neither should he eat." From this text the Quakers draw two conclusions, +first, that when ministers of the Gospel are idle, they are not entitled +to bodily sustenance; and, secondly, that those only, who receive them, +are expected to support them. The same Apostle says also,[24] "Let him +that is taught in the word, communicate unto him that teacheth in all +good things," but he nowhere says, "to him that teacheth not." + +[Footnote 23: 2 Thes. iii. 10.] + +[Footnote 24: Gal. vi. 6.] + +But though men, who faithfully spend their time in preaching the Gospel, +are entitled to bodily maintenance from those who receive them, yet St. +Paul, the Quakers say, as far as his own practice was concerned thought +it more consistent with the spirit of Christianity, and less detrimental +to its interests, to support himself by the labour of his own hands, +than to be supported by that of others. And he advises others to do the +same, and not to make their preaching chargeable,[25] "not because, says +he we have not power, but to make ourselves an ensample to you to follow +us." + +[Footnote 25: 2 Thes. iii. 0.] + +This power the Quakers consider ministers of the Gospel to abuse, who +make their preaching chargeable, if by any means, they can support +themselves; for St. Paul says farther, [26] "What is my reward then? +Verily that, when I preach the Gospel, I may make the Gospel of Christ +without charge, that I abuse not my power in the Gospel." Thus the +Apostle, they conceive, looks up to God and not to men for the reward of +his spiritual labours. And the same Apostle makes it a characteristic of +the false teachers, that they make merchandize of their hearers.[27] + +[Footnote 26: 1 Cor. ix. 18.] + +[Footnote 27: 2 Pet. ii. 3.] + +It is objected to the Quakers, on this occasion, that St. Paul received +relief from the brethren at Philippi, as well as from others, when he +did not preach. But their reply is, that this relief consisted of +voluntary and affectionate presents sent to him in circumstances of +distress. In this case the Apostle states, that he never desired these +gifts, but that it was pleasant to him to see his religious instruction +produce a benevolence of disposition that would abound to their +account.[28] + +[Footnote 28: Philip. iv. 17.] + +St. Peter is the only other person, who is mentioned in the New +Testament as speaking on this subject. Writing to those, who had been +called to the spiritual oversight of the churches, he advises as +follows:[29] "Feed the flock of God, which is among you, taking the +oversight thereof not by constraint but willingly, not for filthy lucre, +but of a ready mind, neither as being lords over God's heritage, but +being examples to the flock. And when the chief Shepherd shall appear, +ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away." Upon these +words the Quakers make three observations; that ministers should not +make a gain of the Gospel; that they should look to God for their +reward, and not to men; and that Peter himself must have preached, like +St. Paul, without fee or reward, or he could not consistently have +recommended such a practice to others. + +[Footnote 29: 1 Pet. v. 2.] + +The Quakers, therefore, from the example and precepts of Jesus Christ, +and of the Apostles Paul and Peter, come to the following conclusions on +this subject. First, that God raises up his own ministers. Secondly, +that these are to dispense his Gospel freely. Thirdly, that they are to +take, whereever they are received, such things as are given them, which +things they deserve while in the exercise of their calling, as much as +the labourer his hire, but that no bargains are to be made about +religion; that they are not to compel men to give, neither are they to +take away any thing from those who are unwilling to receive them, but, +in this case, to go their ways, and shake the dust from their feet +against them, or, in other words, to declare that they have done their +own duty in going to them with the word of God, and that the fault lies +with them in refusing to hear it. Neither, when they return from their, +missions, or are idle at home, are they to receive any thing, but to use +their own scrips and purses, and clothes. And fourthly, that though it +be lawful for them to receive such sustenance, under such limitations, +during the exercise of their ministry, it would be more consistent with +the spirit of Christianity, if they would give their spiritual labours +freely, and look up to God for their reward, thus avoiding the character +of false teachers, and the imputation of an abuse of their power in the +Gospel. + +Now these conclusions, the Quakers say, seem to have been sanctioned, in +a great measure, by the primitive practice for the three first centuries +of the church, or till the darkness of apostacy began to overwhelm the +religious world. + +In the very early times of the Gospel, many Christians, both at +Jerusalem and Alexandria in Egypt, sold their possessions, and lived +together on the produce of their common stock. Others in Antioch, +Galatia, and Pontus, retained their estates in their possession, but +established a fund, consisting of weekly or monthly offerings, for the +support of the church. This fund continued in after times. But it was +principally for the relief of poor and distressed saints, in which the +ministers of the Gospel, if in that situation, might also share. +Tertullian, in speaking of such funds, gives the following account: +"Whatsoever we have, says he, in the treasury of our churches, is not +raised by taxation, as though we put men to ransom their religion, but +every man once a month, or when it pleaseth him, bestoweth what he +thinks proper, but not except he be willing. For no man is compelled, +but left free to his own discretion. And that, which is thus given, is +not bestowed in vanity, but in relieving the poor, and upon children +destitute of parents, and in the maintenance of aged and feeble persons, +and of men wrecked by sea, and of such as have been condemned to +metallic mines, or have been banished to islands, or have been cast into +prison, professing the Christian faith." + +In process of time, towards the close of the third century, some lands +began to be given to the church. The revenue from these was thrown into +the general treasury or fund, and was distributed, as other offerings +were, by the deacons and elders, but neither bishops nor ministers of +the Gospel were allowed to have any concern with it. It appears from +Origen, Cyprian, Urban, Prosper, and others, that if in those times such +ministers were able to support themselves, they were to have nothing +from this fund. The fund was not for the benefit of any particular +person. But if such ministers stood in need of sustenance, they might +receive from it; but they were to be satisfied with simple diet, and +necessary apparel. And so sacred was this fund held to the purposes of +its institution, that the first Christian emperors, who did as the +bishops advised them, had no recourse to it, but supplied the wants of +ministers of the Gospel from their own revenues, as Eusebius, Theodoret, +and Sozomen relate. + +The council of Antioch, in the year 340, finding fault with the deacons +relative to the management of the funds of the churches, ordained that +the bishops might distribute them, but that they should take no part of +them to themselves, or for the use of the priests and brethren who lived +with them, unless necessity required it, using the words of the Apostle, +"Having food and raiment, be therewith content." + +In looking at other instances, cited by the Quakers, I shall mention +one, which throws light for a few years farther upon this subject. In +the year 359, Constantine, the emperor, having summoned a general +council of bishops to Arminium in Italy, and provided for their +subsistence there, the British and French bishops, judging it not fit to +live on the public, chose rather to live at their own expence. Three +only out of Britain, compelled by want, but yet refusing assistance +offered to them by the rest, accepted the emperor's provision, judging +it more proper to subsist by public than by private support. This +delicate conduct of the bishops is brought to shew, that, where +ministers of the Gospel had the power of maintaining themselves, they +had no notion of looking to the public. In short, in those early times, +ministers were maintained only where their necessities required it, and +this out of the fund for the poor. Those, who took from the fund, had +the particular application given them of "sportularii," or +basket-clerks, because, according to Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, and +others, they had their portion of sustenance, given them in baskets. +These portions consisted but of a small pittance, sufficient only for +their livelihood, and were given them on the principle laid down by St. +Matthew, that the ministers of Jesus Christ were to eat and drink only +such things as were set before them. + +In process of time new doctrines were advanced relative to the +maintenance of the ministry, which will be hereafter explained. But as +these were the inventions of men, and introduced during the apostacy, +the Quakers see no reason, why they should look up to these in +preference to those of Jesus Christ, and of the Apostles, and of the +practice of Christians in the purest periods of the church. They +believe, on the other hand, that the latter only are to be relied upon +as the true doctrines. These were founded in divine wisdom on the +erection of the Gospel ministry, and were unmixed with the inventions of +men. They were founded on the genius and spirit of Christianity, and not +on the genius or spirit of the world. The Quakers therefore, looking up +to these as to the surer foundation, have adopted the following tenets +on this subject. + +They believe, first, that it would be inconsistent in them as +Christians, to make a pecuniary payment to their own ministers for their +Gospel labours. And they regulate their practice accordingly upon this +principle. No one is ever paid by the Quakers for the performance of any +office in the church. If a minister lives at home, and attends the +meeting to which he belongs, he supports himself, as St. Paul did, by +his own trade. If he goes on the ministry to other meetings, he is +received by the Quakers as he travels along, and he finds meat and drink +at the houses of these. His travelling expenses also are generally +defrayed in this particular case. But he receives no reward, or fixed or +permanent stipend, for his services on these or on any other such +occasions. + +And as the Quakers cannot pay their own ministers, so it is a tenet with +them, that they cannot pay those of other denominations for their Gospel +labours upon the same principle; that is, they believe, that all +ministers of every description ought to follow the example, which St. +Paul gave and enjoined them, of maintaining themselves by their own +hands; they ought to look up to God and not to men for their reward; +they ought to avoid the character of false teachers, and the imputation +of abusing their power in the Gospel. And to these they add a particular +reason, drawn from the texts quoted, which is not applicable in the +former case, namely, that ministers are not authorised to take meat and +drink from those who are not willing to receive them. + + +SECT. II. + +_Other reasons why Quakers cannot pay ministers of the Gospel of a +different denomination from themselves--These arise out of the nature of +the payments made to them, or out of the nature of tithes--History of +tithes from the fourth century to the reign of Henry the eighth, when +they were definitively consolidated into the laws of the land._ + + +But the Quakers have other reasons, besides the general reasons, and the +particular one which has been given, why as Christians they cannot pay +ministers of a different denomination from themselves for their Gospel +labours, or why they cannot pay ministers of the established church. +These arise out of the nature of the payments which are made to them, or +out of the nature of tithes. But to see these in their proper light, +some notion should be given of the origin of this mode of their +maintenance. I shall therefore give a very concise history of tithes +from the fourth century, to which period I have already brought the +reader, to the reign of Henry the eighth, when they took a station in +the laws of the land, from which they have never yet been displaced. + +It has already appeared that, between the middle and the close of the +fourth century, such ministers of the Gospel as were able, supported +themselves, but that those who were not able, were supported out of the +fund for the poor. The latter, however, had no fixed or determined +proportion of this fund allotted them, but had only a bare livelihood +from it, consisting of victuals served out to them in baskets, as before +explained. This fund too consisted of voluntary offerings, or of +revenues from land voluntarily bequeathed. And the principle, on which +these gifts or voluntary offerings were made, was the duty of charity to +the poor. One material innovation, however, had been introduced, as I +remarked before, since its institution, namely, that the bishops, and +not the deacons, had now the management of this fund. + +At the latter end of the fourth century, and from this period to the +eighth, other changes took place in the system of which I have been +speaking. Ministers of the Gospel began to be supported, all of them +without distinction, from the funds of the poor. This circumstance +occasioned a greater number of persons to be provided for than before. +The people therefore were solicited for greater contributions than had +been ordinarily given. Jerom and Omrysostom, out of good and pious +motives, exhorted them in turn to give bountifully to the poor, and +double honour to those who laboured in the lord's work. And though they +left the people at liberty to bestow what they pleased, they gave it as +their opinion, that they ought not to be less liberal than the ancient +Jews, who, under the Levitical law, gave a tenth of their property to +the priesthood and to the poor. Ambrose, in like manner, recommended +tenths, as now necessary, and as only a suitable donation for these +purposes. + +The same line of conduct continued to be pursued by those who succeeded +in the government of the church, by Augustin, bishop of Hippo, by Pope +Leo, by Gregory, by Severin among the Christians, in Pannonia, and by +others. Their exhortations, however, on this subject, were now mixed +with promises and, threats. Pardon of sins and future rewards were held +out on the one hand, and it was suggested on the other, that the people, +themselves would be reduced to a tenth, and the blood of all the poor +who died, would be upon their heads, if they gave less than a tenth of +their incomes to holy uses. By exhortations of this sort, reiterated for +three centuries, it began at length to be expected of the people, that +they would not give less than tenths of what they possessed. No right +however was alleged to such a proportion of their income, nor was +coercion ever spoken of. These tenths also were for holy uses, which +chiefly included the benefit of the poor. They were called the Lord's +goods in consequence, and were also denominated the patrimony of the +poor. + +Another change took place within the period assigned, which I must now +mention as of great concern. Ministers of the Gospel now living wholly +out of the tenths, which with legacies constituted the fund of the poor, +a determined portion of this fund, contrary to all former usage, was set +apart for their use. Of this fund, one fourth was generally given to the +poor, one fourth to the repairs of churches, one fourth to officiating +ministers, and one fourth to the[30] bishops with whom they lived. Hence +the maintenance of ministers, as consisting of these two orders, and +the repairs of churches, took now the greatest part of it, so that the +face of things began to be materially altered. For whereas formerly this +fund went chiefly to the poor, out of which ministers of the Gospel were +provided, it now went chiefly to the church, out of which there came a +provision for the poor. Another change also must be noticed with respect +to the principle on which the gifts towards this fund were offered. For +whereas tenths were formerly solicited on the Christian duty of charity +to the poor, they were now solicited on the principle, that by the law +of Moses they ought to be given for holy uses, in which the benefit of +the fatherless, the stranger, and the widow, were included. From this +time I shall use the word tithes for tenths, and the word clergy instead +of ministers of the Gospel. + +[Footnote 30: In process of time, as the bishops became otherwise +provided for, the fund was divided into three parts for the other three +purposes just mentioned.] + +In the eighth century, matters were as I have now represented them. The +people had been brought into a notion, that they were to give no less +than a tenth of their income to holy uses. Bishops generally at this +time, and indeed long previously to this, lived in monasteries. Their +clergy lived also with them in these monasteries, and went from thence +to preach in the country within the diocese. It must be also noticed, +that there were, at this time, other monasteries under abbots or priors, +consisting mostly of lay persons, and distinct from those mentioned, and +supported by offerings and legacies in the same manner. The latter, +however, not having numerous ecclesiastics to support, laid out more of +their funds than the former were enabled to do, towards the +entertainment of strangers, and towards the maintenance of the poor. Now +it must be observed, that, when these two kinds of monasteries existed, +the people were at liberty to pay their tithes to either of them as they +pleased, and that, having this permission, they generally favoured the +latter. To these they not only paid their tithes, but gave their +donations by legacy. This preference of the lay abbies to the +ecclesiastical arose from a knowledge that the poor, for whose benefit +tithes had been originally preached up, would be more materially served. +Other circumstances too occurred, which induced the people to continue +the same preference. For the bishops in many places began to abuse their +trust, as the deacons had done before, by attaching the bequeathed lands +to their sees, so that the inferior clergy, and the poor became in a +manner dependent upon them for their daily bread. In other places the +clergy had seized all to their own use. The people therefore so +thoroughly favoured the lay abbies in preference to those of the church, +that the former became daily richer, while the, latter did little more +than maintain their ground. + +This preference, however, which made such a difference in the funds of +the ecclesiastical, and of the lay monasteries, was viewed with a +jealous eye by the clergy of those times, and measures were at length +taken to remove it. In a council under Pope Alexander the third, in the +year 1180, it was determined, that the liberty of the people should be +restrained with respect to their tithes. They were accordingly forbidden +to make appropriations to religious houses without the consent of the +bishop, in whose diocese they lived. But even this prohibition did not +succeed. The people still favoured the lay abbies, paying their tithes +there, till Pope Innocent the third, in the year 1200, ordained, and he +enforced it by ecclesiastical censures, that every one should pay his +tithes to those who administered to him spiritual things in his own +parish. In a general council also held at Lyons, in the year 1274, it +was decreed, that it was no longer lawful for men to pay their tithes +where they pleased, as before, but that they should pay them to mother +church. And the principle, on which they had now been long demanded, was +confirmed by the council of Trent under Pope Pius the fourth, in the +year 1560, which was, that they were due by divine right. In the course +of forty years after the payment of tithes had been forced by +ecclesiastical censures and excommunications, prescription was set up. +Thus the very principle, in which tithes had originated, was changed. +Thus free will-offerings became dues, to be exacted by compulsion. And +thus the fund of the poor was converted almost wholly into a fund for +the maintenance of the church. + +Having now traced the origin of tithes, as far as a part of the +continent of Europe is concerned, I shall trace it as far as they have +reference to our own country. And here I may instantly observe, and in a +few words, that the same system and the same changes are conspicuous. +Free will-offerings and donations of land constituted a fund for the +poor, out of which the clergy were maintained. In process of time, +tenths or tithes followed. Of these, certain proportions were allotted +to the clergy, the repairs of the churches, and the poor. This was the +state of things in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, towards the close +of the eighth century, when that prince, having caused Ethelbert, king +of the East Angles, to be treacherously murdered, fled to the Pope for +pardon, to please whom, and to expiate his own sin, he caused those +tithes to become dues in his own dominions, which were only at the will +of the donors before. + +About sixty years afterwards, Ethelwolf, a weak and superstitious +prince, was worked upon by the clergy to extend tithes as dues to the +whole kingdom; and he consented to it under the notion, that he was thus +to avert the judgments of God, which they represented as visible in the +frequent ravages of the Danes. Poor laymen, however, were still to be +supported out of these tithes, and the people were still at liberty to +pay them to whichever religious persons they pleased. + +About the close of the tenth century, Edgar took from the people the +right of disposing of their tithes at their own discretion, and directed +that they should be paid to the parish churches. But the other +monasteries or lay-houses resisting, his orders became useless for a +time. At this period the lay monasteries were rich, but the parochial +clergy poor. Pope Innocent, however, by sending out his famous decree +before mentioned to king John, which was to be observed in England as +well as in other places under his jurisdiction, and by which it was +enacted, that every man was to pay his tithes to those only, who +administered spiritual help to him in his own parish, settled the +affair; for he set up ecclesiastical courts, thundered out his +interdicts, and frightened both king and people.[31] + +[Footnote 31: To shew the principles, upon which princes acted with +respect to tithes in these times, the following translation of a +preamble to a grant of king Stephen may be produced: "Because, through +the providence of Divine Mercy, we know it to be so ordered, and by the +churches publishing it far and near, every body has heard, that, by the +distribution of alms, persons may be absolved from the bonds of sin, and +acquire the rewards of heavenly joys, I, Stephen, by the grace of God, +king of England, being willing to have a share with those, who by a +happy kind of commerce exchange heavenly things for earthly, and smitten +with the love of God, and for the salvation of my own soul, and the +souls of my father and mother, and all my forefathers and ancestors," +&c.] + +Richard the second confirmed these tithes to the parishes, as thus +settled by this pope, but it was directed by an act, that, in all +appropriations of churches, the bishop of the diocese should ordain a +convenient sum of money to be distributed out of the fruits and profits +of every living among the poor parishioners annually, in aid of their +living and sustenance. "Thus it seems, says Judge Blackstone, the people +were frequently sufferers by the withholding of those alms, for which, +among other purposes, the payment of tithes was originally imposed." At +length tithes were finally confirmed, and, in a more explicit manner, by +the famous act of Henry the eighth on this subject. And here I must just +observe, that, whereas from the eighth century to this reign, tithes +were said to be due, whenever the reason of them was expressed, by +divine right as under the Levitical law, so, in the preamble to the act +of Henry the eighth, they are founded on the same principle, being +described therein, "as due to God and the church." Thus, both on the +continent of Europe, as well as in our own country, were these changes +brought about, which have been described. And they were brought about +also by the same means, for they were made partly by the exhortations +and sermons of monks, partly by the decrees of popes, partly by the +edicts of popish kings, and partly by the determinations of popish +councils. + +It is not necessary, that I should trace this subject farther, or that I +should make distinctions relative to tithes, whether they may be +rectorial, or vicarial, or whether they may belong to lay persons, I +have already developed enough of their history for my purpose. I shall +therefore hasten to state those other reasons, which the Quakers have to +give, why they cannot pay other ministers of the Gospel for their +spiritual labours, or rather, why they cannot consent to the payment of +tithes, as the particular species of payment demanded by the church. + + +SECT. III + +_The other reasons then, as deducible from the history of tithes, are +the following--First, that they are not in equity dues of the +church--Secondly, that the payment of them being compulsory, it would, +if acceded to, be an acknowledgment that the civil magistrate has a +right to use force in matters of religion--And thirdly, that being +claimed upon an act which holds them forth as of divine right, any +payment of them would be an acknowledgment of the Jewish religion, and +that Christ had not yet actually come._ + + +The other reasons then, which the Quakers have to give for refusing to +support other ministers of the Gospel, may be now deduced from the +nature of tithes, as explained in the former section. + +The early Quakers rejected the payment of tithes for three reasons; +and, first, because they were demanded of them as dues of the church. + +Against this doctrine, they set their faces as a religious body. They +contended that, if they were due at all, they were due to the poor, from +whom they had been forcibly taken, and to whom in equity they still +belonged; that no prince could alter the nature of right and wrong that +tithes were not justly due to the church, because Offa wished them to be +so, to expiate his own crimes; or because Ethelwolf wished them to be +so, from a superstitious notion, that he might thus prevent the +incursions of the Danes; or because Stephen wished them to be so, as his +own grant expresses, on the principle, that "the bonds of sin might be +dissolved, and that he might have a part with those, who by a happy kind +of commerce exchanged heavenly things for earthly;" or because the popes +of Rome wished them to be so, from whose jurisdiction all the subjects +of England were discharged by law. + +They resisted the payment of them, because, secondly, tithes had become +of a compulsory nature, or because they were compelled to pay them. + +They contended on this head, that tithes had been originally free +will-offerings, but that by violence they had been changed into dues, +to be collected by force; that nothing could be more clear, than that +ministers of the Gospel, if the instructions of Jesus to his disciples +were to be regarded, were not authorized even to demand, much less to +force, a maintenance from others; and that any constrained payment of +these, while it was contrary to his intention, would be an infringement +of their great tenet, by which they hold, that, Christ's kingdom being +of a spiritual nature, the civil magistrate had no right to dictate a +religion to any one, nor to enforce payment from individuals for the +same, and that any interference in those matters, which were solely +between God and man, was neither more nor less than an usurpation of the +prerogative of God. + +They resisted the payment of them, because, thirdly, they were demanded +on the principle, as appeared by the preamble of the act of Henry the +eighth, that they were due as under the Levitical law by divine right. + +Against this they urged, first, that, if they were due as the Levitical +tithes were, they must have been subject to the same conditions. They +contended that, if the Levites had a right to tithes, they had +previously given up to the community their own right to a share of the +land, but that the clergy claimed a tenth of the produce of the lands of +others, but had given up none of their own. They contended also, that +tithes by the Levitical law were for the strangers, the fatherless, and +the widows, as well as for the Levites, but that the clergy, by taking +tithes, had taken that which had been for the maintenance of the poor, +and had appropriated it solely to their own use, leaving them thus to +become a second burthen upon the land. + +But they contended, that the principle itself was false. They +maintained, that the Levitical priesthood and tithes with it, had ceased +on the coming of Jesus Christ, as appeared by his own example and that +of his Apostles; that it became them, therefore, as Christians, to make +a stand against this principle, for that, by acquiescing in the notion +that the Jewish law extended to them, they conceived they would be +acknowledging that the priesthood of Aaron still existed, and that +Christ had not actually come. + +This latter argument, by which it was insisted upon, that tithes ceased +with the Jewish dispensation, and that those who acknowledged them, +acknowledged the Jewish religion for Christians, was not confined to the +early Quakers, but admitted among many other serious Christians of those +times. The great John Milton himself, in a treatise which he wrote +against tithes, did not disdain to use it. "Although, says he, hire to +the labourer be of moral and perpetual right, yet that special kind of +hire, the tenth, can be of no right or necessity but to that special +labour for which God ordained it. That special labour was the Levitical +and ceremonial service of the tabernacle, which is now abolished. The +right, therefore, of that special hire, must needs be withal abolished, +as being also ceremonial. That tithes were ceremonial is plain, not +being given to the Levites till they had been first offered an heave +offering to the Lord. He then, who by that law brings tithes into the +Gospel, of necessity brings in withal a sacrifice and an altar, without +which tithes by that law were unsanctified and polluted, and therefore +never thought of in the first Christian times, nor till ceremonies, +altars, and oblations had been brought back. And yet the Jews, ever +since their temple was destroyed, though they have rabbies and teachers +of their law, yet pay no tithes, as having no Levites to whom, no temple +where, to pay them, nor altar whereon to hallow them; which argues, that +the Jews themselves never thought tithes moral, but ceremonial only. +That Christians therefore should take them up, when Jews have laid them +down, must needs be very absurd and preposterous." + +Having now stated the three great reasons, which the early Quakers gave, +in addition to those mentioned in a former section, why they could not +contribute towards the maintenance of an alien ministry, or why they +could not submit to the payment of tithes, as the peculiar payment +demanded by the established church, I shall only observe, that these are +still insisted upon by their descendants, but more particularly the +latter, because all the more, modern acts upon this subject take the act +of Henry the eighth as the great ground-work or legal foundation of +tithes, in the preamble of which it is inserted, that "they are due to +God and the church." Now this preamble, the Quakers assert, has never +been done away, nor has any other principle been acknowledged instead of +that in this preamble, why tithes have been established by law. The +Quakers therefore conceive, that tithes are still collected on the +foundation of divine right, and therefore that it is impossible for them +as Christians to pay them, for that by every such payment, they would +not only be acknowledging the Jewish religion for themselves, but would +be agreeing in sentiment with the modern Jews, that Jesus Christ has not +yet made his appearance upon earth. + + + + +CHARACTER +OF THE +QUAKERS + + + + +CHAP. I. + +_Character of the Quakers--Character of great importance in life--yet +often improperly estimated--This the case with that of the +Quakers--Attempt to appreciate it duly--Many outward circumstances in +the constitution of the Quakers, which may be referred to as certain +helps in the promotion of this attempt_. + + +Nothing is of more importance to an individual, than a good character, +during life. Posthumous reputation, however desirable it may be thought, +is of no service to the person whom it follows. But a living character, +if it be excellent, is inestimable, on account of the good which it +produces to him who possesses it. It procures him attention, civility, +love, and respect from others. Hence virtue may be said to have its +reward in the present life. This account will be also true of bodies, +and particularly of religious bodies, of men. It will make a difference +to the individuals of these, whether they be respected, as a body, by +the individuals of other religious denominations, or by the government +under which they live. + +But though character be of so much importance in life, there are few who +estimate it, either when they view it individually or collectively, as +if really is. It is often, on the one hand, heightened by partiality, +and, on the other, lowered by prejudice. Other causes also combine to +afford wrong apprehensions concerning it. For as different diseases +throw out often the same symptoms, and the judgment of the physician is +baffled, so different motives produce frequently similar actions, and +the man who tries to develop a character, even if he wishes to speak +truth, finds himself at a loss to pronounce justly upon it. + +As these failings and difficulties have attended men in estimating the +character of individuals, so they seem to have attended those who have +attempted to delineate that of the society of the Quakers. Indeed, if we +were to take a view of the different traits which have been assigned to +the latter, we could not but conclude, that there must have been some +mistake concerning them. We should have occasion to observe, that some +of these were so different in their kind, that they could not reasonably +be supposed to exist in the same persons. We should find that others +could scarcely be admitted among a body of professing Christians. The +Quaker character, in short, as it has been exhibited to the world, is a +strange medley of consistency and contradiction, and of merit and +defect. + +Amidst accounts, which have been so incongruous, I shall attempt the +task of drawing the character of the Quakers. I shall state, first, all +the excellencies, that have been said to belong to it. I shall state +also, all the blemishes with which it has been described to be +chargeable. I shall then enquire how far it is probable that any of +these, and in what degree they are true. In this enquiry, some little +reliance must be placed upon my personal knowledge of the Quakers, and +upon my desire not to deceive. It is fortunate, however, that I shall be +able, in this case, to apply to a test, which will be more satisfactory +to the world, than any opinion of my own upon this subject. I mean to +say that the Quakers, like others, are the creatures of their own +education and habits, or that there are circumstances in their +constitution, the knowledge of which will assist us in the discussion of +this question; circumstances, which will speak for themselves and to +which we way always refer in the case of difficulty or doubt. Their +moral education, for example, which has been already explained, cannot +but have an influence on the minds of those who receive it. Their +discipline also, which has appeared to be of so extraordinary a nature, +and to be conducted in so extraordinary a manner, cannot but have an +effect of its own kind. The peculiar customs, in which they have been +described to have been born and educated, and which must of course act +upon them as a second nature, must have a correspondent influence again. +From these, and other prominent and distinguishing features in their +constitution, I may hope to confirm some of the truths which have been +told, and to correct some of the errors that have been stated, on the +subject which is now before us. + +Nor am I without the hope, that the discussion of this subject upon such +principles, will be acceptable to many. To those, who love truth, this +attempt to investigate it will be interesting. To the Quakers it will +be highly useful. For they will see, in the glass or mirror which I +shall set before them, the appearance which they make in the world. And +if they shall learn, in consequence, any of the causes either of their +merits or of their failings, they will have learnt a lesson, which they +may make useful by the farther improvement of their moral character. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Good part of the character of the Quakers--This general or +particular--Great general trait is, that they are a moral people--This +opinion of the world accounted for and confirmed by a statement of some +of the causes that operate in the production of character--One of these +causes is, the discipline peculiar to this society._ + + +I come, according to my design, to the good part of the character of the +Quakers. This may be divided into two sorts, into that which is general, +and into that which is particular. On the subject of their general good +character I shall first speak. + +It is admitted by the world, as I had occasion to observe in the first +chapter of the first volume, that whatever other objections might be +brought against the Quakers as a body, they deserved the character of a +moral people. + +Though this fact be admitted, and there would therefore appear to be no +necessity for confirming it, I shall endeavour, according to the plan +proposed, to shew, by means of the peculiar system of the Quakers as a +religious body, that this is one of the traits given them by the world, +which cannot be otherwise than true. + +The Quakers believe, in the first place, that the Spirit of God, acting +in man, is one of the wises of virtuous character. They believe it to +be, of all others, the purest and sublimest source. It is that spring, +they conceive, to good action, and of course to exalted character, in +which man can have none but a passive concern. It is neither hereditary +nor factitious. It can neither be perpetuated in generation by the +father to the child, nor be given by human art. It is considered by the +Quakers as the great and distinguishing mark of their calling. Neither +dress, nor language, nor peculiar customs, constitute the Quaker, but +the spiritual knowledge which he possesses. Hence all pious men may be +said to have been Quakers. Hence the patriarchs were Quakers, that is, +because they professed to be led by the Spirit of God. Hence the +Apostles and primitive Christians were Quakers. Hence the virtuous +among the Heathens, who knew nothing of Christianity, were Quakers also. +Hence Socrates may be ranked in profession with the members of this +society. He believed in the agency of the Divine Spirit. It was said of +him, "that he had the guide of his life within him; that this spirit +furnished him with divine knowledge; and that it often impelled him to +address and exhort the people." Justin the Martyr had no scruple in +calling both Socrates and Heraclitus Christians, though they lived long +before Christ; "for all such as these, says he, who lived according to +the divine word within them, and which word was in all men, were +Christians." Hence also, since the introduction of Christianity, many of +our own countrymen have been Quakers, though undistinguished by the +exterior marks of dress or language. Among these we may reckon the great +and venerable Milton. His works are full of the sentiments of[32] +Quakerism. And hence, in other countries and in other ages, there have +been men, who might be called Quakers, though the word Quakerism was +unknown. + +[Footnote 32: Milton not only considered the Spirit of God as a divine +teacher, but that the scriptures were not to be spiritually understood +but by the means of this spirit. He believed also, that human learning +was not necessary for the qualification of a minister of the Gospel. +And he wrote an essay against tithes.] + +But independently of the agency of the Spirit of God, which the Quakers +thus consider to be the purest cause of a good life and character, we +may reckon a subordinate cause, which may be artificial, and within the +contrivance and wisdom of man. When the early Quakers met together as a +religious body, though they consisted of spiritually minded men, they +resolved on a system of discipline, which should be followed by those +who became members of the society. This discipline we have already seen. +We have seen how it attempts to secure obedience to Christian precepts. +How it marks its offences. How it takes cognizance of them when +committed. How it tries to reclaim and save. How, in short, by +endeavouring to keep up the members of the society to a good life, it +becomes instrumental in the production or preservation of a good +character. + +From hence it will appear, that the virtue of the Quakers, and of course +that their character may be distinguished into two kinds, as arising +from two sources. It may arise from spiritual knowledge on the one hand, +or from their discipline on the other. That which arises from the first, +will be a perfect virtue. It will produce activity in excellence. That +which arises from the second, will be inferior and sluggish. But, +however it may be subject to this lower estimation, it will always be +able to produce for those who have it, a certain degree of moral +reputation in the opinion of the world. + +These distinctions having been made as to the sources of virtuous +character, there will be no difficulty in shewing, that the world has +not been deceived in the point in question. For if it be admitted that +the Divine Spirit, by means of its agency on the heart of man, is really +a cause of virtuous character, it will then be but reasonable to +suppose, that the Quakers, who lay themselves open for its reception +more than others, both by frequent private retirements, and by their +peculiar mode of public worship, should bear at least as fair a +reputation as others, on account of the purity of their lives. But the +discipline, which is unquestionably a guardian of morals, is peculiar to +themselves. Virtue therefore is kept up among the Quakers by an +extraordinary cause, or by a cause which does not act among many other +bodies of men. It ought therefore to be expected, while this +extraordinary cause exists, that an extraordinary result should follow, +or that more will be kept apparently virtuous among the Quakers, in +proportion to their numbers, than among those where no such discipline +can be found, or, in other words, that, whenever the Quakers are +compared with those of the world at large, they will obtain the +reputation of a moral people. + + + + +CHAP. III. + + +SECT. I. + +_Particular traits in the Quaker character--The first of these is +benevolence--This includes good will to man in his temporal +capacity--Reasons why the world has bestowed this trait upon the +Quakers--Probability of its existence--from their ignorance of many +degrading diversions of the world--from their great tenet on war--from +their discipline which inculcates equality--and watchfulness over +morals--and from their doctrine that man is the temple of the Holy +Spirit._ + + +[33]Of the good traits in the Quaker character, which may be called +particular, I shall first notice that of benevolence. This benevolence +will include, first, good will to man in his temporal capacity, or a +tender feeling for him as a fellow creature in the varied situations of +his life. + +[Footnote 33: The reader must be aware, that all Quakers do not partake +of this good part of the character. That the generality do, I believe. +That all ought to do, I know, because their principles, as will be +clearly seen, lead to such a character. Those, therefore, who do not, +will see their own deficiency, or how much they have yet to attain, +before they can become Quakers.] + +The epithet of benevolent has been long given to this society. Indeed I +know of no point, where the judgment of the world has been called forth, +in which it has been more unanimous, than in the acknowledgment of this +particular trait, as a part of the Quaker character. + +The reasons for the application of this epithet to the society, may be +various. + +It has been long known, that as the early Christians called each other +brethren, and loved each other as such, so there runs through the whole +society of the Quakers a system of similar love, their affection for one +another having been long proverbial. + +It has been long known again, that as the early Christians extended +their benevolence out of the pale of their own society to others who +lived around them, so the Quakers manifest a similar disposition towards +their countrymen at large. In matters of private distress, where persons +of a different religious denomination have been the objects, and where +such objects have been worthy, their purses have been generally open, +and they have generally given as largely in proportion to their +abilities as other people. To public charities in their respective +places of residence, they have generally administered their proper +share. But of late years, as they have mixed more with the world, this +character of the society has become more conspicuous or better known. In +the cases of dearth and distress, which happened a few years ago, it is +a matter of publicity, that they were among the foremost in the +metropolis, and in same other towns in the kingdom, not only in +pecuniary contributions, but in frequent and regular attendances for the +proper distribution of them. And if their character has ever stood +higher for willingness to contribute to the wants of others at any one +time than at another, it stands the highest, from whatever cause it may +happen, at the present day. + +It has been long known again, that as the early Christians extended +their love beyond their own society, and beyond those of the world who +lived around them, to those who were reputed natural enemies in their +own times, so the Quakers do not confine their benevolence to their own +countrymen, but extend it to the various inhabitants of the globe, +without any discrimination, whether they are reputed hostile to the +government under which they live. In times of war we never see them +bearing arms, and in times of victory we never see them exulting, like +other people. We never see them illuminating their houses, or running up +and down the streets, frantic with joy upon such occasions. Their joy, +on the other hand, is wounded by the melancholy consideration of the +destruction of the human race, when they lament, with almost equal +sympathy, over the slaughter of enemies and friends. + +But this character of a benevolent people has been raised higher of late +years in the estimation of the public by new circumstances or by the +unanimous and decided part, which they have taken as a body, in behalf +of the abolition of the slave-trade. For where has the injured African +experienced more sympathy than from the hearts of Quakers? In this great +cause the Quakers have been singularly conspicuous. They have been +actuated as it were by one spring. In the different attempts, made for +the annihilation of this trade, they have come forward with a religious +zeal. They were at the original formation of the committee for this +important object, where they gave an almost unexampled attendance for +years. I mentioned in the preceding volume, that near a century ago, +when this question had not awakened the general attention, it had +awakened that of the Quakers as a body; and that they had made +regulations in their commercial concerns with a view of keeping +themselves clear of the blood of this cruel traffic. And from that time +to the present day they have never forgotten this subject. Their yearly +epistles notice it, whenever such notice is considered to be useful. And +they hold themselves in readiness, on all fit occasions, to unite their +efforts for the removal of this great and shocking source of suffering +to their fellow-creatures. + +But whether these be the reasons, or whether they be not the reasons, +why the Quakers have been denominated benevolent, nothing is more true +than that this appellation has been bestowed upon them, and this by the +consent of their countrymen. For we have only to examine our public +prints, to prove the truth of the assertion. We shall generally find +there, that when there is occasion to mention the society, the word +"benevolent" accompanies it. + +The reader will perhaps be anxious to know how it happens, that the +Quakers should possess this general feeling of benevolence in a degree +so much stronger than the general body of their countrymen, that it +should have become an acknowledged feature in their character. He will +naturally ask, does their education produce it? Does their discipline +produce it? Do their religious tenets produce it? What springs act upon +the Quakers, which do not equally act upon other people? The +explanation of this phenomenon will be perfectly consistent with my +design; for I purpose, as I stated before, to try the truth or falsehood +of the different traits assigned to the character of the Quakers, by the +test of probabilities as arising from the nature of the customs or +opinions which they adopt. I shall endeavour therefore to show, that +there are circumstances, connected with their constitution, which have a +tendency to make them look upon man in a less degraded and hostile, and +in a more kindred and elevated light, than many others. And when I shall +have accomplished this, I shall have given that explanation of the +phenomenon, or that confirmation of the trait, which, whether it may or +may not satisfy others, has always satisfied myself. + +The Quakers, in the first place, have seldom seen a man degraded but by +his vices. Unaccustomed to many of the diversions of the world, they +have seldom, if ever, seen him in the low condition of a hired buffoon +or mimic. Men, who consent to let others degrade themselves for their +sport, become degraded in their turn. And this degradation increases +with the frequency of the spectacle. Persons in such habits are apt to +lose sight of the dignity of mankind, and to consider them as made for +administration to their pleasures, or in an animal or a reptile light. +But the Quakers, who know nothing of such spectacles, cannot, at least +as far as these are concerned, lose either their own dignity of mind, +or behold others lose it. They cannot therefore view men under the +degrading light of animals for sport, or of purchasable play-things. + +And as they are not accustomed to consider their fellow-creatures as +below themselves, so neither are they accustomed to look with enmity +towards them. Their tenet on the subject of war, which has been so amply +detailed, prevents any disposition of this kind. For they interpret +those words of Jesus Christ, as I have before shewn, which relate to +injuries, as extending not to their fellow-citizens alone, but to every +individual in the world, and his precept of loving enemies, as extending +not only to those individuals of their own country, who may have any +private resentment against them, but to those who become reputed enemies +in the course of wars, so that they fix no boundaries of land or ocean, +and no limits of kindred, to their love, but consider Jew and Gentile, +Greek and Barbarian, bond and free, as their brethren. Hence neither +fine nor imprisonment can induce them to learn the use of arms, so as to +become qualified to fight against these, or to shed their blood. And +this principle of love is not laid as it were upon the shelf, like a +volume of obsolete laws, so that it may be forgotten, but is kept alive +in their memories by the testimony which they are occasionally called to +bear or by the sufferings they undergo by distraints upon their +property, and sometimes by short imprisonments, for refusing military +service. + +But while these circumstances may have some influence in the production +of this trait of benevolence to man in the character of the Quakers, the +one by preventing the hateful sight of the loss of his dignity, and the +other by destroying the seeds of enmity towards him, there are others, +interwoven into their constitution, which will have a similar, though a +stronger tendency towards it. + +The great system of equality, which their discipline daily teaches and +enforces, will make them look with an equal eye towards all of the human +race. Who can be less than a man in the Quaker society, when the rich +and poor have an equal voice in the exercise of its discipline, and when +they fill equally the important offices that belong to it? And who is +there out of the society, whom the Quakers esteem more than human? They +bow their knees or, their bodies, as I have before noticed, to no man. +They flatter no man on account of his riches or his station. They pay +homage to no man on account of his rank or title. Stripped of all +trappings, they view the creature man. If then they view him in this +abstracted light, they can view him only as an equal. Bit in what other +society is it, that a similar estimate is made of him? The world are +apt in general to make too much of those in an elevated station, and +those again in this station are apt to make less of others beneath them +than they ought. Thus an under or an over valuation of individuals +generally takes place in society; from whence it will unavoidably +happen, that if some men are classed a little below gods, others will be +classed but a little above the brutes of the field. Their discipline, +again, has a tendency to produce in them an anxious concern for the good +of their fellow-creatures. Man is considered, in the theory of this +discipline, as a being, for whose spiritual welfare the members are +bound to watch. They are to take an interest in his character and his +happiness. If he be overtaken in a fault, he is not to be deserted, but +reclaimed. No endeavour is to be spared for his restoration. He is +considered, in short, as a creature, worthy of all the pains and efforts +that can be bestowed upon him. + +The religion of the Quakers furnishes also a cause, which occasions them +to consider man in an elevated light. They view him, as may be collected +from the preceding volume, as a temple of the Spirit of God. There is no +man, so mean in station, who is not made capable by the Quakers of +feeling the presence of the Divinity within him. Neither sect, nor +country, nor colour, excludes him, in their opinion, from this +presence. But it is impossible to view man as a tabernacle, in which the +Divinity may reside, without viewing him in a dignified manner. And +though this doctrine of the agency of the Spirit dwelling in man belongs +to many other Christian societies, yet it is no where so systematically +acted upon as by that of the Quakers. + +These considerations may probably induce the reader to believe, that the +trait of benevolence, which has been affixed to the Quaker character, +has not been given it in vain. There can be no such feeling for the +moral interests of man, or such a benevolent attention towards him in +his temporal capacity, where men have been accustomed to see one another +in low and degrading characters, as where no such spectacles have +occurred. Nor can there be such a genuine or well founded love towards +him, where men, on a signal given by their respective governments, +transform their pruning-hooks into spears, and become tygers to one +another without any private provocation, as where they can be brought +under no condition whatever, to lift up their arm to the injury of any +of the human race. There must, in a practical system of equality, be a +due appreciation of man as man. There must, in a system where it is a +duty to watch over him, for his good, be a tender attention towards him +as a fellow creature. And in a system, which considers him as a temple +in which the Divine Being may dwell, there must be a respect towards +him, which will have something like the appearance of a benevolent +disposition to the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_Trait of benevolence includes again good will towards man in his +religious capacity--Quakers said to have no spirit of persecution, nor +to talk with bitterness, with respect to other religious sects--This +trait probable--because nothing in their doctrines that narrows +love--their sufferings on the other hand--and their law against +detraction--and their aversion to making religion a subject of common +talk--all in favour of this trait._ + + +The word benevolence, when mentioned as a trait in the character of the +Quakers, includes also good will to man in his religious capacity. + +It has often been observed of the Quakers, that they shew no spirit of +persecution, and that you seldom hear them talk with bitterness, with +respect to other religious societies. + +On the first part of this trait it may be observed, that the Quakers +have never had any great power of exercising dominion over others in +matters of religion. In America, where they have had the greatest, they +have conducted themselves well. William Penn secured to every colonist +the full rights of men as to religious opinion and worship. If the +spirit of persecution is ever to be traced to the Quakers, it must be +found in their writings on the subject of religion. In one or two of the +productions of their first authors, who were obliged to support their +opinions by controversy, there is certainly an appearance of an improper +warmth of temper; but it remarkable that, since these times, scarcely a +book has appeal written by a Quaker against the religion of another. +Satisfied with their own religious belief, they seem to have wished only +to be allowed to enjoy it in peace. For when they have appeared as +polemical writers, it has been principally in the defence of themselves. + +On the second part of the trait I may remark, that it is possible, in +the case of tithes, where their temper has been tried by expensive +distraints, and hard imprisonments, that they may utter a harsh +expression against a system which they believe to be anti-Christian, and +which they consider also as repugnant to equity, inasmuch as it compels +them to pay labourers, who perform work in their own harvest; but this +feeling is only temporary, and is seldom extended beyond the object +that produces it. They have never, to my knowledge, spoken with +bitterness against churchmen on this account. Nor have I ever heard +them, in such a season of suffering, pass the slightest reflection upon +their faith. + +That this trait of benevolence to man in his religious capacity is +probably true, I shall endeavour to shew according to the method I have +proposed. + +There is nothing, in the first place, in the religious doctrines of the +Quakers, which can produce a narrowness of mind in religion, or a +contempt for the creeds of others. I have certainly, in the course of my +life, known some bigots in religion, though, like the Quakers, I censure +no man for his faith. I have known some, who have considered baptism and +the sacrament of the supper as such essentials in Christianity, as to +deny that those who scrupled to admit them, were Christians. I have +known others pronouncing an anathema against persons, because they did +not believe the atonement in their own way. I have known others again, +who have descended into the greatest depths of election and reprobation, +instead of feeling an awful thankfulness for their own condition as the +elect, and the most tender and affectionate concern for those whom they +considered to be the reprobate, indulging a kind of spiritual pride on +their own account, which has ended in a contempt for others. Thus the +doctrines of Christianity, wonderful to relate, have been made to narrow +the love of Christians! The Quaker religion, on the other hand, knows no +such feelings as these. It considers the Spirit of God as visiting all +men in their day, and as capable of redeeming all, and this without any +exception of persons, and that the difference of creeds, invented by the +human understanding, will make no difference in the eternal happiness of +man. Thus it does not narrow the sphere of salvation. It does not +circumscribe it either by numerical or personal limits. There does not +appear therefore to be in the doctrines of the Quaker religion any thing +that should narrow their love to their fellow creatures, or any thing +that should generate a spirit of rancour or contempt towards others on +account of the religion they profess. + +There are, on the contrary, circumstances, which have a tendency to +produce an opposite effect. + +I see, in the first place, no reason why the general spirit of +benevolence to man in his temporal capacity, which runs through the +whole society, should not be admitted as having some power in checking a +bitter spirit towards him in his religious character. + +I see again, that the sufferings, which the Quakers so often undergo on +account of their religious opinions, ought to have an influence with +them in making them tender towards others on the same subject. Virgil, +who was a great master of the human mind, makes the queen of Carthage +say to Aeneas, "Haud ignara mali, miseris succurere disco," or, "not +unacquainted with misfortunes myself, I learn to succour the +unfortunate." So one would hope that the Quakers, of all other people, +ought to know how wrong it is to be angry with another for his religion. + +With respect to that part of the trait, which relates to speaking +acrimoniously of other sects, there are particular circumstances in the +customs and discipline of the Quakers, which seem likely to prevent it. + +It is a law of the society, enforced by their discipline, as I shewed in +a former volume, that no Quaker is to be guilty of detraction or +slander. Any person, breaking this law, would come under admonition, if +found out. This induces an habitual caution or circumspection in speech, +where persons are made the subject of conversation. And I have no doubt +that this law would act as a preventive in the case before us. + +It is not a custom, again, with the Quakers, to make religion a subject +of common talk. Those, who know them, know well how difficult it is to +make them converse, either upon their own faith, or upon the faith of +others. They believe, that topics on religion, familiarly introduced, +tend to weaken its solemnity upon the mind. They exclude subjects also +from ordinary conversation upon another principle. For they believe, +that religion should not be introduced at these times, unless it can be +made edifying. But, if it is to be made edifying, it is to come, they +conceive, not through the medium of the activity of the imagination of +man, but through the passiveness of the soul under the influence of the +Divine Spirit. + + +SECT. III. + +_Trait of benevolence includes again a tender feeling toward the brute +creation--Quakers remarkable for their tenderness to animals--This +feature produced from their doctrine, that animals are not mere +machines, but the creatures of God, the end of whose existence is always +to be attended to in their treatment--and from their opinion as to what +ought to be the influence of the Gospel, as recorded in their own +summary_. + + +The word benevolence, when applied to the character of the Quakers, +includes also a tender feeling towards the brute creation. + +It has frequently been observed by those who are acquainted with the +Quakers, that all animals belonging to them are treated with a tender +consideration, and are not permitted to be abused, and that they feel, +in like manner, for those which may be oppressed by others, so that +their conduct is often influenced in some way or other upon such +occasions. + +It will be obvious, in enquiring into the truth of this trait in the +character of the Quakers, that the same principles, which I have +described as co-operating to produce benevolence towards man, are not +applicable to the species in question. But benevolence, when once rooted +in the heart, will grow like a fruitful plant, from whatever causes it +may spring, and enlarge itself in time. The man, who is remarkable for +his kindness towards man, will always be found to extend it towards the +creatures around him. It is an ancient saying, that "a righteous man +regards the life of his beast, but the tender mercies of the wicked are +cruel." + +But, independently of this consideration, there is a principle in the +Quaker constitution, which, if it be attended to, cannot but give birth +to the trait in question. + +It has been shewn in the first Volume, on the subject of the diversions +of the field, that the Quakers consider animals, not as mere machines, +to be used at discretion, but in the sublime light of the creatures of +God, of whose existence the use and intention ought always to be +considered, and to whom rights arise from various causes, any violation +of which is a violation of a moral law. + +This principle, if attended-to by the Quakers, must, as I have just +observed, secure all animals which may belong to them, from oppression. +They must so consider the end of their use, as to defend them from +abuse. They must so calculate their powers and their years, as to shield +them from excessive labour. They must so anticipate their feelings, as +to protect them from pain. They must so estimate their instinct, and +make an allowance for their want of understanding, as not to attach to +their petty mischiefs the necessity of an unbecoming revenge. They must +act towards them, in short, as created for special ends, and must +consider themselves as their guardians, that these ends may not be +perverted, but attained. + +To this it may be added, that the printed summary of the religion of the +society constantly stares them in the face, in which it is recorded, +what ought to be the influence of Christianity on this subject. "We are +also clearly of the judgment, that, if the benevolence of the Gospel +were generally prevalent in the minds of men, it would even influence +their conduct in the treatment of the brute creation, which would no +longer groan, the victims of their avarice, or of their false ideas of +pleasure." + + + + +CHAP. IV. + +_Second trait is that of complacency of mind or quietness of +character--This trait confirmed by circumstances in their education, +discipline, and public worship, which are productive of quiet personal +habits--and by their disuse of the diversions of the world--by the mode +of the settlement of their differences--by their efforts in the +subjugation of the will--by their endeavour to avoid all activity of +mind during their devotional exercises--all of which are productive of a +quiet habitude of mind_. + + +A second trait in the character of the Quakers is that of complacency, +or evenness, or quietness of mind and manner. + +This trait is, I believe, almost as generally admitted by the world, as +that of benevolence. It is a matter of frequent observation, that you +seldom see an irascible Quaker. And it is by no means uncommon to hear +persons, when Quakers are the subject of conversation, talking of the +mysteries of their education, or wondering how it happens, that they +should be able to produce in their members such a calmness and quietness +of character. + +There will be no difficulty in substantiating this second trait. + +There are circumstances, in the first place, in the constitution of the +Quaker system, which, as it must have already appeared, must be +generative of quiet personal habits. Among these may be reckoned their +education. They are taught, in early youth, to rise in the morning in +quietness, to go about their ordinary occupations in quietness, and to +retire in quietness to their beds. We may reckon also their discipline. +They are accustomed by means of this, when young, to attend the monthly +and quarterly meetings, which are often of long continuance. Here they +are obliged to sit patiently. Here they hear the grown up members of the +society speak in order, and without any interruption of one another. We +may reckon again their public worship. Here they are accustomed +occasionally to silent meetings, or to sit quietly for a length of time, +when not a word is spoken. + +There are circumstances again in the constitution of the Quakers, which +are either preventive of mental activity, and excitement of passion, or +productive of a quiet habitude of mind. Forbidden the use of cards, and +of music, and of dancing, and of the theatre, and of novels, it must be +obvious, that they cannot experience the same excitement of the +passions, as they who are permitted the use of these common amusements +of the world. In consequence of an obligation to have recourse to +arbitration, as the established mode of decision in the case of +differences with one another, they learn to conduct themselves with +temper and decorum in exasperating cases. They avoid, in consequence, +the frenzy of him who has recourse to violence, and the turbid state of +mind of him who engages in suits at law. It may be observed also, that +if, in early youth, their evil passions are called forth by other +causes, it is considered as a duty to quell them. The early subjugation +of the will is insisted upon in all genuine Quaker families. The +children of Quakers are rebuked, as I have had occasion to observe, for +all expressions of anger, as tending to raise those feelings, which +ought to be suppressed. A raising even of their voice is discouraged, as +leading to the disturbance of their minds. This is done to make them +calm and passive, that they may be in a state to receive the influence +of the pure principle. It may be observed again, that in their meetings +for worship, whether silent or vocal, they endeavour to avoid all +activity of the mind for the same reason. + +These different circumstances then, by producing quiet personal habits +on the one hand, and quiet mental ones on the other, concur in producing +a complacency of mind and manner, so that a Quaker is daily as it were +at school, as far as relates to the formation of a quiet character. + + + + +CHAP. V. + +_Third trait is, that they do not temporize, or do that which they +believe to be improper as a body of Christians--Subjects, in which this +trait is conspicuous--Civil oaths--Holy or consecrated days--War--Tithes +--Language--Address--Public illuminations--Utility of this trait to the +Quaker character._ + + +It is a third trait in the character of the Quakers, that they refuse to +do whatever as a religious body they believe to be wrong. + +I shall have no occasion to state any of the remarks of the world to +shew their belief of the existence of this trait, nor to apply to +circumstances within the Quaker constitution to confirm it. The trait is +almost daily conspicuous in some subject or another. It is kept alive by +their discipline. It is known to all who know Quakers. I shall satisfy +myself therefore with a plain historical relation concerning it. + +It has been an established rule with the Quakers, from the formation of +their society, not to temporize, or to violate their consciences, or, in +other words, not to do that which as a body of Christians they believe +to be wrong, though the usages of the world, or the government of the +country under which they live, should require it, but rather to submit +to the frowns and indignation of the one, and the legal penalties +annexed to their disobedience by the other. This suffering in preference +of the violation of their consciences, is what the Quakers call "the +bearing of their testimony," or a demonstration to the world, by the +"testimony of their own example," that they consider it to be the duty +of Christians rather to suffer, than to have any concern with that which +they conceive to be evil. + +The Quakers, in putting this principle into practice, stand, I believe, +alone. For I know of no other Christians, who as a body[34] pay this +homage to their scruples, or who determine upon an ordeal of suffering +in preference of a compromise with their ease and safety. + +[Footnote 34: The Moravians, I believe, protest against war upon +scriptural grounds. But how far in this, or in any other case, they bear +a testimony, like the Quakers, by suffering, I do not know.] + +The subjects, in which this trait is conspicuous, are of two kinds, +first as they relate to things enjoined by the government, and secondly +as they relate to things enjoined by the customs or fashions of the +world. + +In the first case there was formerly much more suffering than there is +at present, though the Quakers still refuse a compliance with as many +injunctions of the law as they did in their early times. + +It has been already stated that they refused, from the very institution +of their society, to take a civil oath. The sufferings, which they +underwent in consequence, have been explained also. But happily, by the +indulgence of the legislature, they are no longer persecuted for this +scruple, though they still persevere in it, their affirmation having +been made equal to an oath in civil cases. + +It has been stated again, that they protested against the religious +observance of many of those days, which the government of the country +for various considerations had ordered to be kept as holy. In +consequence of this they were grievously oppressed in the early times of +their history. For when their shops were found open on Christmas day, +and on Good Friday, and on the different fast-days which had been +appointed, they were taken up and punished by the magistrates on the one +hand, and insulted and beaten by the people on the other. But, +notwithstanding this ill usage, they persevered as rigidly in the +non-observance of particular days and times, as in their non-compliance +with oaths, and they still persevere in it. It does not appear, however, +that their bearing of their testimony in this case is any longer a +source of much vexation or trouble to them: for though the government of +the country still sanctions the consecration of particular days, and, +the great majority of the people join in it, there seems, to have been a +progressive knowledge or civilization in both, which has occasioned them +to become tender on account of this singular deviation from their own +practice. + +But though the Quakers have been thus relieved by the legislature, and +by the more mild and liberal disposition of the people, from so much +suffering in bearing their testimony on the two occasions which have +been mentioned, yet there are others, where the laws of government are +concerned, on which they find themselves involved in a struggle between +the violation of their consciences and a state of suffering, and where +unfortunately there is no remedy at hand, without the manifestation of +greater partiality towards them, than it may be supposed an equal +administration of justice to all would warrant. + +Hie first of these occasions is when military service, is enjoined. The +Quakers, when drawn for the militia, refuse either to serve, or to +furnish substitutes. For this refusal they come under the cognizance of +the laws. Their property, where they have any, is of course distrained +upon, and a great part of a little substance is sometimes taken from +them on, this account. Where they have not distrainable property, which +is occasionally the case, they never fly, but submit to the known +punishment, and go patiently to prison. The legislature, however, has +not been inattentive to the Quakers even upon this occasion; for it has +limited their confinement to three months. The government also of the +country afforded lately, in a case in which the Quakers were concerned, +an example of attention to religious scruples upon this subject. In the +late bill for arming the country _en masse_, both the Quakers and the +Moravians were exempted from military service. This homage to religious +principle did the authors of these exemptions the highest honour. And it +certainly becomes the Quakers to be grateful for this unsolicited +favour; and as it was bestowed upon them upon the full belief that they +were the people they professed themselves, they should be particularly +careful that they do not, by any inconsistency of conduct, tarnish the +high reputation, which has been attached to them by the government under +which they live. + +The second occasion is, when tithes or other dues are demanded by the +church. The Quakers refuse the payment of these upon principles, which +have been already explained. They come of course again under the +cognizance of the laws. Their property is annually distrained upon by +warrant from justices of the peace, where the demand does not exceed the +value of ten pounds, and this is their usual suffering in this case. But +there have not been wanting instances where an unusual hardness, of +heart has suggested a process, still allowable by the law, which has +deprived them of all their property, and consigned them for life to the +habitation of a prison.[35] + +[Footnote 35: One died, not a great while ago, in York Castle, and +others, who were confined with him, would have shared his fate, but for +the interference of the king. + +It is surprising, that the clergy should not unite in promoting a bill +in parliament, to extend the authority of the justices to grant warrants +of distraint for tithes to more than the value of ten pounds, and to any +amount, as this is the most cheap and expeditious way for themselves. If +they apply to the ecclesiastical courts, they can enforce no payment of +their tithes then. They can put the poor Quaker into prison, but they +cannot obtain their debt. If they apply to the exchequer, they may find +themselves, at the conclusion of their suit, and this after a delay of +three years, liable to the payment of extra costs, to the amount of +forty or fifty pounds, with which they cannot charge the Quaker, though +they may confine him for life. Some, to my knowledge, have been glad to +abandon these suits, and put up with the costs, incurred in them; rather +than continue them. Recourse to such courts occasion the clergy +frequently to be charged with cruelty, when, if they had only understood +their own interests better, they would have avoided them.] + +But it is not only in cases, of which the laws of the land take +cognizance, that the Quakers prefer suffering to doing that which their +consciences disapprove. There are other cases, connected, as I observed +before, with the opinion of the world, where they exhibit a similar +example. If they believe any custom or fashion of the world to be evil +in itself, or to be attended with evil, neither popular applause nor +popular fury can make them follow it, but they think it right to bear +their testimony against it by its disuse, and to run the hazard of all +the ridicule, censure, or persecution, which may await them for so +doing. + +In these cases, as in the former, it must be observed, that the +sufferings of the Quakers have been much diminished, though they still +refuse a compliance in as many instances as formerly, with the fashions +of the world. + +It was stated in the first volume, that they substituted the word Thou +for You, in order that they might avoid by their words, as well as by +their actions, any appearance of flattery to men. It was stated also, +that they suffered on this account; that many magistrates, before whom +they were carried in the early times of their institution, occasioned +their punishment to be more severe, and that they were often abused and +beaten by others, and put in danger of their lives. This persecution, +however, for this singularity in their language, has long ceased; and +the substitution of Thou for You is now only considered as an innocent +distinction between Quakers and other people. + +It was stated again in the same volume, that the Quakers abstained from +the usual address of the world, such as from pulling off their hats, and +from bowing the body, and from their ceremonious usages. It was +explained also, that they did this upon two principles. First, because, +as such ceremonies were no real marks of obeisance, friendship or +respect, they ought to be discouraged by a people, whose religion +required that no image should be held out, which was not a faithful +picture of its original, and that no action should be resorted to, which +was not correspondent with the feelings of the heart. Secondly, because +all such ceremonies were of a complimentary or flattering nature, and +were expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ. It was stated also, that, on +account of their rejection of such outward usages, their hats were +forcibly taken from their heads and thrown away; that they were beaten +and imprisoned on this sole account; and that the world refused to deal +with them as tradesmen, in consequence of which many could scarcely +supply their families with bread. But this deviation from the general +practice, though it still characterizes the members of this society, is +no longer a source of suffering. Magistrates sometimes take care that +their hats shall be taken gently from their heads on public occasions, +and private persons expect now no such homage from Quakers, when they +meet them. + +There is, however, a custom, against which the Quakers anciently bore +their testimony, and against which they continue to bear it, which +subjects them occasionally to considerable inconvenience and loss. In +the case of a general illumination, they never light up their houses, +but have the courage to be singular in this respect, whatever may be the +temper of the mob. + +They believe that the practice of general illuminations cannot be +adopted consistently by persons, who are lovers of the truth. They +consider it as no certain criterion of joy. For, in the first place, how +many light up their houses, whose hearts are overwhelmed with sorrow? +And, in the second place, the event which is celebrated, may not always +be a matter of joy to good minds. The birth-day of a prince, for +example, may be ushered in as welcome, and the celebration of it may +call his actions to mind, upon which a reflection may produce pleasure, +but the celebration of the slaughter or devastation of mankind can +afford no happiness to the Christian. + +They consider the practice again, accompanied as it is with all its +fiery instruments, as dangerous and cruel. For how many accidents have +happened, and how many lives have been lost upon such occasions? + +They consider it again as replete with evil. The wild uproar which it +creates, the mad and riotous joy which it produces, the licentiousness +which it favours, the invidious comparisons which it occasions, the +partial favour which it fixes on individuals who have probably no moral +merit, the false joys which it holds out, and the enmity which it has on +some occasions a tendency to perpetuate; are so many additional +arguments against it in the opinion of the Quakers. + +For these and other reasons they choose not to submit to the custom, but +to bear their testimony against it, and to run the hazard of having +their windows broken, or their houses pillaged, as the populace may +dictate: And in the same manner, if there be any other practice, in +which the world may expect them to coincide, they reject it, fearless of +the consequences, if they believe it to be productive of evil. + +This noble practice of bearing testimony, by which a few individuals +attempt to stem the torrent of immorality by opposing themselves to its +stream, and which may be considered as a living martyrdom, does, in a +moral point of view, a great deal of good to those, who conscientiously +adopt it. It recalls first principles to their minds. It keeps in their +remembrance the religious rights of man. It teaches them to reason upon +principle, and to make their estimates by a moral standard. It is +productive both of patience and of courage. It occasions them to be kind +and attentive, and merciful to those who are persecuted and oppressed. +It throws them into the presence of the Divinity when they are +persecuted themselves. In short, it warms their moral feelings, and +elevates their religious thoughts. Like oil, it keeps them from rusting. +Like a whetstone, it gives them a new edge. Take away this practice from +the constitution of the Quakers, and you pull down a considerable +support of their moral character. It is a great pity that, as professing +Christians, we should not, more of us, incorporate this noble principle +individually into our religion. We concur unquestionably in customs, +through the fear of being reputed singular, of which our hearts do not +always approve, though nothing is more true, than that a Christian is +expected to be singular with respect to the corruptions of the world. +What an immensity of good would be done, if cases of persons, choosing +rather to suffer than to temporize, were so numerous as to attract the +general notice of men! Would not every case of suffering operate as one +of the most forcible lessons that could be given to those who should see +it? And how long would that infamous system have to live, which makes a +distinction between political expediency and moral right? + + + + +CHAP. VI. + +_A fourth trait is, that, in political affairs, they reason upon +principle, and not from consequences--This mode of reasoning insures the +adoption of the maxim of not doing evil that good may come--Had Quakers +been legislators, many public evils had been avoided, which are now +known in the world--Existence of this trait probable from the influence +of the former trait--and from the influence of the peculiar customs of +the Quakers--and from the influence of their system of discipline upon +their minds._ + + +The next trait, which I shall lay open to the world as belonging to the +Quaker character, is, that in all those cases, which may be called +political, the Quakers generally reason upon principle, and but seldom +upon consequences. + +I do not know of any trait, which ever impressed me more than this in +all my intercourse with the members of this society. It was one of those +which obtruded itself to my notice on my first acquaintance with them, +and it has continued equally conspicuous to the present time. + +If an impartial philosopher, from some unknown land, and to whom our +manners, and opinions, and history, were unknown, were introduced +suddenly into our metropolis, and were to converse with the Quakers +there on a given political subject, and to be directly afterwards +conveyed to the west end of the town, and there to converse with +politicians, or men of fashion, or men of the world, upon the same, he +could not fail to be greatly surprised. If he thought the former wise, +or virtuous, or great, he would unavoidably consider the latter as +foolish, or vicious, or little. Two such opposite conclusions, as he +would hear deduced from the reasonings of each, would impress him with +an idea, that he had been taken to a country inhabited by two different +races of men. He would never conceive, that they had been educated in +the same country, or under the same government. If left to himself, he +would probably imagine, that they had embraced two different religions. +But if he were told that they professed the same, he would then say, +that the precepts of this religion had been expressed in such doubtful +language, that they led to two sets of principles contradictory to one +another. I need scarcely inform the reader, that I allude to the two +opposite conclusions, which will almost always be drawn, where men +reason from motives of policy or from moral right. + +If it be true that the Quakers reason upon principle in political +affairs, and not upon consequences, it will follow as a direct +inference, that they will adopt the Christian maxim, that men ought not +to do evil that good may come. And this is indeed the maxim, which you +find them adopting in the course of their conversation on such subjects, +and which I believe they would have uniformly adopted, if they had been +placed in political situations in life. Had the Quakers been the +legislators of the world, we should never have seen many of the public +evils that have appeared in it. It was thought formerly, for example, a +glorious thing to attempt to drive Paganism from the Holy Land, but +Quakers would never have joined in any of the crusades for its +expulsion. It has been long esteemed, again, a desideratum in politics, +that among nations, differing in strength and resources, a kind of +balance of power should be kept up, but Quakers would never have engaged +in any one war to preserve it. It has been thought again, that it would +contribute to the happiness of the natives of India, if the blessings of +the British constitution could be given them instead of their own. But +Quakers would never have taken possession of their territories for, the +accomplishment of such a good. It has been long thought again a matter +of great political importance, that our West-Indian settlements should +be cultivated by African labourers. But Quakers would never have +allowed a slave-trade for such a purpose. It has been thought again, and +it is still thought, a desirable thing, that our property should be +secured from the petty depredations of individuals. But Quakers would +never have consented to capital punishments for such an end. In short, +few public evils would have arisen among mankind, if statesmen had +adopted the system, upon which the Quakers reason in political affairs, +or if they had concurred with an ancient Grecian philosopher in +condemning to detestation the memory of the man, who first made a +distinction between expediency and moral right. + +[36]That this trait of reasoning upon principle, regardless of the +consequences, is likely to be a feature in the character of the Quakers, +we are warranted in pronouncing, when we discover no less than three +circumstances in the constitution of the Quakers, which may be causes in +producing it. + +[Footnote 36: The Sierra Leone Company, which was founded for laudable +purposes, ought have been filled by Quakers; but when they understood +that there was to be a fort and depot of arms in the settlement, they +declined becoming proprietors.] + +This trait seems, in the first place, to be the direct and legitimate +offspring of the trait explained in the last chapter. For every time a +Quaker is called upon to bear his testimony by suffering, whether in the +case of a refusal to comply with the laws, or with the customs and +fashions of the land, he is called upon to refer to his own conscience, +against his own temporal interest, and against the opinion of the world. +The moment he gives up principle for policy in the course of his +reasoning upon such occasions, then he does as many others do, that is, +he submits to the less inconvenience, and then he ceases to be a Quaker. +But while he continues to bear his testimony, it is a proof that he +makes expediency give way to what he imagines to be right. The bearing +therefore of testimony, where it is conscientiously done, is the parent, +as it is also the bulwark and guardian of reasoning upon principle. It +throws out a memento whenever it is practised, and habituates the +subject of it to reason in this manner. But this trait is nourished and +supported again by other causes, and first by the influence, which the +peculiar customs of the Quakers must occasionally have upon their minds. +A Quaker cannot go out of doors, but he is reminded of his own +singularity, or of his difference in a variety of respects from his +fellow-citizens. Now every custom, in which he is singular, whether it +be that of dress or of language, or of address, or any other, is +founded, in his own mind, on moral principle, and in direct opposition +to popular opinion and applause. He is therefore perpetually reminded, +in almost all his daily habits, of the two opposite systems of +reasoning, and is perpetually called upon as it were to refer to the +principles, which originally made the difference between him and another +citizen of the world. + +Neither has the discipline of the Quakers a less tendency to the +production of the trait in question. For the business, which is +transacted in the monthly and quarterly and yearly meetings, is +transacted under the deliberations of grave and serious men, who +consider themselves as frequently under the divine influence, or as +spiritually guided on such occasions. In such assemblies it would be +thought strange if any sentiment were uttered, which savoured of +expediency in opposition to moral right. The youth therefore, who are +present, see no other determination of any question than by a religious +standard. Hence these meetings operate as schools, in which they are +habituated to reason upon principle, and to the exclusion of all worldly +considerations, which may suggest themselves in the discussion of any +point. + + + + +CHAP. VII. + +_A fifth trait is, that they have an extraordinary independence of +mind--This probable, because the result of the farmer trait--because +likely to be produced by their discipline--by their peculiar custom--and +by their opinions on the supposed dignity of situations in life--because +again, they are not vulnerable by the seduction of governments--or by +the dominion of the church--or by the power of fashion and of the +opinion of the world._ + + +The next trait, conspicuous in the character of the Quakers, and which +is nearly allied to the former, is that of independence of mind. + +This trait is of long standing, having been coeval with the society +itself. It was observed by Cromwell, that "he could neither win the +Quakers by money, nor by honours, nor by places, as he could other +people." A similar opinion is entertained of them at the present day. +For of all people it is generally supposed that they are the least +easily worked upon, or the least liable to be made tools or instruments +in the bands of others. Who, for example, could say, on any +electioneering occasion, whatever his riches might be, that he could +command their votes? + +There will be no difficulty in believing this to be a real feature in +the character of the Quakers. For when men are accustomed to refer +matters to their reason, and to reason upon principle, they will always +have an independence of mind, from a belief that they are right. And +wherever it be a maxim with them not to do evil that good may come, they +will have a similar independence from a consciousness, that they have +never put themselves into the power of the world. Hence this +independence of mind must be a result of the trait explained in the +former chapter. + +But in looking into the constitution of the Quakers, we shall find it +full of materials for the production of this noble trait. + +Their discipline has an immediate tendency to produce it. For in no +community does a man feel himself so independent as a man. A Quaker is +called upon in his own society to the discharge of important offices. He +sits as a representative, a legislator, and a judge. In looking round +him, he finds all equal in privileges, but none superior, to himself. + +Their peculiar customs have the same tendency, for they teach them to +value others, who are not of the society, by no higher standard than +that by which they estimate themselves. They neither pull off their +hats, nor bow, nor scrape. In their speech they abstain from the use of +flattering words and of titles. In their letters, they never subscribe +themselves the humble servants of any one. They never use, in short, any +action or signature, which, serving as a mark of elevation to others, +has any influence towards the degradation of themselves. + +Their opinions also upon the supposed dignity of situations in life +contribute towards the promotion of this independence of their minds. + +They value no man, in the first place, on account of his earthly title. +They pay respect to magistrates, and to all the nobility of the land, in +their capacity of legislators, whom the chief magistrate has appointed; +but they believe that the mere letters in a schedule of parchment can +give no more intrinsic worth to a person, than they possess themselves, +and they think with Juvenal, that "the only true nobility is virtue." +Hence titles, in the glare of which some people lose the dignity of +their vision, have no magical effect upon Quakers. + +They value no man again on account of the antiquity of his family +exploits. They believe, that there are people now living in low and +obscure situations, whose ancestors performed in the childhood of +history, when it was ignorant and incapable of perpetuating traditions, +as great feats as those, which in its greater maturity it has recorded. +And as far as these exploits of antiquity may be such as were performed +in wars, they would not be valued by them as ornaments to men, of whose +worth they can only judge by their virtuous or their Christian +character. + +They value no man again on account of the antiquity of his ancestry. +Believing revelation to contain the best account of the rise of man, +they consider all families as equally old in their origin, because they +believe them to have sprung from the same two parents, as their common +source. + +But this independence of mind, which is said to belong to the Quakers, +may be fostered again by other circumstances, some of which are peculiar +to themselves. + +Many men allow the independence of their minds to be broken by an +acceptance of the honours offered to them by the governments, under +which they live; but no Quaker could accept of any of the honours of the +world. + +Others allow the independence of their minds to be invaded by the +acceptance of places and pensions from the same quarter. But Quakers, +generally speaking, are in a situation too independent in consequence +of their industry, to need any support of this kind; and no Quaker could +accept it on the terms on which it is usually given. + +Others again suffer their opinions to be fettered by the authority of +ecclesiastical dominion, but the Quakers have broken all such chains. +They depend upon no minister of the Gospel for their religion, nor do +they consider the priesthood, as others do, as a distinct order of men. + +Others again come under the dominion of fashion and of popular opinion, +so that they dare only do that which they see others do, or are hurried +from one folly to another, without having the courage to try to resist +the stream. But the life of a Quaker is a continual state of +independence in this respect, being a continual protest against many of +the customs and opinions of the world. + +I shall now only observe upon this subject, that this trait of +independence of mind, which is likely to be generated by some, and which +is preserved by other of the causes which have been mentioned, is not +confined to a few members, but runs through the society. It belongs to +the poor as well as to the rich, and to the servants of a family as well +as to those who live in poverty by themselves. If a poor Quaker were to +be introduced to a man of rank, he would neither degrade himself by +flattery on the one hand, nor by any unbecoming submission on the +other. He would neither be seduced into that which was wrong, nor +intimidated from doing that which was right, by the splendour or +authority of appearances about him. He would still preserve the +independence of his mind, though he would behave with respect. You would +never be able to convince him, that he had been talking with a person, +who had been fashioned differently from himself. This trait of +independence cannot but extend itself to the poor. For having the same +rights and privileges in the discipline, and the same peculiar customs, +and the same views of men and manners as the rest of the society, a +similar disposition must be found in these, unless it be counteracted by +other causes. But as Quaker servants, who live in genuine Quaker +families, wear no liveries, nor any badges of poverty or servitude, +there is nothing in the opposite scale to produce an opposite feature in +their character. + + + + +CHAP. VIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_A sixth trait is that of courage--This includes, first, courage in +life--Courage not confined to military exploits--Quakers seldom +intimidated or abashed--dare to say what they think--and to do what +they believe to be right--This trait may arise from that of bearing +their testimony--and from those circumstances which produced +independence of mind--and from the peculiar customs of the society_. + + +Another trait in the character of the Quakers, which is nearly allied to +independence of mind, is courage. This courage is conspicuous both in +life and in the hour of death. That, which belongs to the former +instance, I shall consider first. + +If courage in life were confined solely to military exploits, the +Quakers would have no pretensions to this character. But courage +consists of presence of mind in many situations of peril different from +those in war. It consists often in refusing to do that which is wrong, +in spite of popular opinion. Hence the man, who refuses a challenge, and +whom men of honour would brand with cowardice on that account, may have +more real courage in so doing, and would have it in the estimation of +moral men, than the person who sends it. It may consist also in an +inflexible perseverance in doing that which is right, when persecution +is to follow. Such was the courage of martyrdom. As courage then may +consist in qualities different from that of heroism, we shall see what +kind of courage it is that has been assigned to the Quakers, and how far +they may be expected to be entitled to such a trait. + +There is no question, in the first place, that Quakers have great +presence of mind on difficult and trying occasions. To frighten or to +put them off their guard would be no easy task. Few people have ever +seen an innocent Quaker disconcerted or abashed. + +They have the courage also to dare to say, at all times and in all +places, what they believe to be right. + +I might appeal for the truth of this, as far as the early Quakers are +concerned, to the different conversations which George Fox had with +Oliver Cromwell, or to the different letters which be wrote to him as +protector, or to those which he afterwards wrote to king Charles the +second. + +I might appeal again to the address of Edward Burroughs to the same +monarch. + +I might appeal again to the bold but respectful language, which the +early Quakers used to the magistrates, when they were carried before +them, and to the intrepid and dignified manner in which they spoke to +their judges, in the coarse of the numerous trials to which they were +brought in those early times. + +I might appeal also to Barclay's address to the king, which stands at +the head of his Apology. + +"As it is inconsistent, says Barclay to king Charles the second, with +the truth I bear, so it is far from me to use this letter as an engine +to flatter thee, the usual design of such works, and therefore I can +neither dedicate it to thee, nor crave thy patronage, as if thereby I +might have more confidence to present it to the world, or be more +hopeful of its success. To God alone I owe what I have, and that more +immediately in matters spiritual, and therefore to him alone, and the +service of his truth, I dedicate whatever work he may bring forth in me, +to whom only the praise and honour appertain, whose truth needs not the +patronage of worldly princes; his arm and power being that alone by +which it is propagated, established, and confirmed." + +And farther on, he says, "Thou hast tasted of prosperity and adversity; +thou knowest what it is to be banished thy native country, to be +overruled, as well as to rule, and to sit upon the throne; and, being +oppressed, thou hast reason to know how hateful the oppression is both +to God and man. If, after all these warnings and advertisements, thou +dost not turn unto the Lord with all thy heart, but forget him who +remembered thee in distress, and give up thyself to follow lust and +vanity; surely great will be thy condemnation." + +And this courage to dare to say what they believe to be right, as it was +an eminent feature in the character of the primitive, so it is +unquestionably a trait in that of the modern Quakers. They use no +flattery even in the presence of the king; and when the nation has +addressed him in favour of new wars, the Quakers have sometimes had the +courage to oppose the national voice on such an occasion, and to go +before the same great personage, and in a respectful and dignified +manner, to deliver a religious petition against the shedding of human +blood. + +They have the courage also to dare to do as well as to say what they +consider to be right. + +It is recorded of the early Quakers, that, in the times of the hottest +persecution, they stood to their testimony in the places appointed for +their worship. They never assembled in private rooms, or held private +conventicles, employing persons to watch at the doors, to keep out spies +and informers, or to prevent surprise from the magistrates. But they +worshipped always in public, and with their doors open. Nor, when armed +men were sent to dissolve their meetings, did they ever fly, but, on +the summons to break up and depart, they sat motionless, and, regardless +of threats and blows, never left their devotions, but were obliged to be +dragged out, one by one, from their places. And even when their +meeting-houses were totally destroyed by the magistrates, they sometimes +met the next meeting-day, and worshipped publicly on the ruins, +notwithstanding, they knew that they were subject by so doing, to fines, +and scourges, and confinements, and banishment, and that, like many +others of their members who had been persecuted, they might die in +prison. + +This courage of the early Quakers has descended as far as circumstances +will allow us to judge, to their posterity, or to those who profess the +same faith. For happily, on account of the superior knowledge which has +been diffused among us since those times, and on account of the progress +of the benign influence of Christianity, both of which may be supposed +to have produced among the members of our legislature a spirit of +liberality in religion, neither the same trials; nor the same number of +them, can be afforded for the courage of the modern Quakers, as were +afforded for that of the Quakers of former days. But as far as there are +trials, the former exhibit courage proportioned to their weight. This +has been already conspicuous in the bearing of their testimony, either +in those cases where they run the hazard of suffering by opposing the +customs of the world, or where, by refusing a compliance with legal +demands which they believe to be antichristian, they actually suffer. +Nor are these sufferings often slight, when we consider that they may be +made, even in these days of toleration, to consist of confinement, as +the law now stands, for years, and it may happen even for life, in +prison. + +This trait of courage in life, which has been attached to the character +of the Quakers, is the genuine offspring of the trait of "the bearing of +their testimony." For by their testimony it becomes their religion to +suffer, rather than comply with many of the laws and customs of the +land. But every time they get through their sufferings, if they suffer +conscientiously, they gain a victory, which gives them courage to look +other sufferings in the face, and to bid defiance to other persecutions. + +This trait is generated again by all those circumstances which have been +enumerated, as producing the quality of independence of mind, and it is +promoted again by the peculiar customs of the society. For a Quaker is a +singular object among his countrymen. His dress, his language, and his +customs mark him. One person looks at him. Another perhaps derides him. +He must summon resolution, or he cannot stir out of doors and be +comfortable. Resolution, once summoned, begets resolution again, till at +length he acquires habits superior to the looks and frowns, and +ridicule, of the world. + + +SECT. II. + +_The trait of courage includes also courage in death--This trait +probably--from the lives which the Quakers lead--and from circumstances +connected with their religious faith_. + + +The trait of courage includes also courage in death, or it belongs to +the character of the Quakers, that they shew great indifference with +respect to death, or that they possess great intrepidity, when sensible +of the approach of it. + +I shall do no more on this subject, than state what may be the causes of +this trait. + +The dissolution of all our vital organs, and of the cessation to be, so +that we move no longer upon the face of the earth, and that our places +know us no more, or the idea of being swept away suddenly into eternal +oblivion, and of being as though we had never been, cannot fail of +itself of producing awful sensations upon our minds. But still more +awful will these be, where men believe in a future state, and where, +believing in future rewards and punishments, they contemplate what may +be their allotment in eternity. There are considerations, however, which +have been found to support men, even under these awful reflections, and +to enable them to meet with intrepidity their approaching end. + +It may certainly be admitted, that, in proportion as we cling to the +things of the world, we shall be less willing to leave them, which may +induce an appearance of fear with respect to departing out of life; and +that, in proportion as we deny the world and its pleasures, or mortify +the affections of the flesh, we shall be more willing to exchange our +earthly for spiritual enjoyments, which may induce an appearance of +courage with respect to death. + +It may be admitted again, that, in proportion as we have filled our +moral stations in life, that is, as we have done justly, and loved +mercy, and this not only with respect to our fellow-creature man, but to +the different creatures of God, there will be a conscious rectitude +within us, which will supply us with courage, when we believe ourselves +called upon to leave them. + +It may be admitted again, that, in proportion as we have endeavoured to +follow the divine commands, as contained in the sacred writings, and as +we have followed these through faith, fearless of the opinions and +persecutions of men, so as to have become sufferers for the truth, we +shall have less fear or more courage, when we suppose the hour of our +dissolution to be approaching. + +Now, without making any inviduous comparisons, I think it will follow +from hence, when we consider the Quakers to be persons of acknowledged +moral character, when we know that they deny themselves for the sake of +becoming purer beings, the ordinary pleasures and gratifications of the +world, and when almost daily experience testifies to us, that they +prefer bearing their testimony, or suffering as a Christian body, to a +compliance with customs, which they conceive the Christian religion to +disapprove, that they will have as fair pretensions to courage in the +hour of death, as any other people, as a body, from the same causes. + +There are other circumstances, however, which may be taken into +consideration in this account, and, in looking over these, I find none +of more importance than those which relate to the religious creeds which +may be professed by individuals or communities of men. + +Much, in the first place, will depend upon the circumstance, how far men +are doubtful and wavering in their creeds, or how far they depend upon +others for their faith, or how far, in consequence of reasoning or +feeling, they depend upon themselves. If their creeds are not in their +own power, they will be liable to be troubled with every wind of +doctrine that blows, and to be unhappy, when the thought of their +dissolution is brought before them. But the Quakers, having broken the +power or dominion of the priesthood, what terrors can fanaticism hold +out to them, which shall appal their courage in their later hours? + +It is also of great importance to men what may be the nature of their +creeds. Some creeds are unquestionably more comfortable to the mind than +others. To those, who believe in the doctrine of election and +reprobation, and imagine themselves to be of the elect, no creed can +give greater courage in the hour of death; and to those who either doubt +or despair of their election, none can inspire more fear. But the +Quakers, on the other hand, encourage the doctrine of perfection, or +that all may do the will of God, if they attend to the monitions of his +grace. They believe that God is good, and just, and merciful; that he +visits all with a view to this perfection without exception of persons; +that he enables all, through the sacrifice of Christ, to be saved; and +that he will make an allowance for all according to his attributes; for +that he is not willing that any should perish, but that all should +inherit eternal life. + + + + +CHAP. IX. + +_Last good trait is that of punctuality to words and engagements--This +probable from the operation of all those principles, which have produced +for the Quakers the character of a moral people--and from the operation +of their discipline._ + + +The last good trait, which I shall notice in the character of the +Quakers, is that of punctuality to their words and engagements. + +This is a very ancient trait. Judge Forster entertained this opinion of +George Fox, that if he would consent to give his word for his +appearance, he would keep it. Trusted to go at large without any bail, +and solely on his bare word, that he would be forth coming on a given +day, he never violated his promise. And he was known also to carry his +own commitment himself. In those days also, it was not unusual for +Quakers to carry their own warrants, unaccompanied by constables or +others, which were to consign them to a prison. + +But it was not only in matters which related to the laws of the land, +where the early Quakers held their words and engagements sacred. This +trait was remarked to be true of them in their concerns in trade. On +their first appearance as a society, they suffered as tradesmen, +because others, displeased with the peculiarity of their manners, +withdrew their custom from their shops. But in a little time, the great +outcry against them was, that they got the trade of the country into +their hands. This outcry arose in part from a strict execution of all +commercial appointments and agreements between them and others, and +because they never asked two prices for the commodities which they sold. +And the same character attaches to them as a commercial body, though +there may be individual exceptions, at the present day. + +Neither has this trait been confined to them as the inhabitants of their +own country. They have carried it with them wherever they have gone. The +treaty of William Penn was never violated. And the estimation, which the +Indians put upon the word of this great man and his companions, +continues to be put by them upon that of the modern Quakers in America, +so that they now come in deputations, out of their own settlements, to +consult them on important occasions. + +The existence of this trait is probable both from general and from +particular considerations. + +If, for example, any number of principles should have acted so forcibly +and in such a manner upon individuals, as to have procured for them as a +body the reputation of a moral people, they must have produced in them a +disposition to keep their faith.[37] + +[Footnote 37: This character was given by Pliny to the first Christians. +They were to avoid fraud, theft, and adultery. They were never to deny +any trust, when required to deliver it up, nor to falsify their word on +any occasion.] + +But the discipline of the Quakers has a direct tendency to produce this +feature in their character, and to make it an appendage of Quakerism. +For punctuality to words and engagements is a subject of one of the +periodical enquiries. It is therefore publicly handed to the notice of +the members, as a Christian virtue, that is expected of them, in their +public meetings for discipline. And any violation in this respect would +be deemed a breach, and cognizable as such, of the Quaker laws. + + + + +CHAP. X. + +_Imperfect traits in the Quaker character--Some of these may be called +intellectually defective traits--First imputation of this kind is, that +the Quakers are deficient in learning compared with other people--This +trait not improbable on account of their devotion to trade--and on +account of their controversies and notions about human learning--and of +other causes._ + + +The world, while it has given to the Quakers as a body, as it will have +now appeared, a more than ordinary share of virtue, has not been without +the belief that there are blemishes in their character. What these +traits or blemishes are, may be collected partly from books, partly from +conversation, and partly from vulgar sayings. They are divisible into +two kinds, into intellectually defective, and into morally defective +traits; the former relating to the understanding, the latter to the +heart. + +The first of the intellectually defective traits consists in the +imputation, that the Quakers are deficient in the cultivation of the +intellect of their children, or that, when they grow up in life, they +are found to have less knowledge than others in the higher branches of +learning. By this I mean, that they are understood to have but a +moderate classical education, to know but little of the different +branches of philosophy, and to have, upon the whole, less variety of +knowledge than others of their countrymen in the corresponding stations +of life. + +This trait seems to have originated with the world in two supposed +facts. The first is, that there has never been any literary writer of +eminence born in the society, Penn, Barclay and others having come into +it by convincement, and brought their learning with them. The second is, +that the society has never yet furnished a philosopher, or produced any +material discovery. It is rather a common remark, that if the education +of others had been as limited as that of the Quaker, we should have been +probably at this day without a Newton, and might have been strangers to +those great discoveries, whether of the art of navigation, or of the +circulation of the blood, or of any other kind, which have proved so +eminently useful to the comfort, health, and safety of many of the human +race. + +This trait will be true, or it will be false, as it is applied to the +different classes, which may be found in the society of the Quakers. The +poor, who belong to it, are all taught to read, and are therefore better +educated than the poor belonging to other bodies of men. They who +spring from parents whose situation does not entitle them to rank with +the middle class, but yet keeps them out of the former, are generally +educated, by the help of a[38] subscription, at Ackworth school, and may +be said to have more school learning than others in a similar situation +in life. The rest, whatever may be their situation, are educated wholly +at the expence of their parents, who send them either to private Quaker +seminaries, or to schools in the neighbourhood, as they judge it to be +convenient or proper. It is upon this body of the Quakers that the +imputation can only fall; and as far as these are concerned, I think it +may be said with truth, that they possess a less portion of what is +usually called liberal knowledge than others in a corresponding station +in life. There may be here and there a good classical, or a good +mathematical scholar. But in general there are but few Quakers, who +excel in these branches of learning. I ought, however, to add, that this +character is not likely to remain long with the society. For the young +Quakers of the present day seem to me to be sensible of the inferiority +of their own education, and to be making an attempt towards the +improvement of their minds, by engaging in those, which are the most +entertaining, instructive, and useful, I mean, philosophical pursuits. + +[Footnote 38: Their parents pay a small annual sum towards their board +and clothing. The rest is made up by a subscription among the society, +and by the funds of the school.] + +That deficiency in literature and science is likely to be a trait in the +character of the Quakers, we may pronounce, if we take into +consideration circumstances which have happened, and notions which have +prevailed, in this society. + +The Quakers, like the Jews of old, whether they be rich or poor, are +brought up, in obedience to their own laws, to some employment. They are +called of course at an early age from their books. It cannot therefore +be expected of them, that they should possess the same literary +character as those who spend years at our universities, or whose time is +not taken up by the concerns of trade. + +It happens also in this society, that persons of the poor and middle +classes are frequently through industry becoming rich. While these were +gaining but a moderate support, they gave their children but a moderate +education. But when they came into possession of a greater substance, +their children had finished their education, having grown up to men. + +The ancient controversy too, relative to the necessity of human learning +as a qualification for ministers of the Gospel, has been detrimental to +the promotion of literature and science among the Quakers. This +controversy was maintained with great warmth and obstinacy on both +sides, that is, by the early Quakers, who were men of learning, on the +one hand, and by the divines of our universities on the other. The less +learned in the society, who read this controversy, did not make the +proper distinction concerning it. They were so interested in keeping up +the doctrine, that learning was not necessary for the priesthood, that +they seemed to have forgotten that it was necessary at all. Hence +knowledge began to be cried down in the society; and though the +proposition was always meant to be true with respect to the priesthood +only, yet many mistook or confounded its meaning, so that they gave +their children but a limited education on that account. + +The opinions also of the Quakers relative to classical authors, have +been another cause of impeding in some degree their progress in +learning, that is, in the classical part of it. They believe these to +have inculcated a system of morality frequently repugnant to that of the +Christian religion. And the Heathen mythology, which is connected with +their writings, and which is fabulous throughout, they conceive to have +disseminated romantic notions among youth, and to have made them +familiar with fictions, to the prejudice of an unshaken devotedness to +the love of truth. + + + + +CHAP. XI. + +_Second trait is, that they are a superstitious people--Circumstances +that have given birth to this trait--Quakerism, where it is understood, +is seldom chargeable with superstition--Where it is misunderstood, it +leads to it--Subjects in which it may be misunderstood are those of the +province of the Spirit--and of dress and language--Evils to be +misapprehended from a misunderstanding of the former subject._ + + +It may seem wonderful at first sight, that persons, who have discarded +an undue veneration for the saints, and the saints days, and the relics +of the Roman Catholic religion, who have had the resolution to reject +the ceremonials of Protestants, such as baptism and the sacrament of the +supper, and who have broken the terrors of the dominion of the +priesthood, should, of all others, be chargeable with superstition. But +so it is. The world has certainly fixed upon them the character of a +superstitious people. Under this epithet much is included. It is +understood that Quakers are more ready than others to receive mystical +doctrines, more apt to believe in marvellous appearances more willing to +place virtue in circumstances, where many would place imposition; and +that, independently of all this, they are more scrupulous with respect +to the propriety of their ordinary movements, waiting for religious +impulses, when no such impulses are expected by other religious people. + +This trait of superstition is an ancient trait in the character of the +Quakers, and has arisen from the following causes. + +It has been long imagined, that where a people devote themselves so +exclusively to the influence of the Spirit as the Quakers appear to do, +they will not be sufficiently on their guard to make the proper +distinctions between imagination and revelation, and that they will be +apt to confound impressions, and to bring the divine Spirit out of its +proper sphere into the ordinary occurrences of their lives. And in this +opinion the world considers itself to have been confirmed by an +expression said to have been long in use among Quakers, which is, "that +they will do such and such things if they have liberty to do them." Now +by this expression the Quakers may mean only, that all human things are +so uncertain, and so many unforeseen events may happen, that they dare +make no promises, but they will do the things in question if no obstacle +should arise to prevent them. And this caution in language runs through +the whole society; for they seldom promise but provisionally in any +case. But the world has interpreted the expression differently, and +maintains that the Quakers mean by it, that they will do such and such +things, if they feel that they have liberty or permission from the +Spirit of God. + +Two other circumstances, which have given birth to this trait in the +character of the Quakers, are the singularities of their dress and +language. For when they are spoken of by the world, they are usually +mentioned under the name of the idolatry or superstition of the Quaker +language, or the idolatry or superstition of the Quaker dress. + +Now this trait, which has originated in the three causes that have been +mentioned, is considered by the world to have been still more confirmed +by a circumstance which happened but a few years ago, namely, that when +animal magnetism was in fashion, there were more of this society worked +upon by these delusions, than of any other. + +With respect to the truth of this trait, I believe it cannot easily be +made out, as for as animal magnetism is concerned. For though +undoubtedly there were Quakers so superstitious as to be led away on +this occasion, yet they were very few in number, and not more in +proportion than others of other religious denominations. The conduct of +these was also considered as reprehensible by the society at large, and +some pains were taken to convince them of their error, and of the +unsuitableness of such doctrines with the religion they professed. + +With respect to the truth of this trait, as it may have existed on other +occasions, it may be laid down as a position generally true, that where +Quakers understand their own constitution, it can have no place among +them. But where they do not understand it, there are few people among +whom it is more likely to exist, as we may see from the following +account. + +It is the doctrine of Quakerism on the subject of the Spirit, that it is +an infallible guide to men in their spiritual concerns. But I do not see +where it is asserted by any of the Quaker writers, that it is to be a +guide to man in all the temporal concerns of his life, or that he is to +depreciate the value of human reason. George Fox was very apprehensive +that even in matters of religion, which constitute the immediate +province of the divine Spirit, men might mistake their own enthusiastic +feelings for revelation; and he censured some, to use his own +expression, "for having gone out into imaginations." The society also +have been apprehensive of the same consequences. Hence one among other +reasons for the institution of the office of elders. It is the duty of +these to watch over the doctrine of the ministers to see that they +preach soundly, and that they do not mistake their own imaginations for +the Spirit of God, and mix his wisdom with the waywardness of their own +wills. They therefore, who believe in the doctrine of the agency of the +Spirit, and at the same time in the necessity of great caution and +watchfulness that they may not confound its operations with that of +their own fancies, will never incur the charge, which has been brought +against the body at large. But if there are others, on the other hand, +who give themselves up to this agency without the necessary caution, +they will gradually mix their impressions, and will, in time, refer most +of them to the same source. They will bring the Divine Being by degrees +out of his spiritual province, and introduce him into all the trivial +and worthless concerns of their lives. Hence a belief will arise, which +cannot fail of binding their minds in the chains of delusion and +superstition. + +It is the doctrine of Quakerism again on the subject of dress, that +plainness and simplicity are required of those who profess the Christian +character; that any deviation from these is unwarrantable, if it be made +on the plea of conformity to the fashions of the world; that such +deviation bespeaks the beginning of an unstable mind; and, if not +noticed, may lead into many evils. They therefore, who consider dress in +this point of view, will never fall into any errors of mind in their +contemplation of this subject. But if there are members, on the other +hand, who place virtue in the colour and shape of their cloathing, as +some of the Jews did in the broad phylacteries on their garments, they +will place it in lifeless appearances and forms, and bring their minds +under vassalage to a false religion. And in the same manner it may be +observed with respect to language, that if persons in the society lay an +undue stress upon it, that is, if they believe truth or falsehood to +exist inherently in lifeless words, and this contrary to the sense in +which they know they will be understood by the world, so that they dare +not pronounce them for religion's sake, they will be in danger of +placing religion where it is not, and of falling into errors concerning +it, which will be denominated superstition by the world. + +As I am now on the subject of superstition, as capable of arising from +the three causes that have been mentioned, I shall dwell for a short +time on some of the evils which may arise from one of them, or from a +misunderstanding of the doctrine of the agency of the Spirit. + +I believe it possible, in the first place, for those who receive this +doctrine without the proper limitations, that is, for those who +attribute every thing exclusively to the Spirit of God, and who draw no +line between revelation and the suggestions of their own will, to be +guilty of evil actions and to make the Divine Being the author of them +all. + +I have no doubt, for example, that many of those, who engaged in the +crusades, considered themselves as led into them by the Spirit of God. +But what true Quaker, in these days, would wish to make the Almighty the +author of all the bloodshed in the wars that were undertaken on this +account? + +The same may be said with respect to martyrdoms. For there is reason to +believe, that many who were instrumental in shedding the blood of their +fellow-creatures, because they happened to differ from them in religious +opinion, conceived that they were actuated by the divine Spirit, and +that they were doing God service, and aiding the cause of religion by +their conduct on such occasions. But what true Quaker would believe that +the Father of justice and mercy was the author of these bloody +persecutions, or that, if men were now to feel an impulse in their own +minds to any particular action, they ought to obey it, if it were to +lead them to do evil that good might come? + +The same may be said with respect to many of the bad laws, which are to +be found in the codes of the different nations of the world. Legislators +no doubt have often thought themselves spiritually guided when they made +them. And judges, who have been remarkable for appealing to the divine +Spirit in the course of their lives, have made no hesitation to execute +them. This was particularly the case with Sir Matthew Hale. If there be +any one, whose writings speak a more than ordinary belief in the agency +of the Spirit of God, it is this great and estimable man. This spirit he +consulted not only in the spiritual, but in the temporal concerns, of +his life. And yet he sentenced to death a number of persons, because +they were reputed to be witches. But what true Quaker believes in +witchcraft? or does he not rather believe, that the Spirit of God, it +rightly understood, would have protested against condemnation for a +crime, which does not exist? + +But the mischief, if a proper distinction be not made between the agency +of the Spirit and that of the will of man, may spread farther, and may +reach the man himself, and become injurious both to his health, his +intellect, and his usefulness, and the Divine Being may be made again +the author of it all. + +Many, we all know, notwithstanding their care and attention, have found +that they have gone wrong in their affairs in various instances of their +lives, that is, events have shewn that they have taken a wrong course. +But if there be those who suppose themselves in these instances to have +been acted upon by the Spirit or God, what is more likely than that they +may imagine that they have lost his favour, and that looking upon +themselves as driven by him into the wrong road, they may fall into the +belief, that they are among the condemned reprobate, and pine away, +deprived of their senses, in a state of irretrievable misery and +despair? + +Others again may injure their health, and diminish their comfort and +their utility in another way. And here I may remark, that if I have seen +what the world would call superstition among the Quakers, it has been +confined principally to a few females, upon whose constitution, more +delicate than that of men, an attention to undistinguished impressions, +brought on in a course of time by a gradual depreciation of human +reason, has acted with considerable force. I fear that some of these, in +the upright intention of their hearts to consult the Almighty on all +occasions as the sole arbiter of every thing that is good, have fostered +their own infirmities, and gone into retirements so frequent, as to have +occasioned these to interfere with the duties of domestic comfort and +social good, and that they have been at last so perplexed with doubts +and an increasing multitude of scruples, that they have been afraid of +doing many things, because they have not had a revelation for them. The +state of such worthy persons is much to be pitied. What must be their +feelings under such a conflict, when they are deserted by human reason? +What an effect will not such religious doubts and perplexities have +upon their health? What impediments do they not throw in the way of +their own utility? + +I should be sorry if by any observations, such as the preceding, I +should be thought to censure any one for the morality of his feelings. +And still more sorry should I be, if I were to be thought to have any +intention of derogating from the character of the Supreme Being. I am +far from denying his omniscience, for I believe that he sees every +sparrow that falls to the ground, and even more, that he knows the +innermost thoughts of men. I deny not his omnipresence, for I believe +that he may be seen in all his works. I deny neither his general nor his +particular providence, nor his hearing of our prayers, nor his right +direction in our spiritual concerns, nor his making of all things work +together for good to those who love him. Neither do I refuse to admit +him either into our journies, or into our walks, or into our chambers, +for he can make all the things we see subservient to our moral +instruction, and his own glory. But I should be sorry to have him +considered as a clock, that is to inform us about the times of our +ordinary movements, or to make him a prompter in all our worldly +concerns, or to oblige him to take his seat in animal magnetism, or to +reside in the midst marvellous delusions. Why should we expect a +revelation in the most trivial concerns of our lives, where our reason +will inform us? Why, like the waggoner, apply to Jupiter, when we may +remove the difficulty by putting our own shoulders to the wheels? If we +are reasonable creatures, we can generally tell, whether we ought to go +forwards or backwards, or to begin, or to postpone, whether our actions +are likely to be innocent or hurtful, or whether we are going on an +errand of benevolence or of evil. In fact, there can be no necessity for +this constant appeal to the Spirit in all our worldly concerns, while we +possess our reason as men. And unless some distinction be made between +the real agency of God and our own volitions, which distinction true +Quakerism suggests, we shall be liable to be tossed to and fro by every +wind that blows, and to become the creatures of a superstition, that may +lead us into great public evils, while it may be injurious to our health +and intellect, and to the happiness and utility of our lives. + + + + +CHAP. XII. + +_Morally defective traits--First of these is that of obstinacy--This +was attached also to the early Christians--No just foundation for the +existence of this trait._ + + +I come now to the consideration of those which I have denominated +morally defective traits. + +The first trait of this kind, which is attached to the character of the +Quakers, is that of an obstinate spirit. + +This trait is a very ancient one. It was observed in the time of George +Fox, of the members of this society, that they were as "stiff as trees," +and this idea concerning them has come down to the present day. + +The origin of this trait must be obvious to all. The Quakers, as we have +seen, will neither pay tithes, nor perform military service, nor +illuminate their houses, like other people, though they are sure of +suffering by their refusal to comply with custom in these cases. Now, +when individuals, few in number, become singular, and differ from the +world at large, it is generally considered that the majority are in the +right, and that the minority are in the wrong. But obstinacy may be +defined to be a perseverance in that which is generally considered to be +wrong. + +This epithet has attached, and will attach to those who resist the +popular opinion, till men are better educated, or till they lose their +prejudices, or have more correct and liberal notions on religion. The +early Christians were themselves accused of obstinacy, and this even by +the enlightened Pliny. He tells, us, that they would not use wine and +frankincense before the statues of the emperors; and that "there was no +question that for such obstinacy they deserved punishment."[39] + +[Footnote 39: "Pervicaciam certe et inflexibitem obstinationem debere +puniri."] + +In judging of the truth of this trait, two queries will arise. First, +whether the Quakers, in adhering rigidly to those singularities which +have produced it, are really wrong as a body of Christians? And, +secondly, whether they do not conscientiously believe themselves to be +right? + +In the case of the early Christians, which has been mentioned, we, who +live at this day, have no doubt that Pliny put a false estimate on their +character. We believe them to have done their duty, and we believe also +that they considered themselves as doing it, when they refused divine +honours to the emperors. And the action, therefore, which Pliny +denominated obstinacy, would, if it had been left to us to name it, have +been called inflexible virtue, as arising out of a sense of the +obligations imposed upon them by the Christian religion. + +In the same manner we may argue with respect to the Quakers. Who, for +example, if he will try to divest himself of the prejudices of custom, +and of the policy of the world, feels such a consciousness of his own +powers as positively to pronounce, that the notions of the Quakers are +utterly false, as to the illicitness of wars under the Christian system? +The arguments of the Quakers on this subject are quite as good, in my +apprehension, as any that I have heard advanced on the other side of the +question. These arguments too are unquestionably much more honourable to +Christianity, and much more consistent with the nature and design of the +Gospel dispensation. They are supported also by the belief and the +practice of the earliest Christians. They are arguments again, which +have suggested themselves to many good men, who were not Quakers, and +which have occasioned doubts in some instances, and conviction in +others, against the prejudice of education and the dominion of custom. +And if the event should ever come to pass, which most Christians expect, +that men will one day or other turn their swords and their spears into +ploughshares and pruning-hooks, they, who live in that day, will applaud +the perseverance of the Quakers in this case, and weep over the +obstinacy and inconsistency of those who combated their opinions. + +But the great question after all is, whether the Quakers believe +themselves in this or in any other of their religious scruples, to be +right, as a Christian body? If there are those among them who do not, +they give into the customs of the world, and either leave the society +themselves, or become disowned. It is therefore only a fair and a just +presumption, that all those who continue in the society, and who keep up +to these scruples to the detriment of their worldly interest, believe +themselves to be right. But this belief of their own rectitude, even if +they should happen to be wrong, is religion to them, and ought to be +estimated so by us in matters in which an interpretation of Gospel +principles is concerned. This is but an homage due to conscience, after +all the blood that has been shed in the course of Christian +persecutions, and after all the religious light that has been diffused +among us since the reformation of our religion. + + + + +CHAP. XIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_Next trait is that of a money-getting spirit--Probability of the truth +of this trait examined--An undue eagerness after money not unlikely to +be often the result of the frugal and commercial habits of the +society--but not to the extent, as insisted on by the world--This +eagerness, wherever it exists, seldom chargeable with avarice._ + + +The next trait in the character of the Quakers is that of a +money-getting spirit, or of a devotedness to the acquisition of money in +their several callings and concerns. + +This character is considered as belonging so generally to the +individuals of this society, that it is held by the world to be almost +inseparable from Quakerism. A certain writer has remarked, that they +follow their concerns in pursuit of riches, "with a step as steady as +time, and with an appetite as keen as death." + +I do not know what circumstances have given birth to this trait. That +the Quakers are a thriving body we know. That they may also appear, when +known to be a domestic people, and to have discarded the amusements of +the world, to be more in their shops and counting-houses than others, +is probable. And it is not unlikely, that, in consequence of this +appearance, connected with this worldly prosperity, they may be thought +to be more intent than others upon the promotion of their pecuniary +concerns. There are circumstances, however, belonging to the character +and customs of the society, which would lead to an opposite conclusion. +The Quakers, in the first place, are acknowledged to be a charitable +people. But if so, they ought not to be charged, at least, with that +species of the money-getting spirit, which amounts to avarice. It is +also an undoubted fact, that they give up no small portion of their +time, and put themselves to no small expence, on account of their +religion. In country places they allot one morning in the week, and in +the towns generally two, besides the Sunday, to their religious worship. +They have also their monthly meetings, and after these their quarterly, +to attend, on account of their discipline. And this they do frequently +at a great distance, and after a considerable absence as tradesmen, from +their homes. I do not mean to insinuate by this latter instance, that +men become pious, and therefore proof against the influence of money, +exactly in proportion as they attend their religious meetings, but that, +where they are voraciously intent upon the getting of money, they could +hardly be expected to make such a sacrifice of their time. + +But whatever may be the appearance on either side, the question is, +whether the imputation of the trait, which is now under our +consideration, be founded in fact. What circumstances make in favour of +it? What circumstances make against it? And which of these preponderate +on the whole? + +We may say then, at the first sight, that the precepts of Quakerism make +decidedly against it. And we may say again, that it ought to be +expected, that all those principles and circumstances, which have an +influence in the production of moral character, or of such a character +as belongs to the Quakers as a body, should work together either towards +its prevention or its cure. + +On the other hand, if we examine the situation of the society, we shall +find circumstances, the operation of which is directly in favour of such +a trait. + +And first, in looking into the human heart, we seem to discover a +circumstance, which, on account of the situation alluded to, may operate +as a spring in producing it. Men, generally speaking, love consequence. +Now the Quakers, though they have consequence in their own society, have +none in the world. They can be neither legislators nor magistrates. They +can take no titles to distinguish them. They pass therefore in the +world, like the common and undistinguished herd, except from the +circumstances of their dress. But riches give all men consequence. And +it is not clear to me, but that this circumstance may have its operation +on the minds of some who are called Quakers, in contributing to the +production of the money-getting spirit, inasmuch as it may procure them +a portion of estimation, which they cannot otherwise have, while they +remain in their own body. + +In looking again into the human heart, we find another, and this a +powerful spring, connected with the situation of the society, for the +production of such a trait. + +The Quakers, as I have observed before, are mostly in trade. Now they +are generally a sedate, thoughtful, sober, diligent, and honest people. +It is not then too much to say, with these qualifications, that they +will be as successful in trade as others. Hence their incomes will be as +great, in proportion to their capitals, as those of others, from the +same source. + +But let us look for a moment at their outgoings. They neither spend nor +lose their money at cards, or at horse-races, or by any other species of +gaming. They do not waste their substance either in drinking at taverns +or at home. Not having, in general, an enlarged education, or a taste +for literature, they have no expensive libraries. They buy no costly +paintings. They neither powder their hair, nor dress in a splendid +manner. They use no extravagant furniture. They keep no packs of hounds +for their diversion. They are never seen at the theatres. They have +neither routes, balls, nor music meetings. They have neither expensive +liveries nor equipages. Hence it must follow, that their outgoings, as +far as their living is concerned, cannot in general be as great as those +of others in a similar condition of life. But if their inlets are +greater than their outlets of money, when compared with those of other +persons, a greater overplus of money beyond the expences of living, will +be the constant result, or there will be a greater increasing +accumulation of money, upon the whole, than falls within the possession +of others. Now a question arises here, founded on a knowledge of the +infirmity of our nature. Are men likely, in general, constituted as they +are, to see the golden idol constantly rising in dimensions before them, +and to refrain front worshipping it, or, are they likely to see it +without a corruption of their moral vision? It is observed[40] by one of +the scriptural writers, "A merchant shall hardly keep himself from doing +wrong, and a huckster shall not be free from sin." And where is it, that +this old saying, except the mind be strongly fortified by religion, will +not be found equally true in the present, as in former times? The truth +is, that the old maxim, Creseit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia +creseit, is a just one. That is, it is true, "that the coming in of +money in an undue proportion begets the love of it", that the love of +money again leads to the getting of more; that the getting of more again +generally increases the former love. And hence a round is kept up of +circumstances and feelings, till a money-getting spirit creeps into the +character of him, who is placed in a situation so unfortunate for the +purity of his heart. + +[Footnote 40: Ecclesiasticus xxvi. 29.] + +These then are the acting and the counteracting circumstances on both +sides. Which of the two are likely to be predominant, we must +conjecture. When men have become full grown Quakers, the latter will +lose their power. But where they have not (and it is to be presumed that +there are many in the society who have not reached this stature, and +many again who bear only the name of their profession) they will +frequently prevail. I own I fear that precepts, though there may be a +general moral bias, will not always be found successful against those, +which are considered to be the most powerful of the temptations, to +which our nature is exposed. I own, when I consider that the Quakers, in +consequence of their commercial and frugal habits, have greater +pecuniary accumulations before their eyes than others in a similar +condition of life, when I consider how few are able to bear these +accumulations without moral injury to themselves, and that even the +early Christians began to relax in their character when they begun to +be prosperous, I am of opinion, that there is some foundation far the +existence of such a spirit, though not to the extent, as insisted on by +the world; or, that there is in the society, notwithstanding the many +bright and amiable exceptions that are to be found in it, greater +eagerness after wealth than is consistent with its religious profession. +And to this opinion I am inclined from another consideration, which +cannot be overlooked in the present case. The book of Extracts itself +acknowledges the existence of such a spirit, for it characterises it +under the name of "hastening to be rich," and it calls it "a growing +evil." + +But when I say that I so for accede to the opinion of the world, as to +allow that the money-getting spirit may be fixed upon a part of the +society, I feel that I ought to make a proper distinction concerning it. +I must observe, that the money-getting spirit, wherever it may be +chargeable upon Quakers, seldom belongs to that species which is called +avarice. It is by no means incongruous to suppose, that there may be in +the same person an unreasonable love of money, and yet a shew of +benevolence. The money-getting spirit will have a different effect, as +it operates upon different persons. Upon those, who have been brought up +in an ignorant and unfeeling manner, it will operate to make them hoard +their substance, and to keep it exclusively to themselves. But it will +not always hinder those who have been humanely educated, though it may +lead them to unreasonable accumulations, from dispensing a portion of +their gains. In the first instance it is highly criminal, because it +keeps the whole of its talent in a napkin. In the second, though less +criminal, it is greatly to be deplored, but more particularly in a +Quaker, who, making a higher profession of Christianity than many +others, ought to give to the world the example of a purer mind. + + +SECT. II. + +_Farther observations on the subject of the former trait--Practicable +methods suggested for its extirpation--These methods not destructive, +but promotive, of the temporal interests of the members of this society, +and consistent with the religion they profess._ + + +As the Quakers appear to me, in consequence of their commercial and +frugal habits, to be in danger of contracting a money-getting spirit, +and as this spirit is the worst feature that can exist in the Quaker +character, I shall allot a few pages to the farther consideration of the +subject, with a view of the prevention of such an evil. + +That it is the worst feature that can exist in the character of the +society, I repeat. It is worse than a want of knowledge, or than +superstition, because these relate to the understanding, while this is +confined to the heart. It renders the system of the moral education of +the Quakers almost nugatory. For what is the use of keeping the mind in +a state of spiritual purity by means of prohibitions, or by attempting +to shut it out from the knowledge of corruptive amusements, if it be +afterwards to be rendered impure by the love of money? It occasions them +again to bear their testimony as it were against their own religion. For +a Quaker is not in the situation of on ordinary person. He looks upon +himself as a highly professing Christian; as one, who is not to conform +to the fashions of the world; as one, who is to lead a life of +self-denial; as one, who is to go forward in virtue, his belief being +that of a possibility of perfection even in the present life. He +considers himself too as a representative of the early Christians, and +holds himself ready to follow them by the bearing of his testimony, into +suffering, and even unto death. But what Christian can harbour a +money-getting spirit, or be concerned in an extensive accumulation of +wealth? If a Quaker therefore should go into the common road, and fall +down before the idol mammon, like any other ordinary person, how can the +world give him any pretension but to an ordinary religion? + +My object in the present consideration of the subject, will be to shew +the Quakers in general, and those in particular who may need it, some +practical cure for this evil, and to convince them, that the mode of +effecting it will not be detrimental to the temporal interests of their +families, but promotive of their spiritual, and consistent with the +religion they profess. + +The first method, which I would recommend to those who are in trade, and +who know their own habits of life, and the extent of their families, +would be to fix upon a certain sum, which they may think sufficient for +a future decent and moderate competency, and to leave off business, as +soon as this should be obtained. Such a step would be useful. It would +be making room for others to live as well as themselves. It would be +honourable, for it would be generous. And it would operate as a certain +preventive of the money-getting spirit, as well as of the imputation of +it. For if such a retreat from trade, were laid down and known as a +general custom of the society, the Quakers might bid their hearts rise +in defiance against the corruptions of money, and their reputation +against the clamours of the world. + +This step, hard and difficult as it may appear to those who are thriving +in the world, is, notwithstanding, not a novel one, if we may judge +either by the example of many of the pure minded Christians of other +denominations, or by that of many estimable persons in this society. +John Woolman, among many others, was uneasy on account of his business +"growing cumbersome," for so he expresses it, lest it should hurt the +purity of his mind. And he contracted it, leaving himself only enough of +it, and this by the labour of his own hands, for a decent support. And +here I might mention other individuals of this society, if I had no +objection to offend the living by praise, who, following his example, +have retired upon only a moderate competency, though in the way of +great accumulations, for no other reason than because they were afraid, +lest such accumulations should interfere with their duty, or injure +their character, as Christians. + +But if this measure should not be approved of under an idea that men +ought to have employments for their time, or that in these days of +increasing taxes and of progressively expensive living, they cannot +specify the sum that may be sufficient for their future wants, I have +another to propose, in consequence of which they may still follow their +commercial pursuits, and avoid the imputation in question. I mean that +the Quakers ought to make it a rule, after the annual expences of living +have been settled, to lay by but small savings. They ought never to +accustom their eyes to behold an undue accumulation of money, but +liberally to deal it out in charity to the poor and afflicted in +proportion to their gains, thus making their occupations a blessing to +mankind. No other measure will be effectual but this, if the former be +not resolved upon, while they continue in trade. Their ordinary charity, +it is clear, will not do. Large as it may have been, it has not been +found large enough to prove a corrective of this spirit in the opinion +of the world. Indeed, it matters not how large a charitable donation may +seem, if we view it either as a check upon this spirit, or as an act of +merit, but how large it is, when compared with the bulk of the savings +that are left. A hundred pounds, given away annually in benevolence, may +appear something, and may sound handsomely in the ears of the public. +But if this sum be taken from the savings of two thousand, it will be +little less than a reproach to the donor as a Christian. In short, no +other way than the estimation of the gift by the surplus-saving will do +in the case in question. But this would certainly be effectual to the +end proposed. It would entirely keep down the money-getting spirit. It +would also do away the imputation of it in the public mind. For it is +impossible in this case, that the word Quakerism should not become +synonimous with charity, as it ought to be, if Quakerism be a more than +ordinary profession of the Christian religion. + +Now these methods are not chimerical, but practicable. There can be no +reasonable objection against them, because they allow of the acquisition +of a decent and moderate competency. The only one that can be started +will be, that Quakers may injure the temporal interests of their +children, or that they cannot, upon this plan, leave them independent at +their deaths ... + +That independence for children is the general aim of the world, I know +well. But I know also, in reply to this objection, that Christianity has +no such word as independence in her book. For of what do people wish to +make their children independent? Certainly not of Providence, for that +would be insanity indeed. Of the poor then shall I say? That is +impossible, for how could they get their daily bread? Of the rich, then, +like themselves? That would be folly, for where would they form their +friendships or their connubial connections, in which they must place a +portion of the happiness of their lives? Do they wish then to make them +independent of society at large, so as not to do it good? That is +against all religion. In short it is impossible, while we exist in this +life, to be independent one of another. We are bound by Christianity in +one great chain, every link of which is to support the next; or the band +is broken. But if they mean by independence such a moneyed situation as +shall place their children out of the reach of the frowns, and crosses, +and vicissitudes of the world, so that no thought or care shall be +necessary for the means of their own livelihood, I fear they are +procuring a situation for them, which will be injurious even to their +temporal interests as men. + +The matter then seems to me to be brought to this question, whether it +is better, I mean as a general proposition, to bring up children with +the expectation of such a moderate portion of wealth, that they shall +see the necessity of relying upon their own honest endeavours and the +Divine support, or to bring them up with such notions of independence, +that, in the pride and exultation of their hearts, they may be induced +to count themselves mighty, and to lose sight of the power and +providence of God? + +If we were to look into the world for an answer to this question, we +should find no greater calamity than that of leaving to children an +affluent independence. Such persons, when grown up, instead of becoming +a blessing, are generally less useful than others. They are frequently +proud and haughty, fancying themselves omnipotent, they bid defiance to +the opinions of the virtuous part of the community. To the laws of +honour and fashion they pay a precise obedience, but trample under foot, +as of little consequence, the precepts of the Christian religion. Having +sensual gratifications in their power, they indulge to excess. By +degrees they ruin their health and fortunes, and get wisdom by +experience, when it is too late to use it. How many young persons have I +known, and I wish I could make a different statement, whose ruin +originated wholly in a sense of their own independence of the world! + +Neither, if we look into the society of the Quakers, shall we find a +different account. It is undoubtedly true, though there are many amiable +exceptions, that the worst examples in it are generally among the +children of the rich. These presently take wings, and fly away, so that, +falling into the corruptive and destructive fashions of the times, their +parents have only been heaping up riches; not knowing who were to gather +them. And here it may be remarked, that the Quaker education, by means +of its prohibitions, greatly disqualifies its young members, who may +desert from the society, from acting prudently afterwards. They will be, +in general, but children, and novices in the world. Kept within bounds +till this period, what is more probable than that, when they break out +of them, they will bunch-into excess. A great river may be kept in its +course by paying attention to its banks, but if you make a breach in +these restrictive walls, you let it loose, and it deluges the plains +below. + +In short, whether we turn our eyes to the Quaker society, or to the +world at large, we cannot consider an affluent independence as among the +temporal advantages of youth. And as they, who only leave their children +a moderate portion of substance, so that they shall see the necessity of +relying upon their own honest endeavours, and the Divine support, act +wisely in their own generation, so they act only consistently with the +religion they profess. For what does the religion of the Quakers hold +out to them as the best attainment in life? Is it not spiritual +knowledge? Is it not that knowledge, which shall fit them best for the +service of their Maker? But such knowledge is utterly unattainable while +a money-getting spirit exists; for it has been declared by the highest +authority, that we cannot serve God and mammon. + + + + +CHAP. XIV. + +_Another trait is that of a want of animation or affection--This an +appearance only, and not a reality, arising from a proper subjugation of +the passions--from the prohibitions relative to dress--and address--and +the amusements of the world._ + + +It is said next of the Quakers, that they are a cold and inanimate +people; and that they have neither the ordinary affection, nor the +gradation of affection, of other people. + +I may immediately pronounce upon this trait, that it is merely an +outward appearance. The Quakers have as warm feelings as the rest of +their countrymen. Their love of their fellow-creatures, more conspicuous +in them than in many others, as has been amply shewn, gives them a claim +to the possession of warm and affectionate feeling. The Quakers too have +the character of a domestic people; but surely, if they do not possess +affection, and this in a very high degree, they must have miserable +homes. There is indeed a want of gradation in their affections, which +may be traced upon some occasions. In making their wills, for example, +they are not apt to raise up an eldest son to the detriment of the rest +of their offspring. And this certainly is a proof, that they do not +possess the gradation of affection of many other people! Happy is it +for their own comfort and the welfare of their families, that they give +this proof to the world of this equal affection for their children. + +That this trait is only an appearance, and not a reality, I shall shew, +by staring many outward circumstances, in the Quaker constitution, which +may be preventive of apparent animation, but which can have no influence +on the heart. + +We must all of us be sensible, that both opinions and customs have an +influence on the warmth or coldness of our characters. Who would expect, +if two faithful portraits could have been handed down to us from +antiquity, to find the same gravity or coldness of countenance and +manners in an Athenian, as in a Spartan? And in the same manner who can +expect, that there will not be a difference in the appearance of Quakers +and other people? + +The truth is, that the discipline and education of the Quakers produce +an appearance of a want of animation, and this outward appearance the +world has falsely taken as a symbol of the character of the heart. Can +we expect that a due subjugation of the passions, which is insisted upon +in true Quaker families, will give either warmth to the countenance, or +spirit to the outward manners? Do not the passions animate, and give a +tone to the characters of men? Can we see then the same variety of +expression in the faces of the Quakers as in those of others on this +account? The actions of men, again, enliven their outward appearances, +but Quakers, being forbidden to use the address of the world, can assume +no variety of action in their intercourse with others. The amusements, +again, of the world, such as of music and the theatre, reach the mind, +and, animating it, give a greater expression to the countenance, on +which the contemplation afterwards produces a similar though a slighter +effect. But in what Quakers can you see sensibility from the same cause? +The dress too, of the members of this society gives them an appearance +of gravity and dulness. It makes them also shy of their fellow citizens. +But gravity, and dulness, and shyness, have generally, each of them, the +appearance of coldness of manners. + + + + +CHAP. XV. + +_Another trait is that of evasiveness in speech--This an appearance +only, arising from a peculiar regard to truth--and from a caution about +the proper use of words, induced by circumstances in the discipline, and +by the peculiarities in the Quaker language._ + + +It is alleged against the Quakers, as another bad trait in their +character, that they are not plain and direct, but that they are evasive +in their answers to any questions that may be asked them. + +There is no doubt but that the world, who know scarcely any thing about +the Quakers, will have some reason, if they judge from their outward +manner of expression, to come to such a conclusion. There is often a +sort of hesitation in their speech, which has the appearance of +evasiveness. But though there may be such an appearance, their answers +to questions are full and accurate when finally given; and +unquestionably there is no intention in them either to hold back any +thing, or to deceive. + +This outward appearance, strange to relate, arises in part from an +amiable trait in the character of the Quakers!! Their great desire to +speak the truth, and not to exceed it, occasions often a sort of +doubtfulness of speech. It occasions them also, instead of answering a +question immediately, to ask other questions, that they may see the true +bearings of the thing intended to be known. The same appearance of +doubt runs also through the whole society in all those words which +relate to promises, from the same cause. For the Quakers, knowing the +uncertainty of all human things, and the impossibility of fulfilling but +provisionally, seldom, as I have observed before, promise any thing +positively, that they may not come short of the truth. The desire +therefore of uttering the truth has in part brought this accusation upon +their heads. + +Other circumstances also to be found within the Quaker constitution have +a tendency to produce the same effect. + +In their monthly and quarterly and annual meetings for discipline, they +are taught by custom to watch the propriety of the expressions that are +used in the wording of their minutes, that these may accurately +represent the sense of the persons present. And this habit of caution +about the use of words in the affairs of their own society naturally +begets a caution concerning it also in their intercourse with the world. + +The peculiarities of their language produce also a similar +circumspection. For where people are restrained from the use of +expressions which are gene rally adopted by others, and this in the +belief that, as a highly professing people, they ought to be watchful +over their words as well as their actions, a sort of hesitation will +accompany them, or a sort of pause will be perceptible, while they are +choosing as it were the proper words for a reply to any of the questions +that may be asked them. + + + + +CHAP. XVI. + +_Another trait is that of shyness--This an appearance only, arising from +the former trait--and from that of coldness of manners--and from the +great sobriety of the Quaker character._ + + +Another bad trait, which the world has fixed upon the Quakers, is that +of being a sly people. This trait has been long given them. We find it +noticed by Pope: + + "The Quaker sly, the Presbyterian sour." + +This charge is grounded on appearances. It arises in part from the last +mentioned trait in their character; for if men be thought cautious in +the use of their words, and evasive in their answers, whether they be +so or not, they will be marked as sly. + +It arises again from the trait of want of animation or of coldness of +manners. For if men of good understanding, in consequence of the +subjugation of their passions, appear always to be cool, they will have +an appearance of wariness. + +It arises again from the great sobriety of the Quakers. For where men +are always sober, they appear to be always on their guard, and men, who +are always on their guard, are reputed cunning. + +These circumstances of coolness and sobriety, when called into action, +will only confirm the world in the opinion of the existence of the trait +in question. For it will not be easy to deceive a man of but moderate +understanding, who never loses his senses either by intoxication or by +passion. And what man, in such habits, will not make a better bargain +than one who is hot in his temper, or who is accustomed to be +intoxicated? + +Hence the trait arises from appearances, which are the result of +circumstances, favourable to the morality of the Quaker character. + + + + +CHAP. XVII. + +_Last bad trait is a disregard of truth--Apparent rise of this +trait--Falsehood of it probable from considerations on the language of +the Quakers--from their prohibition of detraction--their rejection of +romantic books--their punctuality to words and engagements--and their +ideas with respect to the unlawfulness of civil oaths._ + + + +The last charge against the Quakers will be seen in a vulgar expression, +which should have had no place in this book, if it had not been a +saying in almost every body's mouth. The expression, is, "Though they +will not swear, they will lie." + +This trait has arisen in part from those different circumstances, which +have produced the appearance of evasiveness. For if people are thought +evasive, they will always be thought liars. Evasiveness and lying are +almost synonimous terms. It is not impossible also, if Quakers should +appear to give a doubtful answer, that persons may draw false +conclusions from thence, and therefore may suppose them to have spoken +falsely. These two circumstances of an apparent evasiveness, and +probably of a deduction of conclusions from doubtful or imaginary +premises, have, I apprehend, produced an appearance, which the world has +interpreted into evil. + +No trait, however, can be more false than this. I know of no people, who +regard truth more than the Quakers. Their whole system bends and directs +to truth. One of the peculiarities of their language, or their rejection +of many of the words which other people use, because they consider them +as not religiously appropriate to the objects of which they are the +symbols, serves as a constant admonition to them to speak the truth. + +Their prohibition of all slanderous reports, as mentioned in a former +volume, has a tendency to produce the same effect; for detraction is +forbidden partly on the idea, that all such rumours on character may be +false. + +They reject also the reading of plays and novels, partly under a notion, +that the subjects and circumstances in these are fictitious, and that a +taste therefore, for the reading, of these, if acquired, might +familiarize their youth with fictions, and produce in them a romantic +and lying spirit. + +It is a trait, again, in the character of the Quakers, as we have seen, +that they are remarkable for their punctuality in the performance of +their words and engagements. But such punctuality implies neither more +nor less, than that the words spoken by Quakers are generally fulfilled; +and, if they are generally fulfilled, then the inference is, that all +such words have been generally truths. + +To this I may add, that the notions of the Quakers on the subject of +oaths, and their ideas of the character which it becomes them to sustain +in life, must have a powerful effect upon them in inducing an attention +to the truth; for they consider Jesus Christ to have abolished civil +oaths, because he wished to introduce a more excellent system than that +of old, that is, because he meant it to be understood by his disciples, +that he laid such an eternal obligation upon them to speak truth, that +oaths were to be rendered unnecessary, where persons make a profession +of his religion. + + + + +CHAP. XVIII. + + +SECT. I. + +_Character of the Quaker women--This differs a little from that of the +men--Women share in the virtues of the former--but do not always partake +of all their reputed imperfections--are not chargeable with a want of +knowledge--nor with the money-getting spirit--Modesty a feature in their +character._ + + + +Having now amply enquired into the character of the men, I shall say a +few words on the subject of that of the women of this society. For +though it might be supposed at the first sight (the Quakers being cast +as it were in one mould) that the same character would attach to both, +yet it must be obvious, on farther consideration, that it cannot be +wholly applicable to the female sex. + +It may be laid down as a position, that the women of this society share +in the virtues of the men. They possess their benevolence, their +independence of mind, and the other good traits in their moral +character. But they do not always partake of all their reputed +imperfections. + +The want of knowledge, which was reckoned among the failings of the +men, can have no room as a charge against the women. + +For, first, let us compare the Quaker women with the Quaker men. Now it +generally happens in the world, that men have more literary knowledge +than women, but this is not so generally the case in this society. As +the women here are not taken from their books, like the men, at an early +age, and put into trade, they have no bar, like these, to the farther +improvement of their minds. They advance often in the acquisition of +knowledge, while the latter, in consequence of their attention to +business, are kept stationary. Hence it almost uniformly happens, that +they are quite as well informed, and that they have as great a variety +of knowledge as these, so that they suffer no disparagement, as the women +of the world do, by a comparison with the other sex. + +Neither will the Quaker women be considered as deficient in knowledge, +if compared with women of other religious denominations. It is too much +the practice, but particularly in the higher circles, to educate females +for shew. We too seldom see a knowledge of the domestic duties. To dance +well, to sing well, and to play well, these are the usual +accomplishments that are insisted on, and they are insisted upon with an +earnestness, as if they included all the valuable purposes of life. Thus +the best part of youth is spent in the acquirement of trivial things: +or rather the acquirement of such things takes up so much time, as to +leave but little for the moral and intellectual improvement of the mind. +The great object, on the other hand, of the education of the Quaker +females, is utility and not shew. They are taught domestic economy, or +the cares and employments of a house. They are taught to become good +wives and good mothers. Prohibited the attainments of music and dancing, +and many of the corruptive amusements of the world, they have ample time +for the improvement of the understanding. Thus they have in general as +good an education as other females, as far as literary acquirements are +concerned; so that, whether they are compared with Quaker men, or with +the other women of the island, they will not incur the imputation of a +deficiency of knowledge. + +It must be obvious too, that the money-getting spirit, which the world +has fixed upon as a trait in the character of some of the men, can +seldom be a trait in that of the women of this society. For men are the +principals in trade. They lay their plans for the getting of money. They +see the accumulating surplus rise. They handle it. They count it. They +remember it. The women, on the other hand, see it only in the +disposition of their husbands or parents, who make probably a larger +allowance for domestic wants or gratifications than before. Hence a +charge cannot be so frequently brought against them of a want of that +spiritual mindedness, which is the great characteristic of Quakerism, as +they have but little to do with the mammon of the world. + +To these exceptions in Quaker women from the reputed imperfections of +Quaker men, I cannot help adding in this place, that the females of this +society are peculiarly distinguishable for that which has been at all +times considered as one of the brightest ornaments of their sex. Modesty +is particularly conspicuous in their looks and in their whole outward +demeanour. It is conspicuous in their conversation. It is conspicuous +also in their dress. And here it may not be improper to observe, that, +whatever objections may be made to the Quaker apparel, it is estimable, +as far as it gives this appearance of modesty to the females who wear +it, or rather as far as it hinders them from wearing the loose and +indelicate garments, which are frequently worn, without any scruple, by +many of the females of the world. + + + +SECT. II. + +_Quaker women, besides their private, have a public character--Low +light in which women have been held--Importance given them by +chivalry--and by the revival of learning in Europe--and by the +introduction of Christianity--but still held in an inferior +light--Quakers have given them their due importance in society--Influence +of their public character on their minds._ + + +The Quaker women, independently of their private, have that which no +other body of women have, a public character. This is a new era in +female history. I shall therefore make a few observations on this, +before I proceed to another subject. + +It is melancholy, when we look into the history of women, to see the low +estimation in which they have been held from the earliest times. It is +possible, because they have not possessed the strength of constitution, +that they may have been thought not to have had the intellect of men. It +is possible, because domestic cares and the rearing of children have +been consigned to them, that other occupations may not have been +considered as falling within the province of their stations. But +whatever may have been the causes, polygamy or concubinage has +unquestionably been the greatest, in hindering women from occupying an +useful, dignified, and important station in society. This custom has +held them up as little better than slaves, or than living toys or +play-things. And this custom has prevailed over a great portion of the +globe from times of the earliest antiquity to the present day. + +Among the many circumstances which contributed to give importance to +women in Europe, we may reckon the introduction of chivalry. Honour and +humanity were the characteristics of this institution. Hence weakness +was to be protected by it. And as weakness was more particularly the lot +of women, so these became more peculiarly the objects of its care. Hence +women began to feel a consequence, which had been hitherto denied them. +They were treated with politeness and tenderness by all, and men began +to be even solicitous of their applause. But though this was the case, +chivalry did not elevate them beyond a certain height. It rendered a +polite attention to them essential. But this attention was an homage to +the weakness of females, and not to their intellect. It presupposed no +capacity of usefulness in them, for every thing, in fact, was to be done +for them, and they were to do but little for themselves. + +The revival of learning in the twelfth century was another cause of +adding to the importance of women. As men became more learned, they +began to respect the power of the human understanding. They began to be +acquainted, by means of history, with the talents of women in former +ages. They began to give a better education to their families. These +circumstances produced a more enlarged opinion of female genius. Hence +learning became an instrument of giving new consequence to women. But it +gave it to them on a principle different from that of chivalry: for +whereas chivalry insisted upon a polite attention to them on account of +the weakness of their constitutions, learning insisted upon it on +account of the strength of their understanding, or because they were +intellectual and reasonable beings. But that which contributed most to +make women important in society, was the introduction of the Christian +religion. By the mild spirit which it diffused, it produced a certain +suavity of behaviour towards them. By the abolition of polygamy it +allowed of no division of a man's love among many women, but limited it +to one. Thus it made one woman dearer than another, and of course every +individual woman of consequence. By the abolition of polygamy, it added +to their consequence again, by raising them from the rank of slaves to +that of the companions of men. This importance it increased again by the +inculcation of specific duties towards them, and by the doctrine, that, +as all, without exception, were equally accountable for their actions, +and the Divine Being was no respecter of persons, so all, whether men or +women, were of equal importance in his sight. + +But though Christianity has operated, as it always will, where it is +felt in the heart, to the production of a tender attention to women, and +to the procuring of an honourable station for them in society, we have +yet to lament, that this operation has not been more general, +considering our public profession of this religion, than we find it at +the present day. Women are still seldom appreciated as they ought to be. +They are still weighed in a different scale from men. Their education is +still limited, as if their understandings, notwithstanding the +honourable testimony which history has borne concerning them, were +incapable of high attainments. If homage be paid to their beauty, very +little is paid to their opinions. Limits also are assigned to the sphere +of their utility. To engage in other pursuits than they do would be +thought strange. In short, the education they receive marks the inferior +situation for which they are considered to be designed. Its tendency is +mostly to outward shew. Formed like dolls or play-things, which are +given to children to captivate by outside appearances, they are +generally rendered incapable of exhibiting great talents, or of +occupying an important station in life. + +But it seems to have been reserved for the Quakers us a religious body, +to insist upon that full practical treatment and estimation of women, +which ought to take place wherever Christianity is professed. They have +accordingly given to the females of their own society their proper +weight in the scale of created beings. Believing them to have adequate +capacities, and to be capable of great usefulness, they have admitted +them to a share in the administration of almost all the offices which +belong to their religious discipline, so that, independently of their +private, they have a public character, like the men. + +In the first volume, I had occasion to observe, when treating on the +subject of the discipline, that representatives were chosen by the men +out of their own body to the different meetings which were then named. +Just so it is with the Quaker women. Representatives are appointed out +of these by the other women on similar occasions. I stated also that, at +certain times, the men assembled by themselves; that they discussed the +business that came before them; that they replied to those who supported +opposite opinions to their own; and that the young men were present +during these discussions. So it is with the women. They sit in council +by themselves. They argue and reply in like manner. The young females +are also present. I stated also, that during these meetings of the men, +one of them held the office of drawing up and recording the minutes of +the proceedings or resolutions that had taken place. The women also +appoint one of their own body to the same office. I stated again, that, +in these meetings of the men, some were chosen as a committee to act in +particular cases. So also are women chosen to act as a committee by +their own meetings. I explained the nature of the office of overseer, +and I observed that there were overseers among the men. There are also +overseers among the women. I explained the nature of the office of +elder, and I observed that there were elders among the men. The women +have their elders likewise. The men were said to preach as in other +societies. The women are permitted to preach also. In short, if the men +consider themselves to be qualified for any office belonging their +religious discipline, they believe their women to be equally capable of +holding the same. No distinction is made as to the powers of usefulness +between the men and the women of this society. There are few offices +held by men, but there is a corresponding one for those of the other +sex.[41] + +[Footnote 41: The principal exceptions are, that they are not +correspondents, arbitrators, legislators, or on committees of appeal.] + +The execution of these and other, public offices, by which the Quaker +women have an important station allotted them in society, cannot but +have an important influence on their minds. It gives them, in fact, a +new cast of character. It imparts to them, in the first place, a +considerable knowledge of human nature. It produces in them thought, and +foresight, and judgment. It creates in them a care and concern for the +distressed. It elevates their ideas. It raises in them a sense of their +own dignity and importance as human beings, which sets them above every +thing that is little and trifling, and above all idle parade and shew. +Fond as they are of the animal creation, you do not see them lavishing +their caresses on lap-dogs, to the contempt of the poor and miserable of +their own species. You never see them driving from shop to shop to make +up a morning's amusement, by examining and throwing out of order the +various articles of tradesmen, giving them great trouble, and buying +nothing in return. You never find them calling upon those whom they know +to be absent from their homes, thus making their mimic visits, and +leaving their useless cards. Nothing, in short, so ridiculous or +degrading, is known among them. Their pursuits are rational, useful, and +dignified. And they may be said in general to exhibit a model for the +employment of time, worthy of the character they profess. + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS +RELATIVE TO THE +QUAKERS + + +_Quakers a happy people--Subordinate causes of this happiness--namely, +their comfortable situation--their attachment to domestic life--their +almost constant employment--this happiness not broken like that of +others, by an interruption of the routine of constituted pleasures--or +by anger and other passions or by particular enquiries and notions about +religion._ + + + + +If a person were to judge of the Quakers by the general gravity of +their countenances, and were to take into consideration, at the same +time, the circumstance, that they never partook of the amusements of the +world, in which he placed a part of his own pleasures, he would be +induced to conclude, that they had dull and gloomy minds, and that they +could not be upon the whole a happy people. Such a conclusion, however, +would be contrary to the fact. On my first acquaintance with them I was +surprised, seeing the little variety of their pursuits, at the happiness +which they appeared to enjoy, but as I came to a knowledge of the +constitution and state of the society, the solution of the problem +became easy. + +It will not be difficult to develope the subordinate causes of this +happiness.[42] To shew the first of these, I shall view the society in +the three classes of the rich, the middle, and the poor. Of the rich, I +may observe, that they are not so affluent in general as the rich of +other bodies. Of the middle, that they are upon the whole in better +circumstances than others of the same class in life. Of the poor, that +they are not so poor as others in a similar condition. Now the rich in +the Quaker society have of course as many of the comforts of life in +their power as they desire. The middle classes in this society have more +of these than the middle classes of other denominations. The poor in the +same society have also more of these, in consequence of the handsome +provision which is made for them, than others in a similar situation +with themselves. There is therefore upon the whole a greater +distribution of the comforts of life, among all the ranks of this +society, than is to be found in any other community, in proportion to +their numbers. But this superior state, in point of comfortable +circumstances, ought to be undoubtedly a source of superior happiness. +For where the comforts of life are wanting, it is in vain to suppose men +can be happy, unless their minds are more than usually comforted by +their religion. + +[Footnote 42: Religion, which includes positive virtues, and an absence +from vices, joined to a peaceful conscience and a well grounded hope of +a better life, is the first and greatest cause of happiness, and may +belong to all. But I confine myself, in this chapter, to such causes +only as may be called subordinate, and in which the Quakers are more +particularly concerned.] + +Another source of their happiness may be found in their domestic +situation. The Quakers, as I have observed before, in consequence of +denying themselves the pleasures of the world, have been obliged to +cherish those which are found in domestic life. In the fashionable +world, men and their wives seldom follow their pleasures together. They +resemble the little wooden figures of the man and the woman, which, by +moving backwards and forwards in a small painted house, denote the +changes of the weather. While one of these is within, the other is out +of doors. But this is not the case with the Quakers. The husband and +wife are not so easily separable. They visit generally together. They +are remarked as affectionate. You never hear of intrigues among them. +They are long in each others society at a time, and they are more at +home than almost any other people. For neither the same pleasures, nor +the same occupations, separate these as others. The husband is never +seen at a play, nor at a tavern, nor at a dance. Neither the naval nor +the military profession summons him abroad. He is seldom concerned in +voyages as a mariner. Hence he must of necessity be much at home. Add to +this, that the Quakers have generally families, with the power of +providing for them. But these circumstances render their homes agreeable +to them, and increase their domestic delights. + +A third source of the happiness of the Quakers arises from the +circumstance of their being almost constantly employed. Few are so +miserable as those who have nothing to do, or who, unable to find +employment, feel a dull vacuum in their time. And the converse of this +proposition is equally true, that the time of those flies pleasantly +away, who can employ it rationally. But there is rarely such a being +among the Quakers as a lazy person, gaping about for amusement. Their +trades or callings occupy the greater portion of their time. Their +meetings of discipline, as has been already shewn, occupy their time +again. The execution of the various offices to which they may be +appointed, such as of overseers, or elders, or committee-men, or +arbitrators in disputes, occupies more. Few Quakers, but particularly +the more respectable, have many vacant hours. And here it may not be +improper to remark, that the discipline of the society, organized as it +is, is productive of a cheerful and friendly intercourse of the +members, or of a sociable manner of spending their time, one with +another. The monthly meetings usually bring two or three particular +meetings together. The members of these, when they have dispatched their +business, retire to the houses of their friends, where they take their +refreshment, and indulge in the pleasures of conversation. The quarterly +meetings again bring the monthly meetings of the county into one. Here +again, when the business is over, they partake of a similar repast. +Hence a renewal of conversation and of friendship. The yearly meeting +again brings many, from the quarterly together. And here the Quakers +from all parts of the kingdom have an opportunity of seeing and +conversing with one another. I may add too, that many individuals in the +interim, who travel, whether on business or on pleasure, or on religious +errands, enlarge this friendly intercourse; for few Quakers pass through +the towns where Quakers live, without calling upon these, so that there +are many sources within the customs and constitution of the society, +that are productive of cheerful hours.[43] + +[Footnote 43: It may be mentioned here, that the Quakers acknowledge +their relations to a much farther degree of consanguinity, than other +people. This relationship, where it can be distinctly traced, is +commemorated by the appellation of cousin. This custom therefore is a +cause of endearment when they meet, and of course of additional +pleasure.] + +But here it will probably be said, that these sources of happiness, +which have been hitherto described, are common to many others. I grant +they are to individuals, but not to communities at large. No society has +probably so many of the comforts of life in its power, number for +number, and rank for rank, as that of the Quakers. None probably so +wholly domestic. None, where the members of it have such frequent +intercourse with each other, or where they are so connected in the bonds +of brotherly love, and none, as far as I know men, who have such +constant employment for their time. + +Having explained some of those, which may be considered as positive +sources of happiness to the Quakers, I shall now shew what may be causes +of unhappiness to others, and that the Quakers seldom partake of these. +Such an exposition, however strange it may appear at the first sight, +will be materially to the point. For though an exemption from the causes +of the uneasiness of others can never be admitted as a proof of the +existence of positive enjoyment among the Quakers, yet if the latter +have solid sources of happiness of their own, and these are not in any +material degree diminished by the causes of the uneasiness of the +former, there will be left to them, because there will be no drawback, a +certain portion of happiness with less alloy. And here it is obvious at +the first sight, that the Quakers have not the same, nor so many wants +as others, with respect to their pleasures, and that they do not admit +the same things to be component parts of them. Hence they have not the +same causes of uneasiness from the chance of interruption. Hence also +their happiness is more in their own power. What individual can +annihilate the comforts which arise from their own industry, or their +domestic enjoyments, or their friendly intercourse with each other, or +their employments, which arise from their discipline, and from their +trade and callings? But how easily are many of the reputed enjoyments of +the world to be broken? Some people place their happiness in a routine +of constituted pleasures. In proportion as these have been frequently +resorted to, they will have got into the habit as the necessary +enjoyments of life. Take away then from persons in such habits the power +of these their ordinary gratifications, and you will make them languid, +and even wretched. There will be a wide chasm, which they will not know +how to fill up; a dull vacuum of time, which will make their existence +insipid; a disappointment, which will carry with it a lacerating sting. +In some of the higher circles of life, accustomed to such rounds of +pleasure, who does not know that the Sunday is lamented as the most +cruel interrupter of their enjoyments?--No shopping in the morning--no +theatre or route in the evening--Nothing but dull heavy church stares +them in the face. But I will not carry this picture to the length to +which I am capable. I shall only observe that, where persons adopt a +routine of constituted pleasures, they are creating fictitious wants for +themselves, and making their own happiness subject to interruption, and +putting it into the power of others. The Quakers, however, by the total +rejection of all the amusements included in the routine alluded to, know +nothing of the drawbacks or disadvantages described. + +The Quakers again are exempt from several of the causes of uneasiness, +which attach to the world at large. Some go to the gaming-table, and +ruin themselves and their families, and destroy the peace of their +minds. But the Quakers are never found injuring their fortunes or their +happiness by such disreputable means. + +Others disturb the harmony of their lives by intemperate sallies of +passion. It has been well observed, that, whatever may be the duration +of a man's anger, so much time he loses of the enjoyment of his life. +The Quakers, however, have but few miserable moments on this account. A +due subjugation of the passions has been generally instilled into them +from early youth. Provocation seldom produces in them any intemperate +warmth, or takes away, in any material degree, from the apparent +composure of their minds. + +Others again, by indulging their anger, are often hurried into actions +of which the consequences vex and torment them, and of which they often +bitterly repent. But the Quakers endeavour to avoid quarrelling, and +therefore they often steer clear of the party and family feuds of +others. They avoid also, as much as possible, the law, so that they have +seldom any of the lawsuits to harass and disturb them, which interrupt +the tranquillity of others by the heavy expence, and by the lasting +enmities they occasion. + +The Quakers again are exempt from many of the other passions which +contribute to the unhappiness of the world at large. Some men have an +almost boundless ambition. They are desirous of worldly honours, or of +eminent stations, or of a public name, and pursue these objects in their +passage through life with an avidity which disturbs the repose of their +minds. But the Quakers scarcely know any such feeling as that of +ambition, and of course scarcely any of the torments that belong to it. +They are less captivated by the splendour of honours than any other +people, and they had rather live in the memory of a few valuable +friends, than be handed down to posterity for those deeds, which +generally constitute the basis of public character. + +Others again, who cannot obtain these honourable distractions, envy +those who possess them. They envy the very coronet upon the coach, as it +passes by. But the Quakers can have no such feelings as these. They pass +in their pilgrimage through life regardless of such distinctions, or +they estimate them but as the baubles of the, day. It would be folly +therefore to suppose, that they could be envious of that which they do +not covet. + +The Quakers again are exempt from some of the occasions of uneasiness +which arise to others from considerations on the subject of religion. +Some people, for example, pry into what are denominated mysteries. The +more they look into these, the less they understand them, or rather, the +more they are perplexed and confounded. Such an enquiry too, while it +bewilders the understanding, generally affects the mind. But the Quakers +avoid all such curious enquiries as these, and therefore they suffer no +interruption of their enjoyment from this source. Others again, by the +adoption of gloomy creeds, give rise frequently to melancholy, and thus +lay in for themselves a store of fuel for the torment of their own +minds. But the Quakers espouse no doctrines, which, while they conduct +themselves uprightly, can interrupt the tranquillity of their lives. It +is possible there may be here and mere an instance where their feelings +may be unduly affected, in consequence of having carried the doctrine of +the influence of the Spirit, as far as it relates to their own +condition, beyond its proper bounds. But individuals, who may fell into +errors of this nature, are, it is to be hoped, but few; because any +melancholy, which may arise from these causes, must be the effect, not +of genuine Quakerism, but of a degenerate superstition. + + + + +CHAP. II. + +_Good, which the Quakers have done as a society upon earth--by their +general good example--by shewing that persecution for religion is +ineffectual--by shewing the practicability of the subjugation of the +will of man--the influence of Christianity on character--the inefficacy +of capital punishments--the best object of punishment--the +practicability of living, either in a private or a public capacity, in +harmony and peace--the superiority of the policy of the Gospel over the +policy of the world._ + + +When we consider man as distinguished from other animals by the rational +and spiritual faculties which he possesses, we cannot but conceive it to +be a reproach to his nature, if he does not distinguish himself from +these, or, if he does not leave some trace behind him, that he has +existed rationally and profitably both to himself and others. But if +this be expected of man, considered abstractedly as man, much more will +it be expected of him, if he has had the advantages of knowing the +doctrines of Christianity, and the sublime example of the great Author +of that religion. And the same observation, I apprehend, will hold true +with respect to societies of men. For if they have done no good during +their existence, we cannot see how they can escape censure, or that it +would not have been better that they had not existed at all. This +consideration leads me to enquire, what good the Quakers have done since +their institution, as a society, upon earth. + +It was said of the Quakers in George Fox's time, after their character +had been established, that, "if they did not stand, the nation would run +into debauchery." By this I apprehend it was meant, that it was a +desirable thing to have a people to look up to, who, residing in the +'midst of a vicious community, professed to be followers of that which +was right, and to resist the current of bad example in their own times; +or that such a people might be considered as a leaven, that might leaven +the whole lump, but that, if this leaven were lost, the community might +lose one of its visible incitements to virtue. Now in this way the +Quakers have had a certain general usefulness in the world. They have +kept more, I apprehend, to first principles, than any other people. They +have afforded a moral example. This example ought to have been useful to +others. To those who were well inclined, it should have been as a torch +to have lighted up their virtue, and it should have been a perpetual +monument for reproof to others, who were entering upon a career of vice. + +The first particular good, after the general one now stated, which the +Quakers have done, has been, that they have shewn to those who have been +spectators of their conduct, that all persecution for matters of +religion, as it is highly criminal in the eyes of the Supreme Being, so +it is inadequate to the end proposed. This proposition, indeed, seems to +be tolerably Well understood at the present day. At least they whose +minds have been well informed, acknowledge it. The history of martyrdom, +by which we learn how religion soars above all suffering, how the +torments inflicted on the body are unable to reach the mind, how the +moral Governor of the world reigns triumphant upon earth, how tyranny +and oppression fall prostrate before virtue, losing their malignant aim, +has been one, among other causes, of this knowledge. But as history is +known but to few, and is not remembered by all, the Quakers are +particularly useful by holding up the truth of the proposition to our +daily sight, that is, by the example they continue to afford us of +bearing their testimony in all cases where the civil magistrate is +concerned on the one hand, and their consciences on the other. + +A second good, which the Quakers have done, is by shewing, as a whole +body, the power of Christianity in the subjugation of the will of men, +and its influence on their character. + +They are living proofs, in the first instance, that human nature is not +the stubborn thing, which many have imagined it to be; that, however it +may be depraved, it is still corrigible; and that this correction is +universally practicable, for that there are as various dispositions in +this society as in any other in proportion to its numbers. They shew, +that Christianity can alter the temper, that it can level enmities, and +that there is no just occasion for any to despair. And they are living +proofs, in the second, as to what kind of character Christianity, where +it is rightly received, will produce; They are living proofs, that it +can produce sobriety, inoffensiveness, simplicity, charity, peace, and +the domestic and other virtues. Now though every private Christian can +shew in himself an example of these effects, yet the Quakers shew it, +not by producing solitary instances, but as a body; the temper of the +great mass of their members being apparently cast in the same mould, and +their character, as a society, being acknowledged to be that of a moral +people. + +And here I cannot but stop for a moment to pay a just tribute to the +Quaker system, as one of the best modes of the Christian Religion; for +whether the doctrines which belong to it, or whether the discipline +which it promotes, or whether both of them conjointly, produce the +effects which have been just related, certain it is, that they are +produced.[44] But that system of religion is surely the most excellent, +which produces, first, the greatest, and, secondly, the most universal +effect upon those who profess it. For what is the use of any particular +creed, or where is the advantage of any one creed above another, if it +cannot give the great characteristic marks of a Christian, a subjugated +mind and a moral character? What signifies the creed of any particular +description of Christian professors, if it has no influence on the +heart, or if we see professors among these giving way to their passions, +or affording an inconsistent example to the world. + +[Footnote 44: Many of the Quakers in America, influenced by custom, +Adopted the practice of holding slaves. But on a due recurrence to their +principles they gave freedom to these unconditionally, thus doing +another public good in the world, and giving another example of the +power of religion on the mind.] + +The Quakers have given, again, in the reforms, which, in the first +volume, I described them to have introduced into legislation, a +beautiful and practical lesson of jurisprudence to the governors of all +nations. They have shewn the inefficacy of capital punishments; that the +best object in the punishment of offenders is their reformation; that +this accords best with the genius and spirit of the Christian Religion; +and that while such a system, when followed, restores the abandoned to +usefulness in society, it diminishes the number of crimes.[45] + +[Footnote 45: See Vol. I, Sect. 4, p. 198.] + +They have shewn again, by their own example, that it is not so difficult +for men to live peaceably together, as has been usually believed; and +they have exhibited the means by which they have effected this desirable +end in life. And as they have proved, that this is practicable in +private, so they have proved, as has appeared in this volume, that it is +practicable in public life, or, which is the same thing, they have +shewn, that in the intercourse which exists between nations, there is no +necessity for wars. + +They have shewn and established again by the two latter instances, both +of which relate to government, a proposition which seems scarcely to be +believed, if we judge by the practice of statesmen, but the truth of +which ought for ever to be insisted upon, that the policy of the Gospel +is superior to the policy of the world. + +This is a portion of the good which the Quakers have done since their +appearance as a society in the world. What other good they have done it +is not necessary to specify. And as to what they would do, if they were +permitted to become universal legislators, it may be a pleasing subject +for contemplation, but it does not fall within the limits of the present +chapter. + + + + +CHAP. III. + +_General opinion, that the Quakers are on the decline as a +society--Observations upon this subject--Opinion believed, upon the +whole, to be true--Causes of this supposed declension--Mixed +marriages--Tithes--Pursuit of trade, as connected with the peculiar +habits of the society, and a residence in the towns--Education._ + + +I have often heard it suggested as matter for conversation, whether the +Quakers were increasing or decreasing in their number, and the result +has always been an opinion, that they were a declining body. + +When we consider the simplicity and even philosophy of the Quaker +religion, the preservation it affords against the follies and +difficulties of life, and the happiness to which it ultimately leads, we +shall wonder that the progress of the society, in point of number, has +not been greater than we find it. And when we consider, on the other +hand, how difficult it is to be a Quaker, how much it is against the +temper and disposition of man to be singular, or to resist the tide of +custom and fashion, and to undergo an ordeal of suffering on these +accounts, we shall wonder that it has not been long ago extinct. + +That many are disowned by the society, in consequence of which its +numbers are diminished, is true. That others come into it from other +quarters, by which an increase is given to it, independently of its own +natural population, is true also. But whether the new members exceed the +disowned, or the disowned the new, is the question to be resolved. Now +no people have had better opportunities of ascertaining this point, +than the Quakers themselves. By means of their monthly meetings they +might with ease have instituted a census on a given day. They might have +renewed such a census. They might have compared the returns in every +case. But as no such census has ever been made, the Quakers themselves, +though they have their ideas, cannot speak with particular accuracy, on +this subject. + +The general opinion, however, is, and the Quakers, I apprehend, will not +deny but lament it, that those who go out of the society are upon the +whole more numerous than those who come into it by convincement, and +therefore that there is, upon the whole, a decrease among them. + +Of the truth of this opinion, some have adduced as a proof, that the +quarterly meetings have been reduced to three fourths of their original +number. But this is not to be considered as a certain criterion of the +fact. For it is by no means uncommon to find, if the Quakers decrease in +one county, that they increase in another. It has also been adduced, +that many particular meetings have been broken up, or that +meeting-houses in the country are standing deserted, or without Quakers +to worship in them. But neither can this be considered as any +infallible proof of the point. For it frequently happens, that if the +Quakers become less numerous in any particular village, they become more +so in some of the towns of the same county. Thus no true judgment can be +formed upon these principles. The Quaker population, in this respect, on +account of its movements, resembles the sea, which, while it loses on +one part of its shores or boundaries, gains upon another. + +There are, however, considerations, which may be more decisive of the +fact. + +In the time of George Fox the number of those converted to his +principles was immense.[46] This number, if we consult all the facts +that might be adduced on the occasion, continued to be large in after +times. Now it must be observed, that the Quakers are a sober and +temperate people, that they generally marry at a proper age, and that +they have large families. It is therefore impossible, if the descendants +of the early Quakers had continued in the society, that their number +should not have been much larger than we find it at the present day, +and, if so, there must have been a secession or an expulsion, amounting, +notwithstanding all influx by conversion, to a decrease. + +[Footnote 46: Although the remark may be just, that in the time of +George Fox "a great number were converted to his principles," yet a +small portion of those were actually received into membership, and the +same remark may correctly be made even in the present day: as it is +believed that immense numbers are convinced of the truth as held by the +Quakers, but owing to their "not being willing to undergo an ordeal of +suffering on account of their principles," a small portion of those +apply to be admitted into the society. AMERICAN EDITOR.] + +It is obvious again that the Quakers, in consequence of their industry +and their frugal habits, must almost unavoidably grow rich. Now if the +descendants of the early Quakers had remained in the society, we should +have seen more overgrown fortunes in it, than among others in proportion +to their numbers. But this is contrary to the fact. The very richest, as +the world now goes, would not be considered to be particularly rich; and +it is a truth that those who are affluent among them have generally been +the founders, by means of their industry and integrity, of their own +fortunes. + +It is, again, a matter of observation among the Quakers, now grown into +a truth, that if men grow rich in the society, their grand-children +generally leave it. But surely this amounts to a confession, that in a +particular part of the society there are the seeds of a regular and +successive decrease. + +That the Quakers then upon the whole are a declining body, there can be +no doubt.[47] While I state it, I lament it. I lament that there should +be any diminution of number among those who have done so much good in +the world, and who have so justly obtained the reputation of a moral +people. This consideration will lead me to enquire into the causes of +this decline. It will impel me also to enquire into the means of remedy. +How far I may be successful in the latter attempt, I am unable to say. +But it will always be a pleasing consideration to me, to have tried to +prevent the decrease of a virtuous people. + +[Footnote 47: Against this decrease we cannot set off any great increase +by admission into membership. The dress, the language, the fear of being +singular, the discipline with its various restraints, the unwillingness +of men to suffer where suffering can be avoided, these and other +circumstances are great impediments in the way of an entrance into this +society; and to this I may add, that applications for admission into it +are not always complied with.] + +With respect then to the causes of this decline, to which I shall +confine myself in this chapter, they will be found in the causes of +disownment. Now of these, some may be called original and immediate, and +others original and remote. + +Of original and immediate, the first is what the Quakers call mixed +marriage. It has been before stated, that those who marry out of the +society are disowned, and the reasons for such disownments have been +given. + +A second will be found in tithes. They who pay these are ultimately +disowned. And they are disowned as well for the payment of lay-tithes, +as of those which are ecclesiastical. + +Of the original and remote, a very prolific cause is the pursuit of +trade, connected as it is with the peculiar habits of the society, and a +residence in the towns.[48] + +[Footnote 48: Owing perhaps to the causes alleged by the author, the +society may have decreased in England, yet it is certain that in this +country the number of Quakers has very considerably increased. AMERICAN +EDITOR.] + +To shew this I must observe, first, that the poor, comparatively +speaking, are seldom disowned, for they know that they[49] shall never +be so well provided for in any other society. I must observe again, that +the members of the middle classes are also, comparatively speaking, but +seldom disowned. These must live by trade, but if so, they cannot be +better off than as Quakers. The direct conclusion then, from these +observations, will be, that the greater number of those who are +disowned, will be found among the rich, or among such as are growing +rich. Hence it appears, that, as far as this original and remote cause +is concerned, my enquiry must be, how it happens, that members of this +particular class should be excluded from membership more than those of +any other. + +[Footnote 49: I by no means intend to say, that the poor do not remain +in the society from an attachment to its principles, but that this may +be a political motive also.] + +In answer to this enquiry I must say, as I have observed before, that +Quakers in trade, having as good abilities, and as much diligence and +integrity as others, will succeed as well as others in it, but that, +having less sources of outgoings, their savings will be generally +greater. Hence they will have before their eyes the sight of a greater +accumulation of wealth. But in proportion as such accumulation of +substance is beheld, the love of it increases. Now while this love +increases, or while their hearts are unduly fixed on the mammon of the +world, they allow many little inconsistencies in their children to +escape their reproof. But, besides this, as the religion and the love of +the mammon of the world are at variance, they have a less spiritual +discernment than before. Hence they do not see the same irregularities +in the same light. From this omission to check these irregularities on +the one hand, and from this decay of their spiritual vision on the +other, their children have greater liberties allowed them than others in +the same society. But as these experience this indulgence, or as these +admit the customs and fashions of the world, they grow more fond of +them. Now, as they live in towns, the spark that is excited is soon +fanned into a flame. Fashions and fashionable things, which they cannot +but see daily before their eyes, begin to get the dominion. When they +are visited by wholesome advisers, they dislike the interference. They +know they shall be rich. They begin to think the discipline of the +society a cruel restraint. They begin to dislike the society itself, +and, committing irregularities, they are sometimes in consequence +disowned. But, if they should escape disownment themselves, they entail +it generally upon their children. These are brought up in a still looser +manner than themselves. The same process goes on with these as with +their parents, but in a still higher degree, till a conduct utterly +inconsistent with the principles of the society occasions them to be +separated from it. Thus in the same manner, as war, according to the old +saying, begets poverty, and poverty peace, so the pursuit of trade, with +the peculiar habits of the society, leads to riches, riches to fashion +and licentiousness, and fashion and licentiousness to disownment, so +that many Quakers educate their children as if there were to be no +Quakers in the second generation from themselves. And thus, though, +strictly speaking, irregularities are the immediate occasion of these +disownments, they are ultimately to be attributed to the original and +remote cause as now described.[50] + +[Footnote 50: I hope I shall not be understood as involving the rich in +a promiscuous censure. I know as amiable examples among these and among +their children, as among others of the society. But we must naturally +expect more deviations among the rich, number for number, than among +others.] + +That this is by no means an unreasonable account, I shall shew in some +measure by an appeal to facts. The American Quakers sprang from the +English. The English, though drained in consequence, were still +considerable, when compared with the former. But it is remarkable, that +the American Quakers exceed the English by at least five times their +number at the present day. Now it must undoubtedly be confessed, that +the Americans have advantages, as far as this fact is concerned, which +the English have not. They have no tithes as a cause of disownment. +Their families also, I believe, increase more rapidly. Many persons +also, as will be the case in a country that is not fully settled, live +in the neighbourhoods of the Quakers, but at a distance from those of +other religious denominations, and therefore, wishing to worship +somewhere, seek membership with them. But I apprehend that a great cause +of this disparity of number lies in this difference of the situation of +the two, that whereas the great Quaker population in England is in the +towns with but a remnant in the country, the great Quaker population in +America is in the country with but a remnant in the towns.[51] And that +the Americans themselves believe, that the place of the residence of +their members is connected in some measure with the increase and +decrease of their society, it is fair to presume, from this +circumstance, that, in several of the quarterly meetings in America, +advice has been given to parents to bring up their children in the +country, and, as little as possible, in the towns. + +[Footnote 51: The number of the Quakers is undoubtedly great in one or +two of the cities in America, but the whole town-population is not +great, when compared with the whole country-population there.] + +Another of the original and remote causes is education. This, as it +becomes promotive of the diminution of the society, is of two kinds. The +first may be called alien. The second is such as is afforded in the +society itself. + +Some parents, growing rich, and wishing to give their children a better +education, than they can get in their own schools, send them to others +to be instructed. Now the result has not been desirable, where it has +been designed, that such children should be continued Quakers. For how +is a poor solitary Quaker boy to retain the peculiarities belonging to +his religious profession, in the face of the whole school? Will not his +opinions and manners be drowned as it were in the torrent of the +opinions and manners of the rest? How can he get out of this whirlpool +pure? How, on his return, will he harmonize with his own society? Will +not either he, or his descendants, leave it? Such an education may make +him undoubtedly both a good and an enlightened man, and so far one of +the most desirable objects in life will have been accomplished, but it +certainly tends to destroy the peculiar institution of Quakerism. + +The education, which is afforded in the society itself, is divisible +again into two kinds, into that which is moral or religious, and into +that which is literary or philosophical. + +It must undoubtedly be confessed, in looking into that which is moral or +religious, that sufficient care is not always taken with regard to +youth. We sometimes see fathers and sons, and mothers and daughters, so +different in their appearance and deportment, that we should scarcely +have imagined them to be of the same family. I am not now speaking of +those parents, who may live in the towns, and who may be more than +ordinarily devoted to the mammon of the world, but of some who, living +both in town and country, give an example of a liberal and amiable +spirit, and of a blameless conduct to the world. That the former should +neglect and lose sight of their offspring, when their moral vision is +clouded by an undue eagerness after money, is not to be wondered at, but +that the latter should do it, is surprising. It is certainly true that +some of these are too indulgent in their families, contrary to the plan +and manner of their own education, or that they do not endeavour to nip +all rising inconsistencies in the bud. The consequence is, that their +children get beyond control in time, when they lament in vain their +departure from the simplicity of the society. Hence the real cause of +their disownment, which occasionally follows, is not in the children +running out of bounds, but in the parents running out of bounds in the +manners of their children. And here I may add, that some parents, +dwelling too much on the disuse of forms in religion, because such +disuse is inculcated by their own doctrines, run into the opposite +extreme, and bring up their children in too much ignorance of the +general plan of Christianity, as it is laid down in the letter of the +scriptures. + +With respect to education, as for it is literary or philosophical, it is +frequently sufficient for those upon whom it is bestowed. But it does +not appear to me to be carried to its proper extent, in the case of the +children of the rich, when I consider how friendly it might be made +towards the promotion of virtue. Some, we know, growing wealthy, have +had children when they were poorer, and, when in this poorer state, they +have given them an education which has been suitable to it, not +calculating upon their future rise in life. But their children, having +had such a limited education, have not had that which has been proper +for their subsequent station in life. Others again, who have been born +in better circumstances, have, on account of an undue depreciation of +human knowledge, educated their children as improperly for their +station as the former. The children then, in both these cases, have not +had an education sufficient, with the prospect of riches before them, to +keep them out of the way of harm. They have not had, in addition to any +religious instruction, that taste given them for sublime pursuits, which +should make them despise those which were frivolous. Thus many of the +corruptive opinions, fashions, and amusements of the world have charmed +them. Giving way to these, they have been overcome. When overcome, they +have run into excesses, and for these excesses they have been disowned. +But surely, with a better education, they would have thought all such +corruptive opinions, fashions, and amusements, as below their notice, +and unworthy of their countenance and support. + + + + +CHAP. IV. + +_Supposed remedies for the diminution of some of these +causes--Regulations in the case of mixed marriages--Measures to be +adopted in the pursuit of trade--Education, as it is moral or +religious, to be more strictly enforced in some families--as it is +literary or philosophical, to be carried to a greater extent among the +children of the rich--Object of this latter education--Nature of it as +consisting both knowledge and prohibitions--How it would operate against +the fascinating allurements of the world, or to the end proposal._ + + +I Purpose now to suggest, as briefly as I can, such opinions, as, if +adopted, might possibly operate as remedies to some of the evils which +have been described. In doing this I am aware of the difficulties that +await me. I am sensible that I ought not to be too sanguine as to the +result of all my observations upon this subject and yet, I cannot but +think, that I may be successful in some of them. Arduous, however, as +the task, and dubious as my success may be, I am encouraged, on the +prospect of being but partially useful, to undertake it. + +On the first of the original and immediate causes which have been +mentioned, I mean mixed marriages, I shall have but little to say. I do +not see how it is possible, while the society means to keep up a due +subordination among its members, not to disown such as may marry out of +it. In mixed families, such as these marriages produce, it is in vain to +expect that the discipline can be carried on, as has been shewn in the +second volume. And, without this discipline, the society would hardly +keep up, in the extensive manner it does, the character of a moral +people. I think, however, that some good might be done by regulations to +be universally observed. Thus they, who are deputed to inform the +disowned of their exclusion from membership, should be of the most +amiable temper and conciliatory manners. Every unqualified person should +be excluded from these missions. Permission should be solicited for both +the married persons to be present on such occasions. It is difficult to +estimate the good effect which the deputed, if of sweet and tender +dispositions, or the bad effects which the deputed, if of cold and +austere manners, might have upon those they visited, or what bias it +might give the one in particular, who had never been in membership, for +or against the society. Permission also might be solicited, even when +the mission was over for future friendly opportunities or visits, which +would shew in the society itself a tender regard and solicitude for the +welfare of its former members. It is not at all improbable, from the +impression which such apparent regard and solicitude might occasion, +that the children of the visited, though not members, might be brought +up in the rules of membership. And finally it appears to me to be +desirable, that the disowned, if they should give proof by their own +lives and the education of their children, of their attachment to the +principles of the society, and should solicit restoration to membership, +should be admitted into it again without any acknowledgment of past +errors, and wholly as new and convinced members. + +With respect to the second of the immediate and original causes, which +is to be found in tithes, I may observe that it is, as for as I can +collect, but a small and an inferior one, few being disowned on this +account, and still fewer now than formerly. It would be desirable, +however, few as these instances may be, to prevent them. But I fear that +no remedy can be pointed out, in which the Quakers would acquiesce, +except it could be shewn, that a distinction might be made between the +payment of ecclesiastical and lay-tithes, which would not interfere with +the great tenets of the society on this subject. + +A third cause of disownment, but this belongs to the original and +remote, was shewn to be the pursuit of trade, connected as it is with +the peculiar habits of the society and a residence in the towns. I may +propose as remedies for this, first, that parents should be careful to +exhibit a good example to their children. Secondly, as I have before +observed, that they should prescribe to themselves moderation in the +acquisition of wealth, either by relinquishing trade at a given time, or +by dealing out the profits of it more liberally than common in the way +of benevolence, so that their children, in each case, may never have the +misfortune of the prospect of a large moneyed independence before their +eyes. Or lastly, that they should give them a better education than +they do at present, on which subject, according to the prescribed order +of things, I am now to speak. + +A fourth cause then, but this belongs also to the original and remote, +was shewn to exist in education. And education, as it was promotive of +the diminution of the society, was of two kinds. + +With respect to that part of it which is alien, the remedy is easy. +There has been great difficulty in procuring proper schoolmasters, I +mean such as have been Quakers. Two reasons may be given for this. The +first is, that the society having been backward in affording due +encouragement to learning, few of any great literary acquisitions have +been brought up in it. The second is, that persons have found, that they +could make much less of their time in such a line of employment than in +the way of trade. But surely the Quakers, as a body in comfortable and +independent circumstances, might easily remedy the evil. Does not a man, +who devotes his time to the instruction of youth, deserve to be made as +comfortable as the man who sells silver utensils, or bracelets, or +ear-rings, or other articles of trade? Is there any comparison between +the moral usefulness of these? Is there any profession more useful than +that which forms the youthful mind? or rather, is it not the most +important profession in the state?[52] + +[Footnote 52: It is but justice to the Quakers to observe, that they are +taking more pains than formerly in the promotion of this object. I am +told that there are more private seminaries now kept by Quakers for the +education of the youth of their own society, than even before the +institution of Ackworth school.] + +With respect to the education which is acquired in the society itself, +the remedy is not difficult. This education was shewn to be of two +kinds. + +On that part of it, which is moral or religious, I may observe, that the +remedy is in the parents themselves. The first thing to be recommended +is an universal vigilance over the disposition and manners of children, +so that no censurable appearance, whether in temper or in conduct, may +be allowed to pass without suitable notice or reproof, or that the bud, +which promises to be corruptive of morals, should no sooner make its +appearance, than it should be cut off. In cases of so much importance, +as where the happiness both of parents and children is concerned, the +former should be peculiarly circumspect. They should not talk about +things, but insist upon them, on all proper occasions. They should not +point out, but redress. They should not lop off the branches, but lay +the axe to the root. And surely youth is the best season for such +wholesome interference. It is, in the first place, the season in which +a remedy is practicable; for we are assured, "if we train up a child in +the way he should go, that, when he is old, he will not depart from it." +It is, secondly, the season in which it is most practicable; for can we +hope to bend the tree so easily to our form, as the sapling from whence +it came? and, thirdly, it is the season in which it is practicable only, +for will not a small irregularity grow, if uncontrolled, to a greater? +Will not one irregularity also, if not properly checked, give birth to +others? And may not these be so incorporated into the inner man in a +course of time, that it may be as difficult for parents to eradicate +them, as for the Ethiopian to change his colour, or the leopard his +spots? But surely the Quakers ought to know the impropriety of undue +indulgences in their families, as well as any other people? Is not the +early subjugation of the will a doctrine more particularly adopted by +them as a society? Without such a subjugation do they not conceive the +mind to be in an unfit state to receive the admonitions of the pure +principle, and of course to make a true proficiency in religion? Do they +not consider themselves also as a highly professing people, and do they +not know that the world expects more from them than from others? But how +can their children ever perpetuate this extraordinary character after +them, or shew that their parents possessed it, unless they are brought +up in a peculiarly guarded manner? In addition to these observations it +may be recommended, that parents should be careful to give their +children what may be called a literal instruction in Christianity, in +contradistinction to pure theism, or to those doctrines which they +conceive may come from the teachings of the Holy Spirit, so that they +may have a more intimate knowledge of all their principles, as a +Christian body. + +With respect to that part of education which may consist of knowledge +as it is literary or philosophical, I conceive it might be attended with +advantage to carry it to a greater extent than has hitherto been +practised in the society, but particularly the latter. Nothing is so +delightful to youth as experimental philosophy, by which they see the +causes of things unfolded to their view. No science takes their +attention more, or inclines them, in the farther pursuit of it, to be +satisfied with home. And yet I doubt whether this branch of learning be +not almost wholly neglected in the Quaker schools. The education which +is received in the society, as it consists of the two kinds of knowledge +described, is not, in my apprehension, carried far enough, so as to suit +the peculiar situation of the children of the rich. These are they, who +are most in danger. These are they, who, having the prospect of wealth +before them, have the prospect of being able to procure destructive +pleasures. These are they, who, having the prospect of independence, do +not fear the opinion of the world or the loss of reputation in it, like +those, who have their livelihood to obtain by their own industry. Now it +should be the particular object of the education of these, as indeed it +should be of all rich persons, so to instruct them, that, while they are +obliged to live in the world, they may be enabled to live out of it, or +deny it; so that, when seated amidst its corrupt opinions, amusements, +and fashions, they should estimate them as below their notice, and as +utterly unworthy of their countenance and support. + +I should be sorry if, in holding up this species of education to a +farther encouragement, as a preservative of the morals of the children +of rich parents amidst the various temptations of life, I were to be +thought to endeavour to take away in any degree the necessity of the +influence of the Holy Spirit on the mind of man, or to deny that this +Spirit ought not to be resorted to as the first and best guide, both by +rich and poor, during their pilgrimage upon earth. For who can teach us +best to deny the world? Who can teach us best to estimate its pursuits? +Who can instruct us best to resist its temptations? To the Divine Being +then we are first to look up, as to him who can be the best author of +all our good, and the surest averter of all our evils, who can apply the +best remedy to the imperfections of our nature, and who, while he leads +us in safety, can lead us into the way of truth. But when we consider +how many are inattentive, on account of the cares, and pleasures, and +fashions, and prejudices, and customs of the world, to the secret +notices of his grace, I cannot help considering that we may be allowed +to have secondary and subordinate helps to our virtue. As the discipline +of the Quaker society may produce and preserve a certain purity of life, +so may a literary and philosophical education operate to the same end. +Such an education is in its general tendency a friend to the promotion +of virtue and to the discouragement of vice. It sets us often +unquestionably above many of the corruptive opinions and customs in the +midst of which we live. It leads us also frequently to the contemplation +of the Divine Being in all the variety of his works. It gives us +amiable, awful, and sublime conceptions of him. As far, therefore, as it +is capable of doing this, it is a useful, though it be only a +subordinate source of our purity, and we may therefore adopt it +innocently. But we are never to forget, at the same time, that, though +it may help us occasionally to resist corrupt temptations, and to +encourage desirable propensities, yet it cannot do every thing for us +that is necessary, and that we are never to overlook, on this account, +the necessity of the influence of the Holy Spirit. + +To shew in what the education, which under these limitations I am going +to propose, may consist, I shall revive the controversy between the +philosophical moralists and the Quakers, as described in the eighth +chapter of the first volume. The philosophical moralists contended, that +knowledge was to be preferred, as being more to be relied upon than +prohibitions: that prohibitions were often causes of greater evils than +they were intended to prevent; that they themselves were friends to +occasional indulgencies; that they saw nothing necessarily or inherently +mischievous in the amusements of the world; that it was not wise to +anticipate danger by looking to distant prospects, where the things were +innocent in themselves; that ignorance of vice was no guardian of +morals; that causes, and not sub-causes, were to be contended against; +and that there was no certain security but in knowledge and in a love of +virtue. To this the Quakers replied, that prohibitions were sanctioned +by divine authority; that as far as they related to the corrupt +amusements of the world, they were implied in the spirit of +Christianity; that the knowledge, which should be promotive of virtue, +could not be inculcated without them; that knowledge again, if it were +to be acquired by the permission of occasional indulgences, or by being +allowed to pass through scenes which might be dangerous to virtue, +would be more ruinous than ignorance by a prohibition of vice; that +ignorance of vice was an essential in Christian morals; and that +prohibitions therefore were indispensably necessary, and better to be +relied upon, than any corrupt knowledge, which might arise from an +acquaintance with the customs of the world. + +This then was the state of the controversy, as described in the first +volume. And in this state it was left. But, to explain the education +which I have in view, I shall now bring it to a conclusion. + +I must observe then, that the philosophical moralists had the advantage +of the Quakers in this controversy, inasmuch as they supposed that +knowledge was a better safeguard to morals than a mere ignorance of +vice; but they failed in this, that they permitted this knowledge to be +acquired by passing through scenes which might not be friendly to +virtue. Now this latter permission is inadmissible in a Christian +education; for no Christian youth ought to be permitted to see or to +hear that which ought not to be uttered or exhibited by a Christian. The +Quakers, on the other hand, had the advantage of the philosophical +moralists, inasmuch as they considered ignorance to be better than +corrupted knowledge; but they failed in this, that they seemed to rely +upon ignorance of vice as a safeguard against it, without a proper +portion of knowledge. The education then, to which I allude, ought to +embrace the most valuable positions of both. It should consist of +knowledge, and it should consist of wise prohibitions also. Knowledge +and prohibitions are inseparable. While the mind is gaining knowledge, +it should be kept innocent. And while it is kept innocent, it should be +gaining knowledge. Youth should have that kind of knowledge instilled +into them, by which they should discern the value of the prohibitions +which are enjoined them. They should have such and so much knowledge, +that if they were accidentally placed in the way of the things +prohibited, they should be able to look them in the face, and pass +through them without injury. This is that education, which, without +superseding the necessity of the influence of the Holy Spirit, has a +tendency to enable persons, while they live in the world, to live out of +it or deny it. + +But lest I should not be clearly understood upon this subject, I will +exemplify how such an education would act or operate to the end +proposed. + +And, first of all, knowledge may be acquired by reading. Now there are +two kinds of reading, the one useful, the other dangerous. By the +premises, I am to adopt the first, and to prohibit the last. If then I +accustom my child to the best and purest models of ancient and modern +literature, I give him a certain taste for composition. If I accustom +him to the purest and most amiable sentiments, as contained in these, I +give him a love of virtue. If I heighten these sentiments by beautiful +selections from the more pure and amiable sentiments of Christianity, I +increase that love. If I give him in my own conduct an example, he sees +me practise that which I recommend. I give him then a taste for the +purest reading, and the choicest compositions, and I offer to his +notice, at the same time, a certain system of morality, which he cannot +but gradually adopt as his own. Now I would ask, what influence could a +novel have upon a mind formed in this manner, if thrown accidentally in +his way. If its composition were but moderate, as is the case with most +of them, it would not suit the taste of my child. If its sentiments were +impure, it would disgust him. These would be so contrary to the taste +and to the feelings he had acquired, that the poison in such a book, +like a ball, fired at a globular surface, would slide off without +detriment to the morals of my child. + +Knowledge again may be acquired in the course of amusements, and of such +as may be resorted to within doors. Now of these again there are two +kinds, the innocent and the corruptive. By the premises I am to be +concerned with the first only. If then I accustom my child to +mathematical and philosophical pursuits, if I incite him to experiments +in these, if I assist him in measuring the motions of the heavenly +bodies, and in discovering the wisdom and power of Omnipotence as +displayed in these, if I occasion him to be interested in, the +contemplation of such subjects, what have I done for my child? Have I +not called out his intellectual faculties? Have I not laid in him the +foundation of a serious and a thoughtful mind? Have I not accustomed him +to solid things, in opposition to those that are light, and to sublime +things, in opposition to those that are frivolous? Have I not inculcated +in him a love for science? But take my child, after he has been +accustomed to such thoughts and such subjects, to the theatre. Let the +pantomime display its various attracting scenes to his view. And will he +not think his entertainment low and superficial, in comparison of that +which he left at home. + +Knowledge again may be acquired by amusements which are out of doors. +These again may be innocent or exceptionable. As before, I have nothing +to do but with the former. If then I accustom my child to range the +fields, as an employment promotive of his health, and connect this +healthy exercise with the entertainment of botanical pursuits, do I +not, in examining with him the shape, the colour, and the mechanism of +plants and flowers, confirm in him his former love of the works of +nature? Do I not confirm his former notion of the wisdom and power of +omnipotence? Do I not teach him by these, and the other pursuits which +have been mentioned, that all recreations should be innocent, and that +time should be wisely employed? But hark! another amusement, and one of +those which are followed out of doors, is at hand. The hounds are in +view, and fast approaching. My son is accidentally solicited to join +them. He would ask my permission, but I am absent. At length he goes. He +follows them in wild tumult and uproar for an hour. He sees some +galloping over hedges and ditches like madmen, and hazarding their +persons in a presumptuous manner. He sees others ride over the +cultivated fields of their neighbours, and injure the rising corn. He +finds that all this noise and tumult, all this danger and injury, are +occasioned by the pursuit of a little hare, whose pain is in proportion +to the joy of those who follow it. Now can this diversion, educated as +my child has been, fascinate him? Will he not question its innocence? +And will he not question its consistency as a natural pursuit, or as an +employment for his time? + +It is thus then that knowledge will be found to operate as an artificial +and innocent preservative against the destructive pleasures of the +world. But prohibitions without knowledge will be but of little avail, +where there is a prospect of riches, and the power of gratifying any +improper appetites as they may arise. But by knowledge we shall be able +to discover the beauty of things, so that their opposites, or the things +prohibited, will cease to charm us. By knowledge we shall be able to +discern the ugliness of the things prohibited, so that we shall be +enabled to loathe them, if they should come into our way. And thus an +education, conducted upon the principles of knowledge, may operate to +the end proposed. + + + + +CHAP. V. + +_Education continued, as consisting of knowledge and prohibitions--Good, +which the Quakers have done by prohibitions, without any considerable +knowledge--Greater good, which they would do with it--Knowledge then a +great desideratum in the Quaker education--Favourable state of the +society for the communication of it with purity, or without detriment to +morals--In what this knowledge should consist--General advantages of +it--Peculiar advantages, which it would bring to the society._ + + +When we consider that men have all the same moral nature, we wonder, at +the first sight, at the great difference of conduct which they exhibit +upon earth. But when we consider the power of education upon the mind, +we seem to lose our surprize. If men in all countries were educated +alike, we should find a greater resemblance in their character. It is, +in short, education, which makes the man. And as education appears to me +to be of so much importance in life, I shall make it the subject of this +and the succeeding chapter. + +All education should have two objects in view, the opening of the +understanding and the improvement of the heart. Of the two, the latter +is most important. There cannot be a question, whether the person of the +most desirable character be the virtuous or the learned man. Without +virtue knowledge loses half its value. Wisdom, without virtue, may be +said to be merely political; and such wisdom, whenever it belongs to a +man, is little better than the cunning or craftiness of a fox. A man of +a cultivated mind, without an unshaken love of virtue, is but a dwarf of +a man. His food has done him no good, as it has not contributed to his +growth. And it would have been better, for the honour of literature, if +he had never been educated at all. The talents of man, indeed, +considering him as a moral being, ought always to be subservient to +religion. "All philosophy, says the learned Cudworth, to a wise man, to +a truly sanctified mind, as he in Plutarch speaketh, is but matter for +divinity to work upon. Religion is the queen of all those inward +endowments of the soul: and all pure natural knowledge, all virgin and +undeflowered arts and sciences, are her handmaids, that rise up and call +her blessed." + +Now if the opening of the understanding, and the improvement of the +heart, be the great objects to be attained, it will follow, that both +knowledge and wise prohibitions should always be component parts of the +education of youth. The latter the Quakers have adopted ever since the +institution of their society. The former they have been generally +backward to promote, at least to any considerable extent. That they have +done good, however, by their prohibitions, though unaccompanied by any +considerable knowledge, it would be disingenuous not to acknowledge. But +this goad has been chiefly confined to the children of those who have +occupied middle stations in the society. Such children have undoubtedly +arrived at the true wisdom of life at an early age, as I described in +the first volume, and have done honour to the religion they professed. +But prohibitions, without knowledge, have not been found to answer so +well among the children of those who have had the prospect of a large +moneyed independence before them, and who have not been afraid either of +the bad opinion of their own society, or of the bad opinion of the +world. It has been shewn, however, that knowledge with prohibitions +would, in all probability, be useful to these; that it would have a +tendency to enable them, in the perilous situation in which they are +placed, to stand against the corrupt opinions and fashions, and while +they were living in the world, to live out of it, or to deny it. + +Peculiarly situated as the Quakers are, they have opportunities, beyond +any other people, of ingrafting knowledge into their system of education +without danger, or, in other words, of giving knowledge to their +children with the purity which Christianity would prescribe. The great +misfortune in the world is, that a learned education is frequently +thought more of than a virtuous one; that youth, while they are +obtaining knowledge, are not properly watched and checked; and that they +are suffered to roam at large in the pursuit of science, and to +cultivate or not, at their own option, the science, if I may so call it, +of religion. Hence it will happen, that, where we see learned men, we +shall not always see these of the most exemplary character. But the +Quakers have long ago adopted a system of prohibitions, as so many +barriers against vice, or preservatives of virtue. Their constitution +forbids all indulgences that appear unfriendly to morals. The Quakers +therefore, while they retain the prohibitions which belong to their +constitution, may give encouragement to knowledge, without a fear that +it will be converted to the purposes of vice. + +The Quakers, again, have opportunities or advantages, which others have +not, in another point of view. In the great public seminary at Ackworth, +which belongs to them, and which is principally for those who are of the +poor and middle classes, every thing is under the inspection and +guidance of committees, which can watch and enforce an observance of any +rules that may be prescribed. Why then, if public seminaries were +instituted for the reception of the children of the rich, or if the rich +were to give encouragement to large private seminaries for the same +purposes, should they not be placed under the visiting discipline of the +society? Why should they not be placed under the care of committees +also? Why should not these committees see that the two great objects of +the education proposed were going on at the same time, or that, while +knowledge was obtaining, discipline had not been relaxed. Why should not +such seminaries produce future Penns, and Barclays, and others, who, +while they were men capable of deep literary researches, should be +exemplary for their virtue? + +As knowledge then ought to form a part of the proposed education, on a +much larger scale than has been hitherto encouraged, I shall say a few +words as to the component parts of it, and as to the general advantages +of these, and I shall afterwards speak to the advantages which the +society in particular would derive from such a change. + +In the education I propose, I do not mean, in the slightest manner, to +break in upon the moral system of the Quakers, as described in the first +volume. I do not propose to them the polite arts. I do not recommend +them to make children musicians, or that they should learn, under the +dancing-master, to step gracefully. I advise only such knowledge as will +be strictly innocent and useful. + +In the first place, I recommend a better classical education. Classical +knowledge gives the foundation both of particular and universal grammar. +While it gives the acquisition of the dead languages, it is the root, +and thereforce facilitates the acquisition of many of the living. As +most of the technical terms in the professions and sciences are borrowed +from these languages, it renders them easily understood. The study of +the structure and combination of words and sentences calls forth the +reflecting powers of youth, and expands their genius. It leads to +penetration and judgement. It induces habits of diligence and patience. +By means of this knowledge we have access to the sacred writings in the +languages in which they were written, and we are therefore not liable to +be imposed upon, for the sense of them, by others. We become acquainted +also, by means of it, with the sentiments and knowledge of the ancients. +We see their thoughts and expressions. We acquire a literary taste. + +A knowledge of ancient history is necessarily conpected with the former. +To this, however, should be added that of the modern. History, while it +entertains us, instructs us morally. We cannot see the rise and fall of +empires, or the causes of their formation and dissolution, or read the +histories of good and bad men, without impressions of moral importance +to ourselves. + +A philosophical education is peculiarly important. By this I mean, a +general knowledge of the mathematics, of mechanics, optics, +hydrostatics, astronomy, chemistry, botany, and the like. The teaching +of these should be accompanied by experiments. Experimental philosophy, +as I observed before, is peculiarly interesting to youth. Such knowledge +teaches us the causes of things. Mysteries, hitherto hidden both in the +garden and in the field, and in the heaven and in the air, lie unfolded +to our view. Every walk we take, while the surface of the earth remains +as it is, and the canopy of the firmament is spread over us, gives its +the opportunity, in all the innumerable objects presented to our view, +of almost endless investigation and delight. And the deeper we go into +the hidden things of nature, and the more we unfold them, have we not a +better belief of the existence of the Creator, and grander notions of +the symmetry, order, beauty, and wisdom of his works? Such knowledge +leads also, as it has always done, to discoveries, by which we may make +ourselves useful to mankind. And, besides the utility, of which it may +make us capable, can discoveries of the principles of nature lessen oar +love and admiration of the first great Cause? + +To philosophical knowledge should be added general reading. Such reading +should be of the purest kind. Of knowledge, acquired in this manner, it +maybe said, that it opens new sources of right views and sentiments, and +this even independently of Christianity, from which our most valuable +information is derived. Thus at a time, when as a nation we professed to +be Christians, we shed the blood of the martyrs. Thus when even such men +as the great Sir Matthew Hale, one of the brightest Christian patterns +in our country, were at the head of it, we condemned persons to death +for witchcraft. But knowledge superior to that of those times, has +taught us better things. By means of it we perceive, that persecution +does not destroy, but that it propagates opinions, and that the belief +of the existence of witchcraft is absurd. + +These then appear to me to be the general advantages, or such as are +inseparable from education when composed of the various branches of +knowledge which have been described. I shall now endeavour to shew the +peculiar advantages, which the Quakers would derive from it. + +It will appear then, if we look back into the character of the Quakers, +as described in this volume, that the world charges them, I mean the +more affluent part of them, with having less learning, than others in a +similar rank of life. But surely the education I propose would remove +this intellectual defect. + +The world again, as we have seen, has fixed another intellectual blemish +upon them by the imputation of superstition. But how does superstition +enter, but where there is a want of knowledge? Does not all history bear +testimony, that in proportion as men have been more or less enlightened, +they have been less or more liable to this charge? It is knowledge then, +which must banish this frightful companion of the mind. Wherever +individuals acknowledge, in a more extensive degree than others, the +influence of the Divine Spirit in man, these, of all other people, will +find the advantages of it. Knowledge leads to a solution of things, as +they are connected with philosophy, or the theory of the human mind. It +enables men to know their first and their second causes, so as to +distinguish between causes and occasions. It fixes the nature of action +and of thought; and, by referring effects to their causes, it often +enables men to draw the line between the probability of fancy and +inspiration. How many good men are there, who, adopting a similar creed +with that of the Quakers on this subject, make themselves uneasy, by +bringing down the Divine Being, promiscuously and without due +discrimination, into the varied concerns of their lives? How many are +there, who attribute to him that which is easily explained by the +knowledge of common causes? Thus, for instance, there are appearances in +nature, which a person of an uninformed mind, but who should adopt the +doctrine of the influence of the Spirit, would place among signs, and +wonders, and divine notices, which others, acquainted with the +philosophy of nature, would almost instantly solve. Thus again there may +be occasions, which persons, carrying the same doctrine to an undue +extent, might interpret into warning or prophetic voices, but which a +due exercise of the intellect, where such exercise has been properly +encouraged, would easily explain. This reminds me of a singular +occurrence: A friend of mine was lately walking in a beautiful vale. In +approaching a slate-quarry he heard an explosion, and a mass of stone, +which had been severed by gunpowder, fell near him as he walked along. +He went immediately to the persons employed. He represented the +impropriety of their conduct in not having given proper notice to such +as were passing by, and concluded by declaring emphatically, that they +themselves would be soon destroyed. It happened, but six weeks +afterwards, that two of these men were blown to pieces. The words then +of my friend were verified. Now I have no doubt that ignorant persons, +in the habit of referring every thing promiscuously to the Divine +interference, would consider my friend as a prophet, and his words as a +divinely forewarning voice. But what did my friend mean? or where did he +get his foresight on this occasion? The answer is, that my friend, being +accustomed to the exercise of his rational faculties, concluded, that if +the people in question were so careless with respect to those who should +be passing by in such times of danger, they would by custom become +careless with respect to themselves, and that ultimately some mischief +would befal them. It is knowledge, then, acquired by a due exercise of +the intellectual powers, and through the course of an enlightened +education, which will give men just views of the causes and effects of +things, and which, while it teaches them to discover and acknowledge the +Divine Being in all his wondrous works, and properly to distinguish him +in his providences, preserves them from the miseries of superstition. + +The world again has fixed the moral blemish of the money-getting, spirit +upon the Quaker character. But knowledge would step in here also as a +considerable corrector of the evil. It would shew, that there were other +objects besides money, which were worthy of pursuit. Nor would it point +out only new objects, but it would make a scale of their comparative +importance. It would fix intellectual attachments, next to religion, in +the highest class. Thus money would sink in importance as a pursuit, or +be valued only as it was the means of comfort to those who had it, or of +communicating comfort to others. Knowledge also would be useful in +taking off, to a certain degree, the corruptive effects of this spirit, +for it would prevent it by the more liberal notions it would introduce, +from leaving the whole of its dregs of pollution upon the mind. + +The Quakers again, as we have seen, have been charged with a want of +animation, from whence an unjust inference has been drawn of the +coldness of their hearts. But knowledge would diminish this appearance. +For, in the first place, it would enlarge the powers, and vary the +topics of conversation. It would enliven the speaker. It would give him +animation in discourse. Animation again would produce a greater +appearance of energy, and energy of the warmth of life. And there are +few people, whatever might be the outward cold appearance of the person +with whom they conversed, whose prejudices would not die away, if they +found a cheerful and an agreeable companion. + +Another charge against the Quakers was obstinacy. This was shewn to be +unjust. The trait, in this case, should rather have been put down as +virtue. Knowledge, however, would even operate here as a partial remedy. +For while the Quakers are esteemed deficient in literature, their +opposition to the customs of the world, will always be characterized as +folly. But if they were to bear in the minds of their countrymen a +different estimation as to intellectual attainments, the trait might be +spoken of under another name. For persons are not apt to impute +obstinacy to the actions of those, however singular, whom they believe +to have paid a due attention to the cultivation of their minds. + +It is not necessary to bring to recollection the other traits that were +mentioned, to see the operation of a superior education upon these. It +must have already appeared, that, whatever may be the general +advantages of learning, they would be more than usually valuable to the +Quaker character. + + + + +CHAP. VI. + +_Arguments of those of the society examined, who may depreciate human +knowledge--This depreciation did not originate with the first +Quakers--with Barclay--Penn--Ellwood--but arose afterwards--Reputed +disadvantages of a classical education--Its heathen mythology and +morality--Disadvantages of a philosophical one--Its scepticism--General +disadvantages of human learning--Inefficiency of all the arguments +advanced._ + + +Having shewn the advantages, which generally accompany a superior +education, I shall exhibit the disadvantages which may be thought to +attend it, or I shall consider those arguments, which some persons of +this society, who have unfortunately depreciated human learning, though +with the best intentions, might use against it, if they were to see the +contents of the preceding chapter. + +But, before I do this, I shall exonerate the first Quakers from the +charge of such a depreciation. These exhibited in their own persons the +practicability of the union of knowledge and virtue. While they were +eminent for their learning, they were distinguished for the piety of +their lives. They were indeed the friends of both. They did not +patronize the one to the prejudice and expulsion of the other.[53] + +[Footnote 53: George Fox was certainly an exception to this as a +scholar. He was also not friendly to classical learning on account of +some of the indelicate passages contained in the classical authors, +which he and Farley and Stubbs, took some pains to cite, but, if these +had been removed, I believe his objections would have ceased.] + +Barclay, in his celebrated apology, no where condemns the propriety or +usefulness of human learning, or denies it to be promotive of the +temporal comforts of man. He says that the knowledge of Latin, Greek and +Hebrew, or of logic and philosophy, or of ethics, or of physics and +metaphysics, is not necessary. But not necessary for what? Mark his own +meaning. Not necessary to make a minister of the Gospel. But where does +he say that knowledge, which he himself possessed to such a considerable +extent, was not necessary, or that it did not contribute to the innocent +pleasures of life? What would have been the character of his own book, +or what would have been its comparative value and usefulness, if he had +not been able to quote so many authors to his purpose in their original +texts, or to have detected so many classical errors, or to have +introduced such apposite history, or to have drawn up his propositions +with so much logical and mathematical clearness and precision, or if he +had not been among the first literary characters of his day? + +William Penn was equally celebrated with Barclay as a scholar. His works +afford abundant proof of his erudition, or of the high cultivation of +his mind. Like the rest of his associates, he was no advocate for +learning, as a qualification for a minister of the Gospel, but he was +yet a friend to it, on the principle, that it enlarged the +understanding, and that it added to the innocent pleasures of the mind. +He entreated his wife, in the beautiful letter which he left her, before +he embarked on his first voyage to America, "not to be sparing of +expence in procuring learning for his children, for that by such +parsimony all was lost that was saved." And he recommended also in the +same letter the mathematical or philosophical education which I have +described. + +Thomas Ellwood, a celebrated writer among the early Quakers, and the +friend of the great John Milton, was so sensible of the disadvantages +arising from a want of knowledge, that he revived his learning, with +great industry, even after he had become a Quaker. Let us hear the +account which he gives of himself in his own Journal. "I mentioned +before, says he, that, when I was a boy, I made some progress in +learning, and that I lost it all again before I came to be a man. Nor +was I slightly sensible of my last therein, till I came amongst the +Quakers. But then I both saw my loss, and lamented it; and applied +myself with the utmost diligence, at all leisure times to recover it. So +false I found that charge to be, which in those times was east as a +reproach upon the Quakers, that they despised and decried all human +learning, because they denied it to be essentially necessary to a Gospel +ministry, which was one of the controversies of those times." + +"But though I toiled hard, and spared no pains to regain what I had once +been master of, yet I found it a matter of so great difficulty, that I +was ready to say, as the noble eunuch to Philip, in another case, how +can I, unless I had some man to guide me?" + +"This I had formerly complained of to my especial friend Isaac +Pennington, but now more earnestly; which put him upon considering and +contriving a means for my assistance." + +"He had an intimate acquaintance with Dr. Paget, a physician of note in +London, and he with John Milton, a gentleman of great note for learning, +throughout the learned world, for the accurate pieces he had Written on +various subjects and occasions." + +"This person, having filled a public station in the former times, lived +now a private and retired life in London; and, having wholly lost his +sight, kept always a man to read to him, which usually was the son of +some gentleman of his acquaintance, whom in kindness he took to improve +in his learning." + +"Thus by the mediation of my friend Isaac Pennington with Dr. Paget, and +of Dr. Paget with John Milton, was I admitted to come to him; not as a +servant to him (which at that time he needed not) nor to be in the house +with him; but only to have the liberty of coming to his house at certain +hours, when I would, and to read to him what books he should appoint me, +which was all the favour I desired." + +By means of this extract, made from the life of Thomas Ellwood, we come +to three conclusions. First, that the early Quakers were generally men +of eminent learning. Secondly, that they did not decry or depreciate +human knowledge. And thirdly, that the calumny of such a depreciation by +them arose from the controversy which they thought it right to maintain, +in which they denied it to be necessary as a qualification for a Gospel +minister. + +This latter conclusion brings me round again to the point. And here I +must observe, that, though this famous controversy occasioned the first +Quakers to be unduly blamed on account of such a depreciation, yet it +contributed to make some of their immediate successors, as I stated in a +former volume, justly chargeable with it. But whether this was or was +not the real cause, it is not material to the question. Many of the +society, from came cause or other, did undoubtedly, in the age +immediately succeeding that of their founders, begin to depreciate human +knowledge, the effects of which, though gradually dissipating, have not +been wholly done away at the present day. The disadvantages, therefore, +of human learning, or the arguments which would be advanced against it +by those who may undervalue it, I shall now consider. + +These arguments may be divided into particular and general. On the +former I shall first speak. + +A classical education is considered to be objectionable, first, on +account of the Heathen mythology that is necessarily connected with it. +Its tendency, as it relates to fabulous occurrences, is thought to be +unfavourable, as it may lead to a romantic propensity, and a turn for +fiction. But surely the meaning of such occurrences cannot be well +mistaken. If they are represented to our view in fable, they have had +their foundation in truth. Many of them again are of such importance, +that we could not wish to see them annihilated. Let us refer, for +example, to the story of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Is it not one among the +many outward confirmations of the truth of the history of Moses? Or do +we not trace in it additional proofs of the deluge, and of the renewal +of mankind? + +Its tendency again, as it relates to the fabulous history of the Heathen +gods, their number, their offices, and their character, is considered as +degrading and exceptionable. I will concede this for a moment. But may +it not, on the other hand, be rendered instructive and useful? May not +the retention of such an history be accompanied with great moral +advantages to our children? The emperor Theodosius commanded the idol +temples to be destroyed. Instead of devoting them to the use of the +Christians of those times, by which they might have been preserved to +future generations, the most beautiful remains of antiquity were +reduced to ruins. But would it not have been better, if Theodosius had +brought good out of evil by retaining them? Would it not have been a +high moral gratification to those who knew the fact, that temples, +appropriated to the worship of idols, had been devoted to the service of +the only true God? Would it not have been a matter of joy to these to +have reflected upon the improving condition of mankind? And, while they +looked up to these beautiful structures of art, might not the sight of +them have contributed to the incitement of their virtue? If it be the +tendency of the corrupt part of our nature to render innocent things +vicious, it is, on the other hand, in the essence of our nature to +render vicious things in process of time innocent, so that the very +remnants of idolatry may be made subservient to our moral improvement. +"If, as I observed in the first volume, we were to find an alter which +had been sacred to Moloch, but which had been turned into a +stepping-stone to help the aged and infirm upon their horses, why should +we destroy it? Might it not be made useful to our morality, as for as it +could be made to excite sorrow for the past and gratitude for the +present?" And in the same manner the retention of the Heathen mythology +might be made serviceable. Ought it not, whenever we contemplate it, to +make us thankful, that we have not the dark and cheerless path of our +ancestors to tread; that we have clearer light; that we have surer +prospects; that we have a steadier ground of hope; and ought we not, on +a contemplation of these superior advantages, brought to us by +revelation, to be roused into the practice of a superior virtue. + +Classical education again is considered as objectionable by the Quakers +on account of the Heathen notions, which it may spread. Thus the highest +reputation of man is placed in deeds of martial achievement, and a +martial ardour is in consequence infused into youth, which it is +difficult to suppress. That such notions and effect are produced, there +can be no doubt; but how are we to avoid these whilst we are obliged to +live in the world? The expulsion of the classics would not expel them. +Our own newspapers, which are open to all, spread the same opinions, and +are instrumental of course in producing the same excitements, but they +do it in a much more objectionable way than the classical authors, that +is, they do it with less delicacy, and with a more sanguinary applause. +But where, as I observed before, shall we retire from such impressions? +Does not the recruiting drum propagate them in all our towns? Do not the +ringing of the bells, and the illuminations, which occasionally take +place in the time of war, propagate them also? And do we not find these, +both in war and in peace, the sentiments and impressions of the world? +Our own notions then, our own writings, and our own customs, are more to +be blamed in this respect, than the literary compositions of ancient +times. But this, of all others, ought to be least an objection with the +Quakers to such an education; because, to their honour, they have a +constant counteraction of the effects of such sentiments and impressions +in the principles of their own constitution, and which counteraction +cannot cease, while, by the bearing of their testimony, they live in a +continual protest against them. + +The last objection to a classical education is, that the system of the +Heathen morality is generally too deficient for those who are to be +brought up as Christians. To this I answer, that it is quite as good as +the system of the morality of the world. I could procure purer +sentiments, and this generally from the Heathen authors usually +called[54] classical, than I can collect from many, even of the admired +publications of our own times. The morality of the heathens is not so +deficient as many have imagined. If their best opinions were duly +selected and brought into one view, the only matter of surprise would +be, how, with no other than the law written upon the heart, they had +made such sublime discoveries. It was principally in their theology, +where the law written upon the heart could not reach, that the ancients +were deficient. They knew but little of the one true God. They did not +know that he was a Spirit, and that he was to be worshiped in spirit and +in truth. They were ignorant of his attributes. They had learnt nothing +of the true origin, nature, and condition of man, or of the scheme of +creation and redemption. These things were undoubtedly hidden from the +eyes of the ancient philosophers. And it was in knowledge of this kind +chiefly, that their deficiency was apparent. But how is this particular +deficiency detrimental to youth, or how rather might it not be rendered +useful to them in the way described? What a sublime contrast does +knowledge, as exhibited by revelation, afford to the ignorance of those +times, and what joy and gratitude ought we not to feel in the +comparison? And this is the only use which can be made of their +mythology? For when we send youth to the classical authors, we send them +to learn the languages, and this through a medium where the morality is +both useful and respectable, but we do not send them, living where the +blessings of revelation are enjoyed, to be instructed in religion. + +[Footnote 54: It must however be acknowledged, that, amidst beautiful +sentiments, such as are indelicate are occasionally interspersed. But +the quakers might remedy this objection by procuring a new edition of +the purest classics only, in which particular passages might be omitted. +They might also add new Latin notes, founded on Christian principles, +where any ideas were found to be incorrect, and thus make Heathenism +itself useful, as a literal teacher of a moral system. The world, I +believe, would be obliged to the Quakers for such an edition, and it +would soon obtain in most of the schools of the kingdom.] + +The principal argument against a philosophical education, which is the +next subject for consideration, is, that men, who cultivate such +studies, require often more proofs of things than can always be had, and +that, if these are wanting, they suspend their belief. And as this is +true in philosophy, so it may be true in religion. Hence persons +accustomed to such pursuits, are likely to become sceptics or infidels. +To this I answer, that the general tendency of philosophy is favourable +to religion. Its natural tendency is to give the mind grand and sublime +ideas, and to produce in it a belief of the existence of one great +cause, which is not visible among men. Thus, for example, I find that +the planets perform a certain round! They perform it with a certain +velocity. They do not wander at random, but they are kept to their +orbits. I find the forces which act upon them for this purpose. I find, +in short, that they are subject to certain laws. Now, if the planets +were living agents, they might have prescribed these laws to themselves. +But I know that this, when I believe them to consist of material +substances, is impossible. If then, as material substances, they are +subject to laws, such laws must have been given them. There must have +been some lawgiver. In this manner then I am led to some other great, +and powerful, and invisible Agent or Cause. And here it may be observed, +that if philosophers were ever baffled in their attempts at discovery, +or in their attempts after knowledge, as they frequently are, they would +not, on this account, have any doubt with respect to the being of a God. +If they had found, after repeated discoveries, that the ideas acquired +from thence were repeatedly or progressively sublime, and that they led +repeatedly or progressively to a belief of the existence of a superior +Power, is it likely that they would all at once discard this belief, +because there researches were unsuccessful? If they were to do this, +they would do it against all the rules of philosophizing, and against +the force of their own habits. I say, that analogical is a part of +philosophical reasoning, and that they would rather argue, that, as such +effects had been uniformly produced, so they would probably still be +produced, if their researches were crowned with success. The tendency +then of philosophical knowledge is far otherwise than has been supposed. +And it makes highly in favour of the study of these sciences, that those +who have cultivated them the most, such as Newton, and Boyle, and +others, have been found among the ablest advocates for religion.[55] + +[Footnote 55: I by no means intend to say, that philosophy leads to the +religion called Christianity, but that it does to Theism, which is the +foundation of it.] + +I come now, to the general arguments used by the Quakers against human +learning, the first of which is, that they who possess it are too apt to +reduce religion to reason, and to strip it of the influence of the +Spirit. But this is contrary, as a general position, to all fact. We +find no mention of this in history. The fathers of the church were the +most eminent for learning in their own days, and these insisted upon the +Influence of the Spirit in spiritual concerns, as one of the first +articles of their faith. The reformers, who succeeded these, were men of +extensive erudition also, and acknowledged the same great principle. And +nine-tenths, I believe, of the Christians of the present, day, among +whom we ought to reckon nine-tenths of the men of learning also, adopt a +similar creed. + +Another general argument is, that learning is apt to lead to conceit and +pride, or to a presumed superiority of intellect, in consequence of +which men raise themselves in their own estimation, and look down upon +others as creatures of an inferior order of race. To this I may answer, +that as prodigies are daily produced in nature, though they may be but +as one to a hundred thousand when compared with the perfect things of +their own kind, so such phenomena may occasionally make their appearance +in the world. But as far as my own experience goes, I believe the true +tendency of learning to be quite the reverse. I believe the most learned +to be generally the most humble, and to be the most sensible of their +own ignorance. Men, in the course of their studies, daily find something +new. Every thing new shews them only their former ignorance, and how +much there is yet to learn. The more they persevere, in their +researches, the more they acknowledge the latter fact. The longer they +live, the more they lament the shortness of life, during which, man with +all his industry, can attain so little, and that, when he is but just +beginning to know, he is cut off. They see, in short, their own +nothingness, and, however they may be superior in their attainments, +they are convinced that their knowledge is, after all, but a shadow; +that it is but darkness; that it is but the absence of light; and that +it no sooner begins to assume an appearance than it is gone. + +The last general argument against learning is, that it does not lead to +morality, or that learned men do not always exhibit an example of the +best character. In answer to this I must observe, that the natural +tendency of learning is to virtue. If learned men are not virtuous, I +presume their conduct is an exception to the general effect of knowledge +upon the mind. That there are, however, persons of such unnatural +character, I must confess. But any deficiency in their example is not to +be attributed to their learning. It is to be set down, on the other +hand, to the morally defective education they have received. They have +not been accustomed to wise restraints. More pains have been taken to +give them knowledge, than to instruct them in religion. But where an +education has been bestowed upon persons, in which their morals have +been duly attended to, where has knowledge been found to be at variance, +or rather where has it not been found to be in union, with virtue? Of +this union the Quakers can trace some of the brightest examples in their +own society. Where did knowledge, for instance, separate herself from +religion in Barclay, or in Penn, or in Burroughs, or in Pennington, or +in Ellwood, or in Arscott, or in Claridge, or in many others who might +be named. And as this has been the case in the Quaker society, where a +due care has been taken of morals, so it has been the case where a +similar care has been manifested in the great society of the world. + + "Piety has found + Friends In the friends of Science, and true pray'r + Has flow'd from lips wet with Castalian dews. + Such was thy wisdom, Newton, childlike sage! + Sagacious reader of the works of God, + And in his word sagacious. Such too thine, + Milton, whose genius had angelic wings, + And fed on manna. And such thine, in whom + Our British Themis gloried with just cause, + Immortal Hale! for deep discernment prais'd + And sound integrity not more, than fam'd + For sanctity of manners undefil'd." Cowper. + +It appears then, if I have reasoned properly, that the arguments usually +adduced against the acquisition of human knowledge are but of little +weight. If I have reasoned falsely upon this subject, so have the early +Quakers. As they were friends to virtue, so they were friends to +science. If they have at any time put a low estimate upon the latter, it +has been only as a qualification for a minister of the Gospel. Here they +have made a stand. Here they have made a discrimination. But I believe +it will no where be found, that they have denied, either that learning +might contribute to the innocent pleasures of life, or that it might be +made a subordinate and auxiliary instrument towards the promotion of +virtue. + + + + +CHAP. VII. + +_Conclusion of the work--Conclusionary remarks divided into two +kinds--First, as they relate to those who may have had thoughts of +leaving the society--Advantages, which these may have proposed to +themselves by such a change--These advantages either religious or +temporal--The value of them considered._ + + +Having now gone through all the subjects, which I had prescribed to +myself at the beginning of this work, I purpose to close it. But as it +should be the wish of every author to render his production useful, I +shall add a few observations for this purpose. My remarks then, which +will be thus conclusory, relate to two different sorts of persons. They +will relate, first, to those who may have had thoughts of leaving the +society, or, which is the same thing, who persist in a course of +irregularities, knowing beforehand, and not regretting it, that they +shall be eventually disowned. It will relate, secondly, to all other +persons, or to those who may be called the world. To the former I shall +confine my attention in this chapter. + +I have often heard persons of great respectability, and these even in +the higher circles of life, express a wish, that they had been brought +up as Quakers. The steady and quiet deportment of the members of this +society, the ease with which they appear to get through life, the +simplicity and morality of their character, were the causes which +produced the expression of such a wish. "But why then, I have observed, +if you feel such a disposition as this wish indicates, do you not become +Quakers?" "Because, it has been replied, we are too old to be singular. +Dressing with sufficient simplicity ourselves, we see no good reason for +adopting the dress of the society. It would be as foolish in us to +change the colour and fashion of our clothing, as it would be criminal +in the Quakers, with their notions, to come to the use of that which +belongs to us. Endeavouring also to be chaste in our conversation, we +cannot adopt their language. It would be as inconsistent in us to speak +after the manner of the Quakers, as it would be inconsistent in them to +leave their own language for ours. But we wish we had been born Quakers. +And, if we had been born Quakers, we would never have deserted the +society." + +Perhaps they to whom I shall confine my remarks in this chapter, are not +aware, that such sentiments as these are floating in the minds of many. +They are not aware, that it is considered as one of the strongest things +for those who have been born in the society, and been accustomed to its +particularities, to leave it. And least of all are they aware of the +worthless motives, which the world attributes to them for an intended +separation from it. + +There is, indeed, something seemingly irreconcileable in the thought of +such a dereliction or change. To leave the society of a moral people, +can it be a matter of any credit? To diminish the number of those who +protest against war, and who have none of the guilt upon their heads of +the sanguinary progress of human destruction which is going on in the +world, is it desirable, or rather, ought it not to be a matter of +regret? And to leave it at a time, when its difficulties are over, is it +a proof of a wise and a prudent choice? If persons had ever had it in +contemplation to leave the society in its most difficult and trying +times, or in the days of its persecution, when only for the adoption of +innocent singularities its members were insulted, and beaten, and +bruised, and put in danger of their lives, it had been no matter of +surprise: but to leave it, when all prejudices against them are +gradually decreasing, when they are rising in respectability in the eyes +of the government under which they live, and when, by the weight of +their own usefulness and character, they are growing in the esteem of +the world, is surely a matter of wonder, and for which it is difficult +to account. + +This brings me to the point in question, or to the examination of those +arguments, which may at times have come into the heads of those who have +had thoughts of ceasing to be members of this society. + +In endeavouring to discover these, we can only suppose them to be +actuated by one motive, for no other will be reasonable, namely, that +they shall derive advantages from the change. Now all advantages are +resolvable into two kinds, into such as are religious, and into such as +are temporal. The first question then is, what advantages do they gain +in the former case, or do they actually come into the possession of a +better religion? + +I am aware that to enter into this subject, though but briefly, is an +odious task. But I shall abstain from all comparisons, by which I might +offend any. If I were to be asked which, among the many systems of the +Christian religion, I should prefer, I should say, that I see in all of +them much to admire, but that no one of them, perhaps, does wholly, or +in every part of it, please me; that is, there is no one, in which I do +not see some little difficulty, which I cannot solve, though this is no +impediment to my faith. But, if I were pressed more particularly upon +this point, I should give the following answer. I should say, that I +should prefer that, which, first of all, would solve the greatest number +of difficulties, as far as scriptural texts were concerned, in +conformity with the Divine attributes, which, secondly, would afford the +most encouraging and consolatory creed, if it were equally well founded +with any other; and which, thirdly, either by its own operation, or by +the administration of it, would produce the post perfect Christian +character. Let us then judge of the religion of the Quakers by this +standard. + +That there are difficulties with respect to texts of scripture, must be +admitted; for if all men were to understand them alike, there would be +but one profession of the Christian religion. One man endeavours to make +his system comport wholly with human reason, and the consequence is, +that texts constantly stare him in the face, which militate against it. +Another discards reason, with a determination to abide literally by +that, which is revealed, and the consequence is, that, in his literal +interpretation of some passages, he leaves others wholly irreconcileable +with his scheme. Now the religion, of the Quakers has been explained, +and this extensively. In its doctrinal parts it is simple. It is +spiritual. It unites often philosophy with revelation. It explains a +great number of the difficult texts with clearness and consistency. That +it explains all of them I will not aver. But these which it does +explain, it explains in the strictest harmony with the love, goodness, +justice, mercy, and wisdom of God. + +As to the creed of the Quakers, we have seen its effects. We have seen +it to be both encouraging and consolatory. We have seen it produce +happiness in life, and courage in death. The doctrine of the possibility +of human perfection, where it is believed, must be a perpetual stimulus +to virtue, it must encourage hope and banish fear. But it may be said, +that stimulative and consolatory as it may be, it wants one of the marks +which I have insisted upon, namely, a sound foundation. But surely they, +who deny it, will have as many scriptural texts against them as they who +acknowledge it, and will they not be rendering their own spiritual +situation perilous? But what do the Quakers mean by perfection? Not the +perfection of God, to which there are no limits, as has been before +explained, but that which arises to man from the possibility of keeping +the divine commands. They mean that perfection, such as Noah, and Job, +and Zacharias, and Elizabeth, attained, and which the Jewish rabbies +distinguished by the name of Redemption, and which they conceived to be +effected by the influence of the Holy Spirit, or that state of man in +Christian morals, which, if he arrives at it, the Divine Being (outward +redemption having taken place by the sacrifice of Christ) is pleased to +accept as sufficient, or as the most pure state at which man, under the +disadvantages of the frailty of his nature, can arrive. And is not this +the practicable perfection, which Jesus himself taught in these words, +"Be ye perfect, even as your Father, which is in heaven is perfect." Not +that he supposed it possible, that any human being could be as perfect +as the Divine Nature. But he proposed, by these expressions, the highest +conceivable model of human excellence, of which our natures were +capable, well knowing that the higher our aspirations the higher we +should ascend, and the sooner we should reach that best state of +humanity that was attainable. And here it is, that Christianity, as a +rule of moral conduct, surpasses all others. Men, in general, look up to +men for models. Thus Homer makes one of his heroes, when giving counsel +to his son, say, "Always emulate the best." Thus also we should say to +our children, if a person of extraordinary character were to live in our +neighbourhood, "This is the pattern for your virture." But Jesus Christ +says, aim at perfection beyond that which is human, alluding to the +attributes of God, and thus you will attain a higher excellence than the +study of any other model can produce. + +With respect to the formation of man according to the model which +Christianity prescribes, the system of the Quakers is no where to be +excelled. No one, that we know of, is more powerful in the production of +a subjugated mind and of a moral character. By this I mean, that there +is none which is more universally powerful. It is the tendency of +Christianity, whatever denomination it may assume, to produce these +effects. But there is full as general an appearance of these among the +Quakers, as in any other Christian profession. + +It will appear then, that, if the three criterions, which have been +specified, should be admitted to be those by which a judgment may be +formed in the present case, they, who have had thoughts of leaving the +society, will not be much better off by an exchange of their religion. + +Let us see next, what would be the greater temporal advantages, which +they would obtain. These may be summed up in two essential ingredients +of happiness, in tranquillity of mind, in consequence of which we pass +through the troubles of life in the most placid manner, and in a +moderate pecuniary independence, in consequence of which we know none of +the wants and hardships, but enjoy the reasonable comforts of it. + +With respect to tranquillity of mind, we have shown this to be +constitutional with the Quakers. It arises from their domestic +enjoyments, from seldom placing their pleasures or their fortunes in the +power of others, from freedom from the ambition and envyings of the +world, from the regulation of the temper, from avoiding quarrels and +lawsuits, and from other causes. And with respect to a moderate +pecuniary independence, we have shewn not only that this is the general +portion of the society, but that it is in the very nature of their +habits to acquire it. Now these essential ingredients of happiness, or +these temporal advantages, do not belong to the present Quakers only. +They have always belonged to Quakers; and they will be perpetuated as an +inheritance to their children, as long as Quakerism lasts. By this I +mean to say, that if any Quakers, now living, could be sure that their +descendants would keep to the wholesome regulations of the society for +ten generations to come, they might have the comfort of believing, that +tranquillity of mind would accompany them, as an effect of the laws and +constitution belonging it, and that at any rate an easy pecuniary +situation in life would be preserved to them. For if it be no difficult +thing, with the natural habits of the society, to acquire an +independence, it is much easier to preserve that which has been left +them. But will they, who have had it in contemplation to leave the +society, be able to say this for their children, when they adopt the +world for their home? What certainty is there, that these will +experience tranquillity, unless they are seen, quite as far as manhood, +in the habits of religion? Will the cares of the world, its ambition, +its thirst after honours, and its unbridled affections and passions, +give them no uneasiness? And can the fortunes transmitted to them, +subject as they will be to its destructive fashions and pleasures, be +insured to them for even half of their times? How many have we seen, who +have been in the prime of health in the morning, who have fallen before +night in the duel? And how many have we seen in a state of affluence at +night, who have been ruined by gaming in the morning? + +But it is possible that they, who may have had thoughts of leaving the +society; may picture to themselves another advantage, which I have not +yet mentioned. It is possible, that there may be yet one which they may +distinguish by such a name. They may possibly think it to be a gain to +get rid of the restraint of the discipline of the society, and to enjoy +the freedom of the world. + +That the discipline is a restraint, I do not deny. But it must never be +forgotten, that its object is moral good, and its effect the +preservation of a moral character. But, come you, who complain of this +heavy burden imposed upon you, and let us converse together for a +moment, and let us see, if, when you relinquish it, you do not impose +upon yourself a worse. Are you sure that, when you get rid of this +discipline, you will not come under the discipline of fashion? And who +is Fashion? Is she not of all mistresses the most imperious, and +unreasonable, and cruel? You may be pleased with her for a while, but +you will eventually feel her chains. With her iron whip, brandished over +your head, she will issue out her commands, and you must obey them. She +will drive you, without mercy, through all her corruptive customs, and +through all her chameleon changes, and this against your judgment and +against your will. Do you keep an equipage? You must alter the very +shape of your carriage, if she prescribes it. Is the livery of your +postilion plain? You must make it of as many colours as she dictates. If +you yourself wear corbeau or raven colour to-day, you must change it, if +she orders you, to that of puce, or the flea, to-morrow. But it is not +only, in your equipage and your dress, that she will put you under her +control. She will make you obedient to her in your address and manners. +She will force upon you rules for your intercourse with others. She will +point out to you her amusements, and make you follow them. She will +place you under her cruel laws of honour, from which she will disown +you, if you swerve. Now I beseech you, tell me, which you think you +would prefer, the discipline of the goddess Fashion, or that of the good +old mistress, which you may have wished to leave? The one kindly points +out to you, and invites and warns you to avoid, every dangerous +precipice, that may be before you. The other is not satisfied, but with +your destruction. She will force you, for a single word, uttered in a +thoughtless moment, to run the hazard of your life, or to lose what she +calls your character. The one, by preserving you in innocence, preserves +you happy. The greater your obedience to her, the greater is your +freedom; and it is the best species of freedom, because it is freedom +from the pollutions of the world. The other awakens your conscience, and +calls out its stings. The more obedient you are to her, the greater is +your slavery, and it is the worst species of slavery, because it is +often slavery to vice. In consequence of the freedom which the one +bestows upon you, you are made capable of enjoying nature and its +various beauties, and by the contemplation of these, of partaking of an +endless feast. In consequence of the freedom which the one bestows upon +you, you are made capable of enjoying nature, and its various beauties, +and, by the contemplation, of these, of partaking of an endless feast. +In consequence of the slavery to which the other reduces you, you are +cramped as to such enjoyments. By accustoming you to be pleased with +ridiculous and corruptive objects, and silly and corruptive changes, she +confines your relish to worthless things. She palsies your vision, and +she corrupts your taste. You see nature before you, and you can take no +pleasure in it. Thus she unfits you for the most rational of the +enjoyments of the world, in which you are designed to live. + + + + +CHAP. VIII. + +_Conclusory remarks, as they relate to those who compose the world at +large--Advantages, which these may derive from the contents of this +work--from a view of many of the customs--and of the principles +explained in it--from seeing practically the influence of these customs +and principles in the production of character and happiness--and from +seeing the manner of their operation, or how they produce the effects +described._ + + +I shall now endeavour to make my conclusory remarks useful as they may +relate to those who may be called the world. + +To state the object, which I have in view, I shall observe at once, that +men are divided in opinion as to the lawfulness, or expediency, or +wholesomeness of many of the customs, fashions, and accomplishments of +the world. We find some encouraging in their families, and this without +any hesitation, and to an almost unlimited extent, those which many, on +account of religious considerations, have expelled. We find others again +endeavouring to steer a course between the opinions and practice of +these. The same diversity of sentiment prevails also with respect to +principles. The virtuous or moral are adopted by some. The political by +others. That the political often obtain both in education and in +subsequent life, there is no question. Thus, for example, a young man is +thought by some to be more likely to make his way in the world with the +address which fashionable accomplishments may give him, even if he be a +little dissipated, than one of strict virtue with unpolished manners. +Thus again in actions and transactions, policy is often preferred to +express and open declarations of the truth. Others again are of opinion, +that the general basis of principle should be virtue, but that a +latitude may be, allowed for a seasonable policy. Thus an education is +going on under Christian parents, as if Christianity had objects in +view, which were totally opposite to each other. + +It is in this point of view chiefly, that I can hope to be useful in +this conclusory part of my work. We have seen in the course of it both +customs and principles laid open and explained. We have seen the +tendencies and bearings of these. We have seen them probed, and examined +by a moral standard. We have seen their influence on character and +happiness. We have seen the manner in which they act, or how these +effects are produced. A revision therefore of these cannot but be +useful, but more particularly to parents, as it may enable some of +these, in conjunction with the knowledge they possess, to form probably +a more correct system than they may have had it in contemplation to +adopt, for the education of their youth. + +The first advantage then, which those who compose the world at large may +derive from the contents of this work, will be from a review of some of +the customs which have been censured in it. + +In looking into customs, the first that obtrudes itself upon our notice, +is that of allowing to children those amusements, which, on account of +the use of them, may be called gaming. A view is offered to us here, +which is divested of all superstition. It is no where contended at +random, in speaking against these, that their origin is objectionable. +It is no where insisted upon, that there is evil in them considered +abstractedly by themselves, or that they may not be used innocently, or +that they may not be made the occasion of innocent mirth. The evil is +candidly stated to arise from their abuse. The nature of this evil is +unfolded. Thus the malevolent passions, such as anger, envy, hatred, +revenge, and even avarice, are stirred up, where they should be +particularly prevented, in the youthful breast. A spirit of gaming, +which may be destructive of fortune, health, and morals, is engendered. +A waste of time[56] is occasioned, inasmuch as other pursuits might be +followed, which would be equally amusing, but conducive to the +improvement of the mind. The nature of the abuse is unfolded likewise. +It consists of making games of chance productive of loss and gain. Thus +they hold up speedy pecuniary acquisitions, and speedy repairs of +misfortune. Thus they excite hope and fear, and give birth to pain and +disappointment. The prevention also of the abuse, and that alone which +can be effectual, is pointed out. This consists of a separation of +emolument from chance, or of the adoption of the maxim, that no youth +ought to be permitted to lay a wager, or to reap advantage from any +doubtful event by a previous agreement on a moneyed stake. Now if the +reader be not disposed to go the length which the Quakers do, by the +abolition of such amusements, he will at least have had the advantage of +seeing that there may be evil in them, and where it lies, and the +extent (if he will only look at the historical instances cited) to which +it may proceed, and its infallible prevention or its cure. + +[Footnote 56: This argument is usually applied to grown up people, but +may be applicable to youth, when we consider the ingenious inventions of +modern times, such as maps of dissected geography, historical and other +games, which, while they afford pleasure, promote improvement.] + +The next subject which offers itself to our view, is music, and this +comes before us in two forms, either as it is instrumental or vocal. + +With respect to instrumental, it is no where insisted upon that its +origin is evil, or that it is not productive of a natural delight, or +that it does not soothe and tranquilize the passions, or that it may not +be innocently used, or that it may not be made, under limitations, a +cheerful companion in solitude. But it is urged against it, that it does +not tend, like many other studies, to the improvement of the mind; that +it affords no solid ground of comfort either in solitude or affliction; +that it is a sensual gratification; and that sensual gratifications, if +indulged in leisure hours, take up the time which should be devoted to +those of a higher nature, that is, intellectual and moral pursuits. It +is urged against it again, that, if abused, it is chargeable with a +criminal waste of time, and a criminal impairing of health; that this +abuse, in consequence of proficiency being insisted upon (without which +it ceases to be delightful) is at the present day almost inseparable +from its use; and that where the abuse of a thing, either in consequence +of fashion, or its own seductive nature, or any other cause, is either +necessarily or very generally connected with the use of it, watchfulness +to avoid it is as much a duty in Christian morals, as it is a duty +against the common dangers of life. + +On vocal again we observe a proper distinction attempted. We find, that +the singing is no more criminal than the reading of a song, being but +another mode of expressing it, and that, the morality of it therefore +will depend upon the words and sentiments it contains. If these are +indelicate, or unchaste, or hold out false and corruptive ideas, as has +been shewn to be the case with a variety of songs, then singing may from +an innocent become a vicious amusement. But it has been observed, that +youth seldom make any discrimination or selection with respect to songs, +but that they pick up all that come in their way, whatever may be the +impropriety of the words or sentiments, which they may contain. + +Now then, whether we speak of instrumental or vocal music, if the reader +should not be willing totally to discard this science as the Quakers +do, he will at least have learnt some good from the observation which +the work will have held out to him on this subject. He will see that +evil may unquestionably be produced by the cultivation of it. He will +see the absolute necessity of guarding his children against the learning +of it to professional precision, as it is now unfortunately taught, to +the detriment of their health, and of the acquisition of more important +knowledge. He will see also the necessity of great vigilance with +respect to the purity of the words and sentiments which may be connected +with it. + +The important subject, which is brought next before us, is that of the +theatre. Here we are taught, that, though dramatic pieces had no +censurable origin, the best of the ancient moralists condemned them. We +are taught, that, even in the most favourable light in which we can view +them, they have been thought objectionable, that is, that where they +have pretended to teach morality, they have inculcated rather the +refined virtue of heathenism, than the strict though mild morality of +the Gospel; and where they have attempted to extirpate vice, they have +done it rather by making it appear ridiculous, than by teaching men to +avoid it as evil, or for the love of virtue. We are taught, that, as it +is our duty to love our neighbour, and to be solicitous for his +spiritual welfare, we ought not, under a system which requires +simplicity and truth, to encourage him to be what he is not, or to +personate a character which is not his own. We are taught that it is the +general tendency of the diversions of the stage, by holding out false +morals and prospects, to weaken the sinews of morality; by disqualifying +for domestic enjoyments, to wean from a love of home; by accustoming to +light thoughts and violent excitement of the passions, to unfit for the +pleasures of religion. We are taught that diversions of this nature +particularly fascinate, and that, if they fascinate, they suggest +repetitions. And finally we are taught, that the early Christians on +their conversion, though before this time they had followed them as +among the desirable pleasures of their lives, relinquished them on the +principles now explained. + +The next subject, which comes to us in order, is dancing. This is handed +down to us, under two appearances, either as it is simple, or as it is +connected with preparations and accompaniments. + +In viewing it in its simple state, it is no where contended, if it be +encouraged on the principle of promoting such an harmonious carriage of +the body, or use of the limbs, as maybe more promotive of health, that +it is objectionable, though it is supposed that it is not necessary for +such purposes, and that, without music and its other usual +accompaniments, it would not be pleasant. Neither is it contended that a +simple dance upon the green, if it were to arise suddenly and without +its usual preparations, may not be innocent, or that if may not be +classed with an innocent game at play, or with innocent exercise in the +fields, though it is considered, that it would hardly be worthy of those +of riper years, because they who are acknowledged to have come to the +stature of men, are expected to abandon amusements for pursuits of +usefulness, and particularly where they make any profession of the +Christian name. + +In viewing it with its preparations, and with its subsequent +accompaniments, as usually displayed in the ball-room, we see it in a +less favourable light. We see it productive, where it is habitually +resorted to, of a frivolous levity, of vanity and pride, and of a +littleness of mind and character. We see it also frequently becoming the +occasion of the excitement of the malevolent passions, such as anger, +envy, hatred, jealousy, malice, and revenge. We find it also frequently +leading to[57] indisposition. We find lastly, that, in consequence of +the vexation of mind, which may arise from a variety of causes, but more +particularly from disappointment and the ascendency of some of the +passions that have been mentioned, more pleasure is generally perceived +in the anticipation of these amusements, than in the actual taste or use +of them. + +[Footnote 57: Not only colds, head-aches, and a general lassitude, ore +the result Of dancing in ball-rooms, but occasionally serious +indisposition. I have known the death of two young persons attributed to +it by the physicians who attended them in their illness.] + +The subject of novels is presented next to our view. And here it has +appeared, that no objection can be truly adduced against these on +account of the fictitious nature of their contents. Novels also are not +all of them promiscuously condemned. It is contended, however, from a +variety of causes which were shewn, that they are very generally +censurable. We are taught again, that the direct tendency of those which +are censurable is to produce conceit and affectation, a romantic spirit, +and a perverted morality among youth. We are taught again, that, on +account of the peculiar construction of these, inasmuch as they have +plot and character like dramatic compositions, they fascinate, and this +to such a degree, that youth wait for no selection, but devour +promiscuously all that come in their way. Hence the conclusion is, that +the effects, alleged against novels, cannot but be generally produced. +We are presented also with this fact, that, on account of the high +seasoning and gross stimulants they contain, all other writings, however +useful, become insipid. Hence the novel reader, by becoming indisposed +to the perusal of more valuable books, excludes himself from the +opportunity of moral improvement, and, if immoral sentiments are +contracted, from the chance of any artificial corrective or cure. + +The diversions of the field offer themselves next to our notice. We are +taught, on the discussion which has arisen on this subject, that we are +not permitted to take away the lives of animals wantonly but only as +they may be useful for food, or as they may be dangerous to ourselves +and to the other animals which may belong to us, and that a condition is +annexed to the original grant or charter, by which permission was given +to kill, which is never to be dispensed with, or, in other words, that +we are to take away their lives as speedily as we can. Hence rights have +sprung up on the part of animals, and duties on the part of men, any +breach of which is the violation of a moral law. Hence the diversions of +the field become often objectionable, because life is not thus taken +away as speedily as it might otherwise have been, and because food or +noxiousness is not often the object of the destruction of animals, but +mere pleasure or sport. We are taught also to consider animals, not as +mere machines, but as the creatures of God. We are taught also, that as +they were designed to have their proper share of happiness during the +time of their existence, any wanton interruption of this is an +innovation of their rights as living beings. And we are taught finally, +that the organic nature of men and animals being the same, as far as a +feeling of pain is concerned, the sympathy which belongs to our nature, +and the divine law of doing as we would be done by, which will hold as +far as we can enter into the perceptions either of man or brutes, impose +upon us the duty of anticipating their feelings, and of treating them in +a corresponding or tender manner. + +If we take a view of other customs, into which the Quakers have thought +it right to introduce regulations with a view of keeping their members +pure and innocent, we learn other lessons of usefulness. Thus, for +example, the reader, if he does not choose to adopt their dress, may +obtain desirable knowledge upon this subject. He will see that the two +great objects of dress are decency and comfort. He will see, though +Christianity prescribes neither colour nor shape for the clothing, that +it is not indifferent about it. It enjoins simplicity and plainness, +because, where men pay an undue attention to the exterior, they are in +danger of injuring the dignity of their minds. It discards ornaments +from the use of apparel, because these, by puffing up the creature, may +be productive of vanity and pride. It forbids all unreasonable changes +on the plea of conformity with fashion, because the following of fashion +begets a worldly spirit, and because, in proportion as men indulge this +spirit, they are found to follow the loose and changeable morality of +the world, instead of the strict and steady morality of the Gospel. + +On the subject of language, though the reader may be unwilling to adopt +all the singularities of the Quakers, he may collect a lesson that may +be useful to him in life. He may discover the necessity of abstaining +from all expressions of flattery, because the use of these may be +morally injurious to himself by abridging the independence of his mind, +and by promoting superstition; while it may be injurious to others, by +occasioning them to think more highly of themselves than they ought, and +more degradingly of their fellow-creatures. He may discover also the +necessity of adhering to the truth in all expressions, whether in his +conversation or in his letters; that there is always a consistency in +truth, and an inconsistency in falsehood; that as expressions accord +with the essences, qualities, properties and characters of things, they +are more or less proper; and that an attempt to adhere to the truth is +productive of moral good, while a departure from it may lead into error, +independently of its injury as a moral evil. + +With respect to the address, or the complimentary gestures or ceremonies +of the world, if he be not inclined to reject them totally as the +Quakers do, he may find that there may be unquestionably evil in them, +if they are to be adjudged by the purity of the Christian system. He may +perceive, that there may be as much flattery and as great a violation of +truth through the medium of the body, as through the medium of the +tongue, and that the same mental degradation, or toss of dignified +independence of mind, may insensibly follow. + +On the subject of conversation and manners, he may learn the propriety +of caution as to the use of idle words; of abstaining from scandal and +detraction; of withholding his assent to customs when started, however +fashionable, if immoral; of making himself useful by the dignity of the +topic he introduces, and by the decorum with which he handles it; of +never allowing his sprightliness to border upon folly, or his wit upon +lewdness, but to clothe all his remarks in an innocent and a simple +manner. + +From the subject of customs connected with meals, such as that, for +example, of saying grace, he may team that this is a devotional act; +that it is not to be said as a mere ceremony, by thanking the Supreme +Being in so many words while the thoughts are roving on other subjects, +but that it should be said with seriousness and feeling, and that it +should never come as an oblation from the tongue, except it come also +an oblation from the heart. And on that which relates to the drinking of +toasts, he may see the moral necessity of an immediate extirpation of +it. He may see that this custom has not one useful or laudable end in +view; that it is a direct imitation of Pagans in the worst way in which +we can follow them--their enjoyment of sensual pleasures; that it leads +directly and almost inevitably to drunkenness, and of course to the +degradation of the rational and moral character. + +A second advantage, which they who compose the world may derive on this +occasion, will be seen from a recapitulation of some of the principles +which the work contains. The advantage in question will chiefly consist +in this, that, whatever these principles may be, they may be said to be +such as have been adopted by a moral people, and this after serious +deliberation, and solely on a religious ground. It is of great +importance from whence principles come recommended to our notice. If +they come from the inconsiderate and worthless, they lose their value. +If from the sober and religious, we receive them under the impression, +that they may be promotive of our good. I shall give therefore a summary +of these, as they may be collected from the work. + +God has imparted to men a portion of his own Spirit, though he has +given it to them indifferent degrees. Without this Spirit it would be +impossible for them to discern spiritual things. Without this it would +be impossible for them to know spiritually, even that the Scriptures +were of divine authority, or spiritually to understand them. This Spirit +performs its office of a teacher by internal monitions, and, if +encouraged, even by the external objects of creation. It is also a +primary and infallible guide. It is given to all without exception. It +is given to all sufficiently. They who resist it, quench it, and this to +their own condemnation. They who encourage it receive it more +abundantly, and are in the way of salvation and redemption. This Spirit +therefore becomes a Redeemer also. Redemption may he considered in two +points of view, as it is either by outward or inward means, or as it +relates to past sins or to sins to come. Jesus Christ effected +redemption of the first kind, or that from past sins, while he was +personally upon earth, by the sacrifice of himself. But it is this +Spirit, or Christ within, as the Quakers call it, which effects the +latter, or which preserves from future transgressions. It is this Spirit +which leads, by means of its inward workings, to a new birth, and +finally to the highest perfection of which our nature is capable. In +this office of an inward Redeemer, it visits all, so that all may be +saved, if they will attend to its saving operations, God being not +willing that any should perish, but that all should inherit eternal +life. + +This Spirit also qualifies men for the ministry. It qualifies women also +for this office as well as men. It dictates the true season for silence, +and the true season for utterance, both in public and private worship. + +Jesus Christ was man because he took flesh, and inhabited the body which +had been prepared for him; but he was Divinity, because he was the Word. + +A resurrection will be effected, but not of the body as it is. Rewards +and punishments will follow, but guilt will not be imputed to men till +they have actually committed sin. + +Baptism and the Lord's Supper are essentials of the Christian religion. +They are not, however, essentials as outward ordinances, but only as +they are administered by the Holy Spirit. + +Civil government is for the protection of virtue and for the removal of +vice. Obedience should be paid to all its laws, where the conscience is +not violated in doing it. To defraud it in any manner of its revenues, +or to take up arms on any consideration against it, is unlawful. But if +men cannot conscientiously submit to any one or more of its ordinances, +they are not to temporize, but to obey Jesus Christ rather than their +own governors in this particular case. They are, however, to be willing +to submit to all the penalties which the latter may inflict upon them +for so doing. And as no Christian ought to temporize in the case of any +laws enjoined him by the government under which he lives, so neither +ought he to do it in the case of any of the customs or fashions, which +may be enjoined him by the world. + +All civil oaths are forbidden in Christianity. The word of every +Christian should be equivalent to his oath. + +It is not lawful to return evil for evil, nor to shed the blood of man. +All wars are forbidden. + +It is more honourable, and more consistent with the genius and spirit of +Christianity, and the practice of Jesus Christ and of his Apostles, and +of the primitive Christians, that men should preach the Gospel freely, +than that they should live by it, as by a profession or by a trade. + +All men are brethren by creation. Christianity makes no difference in +this respect between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, bond and +free. No geographical boundaries, nor colour of the skin or person, nor +difference of religious sentiment, can dissolve this relationship +between them. + +All men are born equal with respect to privileges. But as they fall into +different situations and ranks of life, they become distinguished. In +Christianity, however, there is no respect of persons, or no distinction +of them, but by their virtue. Nobility and riches can never confer +worth, nor can poverty screen from a just appropriation of disgrace. + +Man is a temple in which the Divinity may reside. He is therefore to be +looked upon and treated with due respect. No Christian ought to lower +his dignity, or to suffer him, if he can help it, to become the +instrument of his own degradation. + +Man is a being, for whose spiritual welfare every Christian should be +solicitous, and a creature therefore worthy of all the pains that can be +bestowed upon him for the preservation of his moral character. + +The first object in the education of man should be the proper +subjugation of his will. + +No man ought to be persecuted or evil spoken of for a difference in +religious opinion. Nor is detraction or slander allowable in any case. + +Every religious community should consider the poor belonging to it as +members of the same family, for whose wants and comforts it is a duty +to provide. The education also of the children of these should be +provided for. + +It is enjoined us to live in peace with all men. All quarrels therefore +are to be avoided between man and man. But if differences arise, they +are to be adjusted by arbitration, and not, except it be otherwise +impossible, by going to law, and never by violence. + +If men offend against the laws, they should be prevented from doing +injuries in future, but never by the punishment of the loss of life. The +reformation of a criminal, which includes a prevention of a repetition +of such injuries, is the great object to be regarded in the +jurisprudence of Christians. + +In political matters there is no safe reasoning but upon principle. No +man is to do evil that good may come. The policy of the Gospel is never +to be deserted, whatever may be the policy of the world. + +Trade is an employment, by means of which we are permitted to gain a +livelihood. But all trades are not lawful. Men are responsible, as +Christians, for engaging in those which are immoral, or far continuing +in those which they may carry on either to the moral detriment of +themselves or of others. Abstinence from hazardous enterprises by the +failure of which innocent persons might be injured, and honesty in +dealing, and punctuality to words and engagements, are essentials in +the prosecution of trade. + +Having made observations on the customs, and brought to the view of the +reader some of the prominent principles of the Quakers, a third +advantage will arise from knowing the kind of character, which these in +conjunction will produce. + +On this subject we might be permitted our conjectures. We might insist +upon the nature and immediate tendencies of these customs and +principles, and we might draw our conclusions from thence, or we might +state how they were likely to operate, so as probably not to be far from +the truth. But we are spared both the trouble of such a task, and are +relieved from the fear of having the accuracy of our conclusions +doubted. The Quaker character has been made up from the acknowledgments +of others. It has been shewn that they are a moral people; that they are +sober, and inoffensive, and quiet; that they are benevolent to man in +his religious and temporal capacity; that they are kind or +tender-hearted to animals; that they do not make sacrifices of their +consciences to others; that in political affairs they reason upon +principle; that they are punctual to their words and engagements; and +that they have independence of mind, and courage. Their character, as it +is defective, has been explained also. It has been probed, and tried by +a proper touchstone. Appearances have been separated from realities. The +result has been, that a deficiency in literature and science, and that +superstition, and that an undue eagerness after money, has been fixed +upon a portion of them. The two former, however, it is to be +recollected, are only intellectually defective traits, and maybe +remedied by knowledge. The latter, it is to be presumed, belongs rather +to individuals than to the society at large. But whatever drawbacks may +be made from the perfect by the imperfect qualities that have been +stated, there is a great preponderancy on the side of virtue. And where, +when we consider the evil propensities of our nature, and the difficulty +of keeping these in due order, are we to took for a fairer character? +That men, as individuals, may be more perfect, both in and out of the +society, is not to be denied. But where shall we find them purer as a +body? and where shall we find a faulty character, where the remedy is +more easily at hand? + +The next advantage will be in seeing the manner of the operation of +these customs and principles, or how they act. To go over the whole +character of the Quakers with this view would be both tedious and +unnecessary. I shall therefore only select one or two parts of it for my +purpose. And first, how do these customs and principles produce +benevolence? I reply thus: The Quakers, in consequence of their +prohibitions against all public amusements, have never seen man in the +capacity of a hired buffoon or mimic, or as a purchasable plaything. +Hence they have never viewed him in a low and degrading light. In +consequence of their tenet on war, they have never viewed him as an +enemy. In consequence of their disciplinary principles, they have viewed +him as an equal. Hence it appears, that they have no prejudices against +him from causes which often weigh with others, either on account of +rank, or station, or many of the customs of the world. Now I conceive, +that the dereliction of prejudice against man is as necessary, as a +first measure, to the production of benevolence towards him, as the +dereliction of vice towards the production of virtue. We see then their +minds free from bias on this subject. But what is there on the other +side to operate actively towards the promotion of this trait? They view +man, in the first place, as the temple in which the Divinity may reside. +This procures him respect. Secondly, as a being for whose spiritual +welfare they ought to be solicitous. This produces a concern for him. +And thirdly, as a brother. This produces relationship. We see then the +ground cleared. We see all noxious weeds extirpated. We see good seed +sown in their places; that is, we see prejudices removed from the heart, +and we see the ideas of respect, concern, and relationship implanted in +it. Now it is impossible that these ideas, under these circumstances, +should not as naturally and immediately produce a general benevolence to +man, as common seeds, when all obstructive weeds are removed, should +produce their corresponding saplings or flowers. + +How again are these customs and principles of the Quakers promotive of +independence of mind? I answer thus: There is a natural independence of +mind in man, but it is often broken and weakened. Some men injure it by +the solicitation and acceptance of honours, and pensions, and places; +others by flattery and falsehood; others by customs of obeisance; others +by their obedience to fashion. But the independence of mind of the +Quakers is not stunted in its growth by the chiding blasts of such +circumstances and habits. It is invigorated, on the other hand, by their +own laws. No servility is allowed either in word or gesture. Neither +that which is written, nor that which is uttered, is to please the +vanity of the persons addressed, or to imply services never intended to +be performed. The knee is not to be bent to any one. It is strengthened +again and made to shoot by their own maxims. Is it possible to be in the +habit of viewing all men as equal in privileges, and no one as superior +to another but by his virtue, and not to feel a disposition that must +support it? Can the maxim of never doing evil that good may come, when +called into exercise, do otherwise than cherish it? And can reasoning +upon principle have any other effect than that of being promotive of +its growth? + +These then are the ways in which these customs and principles operate. +Now the advantage to be derived from seeing this manner of their +operation, consists in this: First, that we know to a certainty, that +they act towards the production of virtue. Knowing again what these +customs and principles are, we know those which we are bound to cherish. +We find also, that there are various springs which act upon the moral +constitution for the formation of character. We find some of these great +and powerful, and others inferior. This consideration should teach us +not to despise even those which are the least, if they have but a +tendency to promote our purity. For if the effect of any of them be only +small, a number of effects of little causes or springs, when added +together, may be as considerable as a large one. Of these again we +observe, that some are to be round where many would hardly have expected +them. This consideration should make us careful to look into all our +customs and principles, that we may not overlook any one which we may +retain for our moral good. And as we learn the lesson of becoming +vigilant to discover every good spring, and not to neglect the least of +these, however subtle its operation, so we learn the necessity of +vigilance to detect every spring or cause, and this even the least, +whether in our customs or our principles, if it should in its tendency +be promotive of vice. + +And in the same manner we may argue with respect to other productions of +these customs and principles of the Quakers. As we have seen the latter +lead to character, so we have seen them lead to happiness. The manner of +their operation to this end has been also equally discernible. As we +value them because they produce the one, so we should value them because +they produce the other. We have seen also which of them to value. And we +should be studious to cherish the very least of these, as we should be +careful to discard the least of those which are productive of real and +merited unhappiness to the mind. + +And now, having expended my observations on the tendencies of the +customs and principles of the Quakers, I shall conclude by expressing a +wish, that the work which I have written may be useful. I have a wish, +that it may be useful to those who may be called the world, by giving +them an insight into many excellent institutions, of which they were +before ignorant, but which may be worthy of their support and their +patronage. I have a wish also, that it may be useful to the Quakers +themselves, first, by letting them see how their own character may be +yet improved; and secondly, by preserving them, in some measure, both +from unbecoming remarks, and from harsh usage, on the part of their +fellow-citizens of a different denomination from themselves. For surely +when it is known, as I hope it is by this time, that they have moral and +religious grounds for their particularities, we shall no longer hear +their scruples branded with the name of follies and obstinacies, or see +magistrates treating them with a needless severity, but giving[58] them, +on the other hand, all the indulgences they can, consistently with the +execution of the laws. In proportion as this utility is produced, my +design will be answered in the production of the work, and I shall +receive pleasure in having written it. And this pleasure will be subject +only to one drawback, which will unavoidably arise in the present case; +for I cannot but regret that I have not had more time to bestow upon it, +or that some other person has not appeared, who possessing an equal +knowledge of the Quakers with myself, but better qualified in other +respects, might have employed his talents more to the advantage of the +subjects upon which I have treated in these volumes. + +[Footnote 58: Some magistrates, much to their honour, treat them with +tenderness; and no people are more forward than the Quakers in +acknowledging any attention that may be shewn them, but particularly +where their religious scruples may be concerned.] + + +END OF THE THIRD VOLUME + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Portraiture of Quakerism, Volume III +(of 3), by Thomas Clarkson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A PORTRAITURE OF QUAKERISM, *** + +***** This file should be named 15304.txt or 15304.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/5/3/0/15304/ + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Graeme Mackreth and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. 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