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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 623,
+December 10, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 623, December 10, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2005 [EBook #16270]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 623
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, DECEMBER 10, 1887
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 623.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    ARCHITECTURE.--Notes on the Construction of a Distillery
+      Chimney--A new method of building lofty shafts, including a
+      metallic frame and brick lining--3 illustrations.             9949
+
+      The Commercial Exchange, Paris--The new Paris exchange now
+      in process of erection.--Present state of operations--1
+      illustration.                                                 9954
+
+II.   ASTRONOMY.--The Yale College Measurement of the Pleiades.--
+      Dr. Elkin's work with the Repsold heliometer at Yale College. 9957
+
+III.  CHEMISTRY--New Method for the Quantitative Determination
+      of Starch.--By A.N. ASBOTH--Determination of starch by its
+      barium compound.                                              9956
+
+      Synthesis of the Alkaloids--A retrospect of the field of
+      work so far traveled over by synthetical chemists, and
+      future prospects.                                             9956
+
+      The Chemical Basis of Plant Forms--By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT
+      --Continuation of this important contribution to plant
+      chemistry, one of the most valuable of recent chemical
+      monographs.                                                   9955
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--An Electrical Governor--A new apparatus for
+      preserving a constant electromotive force with varying
+      dynamo speed--1 illustration.                                 9952
+
+      Electric Launch--A French government launch with Krebs
+      electric motor.                                               9954
+
+      The electric current as a means of increasing the tractive
+      adhesion of railway motors and other rolling contacts.--By
+      ELIAS E. RIES--A full review of this important subject, with
+      accounts of its experimental examination.                     9953
+
+V.    ENGINEERING--Benier's Hot Air Engine--A new caloric engine
+      very fully illustrated and described--8 illustrations.        9943
+
+      Heating Marine Boilers with Liquid Fuel--A simple apparatus
+      and recent experiments with the same.--3 illustrations.       9945
+
+      The Change of Gauge of Southern Railroads in 1886--By C.H.
+      HUDSON.--The conclusion of the account of this great
+      engineering feat, with tables of statistics and data--16
+      illustrations.                                                9946
+
+      Your Future Problems--By CHAS. E. EMERY--An address to
+      the graduating class of the Stevens Institute, N.J.--A
+      practical view of the engineering profession.                 9943
+
+VI.   MISCELLANEOUS--A Group of Hampshire Downs--A typical
+      breed of sheep, their qualities and habits.--1 illustration.  9957
+
+VII.  NAVAL ENGINEERING--The Spanish Cruiser Reina Regente--A
+      further description of this celebrated vessel--4
+      illustrations.                                                9948
+
+      Torpedo Boats for Spain--The Azor and Halcon, two Yarrow
+      torpedo boats, described and illustrated--7 illustrations.    9947
+
+VIII. PHOTOGRAPHY--How Different Tones in Gelatino-chloride Prints
+      may be Varied by Developers.--Twenty different formulæ for
+      the above purpose.                                            9949
+
+      Film Negatives--Eastman stripping films, their manipulation
+      and development.                                              9949
+
+IX.   SANITATION--French Disinfecting Apparatus--A portable
+      apparatus for disinfecting clothes and similar objects--1
+      illustration.                                                 9952
+
+X.    TECHNOLOGY.--The Manufacture of Cocaine--The extraction
+      of cocaine with alkali and petroleum, with statement of
+      percentage yielded by various leaves.                         9954
+
+      The Production of Oxygen by Brin's Process--The commercial
+      manufacture of oxygen by means of baryta--3 illustrations.    9950
+
+
+#Transcriber's Note: Following entry not in original table of contents#
+
+      Deep Sea Dredgings: Examination Of Sea Bottoms. By THOMAS     9958
+      T.P. BRUCE WARREN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.
+
+
+The hot air engine, although theoretically recognized for some time
+past as the most economical means of converting heat into motive
+power, has up to the present met with little success. This is due to
+the fact that the arrangement of the motors of this class that have
+hitherto been constructed has been such as to render them but slightly
+practical. In the Benier hot air engine (illustrated herewith),
+however, obstacles that were once considered insurmountable have been
+overcome, and the motor presents many advantages over all the types
+that have preceded it. Among such advantages we shall cite the
+possibility of utilizing air at a high temperature (1,200 or 1,500
+degrees), while the rubbing surfaces remain at a moderate temperature
+(60 or 80 degrees). The fire grate is placed in the interior of the
+cylinder, and is traversed by the cold air forced by a pump. The
+expanded hot gases fill the cylinder and act against the piston
+directly above the grate.
+
+The type herewith illustrated is of 6 horse power. The motive
+cylinder, CC', is bolted to the extremity of the frame, A. Upon this
+latter is fixed a column, B, which carries a working beam, E. This
+latter transmits the motion of the piston, P, to the shaft, D. A pump,
+G, placed within the frame, forces a certain quantity of cold air at
+every revolution into the driving cylinder. The piston of this pump is
+actuated by the connecting rod, G', jointed to the lever, F', which
+receives its motion from the rod, F. A slide valve, _b'_, actuated by
+a cam, regulates the entrance of the cold air into the pump during
+suction, as well as its introduction into the cylinder. There is a
+thrust upon the piston during its upward travel, and an escape of hot
+gas through the eduction valve, _h_, during the downward travel.
+
+The cylinder is in two parts, C and C'. The piston, which is very
+long, rubs at its upper end against the sides of the cylinder, C. The
+lower end is of smaller diameter, and leaves an annular space between
+it and the cylinder. The grate is at the bottom of the cylinder, C'.
+The sides of the cylinder at the level of the fire box are protected
+with a lining of plumbago. When the piston is at the bottom of its
+travel, the eduction valve closes. The slide valve, _b'_, establishes
+a communication between the pump chamber and the cylinder. The air
+contained in the pump is already compressed in the latter to a
+pressure of nearly a kilogramme at the moment of the communication.
+This air enters the cylinder, and the communication between the latter
+and the pump continues until all the air is forced into the driving
+cylinder, the piston of the pump being at the bottom of its travel,
+and that of the cylinder about midway.
+
+[Illustration: BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.]
+
+The air forced by the pump piston enters the cylinder through two
+conduits, one of which leads a portion of it toward the top of the
+cylinder, and the other toward the bottom. The lower conduit debouches
+under the grate, and the air that passes through it traverses the fire
+box, and the hot gas fills the cylinder. The conduit that runs to the
+top debouches in the cylinder, C, at the lower limit of the surface
+rubbed by the piston. The air that traverses this conduit is
+distributed through the annular space between the piston and cylinder.
+The hot gas derived from combustion can therefore never introduce
+itself into this annular space, and consequently cannot come into
+contact with the rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and piston.
+
+As the quantity of air introduced at every stroke is constant, the
+work developed at every stroke is varied by regulating the temperature
+of the gas that fills the cylinder. When the temperature falls, the
+pressure, and consequently the work developed, diminishes. This result
+is obtained by varying the respective quantities of air that pass
+through the fire box and around the piston. In measure as less air
+passes through the fire box, the quantity that passes around the
+piston augments by just so much, and the pressure diminishes. A valve,
+_n'_, in the conduit that runs to the fire box is controlled by the
+regulator, L', in the interior of the column. When the work to be
+transmitted diminishes, the regulator closes the valve more or less,
+and the work developed diminishes.
+
+The coke is put by shovelfuls into a hopper, I. Four buckets mounted
+upon the periphery of a wheel, I', traverse the coke, and, taking up a
+piece of it, let it fall upon the cover, J, of the slide valve, _j_,
+whence it falls into the cavity of the latter when it is uncovered,
+and from thence into the conduit, _c'_, of the box, _j'_, when the
+cavity of the valve is opposite the conduit. From the conduit, _c'_,
+the coke falls upon the grate.
+
+A small sight hole covered with glass, in the cover, J, permits the
+grate to be seen when the cavity of the valve is opposite _c'_.
+
+As in gas engines, a current of water is made to flow around the
+cylinder, C', in order to keep the sides from getting too hot.
+
+In order to set the engine in motion, we begin by opening the bottom,
+C, of the cylinder, C', to clean the grate. This done, we close C and
+introduce lighted charcoal through the conduit, _c'_ (the valve being
+open). The valve is put in place, two or three revolutions are given
+to the fly wheel, and the motor starts. The feeding is afterward done
+with coke.
+
+The parts that transmit motion operate under conditions analogous to
+those under which the same parts of a steam engine do. The air pump
+sucks and forces nothing but cold air, and nothing but cold air passes
+through the distributing slide valve. The pump and valve are therefore
+rendered very durable. The piston and cylinder, at the points where
+friction exists, are at a temperature of 60 or 80 degrees. These
+surfaces are protected against hot gas charged with dust.
+
+The hot gas, which escapes from the cylinder through a valve, has
+previously been cooled by contact with the sides of the cylinder and
+by expansion. The eduction valve just mentioned works about like that
+of a steam engine, and it is only necessary to polish it now and then
+in order to keep it in good condition.--_Annales Industrielles._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: An address to the graduating class, Stevens
+  Institute, Hoboken, N.J., 1887.]
+
+By CHARLES E. EMERY.
+
+
+_Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen:_ It has not been considered
+the duty of the speaker, in addressing the graduating class, to dwell
+on the triumphs of science or the advantage of a liberal education.
+These subjects have already been discussed, in connection with the
+regular courses of study, better, and more at length, than he could
+do. We propose rather to try and prepare the minds of the graduates
+for the practical problems before them.
+
+All young men are impressed with the consciousness of higher powers as
+they increase their stores of knowledge, and this feeling perhaps
+reaches its maximum with those who have made a specialty of the
+investigation and application of physical laws. Young men who have
+learned how to harness the powers of nature and guide them to do their
+will are apt to belittle the difficulties they have yet to overcome,
+and have a false impression of the problems of life. This feeling is
+shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the Stevens Institute, on
+account of their careful practical training, in connection with the
+thorough study of principles; but it has been thought best for one
+from the outside world to supplement such teaching by calling to mind
+instances which may have a useful counteracting effect, and, like
+parables, serve the purpose of illustrative instruction.
+
+_Gentlemen of the Class of '87_: It was the pleasure of the speaker to
+address the class of '79, under the title of "How to Succeed," some
+words of counsel and warning, which, if they left an impression of
+severity at the time, were apparently so well received afterward that
+he has been tempted to continue the general subject, with the title of
+"Your Future Problems." The notation of your future problems will not
+be found at once among the known quantities, but with _x_, _y_, and
+_z_, at the other end of the alphabet. Often word symbols will be
+applicable, expressing at times disappointment and pain, at other
+times renewed effort, and finally the active phases of individual
+thought and exertion.
+
+The first serious problem with many of you will be to secure
+satisfactory engagements. This problem cannot be illustrated by
+parables. It needs, in general, patient, unremitting, and frequently
+long continued effort. It may be that the fame of some of you, that
+have already acquired the happy faculty of making yourselves
+immediately useful, has already gone abroad and the coveted positions
+been already assured. To be frank, we cannot promise you even a bed of
+roses. We have in mind an instance where a superior authority in a
+large business enterprise who had great respect, as he should have,
+for the attainments of young gentlemen who have had the opportunities
+of a technical education, deliberately ordered out a competent
+mechanical engineer, familiar with the designs required in a large
+repair shop, and sent in his place a young gentleman fresh from school
+and flushed with hope, but who from the very nature of the case could
+know little or nothing of his duties at that particular place. He was
+practically alone in the drawing room, and did not know where to find
+such drawings as were required, and candor requires it to be said that
+he desired to ask many questions about those he did find. The
+superintendent unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment,
+and rather resented it. So he did not trust any of his work, and the
+new comer was obliged to learn his practical experience at that
+establishment, where he was known as the mechanical engineer, by
+having all his work done over by the pattern maker or others, under
+the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic, and be subjected all
+the time to the jealousies and annoyances incident to such a method of
+introduction.
+
+His practical experience was certainly learned under difficulties
+which I trust none of you may experience. This statement is made that
+those of you who have not yet obtained positions may not envy those
+who have, and that each and all of you may be careful not to take a
+position so far above your experience, if not your capacity, as to
+become unpleasantly situated in the beginning. The educational
+facilities you have enjoyed are of such great value in some
+exceptional cases that the parties thus benefited may do you an injury
+by leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable in
+performing duties which require much more practical experience and
+knowledge of detail than it is possible that you could have obtained
+in the time you have been here.
+
+The incident is ripe with suggestions. No matter how humble a position
+you may take in the beginning, you will be embarrassed in much the
+same way as the young gentleman in question, though it is hoped in a
+less degree. Your course of action should be first to learn to do as
+you are told, no matter what you think of it. And above everything
+keep your eyes and ears open to obtain practical knowledge of all that
+is going on about you. Let nothing escape you of an engineering
+nature, though it has connection with the business in hand. It may be
+your business the next day, and if you have taken advantage of the
+various opportunities to know all about that particular matter in
+every detail, you can intelligently act in relation to it, without
+embarrassment to yourself and with satisfaction to your superior.
+
+Above all, avoid conflict with the practical force of the
+establishment into which you are introduced. It is better, as we have
+at another time advised, to establish friendly relations with the
+workmen and practical men with whom you have to do.
+
+You are to be spared this evening any direct references to the
+"conceit of learning," but you are asked and advised to bear with the
+_conceit of ignorance_. You will find that practical men will be
+jealous of you on account of your opportunities, and at the same time
+jealous of their own practical information and experience, and that
+they may take some pains to hinder rather than aid you in your
+attempts to actively learn the practical details of the business. The
+most disagreeable man about the establishment to persons like you, who
+perhaps goes out of his way to insult you, and yet should be respected
+for his age, may be one who can be of greatest use to you. Cultivate
+his acquaintance. A kind word will generally be the best response to
+an offensive remark, though gentlemanly words of resentment may be
+necessary when others are present. Sometimes it will be sufficient to
+say, "I wish a little talk with you by yourself," which will put the
+bystanders at a distance and enable you to mature your plans.
+Ascertain as soon as possible that man's tastes; what he reads and
+what he delights in. Approach him as if you had no resentment and talk
+on his favorite topic. If rebuffed, tell a pleasant story, and persist
+from time to time in the attempt to please, until his hardened nature
+relaxes and he begins to feel and perhaps speaks to others favorably
+of you. St. Paul has said: "For though I be free from all men, yet
+have I made myself servant of all that I might gain the more." This is
+the keynote of policy, and though in humbling yourself you control and
+hide your true feelings, recollect that all your faculties are given
+you for proper use.
+
+We have referred to some who have acquired the happy faculty of making
+themselves immediately useful. This is a much more difficult matter
+than the words imply. If one of you should be so fortunate as to be
+ordered to make certain tests almost like those you have already
+conducted here, or to tabulate the results of tests as you have done
+it here, or to make inspections akin to those which have been fully
+explained here, there is every probability the work would be done
+satisfactorily in the first instance. But let a much _simpler_ case
+arise, for instance, if a superior hand one of you a letter with the
+simple instructions, "Get me the facts on that," you may be very much
+puzzled to know what is to be done and how to do it. It may be that
+the letter is a request for information in regard to certain work that
+was carried on in the past, in which case it will be necessary for you
+to hunt through old records, copy books, engineering notes, drawings,
+and the like, and get a list of all referring to the subject; to make
+an abstract of the letters and notes if they are at all complicated;
+and finally to lay the whole before the overworked superior in a
+business manner, that he largely from recollection, aided by the
+references and notes, can write an intelligent answer in a very brief
+period. The way not to do it would be to say, "Yes, sir," very
+promptly, go off and not more than half read the letter, do something
+and be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested answer;
+then upon receiving a polite hint as to the method to be employed, go
+off and repeat the operation the next five minutes; then on receiving
+a short reply, in what appeared to be an unnecessary tone of voice,
+get a little flurried perhaps, do worse next time, and in the end feel
+very unpleasant without having accomplished much, and make the
+gentleman seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching young
+men practical work.
+
+It is possible, on the contrary, for a young man to exceed his
+instructions and volunteer advice that has not been asked. If he has
+unfortunately gone too far for some time and been sharply spoken to,
+he may fail the next in not fully doing the work intended. Simply
+putting down a column of figures would not necessarily mean tabulating
+facts. The arrangement and rearrangement of the columns aid in
+classifying such facts, so that the results shown by them will be
+readily seen and a great deal of labor saved in examination. A good
+rule in a case of this kind is to try and find some work done by other
+parties of a similar nature, and thereby ascertain what is needed and
+expected. Reasonable questions to ascertain, where records are to be
+found and the kind of records accessible, are always proper if made at
+the proper time without interrupting an immediate train of thought;
+and with such information as a start, if a young man will endeavor to
+imagine himself in a place like that of the one who has finally to
+decide, and try to ascertain just what information will probably be
+required, then patiently go to work to find and present it in
+condensed shape, he from that moment really begins to be useful and
+his services will be rapidly appreciated. It is a good rule always to
+keep the memoranda obtained in accomplishing a result of this kind; so
+that if further information is required, the whole investigation need
+not be made over.
+
+This remark suggests another line of thought. Some young men with
+quick perceptions get in the way at school of trusting their memories,
+and omit making complete notes of lectures or of the various tests
+illustrating their studies. This carelessness follows them into after
+life, and there are instances where young men, who can make certain
+kinds of investigations much better than their fellows, and promptly
+give a statement of the general nature of the results, have, when
+called on afterward for the details, forgotten then entirely, and
+their notes and memoranda, if preserved, being of little use, the
+labor is entirely lost. Such men necessarily have to learn more
+careful ways in after life. It is a good rule in this, as in the
+previous case, to make and copy complete records of everything in such
+shape that they may be convenient for reference and criticism
+afterward.
+
+One of the important problems with which you will have to deal in the
+future is the labor question, and it is probable that your very first
+experience with it may be in direct antagonism with the opinions of
+many with whom you have heretofore been associated. It is an honor to
+the feelings of those who stand outside and witness this so-called
+struggle now in progress between capital and labor, that they believe
+the whole question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable
+argument. There are some cases that will yield to such treatment, and
+one's whole duty is not performed till all possible, reasonable, and
+humanitarian methods are adopted. There has been an excuse for the
+organization of labor, and it, to some small extent, still exists.
+
+Time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used on a mercantile
+basis to reduce wages to such an extent that it was almost impossible
+to rear a well nurtured, much less a well educated and well dressed
+family, and, moreover, the hours of labor in some branches of business
+were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives and make
+self-improvement impossible. The natural progress of civilizing
+influence did much to abate many of these evils, but the organization
+of labor removed sores that had not and perhaps could not have been
+reached in other ways. Having then an excuse for organization, and
+supported by the success made in directions where public sympathy was
+with them, is it to be wondered that they have gone too far in very
+many cases, and that the leadership of such organization has in many
+instances been captured by designing men, who control the masses to
+accomplish selfish ends? Whatever may have been the method of
+evolution, it is certain that the manufacturing operations of the
+present day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic to their
+interests, and in very many ways antagonistic to the interests of the
+workingman. The members of many organizations, even of intelligent
+men, are blindly led by chiefs of various titles, of which perhaps the
+walking delegate is the most offensive one to reasonable people. This
+class of men claim the right to intrude themselves into the
+establishments owned by others, and on the most trivial grounds make
+demands more or less unreasonable, and order strikes and otherwise
+interfere with the work of manufacturers, much in the way that we have
+an idea that the agents of the barbarbous chieftains, feudal lords,
+and semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in earlier
+historical times. Necessarily these men must use their power so as to
+insure its permanency. If strikes are popular, strikes must be
+ordered. If funds run low, excuses for strikes, it is believed, in
+many cases are sought, so as to stir the pulses of those who
+sympathize with the labor cause.
+
+Co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil, and there are
+cases where it has apparently succeeded, in connection with the
+earlier forms of labor organization. The ambition of later labor
+leaders almost prevents this remedy being of effect. It may be
+possible still with very intelligent workmen, isolated from the large
+mass of workmen in the country towns, to feel an interest in
+co-operation; but such inducements, or the higher ones of personal
+kindness to employes or their families, are not of much effect in
+large manufacturing centers. As soon as dissatisfaction exists in one
+mill or manufactory, all similar employes are ordered out. The final
+result will be that combinations of employers must follow the
+combination of employes, and those who have always been strong in the
+past will be stronger in the future, as has appeared to be the case in
+many contests that have already taken place. If there are any real
+abuses of power by the employers, such as requiring work for unusual
+hours or at less than living rates, the first thing to do is to
+correct these abuses, so that complaints will not be upon a sound
+foundation. Some men, when the labor epidemic strikes their places,
+have sufficient force of character and influence with their men to
+avert the blow for some time. Others find it is policy to compromise
+with the representatives until a plan of action, conciliatory,
+offensive, or defensive, can be determined upon. The whole matter must
+be considered one of policy rather than of principles. The class of
+men to be dealt with do not talk principles except as an excuse to
+secure their ends.
+
+In spite of everything, there will be times when no compromise is
+possible and you will be called upon to take part in defending your
+employers' interests against what is called a "strike." You can do so
+with heart when you know the employes are all well paid, and
+particularly, as is frequently the case, when the labor organizers and
+walking delegates claim that some old, tried foreman shall be
+dismissed because they do like him, really because he has not been a
+tool in carrying out their plans, and they defiantly acknowledge that
+their war is against non-union labor, and that they have organized
+your men and forced a strike to require your establishment to become
+as it is called a "union shop." If your deluded employes were
+permitted simply to go away and let you alone, and you were permitted
+to employ others at the reasonable wages you were paying, the problem
+would be a simple one. The principal labor organizations claim that
+everything they do is by peaceable methods, but this, like many things
+said, is simply to deceive, for if you attempt to employ other
+assistants and carry on your business independently, you will surely
+find that well known roughs are assembled who never do anything
+without they are paid for it by somebody, that your men are assaulted
+by such persons, and while the labor organizers talk about peaceable
+methods and urge them aloud in public, in case one of the roughs is
+arrested, the loud talkers are the first to go bail for the defender,
+and you will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd with the
+roughs who make the assaults are all part of or tools of the
+organization.
+
+At such times, you will find your old employes standing around the
+street corners, persuading other men not to go to work and thus
+interfere with what are called the true interests of labor. Any new
+employe who has to go in the street will be first met with inducements
+of other employment, with offers of money, afterward with threats,
+and, if opportunity occurs, with direct assault. All the features of
+persuasion, intimidation, and violence will be carried out as
+demanded, and strangers to everybody in the vicinity, but well known
+as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other places, be
+brought in to endeavor to make the strike a success. Then, young men,
+is the time to show your pluck, and our experience is that educated
+young men will do so every time. They can be depended upon to go
+straight ahead with duty through every danger, bearing patiently
+everything that may be said, defending themselves with nature's
+weapons as long as possible, and without fear using reserve weapons in
+case real danger of life is imminent.
+
+In carrying through a very important strike against a mere desire to
+control and not to correct abuses, your speaker desires to pay the
+highest tribute to a number of educated young men, mostly from the
+technical schools, who fearlessly faced every danger, and by their
+example stimulated others to do their duty, and all participated in
+the results obtained by a great success.
+
+We would not by such references fire your hearts to a desire to
+participate in such an unpleasant contest. It is the duty of all to
+study this problem intelligently and earnestly, with a view of
+overcoming the difficulties and permitting the prosperity of the
+country to go on. While conciliation may be best at some times, policy
+at another, and resistance at another, we must also be thinking of the
+best means to prevent further outbreaks. It would seem to be true
+policy not to interfere with organization, but to try and direct it
+into higher channels. Those of the humanitarians who claim that the
+disease will be rooted out eventually by a more general and better
+education are undoubtedly largely in the right, notwithstanding that
+some fairly educated men have acted against their best interests in
+affiliating with the labor organizations. It seems to the speaker that
+enough instances can be collected to show the utter folly of the
+present selfish system, based, as it is, entirely on getting all that
+is possible, independent of right in the matter, and by demanding
+equal wages for all men, tending to lower all to one common
+degradation, instead of rewarding industry and ability and advancing
+the cause of civilization.
+
+Labor should not be organized for selfish ends, but for its own good,
+_so as to secure steady and permanent employment_, rather than prevent
+it by impracticable schemes and unwise methods, which will cripple
+manufacturers and all kinds of industry. The men should organize under
+the general laws of the State, so that their leaders will be
+responsible to the laws and can be indicted, tried, and punished in
+case they misappropriate funds or commit any breach of trust; and such
+laws should be amended if necessary, so that wise, responsible leaders
+of the organizations can contract to furnish labor for a certain time
+at a fixed price, when manufacturers can make calculations ahead as to
+the cost of labor the same as for the cost of material, and have such
+confidence that they will use all their energies to do a larger amount
+of business and benefit the workingman as well as themselves by
+furnishing steady employment. Such a plan as is here outlined can
+readily be carried into effect by selecting better men as leaders. It
+is well known how well the organization known as the locomotive
+brotherhood is conducted, and it should be an example to others. It
+has had its day of dissensions, when the best counsels did not
+prevail, which shows that any organization of the kind, no matter how
+well conducted, may be diverted by its leaders into improper channels.
+
+When organized under the laws of the State and under by-laws designed
+to secure steady employment, rather than any artificial condition of
+things in regard to pay hours, and continuance of labor, the true
+interests of the workman will be advanced. It may be that some one of
+you will develop a talent in the direction of organization and be the
+means of aiding in the solution of this great problem. Please think of
+the matter seriously, watch the law of evolution while you are
+advancing your professional knowledge, and if the opportunity offers,
+do all you can to aid in a cause so important and beneficent.
+
+One writer has criticised the technical schools because they do not
+teach mechanical intuition. The schools have enough to do in the time
+available if they teach principles and sufficient practice to enable
+the principles to be understood. The aptitude to design, which must be
+what is meant by mechanical intuition, requires very considerable
+practical experience, which you will readily learn if you do not keep
+yourself above it. If you have used your leisure hours to study why a
+certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain way rather than in
+another; if you have wondered why one part is thick in one place
+rather than in another, apparently in defiance of all rules of the
+strength of material; if you have endeavored to ascertain why a
+particular device is used rather than another more evident one; if you
+have thought and studied why a boss is thrown in here and there in
+designs to receive bolts or to lengthen a journal, and if you have in
+your mind, by repeated observation, a fair idea of how work is
+designed by other people, the so-called _mechanical intuition_ will be
+learned and found to be the _combination of common sense and good
+practice_.
+
+You will observe that some details have been copied for years and
+years, although thoughtful men would say they are not the best, simply
+because they are adapted to a large amount of work already done. This
+is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads. The cost of a
+change in starting in a new country might be warranted, but it
+practically cannot be done when the parts must interchange with so
+much work done in other parts of the country. You will find in other
+cases that the direct strain to which a piece of mechanism is
+subjected is only one of the strains which occur in practice. A piece
+of metal may have been thickened where it customarily broke, and you
+may possibly surmise that certain jars took place that caused such
+breakages, or that particular point was where the abuse of the
+attendant was customarily applied.
+
+Wherever you go you will find matters of this kind affecting designs
+staring you in the face, and you will soon see why a man who has
+learned his trade in the shop, and from there worked into the drawing
+room with much less technical information than you have, can get along
+as well as he does. Reserve your strength, however. Your time will
+come. Whenever there is a new departure to be taken, and matters to be
+worked out from the solid which require close computation of strains
+or the application of any principles, your education will put you far
+ahead, and if you have, during the period of what may be called your
+post-graduate course, which occurs during your early introduction into
+practical life, been careful to keep your eyes and ears open so as to
+learn all that a man in practical life has done, you will soon stand
+far ahead.
+
+Reference was made to the use of leisure hours. Leisure hours can be
+spent in various ways. For instance, in studying the composition and
+resolution of forces and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room,
+the poetry of motion, etc., in a ball room, and the chemical
+properties of various malt and vinous extracts in another room; but
+the philosophical reason why certain engineering work is done in the
+way it is, and the proper way in which new work shall be done of a
+similar character and original work of any kind carried on, can only
+be learned by cultivating your powers of observation and ruminating on
+the facts collected in the privacy of one's own room, away from the
+allurements provided for those who have nothing to do. No one would
+recommend you to so separate yourself from the world as to sacrifice
+health and strength, or to become a recluse, even if you did learn all
+about a certain thing.
+
+Remember, however, that the men who have accomplished most in this
+world worked the longest hours, and any one with a regular occupation
+must utilize his leisure hours to obtain prestige. The difference
+between one man and another of the same natural ability lies entirely
+in the amount of his information and the facility with which he can
+use it. Life is short, and you must realize that now is your
+opportunity. If any diversion in the way of pleasure or even certain
+kinds of congenial work is offered, consider it in connection with the
+question, "Will this be conducive to my higher aim?" This implies that
+you have a higher aim; and if you have it, and weigh everything in
+this way, you will find that every moment of exertion adds something
+to your storehouse of information and brings you nearer to the
+accomplishment of that higher aim.
+
+In closing, we thank the ladies and gentlemen present for their close
+attention to details of special interest only to those engaged in
+technical study or practice.
+
+We congratulate you, young gentlemen of the class of '87, for the
+success you have thus far obtained, and trust that you will persevere
+in well doing and win greater success in the future. We need hardly
+state that all that has been said was in a spirit of kindness, and we
+feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your parents, to
+whom no less than to all parents here present off or on the stage, the
+speaker not excepted, a serious, thoughtful problem has been, still
+is, and will continue to be to many, "What shall we do with our
+boys."--_Stevens Indicator._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEATING MARINE BOILERS WITH LIQUID FUEL.
+
+
+We were recently witness of an experiment made at Eragny Conflans on
+the steam yacht Flamboyante. It was a question of testing a new
+vaporizer or burner for liquid fuel. The experiment was a repetition
+of the one that the inventor, Mr. G. Dietrich, recently performed with
+success in the presence of Admirals Cloue and Miot.
+
+The Flamboyante is 58 ft. in length, 9 ft. in width, draws 5 ft. of
+water, and has a displacement of 10 tons. She is provided with a
+double vertical engine supplied by a Belleville boiler that develops
+28 horse power. The screw makes 200 revolutions per minute, and gives
+the yacht a speed of 6½ knots.
+
+Mr. Dietrich's vaporizer appears to be very simple, and has given so
+good results that we have thought it of interest to give our readers a
+succinct description of it. In this apparatus, the inventor has
+endeavored to obtain an easy regulation of the two essential
+elements--naphtha and steam.
+
+Fig. 1 represents the apparatus in section. The steam enters through
+the tubulure, A, and finds its way around the periphery of a tuyere,
+D. It escapes with great velocity, carries along the petroleum that
+runs from two lateral tubulures, B (Fig. 2), and throws it in a fine
+spray into the fireplace, through the nozzle, C (Fig. 1), which is
+flattened into the shape of a fan opened out horizontally. The mixture
+at once ignites in contact with the hot gases, and gives a beautiful,
+long, clear flame. The air necessary for the combustion is sucked
+through the interior of the nozzle, H, which is in front of the
+tuyere. It will be seen that the current of steam can be regulated by
+moving the tuyere, D, from or toward the eduction orifice. This is
+effected through a maneuver of the hand wheel, F. In the second place,
+the flow of the petroleum is made regular by revolving the hand wheel,
+G, which gives the piston, O, a to and fro motion in the tuyere, D.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--THE DIETRICH PETROLEUM BURNER.]
+
+The regulation may be performed with the greatest ease. It is possible
+to instantly vary, together or separately, the steam and the
+petroleum. Under such circumstances, choking is not to be feared at
+the petroleum orifice, where, according to experiment, the thickness
+of the substance to be vaporized should not be less than 0.04 of an
+inch.
+
+The petroleum might evidently be made to enter at A and the steam at
+B; but one of the conclusions of the experiments cited is that the
+performance is better when the jet of steam surrounds the petroleum.
+It will be understood, in fact, that by this means not a particle of
+the liquid can escape vaporization and, consequently, combustion.
+Moreover, as the jet of petroleum is completely surrounded by steam
+its flow can be increased within the widest limits, and this, in
+certain cases, may prevent an obstruction without much diminishing the
+useful effect of the burner.
+
+The apparatus is easily and rapidly taken apart. It it is only
+necessary to remove the nozzle, C, in order to partially clean it. It
+would even seem that the cleaning might be done automatically by
+occasionally reversing the flow of the steam and petroleum. However
+efficacious such a method might prove, the apparatus as we have
+described it can be very easily applied to any generator. Fig. 2
+represents it as applied to the front of a furnace provided with two
+doors. A metallic box, with two compartments, is placed on one side of
+the furnace, and is provided with two stuffing boxes that are capable
+of revolving around the steam and petroleum pipes. The latter thus
+form the pivots of the hinge that allows of the play of the vaporizers
+and piping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--THE BURNER APPLIED TO THE FURNACE OF A BOILER.]
+
+It was in this way that Mr. Dietrich arranged his apparatus in an
+experiment made upon a stationary boiler belonging to a Mr. Corpet.
+The experiment was satisfactory and led to the adoption of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 3. The fire bridge is constructed of
+refractory bricks, and the majority of the grate bars are filled in
+with brick. The few free bars permit of the firing of the boiler and
+of access of air to the interior of the fire box. Under such
+circumstances, the combustion is very regular, the furnace does not
+roar, and the smoke-consuming qualities are perfect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--APPLICATION OF THE BURNER TO A RETURN FLAME
+BOILER.]
+
+In the experiment on the Flamboyante, the boiler was provided with but
+one apparatus, and the grate remained covered with a layer of ignited
+coal that had been used for firing up in order to obtain the necessary
+pressure of steam to set the vaporizer in operation. This ignited coal
+appeared to very advantageously replace the refractory bricks, the
+role of which it exactly fulfilled. It has been found well, moreover,
+to break the flames by a few piles of bricks in the furnace, in order
+to obtain as intimate a mixture as possible of the inflammable gases.
+
+It is to be remarked that firing up in order to obtain the necessary
+steam at first is a drawback that might be surmounted by using at the
+beginning of the operation a very small auxiliary boiler. The main
+furnace would then be fired by means of say a wad of cotton. But, in
+current practice, if a grate and fire be retained, the firing will
+perhaps be simpler.
+
+With but one apparatus, the pressure in the Flamboyante's boiler rose
+in a few minutes from 6 to 25 pounds, and about a quarter of an hour
+after leaving the wharf the apparatus had been so regulated that there
+was no sign of smoke. This property of the Dietrich burner proceeds
+naturally from the use of a jet of steam to carry along the petroleum
+and air necessary for combustion. It is, in fact, an Orvis smoke
+consumer transformed, and applied in a special way.
+
+It must be added that the regulating requires a certain amount of
+practice and even a certain amount of time at every change in the
+boat's running. So it is well to use two, and even three, apparatus,
+of a size adapted to that of the boiler. The regulation of the furnace
+temperature is then effected by extinguishing one or two, or even
+three, of the apparatus, according as it is desired to slow up more or
+less or to come to a standstill.
+
+The oil used by Mr. De Dosme on his yacht comes from Comaille, near
+Antun. The price of it is quite low, and, seeing the feeble
+consumption (from 33 to 45 lb. for the yacht's boiler), it competes
+advantageously with the coal that Mr. De Dosme was formerly obliged to
+use.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9935.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHANGE OF GAUGE OF SOUTHERN RAILROADS IN 1886.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: A paper read before the Western Society of Engineers,
+  June 7, 1887.]
+
+By C.H. HUDSON.
+
+
+Many of the wheels that were still in use with the long hub were put
+into a lathe, and a groove was cut an inch and a half back from the
+face, leaving our cast collar, which was easily split off as before.
+(Fig. 24.)
+
+With tender wheels, as with our car wheels, the case was different.
+Originally, the axle for the 5 ft. gauge was longer than for the 4 ft.
+9 in.; but latterly the 5 ft. roads had used a great many master car
+builders' axles for the 4 ft. 9 in. gauge, namely, 6 ft. 11¼ in. over
+all, thus making the width of the truck the same as for 4 ft. 9 in.
+gauge. To do this a dished wheel, or rather a wheel with a greater
+dish by 1½ in. than previously used, was needed, so that the tread of
+the wheel could be at its proper place. (See Fig. 25.) There were, of
+course, many of the wheels with small dish and long axles still in
+use. Their treatment, however, when the day of change came, did not
+vary from that of the short axle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 and FIG. 25]
+
+It had been the rule for some years that all axles should be turned
+back 1½ in. further than needed; but unfortunately the rule had not
+been closely followed, and many were found not to be so turned. To
+make the matter worse, quite a number of the wheels were found to have
+been counterbored about ½ in. deep at the back end, and the axle
+turned up to fit this counterbore; a good idea to prevent the running
+in, in case the wheel worked loose, but bad from the standpoint of a
+change of gauge. In such cases the wheels had to be started off before
+the axle could be turned back, so that the wheels could be pushed on
+in their proper position. (Fig. 26.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+If the work was done where they had a lathe large enough to swing a
+pair of wheels, they were pressed off but half an inch, the wheels
+swung in the lathe, the axles turned back 1½ in., and the wheels then
+pressed on 2 in. or 1½ in. inside of their first position.
+
+Where no large lathe was in use, the wheels came entirely off before
+the axles could be turned back. The work in the former case was both
+the quicker and the cheaper. Where the large lathes were used they
+were either set down into the floor, so a pair of wheels would easily
+roll into place, or a raised platform was put before the lathe, with
+an incline up which the wheels were rolled and then taken to the
+lathe. These arrangements were found much quicker and cheaper than to
+hoist the wheels up, as is usually done.
+
+In pressing the wheels on, where the axles had previously been turned
+back, much trouble was at first experienced because of the rust that
+had gathered upon the turned part behind the wheel, forming a ridge
+over or upon which the wheel must be pushed. Some of the roads, at the
+start, burst 10 or 15 per cent. of the wheels so pressed on. By
+saturating this surface with coal oil, however, it was found that the
+rust was easily removed and little trouble was had. It was found,
+sometimes, that upon axles newly turned back a careless workman would
+leave a ridge at the starting point of the turning. Frequently also
+the axles were a little sprung, so that the new turning would be a
+little scant upon one side when compared with the old surface, and
+upon the opposite side a little full. As an indication that these
+difficulties were overcome as they appeared, I will say that upon our
+line only 202 wheels burst out of nearly 27,000 pressed on--an
+exceedingly small percentage.
+
+After the change upon the early roads they were troubled for weeks
+with hot boxes, caused, as we believed, by the changing of brasses. A
+brass once fitted to a journal will work upon it without trouble, but
+when placed upon some other journal will probably not fit. If the
+journal had been worn hollow (and it was surprising to see how many
+were so worn), the brass would be found worn down to fit it. (See Fig.
+27. Exaggerated, of course.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 and FIG. 28]
+
+The next wheel may have an axle worn little or none. (See Fig. 28)
+
+Now, if these brasses are exchanged, we have the conditions as shown
+in Figs. 29 and 30, and we must expect they will heat. The remedy was
+simply to keep each brass upon its own journal. To do this the brasses
+were fastened to the axle by a piece of small wire, and went with it
+to the lathe and press. When its truck was reached, the brass was
+there with its journal. Worn-out brasses, of course, could not be put
+in, and new ones were substituted. The little trouble from that source
+that followed the change showed the efficacy of the remedy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 and FIG. 30]
+
+The manner in which the tires of engines were to be changed, when the
+final day came, was a serious question. The old-fashioned fire upon
+the ground could not be thought of. The M. & O. had used a fire of
+pine under the wheel, which was covered by a box of sheet iron, so
+arranged that the flame and heat would be conveyed around the tire,
+and out at an aperture at the top. (Fig. 31.) Many thought this
+perfect, while others were not satisfied, and began experiments for
+something better. A device for using gas had been patented, but it was
+somewhat complicated, as well as expensive, and did not meet with
+general favor. A very simple device was soon hit upon. A two inch pipe
+was bent around in a circle a little larger than the outer rim of the
+wheel. Holes 1/10 in. in diameter and 3 or 4 in. apart were drilled
+through the pipe on the inside of the circle. To this pipe was
+fastened another with a branch or fork upon it. To one branch or fork
+was connected a gas pipe from the meter, while to the other was
+connected a pipe from an air pump. With the ordinary pressure of city
+gas upon this pipe it was found that the air pump must keep an air
+pressure of 40 pounds, that the air and gas might mix properly at the
+branch or fork, so we could get the best combustion and most heat from
+our "blowpipe," for such it was. (Fig. 32.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 and FIG. 32]
+
+We were able to heat a tire so it could be moved in ten to twenty
+minutes, and the machine may be said to have been satisfactory.
+
+Gas, however, was not to be had at all places where it would be
+necessary to change tires, and the item of cost was considerable.
+
+To reach a result as good, if possible, experiments were begun with
+coal oil (headlight oil). They were crude and unsatisfactory at first,
+but soon success was reached.
+
+A pipe was bent to fit the lower half of a wheel pretty closely and
+then turned back under itself about the diameter of the pipe distant
+from it. This under part had holes 1/10 in. diameter and 3 or 4 in.
+apart drilled upon its upper side or under the upper pipe. Connected
+with the upper pipe at its center was a pipe which ran to one side and
+up to the can containing the kerosene. Between the can and the pipe
+under the wheel was a stop cock, by which the flow of oil could be
+controlled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33]
+
+To use the device, open the cock and let a small amount of oil flow;
+apply fire to the pipe under the wheel, and the oil in the upper pipe
+is converted into gas, which flows out of the small holes in the lower
+pipe, takes fire, and heats not only the tire, but the upper pipe,
+thus converting more oil into gas. We had here a lot of blue flame
+jets and the same result as with gas, but at less cost. We had also a
+machine that was inexpensive and easily handled anywhere. Boxes were
+placed over the upper parts of the wheels, that the heat might pass
+closely to the tire. This device was extensively used by our people,
+and with great satisfaction. In one way care had to be taken, viz.:
+That in starting the fire it did not smoke and cover the tire with
+carbon or "lampblack," which is a non-conductor of heat.
+
+Experiments were made with air forced through gasoline, and with oil
+heated in a can to form gas. There was more danger in either of these
+than with our blowpipe device, and no better results were obtained,
+though the cost was greater.
+
+With the change of the wheels, the brakes had to be changed the same
+amount, that is, each one set in 1½ in. This it was thought would
+either require new hangers or a change in the head or shoe in some
+way. We found that the hangers could easily be bent without removal.
+Fig. 34 shows three hangers after passing through the bending process.
+A short lever arranged to clasp the hanger just below the point, A,
+was the instrument; a forked "shore" is now placed, with the fork,
+against the point, A, and the other end against the car sill; press
+down on the lever and you bend the hanger at A; lower the lever to a
+point just below B, reverse the process, and you have the bend at B;
+the whole thing taking less than two minutes per hanger. A new bolt
+hole, of course, has been bored in the brake beam 1½ in. inside the
+old hole. It takes but a short time after this to change the position
+of the head and shoe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34]
+
+Before the day of change, a portion of the spikes were drawn from the
+inside of the rail to be moved, and spike set 3 in. inside of the
+rail. As a rule two spikes were drawn and the third left. At least
+every third spike was set for the new gauge, and in some cases every
+other one.
+
+There were several devices with which to set the spike. A small piece
+of iron 3 in. wide was common, and answered the purpose well. This had
+a handle, sometimes small, just large enough for the hand to clasp,
+while others had a handle long enough for a man to use it without
+stooping down. (See Figs. 35 and 36.) Another device is shown in Fig.
+37, so arranged that the measurements were made from the head of the
+other rail. This was liked best, and, it is thought, gave the best
+results, as the moved rail was more likely to be in good line than
+when the measurements were taken from the flange.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35, FIG. 36 and FIG. 37]
+
+It was intended that great care should be taken in driving the spikes,
+that they were in the proper place, square with the rail, and left
+sticking up about an inch.
+
+The ties, of course, were all adzed down before the day of change.
+
+"Handspikes" were originally used to throw the rails, as were lining
+bars.
+
+We found, however, that small "cant hooks" were more easily handled
+and did better work. The first were made like Fig. 38, with a spike in
+the end of a stick, while the hook was fastened with a bolt about 10
+or 12 inches above the foot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 and FIG. 39]
+
+We afterward made them of a 1¼ in. rod, 3½ ft. long, pointed at one
+end, with a ring shrunk on 1 ft. from the bottom. Then the hook was
+made with an eye, as shown in Fig. 39, which slipped down over the top
+of the main rod. This was simple and cheap, and the iron was to be
+used for repair purposes when this work was done.
+
+Upon the system with which the writer was connected we had some
+branches where we could experiment upon the moving of the rail.
+Between Selma and Lauderdale the traffic was light, and at Lauderdale
+it connected with the Mobile & Ohio Railroad, which was narrow, and to
+which all freight had to be transferred, either by hoisting the cars
+or by handling through the house. By changing our gauge we would
+simply change the point of transfer to Selma. Here was a chance to
+experiment upon one hundred miles and cause little trouble to traffic.
+We could see the practical workings of our plans, and, at the same
+time, leave less to do on the final day. Upon the 20th of April we did
+this work. It had been our plan to do it somewhat earlier, but floods
+prevented.
+
+Most of the rail was old chair iron, short, and consequently more time
+was used in making the change than would have been required had our
+work been on fishplate rail. Our sections here were about eight miles
+long, and we arranged our men on the basis blocked out by the
+committee, viz., 24 to 26 men to the section, consisting of 6 spike
+pullers, 4 throwing rails, 12 spikers, 2 to push the cars and carry
+water.
+
+We soon found 5 ft. cars useless, and threw them into the ditch to be
+picked up at some future time.
+
+The men were spread out so as not to be in each other's way, and when
+the organization was understood and conformed to, it worked well. One
+gang changed 5 miles in 5 hours and 10 minutes, including a number of
+switches. We found, however, and it was demonstrated still more
+strongly on later work, that after 5 or 6 miles the men began to lag.
+
+We believed we had the best results when we had sections of about that
+length.
+
+It was arranged that two sections, alternately, commenced work
+together at one point, working from each other and continuing until
+the force of another section was met, working from the opposite
+direction.
+
+The foreman in charge was expected to examine the work and know that
+all was right. The push car which followed was a good test as to
+gauge.
+
+A work train was started from each end with a small force (20 or 25
+men) to run over the changed track. This train, of course, had been
+changed on a previous day to be ready for this work.
+
+If a force was overtaken by this train with its work not done, the men
+on the train were at once spread out to aid in its completion. This
+done, the train ran on.
+
+Not until this was done was a traffic train allowed to pass over the
+track. The same rule was followed upon all the work.
+
+Upon the final day it was required that upon all high trestles and in
+tunnels the track should be full-spiked before being left or a train
+let over. This took extra time and labor, and possibly was not
+necessary; but it was a precaution on the side of safety.
+
+Upon the day of the change of the Alabama Central Division (Selma to
+Lauderdale), superintendents of other divisions, with their road
+masters, supervisors, master mechanics and many section foremen, were
+sent over to see the organization and work and the preparations that
+had been made. Many of them lent a helping hand in the work. They saw
+here in practice what had only been theory before.
+
+About a week before the general change that portion of the road
+between Rome, Ga., and Selma, Ala., about 200 miles, was changed, and
+again men from other divisions were sent to see and aid in the work.
+So when the final day came, the largest possible number of men were
+able to work understandingly.
+
+On the last day of May the Memphis & Charleston, Knoxville & Ohio, and
+North Carolina branch were changed, and on June 1 the line from
+Bristol to Chattanooga and Brunswick.
+
+Other roads changed their branch lines a day or two before the 1st of
+June; but the main lines, as a rule, were changed on that day.
+
+It was a small matter to take care of the cars and arrange the train
+service so there should be no hitches. It was not expected that
+connections would move freight during the 48 hours prior to the
+change, and these days were spent in clearing the road of everything,
+and taking the cars to the points of rendezvous. All scheduled freight
+trains were abandoned on the day prior to the change, and only trains
+run _to_ such points.
+
+Upon the East Tennessee system these points were Knoxville, Rome,
+Atlanta, Macon, Huntsville, and Memphis, and to these points all cars
+must go, loaded or empty, and there they were parked upon the tracks
+prepared for the purpose. Passenger trains were run to points where it
+had been arranged to change them, generally to the general changing
+point.
+
+Most of the Southern roads have double daily passenger service. Upon
+all roads one of these trains, upon the day of change, was abandoned,
+and upon some all. Some, even, did not run till next day.
+
+We were able to start the day trains out by 10 or 11 o'clock A.M., and
+put them through in fair time. Of course, no freights were run that
+day, and the next day was used in getting the cars which had been
+changed out of the parks and into line. So our freight traffic over
+the entire South was suspended practically three days.
+
+The work of changing was to commence at 3:30 A.M., but many of the men
+were in position at an earlier hour, and did commence work as soon as
+the last train was over, or an hour or so before the fixed time.
+Half-past three A.M., however, can be set down as the general hour of
+commencement.
+
+For five or six hours in the cool morning the work went on briskly,
+the men working with much more than ordinary enthusiasm. But the day
+was warm, and after 9 or 10 A.M. it began to lag. All was done,
+however, before the day was over, and safe, so that trains could pass
+at full speed.
+
+The men all received $1.50 for the work, whether it was finished early
+or late in the day, and were paid that afternoon as soon as the work
+was done. Tickets were given the men, which the nearest agent paid,
+remitting as cash to the treasurer.
+
+On some lines it was deemed best to offer prizes to those who got
+through first.
+
+Reports showed some very early finishes. But the facts seem to have
+been that under such encouragement the men were apt to pull _too many_
+spikes before the change and put _too few_ in while changing. They
+were thus reported through early, but their work was not done, and
+they took great chances.
+
+It was by most considered unwise to offer such prizes, preferring to
+have a little more time taken and be sure that all was safe. Such
+lines seemed to get their trains in motion with as much promptness as
+others. This, with freedom from accident, was the end sought.
+
+It was found after the work had been done that there had been little
+inaccuracies in driving the gauge spike, to which the rail was thrown,
+probably from various causes. The rail to be moved may not always have
+been exactly in its proper place, and then the template in the hurry
+may not have been accurately placed, or the spike may have turned or
+twisted.
+
+Whatever was the cause, it was found that frequently the line on the
+moved side was not perfect, and, of course, many spikes had to be
+drawn and the rail lined up and respiked. The more careful the work
+had been done, the less of this there was to do afterward. With rough
+track this was least seen. The nearer perfect, the more noticeable it
+was.
+
+Of course, we all planned to get foreign cars home and have ours sent
+to us. But when the interchange stopped, we found we had many foreign
+cars, which, of course, had to be changed. This subject had come up in
+convention and it had been voted to charge three dollars per car when
+axles did not need turning, and five dollars where they did. By
+comparison with the cost of changing, as shown in this paper, it will
+be seen that to our company, at least, there was no loss at these
+figures.
+
+The following tables will explain the work done upon the Louisville &
+Nashville and East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia systems.
+
+It is to be regretted that the writer has not at hand information
+regarding other roads, that fuller statements and comparisons might be
+made and the showings be of greater value.
+
+The figures of the Mobile & Ohio are added, having been compiled from
+the annual report of that road.
+
+
+                       MOBILE & OHIO RAILROAD.
+                   (_Compiled from Annual Report._)
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+                      | Number | Cost of  | Cost of  |  Total   |Average|
+                      |Changed.|  Labor.  | Material |  Cost.   | Cost. |
+                      |________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+Engines and tenders.  |   47   |$ 8,031.42|$ 7,276.86|$15,308.28|$325.70|
+Pass., bag., ex. cars.|   55   |    439.37|    104.25|    542.62|   9.87|
+Freight cars, 1,361. }|1,468½  |  5,719.03|    739.57|  6,458.60|   4.40|
+Freight trucks, 107½.}|        |          |          |          |       |
+Lever and push cars.  |  143   |  1,427.55|    476.93|  1,904.48|  13.32|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+                      | Miles. |          |          |          |       |
+Track (inc. sidings). |  583.5 | 17,109.53|  7,275.14| 24,384.87|  41.79|
+Bridges.              |  583.5 |  1,896.60|    190.00|  2,086.60|   3.58|
+Track tools.          |  583.5 |    170.72|  1,405.74|  1,576.46|   2.70|
+Shop tools.           |  583.5 |    419.70|  2,982.90|  3,402.60|   5.83|
+Temp. side tracks.    |   12.09|  1,958.94|    372.37|  2,331.31| 192.83|
+Switching cars.       |        |  1,398.18|     16.50|  1,414.68|       |
+Car hoists.           |        |  2,499.38|  4,419.34|  6,918.72|       |
+                      |________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+  Total cost.         |        |$41,069.42|$25,259.60|$66,329.02|       |
+  Total average cost  |        |          |          |          |       |
+   per mile.          |        |          |          |          |$113.68|
+______________________|________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+
+
+                 LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD.
+                 (_Compiled from Annual Report._)
+
+
+Miles of track--Main line              1,893.7
+              --Side track               196.3
+                                       -------     2,090.0
+                                                              Cost
+             Track.                                 Total.  per Mile.
+Section labor--Before day of change  $28,106.60
+             --On day of change       20,090.42
+             --After day of change    19,713.19
+                                     ----------  $67,910.21   $32.49
+Carpenter labor                                    3,799.19     1.82
+Spikes                                            20,873.70     9.99
+Switches                                           6,331.85     3.03
+Tools                                              2,749.50     1.31
+Hand cars and sundries                             5,691.39     2.72
+                                                -----------   ------
+   Total                                        $107,855.84   $51.36
+
+                         _Equipment._
+                                                               Average
+                                        Number.      Total.      Cost.
+Locomotives                                264   $53,480.98    $202.58
+Cars (300 of these passenger--3.5%)      8,537    49,577.20       5.81
+                                                -----------   --------
+   Total cost                                   $210,414.02
+   Total average cost per mile                                 $100.67
+
+
+             EAST TENNESSEE, VIRGINIA & GEORGIA SYSTEM.
+
+__________________________________________________________________________
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+                      |  Number | Cost of  | Cost of  |   Total   |Average|
+                      | Changed.|  Labor.  | Material |   Cost.   | Cost. |
+                      |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+Engines and tenders.  |   180   |$ 8,227.47|$ 2,904.30|$ 11,131.77|$ 61.82|
+Pass., bag., and mail |         |          |          |           |       |
+  cars.               |   168   |    734.93|     59.67|     794.60|   4.73|
+Freight cars and      |         |          |          |           |       |
+  cabooses.           | 5,175   | 17,425.57|  1,224.08|  18,649.65|   3.60|
+M. of W. cars.        |   439   |  2,038.44|    549.47|   2,587.91|   5.89|
+                      | Miles   |          |          |           |       |
+                      | Track.  |          |          |           |       |
+Track (inc. sidings). | 1,532.7 | 27,718.17| 40,912.09|  68,630.26|  44.78|
+Bridges.              | 1,532.7 |  1,808.57|    200.00|   2,008.57|   1.31|
+Track tools.          | 1,532.7 |    194.48|  2,573.83|   2,768.31|   1.80|
+Storage tracks, inc.  |         |          |          |           |       |
+  taking up.          |    37.02|  9,825.41|  1,481.59|  11,307.00| 305.44|
+Shop tools.           |         |    472.20|  2,728.30|   3,200.50|       |
+                      |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+  Total cost.         |         |$68,445.24|$52.633.33|$121,078.57|       |
+  Total average cost  |         |          |          |           |       |
+   per mile.          |         |          |          |           |$ 79.06|
+______________________|_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+
+
+  Axles condemned                                                     577
+  Wheels condemned                                                    754
+  Wheels burst                                                        202
+  New axles used                                                    1,102
+  New wheels used                                                   2,783
+  Axles turned back                                                 8,316
+  Wheels pressed on without turning axle                           23,952
+  New brasses used                                                 10,723
+  Cars narrowed (not including lever or push cars)                  5,343
+  Engines narrowed                                                    180
+  Average cost of new centers and crank pins, etc                 $264.46
+  Average cost of cutting off hub and pressing wheels and new pins 130.67
+  Average cost of pressing old tires on old centers                 29.08
+  Average cost of pressing old tires on broad centers               31.83
+  Average cost of labor putting on new tires                        22.94
+
+
+     COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+
+__________________________________________________________________________
+                                  |         |         |         |         |
+                                  |  M. &   |  L. &   | E.T., V.|Average. |
+                                  | O. R.R. | N. R.R. |& G. R.R.|         |
+                                  |_________|_________|_________|_________|
+                                  |         |         |         |         |
+Engines and tenders--per engine   | $325.70 | $202.58 |  $61.82 | $196.70 |
+Pass., bag., and ex. cars--per car|    9.87 |[2] 5.81 |    4.73 |    6.80 |
+Freight cars, per car             |    4.40 |[3] 5.81 |    3.60 |    4.60 |
+M. of W. cars, per car            |   13.32 |    2.72 |    5.89 |    7.31 |
+Track (inc. sidings bridges,      |         |         |         |         |
+  etc.), per mile                 |   45.37 |   47.83 |   46.09 |   46.26 |
+Track tools, per mile             |    2.70 |    1.31 |    1.80 |    1.94 |
+Temporary side tracks, per mile   |  192.83 |         |  305.44 |  249.13 |
+                                  |_________|_________|_________|_________|
+   Total per mile of track, inc.  |         |         |         |         |
+     sidings                      | $113.68 | $100.67 | $ 79.06 | $ 97.80 |
+__________________________________|_________|_________|_________|_________|
+
+  [Footnote 2: Expense not divided as between passenger and freight
+  cars.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: 3.5 per cent. passenger, baggage, and express cars,
+  96.5 per cent. freight cars.]
+
+
+NOTE--Since the preparation of this paper the general manager of the
+Norfolk & Western Railroad has kindly furnished the following items of
+expense for that line:
+
+  ___________________________________________________________________
+                                    |         |            |         |
+                                    |   No.   |   Cost.    | Average |
+                                    |         |            |  Cost.  |
+                                    |_________|____________|_________|
+                                    |         |            |         |
+  Engines and tenders               |    95   | $37,730.00 | $397.16 |
+  Cars (all kinds)                  | 3,615   |  37,994.65 |   10.51 |
+  Track, miles (including sidings)  |   597.5 |            |         |
+  Labor                             |         |  25,296.96 |         |
+  Tools and supplies                |         |   3,531.12 |         |
+  Changing M. of W. equipment       |         |     813.13 |         |
+  Switches                          |         |     571.67 |         |
+  Spikes                            |         |   8,508.22 |         |
+                                    |         | ---------- |         |
+    Total track                     |         | $38,721,10 |   64.80 |
+                                    |         | ========== |         |
+      Total                         |         |$114,445.75 |---------|
+    Total average cost per mile     |         |            | $191.53 |
+  __________________________________|_________|____________|_________|
+
+
+And the superintendent of the S.F. & W. R.R. has also furnished the
+expenses for that road:
+
+  ___________________________________________________________________
+                                                |          |         |
+                                                |   No.    | Average |
+                                                |          |  Cost.  |
+                                                |__________|_________|
+                                                |          |         |
+  Engines and tenders                           |    75    |  $76.31 |
+  Cars (passenger)                              |    95    |    4.67 |
+  Cars (freight)                                | 1,133    |    3.88 |
+  Track, including sidings                      |   601.76 |   44.49 |
+  ______________________________________________|__________|_________|
+
+Nothing was said about shop or other tools, storage tracks, or
+changing of maintenance of way equipment.
+
+
+            COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF
+               LABOR OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+  _________________________________________________________________
+                            |   M. &  |   L. & | E.T., V. |        |
+                            | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |        |          |        |
+  Engines and tenders.      | $170.88}|        | {$45.71  | $108.29|
+  Pass., bag., and ex cars  |    7.97}|   Not  | {  4.38  |    6.17|
+  Freight cars              |    3.89}| divided| {  3.36  |    3.62|
+  M. of W. cars             |    9.98}|        | {  4.64  |    7.31|
+  Miles track (including    |         |        |          |        |
+   sidings, bridges, etc.)  |   32.57 |  $34.31|   19.26  |   28.71|
+  Track tools, per mile     |     .30 |   Not  |     .13  |     .21|
+  Temporary tracks          |  162.03 | divided|  265.40  |  213.71|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |   Not  |          |        |
+  Total per mile of track   |  $70.38 | divided|  $44.72  |  $57.55|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+
+
+            COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF
+               MATERIAL OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+  _________________________________________________________________
+                            |   M. &  |   L. & | E.T., V. |        |
+                            | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |        |          |        |
+  Engines and tenders.      | $154.82}|        | { $16.11 |  $85.46|
+  Pass., bag., and ex cars  |    1.90}|   Not  | {    .35 |    1.12|
+  Freight cars              |     .51}| divided| {    .24 |     .37|
+  M. of W. cars             |    3.34}|        | {   1.25 |    2.30|
+  Miles track (including    |         |        |          |        |
+   sidings, bridges, etc.)  |   12.80 |  $13.02|    26.88 |   17.55|
+  Track tools, per mile     |    2.40 |   Not  |     1.67 |    2.03|
+  Temporary tracks          |  162.03 | divided|    40.04 |  101.03|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |   Not  |          |        |
+  Total per mile of track   |  $43.30 | divided|   $34.34 |  $38.82|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+
+
+             SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS OF L.& N. AND E.T.,
+                         V.& G. RAILWAYS.
+
+  The mileage changed of the L&N. and E.T., V.& G.
+    systems combined aggregates                         3,622 miles.
+  The total cost of these two roads.                     $331,492.59
+  Or an average per mile of                                    91.52
+  Total miles changed was about                        14,500 miles.
+  Which would give total cost, at same rate.              $1,327,040
+
+
+We should really add to this a large sum for the great number of new
+locomotives which were purchased to replace old ones, that could not
+be changed, except at large cost, and which, when done, would have
+been light and undesirable.
+
+Upon the basis of the work done upon the L. & N. and E.T., V. & G.
+systems, which, combined, cover about one-fourth the mileage changed,
+we have made the following estimates, which will, perhaps, convey a
+better idea of the extent of the work than can be obtained in any
+other way:
+
+  Miles of track changed, about                               14,500
+  Locomotives changed, about                                   1,800
+  Cars (pass, and freight) changed, about                     45,000
+  New axles used, about                                        9,000
+  New wheels used, about                                      20,000
+  Axles turned back, about                                    75,000
+  Wheels pressed on without turning axles, about             220,000
+  New brasses used, about                                     90,000
+  Kegs of spikes used, about                                  50,000
+  Cost of material used, about                              $600,000
+  Cost of labor, about                                       730,000
+  Total cost of work, about                                1,330,000
+  Amount expended on equipment, about                        650,000
+  Amount expended on track, about                            680,000
+  Amount expended on track on day of change in labor, about  140,000
+
+The work was done economically, and so quietly that the public hardly
+realized it was in progress. To the casual observer it was an every
+day transaction. It was, however, a work of great magnitude, requiring
+much thought and mechanical ability.
+
+That it was ably handled is evidenced by the uniform success attained,
+the prompt changing at the agreed time, and the trifling inconvenience
+to the public.--_Jour. Assn. Engineering Societies._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO BOATS FOR SPAIN.
+
+
+In our present issue, on page 9948, we give illustrations of two
+torpedo boats, the Azor and Halcon, which have lately been constructed
+by Messrs Yarrow & Co., of Poplar, for the Spanish government. They
+are 135 ft. in length by 14 ft. beam, being of the same dimensions as
+No. 80 torpedo boat, lately completed by the above firm for the
+Admiralty, which is the largest and fastest torpedo-boat in the
+British navy.
+
+[Illustration: TORPEDO BOATS FOR THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT.]
+
+The general arrangement of these torpedo boats is sufficiently clear
+from the illustrations to need but little description. Suffice it to
+say that the engines are of the triple compound type, capable of
+indicating 1,550 horse power, steam being supplied by one large
+locomotive boiler, which our readers are already aware is in
+accordance with the usual practice of the makers, as, by using a
+single boiler, great simplification of the machinery takes place, and
+considerably less room is occupied than if two boilers were adopted.
+It is worthy of record that although in some torpedo boats, and indeed
+in a great number of them, trouble has been found with the locomotive
+type of boiler, still we have no hesitation in saying that this is due
+either to defective design or bad workmanship, and that, if properly
+designed and constructed, such difficulty does not occur. And it is a
+fact that Messrs. Yarrow & Co. have already constructed a great number
+of locomotive boilers of the exceptional size adopted in these two
+Spanish boats, and they have turned out in every respect, after actual
+service, perfectly satisfactory.
+
+The forward part of the boat is provided with two torpedo-ejecting
+tubes, as usual, and near the stern, on deck, it is proposed to place
+turntables, with two torpedo guns for firing over the sides, as
+already adopted by several governments. The trials of the Azor took
+place about two months since, giving a speed during a run of two hours
+and three quarters, carrying a load of 17 tons, of 24 knots (over 27½
+miles) per hour. Since her trial she has steamed out to Spain, having
+encountered, during a portion of the voyage very bad weather, when her
+sea going qualities were found to be admirable.
+
+The Halcon, whose official trials took place lately, obtained a speed
+of 23.5 knots, carrying a load of 17 tons. It may be remarked that a
+speed of 24 knots, in a boat only 135 ft in length, under the Spanish
+conditions of trial, is by far the best result that has ever been
+obtained in a vessel of these dimensions There is, however, no doubt
+that had the length of the boat been greater, a still higher speed
+would have been obtained But it was desired by the authorities to keep
+within the smallest possible dimensions, so as to expose as little
+area as practicable to the fire of the enemy, it being clearly evident
+that this is a consideration of the first importance in an unprotected
+war vessel.
+
+In conclusion, we would add that the hulls of these two Spanish boats
+are of much greater strength of construction than is usually adopted
+in torpedo boats, it having been found that for the sake of obtaining
+exceptional speeds, strength sufficient for actual service has often
+been injudiciously sacrificed And, judging from the numerous accidents
+which took place at the recent trials off Portland, we have no doubt
+that in the future naval authorities will be quite ready and willing
+to sacrifice a little speed so as to obtain vessels which are more
+trustworthy. The necessity for this, we feel convinced, will be
+conclusively shown if ever torpedo boats are engaged in actual
+warfare, and this not only as regards strength of hull, but also as
+regards the machinery, which at present is only capable of being
+handled successfully by men of exceptional training, who in times of
+war would not be readily procured--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SPANISH CRUISER REINA REGENTE
+
+
+In our SUPPLEMENT, No. 620 we gave an illustration of this ship, with
+some particulars. The interest expressed in naval circles for further
+information induces us to give still further engravings of this
+remarkable vessel, with additional information, for which we are
+indebted to the _Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW SPANISH WAR SHIP REINA REGENTE.]
+
+We gave recently a short account of two of the trials of this vessel,
+and we are, by the courtesy of the builders--Messrs. Thomson, of
+Clydebank--enabled to lay further particulars before our readers this
+week. We give herewith engravings of the vessel, which will illustrate
+her salient points. The principal dimensions are as follows.
+
+Length on water line, 317 ft., breadth, 50 ft. 7 in., depth moulded,
+32 ft. 6 in., normal displacement, 4,800 tons, deep load displacement,
+5,600 tons. We have before informed our readers that this vessel was
+designed by Messrs. Thomson, in competition with several other
+shipbuilding firms of this and other countries, in reply to an
+invitation of the Spanish government for a cruiser of the first class.
+The design submitted by the builders of the Reina Regente was
+accepted, and the vessel was contracted to be built in June of last
+year. The principal conditions of the contract were as follows.
+
+The ship to steam at a speed of 20½ knots for four runs on the mile
+and for two hours continuously afterward. She was further to be
+capable of steaming for six hours continuously at a speed of 18½
+knots, without any artificial means of producing draught. She was also
+to be capable of steaming a distance of at least 5,700 knots for 500
+tons of coal, at some speed over 10 knots, to be chosen by the
+builders. Over the length of her machinery and magazine spaces she was
+to have a sloping deck extending to 6 ft. below the water line at the
+side, and formed of plates 4¾ in. thick. This deck was to extend to
+about 1 ft. above the water line, and the flat part to be 3-1/8 in.
+thick. Beyond the machinery and magazine spaces, the deck was to be
+gradually reduced to 3 in. thick at the ends. This deck is intended to
+protect the vitals of the ship, such as boilers, engines, powder
+magazines, steering gear, etc., from the effects of shot and shell,
+but the floating and stability maintaining power of the ship was to be
+dependent upon a similar structure raised above this protective deck
+to a height of about 5 ft. above the water.
+
+This structure is covered by a water tight deck known as the main deck
+of the ship, on which the cabins and living spaces are arranged. The
+space between the main and protective deck is divided, as may be seen
+by reference to the protective deck plan, into many strong, water
+tight spaces, most of which are not more than about 500 cubic feet
+capacity. The spaces next to the ship's side are principally coal
+bunkers, and may, therefore, exclude largely any water that should
+enter. The first line of defense is formed inside these coal bunkers
+by a complete girdle of coffer dams, which can be worked from the main
+deck. These it is intended to fill with water and cellulose material,
+and as they are also minutely subdivided, the effects of damage by
+shot and consequent flooding may be localized to a considerable
+extent. The guns of the ship are to consist of four 20 centimeter
+Hontorio breech loading guns on Vavasseur carriages, six 12 centimeter
+guns, eight 6 pounder rapid firing, and eight or ten small guns for
+boats and mitrailleuse purposes, four of which are in the crow's nests
+at the top of the two masts of the ship. We may remark in passing that
+the builders saw their way at an early period of the construction to
+suggest an addition to the weight of the large sized guns, and there
+will actually be on the ship four 24 centimeter guns, instead of four
+20 centimeter. The vessel was to carry five torpedo tubes, two forward
+in the bow, one in each broadside, and one aft. All these tubes to be
+fixed. To fulfill the speed condition, four boilers were necessary and
+two sets of triple expansion engines, capable of developing in all
+12,000 horse power.
+
+[Illustration: PROTECTIVE DECK PLAN.]
+
+Now that the vessel has been completely tried, the promises by the
+builders may be compared with the results determined by the commission
+of Spanish officers appointed by the government of Spain to say
+whether the vessel fulfilled in all respects the conditions laid down
+in the contract. The mean speed attained for the two hours' run was
+20.6 knots, as compared with 20.5 guaranteed, but this speed was
+obtained with 11,500 horse power instead of the 12,000 which the
+machinery is capable of developing. The officers of the Spanish
+commission were anxious not to have the vessel's machinery pressed
+beyond what was necessary to fulfill the speed conditions of the
+contract; but they saw enough to warrant them in expressing their
+belief that the vessel can easily do twenty-one knots when required,
+and she actually did this for some time during the trial.
+
+During the natural draught trial the vessel obtained a mean speed of
+18.68 knots, on an average of 94¾ revolutions--the forced draught
+having been done on an average of 105½ revolutions. The consumption
+trial, which lasted twelve hours, was made to determine the radius of
+action, when the ship showed that at a speed of 11.6 knots she could
+steam a distance of 5,900 knots. Further trials took place to test the
+evolutionary powers of the vessel, though these trials were not
+specified in the contract.
+
+The vessel, as may be seen from the engravings, is fitted with a
+rudder of a new type, known as Thomson & Biles' rudder, with which it
+is claimed that all the advantage of a balanced rudder is obtained,
+while the ship loses the length due to the adoption of such a rudder.
+It is formed in the shape of the hull of the vessel, and as the
+partial balance of the lower foreside gradually reduces the strains,
+the rudder head may be made of very great service. As a matter of
+fact, this rudder is 230 ft. in area, and is probably the largest
+rudder fitted to a warship. The efficiency of it was shown in the
+turning trials, by its being able to bring the vessel round, when
+going at about nineteen knots, in half a circle in one minute
+twenty-three seconds, and a complete circle in two minutes fifty-eight
+seconds, the diameter of the circle being 350 yards. This result, we
+believe, is unrivaled, and makes this vessel equal in turning
+capabilities to many recent warships not much more than half her
+length.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FILM NEGATIVES.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: A communication to the Birmingham Photographic
+  Society.]
+
+
+Having had a certain measure of success with Eastman stripping films,
+I have been requested by your council to give a paper this evening
+dealing with the subject, and particularly with the method of working
+which my experience has found most successful. In according to their
+request, I feel I have imposed upon myself a somewhat difficult task.
+
+There is, undoubtedly, a strong prejudice in the minds of most
+photographers, both amateur and professional, against a negative in
+which paper is used as a permanent support, on account of the
+inseparable "grain" and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints;
+and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary support does
+not seem to convey to their mind a correct impression of the true
+position of the matter.
+
+It may be as well before entering into the technical details of the
+manipulation to consider briefly the advantages to be derived--which
+will be better appreciated after an actual trial.
+
+My experience (which is at present limited) is that they are far
+superior to glass for all purposes except portraiture of the human
+form or instantaneous pictures where extreme rapidity is necessary,
+but for all ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently
+quick. The first advantage, which I soon discovered, is their entire
+freedom from halation. This, with glass plates, is inseparable, and
+even when much labor has been bestowed on backing them, the halation
+is painfully apparent.
+
+These films never frill, being made of emulsion which has been made
+insoluble. Compare the respective weights of the two substances--one
+plate weighing more than a dozen films of the same size.
+
+Again, on comparing a stripping film negative with one on glass of the
+same exposure and subject, it will be found there is a greater
+sharpness or clearness in the detail, owing, I am of opinion, to the
+paper absorbing the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion,
+the result being a brilliant negative. Landscapes on stripped films
+can be retouched or printed from on either side, and the advantage in
+this respect for carbon or mechanical printing is enormous. Now,
+imagine the tourist working with glass, and compare him to another
+working with films. The one works in harness, tugging, probably, a
+half hundredweight of glass with him from place to place, paying extra
+carriage, extra tips, and in a continual state of anxiety as to
+possible breakage, difficulty of packing, and having to be continually
+on the lookout for a dark place to change the plates, and, perhaps, on
+his return finds numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on
+the surface; while the disciple of _films_, lightly burdened with only
+camera and slide, and his (say two hundred) films in his pockets, for
+they lie so compact together. Then the advantages to the tourists
+abroad, their name is "legion," not the least being the ease of
+guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house officials, who
+almost always seek to make matters disagreeable in this respect, and
+lastly, though not least, the ease with which the negatives can be
+stowed away in envelopes or albums, etc., when reference to them is
+easy in the extreme.
+
+Now, having come (rightly, I think, you will admit) to the conclusion
+that films have these advantages, you naturally ask, What are their
+disadvantages? Remembering, then, that I am only advocating stripping
+films, I consider they have but two disadvantages: First, they entail
+some additional outlay in the way of apparatus, etc. Second, they are
+a little more trouble to finish than the glass negatives, which sink
+into insignificance when the manifold advantages are considered.
+
+In order to deal effectively with the second objection I mentioned,
+viz., the extra trouble and perseverance, I propose, with your
+permission, to carry a negative through the different stages from
+exposure to completion, and in so doing I shall endeavor to make the
+process clear to you, and hope to enlist your attention.
+
+The developer I use is slightly different to that of the Eastman
+company, and is as follows:
+
+                           A.
+    Sulphite of soda.           4 ounces.
+
+To be dissolved in 8 ounces of hot distilled water, then rendered
+slightly acid with citric acid, then add--
+
+    Pyrogallic acid.            1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+                           B.
+    Pure carbonate of soda.     1 ounce.
+    Water to make up in all to 10 ounces.
+
+                           C.
+    Pure carbonate of potash.   1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+                           D.
+    Bromide of potassium.       1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+I have here two half-plate films exposed at 8:30 A.M. to-day, one with
+five and one with six seconds' exposure, subject chiefly middle
+distance. I take 90 minims A, 10 minims D, and 90 minims B, and make
+up to 2 ounces water. I do not soak the films in water. There is no
+need for it. In fact, it is prejudicial to do so. I place the films
+face uppermost in the dish, and pour on the developer on the center of
+the films. You will observe they lie perfectly flat, and are free from
+air bubbles. Rock the dish continually during development, and when
+the high lights are out add from 10 to 90 minims C, and finish
+development and fix. The negatives being complete, I ask you to
+observe that both are of equal quality, proving the latitude of
+exposure permissible.
+
+I now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all round than the
+negative with India rubber solution (see Eastman formula), and
+squeegee the negative face downward upon the rubber, interposing a
+sheet of blotting paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee
+to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface, and then place the
+negative under pressure with blotting paper interposed until
+moderately dry only.
+
+I then pour hot water upon it, and, gently rocking the dish, you see
+the paper floats from the film without the necessity for pulling it
+with a pin, leaving the film negative on the glass. Now, the
+instructions say remove the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's
+hair brush, but, unless it requires intensifying, which no properly
+developed negative should require, you need not do so, but simply pour
+on the gelatine solution (see Eastman formula), well covering the
+edges of the film, and put on a level shelf to dry.
+
+I will now take up a negative in this state on the glass, but dry, and
+carefully cut round the edges of the film, and you see I can readily
+pull off the film with its gelatine support. Having now passed through
+the whole of the process, it behooves us to consider for a few minutes
+the causes of failure in the hands of beginners and their remedies: 1.
+The rubber will not flow over glass? Solution too thick, glass greasy.
+2. Rubber peels off on drying? Dirty glass. 3. Negative not dense
+enough? Use more bromide and longer development. 4. Gelatine cracks on
+being pulled off? Add more glycerine. 5. Gelatine not thick enough?
+Gelatine varnish too thin, not strong enough. 6. Does not dry
+sufficiently hard? Too much glycerine.--_E.H. Jaques, Reported in Br.
+Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW DIFFERENT TONES IN GELATINO-CHLORIDE PRINTS MAY BE VARIED BY
+DEVELOPERS.
+
+
+The following formulæ are for use with gelatino-chloride paper or
+plates. The quantities are in each case calculated for one ounce,
+three parts of each of the following solutions being employed and
+added to one part of solution of protosulphate of iron. Strength, 140
+grains to the ounce.
+
+            _Slaty Blue._
+
+  1.--One part of the above solution
+  to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia.
+
+            _Greenish Brown._
+     2.--Citric acid.               180 grains
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       50   "
+
+     3.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          2   "
+
+     4.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          4   "
+
+            _Sepia Brown._
+     5.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          8   "
+
+            _Clear Red Brown._
+     6.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      76   "
+
+            _Warm Gray Brown._
+     7.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         205   "
+
+            _Deep Red Brown._
+     8.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of potash.       117   "
+
+            _Green Blue._
+     9.--Citric acid.                90 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         154   "
+         Citrate of potash.          24   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           6   "
+
+             _Sepia Red._
+    10.--Citric acid.                80 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         135   "
+         Citrate of potash.          12   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           3   "
+
+    11.--Citric acid.               108 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      68   "
+         Carbonate of potash.        12   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           3   "
+
+             _Sepia Yellow._
+    12.--Citric acid.                40 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      25   "
+         Citrate of ammonia.        166   "
+
+    13.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      72   "
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       72   "
+         Chloride of sodium.          8   "
+
+             _Blue Black._
+    14.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       70   "
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      15   "
+
+    15.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      38   "
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       44   "
+
+    16.--Citric acid.                90 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      57   "
+         Citrate of potash.          54   "
+         Oxlate of potash.           18   "
+
+    17.--Citric acid.                72 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      45   "
+         Citrate of potash.          54   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          18   "
+
+    18.--Citric acid.                60 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      38   "
+         Citrate of potash.          68   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          22   "
+
+        _A more Intense Blue Black._
+    19.--Citric acid.                30 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      18   "
+         Citrate of potash.         100   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          33   "
+
+           _A Clearer Blue._
+    20.--Citrate of potash.         136 grains.
+         Oxalate of potash.          44   "
+
+In the photographic exhibition at Florence, the firm of Corvan[1]
+places on view a frame containing twenty proofs produced by the
+foregoing twenty formulæ, in such a way that the observer can compare
+the value of each tone and select that which pleases him best.--_Le
+Moniteur de la Photographie, translated by British Jour. of Photo._
+
+  [Footnote 1: Does this mean Mr. A. Cowan?--_Translator._]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISTILLERY CHIMNEY.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Industrial Society of Amiens, Mr. Schmidt,
+engineer of the Steam Users' Association, read a paper in which he
+described the process employed in the construction of a large chimney
+of peculiar character for the Rocourt distillery, at St. Quentin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--ELEVATION.]
+
+This chimney, which is cylindrical in form, is 140 feet in height, and
+has an internal diameter of 8½ feet from base to summit. The coal
+consumed for the nine generators varies between 860 and 1,200 pounds
+per hour and per 10 square feet of section.
+
+The ground that was to support this chimney consisted of very
+aquiferous, cracked beds of marl, disintegrated by infiltrations of
+water from the distillery, and alternating with strata of clay. It
+became necessary, therefore, to build as light a chimney as possible.
+The problem was solved as follows, by Mr. Guendt, who was then
+superintendent of the Rocourt establishment.
+
+Upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was built, in which were
+united the various smoke conduits, and upon this pedestal were erected
+four lattice girders, C, connected with each other by St. Andrew's
+crosses. The internal surface of these girders is vertical and the
+external is inclined. Within the framework there was built a five-inch
+thick masonry wall of bricks, made especially for the purpose. The
+masonry was then strengthened and its contact with the girders assured
+by numerous hoops, especially at the lower part; some of them
+internal, others external, to the surface of the girders, and others
+of angle irons, all in four parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--HORIZONTAL SECTION.]
+
+The anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate connected, through
+strong bolts embedded in the pedestal, with a second plate resting
+upon the concrete.
+
+As the metallic framework was calculated for resisting the wind, the
+brick lining does not rest against it permanently above. The weight of
+the chimney is 1,112,200 pounds, and the foundation is about 515
+square feet in area; and, consequently, the pressure upon the ground
+is about 900 pounds to the square inch. The cost was $3,840.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY.]
+
+The chimney was built six years ago, and has withstood the most
+violent hurricanes.
+
+The mounting of the iron framework was effected by means of a motor
+and two men, and took a month. The brick lining was built up in eight
+days by a mason and his assistant.
+
+A chimney of the same size, all of brick, erected on the same
+foundation, would have weighed 2,459,600 pounds (say a load of 3,070
+pounds to the square inch), and would have cost about $2,860.
+
+The chimney of the Rocourt distillery is, therefore, lighter by half,
+and cost about a third more, than one of brick; but, at the present
+price of metal, the difference would be slight.--_Annales
+Industrielles._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.
+
+
+Considerable interest has been aroused lately in scientific and
+industrial circles by a report that separation of the oxygen and
+nitrogen of the air was being effected on a large scale in London by a
+process which promises to render the gases available for general
+application in the arts. The cheap manufacture of the compounds of
+nitrogen from the gas itself is still a dream of chemical enthusiasts;
+and though the pure gas is now available, the methods of making its
+compounds have yet to be devised. But the industrial processes which
+already depend directly or indirectly on the chemical union of bodies
+with atmospheric oxygen are innumerable.
+
+In all these processes the action of the gas is impeded by the bulky
+presence of its fellow constituent of air, nitrogen. We may say, for
+instance, in homely phrase, that whenever a fire burns there are four
+volumes of nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of
+oxygen supporting its combustion, and to the same degree the nitrogen
+interferes with all other processes of atmospheric oxidation, of which
+most metallurgical operations may be given as instances. If, then, it
+has become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and cheaply in
+order to give the oxygen free play in its various applications, we are
+doubtless on the eve of a revolution among some of the most extensive
+and familiar of the world's industries.
+
+A series of chemical reactions has long been known by means of which
+oxygen could be separated out of air in the laboratory, and at various
+times processes based on these reactions have been patented for the
+production of oxygen on a large scale. Until recently, however, none
+of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory results. The simplest
+and perhaps the best of them was based on the fact first noticed by
+Boussingault, that when baryta (BaO) is heated to low redness in a
+current of air, it takes up oxygen and becomes barium dioxide
+(BaO_{2}), and that this dioxide at a higher temperature is
+reconverted into free oxygen and baryta, the latter being ready for
+use again. For many years it was assumed, however, by chemists that
+this ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial scale,
+owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb oxygen which was always
+found to take place in the baryta after a certain number of
+operations. About eight years ago Messrs. A. & L. Brin, who had
+studied chemistry under Boussingault, undertook experiments with the
+view of determining why the baryta lost its power of absorbing oxygen.
+
+They found that it was owing to molecular and physical changes caused
+in it by impurities in the air used and by the high temperature
+employed for decomposing the dioxide. They discovered that by heating
+the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature necessary to drive off
+its oxygen was much reduced. They also found that by supplying the air
+to the baryta under a moderate pressure, its absorption of oxygen was
+greatly assisted. Under these conditions, and by carefully purifying
+the air before use, they found that it became possible to use the
+baryta an indefinite number of times. Thus the process became
+practically, as it was theoretically, continuous.
+
+After securing patent protection for their process, Messrs. Brin
+erected a small producer in Paris, and successfully worked it for
+nearly three years without finding a renewal of the original charge of
+baryta once necessary. This producer was exhibited at the Inventions
+Exhibition in London, in 1885. Subsequently an English company was
+formed, and in the autumn of last year Brin's Oxygen Company began
+operations in Horseferry Road, Westminster, where a large and complete
+demonstration plant was erected, and the work commenced of developing
+the production and application of oxygen in the industrial world.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MAKING OXYGEN.]
+
+We give herewith details of the plant now working at Westminster. It
+is exceedingly simple. On the left of the side elevation and plan are
+shown the retorts, on the right is an arrangement of pumps for
+alternately supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen
+from the retorts. As is shown in the plan, two sets of apparatus are
+worked side by side at Westminster, the seventy-two retorts shown in
+the drawings being divided into two systems of thirty-six. Each system
+is fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the boiler. Each
+set of retorts consists of six rows of six retorts each, one row above
+the other. They are heated by a small Wilson's producer, so that the
+attendant can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain complete
+control over the temperature of the retorts. The retorts, A, are made
+of wrought iron and are about 10 ft long and 8 in. diameter.
+Experience, however, goes to prove that there is a limit to the
+diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become less
+satisfactory. This limit is probably somewhat under 8 in. Each retort
+is closely packed with baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut. The
+baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared by carefully
+igniting the nitrate of barium; and of this each retort having the
+above dimensions holds about 125 lb. The retorts so charged are closed
+at each end by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight. From
+the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe, B, connects each retort
+with the next of its series, so that air introduced into the end
+retort of any row may pass through the whole series of six retorts.
+Suppose now that the operations are to commence.
+
+The retorts are first heated to a temperature of about 600° C. or
+faint redness, then the air pumps, C C, are started. Air is drawn by
+them through the purifier, D, where it is freed from carbon dioxide
+and moisture by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which
+the purifier is charged. The air is then forced along the pipe, E,
+into the small air vessel, F, which acts as a sort of cushion to
+prevent the baryta in the retorts being disturbed by the pulsation of
+the pumps. From this vessel the air passes by the pipe, G, and is
+distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such a pressure
+that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed at the outlet registers
+about 15 lb. to the square inch. With the baryta so disposed in the
+retorts as to present as large a superficies as possible to the action
+of the air, it is found that in 1½ to 2 hours--during which time about
+12,000 cub. ft of air have been passed through the retorts--the gas at
+the outlet fails to extinguish a glowing chip, indicating that oxygen
+is no longer being absorbed. The pumping now ceases, and the
+temperature of the retorts is raised to about 800° C. The workman is
+able to judge the temperature with sufficient accuracy by means of the
+small inspection holes, H, fitted with panes of mica, through which
+the color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished. The pumps
+are now reversed and the process of exhaustion begins. At Westminster
+the pressure in the retorts is reduced to about 1½ in. of mercury. In
+this partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly, and if forced by
+the pumps through another pipe and away into an ordinary gas holder,
+where it is stored for use. With powerful pumps such as are used in
+the plant under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in an
+hour, and from one charge a yield of about 2,000 cub. ft. is obtained.
+With a less perfect vacuum the time is longer--even as much as four
+hours. The whole operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can
+be completed in from three to four hours. As soon as the evolution of
+oxygen is finished, the doors, K, and ventilators, L, may be opened
+and the retorts cooled for recharging.
+
+The cost of producing oxygen at Westminster, under specially expensive
+conditions, is high--about 12s. per 1,000 cub. ft. When we consider,
+however, that the cost should only embrace attendance, fuel, wear and
+tear, and a little lime and soda for the purifiers, that the
+consumption of fuel is small, the wear and tear light, and that the
+raw material--air--is obtained for nothing, it ought to be possible to
+produce the gas for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our
+great manufacturing centers, where the price of fuel is but a third of
+that demanded in London, and where provision could be made for
+economizing the waste heat, which is entirely lost in the Westminster
+installation. Moreover, in estimating this cost all the charges are
+thrown on the oxygen; were there any means of utilizing the 4,000 cub.
+ft. of nitrogen at present blown away as waste for every thousand
+cubic feet of oxygen produced, the nitrogen would of course bear its
+share of the cost.
+
+The question of the application of the oxygen is one which must be
+determined in its manifold bearings mainly by the experiments of
+chemists and scientific men engaged in industrial work. Having
+ascertained the method by which and the limit of cost within which it
+is possible to use oxygen in their work, it can be seen whether by
+Brin's process the gas can be obtained within that limit.
+
+Mr. S.R. Ogden, the manager of the corporation gasworks at Blackburn,
+has already made interesting experiments on the application of oxygen
+in the manufacture of illuminating gas. In order to purify coal gas
+from compounds of sulphur, it is passed through purifiers charged with
+layers of oxide of iron. When the oxide of iron has absorbed as much
+sulphur as it can combine with, it is described as "foul." It is then
+discharged and spread out in the open air, when, under the influence
+of the atmospheric oxygen, it is rapidly decomposed, the sulphur is
+separated out in the free state, and oxide of iron is reformed ready
+for use again in the purifiers. This process is called revivification,
+and it is repeated until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is
+so great (45 to 55 per cent.) that it can be profitably sold to the
+vitriol maker. Hawkins discovered that by introducing about 3 per
+cent. of air into the gas before passing it through the purifiers, the
+oxygen of the air introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as
+fast as it was absorbed. Thus the process of revivification could be
+carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously with the
+absorption of the sulphur impurities in the gas.
+
+A great saving of labor was thus effected, and also an economy in the
+use of the iron oxide, which in this way could be left in the
+purifiers until charged with 75 per cent. of sulphur. Unfortunately it
+was found that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen
+meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen, which materially
+reduced the illuminating power of the gas. To restore this
+illuminating power the gas had to be recarbureted, and this again
+meant cost in labor and material. Now, Mr. Ogden has found by a series
+of conclusive experiments made during a period of seventy-eight days
+upon a quantity of about 4,000,000 cub. ft. of gas, that by
+introducing 1 per cent. of oxygen into the gas instead of 3 per cent.
+of air, not only is the revivification _in situ_ effected more
+satisfactorily than with air, but at the same time the illuminating
+power of the gas, so far from being decreased, is actually increased
+by one candle unit.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.]
+
+So satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended the
+corporation to erect a plant for the production of oxygen at the
+Blackburn gas works, by which he estimates that the saving to the town
+on the year's make of gas will be something like £2,500. The practical
+observations of Mr. Ogden are being followed up by a series of
+exhaustive experiments by Mr. Valon, A.M. Inst. C.E., also a gas
+engineer. The make of an entire works at Westgate is being treated by
+him with oxygen. Mr. Valon has not yet published his report, as the
+experiments are not quite complete; but we understand that his results
+are even more satisfactory than those obtained at Blackburn.
+
+In conclusion we may indicate a few other of the numerous possible
+applications of cheap oxygen which might be realized in the near
+future. The greatest illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is
+obtained by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen, and
+holding in the flame of the burning mixture a piece of some solid
+infusible and non-volatile substance, such as lime. This becomes
+heated to whiteness, and emits an intense light know as the Drummond
+light, used already for special purposes of illumination. By supplying
+oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary gas mains, it would
+be possible to fix small Drummond lights in place of the gas burners
+now used in houses; this would greatly reduce the consumption of gas
+and increase the light obtained, or even render possible the
+employment of cheap non-illuminating combustible gases other than coal
+gas for the purpose.
+
+Two obstacles at present lie in the way of this consummation--the cost
+of the oxygen and the want of a convenient and completely refractory
+material to take the place of the lime. Messrs. Brin believe they have
+overcome the first obstacle, and are addressing themselves, we
+believe, to the removal of the second. Again, the intense heat which
+the combustion of carbon in cheap oxygen will place at the disposal of
+the metallurgist cannot fail to play an important part in his
+operations. There are many processes, too, of metal refining which
+ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas. Then the production of
+pure metallic oxides for the manufacture of paints, the bleaching of
+oils and fats, the reduction of refractory ores of the precious metals
+on a large scale, the conversion of iron into steel, and numberless
+other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk is in the
+byways of applied chemistry, should all profit by the employment of
+this energetic agent. Doubtless, too, the investigation into methods
+of producing the compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant
+foods, and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of the
+mineral world, may be stimulated by the fact that there is available
+by Brin's process a cheap and inexhaustible supply of pure
+nitrogen.--_Industries._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH DISINFECTING APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED DISINFECTING APPARATUS.]
+
+We represent herewith a sanitary train that was very successfully used
+during the prevalence of an epidemic of _sudor Anglicus_ in Poitou
+this year. It consisted of a movable stove and a boiler. In reality,
+to save time, such agricultural locomotives as could be found were
+utilized; but hereafter, apparatus like those shown in the engraving,
+and which are specially constructed to accompany the stoves, will be
+employed. We shall quote from a communication made by Prof. Brouardel
+to the Academy of Medicine on this subject, at its session of
+September 13:
+
+In the country we can never think of disinfecting houses with
+sulphurous acid, as the peasants often have but a single room, in
+which the beds of the entire family are congregated. Every one knows
+that the agglomerations that compose the same department are often
+distant from each other and the chief town by from two to three miles
+or more. This is usually the case in the departments of Vienne, Haute
+Vienne, Indre, etc. To find a disinfecting place in the chief town of
+the department is still difficult, and to find one in each of the
+hamlets is absolutely impossible. Families in which there are invalids
+are obliged to carry clothing and bedding to the chief town to be
+disinfected, and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four
+hours. This is not an easy thing to do.
+
+It is easy to understand what difficulties must be met with in many
+cases, and so one has to be content to prescribe merely washing, and
+bleaching with lime--something that is simple and everywhere accepted,
+but insufficient. So, then, disinfection with sulphurous acid, which
+is easy in large cities, as was taught by the cholera epidemics of
+last year, is often difficult in the country. The objection has always
+be made to it, too, that it is of doubtful efficacy. It is not for us
+to examine this question here, but there is no doubt that damp steam
+alone, under pressure, effects a perfect disinfection, and that if
+this mode of disinfection could be applied in the rural districts (as
+it can be easily done in cities), the public health would be better
+protected in case of an epidemic.
+
+In cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always be arranged;
+but in the country movable ones are necessary. From instructions given
+by Prof. Brouardel, Messrs. Geneste & Herscher have solved the problem
+of constructing such stoves in a few days, and four have been put at
+the disposal of the mission.
+
+Dr. Thoinot, who directed this mission, in order to make an experiment
+with these apparatus, selected two points in which cases of _sudor_
+were still numerous, and in which the conditions were entirely
+different, and permitted of studying the working of the service and
+apparatus under various phases. One of these points was Dorat, chief
+town of Haute Vienne, a locality with a crowded population and
+presenting every desirable resource; and the other was the commune of
+Mauvieres, in Indre, where the population was scattered through
+several hamlets.
+
+The first stove was operated at Dorat, on the 29th of June, and the
+second at Mauvieres, on the 1st of July. A gendarme accompanied the
+stove in all its movements and remained with it during the
+disinfecting experiments. The Dorat stove was operated on the 29th of
+June and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July. On the 30th of June it proceeded
+to disinfect the commune of Darnac. The Mauvieres stove, in the first
+place, disinfected the chief town of this commune on the 1st of July,
+and on the next day it was taken to Poulets, a small hamlet, and a
+dependent of the commune of Mauvieres. All the linen and all the
+clothing of the sick of this locality, which had been the seat of
+_sudor_, especially infantile, was disinfected. On the 4th of July,
+the stove went to Concremiers, a commune about three miles distant,
+and there finished up the disinfection that until then had been
+performed in the ordinary way.
+
+The epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at this epoch; but we
+judge that the test of the stoves was sufficient.
+
+We are able to advance the following statement boldly: For the
+application of disinfection in the rural districts, the movable stove
+is the most practical thing that we know of. It is easily used, can be
+taken to the smallest hamlets, and can be transported over the
+roughest roads. It inspires peasants with no distrust. The first
+repugnance is easily overcome, and every one, upon seeing that objects
+come from the stove unharmed, soon hastens to bring to it all the
+contaminated linen, etc., that he has in the house.
+
+Further, we may add that the disinfection is accomplished in a quarter
+of an hour, and that it therefore keeps the peasant but a very short
+time from his work--an advantage that is greatly appreciated. Finally,
+a day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement
+completely. Upon the whole, disinfection by the stove under
+consideration is the only method that can always and everywhere be
+carried out.
+
+We believe that it is called upon to render the greatest services in
+the future.
+
+The movable stove, regarding which Prof. Brouardel expresses himself
+in the above terms, consists of a cylindrical chamber, 3½ feet in
+internal diameter and 5 feet in length, closed in front by a
+hermetically jointed door. This cylinder, which constitutes the
+disinfection chamber, is mounted upon wheels and is provided with
+shafts, so that it can easily be hauled by a horse or mule. The
+cylinder is of riveted iron plate, and is covered with a wooden
+jacket. The door is provided with a flange that enters a rubber lined
+groove in the cylinder, and to it are riveted wrought iron forks that
+receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the cylinder. The nuts are
+screwed up tight, and the flange of the door, compressing the rubber
+lining, renders the joint hermetical. The door, which is hinged, is
+provided with a handle, which, when the stove is closed, slides over
+an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder.
+
+The steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through a rubber tube
+provided with a threaded coupling. The entrance of the steam is
+regulated by a cock. The box is provided with a safety and pressure
+gauge and a small pinge cock. In the interior of the stove the
+entrance of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper screen, which
+is situated at the upper part and preserves the objects under
+treatment from drops of water of condensation. These latter fall here
+and there from the screen, follow the sides of the cylinder, and
+collect at the bottom, from whence they are drawn off through a cock
+placed in the rear.
+
+The sides are lined internally with wood, which prevents the objects
+to be infected from coming into contact with the metal. The objects to
+be treated are placed upon wire cloth shelves. The pinge cock likewise
+serves for drawing off the air or steam contained in the apparatus.
+
+The stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium of two
+angle irons riveted longitudinally upon the cylinder. The axle is
+cranked, and its wheels, which are of wood, are 4½ feet in diameter.
+The shafts are fixed to the angle irons. The apparatus is, in
+addition, provided with a seat, a brake, and prop rods before and
+behind to keep it horizontal when in operation.
+
+The boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is mounted upon
+four wheels. It is jacketed with wood, and is provided with a water
+level, two gauge cocks, a pressure gauge, two spring safety valves, a
+steam cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with that of the
+stove, an ash pan, and a smoke stack. In the rear there are two
+cylindrical water reservoirs that communicate with each other, and are
+designed to feed the boiler through an injector. Beneath these
+reservoirs there is a fuel box. In front there is a seat whose box
+serves to hold tools and various other objects.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.
+
+
+We abstract the following from a paper on electric lighting by Prof.
+J.A. Fleeming, read before the Iron and Steel Institute, Manchester.
+The illustration is from _Engineering_.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.]
+
+One of the questions which most frequently occurs in reference to mill
+and factory lighting is whether the factory engines can be used to run
+the dynamo. As a broad, general rule, there can be no question that
+the best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo engine,
+controlled by a good governor, set apart for that purpose. With an
+ordinary shunt dynamo, the speed ought not to vary more than 2 or 3
+per cent. of its normal value on either side of that value. Hence, if
+a dynamo has a normal speed of 1,000, it should certainly not vary
+over a greater range than from 970 to 980 to 1,020 to 1,030. In many
+cases there may be shafting from which the necessary power can be
+taken, and of which the speed is variable only within these limits.
+There are several devices by which it has been found possible to
+enable a dynamo to maintain a constant electromotive force, even if
+the speed of rotation varies over considerable limits. One of these is
+that (see illustration) due to Messrs. Trotter & Ravenshaw, and
+applicable to shunt or series machines.
+
+In the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable resistance.
+This resistance is thrown in or out by means of a motor device
+actuated by an electromotive force indicator. A plunger of soft iron
+is suspended from a spring, and hangs within a solenoid of wire, which
+solenoid is in connection with the terminals of the dynamo. Any
+increase or diminution of the electromotive force causes this iron to
+move in or out of the core, and its movement is made to connect or
+disconnect the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance
+with a shaft driven by the engine itself. The principle of the
+apparatus is therefore that small variations of electromotive force
+are made to vary inversely the strength of the magnetic field through
+the intervention of a relay mechanism in which the power required to
+effect the movement is tapped from the engine.
+
+With the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive a dynamo from
+a mill shaft providing the requisite power, but of which the speed of
+rotation is not sufficiently uniform to secure alone efficient
+regulation of electromotive force. Another device, patented by Mr.
+Crompton, is a modification of that method of field magnet winding
+commonly known as compound winding. The field magnets are wound over
+with two wires, one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as
+a shunt, and the other of which has a low resistance and is arranged
+in series. Instead, however, of the magnetizing powers of these coils
+being united in the same direction as an ordinary compound winding,
+they are opposed to one another. That is to say, the current in the
+shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field magnets in an
+opposite direction to that of the series wire. It results from this
+that any slight increase of speed diminishes the strength of the
+magnetic field, and _vice versa_. Accordingly, within certain limits,
+the electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of the speed of
+rotation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE TRACTIVE ADHESION OF
+RAILWAY MOTORS AND OTHER ROLLING CONTACTS.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Read before the American Association for the
+  Advancement of Science. New York meeting, 1887.]
+
+By ELIAS E. RIES.
+
+
+The object of this paper is to lay before you the results of some
+recent experiments in a comparatively new field of operation, but one
+that, judging from the results already attained, is destined to become
+of great importance and value in its practical application to various
+branches of industry.
+
+I say "comparatively new" because the underlying principles involved
+in the experiments referred to have, to a certain extent, been
+employed (in, however, a somewhat restricted sense) for purposes
+analogous to those that form the basis of this communication.
+
+As indicated by the title, the subject that will now occupy our
+attention is the use of the electric current as a means of increasing
+and varying the frictional adhesion of rolling contacts and other
+rubbing surfaces, and it is proposed to show how this effect may be
+produced, both by means of the direct action of the current itself and
+by its indirect action through the agency of electro-magnetism.
+
+Probably the first instance in which the electric current was directly
+employed to vary the amount of friction between two rubbing surfaces
+was exemplified in Edison's electro-motograph, in which the variations
+in the strength of a telephonic current caused corresponding
+variations in friction between a revolving cylinder of moistened chalk
+and the free end of an adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity
+was attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone. This device
+was extremely sensitive to the least changes in current strength, and
+if it were not for the complication introduced by the revolving
+cylinder, it is very likely that it would to-day be more generally
+used.
+
+It has also been discovered more recently that in the operation of
+electric railways in which the track rails form part of the circuit, a
+considerable increase in the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels
+is manifested, due to the passage of the return current from the
+wheels into the track. In the Baltimore and Hampden electric railway,
+using the Daft "third rail" system, this increased tractive adhesion
+enables the motors to ascend without slipping a long grade of 350 feet
+to the mile, drawing two heavily loaded cars, which result, it is
+claimed, is not attainable by steam or other self-propelling motors of
+similar weight. In the two instances just cited the conditions are
+widely different, as regards the nature of the current employed, the
+mechanical properties of the surfaces in contact, and the electrical
+resistance and the working conditions of the respective circuits. In
+both, however, as clearly demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter
+referred to, the cause of the increased friction is substantially the
+same.
+
+In order to ascertain the practical value of the electric current as a
+means of increasing mechanical friction, and, if possible, render it
+commercially and practically useful wherever such additional friction
+might be desirable, as for example in the transmission of power, etc.,
+a series of experiments were entered into by the author, which, though
+not yet fully completed, are sufficiently advanced to show that an
+electric current, when properly applied, is capable of very materially
+increasing the mechanical friction of rotating bodies, in some cases
+as much as from 50 to 100 per cent., with a very economical
+expenditure of current; this increase depending upon the nature of the
+substances in contact and being capable of being raised by an
+increased flow of current.
+
+Before entering into a description of the means by which this result
+is produced, and how it is proposed to apply this method practically
+to railway and other purposes, it may be well to give a general
+outline of what has so far been determined. These experiments have
+shown that the coefficient of friction between two conducting surfaces
+is very much increased by the passage therethrough of an electric
+current of _low electromotive force and large volume_, and this is
+especially noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral
+contact with each other, or between a rolling and a stationary
+surface, as in the case of a driving wheel running upon a railway
+rail. This effect increases with the number of amperes of current
+flowing through the circuit, of which the two surfaces form part, and
+is not materially affected by the electromotive force, so long as the
+latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical resistance of the
+circuit. This increase in frictional adhesion is principally
+noticeable in iron, steel, and other metallic bodies, and is due to a
+molecular change in the conducting substances at their point of
+contact (which is also the point of greatest resistance in the
+circuit), caused by the heat developed at that point. This heat is
+ordinarily imperceptible, and becomes apparent only when the current
+strength is largely augmented. It is therefore probable that a portion
+of this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the current
+itself aside from its heating effect, although I have not as yet been
+able to ascertain this definitely. The most economical and efficient
+results have been obtained by the employment of a transformed current
+of extremely low electromotive force (between ½ and 1 volt), but of
+very large volume or quantity, this latter being variable at will, so
+as to obtain different degrees of frictional resistance in the
+substances under observation.
+
+These experiments were originally directed mainly toward an endeavor
+to increase the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels of locomotives
+and other vehicles, and to utilize the electric current for this
+purpose in such a manner as to render it entirely safe, practical, and
+economical. It will be apparent at once that a method of increasing
+the tractive power of the present steam locomotives by more than 50
+per cent. without adding to their weight and without injury to the
+roadbed and wheel tires, such as is caused by the sand now commonly
+used, would prove of considerable value, and the same holds true with
+respect to electrically propelled street cars, especially as it has
+been found exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive
+adhesion on street railways during the winter season, as well as at
+other times, on roads having grades of more than ordinary steepness.
+As this, therefore, is probably the most important use for this
+application of the electric current, it has been selected for
+illustrating this paper.
+
+I have here a model car and track arranged to show the equipment and
+operation of the system as applied to railway motors. The current in
+the present instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted
+by this transformer into one having the required volume. The
+electromotive force of this secondary current is somewhat higher than
+is necessary. In practice it would be about half a volt. You will
+notice upon a closer inspection that one of the forward driving wheels
+is insulated from its axle, and the transformed current, after passing
+to a regulating switch under the control of the engineer or driver,
+goes to this insulated wheel, from which it enters the track rail,
+then through the rear pair of driving wheels and axles to the opposite
+rail, and then flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel, from
+the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush to the opposite
+terminal of the secondary coil of the transformer. Thus the current is
+made to flow _seriatim_ through all four of the driving wheels,
+completing its circuit through that portion of the rails lying between
+the two axles, and generating a sufficient amount of heat at each
+point of contact to produce the molecular change before referred to.
+By means of the regulating switch the engineer can control the amount
+of current flowing at any time, and can even increase its strength to
+such an extent, in wet or slippery weather, as to _evaporate any
+moisture_ that may adhere to the surface of the rails at the point of
+contact with the wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under
+full speed.
+
+It will be apparent that inasmuch as the "traction circuit" moves
+along with the locomotive, and is complete through its driving wheel
+base, the track rails in front and rear of the same are at all times
+entirely free from current, _and no danger whatever can occur by
+coming in contact with the rails between successive motors_. Moreover,
+the potential used in the present arrangement, while sufficient to
+overcome the extremely low resistance of the moving circuit, is too
+small to cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion of the
+rails in circuit, even under the most unfavorable conditions of the
+weather. In practice the primary current necessary is preferably
+generated by a small high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive,
+the current being converted by means of an inductional transformer. To
+avoid the necessity for electrically bridging the rail joints, a
+modified arrangement may be employed, in which the electrical
+connection is made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and
+rear driving axles, the current dividing itself in parallel between
+the two rails in such a manner that, if a defective joint exists in
+the rail at one side, the circuit is still complete through the rail
+on the other; and as the rails usually break joints on opposite sides,
+this arrangement is found very effective. The insulation of the
+driving wheels is very easily effected in either case.
+
+As the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced depends upon
+the _quantity_ of current flowing rather than upon its pressure, the
+reason for transforming the current as described will be apparent, and
+its advantages over a direct current of higher tension and less
+quantity, both from an economical and practical standpoint, will for
+this reason be clear. The amount of heat produced at the point of
+contact between the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure
+or otherwise affect them, although it may be quite possible to
+increase the current sufficiently to produce a very considerable
+heating effect. The amount of current sent through the traction
+circuit will of course vary with the requirements, and as the extent
+to which the resistance to slipping may be increased is very great,
+this method is likely to prove of considerable value. While in some
+cases the use of such a method of increasing the tractive power of
+locomotives would be confined to ascending gradients and the movement
+of exceptionally heavy loads, in others it would prove useful as a
+_constant_ factor in the work of transportation. In cases like that of
+the New York elevated railway system, where the traffic during certain
+hours is much beyond the capacity of the trains, and the structure
+unable to support the weight of heavier engines, a system like that
+just described would prove of very great benefit, as it would easily
+enable the present engines to draw two or three additional cars with
+far less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical
+friction alone, at a cost for tractive current that is insignificant
+compared to the advantages gained. Other cases may be cited in which
+this method of increasing friction will probably be found useful,
+aside from its application to railway purposes, but these will
+naturally suggest themselves and need not be further dwelt upon.
+
+In the course of the experiments above described, another and somewhat
+different method of increasing the traction of railway motors has been
+devised, which is more particularly adapted to electric motors for
+street railways, and is intended to be used in connection with a
+system of electric street railways now being developed by the author.
+In this system _electro-magnetism_ provides the means whereby the
+increase in tractive adhesion is produced, and this result is attained
+in an entirely novel manner. Several attempts have heretofore been
+made to utilize magnetism for this purpose, but apparently without
+success, chiefly because of the crude and imperfect manner in which
+most of these attempts have been carried out.
+
+The present system owes its efficiency to the formation of _a complete
+and constantly closed magnetic circuit_, moving with the vehicle and
+completed through the two driving axles, wheels, and that portion of
+the track rails lying between the two pairs of wheels, in a manner
+similar to that employed in the electrical method before shown. We
+have here a model of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus,
+mounted on a section of track and provided with means for measuring
+the amount of tractive force exerted both with and without the passage
+of the current.
+
+You will notice that each axle of the motor car is wound with a helix
+of insulated wire, the helices in the present instance being divided
+to permit the attachment to the axles of the motor connections. The
+helices on both axles are so connected that, when energized, they
+induce magnetic lines of force that flow in the same direction through
+the magnetic circuit. There are, therefore, four points at which the
+circuit is maintained closed by the rolling wheels, and as the
+resistance to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these
+points, the magnetic saturation there is more intense, and produces
+the most effective result just where it is most required. Now, when
+the battery circuit is closed through the helices, it will be observed
+that the torque, or pull, exerted by the motor car is fully twice that
+exerted by the motor with the traction circuit open, and, by
+increasing the battery current until the saturation point of the iron
+is reached, the tractive force is _increased nearly 200 per cent._, as
+shown by the dynamometer. A large portion of this resistance to the
+slipping or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to
+direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and track, this
+attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic saturation and the
+relative mass of metal involved.
+
+But by far the greatest proportion of the increased friction is purely
+the result of the change in position of the iron molecules due to the
+well known action of magnetism, which causes a direct and close
+_interlocking action_, so to speak, between the molecules of the two
+surfaces in contact. This may be illustrated by drawing a very thin
+knife blade over the poles of an ordinary electro-magnet, first with
+the current on and then off.
+
+In the model before you, the helices are fixed firmly to, and revolve
+with, the axles, the connections being maintained by brushes bearing
+upon contact rings at each end of the helices. If desired, however,
+the axles may revolve loosely within the helices, and instead of the
+latter being connected for cumulative effects, they may be arranged in
+other ways so as to produce either subsequent or opposing magnetic
+forces, leaving certain portions of the circuit neutral and
+concentrating the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable.
+Such a disposition will prove of advantage in some cases.
+
+The amount of current required to obtain this increased adhesion in
+practice is extremely small, and may be entirely neglected when
+compared to the great benefits derived. The system is very simple and
+inexpensive, and the amount of traction secured is entirely within the
+control of the motor man, as in the electric system. It will be seen
+that the car here will not, with the traction circuit open, propel
+itself up hill when one end of the track is raised more than 5 inches
+above the table; but with the circuit energized it will readily ascend
+the track as you now see it, with one end about 13½, inches above the
+other in a length of three feet, _or the equivalent of a 40 per cent.
+grade_; and this could be increased still further if the motor had
+power enough to propel itself against the force of gravity on a
+steeper incline. As you will notice, the motor adheres very firmly to
+the track and requires a considerable push to force it down this 40
+per cent. grade, whereas with the traction circuit open it slips down
+in very short order, notwithstanding the efforts of the driving
+mechanism to propel it up.
+
+The resistance of the helices on this model is less than two ohms, and
+this will scarcely be exceeded when applied to a full sized car, the
+current from two or three cells of secondary batteries being probably
+sufficient to energize them.
+
+The revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not interfered with
+in the slightest, because in the former the axle boxes are outside the
+path of the lines of force, and in the case of the latter because each
+wheel practically forms a single pole piece, and in revolving presents
+continuously a new point of contact, of the same polarity, to the
+rail; the flow of the lines of force being most intense through the
+lower half of the wheels, and on a perpendicular line connecting the
+center of the axle with the rail. In winter all that is necessary is
+to provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning the track
+rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to make good contact
+therewith, and any tendency to slipping or skidding may be effectually
+checked. By this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive
+adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from 50 to 100 per cent.,
+without any increase in the load or weight upon the track; for it must
+be remembered that even that portion of the increased friction due to
+direct attraction does not increase the weight upon the roadbed, as
+this attraction is mutual between the wheels and track rails; and if
+this car and track were placed upon a scale and the circuit closed, it
+would not weigh a single ounce more than with the circuit open.
+
+It is obvious that this increase in friction between two moving
+surfaces can also be applied to _check_, as well as augment, the
+tractive power of a car or train of cars, and I have shown in
+connection with this model a system of braking that is intended to be
+used in conjunction with the electro-magnetic traction system just
+described. You will have noticed that in the experiments with the
+traction circuit the brake shoes here have remained idle; that is to
+say, they have not been attracted to the magnetized wheels. This is
+because a portion of the traction current has been circulating around
+this coil on the iron brake beam, inducing in the brake shoes
+magnetism of like polarity to that in the wheels to which they apply.
+They have therefore been _repelled_ from the wheel tires instead of
+being attracted to them. Suppose now that it is desired to stop the
+motor car; instead of opening the traction circuit, the current
+flowing through the helices is simply reversed by means of this pole
+changing switch, whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite
+direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to the wheels with a
+very great pressure, as the current in the helices and brake coil now
+assist each other in setting up a very strong magnetic flow,
+sufficient to bring the motor car almost to an instant stop, if
+desired.
+
+The same tractive force that has previously been applied to increase
+the tractive adhesion now exercises its influence upon the brake shoes
+and wheels, with the result of not only causing a very powerful
+pressure between the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction, but
+offering an extremely large frictional resistance in virtue of the
+molecular interlocking action before referred to. As shown in the
+present instance, a portion of the current still flows through the
+traction circuit and prevents the skidding of the wheels.
+
+The method thus described is equally applicable to increase the
+coefficient of friction in apparatus for the transmission of power,
+its chief advantage for this purpose being the ease and facility with
+which the amount of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit
+different requirements, or increased and diminished (either
+automatically or manually) according to the nature of the work being
+done. With soft iron contact surfaces the variation in friction is
+very rapid and sensitive to slight changes in current strength, and
+this fact may prove of value in connection with its application to
+regulating and measuring apparatus. In all cases the point to be
+observed is to maintain a closed magnetic circuit of low resistance
+through the two or more surfaces the friction of which it is desired
+to increase, and the same rule holds good with respect to the electric
+system, except that in the latter case the best effects are obtained
+when the area of surface in contact is smallest.
+
+For large contact areas the magnetic system is found to be most
+economical, and this system might possibly be used to advantage to
+prevent slipping of short wire ropes and belts upon their driving
+pulleys, in cases where longer belts are inapplicable as in the
+driving of dynamos and other machinery. Experiments have also been,
+and are still being, made with the object of increasing friction by
+means of permanent magnetism, and also with a view to _diminishing_
+the friction of revolving and other moving surfaces, the results of
+which will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent paper.
+
+Enough has been said to indicate that the development of these two
+methods of increasing mechanical friction opens up a new and extensive
+field of operation, and enables electricity to score another important
+point in the present age of progress. The great range and flexibility
+of this method peculiarly adapt it to the purposes we have considered
+and to numerous others that will doubtless suggest themselves to you.
+Its application to the increase of the tractive adhesion of railway
+motors is probably its most prominent and valuable feature at present,
+and is calculated to act as an important stimulus to the practical
+introduction of electric railways on our city streets, inasmuch as the
+claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect are now no
+longer exclusively its own. On trunk line railways the use of sand and
+other objectionable traction-increasing appliances will be entirely
+dispensed with, and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater
+speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger of derailment.
+Their tractive power can be nearly doubled without any increase in
+weight, enabling them to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper
+grades without imposing additional weight or strain upon bridges and
+other parts of the roadbed. Inertia of heavy trains can be more
+readily overcome, loss of time due to slippery tracks obviated, and
+the momentum of the train at full speed almost instantly checked by
+_one and the same means_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRIC LAUNCH.
+
+
+Trials have been made at Havre with an electric launch built to the
+order of the French government by the Forges et Chantiers de la
+Mediterranée. The vessel, which has rather full lines, measures 28 ft.
+between perpendiculars and 9 ft. beam, and is 5 tons register.
+
+The electromotor is the invention of Captain Krebs, who is already
+well known on account of his experiments in connection with navigable
+balloons, and of M. De Zédé, naval architect. The propeller shaft is
+not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor, but is geared to
+it by spur wheels in the ratio of 1 to 3, in order to allow of the
+employment of a light high-speed motor. The latter makes 850
+revolutions per minute, and develops 12 horse power when driving the
+screw at 280 revolutions. Current is supplied by a new type of
+accumulators made by Messrs. Commelin & Desmazures. One hundred and
+thirty two of these accumulators are fitted in the bottom of the boat,
+the total weight being about 2 tons.
+
+In ordering this boat the French government stipulated a speed of 6
+knots to be maintained during three hours with an expenditure of 10
+horse power. The result of the trials gave a speed of 6½ knots during
+five hours with 12 horse power, and sufficient charge was left in the
+accumulators to allow the boat to travel on the following day for four
+hours. This performance is exceedingly good, since it shows that one
+horse power hour has been obtained with less than 60 lb. of total
+weight of battery.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.
+
+
+Leveling the ground, pulling down old buildings, and distributing
+light and air through her wide streets, Paris is slowly and
+continuously pursuing her transformation. At this moment it is an
+entire district, and not one of the least curious ones, that is
+disappearing, leaving no other trace of its existence than the
+circular walls that once inclosed the wheat market.
+
+It is this building that, metamorphosed, is to become the Commercial
+Exchange that has been so earnestly demanded since 1880 by the
+commerce of Paris. The question, which was simple in the first place,
+and consisted in the conversion of the wheat market into a commercial
+exchange, became complicated by a project of enlarging the markets. It
+therefore became necessary to take possession, on the one hand, of
+sixty seven estates, of a total area of 116,715 square feet, to clear
+the exchange, and, on the other, of 49,965 square feet to clear the
+central markets. In other words, out of $5,000,000 voted by the common
+council for this work, $2,800,000 are devoted to the dispossessions
+necessitated by the new exchange, $1,800,000 to those necessitated by
+the markets, and $400,000 are appropriated to the wheat market.
+
+The work of demolition began last spring, and the odd number side of
+Orleans street, Deux-Ecus street, from this latter to J.J. Rousseau
+street, Babille street, Mercier street, and Sortine street, now no
+longer exist. All this part is to-day but a desert, in whose center
+stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola. It is on these
+grounds that will be laid out the prolongation of Louvre street in a
+straight line to Coquilliere street.
+
+Our engraving shows the present state of the work. What is seen of the
+wheat market will be preserved and utilized by Mr. Blondeau, the
+architect, who has obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to
+construct two edifices on two plots of an area of 32,220 square feet,
+fronting on Louvre street, and which will bring the city an annual
+rent of $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.]
+
+Around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular wall 6½ feet
+in thickness. Mr. Blondeau has torn this down, and is now building
+another one appropriate to the new destination of the acquired
+estates. As for the trussing of the cupola, that is considered as a
+work of art, and care has been taken not to touch it. It was
+constructed at the beginning of this century, at an epoch when nothing
+but rudimentary tools were to be had for working iron, and it was, so
+to speak, forged. All the pieces were made with the hammer and were
+added one to the other in succession. This cupola will be glazed at
+the upper part, while the lower part will be covered with zinc. In the
+interior this part will be decorated with allegorical paintings
+representing the five divisions of the globe, with their commercial
+and industrial attributes. It was feared at one time that the hall, to
+which admission will be free, would not afford sufficient space, and
+the halls of the Bordeaux and Havre exchanges were cited. It is true
+that the hall of the wheat market has an area of but 11,825 square
+feet, but on utilizing the 5,000 feet of the circular gallery, which
+will not be occupied, it will reach 16,825 feet.
+
+As for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice, that was
+built by Marie de Medici for the astrologer whom she brought with her
+to Paris from Florence. On account of its historic interest, this
+structure will be preserved. On either side of this tower, overlooking
+the roofs of the neighboring dwellings, are perceived the summit of a
+tower of St. Eustache church and a campanile of a pavilion of the
+markets.--_L'Illustration._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE.
+
+
+Cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the _Erythroxylon
+coca_, which grows in the valleys of the East Cordilleras of South
+America--i.e., in the interior of Peru and Bolivia. The fresh leaves
+contain 0.003 to 0.006 per cent of cocaine, which percentage decreases
+considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time before being
+worked up. On the other hand, the alkaloid can be transported and kept
+without decomposition. This circumstance caused the author to devise a
+simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on the spot,
+neither Peru nor Bolivia being suitable countries for complicated
+chemical operations. After many experiments, he hit upon the following
+plan: The disintegrated coca leaves are digested at 70° C. in closed
+vessels for two hours, with a very weak solution of sodium hydrate and
+petroleum (boiling between 200° and 250° C). The mass is filtered,
+pressed while still tepid, and the filtrate allowed to stand until the
+oil has completely separated from the aqueous solution. The oil is
+drawn off and carefully neutralized with very weak hydrochloric acid.
+A white bulky precipitate of cocaine hydrochloride is obtained,
+together with an aqueous solution of the same compound, while the
+petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for the extraction
+of a fresh batch of leaves. The precipitate is dried, and by
+concentrating the aqueous solution a further quantity of the
+hydrochloride is obtained. Both can be shipped without risk of
+decomposition. The product is not quite pure, but contains some
+hygrine, traces of gum and other matters. Its percentage of alkaloid
+is 75 per cent., while chemically pure cocaine hydrochloride
+(C_{17}H_{21}NO_{4}.2HCl) contains 80.6 per cent. of the alkaloid. The
+sodium hydrate solution cannot be replaced by milk of lime, nor can
+any other acid be used for neutralization. Alcohol or ether are not
+suitable for extraction. A repetition of the process with
+once-extracted coca leaves gave no further quantity of cocaine,
+proving that all the cocaine goes into solution by one treatment. The
+same process serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca
+leaves. 100 grms. of coca leaves are digested in a flask with 400 c.c.
+of water, 50 c.c. of 1/10 NaOH (10 grms. of NaOH in 100 c.c.) and 250
+c.c. of petroleum. The flask is loosely covered and warmed on the
+water bath for two hours, shaking it from to time. The mass is then
+filtered, the residue pressed, and the filtrate allowed to separate in
+two layers. The oil layer is run into a bottle and titrated back with
+1/100 HCl (1 grm. of HCl in 100 c.c.) until exactly neutral. The
+number of c.c. of hydrochloric acid required for titrating back
+multiplied by 0.42 gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample. The
+following are some of the results with different samples of coca
+leaves of various age:
+
+                                            Contained per cent.
+                                                 of Cocaine.
+  Coca leaves from Mapiri, 1 month old             0.5% \
+  "       "    "   Yungas    "     "               0.5%  |
+  "       "    "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |
+                          6 months old             0.4%  |    Of the
+  "       "    "   Cuzco (Peru)                          |_ weight of
+                          6 months old             0.3%  |   the dry
+  "       "    "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |   leaves.
+                          1 year old               0.3%  |
+  "      "     "   Cuzco  " "    "                 0.2%  |
+  "      "     "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |
+                          2 years old              0.15%/
+
+Coca leaves from Yungas and Cuzco, three years old, contained no trace
+of the alkaloid, whereas fresh green leaves from Yungas contained 0.7
+per cent. of the weight of the dry leaves. The same process is also
+applicable for the manufacture of quinine from poor quinine bark, with
+the single alteration that weak sulphuric acid must be used for the
+neutralization of the alkaline petroleum extract.--_H.T. Pfeiffer,
+Chem. Zeit. 11._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9941.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT FORMS.[1]
+
+By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT.
+
+
+The succession of plants from the lower to the higher forms will be
+reviewed superficially, and chemical compounds noted where they
+appear.
+
+When the germinating spores of the fungi, _myxomycetes_, rupture their
+walls and become masses of naked protoplasm, they are known as
+plasmodia. The plasmodium _Æthalium septicum_ occurs in moist places,
+on heaps of tan or decaying barks. It is a soft, gelatinous mass of
+yellowish color, sometimes measuring several inches in length.
+
+The plasmodium[2] has been chemically analyzed, though not in a state
+of absolute purity. The table of Reinke and Rodewold gives an idea of
+its proximate constitution.
+
+Many of the constituents given are always present in the living cells
+of higher plants. It cannot be too emphatically stated that where
+"biotic" force is manifested, these colloidal or albuminous compounds
+are found.
+
+The simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated individual, all
+of its functions being performed indifferently by all parts of its
+protoplasm.
+
+The chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely composed of
+complex albuminous substances, and correlated with this structureless
+body are other compounds derived from them. Aside from the chemical
+substances which are always present in living matter, and are
+essential properties of protoplasm, we find no other compounds. In the
+higher organisms, where these functions are not performed
+indifferently, specialization of tissues is accompanied by many other
+kinds of bodies.
+
+The algæ are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale than the
+undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium. The simple _Alga
+protococcus_[3] may be regarded as a simple cell. All higher plants
+are masses of cells, varying in form, function, and chemical
+composition.
+
+A typical living cell may be described as composed of a cell wall and
+contents. The cell wall is a firm, elastic membrane closed on all
+sides, and consists mainly of cellulose, water, and inorganic
+constituents. The contents consist of a semi-fluid colloidal
+substance, lying in contact with the inner surface of the membrane,
+and, like it, closed on all sides. This always is composed of
+albuminous substances. In the higher plants, at least, a nucleus
+occurs embedded in it; a watery liquid holding salts and saccharine
+substances in solution fills the space called the vacuole, inclosed by
+the protoplasm.
+
+These simple plants may be seen as actively moving cells or as
+non-motile cells. The former consist of a minute mass of protoplasm,
+granular and mostly colored green, but clear and colorless at the more
+pointed end, and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments
+called cilia. After moving actively for a time they come to rest,
+acquire a spherical form, and invest themselves with a firm membrane
+of cellulose. This firm, outer membrane of the _Protococcus_
+accompanies a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of
+function than is found in the plasmodium.
+
+_Hæatococcus_ and plasmodium come under the classes algæ and fungi of
+the Thallothyta group. The division[4] of this group into two classes
+is based upon the presence of chlorophyl in algæ and its absence in
+fungi. Gelatinous starch is found in the algæ; the fungi contain a
+starchy substance called glycogen, which also occurs in the liver and
+muscles of animals. Structureless bodies, as _æthalium_, contain no
+true sugar. Stratified starch[5] first appears in the phanerogams.
+Alkaloids have been found in fungi, and owe their presence doubtless
+to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies.
+
+In addition to the green coloring matter in algæ are found other
+coloring matters.[6] The nature[7] of these coloring matters is
+usually the same through whole families, which also resemble each
+other in their modes of reproduction.
+
+In form, the algæ differ greatly from filaments or masses of cells;
+they live in the water and cover damp surfaces of rocks and wood. In
+these they are remarkable for their ramifications and colors and grow
+to a gigantic size.
+
+The physiological functions of algæ and fungi depend upon their
+chemical differences.
+
+These facts have been offered, simple as they are, as striking
+examples of chemical and structural opposition.
+
+The fungi include very simple organisms, as well as others of
+tolerably high development, of most varied form, from the simple
+bacillus and yeast to the truffle, lichens, and mushrooms.
+
+The cell membrane of this class contains no pure cellulose, but a
+modification called fungus cellulose. The membrane also contains an
+amyloid substance, amylomycin.[8] Many of the chemical constituents
+found in the entire class are given in _Die Pflanzenstoffe_.[9]
+
+Under the _Schizomycetes_ to which the _Micrococcus_ and
+_Bacterium_[10] belong are found minute organisms differing much in
+form and in the coloring[11] matters they produce, as that causing the
+red color of mouldy bread.
+
+The class of lichens[12] contains a number of different coloring
+substances, whose chemical composition has been examined. These
+substances are found separately in individuals differing in form. In
+the _Polyporus_[13] an acid has been found peculiar to it, as in many
+plants special compounds are found. In the agariceæ the different
+kinds of vellum distinguish between species, and the color of the
+conidia is also of differential importance. In all cases of distinct
+characteristic habits of reproduction and form, one or more different
+chemical compounds is found.
+
+In the next group of the musiceæ, or mosses, is an absence of some
+chemical compounds that were characteristic of the classes just
+described. Many of the albuminous substances are present. Starch[14]
+is found often in large quantities, and also oily fats, which are
+contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts; wax,[15] organic acids,
+including aconitic acid, and tannin, which is found for the first time
+at this evolutionary stage of the plant kingdom.
+
+The vascular cryptogams are especially characterized by their mineral
+composition.[16] The ash is extraordinarily rich in silicic acid and
+alumina.
+
+  Equisetum[17]..........silicic acid     60 per cent.
+  Aspidium...............  "     "        13
+  Asplenium..............  "     "        35
+  Osmunda................  "     "        53
+  Lycopodium[18].........  "     "        14
+       "         ........ alumina   26 to 27
+       "         ........ manganese 2 to 2.5
+
+These various plants contain acids and compounds peculiar to
+themselves.
+
+As we ascend in the plant scale, we reach the phanerogams. These
+plants are characterized by the production of true seeds, and many
+chemical compounds not found in lower plants.
+
+It will be convenient in speaking of these higher groups to follow M.
+Heckel's[19] scheme of plant evolution. All these plants are grouped
+under three main divisions: apetalous, monocotyledonous, and
+dicotyledonous; and these main divisions are further subdivided.
+
+It will be observed that these three main parallel columns are divided
+into three general horizontal planes.
+
+On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral elements, or parts;
+for example, the black walnut, with the simple flower contained in a
+catkin.
+
+On plane 2 plants which have a multiplicity of floral elements, as the
+many petals and stamens of the rose; and finally, the higher plants,
+the orchids among the monocotyledons and the composite among the
+dicotyledonous plants, come under the third division of condensation
+of floral elements.
+
+It will be impossible to take up in order for chemical consideration
+all these groups, and I shall restrict myself to pointing out the
+occurrence of certain constituents.
+
+I desire now to call attention to chemical groups under the apetalous
+plants having simplicity of floral elements.
+
+_Cassuarina equisetifolia_[20] possibly contains tannin, since it is
+used for curing hides. The bark contains a dye. It is said to resemble
+_Equisetum_[21] in appearance, and in this latter plant a yellow dye
+is found.
+
+The _Myrica_[22] contains ethereal oil, wax, resin, balsam, in all
+parts of the plant. The root contains in addition fats, tannin, and
+starch, also myricinic acid.
+
+In the willow and poplar,[23] a crystalline, bitter substance, salicin
+or populin, is found. This may be considered as the first appearance
+of a real glucoside, if tannin be excluded from the list.
+
+The oak, walnut, beech, alder, and birch contain tannin in large
+quantities; in the case of the oak, ten to twelve per cent. Oak galls
+yield as much as seventy per cent.[24]
+
+The numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable for ethereal
+oil, resin, and camphor.
+
+The plane[25] trees contain caoutchouc and gum; peppers,[26] ethereal
+oils, alkaloids, piperin, white resin, and malic acid. _Datisca
+cannabina_[27] contains a coloring matter and another substance
+peculiar to itself, datiscin, a kind of starch, or allied to the
+glucosides.
+
+Upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons, the dates
+and palms[28] contain in large quantities special starches, and this
+is in harmony with the principles of the theory. Alkaloids and
+glucosides have not yet been discovered in them.
+
+Other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of floral elements, such
+as the typhaceæ, contain large quantities of starch; in the case of
+_Typha latifolia_[29] 12.5 per cent., and 1.5 per cent. gum. In the
+pollen of this same plant, 2.08 per cent. starch has been found.
+
+Under the dicotyledonous groups, there are no plants with simplicity
+of floral elements.
+
+Returning, now, to apetalous plants of multiplicity and simplification
+of floral elements, we find that the urticaceæ[30] contain free formic
+acid; the hemp[31] contains alkaloids; the hop,[32] ethereal oil and
+resin; the rhubarb,[33] crysophonic acid; and the begonias,[34]
+chicarin and lapacho dyes. The highest apetalous plants contain
+camphors and oils; the highest of the monocotyledons contain a
+mucilage and oils; and the highest dicotyledons contain oils and
+special acids.
+
+The trees yielding common camphor and borneol are from genera of the
+lauraceæ family; also sassafras camphor is from the same family. Small
+quantities of stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant
+kingdom.
+
+The gramineæ, or grasses, are especially characterized by the large
+quantities of sugar and silica they contain. The ash of the rice hull,
+for example, contains ninety eight per cent. silica.
+
+The ranunculaceæ contain many plants which yield alkaloids, as
+_Hydrastia canadensis_, or Indian hemp, _Helleborus_, _Delphinum_,
+_Aconitum_, and the alkaloid berberine has been obtained from genera
+of this family.
+
+The alkaloid[35] furnishing families belong, with few exceptions, to
+the dicotyledons. The colchiceæ, from which is obtained veratrine,
+form an exception among the monocotyledons. The alkaloids of the
+fungus have already been noted.
+
+[36]Among the greater number of plant families, no alkaloids have been
+found. In the labiatæ none has been discovered, nor in the compositæ
+among the highest plants.
+
+One alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiaceæ; berberine in
+genera of the berberidaceæ, ranunculaceæ, menispermaceæ, rutaceæ,
+papaveraceæ, anonaceæ.
+
+Waxes are widely distributed in plants. They occur in quantities in
+some closely related families.
+
+Ethereal oils occur in many families, in the bark, root, wood, leaf,
+flower, and fruit; particularly in myrtaceæ, laurineæ, cyperaceæ,
+crucifereæ, aurantiaceæ, labiatæ, and umbelliferæ.
+
+Resins are found in most of the higher plants. Tropical plants are
+richer in resins than those of cold climates.
+
+Chemical resemblance between groups, as indicating morphological
+relations, has been well shown. For example: the similarity[37] of the
+viscid juices, and a like taste and smell, among cactaceæ and
+portulaceæ, indicate a closer relationship between these two orders
+than botanical classification would perhaps allow. This fact was
+corroborated by the discovery of irritable stamens in _Portulaca_ and
+_Opuntia_, and other genera of cactaceæ.
+
+Darwin[38] states that in the compositæ the ray florets are more
+poisonous than the disk florets, in the ratio of about 3 to 2.
+
+Comparing the cycadeæ and palmæ, the former are differently placed by
+different botanists, but the general resemblance is remarkable, and
+they both yield sago.
+
+Chemical constituents of plants are found in varying quantities during
+stated periods of the year. Certain compounds present at one stage of
+growth are absent at another. Many facts could be brought forward to
+show the different chemical composition of plants in different stages
+of growth. The _Thuja occidentalis_[39] in the juvenescent and adult
+form, offers an example where morphological and chemical differences
+go hand in hand. Analyses of this plant under both conditions show a
+striking difference.
+
+Different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical compounds, and
+the comparative chemical study of plant orders comprises the analysis
+of all parts of plants of different species.
+
+For example; four portions of the _Yucca angustifolia_[40] were
+examined chemically; the bark and wood of the root and the base and
+blades of the leaves. Fixed oils were separated from each part. These
+were not identical; two were fluid at ordinary temperature, and two
+were solid. Their melting and solidifying points were not the same.
+
+This difference in the physical character and chemical reaction of
+these fixed oils may be due to the presence of free fatty acid and
+glycerides in varying proportions in the four parts of the plants. It
+is of interest to note that, in the subterranean part of the _Yucca_,
+the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary temperature;
+from the wood it was of a less solid consistency; while the yellow
+base of the leaf contained an oil quite soft, and in the green leaf
+the oil is almost fluid.
+
+Two new resins were extracted from the yellow and green parts of the
+leaf. It was proposed to name them _yuccal_ and _pyrophæal_ An
+examination of the contents of each extract showed a different
+quantitative and qualitative result.
+
+Saponin was found in all parts of the plant.
+
+Many of the above facts have been collected from the investigations of
+others. I have introduced these statements, selected from a mass of
+material, as evidences in favor of the view stated at the beginning of
+this paper.[41] My own study has been directed toward the discovery of
+saponin in those plants where it was presumably to be found. The
+practical use of this theory in plant analysis will lead the chemists
+at once to a search for those compounds which morphology shows are
+probably present.
+
+I have discovered saponin in all parts of the _Yucca angustifolia_, in
+the _Y. filimentosa_ and _Y. gloriosa_, in several species of agavæ,
+and in plants belonging to the leguminosæ family.
+
+The list[42] of plants in which saponin has been discovered is given
+in the note. All these plants are contained in the middle plane of
+Heckel's scheme. No plants containing saponin have been found among
+apetalous groups. No plants have been found containing saponin among
+the lower monocotyledons.
+
+The plane of saponin passes from the liliaceæ and allied groups to the
+rosales and higher dicotyledons.
+
+Saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides. Under the
+action of dilute acids, it is split up into two substances, glucose
+and sopogenin. The chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly
+understood. The commercial[43] product is probably a mixture of
+several substances.
+
+This complexity of chemical composition of saponin is admirably
+adapted for the nutrition of the plant, and it is associated with the
+corresponding complexity of the morphological elements of the plant's
+organs. According to M. Perrey,[44] it seems that the power of a plant
+to direct the distribution of its carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to form
+complex glucosides is indicative of its higher functions and
+developments.
+
+The solvent action of saponin on resins has been already discussed.
+Saponin likewise acts as a solvent upon barium[45] sulphate and
+calcium[46] oxalate, and as a solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble
+salts would assist the plant in obtaining food, otherwise difficult of
+access.
+
+The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently
+Saponin is found in endogens and exogens. The line dividing these two
+groups is not always clearly defined. Statements pointing to this are
+found in the works of Haeckel, Bentham, and others.
+
+Smilax belongs to a transition class, partaking somewhat of the nature
+of endogen and of exogen. It is worthy of note that this intermediate
+group of the sarsaparillas should contain saponin.
+
+It is a significant fact that all the groups above named containing
+saponin belong to Heckel's middle division.
+
+It may be suggested that saponin is thus a constructive element in
+developing the plant from the multiplicity of floral elements to the
+cephalization of those organs.
+
+It has been observed that the composite occurs where the materials for
+growth are supplied in greatest abundance, and the more simple forms
+arise where sources of nutrition are remote. We may gather from this
+fact that the simpler organs of plants low in the evolutionary scale
+contain simpler non-nitrogenous chemical compounds for their
+nutrition.
+
+The presence of saponin seems essential to the life of the plant where
+it is found, and it is an indispensable principle in the progression
+of certain lines of plants, passing from their lower to their higher
+stages.
+
+Saponin is invariably absent where the floral elements are simple; it
+is invariably absent where the floral elements are condensed to their
+greatest extent. Its position is plainly that of a factor in the great
+middle realm of vegetable life, where the elements of the individual
+are striving to condense, and thus increase their physiological action
+and the economy of parts.
+
+It may be suggested as a line of research to study what are the
+conditions which control the synthesis and gradual formation of
+saponin in plants. The simpler compounds of which this complex
+substance is built up, if located as compounds of lower plants, would
+indicate the lines of progression from the lower to the saponin
+groups.
+
+In my paper[47] read in Buffalo at the last meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science, various suggestions were
+offered why chemical compounds should be used as a means of botanical
+classification.
+
+The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently
+unsatisfactory, that efforts in some directions have been made to
+introduce other methods.[48]
+
+There has been comparatively little study of the chemical principles
+of plants from a purely botanical view. It promises to become a new
+field of research.
+
+The leguminosæ are conspicuous as furnishing us with important dyes,
+e.g., indigo, logwood, catechin. The former is obtained principally
+from different species of the genus _Indigofera_, and logwood from the
+_Hæmatoxylon_ and _Saraca indica_.
+
+The discovery[49] of hæmatoxylin in the _Saraca indica_ illustrates
+very well how this plant in its chemical, as well as botanical,
+character is related to the _Hæmatoxylon campechianum_; also, I found
+a substance like catechin in the _Saraca_. This compound is found in
+the _acacias_, to which class _Saraca_ is related by its chemical
+position, as well as botanically. Saponin is found in both of these
+plants, as well as in many other plants of the leguminosæ. The
+leguminosæ come under the middle plane or multiplicity of floral
+elements, and the presence of saponin in these plants was to be
+expected.
+
+From many of the facts above stated, it may be inferred that the
+chemical compounds of plants do not occur at random. Each stage of
+growth and development has its own particular chemistry.
+
+It is said that many of the constituents found in plants are the
+result of destructive metabolism, and are of no further use in the
+plant's economy. This subject is by no means settled, and even should
+we be forced to accept that ground, it is a significant fact that
+certain cells, tissues, or organs peculiar to a plant secrete or
+excrete chemical compounds peculiar to them, which are to be found in
+one family, or in species closely allied to it.
+
+It is a fact that the chemical compounds are there, no matter why or
+whence they came. They will serve our purposes of study and
+classification.
+
+The result of experiment shows that the presence of certain compounds
+is essential to the vigor and development of all plants and particular
+compounds to the development of certain plants. Plant chemistry and
+morphology are related. Future investigations will demonstrate this
+relation.
+
+In general terms, we may say that amides and carbohydrates are
+utilized in the manufacture of proteids. Organic acids cause a
+turgescence of cells. Glucosides may be a form of reserve food
+material.
+
+Resins and waxes may serve only as protection to the surfaces of
+plants; coloring matters, as screens to shut off or admit certain of
+the sun's rays; but we are still far from penetrating the mystery of
+life.
+
+A simple plant does what animals more highly endowed cannot do. From
+simplest substances they manufacture the most complex. We owe our
+existence to plants, as they do theirs to the air and soil.
+
+The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen pass through a
+cycle of changes from simple inorganic substances to the complex
+compounds of the living cell. Upon the decomposition of these bodies
+the elements return to their original state. During this transition
+those properties of protoplasm which were mentioned at the beginning,
+in turn, follow their path. From germination to death this course
+appears like a crescent, the other half of the circle closed from
+view. Where chemistry begins and ends it is difficult to say.--_Jour.
+Fr. Inst._
+
+  [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute,
+  January 24, 1887.]
+
+  [Footnote 2: Studien uber das Protoplasm, 1881.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: Vines, p. 1. Rostafinski: Mem. de la Soc. des Sc.
+  Nat. de Cherbourg, 1875. Strasburger: Zeitschr., xii, 1878.]
+
+  [Footnote 4: Botany: Prantl and Vines. London, 1886, p. 110.]
+
+  [Footnote 5: For the literature of starch, see p. 115, Die
+  Pflanzenstoffe, von Hilger and Husemann.]
+
+  [Footnote 6: Kutzing: Arch. Pharm., xli, 38. Kraus and Millardet:
+  Bul. Soc. Sciences Nat., Strasbourg, 1868, 22. Sorby: Jour. Lin.
+  Soc., xv, 34. J. Reinke: Jahrb. Wissenscht. Botan., x, B. 399.
+  Phipson: Phar. Jour. Trans., clxii, 479.]
+
+  [Footnote 7: Prantl and Vines, p. 111.]
+
+  [Footnote 8: L. Crie: Compt. Rend., lxxxviii, 759 and 985. J. De
+  Seynes, 820, 1043.]
+
+  [Footnote 9: Page 279.]
+
+  [Footnote 10: M. Nencki and F. Schaffer. N. Sieher: Jour. Pract.
+  Chem., 23, 412.]
+
+  [Footnote 11: E. Klein: Quar. Jour. Micros. Science, 1875, 381. O.
+  Helm: Arch. Pharm., 1875, 19-24. G. Gugini: Gaz. Chem., 7, 4. W.
+  Thorner: Bul. Ber, xi, 533.]
+
+  [Footnote 12: Handbook of Dyeing. By W. Crookes, London, 1874. p. 367.
+  Schunck: Ann. Chem. Pharm., 41, 157; 54, 261; 61, 72; 61, 64; 61, 78.
+  Rochelder and Heldt, ibid., 48, 2; 48, 9. Stenhouse, ibid., 68, 57;
+  68, 72; 68, 97, 104; 125, 353. See also researches of Strecker, O.
+  Hesse, Reymann, Liebermann, Lamparter, Knop, and Schnedermann.]
+
+  [Footnote 13: Stahlschmidt.]
+
+  [Footnote 14: E. Treffner: Inaugur. Diss. Dorpat, 1880.]
+
+  [Footnote 15: W. Pfeffer: Flora, 1874.]
+
+  [Footnote 16: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 323 W. Lange: Bul. Ber., xi,
+  822.]
+
+  [Footnote 17: Ann. Chim. Phys., 41, 62, 208; Ann. Chim. Pharm.,
+  77, 295.]
+
+  [Footnote 18: Fluckiger: Pharmakognosie. Kamp: Ann. Chim. Pharm.,
+  100, 300.]
+
+  [Footnote 19: Revue Scientifiqe, 13 Mars, 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 20: Dictionary of Economic Plants. By J. Smith. London,
+  1882, p. 294.]
+
+  [Footnote 21: Ibid., p. 160. Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs,
+  Wittstein, p. 736. Ann. Chem. Pharm., 77, 295.]
+
+  [Footnote 22: Rabenhorst: Repert. Pharm., lx, 214. Moore: Chem.
+  Centralbl., 1862, 779, Dana.]
+
+  [Footnote 23: Johansen: Arch. Pharm., 3, ix, 210. Ibid., 3, ix
+  103. Bente: Berl. Ber., viii, 476. Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2,
+  44, 296.]
+
+  [Footnote 24: Wittstein; Pharm. des Pflanzenreichs, p. 249.]
+
+  [Footnote 25: John; Ibid., p. 651.]
+
+  [Footnote 26: Dulong. Oersted, Lucas, Pontet; Ibid., p. 640.]
+
+  [Footnote 27: Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 3. 277. Stenhouse:
+  Ann. Chim. Phann., 198, 166].
+
+  [Footnote 28: 3 Pflanzenstoffe, p. 412.]
+
+  [Footnote 29: Lecocq: Braconnot: Pharmacog. Pflan, p. 693.]
+
+  [Footnote 30: Gorup-Besanez.]
+
+  [Footnote 31: Siebold and Brodbury: Phar. Jour. Trans., 3, 590,
+  1881, 326.]
+
+  [Footnote 32: Wagner: Jour. Prakt. Chem., 58, 352. B. Peters, v.
+  Gohren: Jahresb. Agric., viii, 114; ix, 105; v. 58. Ann. Jour.
+  Pharm., 4, 49.]
+
+  [Footnote 33: Dragendorff: Pharm. Zeitschr. Russ., xvii, 65-97.]
+
+  [Footnote 34: Bonssingault: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 27, 315. Erdmann:
+  Jour. Pract. Chem., 71, 198.]
+
+  [Footnote 35: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 21.]
+
+  [Footnote 36: Ibid.]
+
+  [Footnote 37: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.]
+
+  [Footnote 38: Different forms of flowers on plants of the same
+  species. Introduction.]
+
+  [Footnote 39: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.]
+
+  [Footnote 40: H.C. De S. Abbott: Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 41: For further facts confirming this theory, see
+  "Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants." By H.C. De S.
+  Abbott. Amer. Naturalist, August, 1887.]
+
+  [Footnote 42: Different genera and species of the following:
+  Ranunculaceæ, Berberidaceæ, Carophyllaceæ, Polygalaceæ,
+  Bromeliaceæ, Liliaceæ, Smilaceæ, Yuccas, Amaryllideæ, Leguminosæ,
+  Primulaceæ, Rosaceæ, Sapindaceæ, Sapotaceæ]
+
+  [Footnote 43: Kobert: Chem Ztg.]
+
+  [Footnote 44: Compt. Rend., xciv, p. 1124.]
+
+  [Footnote 45: Bul. de la Soc. Chim.]
+
+  [Footnote 46: "Yucca angus." Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Dec., 1885.]
+
+  [Footnote 47: Botanical Gazette, October, 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 48: Borodin: Pharm. Jour. Trans., xvi, 369. Pax. Firemy:
+  Ann. Sci. Nat., xiii.]
+
+  [Footnote 49: H.C. De S. Abbott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Nov.
+  30, 1886.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF STARCH.
+
+A.V. ASBOTH.
+
+
+The author maintains that unsatisfactory results are obtained in
+determinations of starch when the method employed is based upon the
+inversion of sugar, formed as an intermediate product, since maltose,
+dextrose, and levulose are partly decomposed by boiling with dilute
+acids. He proposes to replace the methods hitherto employed by one
+which depends upon the formation of a barium salt of starch, to which
+he assigns the formula BaO.C_{24}H_{40}O_{20}. This salt is sparingly
+soluble in water and insoluble in dilute alcohol.
+
+In making a determination a weighed quantity of starch is saccharified
+with water, then mixed with an excess of normal baryta solution,
+dilute alcohol added to make up to a certain volume, and, after the
+precipitate has settled, the excess of baryta is titrated back with
+acid.
+
+[Illustration: Titrating apparatus]
+
+The author also describes the apparatus he employs for storing and
+titrating with baryta solution. The latter is contained in the bottle,
+A, and the drying tube attached to the neck of the same is filled with
+quicklime. The burette, B, which is in direct connection with the
+bottle, may be filled with the solution by opening the stop cock, and
+the small drying tube, _n_, is filled with dry KOH, thus preventing
+the entrance of any CO_{2}. Numbers are appended which seem to testify
+to the excellence of the method employed. The author finally gives a
+detailed account of the entire analysis of various cereals.--_A.R. in
+Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SYNTHESIS OF THE ALKALOIDS.
+
+
+In the note on the constitution of alkaloids in a recent issue, we
+referred more especially to what we may term the less highly organized
+bases. Most of our knowledge, as we now have it, regarding such
+alkaloids as muscarine and choline has been acquired during the past
+dozen years. This is not exactly the case with the higher groups of
+alkaloids--the derivatives of pyridine and quinoline. It so happens
+that the oldest alkaloids are in these groups. They have, almost
+necessarily, been subjected to a longer period of attack, but the
+extreme complexity of their molecules, and the infinite number of
+differing parts or substances into which these molecules split up when
+attacked, are the main cause of the small progress which has been made
+in this department. All, however, yield one or more bodies or bases in
+common, while each has its distinctive and peculiar decomposition
+product. For example, cinchonine and quinine both afford the basic
+quinoline under certain conditions, but on oxidation of cinchonine, an
+acid--cinchoninic acid (C_{10}H_{7}NO_{2})--is the principal body
+formed, while in the case of quinine, quininic acid (C_{10}H_{9}NO_{3})
+is the principal product. The acquirement through experiment of such
+knowledge as that is, however, so much gained. We find, indeed, that
+obstacles are gradually being cleared away, and the actual synthetic
+formation of such alkaloids as piperidine and coniine is a proof that
+the chemist is on the right track in studying the decomposition
+products, and building up from them, theoretically, bodies of similar
+constitution. It is noteworthy that the synthesis of the alkaloids has
+led to some of the most brilliant discoveries of the present day,
+especially in the discovery of dye stuffs. Many of our quinine
+substitutes, such as thalline, for example, are the result of
+endeavors to make quinine artificially. If there is romance in
+chemistry at all, it is to be found certainly in this branch of it,
+which is generally considered the most uninteresting and unfathomable.
+We may take piperidine and coniine as examples of the methods followed
+in alkaloidal synthesis; these are pyridine bases. Pyridine has the
+formula C_{5}H_{5}N, that is, it is benzene with CH replaced by N. The
+relationship between these and piperidine is seen in the following
+formulæ:
+
+       CH            N                NH
+      /  \          /  \             /  \
+    HC    CH      HC    CH     H_{2}C    CH_{2}
+     |    |        |    |           |    |
+    HC    CH      HC    CH     H_{2}C    CH_{2}
+      \  /          \  /             \  /
+       CH            CH               CH_{2}
+
+    (Benzene,)    (Pyridine,)    (Piperidine,)
+    (C_{6}H_{6})  (C_{5}H_{5}N)  (C_{5}H_{11}N)
+
+If we introduce six hydrogen atoms into pyridine, we convert it into
+piperidine. Ladenburg succeeded in so hydrogenizing pyridine by acting
+upon an alcoholic solution with sodium, and from the base which was
+formed he obtained a platinochloride which agreed with the similar
+double salt of piperidine. He has also prepared it from trimethyline
+cyanide by the action of sodium. Pentamethylinediamine is the
+principal intermediary product, and this gives piperidine when
+distilled with superheated steam. He has proved that the alkaloid so
+obtained is identical with that prepared from piperine. Another
+curious point which Ladenburg has lately proved is that cadaverine
+(one of the products of flesh decomposition) is identical with
+pentamethylinediamine, and that its imine is the same as piperidine.
+The synthesis of coniine by Ladenburg is one of the most notable
+achievements of modern chemistry. He at first supposed that this
+alkaloid was piperidine in which two hydrogen atoms were replaced by
+the isopropyl radical (C_{3}H_{7}), its formula being taken as
+C_{5}H_{9}(C_{3}H_{7})NH. But he has since changed his view, as will
+be seen from what follows. In its synthesis 1,000 grammes of picoline
+were first converted into alphapicoline, 380 grammes being obtained.
+This was heated with paraldehyde, whereby it was converted into
+allylpyridine (48 grammes), and this by reduction with sodium yielded
+alpha-propylpyridine, a body in almost every respect identical with
+coniine. The more important difference was its optical inactivity, but
+he succeeded in splitting up a solution of the acid tartrate of the
+base by means of _Penicillium glaucum_. Crystals separated which had a
+dextro-rotatory power of [_a_]_{D} = 31° 87' as compared with the
+[_a_]_{D} = 13° 79' of natural coniine. This brief account conveys but
+a faint idea of the difficulties which were encountered in these
+researches. Optical methods of examination have proved of great value,
+and are destined to play an important part in such work.
+
+Among the most complex alkaloids are those of the quinine group. As
+yet chemists have got no further with these than the oxidation
+products; but the study has afforded us several new antipyretics and
+many interesting facts. It has been found, for example, that
+artificial quinine-like bodies, which fluoresce and give the green
+color with chlorine water and ammonia, have antipyretic properties
+like quinine, but their secondary effects are so pernicious as to
+prevent their use. If, however, such bodies are hydrogenized or
+methylated they lose their fluorescing property, do not give the green
+color, and their secondary effects are removed. Knowledge of these
+facts led to the discovery of thalline. It is prepared from
+paraquinanisol, one of the objectionable bodies, by reduction with tin
+and hydrochloric acid. The following formulæ show the constitutional
+relationship of these compounds:
+
+               CH   CH                  CH   CH_{2}
+              /  \ /  \                /  \ /  \
+    (CH_{3}O)C    C    CH    (CH_{3}O)C    C    CH_{2}
+             |    |    |              |    |    |
+            HC    C    CH            HC    C    CH_{2}
+              \  / \  /                \  / \  /
+               CH   N                   CH   NH
+
+            Paraquinanisol              Thalline
+          C_{9}H_{6}.CH_{3}.NO.     C_{9}H_{10}.CH_{3}.NO.
+
+It is evident from the difficulties which have been encountered in
+this department of chemistry, and more especially from the costly
+nature of the work, that it will be many years before it will
+influence the manufacture of alkaloids from the drugs which yield
+them. Ladenburg has synthetized coniine, but he has not yet ventured
+to assert that his product will replace the natural alkaloid.--_Chem.
+and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The _Southern California Advocate_ reports another magnificent
+donation of lands to the University of Southern California by Mr. D.
+Freeman, the owner of the Centinella ranch near Los Angeles--six
+hundred thousand dollars in all given to found a school of applied
+sciences, $100,000 for building and apparatus and $500,000 for
+endowment. The buildings will be in the vicinity of Inglewood, the new
+and beautiful town on the Ballona branch of the California Central.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A GROUP OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Hampshire Down breed of sheep originated about 80 years ago by a
+cross of South Downs on the horned, white-faced sheep which had for
+ages been native of the open, untilled, hilly stretch of land known as
+the Hampshire Downs, in the county of that name bordering on the
+English Channel, in the South of England. From time immemorial the
+South Downs had dark brown or black legs, matured early, produced the
+best of mutton and a fine quality of medium wool. The original
+Hampshire was larger, coarser, but hardier, slower to mature, with
+inferior flesh, and a longer but coarser wool. The South Down has
+always been remarkable for its power of transmitting its special
+characteristics to its progeny by other kinds of sheep, and hence it
+soon impressed its own characteristics on its progeny by the
+Hampshire. The horns of the original breed have disappeared; the face
+and legs have become dark, the frame has become more compact, the
+bones smaller, the back broader and straighter, the legs shorter, and
+the flesh and wool of better quality, while the superior hardiness and
+greater size, as well as the large head and Roman nose of the old
+breed, still remain. The Hampshires of to-day mature early and fatten
+readily. They clip from six to seven pounds of wool, suitable for
+combing, which is longer than South Down wool, but less fine. The
+mutton has a desirable proportion of fat and lean, and is juicy and
+fine flavored. The lambs are of large size and are usually dropped
+early and fed for market. Indeed, the Hampshire may be considered a
+larger and trifle coarser and hardier South Down. The breed is
+occasionally crossed with Cotswolds, when it produces a wool more
+valuable for worsted manufacturers than the pure Cotswold. Indeed,
+there is little doubt that in addition to South Down, the Hampshire
+has a dash of Cotswold blood in its composition. Considerable
+importations of the breed have been made into this country, but it has
+not become so popular as the South Down and some other English breeds.
+The excellent group shown is owned by Mr. James Wood, of Mount Kisco,
+New York.--_Rural New-Yorker._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE YALE COLLEGE MEASUREMENT OF THE PLEIADES.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: "Determination of the Relative Positions of the
+  Principal Stars in the Group of the Pleiades." By William L.
+  Elkin. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale
+  University, Vol. I., Part I. (New Haven: 1887.)]
+
+
+The Messrs. Repsold have established, and for the present seem likely
+to maintain, a practical monopoly in the construction of heliometers.
+That completed by them for the observatory of Yale College in 1882
+leaves so little to be desired as to show excellence not to be the
+exclusive result of competition. In mere size it does not indeed take
+the highest rank. Its aperture is of only six inches, while that of
+the Oxford heliometer is of seven and a half; but the perfection of
+the arrangements adapting it to the twofold function of equatorial and
+micrometer stamps it as a model not easy to be surpassed. Steel has
+been almost exclusively used in the mounting. Recommended as the
+material for the objective cell by its quality of changing volume
+under variations of temperature nearly _paripassu_ with glass, its
+employment was extended to the telescope tube and other portions of
+the mechanism. The optical part of the work was done by Merz, Alvan
+Clark having declined the responsibility of dividing the object lens.
+Its segments are separable to the extent of 2°, and through the
+contrivance of cylindrical slides (originally suggested by Bessel)
+perfect definition is preserved in all positions, giving a range of
+accurate measurement just six times that with a filar micrometer.
+(Gill, "Encyc. Brit.," vol. xvi., p. 253; Fischer, _Sirius_, vol.
+xvii., p. 145.)
+
+This beautiful engine of research was in 1883 placed in the already
+practiced and skillful hands of Dr. Elkin. He lost no time in fixing
+upon a task suited both to test the powers of the new instrument and
+to employ them to the highest advantage.
+
+The stars of the Pleiades have, from the earliest times, attracted the
+special notice of observers, whether savage or civilized. Hence, on
+the one hand, their prominence in stellar mythology all over the
+world; on the other, their unique interest for purposes of scientific
+study and comparison. They constitute an undoubted cluster; that is to
+say, they are really, and not simply in appearance, grouped together
+in space, so as to fall under the sway of prevailing mutual
+influences. And since there is, perhaps, no other stellar cluster so
+near the sun, the chance of perceptible displacements among them in a
+moderate lapse of time is greater than in any other similar case.
+Authentic data regarding them, besides, have now been so long garnered
+that their fruit may confidently be expected at least to begin to
+ripen.
+
+Dr. Elkin determined, accordingly, to repeat the survey of the
+Pleiades executed by Bessel at Konigsberg during about twelve years
+previous to 1841. Wolf and Pritchard had, it is true, been beforehand
+with him; but the wide scattering of the grouped stars puts the filar
+micrometer at a disadvantage in measuring them, producing minute
+errors which the arduous conditions of the problem render of serious
+account. The heliometer, there can be no doubt, is the special
+instrument for the purpose, and it was, moreover, that employed by
+Bessel; so that the Konigsberg and Yale results are comparable in a
+stricter sense than any others so far obtained.
+
+One of Bessel's fifty-three stars was omitted by Dr. Elkin as too
+faint for accurate determination. He added, however, seventeen stars
+from the Bonn _Durchmusterung_, so that his list comprised sixty-nine,
+down to 9.2 magnitude. Two independent triangulations were executed by
+him in 1884-85. For the first, four stars situated near the outskirts
+of the group, and marking the angles of quadrilateral by which it was
+inclosed, were chosen as reference points. The second rested upon
+measures of distance and position angle outward from Alcyone ([eta]
+Tauri). Thus, two wholly unconnected sets of positions were secured,
+the close accordance of which testified strongly to the high quality
+of the entire work. They were combined, with nearly equal weights, in
+the final results. A fresh reduction of the Konigsberg observations,
+necessitated by recent improvements in the value of some of the
+corrections employed, was the preliminary to their comparison with
+those made, after an interval of forty-five years, at Yale College.
+The conclusions thus laboriously arrived at are not devoid of
+significance, and appear perfectly secure, so far as they go.
+
+It has been known for some time that the stars of the Pleiades possess
+a small identical proper motion. Its direction, as ascertained by
+Newcomb in 1878, is about south-southeast; its amount is somewhat less
+than six seconds of arc in a century. The double star 61 Cygni, in
+fact, is displaced very nearly as much in one year as Alcyone with its
+train in one hundred. Nor is there much probability that this slow
+secular shifting is other than apparent; since it pretty accurately
+reverses the course of the sun's translation through space, it may be
+presumed that the _backward_ current of movement in which the Pleiades
+seem to float is purely an effect of our own _onward_ traveling.
+
+Now the curious fact emerges from Dr. Elkin's inquiries that six of
+Bessel's stars are exempt from the general drift of the group. They
+are being progressively left behind. The inference is obvious that
+they do not in reality belong to, but are merely accidentally
+projected upon, it; or, rather, that it is projected upon them; for
+their apparent immobility (which, in two of the six, may be called
+absolute) shows them with tolerable certainty to be indefinitely more
+remote--so remote that the path, moderately estimated at
+21,000,000,000 miles in length, traversed by the solar system during
+the forty-five years elapsed since the Konigsberg measures dwindles
+into visual insensibility when beheld from them. The brightest of
+these six far-off stars is just above the eighth (7.9) magnitude; the
+others range from 8.5 down to below the ninth.
+
+A chart of the relative displacements indicated for Bessel's stars by
+the differences in their inter-mutual positions as determined at
+Konigsberg and Yale accompanies the paper before us. Divergences
+exceeding 0.40" (taken as the limit of probable error) are regarded as
+due to real motion; and this is the case with twenty-six stars besides
+the half dozen already mentioned as destined deserters from the group.
+With these last may be associated two stars surmised, for an opposite
+reason, to stand aloof from it. Instead of tarrying behind, they are
+hurrying on in front.
+
+An excess of the proper movement of their companions belongs to them;
+and since that movement is presumably an effect of secular parallax,
+we are justified in inferring their possession of an extra share of it
+to signify their greater proximity to the sun. Hence, of all the stars
+in the Pleiades these are the most likely to have a measurable annual
+parallax. One is a star a little above the seventh magnitude,
+distinguished as _s_ Pleiadum; the other, of about the eighth, is
+numbered 25 in Bessel's list. Dr. Elkin has not omitted to remark that
+the conjecture of their disconnection from the cluster is confirmed by
+the circumstance that its typical spectrum (as shown on Prof.
+Pickering's plates) is varied in _s_ by the marked character of the K
+line. The spectrum of its fellow traveler (No. 25) is still
+undetermined.
+
+It is improbable, however, that even these nearer stars are
+practicable subjects for the direct determination of annual parallax.
+By indirect means, however, we can obtain some idea of their distance.
+All that we want to know for the purpose is the _rate_ of the sun's
+motion; its _direction_ we may consider as given with approximate
+accuracy by Airy's investigation. Now, spectroscopic measurements of
+stellar movements of approach and recession will eventually afford
+ample materials from which to deduce the solar, velocity; though they
+are as yet not accurate or numerous enough to found any definitive
+conclusion upon. Nevertheless, M. Homann's preliminary result of
+fifteen miles a second as the speed with which our system travels in
+its vast orbit inspires confidence both from the trustworthiness of
+the determinations (Mr. Seabroke's) serving as its basis and from its
+intrinsic probability. Accepting it provisionally, we find the
+parallax of Alcyone = about 0.02', implying a distance of
+954,000,000,000,000 miles and a light journey of 163 years. It is
+assumed that the whole of its proper motion of 2.61' in forty-five
+years is the visual projection of oar own movement toward a point in
+R.A. 261°, Decl. +25°.
+
+Thus the parallax of the two stars which we suspect to lie between us
+and the stars forming the genuine group of the Pleiades, at perhaps
+two-thirds of their distance, can hardly exceed 0.03'. This is just
+half that found by Dr. Gill for [xi] Toucani, which may be regarded
+as, up to this, the smallest annual displacement at all satisfactorily
+determined. And the error of the present estimate is more likely to be
+on the side of excess than of defect. That is, the stars in question
+can hardly be much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax
+of 0.03", and they may be considerably more remote.
+
+Dr. Elkin concludes, from the minuteness of the detected changes of
+position among the Pleiades, that "the hopes of obtaining any clew to
+the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized
+in an immediate future;" remarking further: "The bright stars in
+especial seem to form an almost rigid system, as for only one is there
+really much evidence of motion, and in this case the total amount is
+barely 1 per century." This one mobile member of the naked eye group
+is Electra; and it is noticeable that the apparent direction of its
+displacement favors the hypothesis of leisurely orbital circulation
+round the leading star. The larger movements, however, ascribed to
+some of the fainter associated stars are far from harmonizing with
+this preconceived notion of what they ought to be.
+
+On the contrary, so far as they are known at present, they force upon
+our minds the idea that the cluster may be undergoing some slow
+process of disintegration. M. Wolf's impression of incipient
+centrifugal tendencies among its components certainly derives some
+confirmation from Dr. Elkin's chart. Divergent movements are the most
+strongly marked; and the region round Alcyone suggests, at the first
+glance, rather a very confused area of radiation for a flight of
+meteors than the central seat of attraction of a revolving throng of
+suns.
+
+There are many signs, however, that adjacent stars in the cluster do
+not pursue independent courses. "Community of drift" is visible in
+many distinct sets; while there is as yet no perceptible evidence,
+from orbital motion, of association into subordinate systems. The
+three eighth-magnitude stars, for instance, arranged in a small
+isosceles triangle near Alcyone, do not, as might have been expected
+_a priori_, constitute a real ternary group. They are all apparently
+traveling directly away from the large star close by them, in straight
+lines which may, of course, be the projections of closed curves; but
+their rates of travel are so different as to involve certain
+progressive separation. Obviously, the order and method of such
+movements as are just beginning to develop to our apprehension among
+the Pleiades will not prove easy to divine.--_A.M. Clerke, in Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEEP SEA DREDGINGS: EXAMINATION OF SEA BOTTOMS.
+
+By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.
+
+
+I believe Prof. Ehrenberg was one of the first to examine,
+microscopically, deep sea dredgings, some of which were undertaken for
+the Atlantic cable expedition, 1857.
+
+I propose to deal with the bottoms brought up from tropical waters of
+the Atlantic, a few years ago, during certain telegraph cable
+operations. These soundings were made for survey purposes, and not for
+any biological or chemical investigations. Still I think that this
+imperfect record may be a useful contribution to chemical science,
+bearing especially on marine operations.
+
+Although there is little to be added to the chemistry of this subject,
+still I think there are few chemists who could successfully make an
+analysis of a deep sea "bottom" without some sacrifice of time and
+patience, to say nothing of the risk of wasting a valuable specimen.
+
+The muds, clays, oozes, etc., from deep water are so very fine that
+they pass readily through the best kinds of filters, and it is
+necessary to wash out all traces of sea water as a preliminary. The
+specimen must be _repeatedly_ washed by decantation, until the
+washings are perfectly free from chlorine, when the whole may be
+thrown onto a filter _merely_ to drain. The turbid water which passes
+through is allowed to stand so that the suspended matter may settle,
+and after decanting the clear supernatant water, the residuum is again
+thrown on to the filter.
+
+The washing and getting ready for the drying oven will, in some cases,
+require days to carry out, if we wish to avoid losing anything.
+
+So far the proceeding is exactly the same, except draining on a
+filter, which would be adopted for preparing for the microscope. On no
+account should the opportunity be missed of mounting several slides
+permanently for microscopic examination. Drawings or photographic
+enlargements will render us independent of direct microscopic appeal,
+which is not at all times convenient.
+
+The substance, if drained and allowed to dry on the filter, will
+adhere most tenaciously to it, so that it is better to complete the
+drying in a porcelain or platinum capsule, either by swilling the
+filter with a jet of water or by carefully removing with a spatula.
+The most strenuous care must be used not to contaminate the specimen
+with loose fibers from the filter.
+
+The perfectly dried matter is best treated in exactly the same way as a
+residuum in water analysis. It is a common thing to ignite the residuum,
+and to put the loss down, if any, to water. This ought not to satisfy an
+accurate observer, since organic matter, carbonates--especially in
+presence of silica--will easily add to the loss. The best plan is to
+heat a small portion very cautiously, and note if any smell or
+alteration in color, due to carbon, etc., is perceptible, and to proceed
+accordingly.
+
+I have seen some very satisfactory analyses made on board ship by a
+skillful use of the blowpipe, where liquid reagents would be very
+inconvenient to employ.
+
+It will be necessary to say a few words as to the way in which
+soundings are made at sea. When the bottom consists of sand, mud, or
+other loose matter, it is easy enough to bring specimens to the
+surface, and, of course, we know in such a case that the bottom has
+been reached, but, in the event of the bottom being hard and rocky, it
+is not easy to say that our sounding has been successful: and here we
+meet with a difficulty which unfortunately is most unsatisfactorily
+provided for.
+
+The lead is "cast," as the saying goes, "armed" for this emergency. An
+iron sinker is made with a hollow recess in the bottom; this is filled
+in with tallow, and on striking the bottom any loose matter may adhere
+by being pressed into the tallow. If the bottom is rocky or hard we
+get simply an imprint in the arming, and when such a result is
+obtained the usual construction is that "the bottom is rocky" or hard.
+
+Now, this seems to me a point on which chemistry may give some very
+valuable help, for I am convinced that no sounding should be accepted
+unless evidence of the bottom itself is obtained. A few considerations
+will show that when we are working in very deep water, where there is
+a difficulty of knowing for certain that we have an "up and down"
+sounding, and the hardening of the "arming" by the cold and pressure,
+unless we bring up something we cannot be sure that we have touched
+the bottom; leaving the doubt on this point on one side, unless we use
+a very heavy sinker, so as to get an indication of the released strain
+when it touches the bottom, we encounter another complication.
+
+Sir William Thomson's sounding wire has added the element of
+reliability to our soundings in this latter case. The note given out
+by the wire when the bottom is reached is perceptibly different when
+under strain, even if the dynamometer should give an unreliable
+indication.
+
+It has been found that when a "bottom" has been recovered by the
+arming with tallow, the adherent grease seriously detracts from the
+value of the specimen for scientific purposes. Washing with perfectly
+pure bisulphide carbon will save the sounding, but of course any
+living organism is destroyed. As we have plenty of contrivances for
+bringing up loose "bottoms" without arming, we have nothing to fear on
+this score.
+
+There is a great difficulty to explain the vast accumulations of clay
+deposits on the ocean bed, and it has been suggested that some minute
+organisms may produce these deposits, as others give us carbonate of
+lime. Is there not a very great probability of some of the apparently
+insoluble rocky formations being answerable for these accumulations?
+
+We must not forget the peculiar changes which such an apparently
+stable substance as feldspar undergoes when disintegrated and exposed
+to the chemical action of sea water. As these deposits contain both
+sodium and potassium, our chemical operations must provide for the
+analytical results; in other respects the analysis can be proceeded
+with according to the operator's analytical knowledge.
+
+Few operators are aware of the usefulness of an ordinary deep sea
+grapnel rope, as used for cable work, in recovering specimens of the
+fauna of any locality. The grapnel rope should be left down for a few
+months, so that the denizens of the deep may get used to it and make
+it their place of residence and _attachment_. The stench caused by
+their decomposition, unless the rope be kept in water, when hauled up
+will be in a few days intolerable, even to an individual with a
+sea-going stomach. I tried several chemical solutions for preserving
+specimens thus recovered, but nothing answered so well as the water
+itself drawn up from the same depth as the rope was recovered
+from.--_Chem. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, December 10, 1887
+</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 623,
+December 10, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 623, December 10, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2005 [EBook #16270]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
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+</pre>
+
+<div class="center" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: -10%"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></div>
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 623</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, DECEMBER 10, 1887</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 623.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr><td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#art01">ARCHITECTURE.&mdash;Notes on the Construction of a Distillery
+      Chimney&mdash;A new method of building lofty shafts, including a
+      metallic frame and brick lining&mdash;3 illustrations.</a></td><td>9949</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art02">The Commercial Exchange, Paris&mdash;The new Paris exchange now
+      in process of erection.&mdash;Present state of operations&mdash;1
+      illustration.</a></td><td>9954</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#art03">ASTRONOMY.&mdash;The Yale College Measurement of the Pleiades.&mdash;
+      Dr. Elkin's work with the Repsold heliometer at Yale College.</a></td><td>9957</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#art04">CHEMISTRY&mdash;New Method for the Quantitative Determination
+      of Starch.&mdash;By A.N. ASBOTH&mdash;Determination of starch by its
+      barium compound.</a></td><td>9956</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art05">Synthesis of the Alkaloids&mdash;A retrospect of the field of
+      work so far traveled over by synthetical chemists, and
+      future prospects.</a></td><td>9956</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art06">The Chemical Basis of Plant Forms&mdash;By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT
+      &mdash;Continuation of this important contribution to plant
+      chemistry, one of the most valuable of recent chemical
+      monographs.</a></td><td>9955</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#art07">ELECTRICITY.&mdash;An Electrical Governor&mdash;A new apparatus for
+      preserving a constant electromotive force with varying
+      dynamo speed&mdash;1 illustration.</a></td><td>9952</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art08">Electric Launch&mdash;A French government launch with Krebs
+      electric motor.</a></td><td>9954</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art09">The electric current as a means of increasing the tractive
+      adhesion of railway motors and other rolling contacts.&mdash;By
+      ELIAS E. RIES&mdash;A full review of this important subject, with
+      accounts of its experimental examination.</a></td><td>9953</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#art10">ENGINEERING&mdash;Benier's Hot Air Engine&mdash;A new caloric engine
+      very fully illustrated and described&mdash;8 illustrations.</a></td><td>9943</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art11">Heating Marine Boilers with Liquid Fuel&mdash;A simple apparatus
+      and recent experiments with the same.&mdash;3 illustrations.</a></td><td>9945</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art12">The Change of Gauge of Southern Railroads in 1886&mdash;By C.H.
+      HUDSON.&mdash;The conclusion of the account of this great
+      engineering feat, with tables of statistics and data&mdash;16
+      illustrations.</a></td><td>9946</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art13">Your Future Problems&mdash;By CHAS. E. EMERY&mdash;An address to
+      the graduating class of the Stevens Institute, N.J.&mdash;A
+      practical view of the engineering profession.</a></td><td>9943</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#art14">MISCELLANEOUS&mdash;A Group of Hampshire Downs&mdash;A typical
+      breed of sheep, their qualities and habits.&mdash;1 illustration.</a></td><td>9957</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#art15">  NAVAL ENGINEERING&mdash;The Spanish Cruiser Reina Regente&mdash;A
+      further description of this celebrated vessel&mdash;4
+      illustrations.</a></td><td>9948</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art16">Torpedo Boats for Spain&mdash;The Azor and Halcon, two Yarrow
+      torpedo boats, described and illustrated&mdash;7 illustrations.</a></td><td>9947</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#art17"> PHOTOGRAPHY&mdash;How Different Tones in Gelatino-chloride Prints
+      may be Varied by Developers.&mdash;Twenty different formul&aelig; for
+      the above purpose.</a></td><td>9949</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art18">Film Negatives&mdash;Eastman stripping films, their manipulation
+      and development.</a></td><td>9949</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">IX.</td>
+<td><a href="#art19">SANITATION&mdash;French Disinfecting Apparatus&mdash;A portable
+      apparatus for disinfecting clothes and similar objects&mdash;1
+      illustration.</a></td><td> 9952</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td valign="top">X.</td>
+<td><a href="#art20">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;The Manufacture of Cocaine&mdash;The extraction
+      of cocaine with alkali and petroleum, with statement of
+      percentage yielded by various leaves.</a></td><td>9954</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art21">The Production of Oxygen by Brin's Process&mdash;The commercial
+      manufacture of oxygen by means of baryta&mdash;3 illustrations.</a></td><td>9950</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="2"><span style="font-size: small;">
+<i>Transcriber's Note: Next entry not in original Table of Contents.</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td><a href="#art22">Deep Sea Dredgings: Examination Of
+Sea Bottoms. By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.</a></td><td>9958</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9943" id ="Page_9943"></a><a name="art10" id ="art10"></a>BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The hot air engine, although theoretically recognized
+for some time past as the most economical means of converting
+heat into motive power, has up to the present
+met with little success. This is due to the fact that the
+arrangement of the motors of this class that have hitherto
+been constructed has been such as to render them
+but slightly practical. In the Benier hot air engine
+(illustrated herewith), however, obstacles that were
+once considered insurmountable have been overcome,
+and the motor presents many advantages over all the
+types that have preceded it. Among such advantages
+we shall cite the possibility of utilizing air at a high
+temperature (1,200 or 1,500 degrees), while the rubbing
+surfaces remain at a moderate temperature (60 or 80 degrees).
+The fire grate is placed in the interior of the
+cylinder, and is traversed by the cold air forced by a
+pump. The expanded hot gases fill the cylinder and
+act against the piston directly above the grate.</p>
+
+<p>The type herewith illustrated is of 6 horse power.
+The motive cylinder, CC', is bolted to the extremity of
+the frame, A. Upon this latter is fixed a column, B,
+which carries a working beam, E. This latter transmits
+the motion of the piston, P, to the shaft, D. A pump,
+G, placed within the frame, forces a certain quantity
+of cold air at every revolution into the driving cylinder.
+The piston of this pump is actuated by the connecting
+rod, G', jointed to the lever, F', which receives its motion
+from the rod, F. A slide valve, <i>b'</i>, actuated by a
+cam, regulates the entrance of the cold air into the
+pump during suction, as well as its introduction into
+the cylinder. There is a thrust upon the piston during
+its upward travel, and an escape of hot gas through the
+eduction valve, <i>h</i>, during the downward travel.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinder is in two parts, C and C'. The piston,
+which is very long, rubs at its upper end against the
+sides of the cylinder, C. The lower end is of smaller
+diameter, and leaves an annular space between it and
+the cylinder. The grate is at the bottom of the cylinder,
+C'. The sides of the cylinder at the level of the
+fire box are protected with a lining of plumbago. When
+the piston is at the bottom of its travel, the eduction
+valve closes. The slide valve, <i>b'</i>, establishes a communication
+between the pump chamber and the cylinder.
+The air contained in the pump is already compressed
+in the latter to a pressure of nearly a kilogramme at
+the moment of the communication. This air enters
+the cylinder, and the communication between the latter
+and the pump continues until all the air is forced into
+the driving cylinder, the piston of the pump being at
+the bottom of its travel, and that of the cylinder about
+midway.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/1.png"><img src="./images/1_th.png" alt="BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE." /></a><br /> BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.</p>
+
+<p>The air forced by the pump piston enters the cylinder
+through two conduits, one of which leads a portion
+of it toward the top of the cylinder, and the other
+toward the bottom. The lower conduit debouches under
+the grate, and the air that passes through it traverses
+the fire box, and the hot gas fills the cylinder. The
+conduit that runs to the top debouches in the cylinder, C,
+at the lower limit of the surface rubbed by the piston.
+The air that traverses this conduit is distributed
+through the annular space between the piston and
+cylinder. The hot gas derived from combustion can
+therefore never introduce itself into this annular space,
+and consequently cannot come into contact with the
+rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and piston.</p>
+
+<p>As the quantity of air introduced at every stroke is
+constant, the work developed at every stroke is varied
+by regulating the temperature of the gas that fills the
+cylinder. When the temperature falls, the pressure,
+and consequently the work developed, diminishes. This
+result is obtained by varying the respective quantities
+of air that pass through the fire box and around the
+piston. In measure as less air passes through the fire
+box, the quantity that passes around the piston
+augments by just so much, and the pressure diminishes.
+A valve, <i>n'</i>, in the conduit that runs to the fire box is
+controlled by the regulator, L', in the interior of the
+column. When the work to be transmitted diminishes,
+the regulator closes the valve more or less, and the
+work developed diminishes.</p>
+
+<p>The coke is put by shovelfuls into a hopper, I. Four
+buckets mounted upon the periphery of a wheel, I',
+traverse the coke, and, taking up a piece of it, let it fall
+upon the cover, J, of the slide valve, <i>j</i>, whence it falls
+into the cavity of the latter when it is uncovered, and
+from thence into the conduit, <i>c'</i>, of the box, <i>j'</i>, when
+the cavity of the valve is opposite the conduit. From
+the conduit, <i>c'</i>, the coke falls upon the grate.</p>
+
+<p>A small sight hole covered with glass, in the cover, J,
+permits the grate to be seen when the cavity of the
+valve is opposite <i>c'</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As in gas engines, a current of water is made to
+flow around the cylinder, C', in order to keep the sides
+from getting too hot.</p>
+
+<p>In order to set the engine in motion, we begin by
+opening the bottom, C, of the cylinder, C', to clean the
+grate. This done, we close C and introduce lighted
+charcoal through the conduit, <i>c'</i> (the valve being open).
+The valve is put in place, two or three revolutions are
+given to the fly wheel, and the motor starts. The feeding
+is afterward done with coke.</p>
+
+<p>The parts that transmit motion operate under conditions
+analogous to those under which the same parts
+of a steam engine do. The air pump sucks and forces
+nothing but cold air, and nothing but cold air passes
+through the distributing slide valve. The pump and
+valve are therefore rendered very durable. The piston
+and cylinder, at the points where friction exists, are at
+a temperature of 60 or 80 degrees. These surfaces are
+protected against hot gas charged with dust.</p>
+
+<p>The hot gas, which escapes from the cylinder through
+a valve, has previously been cooled by contact with
+the sides of the cylinder and by expansion. The eduction
+valve just mentioned works about like that of a
+steam engine, and it is only necessary to polish it now
+and then in order to keep it in good condition.&mdash;<i>Annales
+Industrielles.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art13" id ="art13"></a>YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS.<a name="FNanchor_1" id ="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By CHARLES E. EMERY.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen:</i> It has
+not been considered the duty of the speaker, in addressing
+the graduating class, to dwell on the triumphs of
+science or the advantage of a liberal education. These
+subjects have already been discussed, in connection
+with the regular courses of study, better, and more at
+length, than he could do. We propose rather to try
+and prepare the minds of the graduates for the practical
+problems before them.</p>
+
+<p>All young men are impressed with the consciousness
+of higher powers as they increase their stores of
+knowledge, and this feeling perhaps reaches its maximum
+with those who have made a specialty of the investigation
+and application of physical laws. Young men
+who have learned how to harness the powers of nature
+and guide them to do their will are apt to belittle the
+difficulties they have yet to overcome, and have a false
+impression of the problems of life. This feeling is
+shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the Stevens
+Institute, on account of their careful practical training,
+in connection with the thorough study of principles;
+but it has been thought best for one from the
+outside world to supplement such teaching by calling
+to mind instances which may have a useful counteracting
+<a name="Page_9944" id ="Page_9944"></a>effect, and, like parables, serve the purpose of illustrative
+instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gentlemen of the Class of '87</i>: It was the pleasure of
+the speaker to address the class of '79, under the title of
+&quot;How to Succeed,&quot; some words of counsel and warning,
+which, if they left an impression of severity at the
+time, were apparently so well received afterward that
+he has been tempted to continue the general subject,
+with the title of &quot;Your Future Problems.&quot; The notation
+of your future problems will not be found at once
+among the known quantities, but with <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, and <i>z</i>, at
+the other end of the alphabet. Often word symbols
+will be applicable, expressing at times disappointment
+and pain, at other times renewed effort, and
+finally the active phases of individual thought and exertion.</p>
+
+<p>The first serious problem with many of you will be
+to secure satisfactory engagements. This problem
+cannot be illustrated by parables. It needs, in general,
+patient, unremitting, and frequently long continued
+effort. It may be that the fame of some of you, that
+have already acquired the happy faculty of making
+yourselves immediately useful, has already gone abroad
+and the coveted positions been already assured. To be
+frank, we cannot promise you even a bed of roses. We
+have in mind an instance where a superior authority
+in a large business enterprise who had great respect,
+as he should have, for the attainments of young gentlemen
+who have had the opportunities of a technical education,
+deliberately ordered out a competent mechanical
+engineer, familiar with the designs required in a large
+repair shop, and sent in his place a young gentleman
+fresh from school and flushed with hope, but who from
+the very nature of the case could know little or nothing
+of his duties at that particular place. He was practically
+alone in the drawing room, and did not know
+where to find such drawings as were required, and candor
+requires it to be said that he desired to ask many
+questions about those he did find. The superintendent
+unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment,
+and rather resented it. So he did not trust any of his
+work, and the new comer was obliged to learn his
+practical experience at that establishment, where he
+was known as the mechanical engineer, by having all
+his work done over by the pattern maker or others, under
+the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic, and
+be subjected all the time to the jealousies and annoyances
+incident to such a method of introduction.</p>
+
+<p>His practical experience was certainly learned under
+difficulties which I trust none of you may experience.
+This statement is made that those of you who have not
+yet obtained positions may not envy those who have,
+and that each and all of you may be careful not to take
+a position so far above your experience, if not your
+capacity, as to become unpleasantly situated in the beginning.
+The educational facilities you have enjoyed
+are of such great value in some exceptional cases that
+the parties thus benefited may do you an injury by
+leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable
+in performing duties which require much more
+practical experience and knowledge of detail than it is
+possible that you could have obtained in the time you
+have been here.</p>
+
+<p>The incident is ripe with suggestions. No matter
+how humble a position you may take in the beginning,
+you will be embarrassed in much the same way as the
+young gentleman in question, though it is hoped in a
+less degree. Your course of action should be first to
+learn to do as you are told, no matter what you think
+of it. And above everything keep your eyes and ears
+open to obtain practical knowledge of all that is going
+on about you. Let nothing escape you of an engineering
+nature, though it has connection with the business
+in hand. It may be your business the next day, and if
+you have taken advantage of the various opportunities
+to know all about that particular matter in every detail,
+you can intelligently act in relation to it, without embarrassment
+to yourself and with satisfaction to your
+superior.</p>
+
+<p>Above all, avoid conflict with the practical force of
+the establishment into which you are introduced. It
+is better, as we have at another time advised, to establish
+friendly relations with the workmen and practical
+men with whom you have to do.</p>
+
+<p>You are to be spared this evening any direct references
+to the &quot;conceit of learning,&quot; but you are asked
+and advised to bear with the <i>conceit of ignorance</i>.
+You will find that practical men will be jealous of you
+on account of your opportunities, and at the same time
+jealous of their own practical information and experience,
+and that they may take some pains to hinder
+rather than aid you in your attempts to actively learn
+the practical details of the business. The most disagreeable
+man about the establishment to persons like
+you, who perhaps goes out of his way to insult you,
+and yet should be respected for his age, may be one
+who can be of greatest use to you. Cultivate his acquaintance.
+A kind word will generally be the best
+response to an offensive remark, though gentlemanly
+words of resentment may be necessary when others are
+present. Sometimes it will be sufficient to say, &quot;I
+wish a little talk with you by yourself,&quot; which will put
+the bystanders at a distance and enable you to mature
+your plans. Ascertain as soon as possible that man's
+tastes; what he reads and what he delights in. Approach
+him as if you had no resentment and talk on
+his favorite topic. If rebuffed, tell a pleasant story,
+and persist from time to time in the attempt to please,
+until his hardened nature relaxes and he begins to feel
+and perhaps speaks to others favorably of you. St.
+Paul has said: &quot;For though I be free from all men,
+yet have I made myself servant of all that I might gain
+the more.&quot; This is the keynote of policy, and though
+in humbling yourself you control and hide your true
+feelings, recollect that all your faculties are given you
+for proper use.</p>
+
+<p>We have referred to some who have acquired the
+happy faculty of making themselves immediately useful.
+This is a much more difficult matter than the
+words imply. If one of you should be so fortunate as
+to be ordered to make certain tests almost like those
+you have already conducted here, or to tabulate the results
+of tests as you have done it here, or to make inspections
+akin to those which have been fully explained
+here, there is every probability the work would be
+done satisfactorily in the first instance. But let a
+much <i>simpler</i> case arise, for instance, if a superior hand
+one of you a letter with the simple instructions, &quot;Get
+me the facts on that,&quot; you may be very much puzzled
+to know what is to be done and how to do it. It may
+be that the letter is a request for information in
+regard to certain work that was carried on in the past,
+in which case it will be necessary for you to hunt
+through old records, copy books, engineering notes,
+drawings, and the like, and get a list of all referring to
+the subject; to make an abstract of the letters and
+notes if they are at all complicated; and finally to lay
+the whole before the overworked superior in a business
+manner, that he largely from recollection, aided
+by the references and notes, can write an intelligent
+answer in a very brief period. The way not to do it
+would be to say, &quot;Yes, sir,&quot; very promptly, go off and
+not more than half read the letter, do something and
+be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested
+answer; then upon receiving a polite hint as to
+the method to be employed, go off and repeat the
+operation the next five minutes; then on receiving a
+short reply, in what appeared to be an unnecessary
+tone of voice, get a little flurried perhaps, do worse
+next time, and in the end feel very unpleasant without
+having accomplished much, and make the gentleman
+seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching
+young men practical work.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, on the contrary, for a young man to exceed
+his instructions and volunteer advice that has not
+been asked. If he has unfortunately gone too far for
+some time and been sharply spoken to, he may fail the
+next in not fully doing the work intended. Simply putting
+down a column of figures would not necessarily mean
+tabulating facts. The arrangement and rearrangement
+of the columns aid in classifying such facts, so that the
+results shown by them will be readily seen and a great
+deal of labor saved in examination. A good rule in a case
+of this kind is to try and find some work done by other
+parties of a similar nature, and thereby ascertain what
+is needed and expected. Reasonable questions to ascertain,
+where records are to be found and the kind of
+records accessible, are always proper if made at the
+proper time without interrupting an immediate train
+of thought; and with such information as a start, if a
+young man will endeavor to imagine himself in a place
+like that of the one who has finally to decide, and try
+to ascertain just what information will probably be
+required, then patiently go to work to find and present
+it in condensed shape, he from that moment really begins
+to be useful and his services will be rapidly appreciated.
+It is a good rule always to keep the memoranda obtained
+in accomplishing a result of this kind; so that if further
+information is required, the whole investigation need
+not be made over.</p>
+
+<p>This remark suggests another line of thought. Some
+young men with quick perceptions get in the way at
+school of trusting their memories, and omit making
+complete notes of lectures or of the various tests
+illustrating their studies. This carelessness follows them
+into after life, and there are instances where young
+men, who can make certain kinds of investigations
+much better than their fellows, and promptly give a
+statement of the general nature of the results, have,
+when called on afterward for the details, forgotten
+then entirely, and their notes and memoranda, if preserved,
+being of little use, the labor is entirely lost.
+Such men necessarily have to learn more careful ways
+in after life. It is a good rule in this, as in the previous
+case, to make and copy complete records of everything
+in such shape that they may be convenient for reference
+and criticism afterward.</p>
+
+<p>One of the important problems with which you will
+have to deal in the future is the labor question, and it
+is probable that your very first experience with it may
+be in direct antagonism with the opinions of many
+with whom you have heretofore been associated. It is
+an honor to the feelings of those who stand outside
+and witness this so-called struggle now in progress
+between capital and labor, that they believe the whole
+question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable
+argument. There are some cases that will yield
+to such treatment, and one's whole duty is not performed
+till all possible, reasonable, and humanitarian
+methods are adopted. There has been an excuse for
+the organization of labor, and it, to some small extent,
+still exists.</p>
+
+<p>Time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used
+on a mercantile basis to reduce wages to such an extent
+that it was almost impossible to rear a well nurtured,
+much less a well educated and well dressed family, and,
+moreover, the hours of labor in some branches of business
+were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives
+and make self-improvement impossible. The natural
+progress of civilizing influence did much to abate many
+of these evils, but the organization of labor removed
+sores that had not and perhaps could not have been reached
+in other ways. Having then an excuse for organization,
+and supported by the success made in directions
+where public sympathy was with them, is it to
+be wondered that they have gone too far in very many
+cases, and that the leadership of such organization
+has in many instances been captured by designing men,
+who control the masses to accomplish selfish ends?
+Whatever may have been the method of evolution, it is
+certain that the manufacturing operations of the present
+day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic
+to their interests, and in very many ways antagonistic
+to the interests of the workingman. The members
+of many organizations, even of intelligent men,
+are blindly led by chiefs of various titles, of which
+perhaps the walking delegate is the most offensive one
+to reasonable people. This class of men claim the
+right to intrude themselves into the establishments
+owned by others, and on the most trivial grounds make
+demands more or less unreasonable, and order strikes
+and otherwise interfere with the work of manufacturers,
+much in the way that we have an idea that the
+agents of the barbarbous chieftains, feudal lords, and
+semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in
+earlier historical times. Necessarily these men must
+use their power so as to insure its permanency. If
+strikes are popular, strikes must be ordered. If funds
+run low, excuses for strikes, it is believed, in many
+cases are sought, so as to stir the pulses of those who
+sympathize with the labor cause.</p>
+
+<p>Co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil,
+and there are cases where it has apparently succeeded,
+in connection with the earlier forms of labor organization.
+The ambition of later labor leaders almost prevents
+this remedy being of effect. It may be possible
+still with very intelligent workmen, isolated from the
+large mass of workmen in the country towns, to feel an
+interest in co-operation; but such inducements, or the
+higher ones of personal kindness to employes or their
+families, are not of much effect in large manufacturing
+centers. As soon as dissatisfaction exists in one
+mill or manufactory, all similar employes are ordered
+out. The final result will be that combinations of employers
+must follow the combination of employes, and
+those who have always been strong in the past will be
+stronger in the future, as has appeared to be the case
+in many contests that have already taken place. If
+there are any real abuses of power by the employers,
+such as requiring work for unusual hours or at less
+than living rates, the first thing to do is to correct these
+abuses, so that complaints will not be upon a sound
+foundation. Some men, when the labor epidemic
+strikes their places, have sufficient force of character
+and influence with their men to avert the blow for
+some time. Others find it is policy to compromise with
+the representatives until a plan of action, conciliatory,
+offensive, or defensive, can be determined upon. The
+whole matter must be considered one of policy rather
+than of principles. The class of men to be dealt with
+do not talk principles except as an excuse to secure
+their ends.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of everything, there will be times when no
+compromise is possible and you will be called upon
+to take part in defending your employers' interests
+against what is called a &quot;strike.&quot; You can do so with
+heart when you know the employes are all well paid,
+and particularly, as is frequently the case, when the
+labor organizers and walking delegates claim that some
+old, tried foreman shall be dismissed because they do
+like him, really because he has not been a tool in carrying
+out their plans, and they defiantly acknowledge
+that their war is against non-union labor, and that
+they have organized your men and forced a strike to
+require your establishment to become as it is called a
+&quot;union shop.&quot; If your deluded employes were permitted
+simply to go away and let you alone, and you
+were permitted to employ others at the reasonable
+wages you were paying, the problem would be a simple
+one. The principal labor organizations claim that everything
+they do is by peaceable methods, but this, like
+many things said, is simply to deceive, for if you attempt
+to employ other assistants and carry on your business
+independently, you will surely find that well known
+roughs are assembled who never do anything without
+they are paid for it by somebody, that your men are
+assaulted by such persons, and while the labor organizers
+talk about peaceable methods and urge them aloud
+in public, in case one of the roughs is arrested, the loud
+talkers are the first to go bail for the defender, and you
+will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd
+with the roughs who make the assaults are all part of
+or tools of the organization.</p>
+
+<p>At such times, you will find your old employes standing
+around the street corners, persuading other men not
+to go to work and thus interfere with what are called
+the true interests of labor. Any new employe who
+has to go in the street will be first met with inducements
+of other employment, with offers of money,
+afterward with threats, and, if opportunity occurs, with
+direct assault. All the features of persuasion, intimidation,
+and violence will be carried out as demanded, and
+strangers to everybody in the vicinity, but well known
+as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other
+places, be brought in to endeavor to make the strike a
+success. Then, young men, is the time to show your
+pluck, and our experience is that educated young men
+will do so every time. They can be depended upon to go
+straight ahead with duty through every danger, bearing
+patiently everything that may be said, defending
+themselves with nature's weapons as long as possible,
+and without fear using reserve weapons in case real
+danger of life is imminent.</p>
+
+<p>In carrying through a very important strike against
+a mere desire to control and not to correct abuses, your
+speaker desires to pay the highest tribute to a number
+of educated young men, mostly from the technical
+schools, who fearlessly faced every danger, and by their
+example stimulated others to do their duty, and all
+participated in the results obtained by a great success.</p>
+
+<p>We would not by such references fire your hearts to a
+desire to participate in such an unpleasant contest. It
+is the duty of all to study this problem intelligently
+and earnestly, with a view of overcoming the difficulties
+and permitting the prosperity of the country to go on.
+While conciliation may be best at some times, policy at
+another, and resistance at another, we must also be
+thinking of the best means to prevent further outbreaks.
+It would seem to be true policy not to interfere
+with organization, but to try and direct it into
+higher channels. Those of the humanitarians who claim
+that the disease will be rooted out eventually by a
+more general and better education are undoubtedly
+largely in the right, notwithstanding that some fairly
+educated men have acted against their best interests in
+affiliating with the labor organizations. It seems to the
+speaker that enough instances can be collected to show
+the utter folly of the present selfish system, based, as
+it is, entirely on getting all that is possible, independent
+of right in the matter, and by demanding equal wages
+for all men, tending to lower all to one common degradation,
+instead of rewarding industry and ability and
+advancing the cause of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Labor should not be organized for selfish ends, but
+for its own good, <i>so as to secure steady and permanent
+employment</i>, rather than prevent it by impracticable
+schemes and unwise methods, which will cripple manufacturers
+and all kinds of industry. The men should
+organize under the general laws of the State, so that
+their leaders will be responsible to the laws and can be
+indicted, tried, and punished in case they misappropriate
+funds or commit any breach of trust; and such laws
+should be amended if necessary, so that wise, responsible
+leaders of the organizations can contract to furnish
+labor for a certain time at a fixed price, when manufacturers
+can make calculations ahead as to the cost of labor
+the same as for the cost of material, and have such confidence
+that they will use all their energies to do a larger
+amount of business and benefit the workingman as
+well as themselves by furnishing steady employment.
+Such a plan as is here outlined can readily be carried
+into effect by selecting better men as leaders. It is well
+known how well the organization known as the locomotive
+brotherhood is conducted, and it should be an
+example to others. It has had its day of dissensions,
+when the best counsels did not prevail, which shows
+that any organization of the kind, no matter how well
+conducted, may be diverted by its leaders into improper
+channels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_9945" id ="Page_9945"></a>When organized under the laws of the State and under
+by-laws designed to secure steady employment,
+rather than any artificial condition of things in regard
+to pay hours, and continuance of labor, the true interests
+of the workman will be advanced. It may be that
+some one of you will develop a talent in the direction of
+organization and be the means of aiding in the solution
+of this great problem. Please think of the matter seriously,
+watch the law of evolution while you are advancing
+your professional knowledge, and if the opportunity
+offers, do all you can to aid in a cause so important
+and beneficent.</p>
+
+<p>One writer has criticised the technical schools because
+they do not teach mechanical intuition. The
+schools have enough to do in the time available if they
+teach principles and sufficient practice to enable the
+principles to be understood. The aptitude to design,
+which must be what is meant by mechanical intuition,
+requires very considerable practical experience, which
+you will readily learn if you do not keep yourself
+above it. If you have used your leisure hours to study
+why a certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain
+way rather than in another; if you have wondered
+why one part is thick in one place rather than in another,
+apparently in defiance of all rules of the strength
+of material; if you have endeavored to ascertain why
+a particular device is used rather than another more
+evident one; if you have thought and studied why a
+boss is thrown in here and there in designs to receive
+bolts or to lengthen a journal, and if you have in your
+mind, by repeated observation, a fair idea of how work
+is designed by other people, the so-called <i>mechanical
+intuition</i> will be learned and found to be the <i>combination
+of common sense and good practice</i>.</p>
+
+<p>You will observe that some details have been copied
+for years and years, although thoughtful men would
+say they are not the best, simply because they are
+adapted to a large amount of work already done. This
+is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads.
+The cost of a change in starting in a new country
+might be warranted, but it practically cannot be done
+when the parts must interchange with so much work
+done in other parts of the country. You will find in
+other cases that the direct strain to which a piece of
+mechanism is subjected is only one of the strains which
+occur in practice. A piece of metal may have been
+thickened where it customarily broke, and you may
+possibly surmise that certain jars took place that
+caused such breakages, or that particular point was
+where the abuse of the attendant was customarily applied.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever you go you will find matters of this kind
+affecting designs staring you in the face, and you will
+soon see why a man who has learned his trade in the
+shop, and from there worked into the drawing room
+with much less technical information than you have,
+can get along as well as he does. Reserve your strength,
+however. Your time will come. Whenever there is a
+new departure to be taken, and matters to be worked
+out from the solid which require close computation of
+strains or the application of any principles, your education
+will put you far ahead, and if you have, during
+the period of what may be called your post-graduate
+course, which occurs during your early introduction
+into practical life, been careful to keep your eyes and
+ears open so as to learn all that a man in practical life
+has done, you will soon stand far ahead.</p>
+
+<p>Reference was made to the use of leisure hours. Leisure
+hours can be spent in various ways. For instance,
+in studying the composition and resolution of forces
+and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room, the poetry
+of motion, etc., in a ball room, and the chemical properties
+of various malt and vinous extracts in another
+room; but the philosophical reason why certain engineering
+work is done in the way it is, and the proper
+way in which new work shall be done of a similar
+character and original work of any kind carried on,
+can only be learned by cultivating your powers of observation
+and ruminating on the facts collected in the
+privacy of one's own room, away from the allurements
+provided for those who have nothing to do. No one
+would recommend you to so separate yourself from the
+world as to sacrifice health and strength, or to become
+a recluse, even if you did learn all about a certain
+thing.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, however, that the men who have accomplished
+most in this world worked the longest hours,
+and any one with a regular occupation must utilize his
+leisure hours to obtain prestige. The difference between
+one man and another of the same natural ability
+lies entirely in the amount of his information and the
+facility with which he can use it. Life is short, and you
+must realize that now is your opportunity. If any diversion
+in the way of pleasure or even certain kinds of congenial
+work is offered, consider it in connection with the
+question, &quot;Will this be conducive to my higher aim?&quot;
+This implies that you have a higher aim; and if you
+have it, and weigh everything in this way, you will
+find that every moment of exertion adds something to
+your storehouse of information and brings you nearer
+to the accomplishment of that higher aim.</p>
+
+<p>In closing, we thank the ladies and gentlemen present
+for their close attention to details of special interest
+only to those engaged in technical study or practice.</p>
+
+<p>We congratulate you, young gentlemen of the class of
+'87, for the success you have thus far obtained, and trust
+that you will persevere in well doing and win greater
+success in the future. We need hardly state that all
+that has been said was in a spirit of kindness, and we
+feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your
+parents, to whom no less than to all parents here present
+off or on the stage, the speaker not excepted, a serious,
+thoughtful problem has been, still is, and will continue
+to be to many, &quot;What shall we do with our boys.&quot;&mdash;<i>Stevens
+Indicator.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id ="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>An address to the graduating class, Stevens Institute, Hoboken, N.J., 1887.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art11" id ="art11"></a>HEATING MARINE BOILERS WITH LIQUID
+FUEL.</h2>
+
+<p>We were recently witness of an experiment made at
+Eragny Conflans on the steam yacht Flamboyante. It
+was a question of testing a new vaporizer or burner
+for liquid fuel. The experiment was a repetition of
+the one that the inventor, Mr. G. Dietrich, recently
+performed with success in the presence of Admirals
+Cloue and Miot.</p>
+
+<p>The Flamboyante is 58 ft. in length, 9 ft. in width,
+draws 5 ft. of water, and has a displacement of 10 tons.
+She is provided with a double vertical engine supplied
+by a Belleville boiler that develops 28 horse power.
+The screw makes 200 revolutions per minute, and gives
+the yacht a speed of 6½ knots.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dietrich's vaporizer appears to be very simple,
+and has given so good results that we have thought it
+of interest to give our readers a succinct description of
+it. In this apparatus, the inventor has endeavored to
+obtain an easy regulation of the two essential elements&mdash;naphtha
+and steam.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 represents the apparatus in section. The
+steam enters through the tubulure, A, and finds its
+way around the periphery of a tuyere, D. It escapes
+with great velocity, carries along the petroleum that
+runs from two lateral tubulures, B (Fig. 2), and throws
+it in a fine spray into the fireplace, through the nozzle,
+C (Fig. 1), which is flattened into the shape of a fan
+opened out horizontally. The mixture at once ignites
+in contact with the hot gases, and gives a beautiful,
+long, clear flame. The air necessary for the combustion
+is sucked through the interior of the nozzle, H,
+which is in front of the tuyere. It will be seen that
+the current of steam can be regulated by moving the
+tuyere, D, from or toward the eduction orifice. This
+is effected through a maneuver of the hand wheel, F.
+In the second place, the flow of the petroleum is made
+regular by revolving the hand wheel, G, which gives
+the piston, O, a to and fro motion in the tuyere, D.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/3a.png" alt="FIG. 1&mdash;THE DIETRICH PETROLEUM BURNER." /><br /> FIG. 1&mdash;THE DIETRICH PETROLEUM BURNER.</p>
+
+<p>The regulation may be performed with the greatest
+ease. It is possible to instantly vary, together or separately,
+the steam and the petroleum. Under such
+circumstances, choking is not to be feared at the petroleum
+orifice, where, according to experiment, the thickness
+of the substance to be vaporized should not be
+less than 0.04 of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The petroleum might evidently be made to enter at
+A and the steam at B; but one of the conclusions of
+the experiments cited is that the performance is better
+when the jet of steam surrounds the petroleum. It
+will be understood, in fact, that by this means not a
+particle of the liquid can escape vaporization and,
+consequently, combustion. Moreover, as the jet of
+petroleum is completely surrounded by steam its flow
+can be increased within the widest limits, and this, in
+certain cases, may prevent an obstruction without much
+diminishing the useful effect of the burner.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus is easily and rapidly taken apart. It
+it is only necessary to remove the nozzle, C, in order to
+partially clean it. It would even seem that the cleaning
+might be done automatically by occasionally
+reversing the flow of the steam and petroleum. However
+efficacious such a method might prove, the apparatus
+as we have described it can be very easily applied
+to any generator. Fig. 2 represents it as applied
+to the front of a furnace provided with two doors. A
+metallic box, with two compartments, is placed on one
+side of the furnace, and is provided with two stuffing
+boxes that are capable of revolving around the steam
+and petroleum pipes. The latter thus form the pivots
+of the hinge that allows of the play of the vaporizers
+and piping.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/3b.png" alt="FIG. 2&mdash;THE BURNER APPLIED TO THE FURNACE OF A BOILER." /><br /> FIG. 2&mdash;THE BURNER APPLIED TO THE FURNACE OF A BOILER.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this way that Mr. Dietrich arranged his
+apparatus in an experiment made upon a stationary
+boiler belonging to a Mr. Corpet. The experiment was
+satisfactory and led to the adoption of the arrangement
+shown in Fig. 3. The fire bridge is constructed
+of refractory bricks, and the majority of the grate bars
+are filled in with brick. The few free bars permit of
+the firing of the boiler and of access of air to the interior
+of the fire box. Under such circumstances, the
+combustion is very regular, the furnace does not roar,
+and the smoke-consuming qualities are perfect.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/3c.png" alt="FIG. 3&mdash;APPLICATION OF THE BURNER TO A RETURN FLAME BOILER." /><br /> FIG. 3&mdash;APPLICATION OF THE BURNER TO A RETURN FLAME BOILER.</p>
+
+<p>In the experiment on the Flamboyante, the boiler
+was provided with but one apparatus, and the grate
+remained covered with a layer of ignited coal that had
+been used for firing up in order to obtain the necessary
+pressure of steam to set the vaporizer in operation.
+This ignited coal appeared to very advantageously
+replace the refractory bricks, the role of which it
+exactly fulfilled. It has been found well, moreover,
+to break the flames by a few piles of bricks in the furnace,
+in order to obtain as intimate a mixture as possible
+of the inflammable gases.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be remarked that firing up in order to obtain
+the necessary steam at first is a drawback that might
+be surmounted by using at the beginning of the operation
+a very small auxiliary boiler. The main furnace
+would then be fired by means of say a wad of cotton.
+But, in current practice, if a grate and fire be retained,
+the firing will perhaps be simpler.</p>
+
+<p>With but one apparatus, the pressure in the Flamboyante's
+boiler rose in a few minutes from 6 to 25
+pounds, and about a quarter of an hour after leaving
+the wharf the apparatus had been so regulated that
+there was no sign of smoke. This property of the
+Dietrich burner proceeds naturally from the use of a
+jet of steam to carry along the petroleum and air necessary
+for combustion. It is, in fact, an Orvis smoke consumer
+transformed, and applied in a special way.</p>
+
+<p>It must be added that the regulating requires a certain
+amount of practice and even a certain amount of
+time at every change in the boat's running. So it is
+well to use two, and even three, apparatus, of a size
+adapted to that of the boiler. The regulation of the
+<a name="Page_9946" id ="Page_9946"></a>furnace temperature is then effected by extinguishing
+one or two, or even three, of the apparatus, according
+as it is desired to slow up more or less or to come to a
+standstill.</p>
+
+<p>The oil used by Mr. De Dosme on his yacht comes
+from Comaille, near Antun. The price of it is quite
+low, and, seeing the feeble consumption (from 33 to 45
+lb. for the yacht's boiler), it competes advantageously
+with the coal that Mr. De Dosme was formerly obliged
+to use.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9935.]</p>
+
+<h2><a name="art12" id ="art12"></a>THE CHANGE OF GAUGE OF SOUTHERN
+RAILROADS IN 1886.<a name="FNanchor_2" id ="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+
+<h3>By C.H. HUDSON.</h3>
+
+<p>Many of the wheels that were still in use with the
+long hub were put into a lathe, and a groove was cut
+an inch and a half back from the face, leaving our cast
+collar, which was easily split off as before. (Fig. 24.)</p>
+
+<p>With tender wheels, as with our car wheels, the case
+was different. Originally, the axle for the 5 ft. gauge
+was longer than for the 4 ft. 9 in.; but latterly the 5 ft.
+roads had used a great many master car builders' axles
+for the 4 ft. 9 in. gauge, namely, 6 ft. 11¼ in. over all,
+thus making the width of the truck the same as for 4
+ft. 9 in. gauge. To do this a dished wheel, or rather a
+wheel with a greater dish by 1½ in. than previously
+used, was needed, so that the tread of the wheel could
+be at its proper place. (See Fig. 25.) There were, of
+course, many of the wheels with small dish and long
+axles still in use. Their treatment, however, when the
+day of change came, did not vary from that of the short
+axle.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4a.png" alt="FIG. 24 and FIG. 25" /><br /> FIG. 24 and FIG. 25</p>
+
+<p>It had been the rule for some years that all axles
+should be turned back 1½ in. further than needed;
+but unfortunately the rule had not been closely followed,
+and many were found not to be so turned. To
+make the matter worse, quite a number of the wheels
+were found to have been counterbored about ½ in.
+deep at the back end, and the axle turned up to fit this
+counterbore; a good idea to prevent the running in, in
+case the wheel worked loose, but bad from the standpoint
+of a change of gauge. In such cases the wheels
+had to be started off before the axle could be turned
+back, so that the wheels could be pushed on in their
+proper position. (Fig. 26.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4b.png" alt="FIG. 26" /><br /> FIG. 26</p>
+
+<p>If the work was done where they had a lathe large
+enough to swing a pair of wheels, they were pressed off
+but half an inch, the wheels swung in the lathe, the
+axles turned back 1½ in., and the wheels then pressed
+on 2 in. or 1½ in. inside of their first position.</p>
+
+<p>Where no large lathe was in use, the wheels came entirely
+off before the axles could be turned back. The
+work in the former case was both the quicker and the
+cheaper. Where the large lathes were used they were
+either set down into the floor, so a pair of wheels would
+easily roll into place, or a raised platform was put before
+the lathe, with an incline up which the wheels
+were rolled and then taken to the lathe. These arrangements
+were found much quicker and cheaper than to
+hoist the wheels up, as is usually done.</p>
+
+<p>In pressing the wheels on, where the axles had previously
+been turned back, much trouble was at first experienced
+because of the rust that had gathered upon
+the turned part behind the wheel, forming a ridge
+over or upon which the wheel must be pushed. Some
+of the roads, at the start, burst 10 or 15 per cent. of the
+wheels so pressed on. By saturating this surface with
+coal oil, however, it was found that the rust was easily
+removed and little trouble was had. It was found,
+sometimes, that upon axles newly turned back a careless
+workman would leave a ridge at the starting point
+of the turning. Frequently also the axles were a little
+sprung, so that the new turning would be a little scant
+upon one side when compared with the old surface, and
+upon the opposite side a little full. As an indication
+that these difficulties were overcome as they appeared,
+I will say that upon our line only 202 wheels burst out
+of nearly 27,000 pressed on&mdash;an exceedingly small percentage.</p>
+
+<p>After the change upon the early roads they were
+troubled for weeks with hot boxes, caused, as we believed,
+by the changing of brasses. A brass once fitted
+to a journal will work upon it without trouble, but
+when placed upon some other journal will probably
+not fit. If the journal had been worn hollow (and it was
+surprising to see how many were so worn), the brass
+would be found worn down to fit it. (See Fig. 27.
+Exaggerated, of course.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 27 and FIG. 28" /><br /> FIG. 27 and FIG. 28</p>
+
+<p>The next wheel may have an axle worn little or none.
+(See Fig. 28)</p>
+
+<p>Now, if these brasses are exchanged, we have the
+conditions as shown in Figs. 29 and 30, and we must
+expect they will heat. The remedy was simply to keep
+each brass upon its own journal. To do this the
+brasses were fastened to the axle by a piece of small
+wire, and went with it to the lathe and press. When
+its truck was reached, the brass was there with its
+journal. Worn-out brasses, of course, could not be
+put in, and new ones were substituted. The little
+trouble from that source that followed the change
+showed the efficacy of the remedy.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4d.png" alt="FIG. 29 and FIG. 30" /><br /> FIG. 29 and FIG. 30</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the tires of engines were to be
+changed, when the final day came, was a serious question.
+The old-fashioned fire upon the ground could
+not be thought of. The M. &amp; O. had used a fire of
+pine under the wheel, which was covered by a box of
+sheet iron, so arranged that the flame and heat would be
+conveyed around the tire, and out at an aperture at the
+top. (Fig. 31.) Many thought this perfect, while others
+were not satisfied, and began experiments for something
+better. A device for using gas had been patented,
+but it was somewhat complicated, as well as expensive,
+and did not meet with general favor. A very simple
+device was soon hit upon. A two inch pipe was bent
+around in a circle a little larger than the outer rim of
+the wheel. Holes 1/10 in. in diameter and 3 or 4 in. apart
+were drilled through the pipe on the inside of the circle.
+To this pipe was fastened another with a branch or
+fork upon it. To one branch or fork was connected a
+gas pipe from the meter, while to the other was connected
+a pipe from an air pump. With the ordinary
+pressure of city gas upon this pipe it was found that
+the air pump must keep an air pressure of 40 pounds,
+that the air and gas might mix properly at the branch
+or fork, so we could get the best combustion and most
+heat from our &quot;blowpipe,&quot; for such it was. (Fig. 32.)</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4e.png" alt="FIG. 31 and FIG. 32" /><br /> FIG. 31 and FIG. 32</p>
+
+<p>We were able to heat a tire so it could be moved in
+ten to twenty minutes, and the machine may be said to
+have been satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Gas, however, was not to be had at all places where
+it would be necessary to change tires, and the item of
+cost was considerable.</p>
+
+<p>To reach a result as good, if possible, experiments
+were begun with coal oil (headlight oil). They were
+crude and unsatisfactory at first, but soon success was
+reached.</p>
+
+<p>A pipe was bent to fit the lower half of a wheel pretty
+closely and then turned back under itself about the
+diameter of the pipe distant from it. This under part
+had holes 1/10 in. diameter and 3 or 4 in. apart drilled
+upon its upper side or under the upper pipe. Connected
+with the upper pipe at its center was a pipe
+which ran to one side and up to the can containing the
+kerosene. Between the can and the pipe under the
+wheel was a stop cock, by which the flow of oil could
+be controlled.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4f.png" alt="FIG. 33" /><br /> FIG. 33</p>
+
+<p>To use the device, open the cock and let a small
+amount of oil flow; apply fire to the pipe under the
+wheel, and the oil in the upper pipe is converted into
+gas, which flows out of the small holes in the lower
+pipe, takes fire, and heats not only the tire, but
+the upper pipe, thus converting more oil into gas.
+We had here a lot of blue flame jets and the same
+result as with gas, but at less cost. We had also a machine
+that was inexpensive and easily handled anywhere.
+Boxes were placed over the upper parts of the
+wheels, that the heat might pass closely to the tire.
+This device was extensively used by our people, and
+with great satisfaction. In one way care had to be
+taken, viz.: That in starting the fire it did not smoke
+and cover the tire with carbon or &quot;lampblack,&quot; which
+is a non-conductor of heat.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments were made with air forced through
+gasoline, and with oil heated in a can to form gas.
+There was more danger in either of these than with
+our blowpipe device, and no better results were obtained,
+though the cost was greater.</p>
+
+<p>With the change of the wheels, the brakes had to be
+changed the same amount, that is, each one set in 1½
+in. This it was thought would either require new
+hangers or a change in the head or shoe in some way.
+We found that the hangers could easily be bent without
+removal. Fig. 34 shows three hangers after passing
+through the bending process. A short lever arranged
+to clasp the hanger just below the point, A,
+was the instrument; a forked &quot;shore&quot; is now placed,
+with the fork, against the point, A, and the other end
+against the car sill; press down on the lever and you
+bend the hanger at A; lower the lever to a point just
+below B, reverse the process, and you have the bend at
+B; the whole thing taking less than two minutes per
+hanger. A new bolt hole, of course, has been bored in
+the brake beam 1½ in. inside the old hole. It takes
+but a short time after this to change the position of the
+head and shoe.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4g.png" alt="FIG. 34" /><br /> FIG. 34</p>
+
+<p>Before the day of change, a portion of the spikes
+were drawn from the inside of the rail to be moved,
+and spike set 3 in. inside of the rail. As a rule two
+spikes were drawn and the third left. At least every
+third spike was set for the new gauge, and in some
+cases every other one.</p>
+
+<p>There were several devices with which to set the
+spike. A small piece of iron 3 in. wide was common,
+and answered the purpose well. This had a handle,
+sometimes small, just large enough for the hand to
+clasp, while others had a handle long enough for a man
+to use it without stooping down. (See Figs. 35 and 36.)
+Another device is shown in Fig. 37, so arranged that
+the measurements were made from the head of the
+other rail. This was liked best, and, it is thought,
+gave the best results, as the moved rail was more
+likely to be in good line than when the measurements
+were taken from the flange.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4h.png" alt="FIG. 35, FIG. 36 and FIG. 37" /><br /> FIG. 35, FIG. 36 and FIG. 37</p>
+
+<p>It was intended that great care should be taken in
+driving the spikes, that they were in the proper place,
+square with the rail, and left sticking up about an
+inch.</p>
+
+<p>The ties, of course, were all adzed down before the
+day of change.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Handspikes&quot; were originally used to throw the
+rails, as were lining bars.</p>
+
+<p>We found, however, that small &quot;cant hooks&quot; were
+more easily handled and did better work. The first
+were made like Fig. 38, with a spike in the end of a
+stick, while the hook was fastened with a bolt about
+10 or 12 inches above the foot.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/4i.png" alt="FIG. 38 and FIG. 39" /><br /> FIG. 38 and FIG. 39</p>
+
+<p>We afterward made them of a 1¼ in. rod, 3½ ft.
+long, pointed at one end, with a ring shrunk on 1 ft.
+from the bottom. Then the hook was made with an
+eye, as shown in Fig. 39, which slipped down over the
+top of the main rod. This was simple and cheap, and
+the iron was to be used for repair purposes when this
+work was done.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the system with which the writer was connected
+we had some branches where we could experiment upon
+the moving of the rail. Between Selma and Lauderdale
+the traffic was light, and at Lauderdale it connected
+with the Mobile &amp; Ohio Railroad, which was
+narrow, and to which all freight had to be transferred,
+either by hoisting the cars or by handling through
+the house. By changing our gauge we would simply
+change the point of transfer to Selma. Here was a
+chance to experiment upon one hundred miles and
+cause little trouble to traffic. We could see the practical
+workings of our plans, and, at the same time, leave
+less to do on the final day. Upon the 20th of April we
+did this work. It had been our plan to do it somewhat
+earlier, but floods prevented.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the rail was old chair iron, short, and consequently
+more time was used in making the change
+than would have been required had our work been on
+fishplate rail. Our sections here were about eight
+miles long, and we arranged our men on the basis
+blocked out by the committee, viz., 24 to 26 men to the
+section, consisting of 6 spike pullers, 4 throwing rails,
+12 spikers, 2 to push the cars and carry water.</p>
+
+<p>We soon found 5 ft. cars useless, and threw them into
+the ditch to be picked up at some future time.</p>
+
+<p>The men were spread out so as not to be in each
+other's way, and when the organization was understood
+and conformed to, it worked well. One gang
+changed 5 miles in 5 hours and 10 minutes, including a
+number of switches. We found, however, and it was
+demonstrated still more strongly on later work, that
+after 5 or 6 miles the men began to lag.</p>
+
+<p>We believed we had the best results when we had
+sections of about that length.</p>
+
+<p>It was arranged that two sections, alternately, commenced
+work together at one point, working from
+each other and continuing until the force of another
+section was met, working from the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p>The foreman in charge was expected to examine the
+work and know that all was right. The push car
+which followed was a good test as to gauge.</p>
+
+<p>A work train was started from each end with a small
+force (20 or 25 men) to run over the changed track.
+This train, of course, had been changed on a previous
+day to be ready for this work.</p>
+
+<p>If a force was overtaken by this train with its work
+not done, the men on the train were at once spread out
+to aid in its completion. This done, the train ran on.</p>
+
+<p>Not until this was done was a traffic train allowed to
+pass over the track. The same rule was followed upon
+all the work.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the final day it was required that upon all high
+trestles and in tunnels the track should be full-spiked
+before being left or a train let over. This took extra
+time and labor, and possibly was not necessary; but it
+was a precaution on the side of safety.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the day of the change of the Alabama Central
+Division (Selma to Lauderdale), superintendents of
+other divisions, with their road masters, supervisors,
+master mechanics and many section foremen, were sent
+<a name="Page_9947" id ="Page_9947"></a>over to see the organization and work and the
+preparations that had been made. Many of them lent a
+helping hand in the work. They saw here in practice
+what had only been theory before.</p>
+
+<p>About a week before the general change that portion
+of the road between Rome, Ga., and Selma, Ala., about
+200 miles, was changed, and again men from other
+divisions were sent to see and aid in the work. So when
+the final day came, the largest possible number of men
+were able to work understandingly.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of May the Memphis &amp; Charleston,
+Knoxville &amp; Ohio, and North Carolina branch were
+changed, and on June 1 the line from Bristol to
+Chattanooga and Brunswick.</p>
+
+<p>Other roads changed their branch lines a day or two
+before the 1st of June; but the main lines, as a rule,
+were changed on that day.</p>
+
+<p>It was a small matter to take care of the cars and
+arrange the train service so there should be no hitches.
+It was not expected that connections would move
+freight during the 48 hours prior to the change, and
+these days were spent in clearing the road of everything,
+and taking the cars to the points of rendezvous.
+All scheduled freight trains were abandoned on the day
+prior to the change, and only trains run <i>to</i> such
+points.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the East Tennessee system these points were
+Knoxville, Rome, Atlanta, Macon, Huntsville, and Memphis,
+and to these points all cars must go, loaded or
+empty, and there they were parked upon the tracks
+prepared for the purpose. Passenger trains were run
+to points where it had been arranged to change them,
+generally to the general changing point.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the Southern roads have double daily passenger
+service. Upon all roads one of these trains, upon
+the day of change, was abandoned, and upon some all.
+Some, even, did not run till next day.</p>
+
+<p>We were able to start the day trains out by 10 or 11
+o'clock A.M., and put them through in fair time. Of
+course, no freights were run that day, and the next day
+was used in getting the cars which had been changed out
+of the parks and into line. So our freight traffic over
+the entire South was suspended practically three days.</p>
+
+<p>The work of changing was to commence at 3:30 A.M.,
+but many of the men were in position at an earlier
+hour, and did commence work as soon as the last train
+was over, or an hour or so before the fixed time.
+Half-past three A.M., however, can be set down as the
+general hour of commencement.</p>
+
+<p>For five or six hours in the cool morning the work
+went on briskly, the men working with much more
+than ordinary enthusiasm. But the day was warm,
+and after 9 or 10 A.M. it began to lag. All was done,
+however, before the day was over, and safe, so that
+trains could pass at full speed.</p>
+
+<p>The men all received $1.50 for the work, whether it
+was finished early or late in the day, and were paid
+that afternoon as soon as the work was done. Tickets
+were given the men, which the nearest agent paid,
+remitting as cash to the treasurer.</p>
+
+<p>On some lines it was deemed best to offer prizes to
+those who got through first.</p>
+
+<p>Reports showed some very early finishes. But the
+facts seem to have been that under such encouragement
+the men were apt to pull <i>too many</i> spikes before
+the change and put <i>too few</i> in while changing.
+They were thus reported through early, but their work
+was not done, and they took great chances.</p>
+
+<p>It was by most considered unwise to offer such prizes,
+preferring to have a little more time taken and be sure
+that all was safe. Such lines seemed to get their trains
+in motion with as much promptness as others. This,
+with freedom from accident, was the end sought.</p>
+
+<p>It was found after the work had been done that there
+had been little inaccuracies in driving the gauge spike,
+to which the rail was thrown, probably from various
+causes. The rail to be moved may not always have
+been exactly in its proper place, and then the template
+in the hurry may not have been accurately placed, or
+the spike may have turned or twisted.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever was the cause, it was found that frequently
+the line on the moved side was not perfect, and, of
+course, many spikes had to be drawn and the rail lined
+up and respiked. The more careful the work had been
+done, the less of this there was to do afterward. With
+rough track this was least seen. The nearer perfect,
+the more noticeable it was.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, we all planned to get foreign cars home
+and have ours sent to us. But when the interchange
+stopped, we found we had many foreign cars, which,
+of course, had to be changed. This subject had come
+up in convention and it had been voted to charge three
+dollars per car when axles did not need turning, and
+five dollars where they did. By comparison with the
+cost of changing, as shown in this paper, it will be
+seen that to our company, at least, there was no loss at
+these figures.</p>
+
+<p>The following tables will explain the work done upon
+the Louisville &amp; Nashville and East Tennessee, Virginia
+&amp; Georgia systems.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that the writer has not at hand
+information regarding other roads, that fuller statements
+and comparisons might be made and the showings be of
+greater value.</p>
+
+<p>The figures of the Mobile &amp; Ohio are added, having
+been compiled from the annual report of that road.</p>
+
+<p class="center">MOBILE &amp; OHIO RAILROAD.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>(Compiled from Annual Report.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="Mobile Ohio RR Statistics">
+<colgroup span="6"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="6" /></colgroup>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th><th>Number Changed.</th><th>Cost of Labor.</th><th>Cost of Material.</th><th>Total Cost.</th><th>Average Cost.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders.</td><td>47</td><td>$ 8,031.42</td><td>$ 7,276.86</td><td>$15,308.28</td><td>$325.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pass., bag., ex. cars.</td><td>55</td><td>439.37</td><td>104.25</td><td>542.62</td><td>9.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Freight cars, 1,361.<br />Freight trucks, 107½.</td><td>1,468½</td><td>5,719.03</td><td>739.57</td><td>6,458.60</td><td>4.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lever and push cars.</td><td>143</td><td>1,427.55</td><td>476.93</td><td>1,904.48</td><td>13.32</td></tr>
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th><th>Miles.</th><th colspan="4">&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Track (inc. sidings).</td><td>583.5</td><td>17,109.53</td><td>7,275.14</td><td>24,384.87</td><td>41.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bridges.</td><td>583.5</td><td>1,896.60</td><td>190.00</td><td>2,086.60</td><td>3.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track tools.</td><td>583.5</td><td>170.72</td><td>1,405.74</td><td>1,576.46</td><td>2.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Shop tools.</td><td>583.5</td><td>419.70</td><td>2,982.90</td><td>3,402.60</td><td>5.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temp. side tracks.</td><td>12.09</td><td>1,958.94</td><td>372.37</td><td>2,331.31</td><td>192.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Switching cars.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1,398.18</td><td>16.50</td><td>1,414.68</td><td rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Car hoists.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2,499.38</td><td>4,419.34</td><td>6,918.72</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total cost.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>$41,069.42</td><td>$25,259.60</td><td>$66,329.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total average<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cost per mile.</td><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>$113.68</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">LOUISVILLE &amp; NASHVILLE RAILROAD.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>Compiled from Annual Report.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" span="2" /><col align="right" span="3" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Miles of track</td><td>&mdash;Main line</td><td>1,893.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&mdash;Side track</td><td>196.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>2,090.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><th>Track.</th><th>&nbsp;</th><th>Total.</th><th>Cost per Mile.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Section labor</td><td>&mdash;Before day of change</td><td>$28,106.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&mdash;On day of change</td><td>20,090.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&mdash;After day of change</td><td>19,713.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>$67,910.21</td><td>$32.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Carpenter labor</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>3,799.19</td><td>1.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spikes</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>20,873.70</td><td>9.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Switches</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>6,331.85</td><td>3.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tools</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>2,749.50</td><td>1.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hand cars and sundries</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>5,691.39</td><td>2.72</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>$107,855.84</td><td>$51.36</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" align="center"><i>Equipment.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"></td><th>Number.</th><th>Total.</th><th>Average Cost.</th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">Locomotives</td><td>264</td><td>$53,480.98</td><td>$202.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">Cars (300 of these passenger&mdash;3.5%)</td><td>8,537</td><td>49,577.20</td><td>5.81</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total cost</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>$210,414.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total average cost per mile</td><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>$100.67</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">EAST TENNESSEE, VIRGINIA &amp; GEORGIA SYSTEM.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="Desc, No. Changed, Cost Labor, Cost Material, Total, Average">
+<colgroup span="6"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="5" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>Number Changed.</th><th>Cost of Labor.</th><th>Cost of Material.</th><th>Total Cost.</th><th>Average Cost.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders.</td><td>180</td><td>$ 8,227.47</td><td>$ 2,904.30</td><td>$ 11,131.77</td><td>$ 61.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pass., bag., and mail cars.</td><td>168</td><td>734.93</td><td>59.67</td><td>794.60</td><td>4.73</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Freight cars and cabooses.</td><td>5,175</td><td>17,425.57</td><td>1,224.08</td><td>18,649.65</td><td>3.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>M. of W. cars.</td><td>439</td><td>2,038.44</td><td>549.47</td><td>2,587.91</td><td>5.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>Miles<br />Track.</th><td colspan="4">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track (inc. sidings).</td><td>1,532.7</td><td>27,718.17</td><td>40,912.09</td><td>68,630.26</td><td>44.78</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bridges.</td><td>1,532.7</td><td>1,808.57</td><td>200.00</td><td>2,008.57</td><td>1.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track tools.</td><td>1,532.7</td><td>194.48</td><td>2,573.83</td><td>2,768.31</td><td>1.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Storage tracks, inc. taking up.</td><td>37.02</td><td>9,825.41</td><td>1,481.59</td><td>11,307.00</td><td>305.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Shop tools.</td><td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>472.20</td><td>2,728.30</td><td>3,200.50</td><td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total cost.</td><td>$68,445.24</td><td>$52.633.33</td><td>$121,078.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total average<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;cost per mile.</td><td colspan="5">$ 79.06</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" summary="Layout for summary statistics">
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Axles condemned</td><td>577</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheels condemned</td><td>754</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheels burst</td><td>202</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New axles used</td><td>1,102</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New wheels used</td><td>2,783</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Axles turned back</td><td>8,316</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheels pressed on without turning axle</td><td>23,952</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New brasses used</td><td>10,723</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cars narrowed (not including lever or push cars)</td><td>5,343</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines narrowed</td><td>180</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average cost of new centers and crank pins, etc</td><td>$264.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average cost of cutting off hub and pressing wheels and new pins</td><td>130.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average cost of pressing old tires on old centers</td><td>29.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average cost of pressing old tires on broad centers</td><td>31.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Average cost of labor putting on new tires</td><td>22.94</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" /><col align="right" span="4" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>M. &amp; O. R.R.</th><th>L. &amp; N. R.R.</th><th>E.T.,V. &amp;<br /> G. R.R.</th><th>Average.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders&mdash;per engine</td><td>$325.70</td><td>$202.58</td><td>$61.82</td><td>$196.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pass., bag., and ex. cars&mdash;per car</td><td>9.87</td><td><a name="FNanchor_3" id ="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3"><sup>2</sup></a>5.81</td><td>4.73</td><td>6.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Freight cars, per car</td><td>4.40</td><td><a name="FNanchor_4" id ="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>3</sup></a>5.81</td><td>3.60</td><td>4.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>M. of W. cars, per car</td><td>13.32</td><td>2.72</td><td>5.89</td><td>7.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track (inc. sidings bridges, etc.), per mile</td><td>45.37</td><td>47.83</td><td>46.09</td><td>46.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track tools, per mile</td><td>2.70</td><td>1.31</td><td>1.80</td><td>1.94</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temporary side tracks, per mile</td><td>192.83</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>305.44</td><td>249.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total per mile of track, inc. sidings</td><td>$113.68</td><td>$100.67</td><td>$ 79.06</td><td>$ 97.80</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>NOTE&mdash;Since the preparation of this paper the general manager of the
+Norfolk &amp; Western Railroad has kindly furnished the following items of
+expense for that line:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="Item, Cost, Average Cost">
+<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col span="3" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>No.</th><th>Cost.</th><th>Average Cost.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders</td><td>95</td><td>$37,730.00</td><td>$397.16</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cars (all kinds)</td><td>3,615</td><td>37,994.65</td><td>10.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track, miles (including sidings)</td><td>597.5</td><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Labor</td><td rowspan="5">&nbsp;</td><td>25,296.96</td><td rowspan="5">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tools and supplies</td><td>3,531.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Changing M. of W. equipment</td><td>813.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Switches</td><td>571.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spikes</td><td>8,508.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;Total track</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>$38,721,10</td><td>64.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>$114,445.75</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total average cost per mile</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>$191.53</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>And the superintendent of the S.F. &amp; W. R.R. has also furnished the
+expenses for that road:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="">
+<colgroup span="3"><col align="left" /><col span="2" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>No.</th><th>Average Cost.</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders</td><td>75</td><td>$76.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cars (passenger)</td><td>95</td><td>4.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cars (freight)</td><td>1,133</td><td>3.88</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track, including sidings</td><td>601.76</td><td>44.49</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Nothing was said about shop or other tools, storage tracks, or changing of
+maintenance of way equipment.</p>
+
+<p class="center">COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF LABOR OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="Compares Cost of Labor Across RRs">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" /><col span="4" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>M. &amp; O. R.R.</td><td>L. &amp; N. R.R.</td><td>E.T.,V. &amp; G. R.R.</td><td>Average</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders.</td><td>$170.88</td><td rowspan="4">Not divided</td><td>$45.71</td><td>$108.29</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pass., bag., and ex cars</td><td>7.97</td><td>4.38</td><td>6.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Freight cars</td><td>3.89</td><td>3.36</td><td>3.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td>M. of W. cars</td><td>9.98</td><td>4.64</td><td>7.31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Miles track (including sidings, bridges, etc.)</td><td>32.57</td><td>$34.31</td><td>19.26</td><td>28.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track tools, per mile</td><td>.30</td><td rowspan="2">Not divided</td><td>.13</td><td>.21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temporary tracks</td><td>162.03</td><td>265.40</td><td>213.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total per mile of track</td><td>$70.38</td><td>Not divided</td><td>$44.72</td><td>$57.55</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF
+        MATERIAL OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="Comparison of Average Cost for RRs">
+<colgroup span="5"><col align="left" /><col span="4" align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><th>M. &amp; O. R.R.</th><th>L. &amp; N. R.R.</th><th>E.T., V.&amp; G. R.R.</th><th>Average</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Engines and tenders.</td><td>$154.82</td><td rowspan="4">Not divided</td><td>$16.11</td><td>$85.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pass., bag., and ex cars</td><td>1.90</td><td>.35</td><td>1.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Freight cars</td><td>.51</td><td>.24</td><td>.37</td></tr>
+<tr><td>M. of W. cars</td><td>3.34</td><td>1.25</td><td>2.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Miles track (including sidings, bridges, etc.)</td><td>12.80</td><td>$13.02</td><td>26.88</td><td>17.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Track tools, per mile</td><td>2.40</td><td rowspan="2">Not divided</td><td>1.67</td><td>2.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Temporary tracks</td><td>162.03</td><td>40.04</td><td>101.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total per mile of track</td><td>$43.30</td><td>Not divided</td><td>$34.34</td><td>$38.82</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS OF L.&amp;N. AND E.T., V.&amp;G. RAILWAYS.</p>
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="Summary of RR statements">
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>The mileage changed of the L&amp;N. and E.T., V.&amp; G. systems combined aggregates</td><td>3,622 miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>The total cost of these two roads.</td><td>$331,492.59</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Or an average per mile of</td><td>91.52</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total miles changed was about</td><td>14,500 miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Which would give total cost, at same rate.</td><td>$1,327,040</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>We should really add to this a large sum for the great
+number of new locomotives which were purchased to
+replace old ones, that could not be changed, except at
+large cost, and which, when done, would have been
+light and undesirable.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the basis of the work done upon the L. &amp; N.
+and E.T., V. &amp; G. systems, which, combined, cover
+about one-fourth the mileage changed, we have made
+the following estimates, which will, perhaps, convey a
+better idea of the extent of the work than can be obtained
+in any other way:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="">
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Miles of track changed, about</td><td>14,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Locomotives changed, about</td><td>1,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cars (pass, and freight) changed, about</td><td>45,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New axles used, about</td><td>9,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New wheels used, about</td><td>20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Axles turned back, about</td><td>75,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wheels pressed on without turning axles, about</td><td>220,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>New brasses used, about</td><td>90,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Kegs of spikes used, about</td><td>50,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cost of material used, about</td><td>$600,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cost of labor, about</td><td>730,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Total cost of work, about</td><td>1,330,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Amount expended on equipment, about</td><td>650,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Amount expended on track, about</td><td>680,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Amount expended on track on day of change in labor, about</td><td>140,000</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The work was done economically, and so quietly that
+the public hardly realized it was in progress. To the
+casual observer it was an every day transaction. It
+was, however, a work of great magnitude, requiring
+much thought and mechanical ability.</p>
+
+<p>That it was ably handled is evidenced by the uniform
+success attained, the prompt changing at the agreed
+time, and the trifling inconvenience to the public.&mdash;<i>Jour.
+Assn. Engineering Societies.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id ="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note">A paper read before the Western Society of Engineers, June 7,
+1887.</div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id ="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[2]</a></p><div class="note">Expense not divided as between passenger and freight cars.</div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id ="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[3]</a></p><div class="note">3.5 per cent. passenger, baggage, and express cars, 96.5 per cent. freight cars.</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art16" id ="art16"></a>TORPEDO BOATS FOR SPAIN.</h2>
+
+<p>In our present issue, on page 9948, we give illustrations
+of two torpedo boats, the Azor and Halcon,
+which have lately been constructed by Messrs Yarrow
+&amp; Co., of Poplar, for the Spanish government. They
+are 135 ft. in length by 14 ft. beam, being of the same
+dimensions as No. 80 torpedo boat, lately completed
+by the above firm for the Admiralty, which is the
+largest and fastest torpedo-boat in the British navy.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src="./images/6a_th.png" alt="TORPEDO BOATS FOR THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT." /></a><br /> TORPEDO BOATS FOR THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of these torpedo boats is
+sufficiently clear from the illustrations to need but little
+description. Suffice it to say that the engines are of
+the triple compound type, capable of indicating 1,550
+horse power, steam being supplied by one large locomotive
+boiler, which our readers are already aware is
+in accordance with the usual practice of the makers,
+as, by using a single boiler, great simplification of the
+machinery takes place, and considerably less room is
+occupied than if two boilers were adopted. It is
+worthy of record that although in some torpedo boats,
+and indeed in a great number of them, trouble has been
+found with the locomotive type of boiler, still we have
+no hesitation in saying that this is due either to defective
+design or bad workmanship, and that, if properly
+designed and constructed, such difficulty does not
+occur. And it is a fact that Messrs. Yarrow &amp; Co. have
+already constructed a great number of locomotive
+boilers of the exceptional size adopted in these two
+Spanish boats, and they have turned out in every respect,
+after actual service, perfectly satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The forward part of the boat is provided with two
+torpedo-ejecting tubes, as usual, and near the stern, on
+deck, it is proposed to place turntables, with two torpedo
+guns for firing over the sides, as already adopted
+by several governments. The trials of the Azor took
+place about two months since, giving a speed during a
+run of two hours and three quarters, carrying a load of
+17 tons, of 24 knots (over 27½ miles) per hour. Since
+her trial she has steamed out to Spain, having encountered,
+during a portion of the voyage very bad
+<a name="Page_9948" id ="Page_9948"></a>weather, when her sea going qualities were found to
+be admirable.</p>
+
+<p>The Halcon, whose official trials took place lately,
+obtained a speed of 23.5 knots, carrying a load of 17
+tons. It may be remarked that a speed of 24
+knots, in a boat only 135 ft in length, under the
+Spanish conditions of trial, is by far the best result
+that has ever been obtained in a vessel of these dimensions
+There is, however, no doubt that had the length
+of the boat been greater, a still higher speed would
+have been obtained But it was desired by the authorities
+to keep within the smallest possible dimensions,
+so as to expose as little area as practicable to the fire of
+the enemy, it being clearly evident that this is a consideration
+of the first importance in an unprotected
+war vessel.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, we would add that the hulls of these
+two Spanish boats are of much greater strength of construction
+than is usually adopted in torpedo boats, it
+having been found that for the sake of obtaining exceptional
+speeds, strength sufficient for actual service
+has often been injudiciously sacrificed And, judging
+from the numerous accidents which took place at the
+recent trials off Portland, we have no doubt that in the
+future naval authorities will be quite ready and willing
+to sacrifice a little speed so as to obtain vessels which
+are more trustworthy. The necessity for this, we feel
+convinced, will be conclusively shown if ever torpedo
+boats are engaged in actual warfare, and this not only
+as regards strength of hull, but also as regards the
+machinery, which at present is only capable of being
+handled successfully by men of exceptional training,
+who in times of war would not be readily procured&mdash;<i>The
+Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art15" id ="art15"></a>THE SPANISH CRUISER REINA REGENTE</h2>
+
+<p>In our SUPPLEMENT, No. 620 we gave an illustration
+of this ship, with some particulars. The interest expressed
+in naval circles for further information induces
+us to give still further engravings of this remarkable
+vessel, with additional information, for which we are
+indebted to the <i>Engineer</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/6b.png"><img src="./images/6b_th.png" alt="THE NEW SPANISH WAR SHIP REINA REGENTE." /></a><br /> THE NEW SPANISH WAR SHIP REINA REGENTE.</p>
+
+<p>We gave recently a short account of two of the trials
+of this vessel, and we are, by the courtesy of the
+builders&mdash;Messrs. Thomson, of Clydebank&mdash;enabled to
+lay further particulars before our readers this week.
+We give herewith engravings of the vessel, which will
+illustrate her salient points. The principal dimensions
+are as follows.</p>
+
+<p>Length on water line, 317 ft., breadth, 50 ft. 7 in.,
+depth moulded, 32 ft. 6 in., normal displacement, 4,800
+tons, deep load displacement, 5,600* tons. We have before
+informed our readers that this vessel was designed
+by Messrs. Thomson, in competition with several other
+shipbuilding firms of this and other countries, in reply
+to an invitation of the Spanish government for a cruiser
+of the first class. The design submitted by the builders
+of the Reina Regente was accepted, and the vessel was
+contracted to be built in June of last year. The
+principal conditions of the contract were as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The ship to steam at a speed of 20½ knots for four
+runs on the mile and for two hours continuously afterward.
+She was further to be capable of steaming for
+six hours continuously at a speed of 18½ knots, without
+any artificial means of producing draught. She
+was also to be capable of steaming a distance of at
+least 5,700 knots for 500 tons of coal, at some speed over
+10 knots, to be chosen by the builders. Over the length
+<a name="Page_9949" id ="Page_9949"></a>of her machinery and magazine spaces she was to have
+a sloping deck extending to 6 ft. below the water line at
+the side, and formed of plates 4¾ in. thick. This deck was
+to extend to about 1 ft. above the water line, and the
+flat part to be 3-1/8 in. thick. Beyond the machinery
+and magazine spaces, the deck was to be gradually reduced
+to 3 in. thick at the ends. This deck is intended
+to protect the vitals of the ship, such as boilers, engines,
+powder magazines, steering gear, etc., from the effects
+of shot and shell, but the floating and stability maintaining
+power of the ship was to be dependent upon a
+similar structure raised above this protective deck to a
+height of about 5 ft. above the water.</p>
+
+<p>This structure is covered by a water tight deck
+known as the main deck of the ship, on which the
+cabins and living spaces are arranged. The space between
+the main and protective deck is divided, as may
+be seen by reference to the protective deck plan, into
+many strong, water tight spaces, most of which are not
+more than about 500 cubic feet capacity. The spaces
+next to the ship's side are principally coal bunkers, and
+may, therefore, exclude largely any water that should
+enter. The first line of defense is formed inside these
+coal bunkers by a complete girdle of coffer dams, which
+can be worked from the main deck. These it is intended
+to fill with water and cellulose material, and as they
+are also minutely subdivided, the effects of damage by
+shot and consequent flooding may be localized to a considerable
+extent. The guns of the ship are to consist
+of four 20 centimeter Hontorio breech loading guns on
+Vavasseur carriages, six 12 centimeter guns, eight 6
+pounder rapid firing, and eight or ten small guns for
+boats and mitrailleuse purposes, four of which are in
+the crow's nests at the top of the two masts of the ship.
+We may remark in passing that the builders saw their
+way at an early period of the construction to suggest
+an addition to the weight of the large sized guns, and
+there will actually be on the ship four 24 centimeter
+guns, instead of four 20 centimeter. The vessel was to
+carry five torpedo tubes, two forward in the bow, one
+in each broadside, and one aft. All these tubes to be
+fixed. To fulfill the speed condition, four boilers were
+necessary and two sets of triple expansion engines, capable
+of developing in all 12,000 horse power.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/7.png"><img src="./images/7_th.png" alt="PROTECTIVE DECK PLAN." /></a><br /> PROTECTIVE DECK PLAN.</p>
+
+<p>Now that the vessel has been completely tried, the
+promises by the builders may be compared with the
+results determined by the commission of Spanish officers
+appointed by the government of Spain to say
+whether the vessel fulfilled in all respects the conditions
+laid down in the contract. The mean speed attained
+for the two hours' run was 20.6 knots, as compared
+with 20.5 guaranteed, but this speed was obtained with
+11,500 horse power instead of the 12,000 which the machinery
+is capable of developing. The officers of the
+Spanish commission were anxious not to have the
+vessel's machinery pressed beyond what was necessary
+to fulfill the speed conditions of the contract; but they
+saw enough to warrant them in expressing their belief
+that the vessel can easily do twenty-one knots when required,
+and she actually did this for some time during
+the trial.</p>
+
+<p>During the natural draught trial the vessel obtained a
+mean speed of 18.68 knots, on an average of 94¾ revolutions&mdash;the
+forced draught having been done on an
+average of 105½ revolutions. The consumption trial,
+which lasted twelve hours, was made to determine the
+radius of action, when the ship showed that at a speed
+of 11.6 knots she could steam a distance of 5,900 knots.
+Further trials took place to test the evolutionary
+powers of the vessel, though these trials were not specified
+in the contract.</p>
+
+<p>The vessel, as may be seen from the engravings, is
+fitted with a rudder of a new type, known as Thomson
+&amp; Biles' rudder, with which it is claimed that all the
+advantage of a balanced rudder is obtained, while the
+ship loses the length due to the adoption of such a
+rudder. It is formed in the shape of the hull of the
+vessel, and as the partial balance of the lower foreside
+gradually reduces the strains, the rudder head may be
+made of very great service. As a matter of fact, this
+rudder is 230 ft. in area, and is probably the largest
+rudder fitted to a warship. The efficiency of it was
+shown in the turning trials, by its being able to bring
+the vessel round, when going at about nineteen knots,
+in half a circle in one minute twenty-three seconds,
+and a complete circle in two minutes fifty-eight seconds,
+the diameter of the circle being 350 yards. This result,
+we believe, is unrivaled, and makes this vessel equal in
+turning capabilities to many recent warships not much
+more than half her length.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art18" id ="art18"></a>FILM NEGATIVES.<a name="FNanchor_5" id ="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p>Having had a certain measure of success with Eastman
+stripping films, I have been requested by your
+council to give a paper this evening dealing with the
+subject, and particularly with the method of working
+which my experience has found most successful. In
+according to their request, I feel I have imposed upon
+myself a somewhat difficult task.</p>
+
+<p>There is, undoubtedly, a strong prejudice in the
+minds of most photographers, both amateur and professional,
+against a negative in which paper is used as
+a permanent support, on account of the inseparable
+&quot;grain&quot; and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints;
+and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary
+support does not seem to convey to their mind a
+correct impression of the true position of the matter.</p>
+
+<p>It may be as well before entering into the technical
+details of the manipulation to consider briefly the advantages
+to be derived&mdash;which will be better appreciated
+after an actual trial.</p>
+
+<p>My experience (which is at present limited) is that
+they are far superior to glass for all purposes except
+portraiture of the human form or instantaneous pictures
+where extreme rapidity is necessary, but for all
+ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently
+quick. The first advantage, which I soon discovered,
+is their entire freedom from halation. This, with glass
+plates, is inseparable, and even when much labor has
+been bestowed on backing them, the halation is painfully
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>These films never frill, being made of emulsion which
+has been made insoluble. Compare the respective
+weights of the two substances&mdash;one plate weighing
+more than a dozen films of the same size.</p>
+
+<p>Again, on comparing a stripping film negative with
+one on glass of the same exposure and subject, it will
+be found there is a greater sharpness or clearness in the
+detail, owing, I am of opinion, to the paper absorbing
+the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion,
+the result being a brilliant negative. Landscapes on
+stripped films can be retouched or printed from on
+either side, and the advantage in this respect for carbon
+or mechanical printing is enormous. Now, imagine
+the tourist working with glass, and compare
+him to another working with films. The one works in
+harness, tugging, probably, a half hundredweight of
+glass with him from place to place, paying extra carriage,
+extra tips, and in a continual state of anxiety as
+to possible breakage, difficulty of packing, and having
+to be continually on the lookout for a dark place to
+change the plates, and, perhaps, on his return finds
+numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on
+the surface; while the disciple of <i>films</i>, lightly burdened
+with only camera and slide, and his (say two
+hundred) films in his pockets, for they lie so compact
+together. Then the advantages to the tourists abroad,
+their name is &quot;legion,&quot; not the least being the ease of
+guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house
+officials, who almost always seek to make matters disagreeable
+in this respect, and lastly, though not least,
+the ease with which the negatives can be stowed away
+in envelopes or albums, etc., when reference to them is
+easy in the extreme.</p>
+
+<p>Now, having come (rightly, I think, you will admit)
+to the conclusion that films have these advantages, you
+naturally ask, What are their disadvantages? Remembering,
+then, that I am only advocating stripping films,
+I consider they have but two disadvantages: First,
+they entail some additional outlay in the way of apparatus,
+etc. Second, they are a little more trouble to
+finish than the glass negatives, which sink into insignificance
+when the manifold advantages are considered.</p>
+
+<p>In order to deal effectively with the second objection
+I mentioned, viz., the extra trouble and perseverance,
+I propose, with your permission, to carry a negative
+through the different stages from exposure to completion,
+and in so doing I shall endeavor to make the process
+clear to you, and hope to enlist your attention.</p>
+
+<p>The developer I use is slightly different to that of the
+Eastman company, and is as follows:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="60%"  summary="Solution Makeup Instructions">
+<colgroup span="2"><col align="left" /><col align="right" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">A.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sulphite of soda.</td><td>4 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">To be dissolved in 8 ounces of hot distilled water, then rendered slightly acid with citric acid, then add&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pyrogallic acid.</td><td>1 ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water to make up to</td><td>10 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">B.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pure carbonate of soda.</td><td>1 ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water to make up in all to</td><td>10 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pure carbonate of potash.</td><td>1 ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water to make up to</td><td>10 ounces.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Bromide of potassium.</td><td>1 ounce.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Water to make up to</td><td>10 ounces.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>I have here two half-plate films exposed at 8:30 A.M.
+to-day, one with five and one with six seconds' exposure,
+subject chiefly middle distance. I take 90
+minims A, 10 minims D, and 90 minims B, and make
+up to 2 ounces water. I do not soak the films in water.
+There is no need for it. In fact, it is prejudicial to do
+so. I place the films face uppermost in the dish, and
+pour on the developer on the center of the films. You
+will observe they lie perfectly flat, and are free from air
+bubbles. Rock the dish continually during development,
+and when the high lights are out add from 10 to
+90 minims C, and finish development and fix. The
+negatives being complete, I ask you to observe that
+both are of equal quality, proving the latitude of exposure
+permissible.</p>
+
+<p>I now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all
+round than the negative with India rubber solution
+(see Eastman formula), and squeegee the negative face
+downward upon the rubber, interposing a sheet of blotting
+paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee
+to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface,
+and then place the negative under pressure with blotting
+paper interposed until moderately dry only.</p>
+
+<p>I then pour hot water upon it, and, gently rocking
+the dish, you see the paper floats from the film without
+the necessity for pulling it with a pin, leaving the film
+negative on the glass. Now, the instructions say remove
+the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's hair
+brush, but, unless it requires intensifying, which no
+properly developed negative should require, you need
+not do so, but simply pour on the gelatine solution
+(see Eastman formula), well covering the edges of the
+film, and put on a level shelf to dry.</p>
+
+<p>I will now take up a negative in this state on the
+glass, but dry, and carefully cut round the edges of
+the film, and you see I can readily pull off the film with
+its gelatine support. Having now passed through the
+whole of the process, it behooves us to consider for a
+few minutes the causes of failure in the hands of
+beginners and their remedies: 1. The rubber will not flow over glass? Solution too thick,
+glass greasy. 2. Rubber peels off on drying? Dirty glass. 3. Negative not dense enough? Use more bromide and
+longer development. 4. Gelatine cracks on being pulled off? Add more glycerine. 5. Gelatine not thick enough? Gelatine varnish too thin,
+not strong enough. 6. Does not dry sufficiently hard? Too much glycerine.&mdash;<i>E.H.
+Jaques, Reported in Br. Jour. of Photography.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id ="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A communication to the Birmingham Photographic Society.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art17" id ="art17"></a>HOW DIFFERENT TONES IN GELATINO-CHLORIDE
+PRINTS MAY BE VARIED BY DEVELOPERS.</h2>
+
+<p>The following formul&aelig; are for use with gelatino-chloride
+paper or plates. The quantities are in each case
+calculated for one ounce, three parts of each of
+the following solutions being employed and added to
+one part of solution of protosulphate of iron.
+Strength, 140 grains to the ounce.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" width="60%" summary="Layout">
+<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" span="2" /><col align="right" /><col align="center" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Slaty Blue.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>1.&mdash;</td><td colspan="3">One part of the above solution to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Greenish Brown.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>2.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>180</td><td>grains</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of ammonia.</td><td>50</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>3.&mdash;</td><td>Citrate of ammonia.</td><td>250</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chloride of sodium.</td><td>2</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>4.&mdash;</td><td>Citrate of ammonia.</td><td>250</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chloride of sodium.</td><td>4</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Sepia Brown.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>5.&mdash;</td><td>Citrate of ammonia.</td><td>250</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chloride of sodium.</td><td>8</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Clear Red Brown.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>6.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>76</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Warm Gray Brown.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>7.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of soda.</td><td>205</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Deep Red Brown.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>8.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of potash.</td><td>117</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Green Blue.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>9.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>90</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of soda.</td><td>154</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>24</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>6</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Sepia Red.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>10.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>80</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of soda.</td><td>135</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>12</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>3</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>11.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>108</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>68</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of potash.</td><td>12</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>3</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Sepia Yellow.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>12.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>40</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>25</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of ammonia.</td><td>166</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>13.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>72</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of ammonia.</td><td>72</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Chloride of sodium.</td><td>8</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>Blue Black.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>14.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of ammonia.</td><td>70</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>15</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>15.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>120</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>38</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of ammonia.</td><td>44</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>16.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>90</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>57</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>54</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxlate of potash.</td><td>18</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>17.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>72</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>45</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>54</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>18</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>18.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>60</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>38</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>68</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>22</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>A more Intense Blue Black.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>19.&mdash;</td><td>Citric acid.</td><td>30</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Carbonate of magnesia.</td><td>18</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>100</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>33</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><i>A Clearer Blue.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>20.&mdash;</td><td>Citrate of potash.</td><td>136</td><td>grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Oxalate of potash.</td><td>44</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the photographic exhibition at Florence, the firm
+of Corvan<a name="FNanchor_6" id ="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>1</sup></a> places on view a frame containing twenty
+proofs produced by the foregoing twenty formul&aelig;, in
+such a way that the observer can compare the value of
+each tone and select that which pleases him best.&mdash;<i>Le
+Moniteur de la Photographie, translated by British
+Jour. of Photo.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id ="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Does this mean Mr. A. Cowan?&mdash;<i>Translator.</i></p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01" id ="art01"></a>NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISTILLERY CHIMNEY.</h2>
+
+<p class="lfigure"><img src="./images/8a.png" alt="FIG. 1 ELEVATION." /><br />FIG. 1&mdash;ELEVATION.</p>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the Industrial Society of
+Amiens, Mr. Schmidt, engineer of the Steam Users'
+Association, read a paper in which he described the
+process employed in the construction of a large chimney
+of peculiar character for the Rocourt distillery,
+at St. Quentin.</p>
+
+<p>This chimney, which is cylindrical in form, is 140 feet
+in height, and has an internal diameter of 8½ feet from
+base to summit. The coal consumed for the nine generators
+varies between 860 and 1,200 pounds per hour and per
+10 square feet of section.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Page_9950" id ="Page_9950"></a>The ground that was to support this chimney consisted
+of very aquiferous, cracked beds of marl, disintegrated
+by infiltrations of water from the distillery,
+and alternating with strata of clay. It became necessary,
+therefore, to build as light a chimney as possible.
+The problem was solved as follows, by Mr. Guendt,
+who was then superintendent of the Rocourt establishment.</p>
+
+<p>Upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was
+built, in which were united the various smoke conduits,
+and upon this pedestal were erected four lattice
+girders, C, connected with each other by St. Andrew's
+crosses. The internal surface of these girders is vertical
+and the external is inclined. Within the framework
+there was built a five-inch thick masonry wall of
+bricks, made especially for the purpose. The masonry
+was then strengthened and its contact with the girders
+assured by numerous hoops, especially at the lower
+part; some of them internal, others external, to the
+surface of the girders, and others of angle irons, all in
+four parts.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/8b.png" alt="FIG. 2&mdash;HORIZONTAL SECTION." /><br /> FIG. 2&mdash;HORIZONTAL SECTION.</p>
+
+<p>The anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate
+connected, through strong bolts embedded in the
+pedestal, with a second plate resting upon the concrete.</p>
+
+<p>As the metallic framework was calculated for resisting
+the wind, the brick lining does not rest against it
+permanently above. The weight of the chimney is 1,112,200
+pounds, and the foundation is about 515 square
+feet in area; and, consequently, the pressure upon the
+ground is about 900 pounds to the square inch. The
+cost was $3,840.</p>
+
+<p>The chimney was built six years ago, and has withstood
+the most violent hurricanes.</p>
+
+<p>The mounting of the iron framework was effected
+by means of a motor and two men, and took a month.
+The brick lining was built up in eight days by a mason
+and his assistant.</p>
+
+<p>A chimney of the same size, all of brick, erected on
+the same foundation, would have weighed 2,459,600
+pounds (say a load of 3,070 pounds to the square inch),
+and would have cost about $2,860.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/8c.png" alt="FIG. 3&mdash;VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY." /><br /> FIG. 3&mdash;VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY.</p>
+
+<p>The chimney of the Rocourt distillery is, therefore,
+lighter by half, and cost about a third more, than one
+of brick; but, at the present price of metal, the difference
+would be slight.&mdash;<i>Annales Industrielles.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art21" id ="art21"></a>THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.</h2>
+
+<p>Considerable interest has been aroused lately in
+scientific and industrial circles by a report that separation
+of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air was being
+effected on a large scale in London by a process which
+promises to render the gases available for general application
+in the arts. The cheap manufacture of the
+compounds of nitrogen from the gas itself is still a
+dream of chemical enthusiasts; and though the pure
+gas is now available, the methods of making its compounds
+have yet to be devised. But the industrial
+processes which already depend directly or indirectly
+on the chemical union of bodies with atmospheric
+oxygen are innumerable.</p>
+
+<p>In all these processes the action of the gas is impeded
+by the bulky presence of its fellow constituent of air,
+nitrogen. We may say, for instance, in homely phrase,
+that whenever a fire burns there are four volumes of
+nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of
+oxygen supporting its combustion, and to the same degree
+the nitrogen interferes with all other processes of
+atmospheric oxidation, of which most metallurgical
+operations may be given as instances. If, then, it has
+become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and
+cheaply in order to give the oxygen free play in its
+various applications, we are doubtless on the eve of a
+revolution among some of the most extensive and
+familiar of the world's industries.</p>
+
+<p>A series of chemical reactions has long been known
+by means of which oxygen could be separated out of
+air in the laboratory, and at various times processes
+based on these reactions have been patented for the
+production of oxygen on a large scale. Until recently,
+however, none of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory
+results. The simplest and perhaps the best of
+them was based on the fact first noticed by Boussingault,
+that when baryta (BaO) is heated to low redness
+in a current of air, it takes up oxygen and becomes
+barium dioxide (BaO<sub>2</sub>), and that this dioxide at a
+higher temperature is reconverted into free oxygen and
+baryta, the latter being ready for use again. For many
+years it was assumed, however, by chemists that this
+ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial
+scale, owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb
+<a name="Page_9951" id ="Page_9951"></a>oxygen which was always found to take place in
+the baryta after a certain number of operations.
+About eight years ago Messrs. A. &amp; L. Brin, who had
+studied chemistry under Boussingault, undertook experiments
+with the view of determining why the baryta
+lost its power of absorbing oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>They found that it was owing to molecular and
+physical changes caused in it by impurities in the air
+used and by the high temperature employed for decomposing
+the dioxide. They discovered that by heating
+the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature
+necessary to drive off its oxygen was much reduced.
+They also found that by supplying the air to the baryta
+under a moderate pressure, its absorption of oxygen
+was greatly assisted. Under these conditions, and by
+carefully purifying the air before use, they found that it
+became possible to use the baryta an indefinite number
+of times. Thus the process became practically, as it
+was theoretically, continuous.</p>
+
+<p>After securing patent protection for their process,
+Messrs. Brin erected a small producer in Paris, and
+successfully worked it for nearly three years without
+finding a renewal of the original charge of baryta once
+necessary. This producer was exhibited at the Inventions
+Exhibition in London, in 1885. Subsequently an
+English company was formed, and in the autumn of
+last year Brin's Oxygen Company began operations in
+Horseferry Road, Westminster, where a large and
+complete demonstration plant was erected, and the
+work commenced of developing the production and application
+of oxygen in the industrial world.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/8d.png"><img src="./images/8d_th.png" alt="APPARATUS FOR MAKING OXYGEN." /></a><br /> APPARATUS FOR MAKING OXYGEN.</p>
+
+<p>We give herewith details of the plant now working
+at Westminster. It is exceedingly simple. On the left
+of the side elevation and plan are shown the retorts,
+on the right is an arrangement of pumps for alternately
+supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen
+from the retorts. As is shown in the plan, two sets
+of apparatus are worked side by side at Westminster,
+the seventy-two retorts shown in the drawings being
+divided into two systems of thirty-six. Each system is
+fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the
+boiler. Each set of retorts consists of six rows of six
+retorts each, one row above the other. They are
+heated by a small Wilson's producer, so that the attendant
+can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain
+complete control over the temperature of the retorts.
+The retorts, A, are made of wrought iron and
+are about 10 ft long and 8 in. diameter. Experience,
+however, goes to prove that there is a limit to the
+diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become
+less satisfactory. This limit is probably somewhat
+under 8 in. Each retort is closely packed with
+baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut. The
+baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared
+by carefully igniting the nitrate of barium; and of this
+each retort having the above dimensions holds about
+125 lb. The retorts so charged are closed at each end
+by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight.
+From the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe, B,
+connects each retort with the next of its series, so that
+air introduced into the end retort of any row may pass
+through the whole series of six retorts. Suppose now
+that the operations are to commence.</p>
+
+<p>The retorts are first heated to a temperature of about
+600° C. or faint redness, then the air pumps, C C, are
+started. Air is drawn by them through the purifier,
+D, where it is freed from carbon dioxide and moisture
+by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which
+the purifier is charged. The air is then forced along
+the pipe, E, into the small air vessel, F, which acts as
+a sort of cushion to prevent the baryta in the retorts
+being disturbed by the pulsation of the pumps.
+From this vessel the air passes by the pipe, G, and is
+distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such
+a pressure that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed
+at the outlet registers about 15 lb. to the square
+inch. With the baryta so disposed in the retorts as to
+present as large a superficies as possible to the action of
+the air, it is found that in 1½ to 2 hours&mdash;during which
+time about 12,000 cub. ft of air have been passed
+through the retorts&mdash;the gas at the outlet fails to extinguish
+a glowing chip, indicating that oxygen is no
+longer being absorbed. The pumping now ceases, and
+the temperature of the retorts is raised to about 800° C.
+The workman is able to judge the temperature with
+sufficient accuracy by means of the small inspection
+holes, H, fitted with panes of mica, through which the
+color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished.
+The pumps are now reversed and the process of exhaustion
+begins. At Westminster the pressure in the
+retorts is reduced to about 1½ in. of mercury. In this
+partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly, and if
+forced by the pumps through another pipe and away
+into an ordinary gas holder, where it is stored for use.
+With powerful pumps such as are used in the plant
+under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in
+an hour, and from one charge a yield of about 2,000 cub.
+ft. is obtained. With a less perfect vacuum the time
+is longer&mdash;even as much as four hours. The whole
+operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can
+be completed in from three to four hours. As soon as
+the evolution of oxygen is finished, the doors, K, and
+ventilators, L, may be opened and the retorts cooled
+for recharging.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of producing oxygen at Westminster, under
+specially expensive conditions, is high&mdash;about 12s.
+per 1,000 cub. ft. When we consider, however, that
+the cost should only embrace attendance, fuel, wear
+and tear, and a little lime and soda for the purifiers,
+that the consumption of fuel is small, the wear and
+tear light, and that the raw material&mdash;air&mdash;is obtained
+for nothing, it ought to be possible to produce the gas
+for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our
+great manufacturing centers, where the price of fuel is
+but a third of that demanded in London, and where provision
+could be made for economizing the waste heat,
+which is entirely lost in the Westminster installation.
+Moreover, in estimating this cost all the charges are
+thrown on the oxygen; were there any means of utilizing
+the 4,000 cub. ft. of nitrogen at present blown away
+as waste for every thousand cubic feet of oxygen produced,
+the nitrogen would of course bear its share of the
+cost.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the application of the oxygen is one
+which must be determined in its manifold bearings
+mainly by the experiments of chemists and scientific
+men engaged in industrial work. Having ascertained
+the method by which and the limit of cost within
+which it is possible to use oxygen in their work, it can
+be seen whether by Brin's process the gas can be obtained
+within that limit.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. S.R. Ogden, the manager of the corporation
+gasworks at Blackburn, has already made interesting
+experiments on the application of oxygen in the manufacture
+of illuminating gas. In order to purify coal
+gas from compounds of sulphur, it is passed through
+purifiers charged with layers of oxide of iron. When
+the oxide of iron has absorbed as much sulphur as
+it can combine with, it is described as &quot;foul.&quot; It
+is then discharged and spread out in the open air,
+when, under the influence of the atmospheric oxygen,
+it is rapidly decomposed, the sulphur is separated
+out in the free state, and oxide of iron is reformed
+ready for use again in the purifiers. This
+process is called revivification, and it is repeated
+until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is so
+great (45 to 55 per cent.) that it can be profitably sold
+to the vitriol maker. Hawkins discovered that by introducing
+about 3 per cent. of air into the gas before
+passing it through the purifiers, the oxygen of the air
+introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as fast as
+it was absorbed. Thus the process of revivification
+could be carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously
+with the absorption of the sulphur impurities
+in the gas.</p>
+
+<p>A great saving of labor was thus effected, and also an
+economy in the use of the iron oxide, which in this
+way could be left in the purifiers until charged with
+75 per cent. of sulphur. Unfortunately it was found
+that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen
+meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen,
+which materially reduced the illuminating power of
+the gas. To restore this illuminating power the gas had
+to be recarbureted, and this again meant cost in labor
+and material. Now, Mr. Ogden has found by a series
+of conclusive experiments made during a period of
+seventy-eight days upon a quantity of about 4,000,000
+cub. ft. of gas, that by introducing 1 per cent. of
+oxygen into the gas instead of 3 per cent. of air, not
+only is the revivification <i>in situ</i> effected more satisfactorily
+than with air, but at the same time the illuminating
+power of the gas, so far from being decreased, is
+actually increased by one candle unit.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<a href="./images/9a.png"><img src="./images/9a_th.png" alt="SIDE ELEVATION." /></a><br />
+<span style="font-size: smaller;">SIDE ELEVATION OF APPARATUS</span><br />
+<a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" alt="GENERAL PLAN." /></a><br />
+<span  style="font-size: smaller;">GENERAL PLAN OF APPARATUS</span><br />
+THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.</p>
+
+<p>So satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended
+the corporation to erect a plant for the production
+of oxygen at the Blackburn gas works, by
+<a name="Page_9952" id ="Page_9952"></a>which he estimates that the saving to the town on the
+year's make of gas will be something like £2,500. The
+practical observations of Mr. Ogden are being followed
+up by a series of exhaustive experiments by Mr.
+Valon, A.M. Inst. C.E., also a gas engineer. The
+make of an entire works at Westgate is being treated
+by him with oxygen. Mr. Valon has not yet published
+his report, as the experiments are not quite complete;
+but we understand that his results are even more
+satisfactory than those obtained at Blackburn.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion we may indicate a few other of the
+numerous possible applications of cheap oxygen which
+might be realized in the near future. The greatest
+illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is obtained
+by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen,
+and holding in the flame of the burning mixture a
+piece of some solid infusible and non-volatile substance,
+such as lime. This becomes heated to whiteness, and
+emits an intense light know as the Drummond light,
+used already for special purposes of illumination. By
+supplying oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary
+gas mains, it would be possible to fix small Drummond
+lights in place of the gas burners now used in
+houses; this would greatly reduce the consumption of
+gas and increase the light obtained, or even render
+possible the employment of cheap non-illuminating
+combustible gases other than coal gas for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Two obstacles at present lie in the way of this
+consummation&mdash;the cost of the oxygen and the want of a
+convenient and completely refractory material to take the
+place of the lime. Messrs. Brin believe they have overcome
+the first obstacle, and are addressing themselves,
+we believe, to the removal of the second. Again, the
+intense heat which the combustion of carbon in cheap
+oxygen will place at the disposal of the metallurgist
+cannot fail to play an important part in his operations.
+There are many processes, too, of metal refining which
+ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas. Then the
+production of pure metallic oxides for the manufacture
+of paints, the bleaching of oils and fats, the reduction
+of refractory ores of the precious metals on a large
+scale, the conversion of iron into steel, and numberless
+other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk
+is in the byways of applied chemistry, should all profit
+by the employment of this energetic agent. Doubtless,
+too, the investigation into methods of producing the
+compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant foods,
+and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of
+the mineral world, may be stimulated by the fact that
+there is available by Brin's process a cheap and
+inexhaustible supply of pure nitrogen.&mdash;<i>Industries.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art19" id ="art19"></a>FRENCH DISINFECTING APPARATUS.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src="./images/10a_th.png" alt="IMPROVED DISINFECTING APPARATUS." /></a><br /> IMPROVED DISINFECTING APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>We represent herewith a sanitary train that was very
+successfully used during the prevalence of an epidemic
+of <i>sudor Anglicus</i> in Poitou this year. It consisted of
+a movable stove and a boiler. In reality, to save time,
+such agricultural locomotives as could be found were
+utilized; but hereafter, apparatus like those shown in
+the engraving, and which are specially constructed to
+accompany the stoves, will be employed. We shall
+quote from a communication made by Prof. Brouardel
+to the Academy of Medicine on this subject, at its
+session of September 13:</p>
+
+<p>In the country we can never think of disinfecting
+houses with sulphurous acid, as the peasants often
+have but a single room, in which the beds of the entire
+family are congregated. Every one knows that the
+agglomerations that compose the same department are
+often distant from each other and the chief town by
+from two to three miles or more. This is usually the
+case in the departments of Vienne, Haute Vienne,
+Indre, etc. To find a disinfecting place in the chief
+town of the department is still difficult, and to find one
+in each of the hamlets is absolutely impossible. Families
+in which there are invalids are obliged to carry
+clothing and bedding to the chief town to be disinfected,
+and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four
+hours. This is not an easy thing to do.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to understand what difficulties must be met
+with in many cases, and so one has to be content to
+prescribe merely washing, and bleaching with lime&mdash;something
+that is simple and everywhere accepted, but
+insufficient. So, then, disinfection with sulphurous
+acid, which is easy in large cities, as was taught by the
+cholera epidemics of last year, is often difficult in the
+country. The objection has always be made to it, too,
+that it is of doubtful efficacy. It is not for us to examine
+this question here, but there is no doubt that damp
+steam alone, under pressure, effects a perfect disinfection,
+and that if this mode of disinfection could be applied
+in the rural districts (as it can be easily done in
+cities), the public health would be better protected in
+case of an epidemic.</p>
+
+<p>In cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always
+be arranged; but in the country movable ones are necessary.
+From instructions given by Prof. Brouardel,
+Messrs. Geneste &amp; Herscher have solved the problem
+of constructing such stoves in a few days, and four
+have been put at the disposal of the mission.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Thoinot, who directed this mission, in order to
+make an experiment with these apparatus, selected
+two points in which cases of <i>sudor</i> were still numerous,
+and in which the conditions were entirely different,
+and permitted of studying the working of the service
+and apparatus under various phases. One of these
+points was Dorat, chief town of Haute Vienne, a locality
+with a crowded population and presenting every
+desirable resource; and the other was the commune of
+Mauvieres, in Indre, where the population was scattered
+through several hamlets.</p>
+
+<p>The first stove was operated at Dorat, on the 29th of
+June, and the second at Mauvieres, on the 1st of July.
+A gendarme accompanied the stove in all its movements
+and remained with it during the disinfecting
+experiments. The Dorat stove was operated on the 29th
+of June and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July. On the 30th of
+June it proceeded to disinfect the commune of Darnac.
+The Mauvieres stove, in the first place, disinfected the
+chief town of this commune on the 1st of July, and on
+the next day it was taken to Poulets, a small hamlet,
+and a dependent of the commune of Mauvieres. All
+the linen and all the clothing of the sick of this locality,
+which had been the seat of <i>sudor</i>, especially infantile,
+was disinfected. On the 4th of July, the stove went
+to Concremiers, a commune about three miles distant,
+and there finished up the disinfection that until then
+had been performed in the ordinary way.</p>
+
+<p>The epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at
+this epoch; but we judge that the test of the stoves
+was sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>We are able to advance the following statement boldly:
+For the application of disinfection in the rural districts,
+the movable stove is the most practical thing that we
+know of. It is easily used, can be taken to the smallest
+hamlets, and can be transported over the roughest
+roads. It inspires peasants with no distrust. The first
+repugnance is easily overcome, and every one, upon
+seeing that objects come from the stove unharmed,
+soon hastens to bring to it all the contaminated linen,
+etc., that he has in the house.</p>
+
+<p>Further, we may add that the disinfection is accomplished
+in a quarter of an hour, and that it therefore keeps
+the peasant but a very short time from his work&mdash;an
+advantage that is greatly appreciated. Finally, a
+day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement
+completely. Upon the whole, disinfection by the
+stove under consideration is the only method that can
+always and everywhere be carried out.</p>
+
+<p>We believe that it is called upon to render the greatest
+services in the future.</p>
+
+<p>The movable stove, regarding which Prof. Brouardel
+expresses himself in the above terms, consists of a
+cylindrical chamber, 3½ feet in internal diameter and 5
+feet in length, closed in front by a hermetically jointed
+door. This cylinder, which constitutes the disinfection
+chamber, is mounted upon wheels and is provided
+with shafts, so that it can easily be hauled by a horse
+or mule. The cylinder is of riveted iron plate, and is
+covered with a wooden jacket. The door is provided
+with a flange that enters a rubber lined groove in the
+cylinder, and to it are riveted wrought iron forks
+that receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the
+cylinder. The nuts are screwed up tight, and the
+flange of the door, compressing the rubber lining,
+renders the joint hermetical. The door, which is hinged,
+is provided with a handle, which, when the stove is
+closed, slides over an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>The steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through
+a rubber tube provided with a threaded coupling. The
+entrance of the steam is regulated by a cock. The box
+is provided with a safety and pressure gauge and a
+small pinge cock. In the interior of the stove the entrance
+of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper
+screen, which is situated at the upper part and
+preserves the objects under treatment from drops of
+water of condensation. These latter fall here and
+there from the screen, follow the sides of the cylinder,
+and collect at the bottom, from whence they are
+drawn off through a cock placed in the rear.</p>
+
+<p>The sides are lined internally with wood, which prevents
+the objects to be infected from coming into contact
+with the metal. The objects to be treated are
+placed upon wire cloth shelves. The pinge cock likewise
+serves for drawing off the air or steam contained
+in the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium
+of two angle irons riveted longitudinally
+upon the cylinder. The axle is cranked, and its wheels,
+which are of wood, are 4½ feet in diameter. The shafts
+are fixed to the angle irons. The apparatus is, in addition,
+provided with a seat, a brake, and prop rods
+before and behind to keep it horizontal when in operation.</p>
+
+<p>The boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is
+mounted upon four wheels. It is jacketed with wood,
+and is provided with a water level, two gauge cocks,
+a pressure gauge, two spring safety valves, a steam
+cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with
+that of the stove, an ash pan, and a smoke stack. In
+the rear there are two cylindrical water reservoirs that
+communicate with each other, and are designed to feed
+the boiler through an injector. Beneath these reservoirs
+there is a fuel box. In front there is a seat whose
+box serves to hold tools and various other objects.&mdash;<i>La
+Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07" id ="art07"></a>AN ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.</h2>
+
+<p>We abstract the following from a paper on electric
+lighting by Prof. J.A. Fleeming, read before the
+Iron and Steel Institute, Manchester. The illustration
+is from <i>Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/10b.png" alt="ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR." /><br /> ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.</p>
+
+<p>One of the questions which most frequently occurs in
+reference to mill and factory lighting is whether the
+factory engines can be used to run the dynamo. As a
+broad, general rule, there can be no question that the
+best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo
+engine, controlled by a good governor, set apart for
+that purpose. With an ordinary shunt dynamo, the
+speed ought not to vary more than 2 or 3 per cent. of
+its normal value on either side of that value. Hence,
+if a dynamo has a normal speed of 1,000, it should certainly
+not vary over a greater range than from 970 to
+980 to 1,020 to 1,030. In many cases there may be shafting
+from which the necessary power can be taken, and
+of which the speed is variable only within these limits.
+There are several devices by which it has been found
+possible to enable a dynamo to maintain a constant
+electromotive force, even if the speed of rotation varies
+over considerable limits. One of these is that (see illustration)
+due to Messrs. Trotter &amp; Ravenshaw, and applicable
+to shunt or series machines.</p>
+
+<p>In the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable
+resistance. This resistance is thrown in or out by
+means of a motor device actuated by an electromotive
+force indicator. A plunger of soft iron is suspended
+from a spring, and hangs within a solenoid of wire,
+which solenoid is in connection with the terminals of
+the dynamo. Any increase or diminution of the electromotive
+force causes this iron to move in or out of the
+core, and its movement is made to connect or disconnect
+the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance
+with a shaft driven by the engine itself. The
+principle of the apparatus is therefore that small variations
+of electromotive force are made to vary inversely
+the strength of the magnetic field through the intervention
+of a relay mechanism in which the power required
+to effect the movement is tapped from the
+engine.</p>
+
+<p>With the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive
+a dynamo from a mill shaft providing the requisite
+power, but of which the speed of rotation is not sufficiently
+uniform to secure alone efficient regulation of
+electromotive force. Another device, patented by Mr.
+Crompton, is a modification of that method of field
+magnet winding commonly known as compound winding.
+The field magnets are wound over with two wires,
+one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as a
+shunt, and the other of which has a low resistance and
+is arranged in series. Instead, however, of the magnetizing
+powers of these coils being united in the same
+direction as an ordinary compound winding, they are
+opposed to one another. That is to say, the current in
+the shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field
+magnets in an opposite direction to that of the series
+wire. It results from this that any slight increase of
+speed diminishes the strength of the magnetic field,
+and <i>vice versa</i>. Accordingly, within certain limits, the
+electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of
+the speed of rotation.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9953" id ="Page_9953"></a><a name="art09" id ="art09"></a>THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE TRACTIVE ADHESION
+OF RAILWAY MOTORS AND OTHER ROLLING CONTACTS.<a name="FNanchor_7" id ="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By ELIAS E. RIES.</h3>
+
+<p>The object of this paper is to lay before you the results
+of some recent experiments in a comparatively
+new field of operation, but one that, judging from the
+results already attained, is destined to become of great
+importance and value in its practical application to
+various branches of industry.</p>
+
+<p>I say &quot;comparatively new&quot; because the underlying
+principles involved in the experiments referred to
+have, to a certain extent, been employed (in, however,
+a somewhat restricted sense) for purposes analogous to
+those that form the basis of this communication.</p>
+
+<p>As indicated by the title, the subject that will now
+occupy our attention is the use of the electric current
+as a means of increasing and varying the frictional adhesion
+of rolling contacts and other rubbing surfaces,
+and it is proposed to show how this effect may be produced,
+both by means of the direct action of the current
+itself and by its indirect action through the agency
+of electro-magnetism.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the first instance in which the electric
+current was directly employed to vary the amount of
+friction between two rubbing surfaces was exemplified
+in Edison's electro-motograph, in which the variations
+in the strength of a telephonic current caused
+corresponding variations in friction between a revolving
+cylinder of moistened chalk and the free end of an
+adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity was
+attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone.
+This device was extremely sensitive to the least changes
+in current strength, and if it were not for the complication
+introduced by the revolving cylinder, it is very
+likely that it would to-day be more generally used.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been discovered more recently that in the
+operation of electric railways in which the track rails
+form part of the circuit, a considerable increase in the
+tractive adhesion of the driving wheels is manifested,
+due to the passage of the return current from the
+wheels into the track. In the Baltimore and Hampden
+electric railway, using the Daft &quot;third rail&quot; system,
+this increased tractive adhesion enables the motors to
+ascend without slipping a long grade of 350 feet to the
+mile, drawing two heavily loaded cars, which result, it
+is claimed, is not attainable by steam or other
+self-propelling motors of similar weight. In the two instances
+just cited the conditions are widely different, as regards
+the nature of the current employed, the mechanical
+properties of the surfaces in contact, and the
+electrical resistance and the working conditions of the
+respective circuits. In both, however, as clearly
+demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter referred to,
+the cause of the increased friction is substantially the same.</p>
+
+<p>In order to ascertain the practical value of the electric
+current as a means of increasing mechanical friction,
+and, if possible, render it commercially and
+practically useful wherever such additional friction
+might be desirable, as for example in the transmission
+of power, etc., a series of experiments were entered into
+by the author, which, though not yet fully completed,
+are sufficiently advanced to show that an electric current,
+when properly applied, is capable of very materially
+increasing the mechanical friction of rotating
+bodies, in some cases as much as from 50 to 100 per
+cent., with a very economical expenditure of current;
+this increase depending upon the nature of the
+substances in contact and being capable of being
+raised by an increased flow of current.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering into a description of the means by
+which this result is produced, and how it is proposed to
+apply this method practically to railway and other
+purposes, it may be well to give a general outline of
+what has so far been determined. These experiments
+have shown that the coefficient of friction between two
+conducting surfaces is very much increased by the passage
+therethrough of an electric current of <i>low electromotive
+force and large volume</i>, and this is especially
+noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral
+contact with each other, or between a rolling and a
+stationary surface, as in the case of a driving wheel
+running upon a railway rail. This effect increases with
+the number of amperes of current flowing through the
+circuit, of which the two surfaces form part, and is
+not materially affected by the electromotive force, so
+long as the latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical
+resistance of the circuit. This increase in frictional
+adhesion is principally noticeable in iron, steel, and
+other metallic bodies, and is due to a molecular change
+in the conducting substances at their point of contact
+(which is also the point of greatest resistance in the
+circuit), caused by the heat developed at that point.
+This heat is ordinarily imperceptible, and becomes
+apparent only when the current strength is largely
+augmented. It is therefore probable that a portion of
+this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the
+current itself aside from its heating effect, although I
+have not as yet been able to ascertain this definitely.
+The most economical and efficient results have been
+obtained by the employment of a transformed current
+of extremely low electromotive force (between ½ and 1
+volt), but of very large volume or quantity, this latter
+being variable at will, so as to obtain different degrees
+of frictional resistance in the substances under observation.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments were originally directed mainly
+toward an endeavor to increase the tractive adhesion
+of the driving wheels of locomotives and other vehicles,
+and to utilize the electric current for this purpose in
+such a manner as to render it entirely safe, practical,
+and economical. It will be apparent at once that a
+method of increasing the tractive power of the present
+steam locomotives by more than 50 per cent. without
+adding to their weight and without injury to the roadbed
+and wheel tires, such as is caused by the sand now
+commonly used, would prove of considerable value,
+and the same holds true with respect to electrically
+propelled street cars, especially as it has been found
+exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive adhesion
+on street railways during the winter season, as
+well as at other times, on roads having grades of more
+than ordinary steepness. As this, therefore, is probably
+the most important use for this application of
+the electric current, it has been selected for illustrating
+this paper.</p>
+
+<p>I have here a model car and track arranged to show
+the equipment and operation of the system as applied
+to railway motors. The current in the present
+instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted
+by this transformer into one having the required
+volume. The electromotive force of this secondary
+current is somewhat higher than is necessary. In
+practice it would be about half a volt. You will notice
+upon a closer inspection that one of the forward
+driving wheels is insulated from its axle, and the
+transformed current, after passing to a regulating
+switch under the control of the engineer or driver,
+goes to this insulated wheel, from which it enters
+the track rail, then through the rear pair of
+driving wheels and axles to the opposite rail, and then
+flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel, from
+the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush
+to the opposite terminal of the secondary coil of the
+transformer. Thus the current is made to flow <i>seriatim</i>
+through all four of the driving wheels, completing its
+circuit through that portion of the rails lying between
+the two axles, and generating a sufficient amount of
+heat at each point of contact to produce the molecular
+change before referred to. By means of the regulating
+switch the engineer can control the amount of current
+flowing at any time, and can even increase its strength
+to such an extent, in wet or slippery weather, as to
+<i>evaporate any moisture</i> that may adhere to the
+surface of the rails at the point of contact with the
+wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under full
+speed.</p>
+
+<p>It will be apparent that inasmuch as the &quot;traction
+circuit&quot; moves along with the locomotive, and is complete
+through its driving wheel base, the track rails in
+front and rear of the same are at all times entirely free
+from current, <i>and no danger whatever can occur by
+coming in contact with the rails between successive
+motors</i>. Moreover, the potential used in the present
+arrangement, while sufficient to overcome the extremely
+low resistance of the moving circuit, is too small to
+cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion
+of the rails in circuit, even under the most unfavorable
+conditions of the weather. In practice the primary
+current necessary is preferably generated by a small
+high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive, the
+current being converted by means of an inductional
+transformer. To avoid the necessity for electrically
+bridging the rail joints, a modified arrangement may
+be employed, in which the electrical connection is
+made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and
+rear driving axles, the current dividing itself in parallel
+between the two rails in such a manner that, if a defective
+joint exists in the rail at one side, the circuit is
+still complete through the rail on the other; and as
+the rails usually break joints on opposite sides, this arrangement
+is found very effective. The insulation of
+the driving wheels is very easily effected in either
+case.</p>
+
+<p>As the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced
+depends upon the <i>quantity</i> of current flowing
+rather than upon its pressure, the reason for transforming
+the current as described will be apparent, and
+its advantages over a direct current of higher tension
+and less quantity, both from an economical and practical
+standpoint, will for this reason be clear. The
+amount of heat produced at the point of contact between
+the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure
+or otherwise affect them, although it may be quite
+possible to increase the current sufficiently to produce
+a very considerable heating effect. The amount of
+current sent through the traction circuit will of course
+vary with the requirements, and as the extent to which
+the resistance to slipping may be increased is very
+great, this method is likely to prove of considerable
+value. While in some cases the use of such a method
+of increasing the tractive power of locomotives would be
+confined to ascending gradients and the movement of
+exceptionally heavy loads, in others it would prove
+useful as a <i>constant</i> factor in the work of transportation.
+In cases like that of the New York elevated railway
+system, where the traffic during certain hours is
+much beyond the capacity of the trains, and the structure
+unable to support the weight of heavier engines,
+a system like that just described would prove of very
+great benefit, as it would easily enable the present
+engines to draw two or three additional cars with far
+less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical
+friction alone, at a cost for tractive current
+that is insignificant compared to the advantages
+gained. Other cases may be cited in which this
+method of increasing friction will probably be found
+useful, aside from its application to railway purposes,
+but these will naturally suggest themselves and need
+not be further dwelt upon.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the experiments above described,
+another and somewhat different method of increasing
+the traction of railway motors has been devised, which
+is more particularly adapted to electric motors for street
+railways, and is intended to be used in connection with
+a system of electric street railways now being developed
+by the author. In this system <i>electro-magnetism</i> provides
+the means whereby the increase in tractive adhesion
+is produced, and this result is attained in an entirely
+novel manner. Several attempts have heretofore been
+made to utilize magnetism for this purpose, but apparently
+without success, chiefly because of the crude and
+imperfect manner in which most of these attempts
+have been carried out.</p>
+
+<p>The present system owes its efficiency to the formation
+of <i>a complete and constantly closed magnetic
+circuit</i>, moving with the vehicle and completed
+through the two driving axles, wheels, and that portion
+of the track rails lying between the two pairs of
+wheels, in a manner similar to that employed in the
+electrical method before shown. We have here a model
+of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus,
+mounted on a section of track and provided with means
+for measuring the amount of tractive force exerted
+both with and without the passage of the current.</p>
+
+<p>You will notice that each axle of the motor car is
+wound with a helix of insulated wire, the helices in the
+present instance being divided to permit the attachment
+to the axles of the motor connections. The
+helices on both axles are so connected that, when energized,
+they induce magnetic lines of force that flow in
+the same direction through the magnetic circuit. There
+are, therefore, four points at which the circuit is maintained
+closed by the rolling wheels, and as the resistance
+to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these
+points, the magnetic saturation there is more intense,
+and produces the most effective result just where it is
+most required. Now, when the battery circuit is closed
+through the helices, it will be observed that the torque,
+or pull, exerted by the motor car is fully twice that exerted
+by the motor with the traction circuit open, and,
+by increasing the battery current until the saturation
+point of the iron is reached, the tractive force is <i>increased
+nearly 200 per cent.</i>, as shown by the dynamometer.
+A large portion of this resistance to the slipping
+or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to
+direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and
+track, this attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic
+saturation and the relative mass of metal involved.</p>
+
+<p>But by far the greatest proportion of the increased
+friction is purely the result of the change in position
+of the iron molecules due to the well known action
+of magnetism, which causes a direct and close <i>interlocking
+action</i>, so to speak, between the molecules of the
+two surfaces in contact. This may be illustrated by
+drawing a very thin knife blade over the poles of an
+ordinary electro-magnet, first with the current on and
+then off.</p>
+
+<p>In the model before you, the helices are fixed firmly
+to, and revolve with, the axles, the connections being
+maintained by brushes bearing upon contact rings at
+each end of the helices. If desired, however, the axles
+may revolve loosely within the helices, and instead of
+the latter being connected for cumulative effects, they
+may be arranged in other ways so as to produce either
+subsequent or opposing magnetic forces, leaving certain
+portions of the circuit neutral and concentrating
+the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable.
+Such a disposition will prove of advantage in some
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of current required to obtain this increased
+adhesion in practice is extremely small, and
+may be entirely neglected when compared to the great
+benefits derived. The system is very simple and inexpensive,
+and the amount of traction secured is entirely
+within the control of the motor man, as in the
+electric system. It will be seen that the car here will
+not, with the traction circuit open, propel itself up hill
+when one end of the track is raised more than 5 inches
+above the table; but with the circuit energized it will
+readily ascend the track as you now see it, with one
+end about 13½, inches above the other in a length of
+three feet, <i>or the equivalent of a 40 per cent. grade</i>;
+and this could be increased still further if the motor
+had power enough to propel itself against the force of
+gravity on a steeper incline. As you will notice, the
+motor adheres very firmly to the track and requires a
+considerable push to force it down this 40 per cent.
+grade, whereas with the traction circuit open it slips
+down in very short order, notwithstanding the efforts
+of the driving mechanism to propel it up.</p>
+
+<p>The resistance of the helices on this model is less than
+two ohms, and this will scarcely be exceeded when applied
+to a full sized car, the current from two or three
+cells of secondary batteries being probably sufficient to
+energize them.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not
+interfered with in the slightest, because in the former
+the axle boxes are outside the path of the lines of force,
+and in the case of the latter because each wheel practically
+forms a single pole piece, and in revolving presents
+continuously a new point of contact, of the same
+polarity, to the rail; the flow of the lines of force being
+most intense through the lower half of the wheels, and
+on a perpendicular line connecting the center of the
+axle with the rail. In winter all that is necessary is to
+provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning
+the track rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to
+make good contact therewith, and any tendency to
+slipping or skidding may be effectually checked. By
+this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive
+adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from 50 to 100
+per cent., without any increase in the load or weight
+upon the track; for it must be remembered that even
+that portion of the increased friction due to direct attraction
+does not increase the weight upon the roadbed,
+as this attraction is mutual between the wheels
+and track rails; and if this car and track were placed
+upon a scale and the circuit closed, it would not weigh
+a single ounce more than with the circuit open.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that this increase in friction between
+two moving surfaces can also be applied to <i>check</i>, as
+well as augment, the tractive power of a car or train of
+cars, and I have shown in connection with this model
+a system of braking that is intended to be used in conjunction
+with the electro-magnetic traction system just
+described. You will have noticed that in the experiments
+with the traction circuit the brake shoes here
+have remained idle; that is to say, they have not been
+attracted to the magnetized wheels. This is because a
+portion of the traction current has been circulating
+around this coil on the iron brake beam, inducing in
+the brake shoes magnetism of like polarity to that in
+the wheels to which they apply. They have therefore
+been <i>repelled</i> from the wheel tires instead of being
+attracted to them. Suppose now that it is desired to
+stop the motor car; instead of opening the traction
+circuit, the current flowing through the helices is simply
+reversed by means of this pole changing switch,
+whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite
+direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to
+the wheels with a very great pressure, as the current
+in the helices and brake coil now assist each other in
+setting up a very strong magnetic flow, sufficient to
+bring the motor car almost to an instant stop, if desired.</p>
+
+<p>The same tractive force that has previously been applied
+to increase the tractive adhesion now exercises its
+influence upon the brake shoes and wheels, with the
+result of not only causing a very powerful pressure between
+the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction,
+but offering an extremely large frictional resistance in
+virtue of the molecular interlocking action before referred
+to. As shown in the present instance, a portion
+of the current still flows through the traction circuit
+and prevents the skidding of the wheels.</p>
+
+<p>The method thus described is equally applicable to
+increase the coefficient of friction in apparatus for the
+transmission of power, its chief advantage for this purpose
+being the ease and facility with which the amount
+of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit
+different requirements, or increased and diminished
+(either automatically or manually) according to the
+<a name="Page_9954" id ="Page_9954"></a>nature of the work being done. With soft iron contact
+surfaces the variation in friction is very rapid and
+sensitive to slight changes in current strength, and this
+fact may prove of value in connection with its application
+to regulating and measuring apparatus. In all
+cases the point to be observed is to maintain a closed
+magnetic circuit of low resistance through the two or
+more surfaces the friction of which it is desired to increase,
+and the same rule holds good with respect to
+the electric system, except that in the latter case the
+best effects are obtained when the area of surface in
+contact is smallest.</p>
+
+<p>For large contact areas the magnetic system is found
+to be most economical, and this system might possibly
+be used to advantage to prevent slipping of short wire
+ropes and belts upon their driving pulleys, in cases
+where longer belts are inapplicable as in the driving
+of dynamos and other machinery. Experiments have
+also been, and are still being, made with the object of
+increasing friction by means of permanent magnetism,
+and also with a view to <i>diminishing</i> the friction of revolving
+and other moving surfaces, the results of which
+will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent
+paper.</p>
+
+<p>Enough has been said to indicate that the development
+of these two methods of increasing mechanical
+friction opens up a new and extensive field of operation,
+and enables electricity to score another important
+point in the present age of progress. The great range
+and flexibility of this method peculiarly adapt it to the
+purposes we have considered and to numerous others
+that will doubtless suggest themselves to you. Its application
+to the increase of the tractive adhesion of
+railway motors is probably its most prominent and
+valuable feature at present, and is calculated to act as
+an important stimulus to the practical introduction of
+electric railways on our city streets, inasmuch as the
+claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect
+are now no longer exclusively its own. On trunk
+line railways the use of sand and other objectionable
+traction-increasing appliances will be entirely dispensed
+with, and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater
+speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger
+of derailment. Their tractive power can be nearly
+doubled without any increase in weight, enabling them
+to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper grades
+without imposing additional weight or strain upon
+bridges and other parts of the roadbed. Inertia of
+heavy trains can be more readily overcome, loss of time
+due to slippery tracks obviated, and the momentum of
+the train at full speed almost instantly checked by <i>one
+and the same means</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id ="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science. New York meeting, 1887.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art08" id ="art08"></a>ELECTRIC LAUNCH.</h2>
+
+<p>Trials have been made at Havre with an electric
+launch built to the order of the French government
+by the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranée. The
+vessel, which has rather full lines, measures 28 ft. between
+perpendiculars and 9 ft. beam, and is 5 tons
+register.</p>
+
+<p>The electromotor is the invention of Captain Krebs,
+who is already well known on account of his experiments
+in connection with navigable balloons, and of
+M. De Zédé, naval architect. The propeller shaft is
+not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor, but
+is geared to it by spur wheels in the ratio of 1 to 3, in
+order to allow of the employment of a light high-speed
+motor. The latter makes 850 revolutions per minute,
+and develops 12 horse power when driving the screw at
+280 revolutions. Current is supplied by a new type of
+accumulators made by Messrs. Commelin &amp; Desmazures.
+One hundred and thirty two of these accumulators
+are fitted in the bottom of the boat, the total
+weight being about 2 tons.</p>
+
+<p>In ordering this boat the French government stipulated
+a speed of 6 knots to be maintained during three
+hours with an expenditure of 10 horse power. The result
+of the trials gave a speed of 6½ knots during five
+hours with 12 horse power, and sufficient charge was
+left in the accumulators to allow the boat to travel on
+the following day for four hours. This performance is
+exceedingly good, since it shows that one horse power
+hour has been obtained with less than 60 lb. of total
+weight of battery.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art02" id ="art02"></a>THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.</h2>
+
+<p>Leveling the ground, pulling down old buildings,
+and distributing light and air through her wide streets,
+Paris is slowly and continuously pursuing her transformation.
+At this moment it is an entire district, and
+not one of the least curious ones, that is disappearing,
+leaving no other trace of its existence than the circular
+walls that once inclosed the wheat market.</p>
+
+<p>It is this building that, metamorphosed, is to become
+the Commercial Exchange that has been so earnestly
+demanded since 1880 by the commerce of Paris. The
+question, which was simple in the first place, and consisted
+in the conversion of the wheat market into a
+commercial exchange, became complicated by a project
+of enlarging the markets. It therefore became
+necessary to take possession, on the one hand, of sixty
+seven estates, of a total area of 116,715 square feet, to
+clear the exchange, and, on the other, of 49,965 square
+feet to clear the central markets. In other words, out
+of $5,000,000 voted by the common council for this
+work, $2,800,000 are devoted to the dispossessions necessitated
+by the new exchange, $1,800,000 to those
+necessitated by the markets, and $400,000 are appropriated
+to the wheat market.</p>
+
+<p>The work of demolition began last spring, and the
+odd number side of Orleans street, Deux-Ecus street,
+from this latter to J.J. Rousseau street, Babille street,
+Mercier street, and Sortine street, now no longer exist.
+All this part is to-day but a desert, in whose center
+stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola.
+It is on these grounds that will be laid out the prolongation
+of Louvre street in a straight line to Coquilliere
+street.</p>
+
+<p>Our engraving shows the present state of the work.
+What is seen of the wheat market will be preserved
+and utilized by Mr. Blondeau, the architect, who has
+obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to
+construct two edifices on two plots of an area of 32,220
+square feet, fronting on Louvre street, and which will
+bring the city an annual rent of $60,000.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/12.png"><img src="./images/12_th.png" alt="THE NEW COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS." /></a><br /> THE NEW COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.</p>
+
+<p>Around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular
+wall 6½ feet in thickness. Mr. Blondeau has
+torn this down, and is now building another one appropriate
+to the new destination of the acquired estates.
+As for the trussing of the cupola, that is considered
+as a work of art, and care has been taken not
+to touch it. It was constructed at the beginning of
+this century, at an epoch when nothing but rudimentary
+tools were to be had for working iron, and it was,
+so to speak, forged. All the pieces were made with
+the hammer and were added one to the other in succession.
+This cupola will be glazed at the upper part,
+while the lower part will be covered with zinc. In the
+interior this part will be decorated with allegorical
+paintings representing the five divisions of the globe,
+with their commercial and industrial attributes. It
+was feared at one time that the hall, to which admission
+will be free, would not afford sufficient space, and
+the halls of the Bordeaux and Havre exchanges were
+cited. It is true that the hall of the wheat market has
+an area of but 11,825 square feet, but on utilizing the
+5,000 feet of the circular gallery, which will not be occupied,
+it will reach 16,825 feet.</p>
+
+<p>As for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice,
+that was built by Marie de Medici for the astrologer
+whom she brought with her to Paris from Florence.
+On account of its historic interest, this structure will
+be preserved. On either side of this tower, overlooking
+the roofs of the neighboring dwellings, are perceived
+the summit of a tower of St. Eustache church and a
+campanile of a pavilion of the markets.&mdash;<i>L'Illustration.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art20" id ="art20"></a>THE MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE.</h2>
+
+<p>Cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the
+<i>Erythroxylon coca</i>, which grows in the valleys of the
+East Cordilleras of South America&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, in the interior
+of Peru and Bolivia. The fresh leaves contain 0.003 to
+0.006 per cent of cocaine, which percentage decreases
+considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time
+before being worked up. On the other hand, the alkaloid
+can be transported and kept without decomposition.
+This circumstance caused the author to devise a
+simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on
+the spot, neither Peru nor Bolivia being suitable countries
+for complicated chemical operations. After many
+experiments, he hit upon the following plan: The disintegrated
+coca leaves are digested at 70° C. in closed
+vessels for two hours, with a very weak solution of
+sodium hydrate and petroleum (boiling between 200°
+and 250° C). The mass is filtered, pressed while still
+tepid, and the filtrate allowed to stand until the oil has
+completely separated from the aqueous solution. The
+oil is drawn off and carefully neutralized with very
+weak hydrochloric acid. A white bulky precipitate of
+cocaine hydrochloride is obtained, together with an
+aqueous solution of the same compound, while the
+petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for
+the extraction of a fresh batch of leaves. The precipitate
+is dried, and by concentrating the aqueous solution
+a further quantity of the hydrochloride is obtained.
+Both can be shipped without risk of decomposition.
+The product is not quite pure, but contains some
+hygrine, traces of gum and other matters. Its percentage
+of alkaloid is 75 per cent., while chemically pure
+cocaine hydrochloride (C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>21</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>.2HCl) contains 80.6
+per cent. of the alkaloid. The sodium hydrate solution
+cannot be replaced by milk of lime, nor can any
+other acid be used for neutralization. Alcohol or ether
+are not suitable for extraction. A repetition of the
+process with once-extracted coca leaves gave no further
+quantity of cocaine, proving that all the cocaine goes
+into solution by one treatment. The same process
+<a name="Page_9955" id ="Page_9955"></a>serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca
+leaves. 100 grms. of coca leaves are digested in a flask
+with 400 c.c. of water, 50 c.c. of 1/10 NaOH (10 grms. of
+NaOH in 100 c.c.) and 250 c.c. of petroleum. The flask is
+loosely covered and warmed on the water bath for two
+hours, shaking it from to time. The mass is then filtered,
+the residue pressed, and the filtrate allowed to
+separate in two layers. The oil layer is run into a bottle
+and titrated back with 1/100 HCl (1 grm. of HCl in
+100 c.c.) until exactly neutral. The number of c.c. of
+hydrochloric acid required for titrating back multiplied
+by 0.42 gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample.
+The following are some of the results with different
+samples of coca leaves of various age:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" summary="">
+<colgroup span="6"><col align="center" /><col align="left" span="2" /><col align="center" />
+<col align="right" /><col align="center" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>Contained <br />per cent. of<br /> Cocaine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coca leaves from</td><td>Mapiri,</td><td>1 month old</td><td>0.5%</td>
+<td valign="middle" align="center" rowspan="7">=>Of the <br />weight of<br /> the dry leaves.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Yungas</td><td>&quot;</td><td>0.5%</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Mapiri and Yungas</td><td>6 months old</td><td>0.4%</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Cuzco (Peru)</td><td>6 months old</td><td>0.3%</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Mapiri and Yungas</td><td>1 year old</td><td>0.3%</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Cuzco</td><td>&quot;</td><td>0.2%</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&quot;</td><td>Mapiri and Yungas</td><td>2 years old</td><td>0.15%</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Coca leaves from Yungas and Cuzco, three years old,
+contained no trace of the alkaloid, whereas fresh green
+leaves from Yungas contained 0.7 per cent. of the
+weight of the dry leaves. The same process is also applicable
+for the manufacture of quinine from poor
+quinine bark, with the single alteration that weak
+sulphuric acid must be used for the neutralization of
+the alkaline petroleum extract.&mdash;<i>H.T. Pfeiffer, Chem.
+Zeit. 11.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9941.]</p>
+
+<h2><a name="art06" id ="art06"></a>THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT FORMS.<a name="FNanchor_8" id ="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT.</h3>
+
+<p>The succession of plants from the lower to the higher
+forms will be reviewed superficially, and chemical compounds
+noted where they appear.</p>
+
+<p>When the germinating spores of the fungi, <i>myxomycetes</i>,
+rupture their walls and become masses of naked
+protoplasm, they are known as plasmodia. The plasmodium
+<i>&AElig;thalium septicum</i> occurs in moist places, on
+heaps of tan or decaying barks. It is a soft, gelatinous
+mass of yellowish color, sometimes measuring several
+inches in length.</p>
+
+<p>The plasmodium<a name="FNanchor_9" id ="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9"><sup>2</sup></a> has been chemically analyzed,
+though not in a state of absolute purity. The table of
+Reinke and Rodewold gives an idea of its proximate
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the constituents given are always present
+in the living cells of higher plants. It cannot be too
+emphatically stated that where &quot;biotic&quot; force is manifested,
+these colloidal or albuminous compounds are
+found.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated
+individual, all of its functions being performed indifferently
+by all parts of its protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely
+composed of complex albuminous substances, and correlated
+with this structureless body are other compounds
+derived from them. Aside from the chemical
+substances which are always present in living matter,
+and are essential properties of protoplasm, we find no
+other compounds. In the higher organisms, where
+these functions are not performed indifferently, specialization
+of tissues is accompanied by many other kinds
+of bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The alg&aelig; are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale
+than the undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium. The
+simple <i>Alga protococcus</i><a name="FNanchor_10" id ="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>3</sup></a> may be regarded as a simple
+cell. All higher plants are masses of cells, varying in
+form, function, and chemical composition.</p>
+
+<p>A typical living cell may be described as composed of
+a cell wall and contents. The cell wall is a firm, elastic
+membrane closed on all sides, and consists mainly of
+cellulose, water, and inorganic constituents. The contents
+consist of a semi-fluid colloidal substance, lying
+in contact with the inner surface of the membrane, and,
+like it, closed on all sides. This always is composed of
+albuminous substances. In the higher plants, at least,
+a nucleus occurs embedded in it; a watery liquid holding
+salts and saccharine substances in solution fills the
+space called the vacuole, inclosed by the protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p>These simple plants may be seen as actively moving
+cells or as non-motile cells. The former consist of a
+minute mass of protoplasm, granular and mostly colored
+green, but clear and colorless at the more pointed
+end, and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments
+called cilia. After moving actively for a time
+they come to rest, acquire a spherical form, and invest
+themselves with a firm membrane of cellulose. This
+firm, outer membrane of the <i>Protococcus</i> accompanies
+a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of
+function than is found in the plasmodium.</p>
+
+<p><i>H&aelig;atococcus</i> and plasmodium come under the classes
+alg&aelig; and fungi of the Thallothyta group. The division<a name="FNanchor_11" id ="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11"><sup>4</sup></a>
+of this group into two classes is based upon the presence
+of chlorophyl in alg&aelig; and its absence in fungi. Gelatinous
+starch is found in the alg&aelig;; the fungi contain a
+starchy substance called glycogen, which also occurs in
+the liver and muscles of animals. Structureless bodies,
+as <i>&aelig;thalium</i>, contain no true sugar. Stratified starch<a name="FNanchor_12" id ="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12"><sup>5</sup></a>
+first appears in the phanerogams. Alkaloids have
+been found in fungi, and owe their presence doubtless
+to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the green coloring matter in alg&aelig; are
+found other coloring matters.<a name="FNanchor_13" id ="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13"><sup>6</sup></a> The nature<a name="FNanchor_14" id ="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"><sup>7</sup></a> of these
+coloring matters is usually the same through whole
+families, which also resemble each other in their modes
+of reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>In form, the alg&aelig; differ greatly from filaments or
+masses of cells; they live in the water and cover damp
+surfaces of rocks and wood. In these they are remarkable
+for their ramifications and colors and grow to a
+gigantic size.</p>
+
+<p>The physiological functions of alg&aelig; and fungi depend
+upon their chemical differences.</p>
+
+<p>These facts have been offered, simple as they are, as
+striking examples of chemical and structural opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The fungi include very simple organisms, as well as
+others of tolerably high development, of most varied
+form, from the simple bacillus and yeast to the truffle,
+lichens, and mushrooms.</p>
+
+<p>The cell membrane of this class contains no pure
+cellulose, but a modification called fungus cellulose.
+The membrane also contains an amyloid substance,
+amylomycin.<a name="FNanchor_15" id ="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15"><sup>8</sup></a> Many of the chemical constituents found
+in the entire class are given in <i>Die Pflanzenstoffe</i>.<a name="FNanchor_16" id ="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16"><sup>9</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Under the <i>Schizomycetes</i> to which the <i>Micrococcus</i>
+and <i>Bacterium</i><a name="FNanchor_17" id ="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17"><sup>10</sup></a> belong are found minute organisms
+differing much in form and in the coloring<a name="FNanchor_18" id ="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18"><sup>11</sup></a> matters
+they produce, as that causing the red color of mouldy
+bread.</p>
+
+<p>The class of lichens<a name="FNanchor_19" id ="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19"><sup>12</sup></a> contains a number of different
+coloring substances, whose chemical composition has
+been examined. These substances are found separately
+in individuals differing in form. In the <i>Polyporus</i><a name="FNanchor_20" id ="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20"><sup>13</sup></a>
+an acid has been found peculiar to it, as in many plants
+special compounds are found. In the agarice&aelig; the different
+kinds of vellum distinguish between species, and
+the color of the conidia is also of differential importance.
+In all cases of distinct characteristic habits of
+reproduction and form, one or more different chemical
+compounds is found.</p>
+
+<p>In the next group of the musice&aelig;, or mosses, is an
+absence of some chemical compounds that were characteristic
+of the classes just described. Many of the
+albuminous substances are present. Starch<a name="FNanchor_21" id ="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21"><sup>14</sup></a> is found
+often in large quantities, and also oily fats, which are
+contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts; wax,<a name="FNanchor_22" id ="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22"><sup>15</sup></a> organic
+acids, including aconitic acid, and tannin, which
+is found for the first time at this evolutionary stage of
+the plant kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The vascular cryptogams are especially characterized
+by their mineral composition.<a name="FNanchor_23" id ="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23"><sup>16</sup></a> The ash is extraordinarily
+rich in silicic acid and alumina.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="Mineral Composition">
+<colgroup span="4"><col align="left" /><col align="center" /><col align="right" /><col align="center" /></colgroup>
+<tr><td>Equisetum<a name="FNanchor_24" id ="FNanchor_24"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_24">17</a></td><td>silicic acid</td><td>60</td><td>per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Aspidium</td><td>&quot;</td><td>13</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Asplenium</td><td>&quot;</td><td>35</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Osmunda</td><td>&quot;</td><td>53</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lycopodium<a name="FNanchor_25" id ="FNanchor_25"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_25">18</a></td><td>&quot;</td><td>14</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&quot;</td><td>alumina</td><td>26 to 27</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&quot;</td><td>manganese</td><td>2 to 2.5</td><td>&quot;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>These various plants contain acids and compounds
+peculiar to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>As we ascend in the plant scale, we reach the phanerogams.
+These plants are characterized by the production
+of true seeds, and many chemical compounds
+not found in lower plants.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient in speaking of these higher
+groups to follow M. Heckel's<a name="FNanchor_26" id ="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26"><sup>19</sup></a> scheme of plant evolution.
+All these plants are grouped under three main
+divisions: apetalous, monocotyledonous, and dicotyledonous;
+and these main divisions are further subdivided.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that these three main parallel
+columns are divided into three general horizontal
+planes.</p>
+
+<p>On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral
+elements, or parts; for example, the black walnut, with
+the simple flower contained in a catkin.</p>
+
+<p>On plane 2 plants which have a multiplicity of floral
+elements, as the many petals and stamens of the rose;
+and finally, the higher plants, the orchids among the
+monocotyledons and the composite among the
+dicotyledonous plants, come under the third division
+of condensation of floral elements.</p>
+
+<p>It will be impossible to take up in order for chemical
+consideration all these groups, and I shall restrict myself
+to pointing out the occurrence of certain constituents.</p>
+
+<p>I desire now to call attention to chemical groups
+under the apetalous plants having simplicity of floral
+elements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cassuarina equisetifolia</i><a name="FNanchor_27" id ="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27"><sup>20</sup></a> possibly contains tannin,
+since it is used for curing hides. The bark contains a
+dye. It is said to resemble <i>Equisetum</i><a name="FNanchor_28" id ="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28"><sup>21</sup></a> in appearance,
+and in this latter plant a yellow dye is found.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Myrica</i><a name="FNanchor_29" id ="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29"><sup>22</sup></a> contains ethereal oil, wax, resin,
+balsam, in all parts of the plant. The root contains
+in addition fats, tannin, and starch, also myricinic
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>In the willow and poplar,<a name="FNanchor_30" id ="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30"><sup>23</sup></a> a crystalline, bitter substance,
+salicin or populin, is found. This may be considered
+as the first appearance of a real glucoside, if
+tannin be excluded from the list.</p>
+
+<p>The oak, walnut, beech, alder, and birch contain
+tannin in large quantities; in the case of the oak, ten
+to twelve per cent. Oak galls yield as much as seventy
+per cent.<a name="FNanchor_31" id ="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31"><sup>24</sup></a>
+The numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable
+for ethereal oil, resin, and camphor.</p>
+
+<p>The plane<a name="FNanchor_32" id ="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32"><sup>25</sup></a> trees contain caoutchouc and gum;
+peppers,<a name="FNanchor_33" id ="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33"><sup>26</sup></a> ethereal oils, alkaloids, piperin, white resin,
+and malic acid. <i>Datisca cannabina</i><a name="FNanchor_34" id ="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34"><sup>27</sup></a> contains a coloring
+matter and another substance peculiar to itself,
+datiscin, a kind of starch, or allied to the glucosides.</p>
+
+
+<p>Upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons,
+the dates and palms<a name="FNanchor_35" id ="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35"><sup>28</sup></a> contain in large
+quantities special starches, and this is in harmony
+with the principles of the theory. Alkaloids and glucosides
+have not yet been discovered in them.</p>
+
+<p>Other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of
+floral elements, such as the typhace&aelig;, contain large
+quantities of starch; in the case of <i>Typha latifolia</i><a name="FNanchor_36" id ="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36"><sup>29</sup></a>
+12.5 per cent., and 1.5 per cent. gum. In the pollen of
+this same plant, 2.08 per cent. starch has been found.</p>
+
+<p>Under the dicotyledonous groups, there are no plants
+with simplicity of floral elements.</p>
+
+<p>Returning, now, to apetalous plants of multiplicity
+and simplification of floral elements, we find that the
+urticace&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_37" id ="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37"><sup>30</sup></a> contain free formic acid; the hemp<a name="FNanchor_38" id ="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38"><sup>31</sup></a> contains
+alkaloids; the hop,<a name="FNanchor_39" id ="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39"><sup>32</sup></a> ethereal oil and resin; the
+rhubarb,<a name="FNanchor_40" id ="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40"><sup>33</sup></a> crysophonic acid; and the begonias,<a name="FNanchor_41" id ="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41"><sup>34</sup></a> chicarin
+and lapacho dyes. The highest apetalous
+plants contain camphors and oils; the highest of the
+monocotyledons contain a mucilage and oils; and the
+highest dicotyledons contain oils and special acids.</p>
+
+<p>The trees yielding common camphor and borneol are
+from genera of the laurace&aelig; family; also sassafras
+camphor is from the same family. Small quantities of
+stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The gramine&aelig;, or grasses, are especially characterized
+by the large quantities of sugar and silica they
+contain. The ash of the rice hull, for example, contains
+ninety eight per cent. silica.</p>
+
+<p>The ranunculace&aelig; contain many plants which yield
+alkaloids, as <i>Hydrastia canadensis</i>, or Indian hemp,
+<i>Helleborus</i>, <i>Delphinum</i>, <i>Aconitum</i>, and the alkaloid
+berberine has been obtained from genera of this
+family.</p>
+
+<p>The alkaloid<a name="FNanchor_42" id ="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42"><sup>35</sup></a> furnishing families belong, with few
+exceptions, to the dicotyledons. The colchice&aelig;, from
+which is obtained veratrine, form an exception among
+the monocotyledons. The alkaloids of the fungus have
+already been noted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="FNanchor_43" id ="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43"><sup>36</sup></a>Among the greater number of plant families, no
+alkaloids have been found. In the labiat&aelig; none has
+been discovered, nor in the composit&aelig; among the highest
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>One alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiace&aelig;;
+berberine in genera of the berberidace&aelig;,
+ranunculace&aelig;, menispermace&aelig;, rutace&aelig;, papaverace&aelig;,
+anonace&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Waxes are widely distributed in plants. They occur
+in quantities in some closely related families.</p>
+
+<p>Ethereal oils occur in many families, in the bark,
+root, wood, leaf, flower, and fruit; particularly in
+myrtace&aelig;, laurine&aelig;, cyperace&aelig;, crucifere&aelig;, aurantiace&aelig;,
+labiat&aelig;, and umbellifer&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Resins are found in most of the higher plants.
+Tropical plants are richer in resins than those of cold
+climates.</p>
+
+<p>Chemical resemblance between groups, as indicating
+morphological relations, has been well shown. For
+example: the similarity<a name="FNanchor_44" id ="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44"><sup>37</sup></a> of the viscid juices, and a
+like taste and smell, among cactace&aelig; and portulace&aelig;,
+indicate a closer relationship between these two orders
+than botanical classification would perhaps allow.
+This fact was corroborated by the discovery of irritable
+stamens in <i>Portulaca</i> and <i>Opuntia</i>, and other genera
+of cactace&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin<a name="FNanchor_45" id ="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45"><sup>38</sup></a> states that in the composit&aelig; the ray florets
+are more poisonous than the disk florets, in the ratio of
+about 3 to 2.</p>
+
+<p>Comparing the cycade&aelig; and palm&aelig;, the former are
+differently placed by different botanists, but the general
+resemblance is remarkable, and they both yield
+sago.</p>
+
+<p>Chemical constituents of plants are found in varying
+quantities during stated periods of the year. Certain
+compounds present at one stage of growth are absent
+at another. Many facts could be brought forward to
+show the different chemical composition of plants in
+different stages of growth. The <i>Thuja occidentalis</i><a name="FNanchor_46" id ="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46"><sup>39</sup></a>
+in the juvenescent and adult form, offers an example
+where morphological and chemical differences go hand
+in hand. Analyses of this plant under both conditions
+show a striking difference.</p>
+
+<p>Different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical
+compounds, and the comparative chemical study of
+plant orders comprises the analysis of all parts of plants
+of different species.</p>
+
+<p>For example; four portions of the <i>Yucca angustifolia</i><a name="FNanchor_47" id ="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47"><sup>40</sup></a>
+were examined chemically; the bark and wood
+of the root and the base and blades of the leaves.
+Fixed oils were separated from each part. These were
+not identical; two were fluid at ordinary temperature,
+and two were solid. Their melting and solidifying
+points were not the same.</p>
+
+<p>This difference in the physical character and chemical
+reaction of these fixed oils may be due to the presence
+of free fatty acid and glycerides in varying proportions
+in the four parts of the plants. It is of interest
+to note that, in the subterranean part of the <i>Yucca</i>,
+the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary
+temperature; from the wood it was of a less solid consistency;
+while the yellow base of the leaf contained
+an oil quite soft, and in the green leaf the oil is almost
+fluid.</p>
+
+<p>Two new resins were extracted from the yellow and
+green parts of the leaf. It was proposed to name them
+<a name="Page_9956" id ="Page_9956"></a><i>yuccal</i> and <i>pyroph&aelig;al</i> An examination of the contents
+of each extract showed a different quantitative
+and qualitative result.</p>
+
+<p>Saponin was found in all parts of the plant.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the above facts have been collected from the
+investigations of others. I have introduced these statements,
+selected from a mass of material, as evidences in
+favor of the view stated at the beginning of this
+paper.<a name="FNanchor_48" id ="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48"><sup>41</sup></a> My own study has been directed toward the
+discovery of saponin in those plants where it was presumably
+to be found. The practical use of this theory
+in plant analysis will lead the chemists at once to a
+search for those compounds which morphology shows
+are probably present.</p>
+
+<p>I have discovered saponin in all parts of the <i>Yucca
+angustifolia</i>, in the <i>Y. filimentosa</i> and <i>Y. gloriosa</i>, in
+several species of agav&aelig;, and in plants belonging to
+the leguminos&aelig; family.</p>
+
+<p>The list<a name="FNanchor_49" id ="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49"><sup>42</sup></a> of plants in which saponin has been discovered
+is given in the note. All these plants are contained
+in the middle plane of Heckel's scheme. No
+plants containing saponin have been found among apetalous
+groups. No plants have been found containing
+saponin among the lower monocotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>The plane of saponin passes from the liliace&aelig; and
+allied groups to the rosales and higher dicotyledons.</p>
+
+<p>Saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides.
+Under the action of dilute acids, it is split up
+into two substances, glucose and sopogenin. The
+chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly understood.
+The commercial<a name="FNanchor_50" id ="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50"><sup>43</sup></a> product is probably a
+mixture of several substances.</p>
+
+<p>This complexity of chemical composition of saponin
+is admirably adapted for the nutrition of the plant,
+and it is associated with the corresponding complexity
+of the morphological elements of the plant's organs.
+According to M. Perrey,<a name="FNanchor_51" id ="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51"><sup>44</sup></a> it seems that the power of a
+plant to direct the distribution of its carbon, hydrogen,
+and oxygen to form complex glucosides is indicative of
+its higher functions and developments.</p>
+
+<p>The solvent action of saponin on resins has been already
+discussed. Saponin likewise acts as a solvent
+upon barium<a name="FNanchor_52" id ="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52"><sup>45</sup></a> sulphate and calcium<a name="FNanchor_53" id ="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53"><sup>46</sup></a> oxalate, and as a
+solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble salts would assist
+the plant in obtaining food, otherwise difficult of
+access.</p>
+
+<p>Saponin is found in endogens and exogens. The
+line dividing these two groups is not always clearly defined.
+Statements pointing to this are found in the
+works of Haeckel, Bentham, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Smilax belongs to a transition class, partaking somewhat
+of the nature of endogen and of exogen. It is
+worthy of note that this intermediate group of the
+sarsaparillas should contain saponin.</p>
+
+<p>It is a significant fact that all the groups above
+named containing saponin belong to Heckel's middle
+division.</p>
+
+<p>It may be suggested that saponin is thus a constructive
+element in developing the plant from the multiplicity
+of floral elements to the cephalization of those organs.</p>
+
+<p>It has been observed that the composite occurs where
+the materials for growth are supplied in greatest
+abundance, and the more simple forms arise where
+sources of nutrition are remote. We may gather from
+this fact that the simpler organs of plants low in the
+evolutionary scale contain simpler non-nitrogenous
+chemical compounds for their nutrition.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of saponin seems essential to the life of
+the plant where it is found, and it is an indispensable
+principle in the progression of certain lines of plants,
+passing from their lower to their higher stages.</p>
+
+<p>Saponin is invariably absent where the floral elements
+are simple; it is invariably absent where the floral
+elements are condensed to their greatest extent. Its
+position is plainly that of a factor in the great middle
+realm of vegetable life, where the elements of the individual
+are striving to condense, and thus increase their
+physiological action and the economy of parts.</p>
+
+<p>It may be suggested as a line of research to study
+what are the conditions which control the synthesis
+and gradual formation of saponin in plants. The simpler
+compounds of which this complex substance is
+built up, if located as compounds of lower plants,
+would indicate the lines of progression from the lower
+to the saponin groups.</p>
+
+<p>In my paper<a name="FNanchor_54" id ="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54"><sup>47</sup></a> read in Buffalo at the last meeting of
+the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
+various suggestions were offered why chemical
+compounds should be used as a means of botanical
+classification.</p>
+
+<p>The botanical classifications based upon morphology
+are so frequently unsatisfactory, that efforts in some
+directions have been made to introduce other methods.<a name="FNanchor_55" id ="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55"><sup>48</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There has been comparatively little study of the
+chemical principles of plants from a purely botanical
+view. It promises to become a new field of research.</p>
+
+<p>The leguminos&aelig; are conspicuous as furnishing us
+with important dyes, <i>e.g.</i>, indigo, logwood, catechin.
+The former is obtained principally from different
+species of the genus <i>Indigofera</i>, and logwood from the
+<i>H&aelig;matoxylon</i> and <i>Saraca indica</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery<a name="FNanchor_56" id ="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56"><sup>49</sup></a> of h&aelig;matoxylin in the <i>Saraca indica</i>
+illustrates very well how this plant in its chemical, as
+well as botanical, character is related to the <i>H&aelig;matoxylon
+campechianum</i>; also, I found a substance like
+catechin in the <i>Saraca</i>. This compound is found in the
+<i>acacias</i>, to which class <i>Saraca</i> is related by its chemical
+position, as well as botanically. Saponin is found
+in both of these plants, as well as in many other plants of
+the leguminos&aelig;. The leguminos&aelig; come under the middle
+plane or multiplicity of floral elements, and the
+presence of saponin in these plants was to be expected.</p>
+
+<p>From many of the facts above stated, it may be inferred
+that the chemical compounds of plants do not
+occur at random. Each stage of growth and development
+has its own particular chemistry.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that many of the constituents found in
+plants are the result of destructive metabolism, and
+are of no further use in the plant's economy. This subject
+is by no means settled, and even should we be
+forced to accept that ground, it is a significant fact
+that certain cells, tissues, or organs peculiar to a plant
+secrete or excrete chemical compounds peculiar to
+them, which are to be found in one family, or in species
+closely allied to it.</p>
+
+<p>It is a fact that the chemical compounds are there,
+no matter why or whence they came. They will serve
+our purposes of study and classification.</p>
+
+<p>The result of experiment shows that the presence
+of certain compounds is essential to the vigor and development
+of all plants and particular compounds to the
+development of certain plants. Plant chemistry and
+morphology are related. Future investigations will
+demonstrate this relation.</p>
+
+<p>In general terms, we may say that amides and carbohydrates
+are utilized in the manufacture of proteids.
+Organic acids cause a turgescence of cells. Glucosides
+may be a form of reserve food material.</p>
+
+<p>Resins and waxes may serve only as protection to the
+surfaces of plants; coloring matters, as screens to shut
+off or admit certain of the sun's rays; but we are still
+far from penetrating the mystery of life.</p>
+
+<p>A simple plant does what animals more highly endowed
+cannot do. From simplest substances they
+manufacture the most complex. We owe our existence
+to plants, as they do theirs to the air and soil.</p>
+
+<p>The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
+pass through a cycle of changes from simple inorganic
+substances to the complex compounds of the
+living cell. Upon the decomposition of these bodies
+the elements return to their original state. During
+this transition those properties of protoplasm which
+were mentioned at the beginning, in turn, follow
+their path. From germination to death this course
+appears like a crescent, the other half of the circle
+closed from view. Where chemistry begins and ends it
+is difficult to say.&mdash;<i>Jour. Fr. Inst.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id ="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, January 24, 1887.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id ="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[2]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Studien uber das Protoplasm, 1881.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id ="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[3]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Vines, p. 1. Rostafinski: Mem. de la Soc. des Sc. Nat. de Cherbourg, 1875. Strasburger: Zeitschr., xii, 1878.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id ="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[4]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Botany: Prantl and Vines. London, 1886, p. 110.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id ="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[5]</a></p><div class="note"><p>For the literature of starch, see p. 115, Die Pflanzenstoffe, von Hilger and Husemann.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id ="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[6]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Kutzing: Arch. Pharm., xli, 38. Kraus and Millardet: Bul. Soc. Sciences Nat., Strasbourg, 1868, 22. Sorby: Jour. Lin. Soc., xv, 34. J. Reinke: Jahrb. Wissenscht. Botan., x, B. 399. Phipson: Phar. Jour. Trans., clxii, 479.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id ="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[7]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Prantl and Vines, p. 111.</p></div>
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id ="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15">[8]</a></p><div class="note"><p>L. Crie: Compt. Rend., lxxxviii, 759 and 985. J. De Seynes, 820, 1043.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16" id ="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16">[9]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Page 279.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17" id ="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17">[10]</a></p><div class="note"><p>M. Nencki and F. Schaffer. N. Sieher: Jour. Pract. Chem., 23, 412.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18" id ="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18">[11]</a></p><div class="note"><p>E. Klein: Quar. Jour. Micros. Science, 1875, 381. O. Helm: Arch. Pharm., 1875, 19-24. G. Gugini: Gaz. Chem., 7, 4. W. Thorner: Bul. Ber, xi, 533.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19" id ="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19">[12]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Handbook of Dyeing. By W. Crookes, London, 1874. p. 367. Schunck: Ann. Chem. Pharm., 41, 157; 54, 261; 61, 72; 61, 64; 61, 78. Rochelder and Heldt, ibid., 48, 2; 48, 9. Stenhouse, ibid., 68, 57; 68, 72; 68, 97, 104; 125, 353. See also researches of Strecker, O. Hesse, Reymann, Liebermann, Lamparter, Knop, and Schnedermann.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20" id ="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20">[13]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Stahlschmidt.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21" id ="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21">[14]</a></p><div class="note"><p>E. Treffner: Inaugur. Diss. Dorpat, 1880.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22" id ="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22">[15]</a></p><div class="note"><p>W. Pfeffer: Flora, 1874.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23" id ="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23">[16]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 323 W. Lange: Bul. Ber., xi, 822.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24" id ="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24">[17]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Ann. Chim. Phys., 41, 62, 208; Ann. Chim. Pharm., 77, 295.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25" id ="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25">[18]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Fluckiger: Pharmakognosie. Kamp: Ann. Chim. Pharm., 100, 300.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26" id ="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26">[19]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Revue Scientifiqe, 13 Mars, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27" id ="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27">[20]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Dictionary of Economic Plants. By J. Smith. London, 1882, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28" id ="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28">[21]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Ibid., p. 160. Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs, Wittstein, p. 736. Ann. Chem. Pharm., 77, 295.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29" id ="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29">[22]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Rabenhorst: Repert. Pharm., lx, 214. Moore: Chem. Centralbl., 1862,
+779, Dana.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30" id ="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30">[23]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Johansen: Arch. Pharm., 3, ix, 210. Ibid., 3, ix 103. Bente: Berl.
+Ber., viii, 476. Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 44, 296.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31" id ="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31">[24]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Wittstein; Pharm. des Pflanzenreichs, p. 249.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32" id ="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32">[25]</a></p><div class="note"><p>John; Ibid., p. 651.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33" id ="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33">[26]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Dulong. Oersted, Lucas, Pontet; Ibid., p. 640.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34" id ="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34">[27]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 3. 277. Stenhouse: Ann. Chim.
+Phann., 198, 166</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35" id ="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35">[28]</a></p><div class="note"><p>3 Pflanzenstoffe, p. 412.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36" id ="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36">[29]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Lecocq: Braconnot: Pharmacog. Pflan, p. 693.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37" id ="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37">[30]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Gorup-Besanez.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38" id ="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38">[31]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Siebold and Brodbury: Phar. Jour. Trans., 3, 590, 1881, 326.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39" id ="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39">[32]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Wagner: Jour. Prakt. Chem., 58, 352. B. Peters, v. Gohren: Jahresb. Agric., viii, 114; ix, 105; v. 58. Ann. Jour. Pharm., 4, 49.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40" id ="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40">[33]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Dragendorff: Pharm. Zeitschr. Russ., xvii, 65-97.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41" id ="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41">[34]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Bonssingault: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 27, 315. Erdmann: Jour. Pract. Chem., 71, 198.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42" id ="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42">[35]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43" id ="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43">[36]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Ibid.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44" id ="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44">[37]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45" id ="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45">[38]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Different forms of flowers on plants of the same species. Introduction.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46" id ="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46">[39]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47" id ="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47">[40]</a></p><div class="note"><p>H.C. De S. Abbott: Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48" id ="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48">[41]</a></p><div class="note"><p>For further facts confirming this theory, see &quot;Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants.&quot; By H.C. De S. Abbott. Amer. Naturalist, August, 1887.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49" id ="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49">[42]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Different genera and species of the following: Ranunculace&aelig;, Berberidace&aelig;, Carophyllace&aelig;, Polygalace&aelig;, Bromeliace&aelig;, Liliace&aelig;, Smilace&aelig;,
+Yuccas, Amaryllide&aelig;, Leguminos&aelig;, Primulace&aelig;, Rosace&aelig;, Sapindace&aelig;,
+Sapotace&aelig;</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50" id ="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50">[43]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Kobert: Chem Ztg.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51" id ="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51">[44]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Compt. Rend., xciv, p. 1124.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52" id ="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52">[45]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Bul. de la Soc. Chim.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_53" id ="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53">[46]</a></p><div class="note"><p>&quot;Yucca angus.&quot; Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Dec., 1885.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_54" id ="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54">[47]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Botanical Gazette, October, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55" id ="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55">[48]</a></p><div class="note"><p>Borodin: Pharm. Jour. Trans., xvi, 369. Pax. Firemy: Ann. Sci. Nat., xiii.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_56" id ="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56">[49]</a></p><div class="note"><p>H.C. De S. Abbott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Nov. 30, 1886.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04" id ="art04"></a>NEW METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF STARCH.</h2>
+
+<h3>A.V. ASBOTH.</h3>
+
+<p>The author maintains that unsatisfactory results are
+obtained in determinations of starch when the method
+employed is based upon the inversion of sugar, formed
+as an intermediate product, since maltose, dextrose, and
+levulose are partly decomposed by boiling with dilute
+acids. He proposes to replace the methods hitherto
+employed by one which depends upon the formation of
+a barium salt of starch, to which he assigns the formula
+BaO.C<sub>24</sub>H<sub>40</sub>O<sub>20</sub>. This salt is sparingly soluble in water
+and insoluble in dilute alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>In making a determination a weighed quantity of
+starch is saccharified with water, then mixed with an
+excess of normal baryta solution, dilute alcohol added
+to make up to a certain volume, and, after the precipitate
+has settled, the excess of baryta is titrated back
+with acid.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14a.png" alt="Titrating apparatus" /><br /> Titrating apparatus</p>
+
+<p>The author also describes the apparatus he employs
+for storing and titrating with baryta solution. The
+latter is contained in the bottle, A, and the drying tube
+attached to the neck of the same is filled with quicklime.
+The burette, B, which is in direct connection
+with the bottle, may be filled with the solution by
+opening the stop cock, and the small drying tube, <i>n</i>, is
+filled with dry KOH, thus preventing the entrance
+of any CO<sub>2</sub>. Numbers are appended which seem to
+testify to the excellence of the method employed. The
+author finally gives a detailed account of the entire
+analysis of various cereals.&mdash;<i>A.R. in Jour. Soc. Chem.
+Indus.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05" id ="art05"></a>SYNTHESIS OF THE ALKALOIDS.</h2>
+
+<p>In the note on the constitution of alkaloids in a recent
+issue, we referred more especially to what we may
+term the less highly organized bases. Most of our
+knowledge, as we now have it, regarding such alkaloids
+as muscarine and choline has been acquired during
+the past dozen years. This is not exactly the case
+with the higher groups of alkaloids&mdash;the derivatives of
+pyridine and quinoline. It so happens that the oldest
+alkaloids are in these groups. They have, almost
+necessarily, been subjected to a longer period of attack,
+but the extreme complexity of their molecules, and the
+infinite number of differing parts or substances into
+which these molecules split up when attacked, are the
+main cause of the small progress which has been made
+in this department. All, however, yield one or more
+bodies or bases in common, while each has its distinctive
+and peculiar decomposition product. For example,
+cinchonine and quinine both afford the basic
+quinoline under certain conditions, but on oxidation
+of cinchonine, an acid&mdash;cinchoninic acid (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>7</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>)&mdash;is
+the principal body formed, while in the case of quinine,
+quininic acid (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>9</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>) is the principal product.
+The acquirement through experiment of such knowledge
+as that is, however, so much gained. We find,
+indeed, that obstacles are gradually being cleared
+away, and the actual synthetic formation of such alkaloids
+as piperidine and coniine is a proof that the
+chemist is on the right track in studying the decomposition
+products, and building up from them, theoretically,
+bodies of similar constitution. It is noteworthy
+that the synthesis of the alkaloids has led to some of
+the most brilliant discoveries of the present day, especially
+in the discovery of dye stuffs. Many of our
+quinine substitutes, such as thalline, for example, are
+the result of endeavors to make quinine artificially.
+If there is romance in chemistry at all, it is to be found
+certainly in this branch of it, which is generally considered
+the most uninteresting and unfathomable. We
+may take piperidine and coniine as examples of the
+methods followed in alkaloidal synthesis; these are
+pyridine bases. Pyridine has the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N, that
+is, it is benzene with CH replaced by N. The relationship
+between these and piperidine is seen in the following
+formul&aelig;:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14b.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>If we introduce six hydrogen atoms into pyridine, we
+convert it into piperidine. Ladenburg succeeded in so
+hydrogenizing pyridine by acting upon an alcoholic
+solution with sodium, and from the base which was
+formed he obtained a platinochloride which agreed
+with the similar double salt of piperidine. He has also
+prepared it from trimethyline cyanide by the action of
+sodium. Pentamethylinediamine is the principal intermediary
+product, and this gives piperidine when
+distilled with superheated steam. He has proved that
+the alkaloid so obtained is identical with that prepared
+from piperine. Another curious point which Ladenburg
+has lately proved is that cadaverine (one of the
+products of flesh decomposition) is identical with pentamethylinediamine,
+and that its imine is the same as
+piperidine. The synthesis of coniine by Ladenburg is
+one of the most notable achievements of modern chemistry.
+He at first supposed that this alkaloid was
+piperidine in which two hydrogen atoms were replaced
+by the isopropyl radical (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>), its formula being taken
+as C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>9</sub>(C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>)NH. But he has since changed his view,
+as will be seen from what follows. In its synthesis
+1,000 grammes of picoline were first converted into
+alphapicoline, 380 grammes being obtained. This was
+heated with paraldehyde, whereby it was converted
+into allylpyridine (48 grammes), and this by reduction
+with sodium yielded alpha-propylpyridine, a body in
+almost every respect identical with coniine. The more
+important difference was its optical inactivity, but he
+succeeded in splitting up a solution of the acid tartrate
+of the base by means of <i>Penicillium glaucum</i>. Crystals
+separated which had a dextro-rotatory power of
+[<i>a</i>]<sub>D</sub> = 31° 87' as compared with the [<i>a</i>]<sub>D</sub> = 13° 79' of
+natural coniine. This brief account conveys but a
+faint idea of the difficulties which were encountered in
+these researches. Optical methods of examination
+have proved of great value, and are destined to play
+an important part in such work.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most complex alkaloids are those of the
+quinine group. As yet chemists have got no further
+with these than the oxidation products; but the study
+has afforded us several new antipyretics and many
+interesting facts. It has been found, for example, that
+artificial quinine-like bodies, which fluoresce and give
+the green color with chlorine water and ammonia,
+have antipyretic properties like quinine, but their
+secondary effects are so pernicious as to prevent their
+use. If, however, such bodies are hydrogenized or
+methylated they lose their fluorescing property, do
+not give the green color, and their secondary effects
+are removed. Knowledge of these facts led to the discovery
+of thalline. It is prepared from paraquinanisol,
+one of the objectionable bodies, by reduction with tin
+and hydrochloric acid. The following formul&aelig; show
+the constitutional relationship of these compounds:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><img src="./images/14c.png" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>It is evident from the difficulties which have been encountered
+in this department of chemistry, and more
+especially from the costly nature of the work, that it
+will be many years before it will influence the manufacture
+of alkaloids from the drugs which yield them.
+Ladenburg has synthetized coniine, but he has not yet
+ventured to assert that his product will replace the
+natural alkaloid.&mdash;<i>Chem. and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The <i>Southern California Advocate</i> reports another
+magnificent donation of lands to the University of
+Southern California by Mr. D. Freeman, the owner of
+the Centinella ranch near Los Angeles&mdash;six hundred
+thousand dollars in all given to found a school of applied
+sciences, $100,000 for building and apparatus and
+$500,000 for endowment. The buildings will be in the
+vicinity of Inglewood, the new and beautiful town on
+the Ballona branch of the California Central.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><a name="Page_9957" id ="Page_9957"></a><a name="art14" id ="art14"></a>A GROUP OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><a href="./images/15.png"><img src="./images/15_th.png" alt="HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP" /></a></p>
+
+<p>The Hampshire Down breed of sheep originated
+about 80 years ago by a cross of South Downs on the
+horned, white-faced sheep which had for ages been native
+of the open, untilled, hilly stretch of land known
+as the Hampshire Downs, in the county of that name
+bordering on the English Channel, in the South of England.
+From time immemorial the South Downs had
+dark brown or black legs, matured early, produced the
+best of mutton and a fine quality of medium wool.
+The original Hampshire was larger, coarser, but hardier,
+slower to mature, with inferior flesh, and a longer
+but coarser wool. The South Down has always been
+remarkable for its power of transmitting its special
+characteristics to its progeny by other kinds of sheep,
+and hence it soon impressed its own characteristics on
+its progeny by the Hampshire. The horns of the original
+breed have disappeared; the face and legs have
+become dark, the frame has become more compact, the
+bones smaller, the back broader and straighter, the
+legs shorter, and the flesh and wool of better quality,
+while the superior hardiness and greater size, as well as
+the large head and Roman nose of the old breed, still
+remain. The Hampshires of to-day mature early and
+fatten readily. They clip from six to seven pounds of
+wool, suitable for combing, which is longer than South
+Down wool, but less fine. The mutton has a desirable
+proportion of fat and lean, and is juicy and fine flavored.
+The lambs are of large size and are usually
+dropped early and fed for market. Indeed, the Hampshire
+may be considered a larger and trifle coarser and
+hardier South Down. The breed is occasionally crossed
+with Cotswolds, when it produces a wool more valuable
+for worsted manufacturers than the pure Cotswold.
+Indeed, there is little doubt that in addition to South
+Down, the Hampshire has a dash of Cotswold blood in
+its composition. Considerable importations of the
+breed have been made into this country, but it has not
+become so popular as the South Down and some other
+English breeds. The excellent group shown is owned
+by Mr. James Wood, of Mount Kisco, New York.&mdash;<i>Rural
+New-Yorker.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03" id ="art03"></a>THE YALE COLLEGE MEASUREMENT OF
+THE PLEIADES.<a name="FNanchor_57" id ="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<p>The Messrs. Repsold have established, and for the
+present seem likely to maintain, a practical monopoly
+in the construction of heliometers. That completed
+by them for the observatory of Yale College in 1882
+leaves so little to be desired as to show excellence not
+to be the exclusive result of competition. In mere size
+it does not indeed take the highest rank. Its aperture
+is of only six inches, while that of the Oxford heliometer
+is of seven and a half; but the perfection of the
+arrangements adapting it to the twofold function of
+equatorial and micrometer stamps it as a model not
+easy to be surpassed. Steel has been almost exclusively
+used in the mounting. Recommended as the
+material for the objective cell by its quality of changing
+volume under variations of temperature nearly <i>paripassu</i>
+with glass, its employment was extended to the
+telescope tube and other portions of the mechanism.
+The optical part of the work was done by Merz, Alvan
+Clark having declined the responsibility of dividing
+the object lens. Its segments are separable to the extent
+of 2°, and through the contrivance of cylindrical
+slides (originally suggested by Bessel) perfect definition
+is preserved in all positions, giving a range of accurate
+measurement just six times that with a filar micrometer.
+(Gill, &quot;Encyc. Brit.,&quot; vol. xvi., p. 253; Fischer,
+<i>Sirius</i>, vol. xvii., p. 145.)</p>
+
+<p>This beautiful engine of research was in 1883 placed
+in the already practiced and skillful hands of Dr. Elkin.
+He lost no time in fixing upon a task suited both to
+test the powers of the new instrument and to employ
+them to the highest advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The stars of the Pleiades have, from the earliest
+times, attracted the special notice of observers, whether
+savage or civilized. Hence, on the one hand, their
+prominence in stellar mythology all over the world; on
+the other, their unique interest for purposes of scientific
+study and comparison. They constitute an undoubted
+cluster; that is to say, they are really, and
+not simply in appearance, grouped together in space,
+so as to fall under the sway of prevailing mutual influences.
+And since there is, perhaps, no other stellar
+cluster so near the sun, the chance of perceptible displacements
+among them in a moderate lapse of time is
+greater than in any other similar case. Authentic data
+regarding them, besides, have now been so long garnered
+that their fruit may confidently be expected at
+least to begin to ripen.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Elkin determined, accordingly, to repeat the survey
+of the Pleiades executed by Bessel at Konigsberg
+during about twelve years previous to 1841. Wolf and
+Pritchard had, it is true, been beforehand with him;
+but the wide scattering of the grouped stars puts the
+filar micrometer at a disadvantage in measuring them,
+producing minute errors which the arduous conditions
+of the problem render of serious account. The heliometer,
+there can be no doubt, is the special instrument
+for the purpose, and it was, moreover, that employed
+by Bessel; so that the Konigsberg and Yale results are
+comparable in a stricter sense than any others so far
+obtained.</p>
+
+<p>One of Bessel's fifty-three stars was omitted by Dr.
+Elkin as too faint for accurate determination. He
+added, however, seventeen stars from the Bonn <i>Durchmusterung</i>,
+so that his list comprised sixty-nine, down
+to 9.2 magnitude. Two independent triangulations
+were executed by him in 1884-85. For the first, four
+stars situated near the outskirts of the group, and
+marking the angles of quadrilateral by which it was
+inclosed, were chosen as reference points. The second
+rested upon measures of distance and position angle
+outward from Alcyone (&eta; Tauri). Thus, two wholly
+unconnected sets of positions were secured, the close
+accordance of which testified strongly to the high
+quality of the entire work. They were combined, with
+nearly equal weights, in the final results. A fresh reduction
+of the Konigsberg observations, necessitated
+by recent improvements in the value of some of the
+corrections employed, was the preliminary to their
+comparison with those made, after an interval of forty-five
+years, at Yale College. The conclusions thus
+laboriously arrived at are not devoid of significance,
+and appear perfectly secure, so far as they go.</p>
+
+<p>It has been known for some time that the stars of the
+Pleiades possess a small identical proper motion. Its
+direction, as ascertained by Newcomb in 1878, is about
+south-southeast; its amount is somewhat less than six
+seconds of arc in a century. The double star 61 Cygni,
+in fact, is displaced very nearly as much in one year as
+Alcyone with its train in one hundred. Nor is there
+much probability that this slow secular shifting is other
+than apparent; since it pretty accurately reverses the
+course of the sun's translation through space, it may be
+presumed that the <i>backward</i> current of movement in
+which the Pleiades seem to float is purely an effect of
+our own <i>onward</i> traveling.</p>
+
+<p>Now the curious fact emerges from Dr. Elkin's inquiries
+that six of Bessel's stars are exempt from the
+general drift of the group. They are being progressively
+left behind. The inference is obvious that they do
+not in reality belong to, but are merely accidentally
+projected upon, it; or, rather, that it is projected upon
+them; for their apparent immobility (which, in two of
+the six, may be called absolute) shows them with tolerable
+certainty to be indefinitely more remote&mdash;so remote
+that the path, moderately estimated at 21,000,000,000
+miles in length, traversed by the solar system during
+the forty-five years elapsed since the Konigsberg
+measures dwindles into visual insensibility when beheld
+from them. The brightest of these six far-off stars is
+just above the eighth (7.9) magnitude; the others range
+from 8.5 down to below the ninth.</p>
+
+<p>A chart of the relative displacements indicated for
+Bessel's stars by the differences in their inter-mutual
+positions as determined at Konigsberg and Yale accompanies
+the paper before us. Divergences exceeding
+0.40&quot; (taken as the limit of probable error) are regarded
+as due to real motion; and this is the case with
+twenty-six stars besides the half dozen already mentioned
+as destined deserters from the group. With
+these last may be associated two stars surmised, for an
+opposite reason, to stand aloof from it. Instead of
+tarrying behind, they are hurrying on in front.</p>
+
+<p>An excess of the proper movement of their companions
+belongs to them; and since that movement is presumably
+an effect of secular parallax, we are justified
+in inferring their possession of an extra share of it to
+signify their greater proximity to the sun. Hence, of
+all the stars in the Pleiades these are the most likely to
+have a measurable annual parallax. One is a star a
+little above the seventh magnitude, distinguished as <i>s</i>
+Pleiadum; the other, of about the eighth, is numbered
+25 in Bessel's list. Dr. Elkin has not omitted to remark
+that the conjecture of their disconnection from the
+cluster is confirmed by the circumstance that its typical
+spectrum (as shown on Prof. Pickering's plates) is
+varied in <i>s</i> by the marked character of the K line. The
+spectrum of its fellow traveler (No. 25) is still undetermined.</p>
+
+<p>It is improbable, however, that even these nearer
+stars are practicable subjects for the direct determination
+of annual parallax. By indirect means, however,
+we can obtain some idea of their distance. All that we
+want to know for the purpose is the <i>rate</i> of the sun's
+motion; its <i>direction</i> we may consider as given with
+approximate accuracy by Airy's investigation. Now,
+spectroscopic measurements of stellar movements of
+approach and recession will eventually afford ample
+materials from which to deduce the solar, velocity;
+though they are as yet not accurate or numerous enough
+to found any definitive conclusion upon. Nevertheless,
+M. Homann's preliminary result of fifteen miles a second
+as the speed with which our system travels in its vast
+orbit inspires confidence both from the trustworthiness
+<a name="Page_9958" id ="Page_9958"></a>of the determinations (Mr. Seabroke's) serving as its
+basis and from its intrinsic probability. Accepting it
+provisionally, we find the parallax of Alcyone = about
+0.02', implying a distance of 954,000,000,000,000 miles
+and a light journey of 163 years. It is assumed that
+the whole of its proper motion of 2.61' in forty-five
+years is the visual projection of oar own movement toward
+a point in R.A. 261°, Decl. +25°.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the parallax of the two stars which we suspect
+to lie between us and the stars forming the genuine
+group of the Pleiades, at perhaps two-thirds of their
+distance, can hardly exceed 0.03'. This is just half that
+found by Dr. Gill for &xi; Toucani, which may be regarded
+as, up to this, the smallest annual displacement at all
+satisfactorily determined. And the error of the present
+estimate is more likely to be on the side of excess than
+of defect. That is, the stars in question can hardly be
+much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax
+of 0.03&quot;, and they may be considerably more remote.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Elkin concludes, from the minuteness of the detected
+changes of position among the Pleiades, that
+&quot;the hopes of obtaining any clew to the internal mechanism
+of this cluster seem not likely to be realized in
+an immediate future;&quot; remarking further: &quot;The bright
+stars in especial seem to form an almost rigid system,
+as for only one is there really much evidence of motion,
+and in this case the total amount is barely 1 per century.&quot;
+This one mobile member of the naked eye group
+is Electra; and it is noticeable that the apparent direction
+of its displacement favors the hypothesis of leisurely
+orbital circulation round the leading star. The larger
+movements, however, ascribed to some of the fainter
+associated stars are far from harmonizing with this preconceived
+notion of what they ought to be.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, so far as they are known at present,
+they force upon our minds the idea that the cluster
+may be undergoing some slow process of disintegration.
+M. Wolf's impression of incipient centrifugal tendencies
+among its components certainly derives some confirmation
+from Dr. Elkin's chart. Divergent movements are
+the most strongly marked; and the region round Alcyone
+suggests, at the first glance, rather a very confused
+area of radiation for a flight of meteors than the central
+seat of attraction of a revolving throng of suns.</p>
+
+<p>There are many signs, however, that adjacent stars
+in the cluster do not pursue independent courses.
+&quot;Community of drift&quot; is visible in many distinct sets;
+while there is as yet no perceptible evidence, from orbital
+motion, of association into subordinate systems.
+The three eighth-magnitude stars, for instance, arranged
+in a small isosceles triangle near Alcyone, do not, as
+might have been expected <i>a priori</i>, constitute a real
+ternary group. They are all apparently traveling directly
+away from the large star close by them, in straight
+lines which may, of course, be the projections of closed
+curves; but their rates of travel are so different as to
+involve certain progressive separation. Obviously, the
+order and method of such movements as are just beginning
+to develop to our apprehension among the Pleiades
+will not prove easy to divine.&mdash;<i>A.M. Clerke, in Nature.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57" id ="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>&quot;Determination of the Relative Positions of the Principal Stars in the Group of the Pleiades.&quot; By William L. Elkin. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale University, Vol. I., Part I. (New Haven: 1887.)</p></div>
+
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art22" id ="art22"></a>DEEP SEA DREDGINGS: EXAMINATION OF
+SEA BOTTOMS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.</h3>
+
+<p>I believe Prof. Ehrenberg was one of the first to
+examine, microscopically, deep sea dredgings, some of
+which were undertaken for the Atlantic cable expedition,
+1857.</p>
+
+<p>I propose to deal with the bottoms brought up from
+tropical waters of the Atlantic, a few years ago, during
+certain telegraph cable operations. These soundings
+were made for survey purposes, and not for any biological
+or chemical investigations. Still I think that this
+imperfect record may be a useful contribution to chemical
+science, bearing especially on marine operations.</p>
+
+<p>Although there is little to be added to the chemistry
+of this subject, still I think there are few chemists who
+could successfully make an analysis of a deep sea &quot;bottom&quot;
+without some sacrifice of time and patience, to
+say nothing of the risk of wasting a valuable specimen.</p>
+
+<p>The muds, clays, oozes, etc., from deep water are so
+very fine that they pass readily through the best kinds
+of filters, and it is necessary to wash out all traces of
+sea water as a preliminary. The specimen must be <i>repeatedly</i>
+washed by decantation, until the washings
+are perfectly free from chlorine, when the whole may
+be thrown onto a filter <i>merely</i> to drain. The turbid
+water which passes through is allowed to stand so that
+the suspended matter may settle, and after decanting
+the clear supernatant water, the residuum is again
+thrown on to the filter.</p>
+
+<p>The washing and getting ready for the drying oven
+will, in some cases, require days to carry out, if we
+wish to avoid losing anything.</p>
+
+<p>So far the proceeding is exactly the same, except
+draining on a filter, which would be adopted for preparing
+for the microscope. On no account should the
+opportunity be missed of mounting several slides permanently
+for microscopic examination. Drawings or
+photographic enlargements will render us independent
+of direct microscopic appeal, which is not at all times
+convenient.</p>
+
+<p>The substance, if drained and allowed to dry on the
+filter, will adhere most tenaciously to it, so that it is
+better to complete the drying in a porcelain or platinum
+capsule, either by swilling the filter with a jet of
+water or by carefully removing with a spatula. The
+most strenuous care must be used not to contaminate
+the specimen with loose fibers from the filter.</p>
+
+<p>The perfectly dried matter is best treated in exactly
+the same way as a residuum in water analysis. It is a
+common thing to ignite the residuum, and to put the
+loss down, if any, to water. This ought not to satisfy
+an accurate observer, since organic matter, carbonates&mdash;especially
+in presence of silica&mdash;will easily add to the
+loss. The best plan is to heat a small portion very cautiously,
+and note if any smell or alteration in color, due
+to carbon, etc., is perceptible, and to proceed accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen some very satisfactory analyses made
+on board ship by a skillful use of the blowpipe, where
+liquid reagents would be very inconvenient to employ.</p>
+
+<p>It will be necessary to say a few words as to the way
+in which soundings are made at sea. When the
+bottom consists of sand, mud, or other loose matter, it
+is easy enough to bring specimens to the surface, and,
+of course, we know in such a case that the bottom has
+been reached, but, in the event of the bottom being
+hard and rocky, it is not easy to say that our sounding
+has been successful: and here we meet with a difficulty
+which unfortunately is most unsatisfactorily provided
+for.</p>
+
+<p>The lead is &quot;cast,&quot; as the saying goes, &quot;armed&quot; for
+this emergency. An iron sinker is made with a hollow
+recess in the bottom; this is filled in with tallow, and
+on striking the bottom any loose matter may adhere
+by being pressed into the tallow. If the bottom is
+rocky or hard we get simply an imprint in the arming,
+and when such a result is obtained the usual construction
+is that &quot;the bottom is rocky&quot; or hard.</p>
+
+<p>Now, this seems to me a point on which chemistry
+may give some very valuable help, for I am convinced
+that no sounding should be accepted unless evidence
+of the bottom itself is obtained. A few considerations
+will show that when we are working in very deep water,
+where there is a difficulty of knowing for certain
+that we have an &quot;up and down&quot; sounding, and the
+hardening of the &quot;arming&quot; by the cold and pressure,
+unless we bring up something we cannot be sure that
+we have touched the bottom; leaving the doubt on
+this point on one side, unless we use a very heavy
+sinker, so as to get an indication of the released strain
+when it touches the bottom, we encounter another
+complication.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Thomson's sounding wire has added the
+element of reliability to our soundings in this latter
+case. The note given out by the wire when the bottom
+is reached is perceptibly different when under
+strain, even if the dynamometer should give an unreliable
+indication.</p>
+
+<p>It has been found that when a &quot;bottom&quot; has been
+recovered by the arming with tallow, the adherent
+grease seriously detracts from the value of the specimen
+for scientific purposes. Washing with perfectly
+pure bisulphide carbon will save the sounding, but of
+course any living organism is destroyed. As we have
+plenty of contrivances for bringing up loose &quot;bottoms&quot;
+without arming, we have nothing to fear on
+this score.</p>
+
+<p>There is a great difficulty to explain the vast accumulations
+of clay deposits on the ocean bed, and it has
+been suggested that some minute organisms may produce
+these deposits, as others give us carbonate of
+lime. Is there not a very great probability of some of
+the apparently insoluble rocky formations being answerable
+for these accumulations?</p>
+
+<p>We must not forget the peculiar changes which
+such an apparently stable substance as feldspar undergoes
+when disintegrated and exposed to the chemical
+action of sea water. As these deposits contain both sodium
+and potassium, our chemical operations must provide
+for the analytical results; in other respects the
+analysis can be proceeded with according to the operator's
+analytical knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Few operators are aware of the usefulness of an ordinary
+deep sea grapnel rope, as used for cable work, in
+recovering specimens of the fauna of any locality. The
+grapnel rope should be left down for a few months, so
+that the denizens of the deep may get used to it and
+make it their place of residence and <i>attachment</i>. The
+stench caused by their decomposition, unless the rope
+be kept in water, when hauled up will be in a few days
+intolerable, even to an individual with a sea-going
+stomach. I tried several chemical solutions for preserving
+specimens thus recovered, but nothing answered
+so well as the water itself drawn up from the same
+depth as the rope was recovered from.&mdash;<i>Chem. News.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
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+Foreign Patents, have had 42 years' experience, and
+now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b>
+of all inventions patented through this Agency,
+with the name and residence of the Patentee. By the
+immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention
+can ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent
+can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; CO.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent
+Laws, Patents, Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and
+how procured. Address</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><b>MUNN &amp; CO.</b><br />
+<b>361 Broadway, New York.</b><br />
+Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+623, December 10, 1887, by Various
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 623,
+December 10, 1887, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 623, December 10, 1887
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 12, 2005 [EBook #16270]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 623
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, DECEMBER 10, 1887
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 623.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+I.    ARCHITECTURE.--Notes on the Construction of a Distillery
+      Chimney--A new method of building lofty shafts, including a
+      metallic frame and brick lining--3 illustrations.             9949
+
+      The Commercial Exchange, Paris--The new Paris exchange now
+      in process of erection.--Present state of operations--1
+      illustration.                                                 9954
+
+II.   ASTRONOMY.--The Yale College Measurement of the Pleiades.--
+      Dr. Elkin's work with the Repsold heliometer at Yale College. 9957
+
+III.  CHEMISTRY--New Method for the Quantitative Determination
+      of Starch.--By A.N. ASBOTH--Determination of starch by its
+      barium compound.                                              9956
+
+      Synthesis of the Alkaloids--A retrospect of the field of
+      work so far traveled over by synthetical chemists, and
+      future prospects.                                             9956
+
+      The Chemical Basis of Plant Forms--By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT
+      --Continuation of this important contribution to plant
+      chemistry, one of the most valuable of recent chemical
+      monographs.                                                   9955
+
+IV.   ELECTRICITY.--An Electrical Governor--A new apparatus for
+      preserving a constant electromotive force with varying
+      dynamo speed--1 illustration.                                 9952
+
+      Electric Launch--A French government launch with Krebs
+      electric motor.                                               9954
+
+      The electric current as a means of increasing the tractive
+      adhesion of railway motors and other rolling contacts.--By
+      ELIAS E. RIES--A full review of this important subject, with
+      accounts of its experimental examination.                     9953
+
+V.    ENGINEERING--Benier's Hot Air Engine--A new caloric engine
+      very fully illustrated and described--8 illustrations.        9943
+
+      Heating Marine Boilers with Liquid Fuel--A simple apparatus
+      and recent experiments with the same.--3 illustrations.       9945
+
+      The Change of Gauge of Southern Railroads in 1886--By C.H.
+      HUDSON.--The conclusion of the account of this great
+      engineering feat, with tables of statistics and data--16
+      illustrations.                                                9946
+
+      Your Future Problems--By CHAS. E. EMERY--An address to
+      the graduating class of the Stevens Institute, N.J.--A
+      practical view of the engineering profession.                 9943
+
+VI.   MISCELLANEOUS--A Group of Hampshire Downs--A typical
+      breed of sheep, their qualities and habits.--1 illustration.  9957
+
+VII.  NAVAL ENGINEERING--The Spanish Cruiser Reina Regente--A
+      further description of this celebrated vessel--4
+      illustrations.                                                9948
+
+      Torpedo Boats for Spain--The Azor and Halcon, two Yarrow
+      torpedo boats, described and illustrated--7 illustrations.    9947
+
+VIII. PHOTOGRAPHY--How Different Tones in Gelatino-chloride Prints
+      may be Varied by Developers.--Twenty different formulae for
+      the above purpose.                                            9949
+
+      Film Negatives--Eastman stripping films, their manipulation
+      and development.                                              9949
+
+IX.   SANITATION--French Disinfecting Apparatus--A portable
+      apparatus for disinfecting clothes and similar objects--1
+      illustration.                                                 9952
+
+X.    TECHNOLOGY.--The Manufacture of Cocaine--The extraction
+      of cocaine with alkali and petroleum, with statement of
+      percentage yielded by various leaves.                         9954
+
+      The Production of Oxygen by Brin's Process--The commercial
+      manufacture of oxygen by means of baryta--3 illustrations.    9950
+
+
+#Transcriber's Note: Following entry not in original table of contents#
+
+      Deep Sea Dredgings: Examination Of Sea Bottoms. By THOMAS     9958
+      T.P. BRUCE WARREN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.
+
+
+The hot air engine, although theoretically recognized for some time
+past as the most economical means of converting heat into motive
+power, has up to the present met with little success. This is due to
+the fact that the arrangement of the motors of this class that have
+hitherto been constructed has been such as to render them but slightly
+practical. In the Benier hot air engine (illustrated herewith),
+however, obstacles that were once considered insurmountable have been
+overcome, and the motor presents many advantages over all the types
+that have preceded it. Among such advantages we shall cite the
+possibility of utilizing air at a high temperature (1,200 or 1,500
+degrees), while the rubbing surfaces remain at a moderate temperature
+(60 or 80 degrees). The fire grate is placed in the interior of the
+cylinder, and is traversed by the cold air forced by a pump. The
+expanded hot gases fill the cylinder and act against the piston
+directly above the grate.
+
+The type herewith illustrated is of 6 horse power. The motive
+cylinder, CC', is bolted to the extremity of the frame, A. Upon this
+latter is fixed a column, B, which carries a working beam, E. This
+latter transmits the motion of the piston, P, to the shaft, D. A pump,
+G, placed within the frame, forces a certain quantity of cold air at
+every revolution into the driving cylinder. The piston of this pump is
+actuated by the connecting rod, G', jointed to the lever, F', which
+receives its motion from the rod, F. A slide valve, _b'_, actuated by
+a cam, regulates the entrance of the cold air into the pump during
+suction, as well as its introduction into the cylinder. There is a
+thrust upon the piston during its upward travel, and an escape of hot
+gas through the eduction valve, _h_, during the downward travel.
+
+The cylinder is in two parts, C and C'. The piston, which is very
+long, rubs at its upper end against the sides of the cylinder, C. The
+lower end is of smaller diameter, and leaves an annular space between
+it and the cylinder. The grate is at the bottom of the cylinder, C'.
+The sides of the cylinder at the level of the fire box are protected
+with a lining of plumbago. When the piston is at the bottom of its
+travel, the eduction valve closes. The slide valve, _b'_, establishes
+a communication between the pump chamber and the cylinder. The air
+contained in the pump is already compressed in the latter to a
+pressure of nearly a kilogramme at the moment of the communication.
+This air enters the cylinder, and the communication between the latter
+and the pump continues until all the air is forced into the driving
+cylinder, the piston of the pump being at the bottom of its travel,
+and that of the cylinder about midway.
+
+[Illustration: BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.]
+
+The air forced by the pump piston enters the cylinder through two
+conduits, one of which leads a portion of it toward the top of the
+cylinder, and the other toward the bottom. The lower conduit debouches
+under the grate, and the air that passes through it traverses the fire
+box, and the hot gas fills the cylinder. The conduit that runs to the
+top debouches in the cylinder, C, at the lower limit of the surface
+rubbed by the piston. The air that traverses this conduit is
+distributed through the annular space between the piston and cylinder.
+The hot gas derived from combustion can therefore never introduce
+itself into this annular space, and consequently cannot come into
+contact with the rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and piston.
+
+As the quantity of air introduced at every stroke is constant, the
+work developed at every stroke is varied by regulating the temperature
+of the gas that fills the cylinder. When the temperature falls, the
+pressure, and consequently the work developed, diminishes. This result
+is obtained by varying the respective quantities of air that pass
+through the fire box and around the piston. In measure as less air
+passes through the fire box, the quantity that passes around the
+piston augments by just so much, and the pressure diminishes. A valve,
+_n'_, in the conduit that runs to the fire box is controlled by the
+regulator, L', in the interior of the column. When the work to be
+transmitted diminishes, the regulator closes the valve more or less,
+and the work developed diminishes.
+
+The coke is put by shovelfuls into a hopper, I. Four buckets mounted
+upon the periphery of a wheel, I', traverse the coke, and, taking up a
+piece of it, let it fall upon the cover, J, of the slide valve, _j_,
+whence it falls into the cavity of the latter when it is uncovered,
+and from thence into the conduit, _c'_, of the box, _j'_, when the
+cavity of the valve is opposite the conduit. From the conduit, _c'_,
+the coke falls upon the grate.
+
+A small sight hole covered with glass, in the cover, J, permits the
+grate to be seen when the cavity of the valve is opposite _c'_.
+
+As in gas engines, a current of water is made to flow around the
+cylinder, C', in order to keep the sides from getting too hot.
+
+In order to set the engine in motion, we begin by opening the bottom,
+C, of the cylinder, C', to clean the grate. This done, we close C and
+introduce lighted charcoal through the conduit, _c'_ (the valve being
+open). The valve is put in place, two or three revolutions are given
+to the fly wheel, and the motor starts. The feeding is afterward done
+with coke.
+
+The parts that transmit motion operate under conditions analogous to
+those under which the same parts of a steam engine do. The air pump
+sucks and forces nothing but cold air, and nothing but cold air passes
+through the distributing slide valve. The pump and valve are therefore
+rendered very durable. The piston and cylinder, at the points where
+friction exists, are at a temperature of 60 or 80 degrees. These
+surfaces are protected against hot gas charged with dust.
+
+The hot gas, which escapes from the cylinder through a valve, has
+previously been cooled by contact with the sides of the cylinder and
+by expansion. The eduction valve just mentioned works about like that
+of a steam engine, and it is only necessary to polish it now and then
+in order to keep it in good condition.--_Annales Industrielles._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: An address to the graduating class, Stevens
+  Institute, Hoboken, N.J., 1887.]
+
+By CHARLES E. EMERY.
+
+
+_Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen:_ It has not been considered
+the duty of the speaker, in addressing the graduating class, to dwell
+on the triumphs of science or the advantage of a liberal education.
+These subjects have already been discussed, in connection with the
+regular courses of study, better, and more at length, than he could
+do. We propose rather to try and prepare the minds of the graduates
+for the practical problems before them.
+
+All young men are impressed with the consciousness of higher powers as
+they increase their stores of knowledge, and this feeling perhaps
+reaches its maximum with those who have made a specialty of the
+investigation and application of physical laws. Young men who have
+learned how to harness the powers of nature and guide them to do their
+will are apt to belittle the difficulties they have yet to overcome,
+and have a false impression of the problems of life. This feeling is
+shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the Stevens Institute, on
+account of their careful practical training, in connection with the
+thorough study of principles; but it has been thought best for one
+from the outside world to supplement such teaching by calling to mind
+instances which may have a useful counteracting effect, and, like
+parables, serve the purpose of illustrative instruction.
+
+_Gentlemen of the Class of '87_: It was the pleasure of the speaker to
+address the class of '79, under the title of "How to Succeed," some
+words of counsel and warning, which, if they left an impression of
+severity at the time, were apparently so well received afterward that
+he has been tempted to continue the general subject, with the title of
+"Your Future Problems." The notation of your future problems will not
+be found at once among the known quantities, but with _x_, _y_, and
+_z_, at the other end of the alphabet. Often word symbols will be
+applicable, expressing at times disappointment and pain, at other
+times renewed effort, and finally the active phases of individual
+thought and exertion.
+
+The first serious problem with many of you will be to secure
+satisfactory engagements. This problem cannot be illustrated by
+parables. It needs, in general, patient, unremitting, and frequently
+long continued effort. It may be that the fame of some of you, that
+have already acquired the happy faculty of making yourselves
+immediately useful, has already gone abroad and the coveted positions
+been already assured. To be frank, we cannot promise you even a bed of
+roses. We have in mind an instance where a superior authority in a
+large business enterprise who had great respect, as he should have,
+for the attainments of young gentlemen who have had the opportunities
+of a technical education, deliberately ordered out a competent
+mechanical engineer, familiar with the designs required in a large
+repair shop, and sent in his place a young gentleman fresh from school
+and flushed with hope, but who from the very nature of the case could
+know little or nothing of his duties at that particular place. He was
+practically alone in the drawing room, and did not know where to find
+such drawings as were required, and candor requires it to be said that
+he desired to ask many questions about those he did find. The
+superintendent unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment,
+and rather resented it. So he did not trust any of his work, and the
+new comer was obliged to learn his practical experience at that
+establishment, where he was known as the mechanical engineer, by
+having all his work done over by the pattern maker or others, under
+the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic, and be subjected all
+the time to the jealousies and annoyances incident to such a method of
+introduction.
+
+His practical experience was certainly learned under difficulties
+which I trust none of you may experience. This statement is made that
+those of you who have not yet obtained positions may not envy those
+who have, and that each and all of you may be careful not to take a
+position so far above your experience, if not your capacity, as to
+become unpleasantly situated in the beginning. The educational
+facilities you have enjoyed are of such great value in some
+exceptional cases that the parties thus benefited may do you an injury
+by leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable in
+performing duties which require much more practical experience and
+knowledge of detail than it is possible that you could have obtained
+in the time you have been here.
+
+The incident is ripe with suggestions. No matter how humble a position
+you may take in the beginning, you will be embarrassed in much the
+same way as the young gentleman in question, though it is hoped in a
+less degree. Your course of action should be first to learn to do as
+you are told, no matter what you think of it. And above everything
+keep your eyes and ears open to obtain practical knowledge of all that
+is going on about you. Let nothing escape you of an engineering
+nature, though it has connection with the business in hand. It may be
+your business the next day, and if you have taken advantage of the
+various opportunities to know all about that particular matter in
+every detail, you can intelligently act in relation to it, without
+embarrassment to yourself and with satisfaction to your superior.
+
+Above all, avoid conflict with the practical force of the
+establishment into which you are introduced. It is better, as we have
+at another time advised, to establish friendly relations with the
+workmen and practical men with whom you have to do.
+
+You are to be spared this evening any direct references to the
+"conceit of learning," but you are asked and advised to bear with the
+_conceit of ignorance_. You will find that practical men will be
+jealous of you on account of your opportunities, and at the same time
+jealous of their own practical information and experience, and that
+they may take some pains to hinder rather than aid you in your
+attempts to actively learn the practical details of the business. The
+most disagreeable man about the establishment to persons like you, who
+perhaps goes out of his way to insult you, and yet should be respected
+for his age, may be one who can be of greatest use to you. Cultivate
+his acquaintance. A kind word will generally be the best response to
+an offensive remark, though gentlemanly words of resentment may be
+necessary when others are present. Sometimes it will be sufficient to
+say, "I wish a little talk with you by yourself," which will put the
+bystanders at a distance and enable you to mature your plans.
+Ascertain as soon as possible that man's tastes; what he reads and
+what he delights in. Approach him as if you had no resentment and talk
+on his favorite topic. If rebuffed, tell a pleasant story, and persist
+from time to time in the attempt to please, until his hardened nature
+relaxes and he begins to feel and perhaps speaks to others favorably
+of you. St. Paul has said: "For though I be free from all men, yet
+have I made myself servant of all that I might gain the more." This is
+the keynote of policy, and though in humbling yourself you control and
+hide your true feelings, recollect that all your faculties are given
+you for proper use.
+
+We have referred to some who have acquired the happy faculty of making
+themselves immediately useful. This is a much more difficult matter
+than the words imply. If one of you should be so fortunate as to be
+ordered to make certain tests almost like those you have already
+conducted here, or to tabulate the results of tests as you have done
+it here, or to make inspections akin to those which have been fully
+explained here, there is every probability the work would be done
+satisfactorily in the first instance. But let a much _simpler_ case
+arise, for instance, if a superior hand one of you a letter with the
+simple instructions, "Get me the facts on that," you may be very much
+puzzled to know what is to be done and how to do it. It may be that
+the letter is a request for information in regard to certain work that
+was carried on in the past, in which case it will be necessary for you
+to hunt through old records, copy books, engineering notes, drawings,
+and the like, and get a list of all referring to the subject; to make
+an abstract of the letters and notes if they are at all complicated;
+and finally to lay the whole before the overworked superior in a
+business manner, that he largely from recollection, aided by the
+references and notes, can write an intelligent answer in a very brief
+period. The way not to do it would be to say, "Yes, sir," very
+promptly, go off and not more than half read the letter, do something
+and be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested answer;
+then upon receiving a polite hint as to the method to be employed, go
+off and repeat the operation the next five minutes; then on receiving
+a short reply, in what appeared to be an unnecessary tone of voice,
+get a little flurried perhaps, do worse next time, and in the end feel
+very unpleasant without having accomplished much, and make the
+gentleman seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching young
+men practical work.
+
+It is possible, on the contrary, for a young man to exceed his
+instructions and volunteer advice that has not been asked. If he has
+unfortunately gone too far for some time and been sharply spoken to,
+he may fail the next in not fully doing the work intended. Simply
+putting down a column of figures would not necessarily mean tabulating
+facts. The arrangement and rearrangement of the columns aid in
+classifying such facts, so that the results shown by them will be
+readily seen and a great deal of labor saved in examination. A good
+rule in a case of this kind is to try and find some work done by other
+parties of a similar nature, and thereby ascertain what is needed and
+expected. Reasonable questions to ascertain, where records are to be
+found and the kind of records accessible, are always proper if made at
+the proper time without interrupting an immediate train of thought;
+and with such information as a start, if a young man will endeavor to
+imagine himself in a place like that of the one who has finally to
+decide, and try to ascertain just what information will probably be
+required, then patiently go to work to find and present it in
+condensed shape, he from that moment really begins to be useful and
+his services will be rapidly appreciated. It is a good rule always to
+keep the memoranda obtained in accomplishing a result of this kind; so
+that if further information is required, the whole investigation need
+not be made over.
+
+This remark suggests another line of thought. Some young men with
+quick perceptions get in the way at school of trusting their memories,
+and omit making complete notes of lectures or of the various tests
+illustrating their studies. This carelessness follows them into after
+life, and there are instances where young men, who can make certain
+kinds of investigations much better than their fellows, and promptly
+give a statement of the general nature of the results, have, when
+called on afterward for the details, forgotten then entirely, and
+their notes and memoranda, if preserved, being of little use, the
+labor is entirely lost. Such men necessarily have to learn more
+careful ways in after life. It is a good rule in this, as in the
+previous case, to make and copy complete records of everything in such
+shape that they may be convenient for reference and criticism
+afterward.
+
+One of the important problems with which you will have to deal in the
+future is the labor question, and it is probable that your very first
+experience with it may be in direct antagonism with the opinions of
+many with whom you have heretofore been associated. It is an honor to
+the feelings of those who stand outside and witness this so-called
+struggle now in progress between capital and labor, that they believe
+the whole question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable
+argument. There are some cases that will yield to such treatment, and
+one's whole duty is not performed till all possible, reasonable, and
+humanitarian methods are adopted. There has been an excuse for the
+organization of labor, and it, to some small extent, still exists.
+
+Time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used on a mercantile
+basis to reduce wages to such an extent that it was almost impossible
+to rear a well nurtured, much less a well educated and well dressed
+family, and, moreover, the hours of labor in some branches of business
+were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives and make
+self-improvement impossible. The natural progress of civilizing
+influence did much to abate many of these evils, but the organization
+of labor removed sores that had not and perhaps could not have been
+reached in other ways. Having then an excuse for organization, and
+supported by the success made in directions where public sympathy was
+with them, is it to be wondered that they have gone too far in very
+many cases, and that the leadership of such organization has in many
+instances been captured by designing men, who control the masses to
+accomplish selfish ends? Whatever may have been the method of
+evolution, it is certain that the manufacturing operations of the
+present day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic to their
+interests, and in very many ways antagonistic to the interests of the
+workingman. The members of many organizations, even of intelligent
+men, are blindly led by chiefs of various titles, of which perhaps the
+walking delegate is the most offensive one to reasonable people. This
+class of men claim the right to intrude themselves into the
+establishments owned by others, and on the most trivial grounds make
+demands more or less unreasonable, and order strikes and otherwise
+interfere with the work of manufacturers, much in the way that we have
+an idea that the agents of the barbarbous chieftains, feudal lords,
+and semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in earlier
+historical times. Necessarily these men must use their power so as to
+insure its permanency. If strikes are popular, strikes must be
+ordered. If funds run low, excuses for strikes, it is believed, in
+many cases are sought, so as to stir the pulses of those who
+sympathize with the labor cause.
+
+Co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil, and there are
+cases where it has apparently succeeded, in connection with the
+earlier forms of labor organization. The ambition of later labor
+leaders almost prevents this remedy being of effect. It may be
+possible still with very intelligent workmen, isolated from the large
+mass of workmen in the country towns, to feel an interest in
+co-operation; but such inducements, or the higher ones of personal
+kindness to employes or their families, are not of much effect in
+large manufacturing centers. As soon as dissatisfaction exists in one
+mill or manufactory, all similar employes are ordered out. The final
+result will be that combinations of employers must follow the
+combination of employes, and those who have always been strong in the
+past will be stronger in the future, as has appeared to be the case in
+many contests that have already taken place. If there are any real
+abuses of power by the employers, such as requiring work for unusual
+hours or at less than living rates, the first thing to do is to
+correct these abuses, so that complaints will not be upon a sound
+foundation. Some men, when the labor epidemic strikes their places,
+have sufficient force of character and influence with their men to
+avert the blow for some time. Others find it is policy to compromise
+with the representatives until a plan of action, conciliatory,
+offensive, or defensive, can be determined upon. The whole matter must
+be considered one of policy rather than of principles. The class of
+men to be dealt with do not talk principles except as an excuse to
+secure their ends.
+
+In spite of everything, there will be times when no compromise is
+possible and you will be called upon to take part in defending your
+employers' interests against what is called a "strike." You can do so
+with heart when you know the employes are all well paid, and
+particularly, as is frequently the case, when the labor organizers and
+walking delegates claim that some old, tried foreman shall be
+dismissed because they do like him, really because he has not been a
+tool in carrying out their plans, and they defiantly acknowledge that
+their war is against non-union labor, and that they have organized
+your men and forced a strike to require your establishment to become
+as it is called a "union shop." If your deluded employes were
+permitted simply to go away and let you alone, and you were permitted
+to employ others at the reasonable wages you were paying, the problem
+would be a simple one. The principal labor organizations claim that
+everything they do is by peaceable methods, but this, like many things
+said, is simply to deceive, for if you attempt to employ other
+assistants and carry on your business independently, you will surely
+find that well known roughs are assembled who never do anything
+without they are paid for it by somebody, that your men are assaulted
+by such persons, and while the labor organizers talk about peaceable
+methods and urge them aloud in public, in case one of the roughs is
+arrested, the loud talkers are the first to go bail for the defender,
+and you will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd with the
+roughs who make the assaults are all part of or tools of the
+organization.
+
+At such times, you will find your old employes standing around the
+street corners, persuading other men not to go to work and thus
+interfere with what are called the true interests of labor. Any new
+employe who has to go in the street will be first met with inducements
+of other employment, with offers of money, afterward with threats,
+and, if opportunity occurs, with direct assault. All the features of
+persuasion, intimidation, and violence will be carried out as
+demanded, and strangers to everybody in the vicinity, but well known
+as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other places, be
+brought in to endeavor to make the strike a success. Then, young men,
+is the time to show your pluck, and our experience is that educated
+young men will do so every time. They can be depended upon to go
+straight ahead with duty through every danger, bearing patiently
+everything that may be said, defending themselves with nature's
+weapons as long as possible, and without fear using reserve weapons in
+case real danger of life is imminent.
+
+In carrying through a very important strike against a mere desire to
+control and not to correct abuses, your speaker desires to pay the
+highest tribute to a number of educated young men, mostly from the
+technical schools, who fearlessly faced every danger, and by their
+example stimulated others to do their duty, and all participated in
+the results obtained by a great success.
+
+We would not by such references fire your hearts to a desire to
+participate in such an unpleasant contest. It is the duty of all to
+study this problem intelligently and earnestly, with a view of
+overcoming the difficulties and permitting the prosperity of the
+country to go on. While conciliation may be best at some times, policy
+at another, and resistance at another, we must also be thinking of the
+best means to prevent further outbreaks. It would seem to be true
+policy not to interfere with organization, but to try and direct it
+into higher channels. Those of the humanitarians who claim that the
+disease will be rooted out eventually by a more general and better
+education are undoubtedly largely in the right, notwithstanding that
+some fairly educated men have acted against their best interests in
+affiliating with the labor organizations. It seems to the speaker that
+enough instances can be collected to show the utter folly of the
+present selfish system, based, as it is, entirely on getting all that
+is possible, independent of right in the matter, and by demanding
+equal wages for all men, tending to lower all to one common
+degradation, instead of rewarding industry and ability and advancing
+the cause of civilization.
+
+Labor should not be organized for selfish ends, but for its own good,
+_so as to secure steady and permanent employment_, rather than prevent
+it by impracticable schemes and unwise methods, which will cripple
+manufacturers and all kinds of industry. The men should organize under
+the general laws of the State, so that their leaders will be
+responsible to the laws and can be indicted, tried, and punished in
+case they misappropriate funds or commit any breach of trust; and such
+laws should be amended if necessary, so that wise, responsible leaders
+of the organizations can contract to furnish labor for a certain time
+at a fixed price, when manufacturers can make calculations ahead as to
+the cost of labor the same as for the cost of material, and have such
+confidence that they will use all their energies to do a larger amount
+of business and benefit the workingman as well as themselves by
+furnishing steady employment. Such a plan as is here outlined can
+readily be carried into effect by selecting better men as leaders. It
+is well known how well the organization known as the locomotive
+brotherhood is conducted, and it should be an example to others. It
+has had its day of dissensions, when the best counsels did not
+prevail, which shows that any organization of the kind, no matter how
+well conducted, may be diverted by its leaders into improper channels.
+
+When organized under the laws of the State and under by-laws designed
+to secure steady employment, rather than any artificial condition of
+things in regard to pay hours, and continuance of labor, the true
+interests of the workman will be advanced. It may be that some one of
+you will develop a talent in the direction of organization and be the
+means of aiding in the solution of this great problem. Please think of
+the matter seriously, watch the law of evolution while you are
+advancing your professional knowledge, and if the opportunity offers,
+do all you can to aid in a cause so important and beneficent.
+
+One writer has criticised the technical schools because they do not
+teach mechanical intuition. The schools have enough to do in the time
+available if they teach principles and sufficient practice to enable
+the principles to be understood. The aptitude to design, which must be
+what is meant by mechanical intuition, requires very considerable
+practical experience, which you will readily learn if you do not keep
+yourself above it. If you have used your leisure hours to study why a
+certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain way rather than in
+another; if you have wondered why one part is thick in one place
+rather than in another, apparently in defiance of all rules of the
+strength of material; if you have endeavored to ascertain why a
+particular device is used rather than another more evident one; if you
+have thought and studied why a boss is thrown in here and there in
+designs to receive bolts or to lengthen a journal, and if you have in
+your mind, by repeated observation, a fair idea of how work is
+designed by other people, the so-called _mechanical intuition_ will be
+learned and found to be the _combination of common sense and good
+practice_.
+
+You will observe that some details have been copied for years and
+years, although thoughtful men would say they are not the best, simply
+because they are adapted to a large amount of work already done. This
+is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads. The cost of a
+change in starting in a new country might be warranted, but it
+practically cannot be done when the parts must interchange with so
+much work done in other parts of the country. You will find in other
+cases that the direct strain to which a piece of mechanism is
+subjected is only one of the strains which occur in practice. A piece
+of metal may have been thickened where it customarily broke, and you
+may possibly surmise that certain jars took place that caused such
+breakages, or that particular point was where the abuse of the
+attendant was customarily applied.
+
+Wherever you go you will find matters of this kind affecting designs
+staring you in the face, and you will soon see why a man who has
+learned his trade in the shop, and from there worked into the drawing
+room with much less technical information than you have, can get along
+as well as he does. Reserve your strength, however. Your time will
+come. Whenever there is a new departure to be taken, and matters to be
+worked out from the solid which require close computation of strains
+or the application of any principles, your education will put you far
+ahead, and if you have, during the period of what may be called your
+post-graduate course, which occurs during your early introduction into
+practical life, been careful to keep your eyes and ears open so as to
+learn all that a man in practical life has done, you will soon stand
+far ahead.
+
+Reference was made to the use of leisure hours. Leisure hours can be
+spent in various ways. For instance, in studying the composition and
+resolution of forces and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room,
+the poetry of motion, etc., in a ball room, and the chemical
+properties of various malt and vinous extracts in another room; but
+the philosophical reason why certain engineering work is done in the
+way it is, and the proper way in which new work shall be done of a
+similar character and original work of any kind carried on, can only
+be learned by cultivating your powers of observation and ruminating on
+the facts collected in the privacy of one's own room, away from the
+allurements provided for those who have nothing to do. No one would
+recommend you to so separate yourself from the world as to sacrifice
+health and strength, or to become a recluse, even if you did learn all
+about a certain thing.
+
+Remember, however, that the men who have accomplished most in this
+world worked the longest hours, and any one with a regular occupation
+must utilize his leisure hours to obtain prestige. The difference
+between one man and another of the same natural ability lies entirely
+in the amount of his information and the facility with which he can
+use it. Life is short, and you must realize that now is your
+opportunity. If any diversion in the way of pleasure or even certain
+kinds of congenial work is offered, consider it in connection with the
+question, "Will this be conducive to my higher aim?" This implies that
+you have a higher aim; and if you have it, and weigh everything in
+this way, you will find that every moment of exertion adds something
+to your storehouse of information and brings you nearer to the
+accomplishment of that higher aim.
+
+In closing, we thank the ladies and gentlemen present for their close
+attention to details of special interest only to those engaged in
+technical study or practice.
+
+We congratulate you, young gentlemen of the class of '87, for the
+success you have thus far obtained, and trust that you will persevere
+in well doing and win greater success in the future. We need hardly
+state that all that has been said was in a spirit of kindness, and we
+feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your parents, to
+whom no less than to all parents here present off or on the stage, the
+speaker not excepted, a serious, thoughtful problem has been, still
+is, and will continue to be to many, "What shall we do with our
+boys."--_Stevens Indicator._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEATING MARINE BOILERS WITH LIQUID FUEL.
+
+
+We were recently witness of an experiment made at Eragny Conflans on
+the steam yacht Flamboyante. It was a question of testing a new
+vaporizer or burner for liquid fuel. The experiment was a repetition
+of the one that the inventor, Mr. G. Dietrich, recently performed with
+success in the presence of Admirals Cloue and Miot.
+
+The Flamboyante is 58 ft. in length, 9 ft. in width, draws 5 ft. of
+water, and has a displacement of 10 tons. She is provided with a
+double vertical engine supplied by a Belleville boiler that develops
+28 horse power. The screw makes 200 revolutions per minute, and gives
+the yacht a speed of 61/2 knots.
+
+Mr. Dietrich's vaporizer appears to be very simple, and has given so
+good results that we have thought it of interest to give our readers a
+succinct description of it. In this apparatus, the inventor has
+endeavored to obtain an easy regulation of the two essential
+elements--naphtha and steam.
+
+Fig. 1 represents the apparatus in section. The steam enters through
+the tubulure, A, and finds its way around the periphery of a tuyere,
+D. It escapes with great velocity, carries along the petroleum that
+runs from two lateral tubulures, B (Fig. 2), and throws it in a fine
+spray into the fireplace, through the nozzle, C (Fig. 1), which is
+flattened into the shape of a fan opened out horizontally. The mixture
+at once ignites in contact with the hot gases, and gives a beautiful,
+long, clear flame. The air necessary for the combustion is sucked
+through the interior of the nozzle, H, which is in front of the
+tuyere. It will be seen that the current of steam can be regulated by
+moving the tuyere, D, from or toward the eduction orifice. This is
+effected through a maneuver of the hand wheel, F. In the second place,
+the flow of the petroleum is made regular by revolving the hand wheel,
+G, which gives the piston, O, a to and fro motion in the tuyere, D.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--THE DIETRICH PETROLEUM BURNER.]
+
+The regulation may be performed with the greatest ease. It is possible
+to instantly vary, together or separately, the steam and the
+petroleum. Under such circumstances, choking is not to be feared at
+the petroleum orifice, where, according to experiment, the thickness
+of the substance to be vaporized should not be less than 0.04 of an
+inch.
+
+The petroleum might evidently be made to enter at A and the steam at
+B; but one of the conclusions of the experiments cited is that the
+performance is better when the jet of steam surrounds the petroleum.
+It will be understood, in fact, that by this means not a particle of
+the liquid can escape vaporization and, consequently, combustion.
+Moreover, as the jet of petroleum is completely surrounded by steam
+its flow can be increased within the widest limits, and this, in
+certain cases, may prevent an obstruction without much diminishing the
+useful effect of the burner.
+
+The apparatus is easily and rapidly taken apart. It it is only
+necessary to remove the nozzle, C, in order to partially clean it. It
+would even seem that the cleaning might be done automatically by
+occasionally reversing the flow of the steam and petroleum. However
+efficacious such a method might prove, the apparatus as we have
+described it can be very easily applied to any generator. Fig. 2
+represents it as applied to the front of a furnace provided with two
+doors. A metallic box, with two compartments, is placed on one side of
+the furnace, and is provided with two stuffing boxes that are capable
+of revolving around the steam and petroleum pipes. The latter thus
+form the pivots of the hinge that allows of the play of the vaporizers
+and piping.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--THE BURNER APPLIED TO THE FURNACE OF A BOILER.]
+
+It was in this way that Mr. Dietrich arranged his apparatus in an
+experiment made upon a stationary boiler belonging to a Mr. Corpet.
+The experiment was satisfactory and led to the adoption of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 3. The fire bridge is constructed of
+refractory bricks, and the majority of the grate bars are filled in
+with brick. The few free bars permit of the firing of the boiler and
+of access of air to the interior of the fire box. Under such
+circumstances, the combustion is very regular, the furnace does not
+roar, and the smoke-consuming qualities are perfect.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--APPLICATION OF THE BURNER TO A RETURN FLAME
+BOILER.]
+
+In the experiment on the Flamboyante, the boiler was provided with but
+one apparatus, and the grate remained covered with a layer of ignited
+coal that had been used for firing up in order to obtain the necessary
+pressure of steam to set the vaporizer in operation. This ignited coal
+appeared to very advantageously replace the refractory bricks, the
+role of which it exactly fulfilled. It has been found well, moreover,
+to break the flames by a few piles of bricks in the furnace, in order
+to obtain as intimate a mixture as possible of the inflammable gases.
+
+It is to be remarked that firing up in order to obtain the necessary
+steam at first is a drawback that might be surmounted by using at the
+beginning of the operation a very small auxiliary boiler. The main
+furnace would then be fired by means of say a wad of cotton. But, in
+current practice, if a grate and fire be retained, the firing will
+perhaps be simpler.
+
+With but one apparatus, the pressure in the Flamboyante's boiler rose
+in a few minutes from 6 to 25 pounds, and about a quarter of an hour
+after leaving the wharf the apparatus had been so regulated that there
+was no sign of smoke. This property of the Dietrich burner proceeds
+naturally from the use of a jet of steam to carry along the petroleum
+and air necessary for combustion. It is, in fact, an Orvis smoke
+consumer transformed, and applied in a special way.
+
+It must be added that the regulating requires a certain amount of
+practice and even a certain amount of time at every change in the
+boat's running. So it is well to use two, and even three, apparatus,
+of a size adapted to that of the boiler. The regulation of the furnace
+temperature is then effected by extinguishing one or two, or even
+three, of the apparatus, according as it is desired to slow up more or
+less or to come to a standstill.
+
+The oil used by Mr. De Dosme on his yacht comes from Comaille, near
+Antun. The price of it is quite low, and, seeing the feeble
+consumption (from 33 to 45 lb. for the yacht's boiler), it competes
+advantageously with the coal that Mr. De Dosme was formerly obliged to
+use.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9935.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHANGE OF GAUGE OF SOUTHERN RAILROADS IN 1886.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: A paper read before the Western Society of Engineers,
+  June 7, 1887.]
+
+By C.H. HUDSON.
+
+
+Many of the wheels that were still in use with the long hub were put
+into a lathe, and a groove was cut an inch and a half back from the
+face, leaving our cast collar, which was easily split off as before.
+(Fig. 24.)
+
+With tender wheels, as with our car wheels, the case was different.
+Originally, the axle for the 5 ft. gauge was longer than for the 4 ft.
+9 in.; but latterly the 5 ft. roads had used a great many master car
+builders' axles for the 4 ft. 9 in. gauge, namely, 6 ft. 111/4 in. over
+all, thus making the width of the truck the same as for 4 ft. 9 in.
+gauge. To do this a dished wheel, or rather a wheel with a greater
+dish by 11/2 in. than previously used, was needed, so that the tread of
+the wheel could be at its proper place. (See Fig. 25.) There were, of
+course, many of the wheels with small dish and long axles still in
+use. Their treatment, however, when the day of change came, did not
+vary from that of the short axle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24 and FIG. 25]
+
+It had been the rule for some years that all axles should be turned
+back 11/2 in. further than needed; but unfortunately the rule had not
+been closely followed, and many were found not to be so turned. To
+make the matter worse, quite a number of the wheels were found to have
+been counterbored about 1/2 in. deep at the back end, and the axle
+turned up to fit this counterbore; a good idea to prevent the running
+in, in case the wheel worked loose, but bad from the standpoint of a
+change of gauge. In such cases the wheels had to be started off before
+the axle could be turned back, so that the wheels could be pushed on
+in their proper position. (Fig. 26.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26]
+
+If the work was done where they had a lathe large enough to swing a
+pair of wheels, they were pressed off but half an inch, the wheels
+swung in the lathe, the axles turned back 11/2 in., and the wheels then
+pressed on 2 in. or 11/2 in. inside of their first position.
+
+Where no large lathe was in use, the wheels came entirely off before
+the axles could be turned back. The work in the former case was both
+the quicker and the cheaper. Where the large lathes were used they
+were either set down into the floor, so a pair of wheels would easily
+roll into place, or a raised platform was put before the lathe, with
+an incline up which the wheels were rolled and then taken to the
+lathe. These arrangements were found much quicker and cheaper than to
+hoist the wheels up, as is usually done.
+
+In pressing the wheels on, where the axles had previously been turned
+back, much trouble was at first experienced because of the rust that
+had gathered upon the turned part behind the wheel, forming a ridge
+over or upon which the wheel must be pushed. Some of the roads, at the
+start, burst 10 or 15 per cent. of the wheels so pressed on. By
+saturating this surface with coal oil, however, it was found that the
+rust was easily removed and little trouble was had. It was found,
+sometimes, that upon axles newly turned back a careless workman would
+leave a ridge at the starting point of the turning. Frequently also
+the axles were a little sprung, so that the new turning would be a
+little scant upon one side when compared with the old surface, and
+upon the opposite side a little full. As an indication that these
+difficulties were overcome as they appeared, I will say that upon our
+line only 202 wheels burst out of nearly 27,000 pressed on--an
+exceedingly small percentage.
+
+After the change upon the early roads they were troubled for weeks
+with hot boxes, caused, as we believed, by the changing of brasses. A
+brass once fitted to a journal will work upon it without trouble, but
+when placed upon some other journal will probably not fit. If the
+journal had been worn hollow (and it was surprising to see how many
+were so worn), the brass would be found worn down to fit it. (See Fig.
+27. Exaggerated, of course.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27 and FIG. 28]
+
+The next wheel may have an axle worn little or none. (See Fig. 28)
+
+Now, if these brasses are exchanged, we have the conditions as shown
+in Figs. 29 and 30, and we must expect they will heat. The remedy was
+simply to keep each brass upon its own journal. To do this the brasses
+were fastened to the axle by a piece of small wire, and went with it
+to the lathe and press. When its truck was reached, the brass was
+there with its journal. Worn-out brasses, of course, could not be put
+in, and new ones were substituted. The little trouble from that source
+that followed the change showed the efficacy of the remedy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29 and FIG. 30]
+
+The manner in which the tires of engines were to be changed, when the
+final day came, was a serious question. The old-fashioned fire upon
+the ground could not be thought of. The M. & O. had used a fire of
+pine under the wheel, which was covered by a box of sheet iron, so
+arranged that the flame and heat would be conveyed around the tire,
+and out at an aperture at the top. (Fig. 31.) Many thought this
+perfect, while others were not satisfied, and began experiments for
+something better. A device for using gas had been patented, but it was
+somewhat complicated, as well as expensive, and did not meet with
+general favor. A very simple device was soon hit upon. A two inch pipe
+was bent around in a circle a little larger than the outer rim of the
+wheel. Holes 1/10 in. in diameter and 3 or 4 in. apart were drilled
+through the pipe on the inside of the circle. To this pipe was
+fastened another with a branch or fork upon it. To one branch or fork
+was connected a gas pipe from the meter, while to the other was
+connected a pipe from an air pump. With the ordinary pressure of city
+gas upon this pipe it was found that the air pump must keep an air
+pressure of 40 pounds, that the air and gas might mix properly at the
+branch or fork, so we could get the best combustion and most heat from
+our "blowpipe," for such it was. (Fig. 32.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31 and FIG. 32]
+
+We were able to heat a tire so it could be moved in ten to twenty
+minutes, and the machine may be said to have been satisfactory.
+
+Gas, however, was not to be had at all places where it would be
+necessary to change tires, and the item of cost was considerable.
+
+To reach a result as good, if possible, experiments were begun with
+coal oil (headlight oil). They were crude and unsatisfactory at first,
+but soon success was reached.
+
+A pipe was bent to fit the lower half of a wheel pretty closely and
+then turned back under itself about the diameter of the pipe distant
+from it. This under part had holes 1/10 in. diameter and 3 or 4 in.
+apart drilled upon its upper side or under the upper pipe. Connected
+with the upper pipe at its center was a pipe which ran to one side and
+up to the can containing the kerosene. Between the can and the pipe
+under the wheel was a stop cock, by which the flow of oil could be
+controlled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33]
+
+To use the device, open the cock and let a small amount of oil flow;
+apply fire to the pipe under the wheel, and the oil in the upper pipe
+is converted into gas, which flows out of the small holes in the lower
+pipe, takes fire, and heats not only the tire, but the upper pipe,
+thus converting more oil into gas. We had here a lot of blue flame
+jets and the same result as with gas, but at less cost. We had also a
+machine that was inexpensive and easily handled anywhere. Boxes were
+placed over the upper parts of the wheels, that the heat might pass
+closely to the tire. This device was extensively used by our people,
+and with great satisfaction. In one way care had to be taken, viz.:
+That in starting the fire it did not smoke and cover the tire with
+carbon or "lampblack," which is a non-conductor of heat.
+
+Experiments were made with air forced through gasoline, and with oil
+heated in a can to form gas. There was more danger in either of these
+than with our blowpipe device, and no better results were obtained,
+though the cost was greater.
+
+With the change of the wheels, the brakes had to be changed the same
+amount, that is, each one set in 11/2 in. This it was thought would
+either require new hangers or a change in the head or shoe in some
+way. We found that the hangers could easily be bent without removal.
+Fig. 34 shows three hangers after passing through the bending process.
+A short lever arranged to clasp the hanger just below the point, A,
+was the instrument; a forked "shore" is now placed, with the fork,
+against the point, A, and the other end against the car sill; press
+down on the lever and you bend the hanger at A; lower the lever to a
+point just below B, reverse the process, and you have the bend at B;
+the whole thing taking less than two minutes per hanger. A new bolt
+hole, of course, has been bored in the brake beam 11/2 in. inside the
+old hole. It takes but a short time after this to change the position
+of the head and shoe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34]
+
+Before the day of change, a portion of the spikes were drawn from the
+inside of the rail to be moved, and spike set 3 in. inside of the
+rail. As a rule two spikes were drawn and the third left. At least
+every third spike was set for the new gauge, and in some cases every
+other one.
+
+There were several devices with which to set the spike. A small piece
+of iron 3 in. wide was common, and answered the purpose well. This had
+a handle, sometimes small, just large enough for the hand to clasp,
+while others had a handle long enough for a man to use it without
+stooping down. (See Figs. 35 and 36.) Another device is shown in Fig.
+37, so arranged that the measurements were made from the head of the
+other rail. This was liked best, and, it is thought, gave the best
+results, as the moved rail was more likely to be in good line than
+when the measurements were taken from the flange.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35, FIG. 36 and FIG. 37]
+
+It was intended that great care should be taken in driving the spikes,
+that they were in the proper place, square with the rail, and left
+sticking up about an inch.
+
+The ties, of course, were all adzed down before the day of change.
+
+"Handspikes" were originally used to throw the rails, as were lining
+bars.
+
+We found, however, that small "cant hooks" were more easily handled
+and did better work. The first were made like Fig. 38, with a spike in
+the end of a stick, while the hook was fastened with a bolt about 10
+or 12 inches above the foot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38 and FIG. 39]
+
+We afterward made them of a 11/4 in. rod, 31/2 ft. long, pointed at one
+end, with a ring shrunk on 1 ft. from the bottom. Then the hook was
+made with an eye, as shown in Fig. 39, which slipped down over the top
+of the main rod. This was simple and cheap, and the iron was to be
+used for repair purposes when this work was done.
+
+Upon the system with which the writer was connected we had some
+branches where we could experiment upon the moving of the rail.
+Between Selma and Lauderdale the traffic was light, and at Lauderdale
+it connected with the Mobile & Ohio Railroad, which was narrow, and to
+which all freight had to be transferred, either by hoisting the cars
+or by handling through the house. By changing our gauge we would
+simply change the point of transfer to Selma. Here was a chance to
+experiment upon one hundred miles and cause little trouble to traffic.
+We could see the practical workings of our plans, and, at the same
+time, leave less to do on the final day. Upon the 20th of April we did
+this work. It had been our plan to do it somewhat earlier, but floods
+prevented.
+
+Most of the rail was old chair iron, short, and consequently more time
+was used in making the change than would have been required had our
+work been on fishplate rail. Our sections here were about eight miles
+long, and we arranged our men on the basis blocked out by the
+committee, viz., 24 to 26 men to the section, consisting of 6 spike
+pullers, 4 throwing rails, 12 spikers, 2 to push the cars and carry
+water.
+
+We soon found 5 ft. cars useless, and threw them into the ditch to be
+picked up at some future time.
+
+The men were spread out so as not to be in each other's way, and when
+the organization was understood and conformed to, it worked well. One
+gang changed 5 miles in 5 hours and 10 minutes, including a number of
+switches. We found, however, and it was demonstrated still more
+strongly on later work, that after 5 or 6 miles the men began to lag.
+
+We believed we had the best results when we had sections of about that
+length.
+
+It was arranged that two sections, alternately, commenced work
+together at one point, working from each other and continuing until
+the force of another section was met, working from the opposite
+direction.
+
+The foreman in charge was expected to examine the work and know that
+all was right. The push car which followed was a good test as to
+gauge.
+
+A work train was started from each end with a small force (20 or 25
+men) to run over the changed track. This train, of course, had been
+changed on a previous day to be ready for this work.
+
+If a force was overtaken by this train with its work not done, the men
+on the train were at once spread out to aid in its completion. This
+done, the train ran on.
+
+Not until this was done was a traffic train allowed to pass over the
+track. The same rule was followed upon all the work.
+
+Upon the final day it was required that upon all high trestles and in
+tunnels the track should be full-spiked before being left or a train
+let over. This took extra time and labor, and possibly was not
+necessary; but it was a precaution on the side of safety.
+
+Upon the day of the change of the Alabama Central Division (Selma to
+Lauderdale), superintendents of other divisions, with their road
+masters, supervisors, master mechanics and many section foremen, were
+sent over to see the organization and work and the preparations that
+had been made. Many of them lent a helping hand in the work. They saw
+here in practice what had only been theory before.
+
+About a week before the general change that portion of the road
+between Rome, Ga., and Selma, Ala., about 200 miles, was changed, and
+again men from other divisions were sent to see and aid in the work.
+So when the final day came, the largest possible number of men were
+able to work understandingly.
+
+On the last day of May the Memphis & Charleston, Knoxville & Ohio, and
+North Carolina branch were changed, and on June 1 the line from
+Bristol to Chattanooga and Brunswick.
+
+Other roads changed their branch lines a day or two before the 1st of
+June; but the main lines, as a rule, were changed on that day.
+
+It was a small matter to take care of the cars and arrange the train
+service so there should be no hitches. It was not expected that
+connections would move freight during the 48 hours prior to the
+change, and these days were spent in clearing the road of everything,
+and taking the cars to the points of rendezvous. All scheduled freight
+trains were abandoned on the day prior to the change, and only trains
+run _to_ such points.
+
+Upon the East Tennessee system these points were Knoxville, Rome,
+Atlanta, Macon, Huntsville, and Memphis, and to these points all cars
+must go, loaded or empty, and there they were parked upon the tracks
+prepared for the purpose. Passenger trains were run to points where it
+had been arranged to change them, generally to the general changing
+point.
+
+Most of the Southern roads have double daily passenger service. Upon
+all roads one of these trains, upon the day of change, was abandoned,
+and upon some all. Some, even, did not run till next day.
+
+We were able to start the day trains out by 10 or 11 o'clock A.M., and
+put them through in fair time. Of course, no freights were run that
+day, and the next day was used in getting the cars which had been
+changed out of the parks and into line. So our freight traffic over
+the entire South was suspended practically three days.
+
+The work of changing was to commence at 3:30 A.M., but many of the men
+were in position at an earlier hour, and did commence work as soon as
+the last train was over, or an hour or so before the fixed time.
+Half-past three A.M., however, can be set down as the general hour of
+commencement.
+
+For five or six hours in the cool morning the work went on briskly,
+the men working with much more than ordinary enthusiasm. But the day
+was warm, and after 9 or 10 A.M. it began to lag. All was done,
+however, before the day was over, and safe, so that trains could pass
+at full speed.
+
+The men all received $1.50 for the work, whether it was finished early
+or late in the day, and were paid that afternoon as soon as the work
+was done. Tickets were given the men, which the nearest agent paid,
+remitting as cash to the treasurer.
+
+On some lines it was deemed best to offer prizes to those who got
+through first.
+
+Reports showed some very early finishes. But the facts seem to have
+been that under such encouragement the men were apt to pull _too many_
+spikes before the change and put _too few_ in while changing. They
+were thus reported through early, but their work was not done, and
+they took great chances.
+
+It was by most considered unwise to offer such prizes, preferring to
+have a little more time taken and be sure that all was safe. Such
+lines seemed to get their trains in motion with as much promptness as
+others. This, with freedom from accident, was the end sought.
+
+It was found after the work had been done that there had been little
+inaccuracies in driving the gauge spike, to which the rail was thrown,
+probably from various causes. The rail to be moved may not always have
+been exactly in its proper place, and then the template in the hurry
+may not have been accurately placed, or the spike may have turned or
+twisted.
+
+Whatever was the cause, it was found that frequently the line on the
+moved side was not perfect, and, of course, many spikes had to be
+drawn and the rail lined up and respiked. The more careful the work
+had been done, the less of this there was to do afterward. With rough
+track this was least seen. The nearer perfect, the more noticeable it
+was.
+
+Of course, we all planned to get foreign cars home and have ours sent
+to us. But when the interchange stopped, we found we had many foreign
+cars, which, of course, had to be changed. This subject had come up in
+convention and it had been voted to charge three dollars per car when
+axles did not need turning, and five dollars where they did. By
+comparison with the cost of changing, as shown in this paper, it will
+be seen that to our company, at least, there was no loss at these
+figures.
+
+The following tables will explain the work done upon the Louisville &
+Nashville and East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia systems.
+
+It is to be regretted that the writer has not at hand information
+regarding other roads, that fuller statements and comparisons might be
+made and the showings be of greater value.
+
+The figures of the Mobile & Ohio are added, having been compiled from
+the annual report of that road.
+
+
+                       MOBILE & OHIO RAILROAD.
+                   (_Compiled from Annual Report._)
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+                      | Number | Cost of  | Cost of  |  Total   |Average|
+                      |Changed.|  Labor.  | Material |  Cost.   | Cost. |
+                      |________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+Engines and tenders.  |   47   |$ 8,031.42|$ 7,276.86|$15,308.28|$325.70|
+Pass., bag., ex. cars.|   55   |    439.37|    104.25|    542.62|   9.87|
+Freight cars, 1,361. }|1,4681/2  |  5,719.03|    739.57|  6,458.60|   4.40|
+Freight trucks, 1071/2.}|        |          |          |          |       |
+Lever and push cars.  |  143   |  1,427.55|    476.93|  1,904.48|  13.32|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+                      | Miles. |          |          |          |       |
+Track (inc. sidings). |  583.5 | 17,109.53|  7,275.14| 24,384.87|  41.79|
+Bridges.              |  583.5 |  1,896.60|    190.00|  2,086.60|   3.58|
+Track tools.          |  583.5 |    170.72|  1,405.74|  1,576.46|   2.70|
+Shop tools.           |  583.5 |    419.70|  2,982.90|  3,402.60|   5.83|
+Temp. side tracks.    |   12.09|  1,958.94|    372.37|  2,331.31| 192.83|
+Switching cars.       |        |  1,398.18|     16.50|  1,414.68|       |
+Car hoists.           |        |  2,499.38|  4,419.34|  6,918.72|       |
+                      |________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+                      |        |          |          |          |       |
+  Total cost.         |        |$41,069.42|$25,259.60|$66,329.02|       |
+  Total average cost  |        |          |          |          |       |
+   per mile.          |        |          |          |          |$113.68|
+______________________|________|__________|__________|__________|_______|
+
+
+                 LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD.
+                 (_Compiled from Annual Report._)
+
+
+Miles of track--Main line              1,893.7
+              --Side track               196.3
+                                       -------     2,090.0
+                                                              Cost
+             Track.                                 Total.  per Mile.
+Section labor--Before day of change  $28,106.60
+             --On day of change       20,090.42
+             --After day of change    19,713.19
+                                     ----------  $67,910.21   $32.49
+Carpenter labor                                    3,799.19     1.82
+Spikes                                            20,873.70     9.99
+Switches                                           6,331.85     3.03
+Tools                                              2,749.50     1.31
+Hand cars and sundries                             5,691.39     2.72
+                                                -----------   ------
+   Total                                        $107,855.84   $51.36
+
+                         _Equipment._
+                                                               Average
+                                        Number.      Total.      Cost.
+Locomotives                                264   $53,480.98    $202.58
+Cars (300 of these passenger--3.5%)      8,537    49,577.20       5.81
+                                                -----------   --------
+   Total cost                                   $210,414.02
+   Total average cost per mile                                 $100.67
+
+
+             EAST TENNESSEE, VIRGINIA & GEORGIA SYSTEM.
+
+__________________________________________________________________________
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+                      |  Number | Cost of  | Cost of  |   Total   |Average|
+                      | Changed.|  Labor.  | Material |   Cost.   | Cost. |
+                      |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+Engines and tenders.  |   180   |$ 8,227.47|$ 2,904.30|$ 11,131.77|$ 61.82|
+Pass., bag., and mail |         |          |          |           |       |
+  cars.               |   168   |    734.93|     59.67|     794.60|   4.73|
+Freight cars and      |         |          |          |           |       |
+  cabooses.           | 5,175   | 17,425.57|  1,224.08|  18,649.65|   3.60|
+M. of W. cars.        |   439   |  2,038.44|    549.47|   2,587.91|   5.89|
+                      | Miles   |          |          |           |       |
+                      | Track.  |          |          |           |       |
+Track (inc. sidings). | 1,532.7 | 27,718.17| 40,912.09|  68,630.26|  44.78|
+Bridges.              | 1,532.7 |  1,808.57|    200.00|   2,008.57|   1.31|
+Track tools.          | 1,532.7 |    194.48|  2,573.83|   2,768.31|   1.80|
+Storage tracks, inc.  |         |          |          |           |       |
+  taking up.          |    37.02|  9,825.41|  1,481.59|  11,307.00| 305.44|
+Shop tools.           |         |    472.20|  2,728.30|   3,200.50|       |
+                      |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+                      |         |          |          |           |       |
+  Total cost.         |         |$68,445.24|$52.633.33|$121,078.57|       |
+  Total average cost  |         |          |          |           |       |
+   per mile.          |         |          |          |           |$ 79.06|
+______________________|_________|__________|__________|___________|_______|
+
+
+  Axles condemned                                                     577
+  Wheels condemned                                                    754
+  Wheels burst                                                        202
+  New axles used                                                    1,102
+  New wheels used                                                   2,783
+  Axles turned back                                                 8,316
+  Wheels pressed on without turning axle                           23,952
+  New brasses used                                                 10,723
+  Cars narrowed (not including lever or push cars)                  5,343
+  Engines narrowed                                                    180
+  Average cost of new centers and crank pins, etc                 $264.46
+  Average cost of cutting off hub and pressing wheels and new pins 130.67
+  Average cost of pressing old tires on old centers                 29.08
+  Average cost of pressing old tires on broad centers               31.83
+  Average cost of labor putting on new tires                        22.94
+
+
+     COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+
+__________________________________________________________________________
+                                  |         |         |         |         |
+                                  |  M. &   |  L. &   | E.T., V.|Average. |
+                                  | O. R.R. | N. R.R. |& G. R.R.|         |
+                                  |_________|_________|_________|_________|
+                                  |         |         |         |         |
+Engines and tenders--per engine   | $325.70 | $202.58 |  $61.82 | $196.70 |
+Pass., bag., and ex. cars--per car|    9.87 |[2] 5.81 |    4.73 |    6.80 |
+Freight cars, per car             |    4.40 |[3] 5.81 |    3.60 |    4.60 |
+M. of W. cars, per car            |   13.32 |    2.72 |    5.89 |    7.31 |
+Track (inc. sidings bridges,      |         |         |         |         |
+  etc.), per mile                 |   45.37 |   47.83 |   46.09 |   46.26 |
+Track tools, per mile             |    2.70 |    1.31 |    1.80 |    1.94 |
+Temporary side tracks, per mile   |  192.83 |         |  305.44 |  249.13 |
+                                  |_________|_________|_________|_________|
+   Total per mile of track, inc.  |         |         |         |         |
+     sidings                      | $113.68 | $100.67 | $ 79.06 | $ 97.80 |
+__________________________________|_________|_________|_________|_________|
+
+  [Footnote 2: Expense not divided as between passenger and freight
+  cars.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: 3.5 per cent. passenger, baggage, and express cars,
+  96.5 per cent. freight cars.]
+
+
+NOTE--Since the preparation of this paper the general manager of the
+Norfolk & Western Railroad has kindly furnished the following items of
+expense for that line:
+
+  ___________________________________________________________________
+                                    |         |            |         |
+                                    |   No.   |   Cost.    | Average |
+                                    |         |            |  Cost.  |
+                                    |_________|____________|_________|
+                                    |         |            |         |
+  Engines and tenders               |    95   | $37,730.00 | $397.16 |
+  Cars (all kinds)                  | 3,615   |  37,994.65 |   10.51 |
+  Track, miles (including sidings)  |   597.5 |            |         |
+  Labor                             |         |  25,296.96 |         |
+  Tools and supplies                |         |   3,531.12 |         |
+  Changing M. of W. equipment       |         |     813.13 |         |
+  Switches                          |         |     571.67 |         |
+  Spikes                            |         |   8,508.22 |         |
+                                    |         | ---------- |         |
+    Total track                     |         | $38,721,10 |   64.80 |
+                                    |         | ========== |         |
+      Total                         |         |$114,445.75 |---------|
+    Total average cost per mile     |         |            | $191.53 |
+  __________________________________|_________|____________|_________|
+
+
+And the superintendent of the S.F. & W. R.R. has also furnished the
+expenses for that road:
+
+  ___________________________________________________________________
+                                                |          |         |
+                                                |   No.    | Average |
+                                                |          |  Cost.  |
+                                                |__________|_________|
+                                                |          |         |
+  Engines and tenders                           |    75    |  $76.31 |
+  Cars (passenger)                              |    95    |    4.67 |
+  Cars (freight)                                | 1,133    |    3.88 |
+  Track, including sidings                      |   601.76 |   44.49 |
+  ______________________________________________|__________|_________|
+
+Nothing was said about shop or other tools, storage tracks, or
+changing of maintenance of way equipment.
+
+
+            COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF
+               LABOR OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+  _________________________________________________________________
+                            |   M. &  |   L. & | E.T., V. |        |
+                            | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |        |          |        |
+  Engines and tenders.      | $170.88}|        | {$45.71  | $108.29|
+  Pass., bag., and ex cars  |    7.97}|   Not  | {  4.38  |    6.17|
+  Freight cars              |    3.89}| divided| {  3.36  |    3.62|
+  M. of W. cars             |    9.98}|        | {  4.64  |    7.31|
+  Miles track (including    |         |        |          |        |
+   sidings, bridges, etc.)  |   32.57 |  $34.31|   19.26  |   28.71|
+  Track tools, per mile     |     .30 |   Not  |     .13  |     .21|
+  Temporary tracks          |  162.03 | divided|  265.40  |  213.71|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |   Not  |          |        |
+  Total per mile of track   |  $70.38 | divided|  $44.72  |  $57.55|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+
+
+            COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF
+               MATERIAL OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK.
+  _________________________________________________________________
+                            |   M. &  |   L. & | E.T., V. |        |
+                            | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average|
+                            |_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |        |          |        |
+  Engines and tenders.      | $154.82}|        | { $16.11 |  $85.46|
+  Pass., bag., and ex cars  |    1.90}|   Not  | {    .35 |    1.12|
+  Freight cars              |     .51}| divided| {    .24 |     .37|
+  M. of W. cars             |    3.34}|        | {   1.25 |    2.30|
+  Miles track (including    |         |        |          |        |
+   sidings, bridges, etc.)  |   12.80 |  $13.02|    26.88 |   17.55|
+  Track tools, per mile     |    2.40 |   Not  |     1.67 |    2.03|
+  Temporary tracks          |  162.03 | divided|    40.04 |  101.03|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+                            |         |   Not  |          |        |
+  Total per mile of track   |  $43.30 | divided|   $34.34 |  $38.82|
+  __________________________|_________|________|__________|________|
+
+
+             SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS OF L.& N. AND E.T.,
+                         V.& G. RAILWAYS.
+
+  The mileage changed of the L&N. and E.T., V.& G.
+    systems combined aggregates                         3,622 miles.
+  The total cost of these two roads.                     $331,492.59
+  Or an average per mile of                                    91.52
+  Total miles changed was about                        14,500 miles.
+  Which would give total cost, at same rate.              $1,327,040
+
+
+We should really add to this a large sum for the great number of new
+locomotives which were purchased to replace old ones, that could not
+be changed, except at large cost, and which, when done, would have
+been light and undesirable.
+
+Upon the basis of the work done upon the L. & N. and E.T., V. & G.
+systems, which, combined, cover about one-fourth the mileage changed,
+we have made the following estimates, which will, perhaps, convey a
+better idea of the extent of the work than can be obtained in any
+other way:
+
+  Miles of track changed, about                               14,500
+  Locomotives changed, about                                   1,800
+  Cars (pass, and freight) changed, about                     45,000
+  New axles used, about                                        9,000
+  New wheels used, about                                      20,000
+  Axles turned back, about                                    75,000
+  Wheels pressed on without turning axles, about             220,000
+  New brasses used, about                                     90,000
+  Kegs of spikes used, about                                  50,000
+  Cost of material used, about                              $600,000
+  Cost of labor, about                                       730,000
+  Total cost of work, about                                1,330,000
+  Amount expended on equipment, about                        650,000
+  Amount expended on track, about                            680,000
+  Amount expended on track on day of change in labor, about  140,000
+
+The work was done economically, and so quietly that the public hardly
+realized it was in progress. To the casual observer it was an every
+day transaction. It was, however, a work of great magnitude, requiring
+much thought and mechanical ability.
+
+That it was ably handled is evidenced by the uniform success attained,
+the prompt changing at the agreed time, and the trifling inconvenience
+to the public.--_Jour. Assn. Engineering Societies._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TORPEDO BOATS FOR SPAIN.
+
+
+In our present issue, on page 9948, we give illustrations of two
+torpedo boats, the Azor and Halcon, which have lately been constructed
+by Messrs Yarrow & Co., of Poplar, for the Spanish government. They
+are 135 ft. in length by 14 ft. beam, being of the same dimensions as
+No. 80 torpedo boat, lately completed by the above firm for the
+Admiralty, which is the largest and fastest torpedo-boat in the
+British navy.
+
+[Illustration: TORPEDO BOATS FOR THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT.]
+
+The general arrangement of these torpedo boats is sufficiently clear
+from the illustrations to need but little description. Suffice it to
+say that the engines are of the triple compound type, capable of
+indicating 1,550 horse power, steam being supplied by one large
+locomotive boiler, which our readers are already aware is in
+accordance with the usual practice of the makers, as, by using a
+single boiler, great simplification of the machinery takes place, and
+considerably less room is occupied than if two boilers were adopted.
+It is worthy of record that although in some torpedo boats, and indeed
+in a great number of them, trouble has been found with the locomotive
+type of boiler, still we have no hesitation in saying that this is due
+either to defective design or bad workmanship, and that, if properly
+designed and constructed, such difficulty does not occur. And it is a
+fact that Messrs. Yarrow & Co. have already constructed a great number
+of locomotive boilers of the exceptional size adopted in these two
+Spanish boats, and they have turned out in every respect, after actual
+service, perfectly satisfactory.
+
+The forward part of the boat is provided with two torpedo-ejecting
+tubes, as usual, and near the stern, on deck, it is proposed to place
+turntables, with two torpedo guns for firing over the sides, as
+already adopted by several governments. The trials of the Azor took
+place about two months since, giving a speed during a run of two hours
+and three quarters, carrying a load of 17 tons, of 24 knots (over 271/2
+miles) per hour. Since her trial she has steamed out to Spain, having
+encountered, during a portion of the voyage very bad weather, when her
+sea going qualities were found to be admirable.
+
+The Halcon, whose official trials took place lately, obtained a speed
+of 23.5 knots, carrying a load of 17 tons. It may be remarked that a
+speed of 24 knots, in a boat only 135 ft in length, under the Spanish
+conditions of trial, is by far the best result that has ever been
+obtained in a vessel of these dimensions There is, however, no doubt
+that had the length of the boat been greater, a still higher speed
+would have been obtained But it was desired by the authorities to keep
+within the smallest possible dimensions, so as to expose as little
+area as practicable to the fire of the enemy, it being clearly evident
+that this is a consideration of the first importance in an unprotected
+war vessel.
+
+In conclusion, we would add that the hulls of these two Spanish boats
+are of much greater strength of construction than is usually adopted
+in torpedo boats, it having been found that for the sake of obtaining
+exceptional speeds, strength sufficient for actual service has often
+been injudiciously sacrificed And, judging from the numerous accidents
+which took place at the recent trials off Portland, we have no doubt
+that in the future naval authorities will be quite ready and willing
+to sacrifice a little speed so as to obtain vessels which are more
+trustworthy. The necessity for this, we feel convinced, will be
+conclusively shown if ever torpedo boats are engaged in actual
+warfare, and this not only as regards strength of hull, but also as
+regards the machinery, which at present is only capable of being
+handled successfully by men of exceptional training, who in times of
+war would not be readily procured--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE SPANISH CRUISER REINA REGENTE
+
+
+In our SUPPLEMENT, No. 620 we gave an illustration of this ship, with
+some particulars. The interest expressed in naval circles for further
+information induces us to give still further engravings of this
+remarkable vessel, with additional information, for which we are
+indebted to the _Engineer_.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW SPANISH WAR SHIP REINA REGENTE.]
+
+We gave recently a short account of two of the trials of this vessel,
+and we are, by the courtesy of the builders--Messrs. Thomson, of
+Clydebank--enabled to lay further particulars before our readers this
+week. We give herewith engravings of the vessel, which will illustrate
+her salient points. The principal dimensions are as follows.
+
+Length on water line, 317 ft., breadth, 50 ft. 7 in., depth moulded,
+32 ft. 6 in., normal displacement, 4,800 tons, deep load displacement,
+5,600 tons. We have before informed our readers that this vessel was
+designed by Messrs. Thomson, in competition with several other
+shipbuilding firms of this and other countries, in reply to an
+invitation of the Spanish government for a cruiser of the first class.
+The design submitted by the builders of the Reina Regente was
+accepted, and the vessel was contracted to be built in June of last
+year. The principal conditions of the contract were as follows.
+
+The ship to steam at a speed of 201/2 knots for four runs on the mile
+and for two hours continuously afterward. She was further to be
+capable of steaming for six hours continuously at a speed of 181/2
+knots, without any artificial means of producing draught. She was also
+to be capable of steaming a distance of at least 5,700 knots for 500
+tons of coal, at some speed over 10 knots, to be chosen by the
+builders. Over the length of her machinery and magazine spaces she was
+to have a sloping deck extending to 6 ft. below the water line at the
+side, and formed of plates 43/4 in. thick. This deck was to extend to
+about 1 ft. above the water line, and the flat part to be 3-1/8 in.
+thick. Beyond the machinery and magazine spaces, the deck was to be
+gradually reduced to 3 in. thick at the ends. This deck is intended to
+protect the vitals of the ship, such as boilers, engines, powder
+magazines, steering gear, etc., from the effects of shot and shell,
+but the floating and stability maintaining power of the ship was to be
+dependent upon a similar structure raised above this protective deck
+to a height of about 5 ft. above the water.
+
+This structure is covered by a water tight deck known as the main deck
+of the ship, on which the cabins and living spaces are arranged. The
+space between the main and protective deck is divided, as may be seen
+by reference to the protective deck plan, into many strong, water
+tight spaces, most of which are not more than about 500 cubic feet
+capacity. The spaces next to the ship's side are principally coal
+bunkers, and may, therefore, exclude largely any water that should
+enter. The first line of defense is formed inside these coal bunkers
+by a complete girdle of coffer dams, which can be worked from the main
+deck. These it is intended to fill with water and cellulose material,
+and as they are also minutely subdivided, the effects of damage by
+shot and consequent flooding may be localized to a considerable
+extent. The guns of the ship are to consist of four 20 centimeter
+Hontorio breech loading guns on Vavasseur carriages, six 12 centimeter
+guns, eight 6 pounder rapid firing, and eight or ten small guns for
+boats and mitrailleuse purposes, four of which are in the crow's nests
+at the top of the two masts of the ship. We may remark in passing that
+the builders saw their way at an early period of the construction to
+suggest an addition to the weight of the large sized guns, and there
+will actually be on the ship four 24 centimeter guns, instead of four
+20 centimeter. The vessel was to carry five torpedo tubes, two forward
+in the bow, one in each broadside, and one aft. All these tubes to be
+fixed. To fulfill the speed condition, four boilers were necessary and
+two sets of triple expansion engines, capable of developing in all
+12,000 horse power.
+
+[Illustration: PROTECTIVE DECK PLAN.]
+
+Now that the vessel has been completely tried, the promises by the
+builders may be compared with the results determined by the commission
+of Spanish officers appointed by the government of Spain to say
+whether the vessel fulfilled in all respects the conditions laid down
+in the contract. The mean speed attained for the two hours' run was
+20.6 knots, as compared with 20.5 guaranteed, but this speed was
+obtained with 11,500 horse power instead of the 12,000 which the
+machinery is capable of developing. The officers of the Spanish
+commission were anxious not to have the vessel's machinery pressed
+beyond what was necessary to fulfill the speed conditions of the
+contract; but they saw enough to warrant them in expressing their
+belief that the vessel can easily do twenty-one knots when required,
+and she actually did this for some time during the trial.
+
+During the natural draught trial the vessel obtained a mean speed of
+18.68 knots, on an average of 943/4 revolutions--the forced draught
+having been done on an average of 1051/2 revolutions. The consumption
+trial, which lasted twelve hours, was made to determine the radius of
+action, when the ship showed that at a speed of 11.6 knots she could
+steam a distance of 5,900 knots. Further trials took place to test the
+evolutionary powers of the vessel, though these trials were not
+specified in the contract.
+
+The vessel, as may be seen from the engravings, is fitted with a
+rudder of a new type, known as Thomson & Biles' rudder, with which it
+is claimed that all the advantage of a balanced rudder is obtained,
+while the ship loses the length due to the adoption of such a rudder.
+It is formed in the shape of the hull of the vessel, and as the
+partial balance of the lower foreside gradually reduces the strains,
+the rudder head may be made of very great service. As a matter of
+fact, this rudder is 230 ft. in area, and is probably the largest
+rudder fitted to a warship. The efficiency of it was shown in the
+turning trials, by its being able to bring the vessel round, when
+going at about nineteen knots, in half a circle in one minute
+twenty-three seconds, and a complete circle in two minutes fifty-eight
+seconds, the diameter of the circle being 350 yards. This result, we
+believe, is unrivaled, and makes this vessel equal in turning
+capabilities to many recent warships not much more than half her
+length.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FILM NEGATIVES.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: A communication to the Birmingham Photographic
+  Society.]
+
+
+Having had a certain measure of success with Eastman stripping films,
+I have been requested by your council to give a paper this evening
+dealing with the subject, and particularly with the method of working
+which my experience has found most successful. In according to their
+request, I feel I have imposed upon myself a somewhat difficult task.
+
+There is, undoubtedly, a strong prejudice in the minds of most
+photographers, both amateur and professional, against a negative in
+which paper is used as a permanent support, on account of the
+inseparable "grain" and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints;
+and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary support does
+not seem to convey to their mind a correct impression of the true
+position of the matter.
+
+It may be as well before entering into the technical details of the
+manipulation to consider briefly the advantages to be derived--which
+will be better appreciated after an actual trial.
+
+My experience (which is at present limited) is that they are far
+superior to glass for all purposes except portraiture of the human
+form or instantaneous pictures where extreme rapidity is necessary,
+but for all ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently
+quick. The first advantage, which I soon discovered, is their entire
+freedom from halation. This, with glass plates, is inseparable, and
+even when much labor has been bestowed on backing them, the halation
+is painfully apparent.
+
+These films never frill, being made of emulsion which has been made
+insoluble. Compare the respective weights of the two substances--one
+plate weighing more than a dozen films of the same size.
+
+Again, on comparing a stripping film negative with one on glass of the
+same exposure and subject, it will be found there is a greater
+sharpness or clearness in the detail, owing, I am of opinion, to the
+paper absorbing the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion,
+the result being a brilliant negative. Landscapes on stripped films
+can be retouched or printed from on either side, and the advantage in
+this respect for carbon or mechanical printing is enormous. Now,
+imagine the tourist working with glass, and compare him to another
+working with films. The one works in harness, tugging, probably, a
+half hundredweight of glass with him from place to place, paying extra
+carriage, extra tips, and in a continual state of anxiety as to
+possible breakage, difficulty of packing, and having to be continually
+on the lookout for a dark place to change the plates, and, perhaps, on
+his return finds numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on
+the surface; while the disciple of _films_, lightly burdened with only
+camera and slide, and his (say two hundred) films in his pockets, for
+they lie so compact together. Then the advantages to the tourists
+abroad, their name is "legion," not the least being the ease of
+guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house officials, who
+almost always seek to make matters disagreeable in this respect, and
+lastly, though not least, the ease with which the negatives can be
+stowed away in envelopes or albums, etc., when reference to them is
+easy in the extreme.
+
+Now, having come (rightly, I think, you will admit) to the conclusion
+that films have these advantages, you naturally ask, What are their
+disadvantages? Remembering, then, that I am only advocating stripping
+films, I consider they have but two disadvantages: First, they entail
+some additional outlay in the way of apparatus, etc. Second, they are
+a little more trouble to finish than the glass negatives, which sink
+into insignificance when the manifold advantages are considered.
+
+In order to deal effectively with the second objection I mentioned,
+viz., the extra trouble and perseverance, I propose, with your
+permission, to carry a negative through the different stages from
+exposure to completion, and in so doing I shall endeavor to make the
+process clear to you, and hope to enlist your attention.
+
+The developer I use is slightly different to that of the Eastman
+company, and is as follows:
+
+                           A.
+    Sulphite of soda.           4 ounces.
+
+To be dissolved in 8 ounces of hot distilled water, then rendered
+slightly acid with citric acid, then add--
+
+    Pyrogallic acid.            1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+                           B.
+    Pure carbonate of soda.     1 ounce.
+    Water to make up in all to 10 ounces.
+
+                           C.
+    Pure carbonate of potash.   1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+                           D.
+    Bromide of potassium.       1 ounce.
+    Water to make up to 10 ounces.
+
+I have here two half-plate films exposed at 8:30 A.M. to-day, one with
+five and one with six seconds' exposure, subject chiefly middle
+distance. I take 90 minims A, 10 minims D, and 90 minims B, and make
+up to 2 ounces water. I do not soak the films in water. There is no
+need for it. In fact, it is prejudicial to do so. I place the films
+face uppermost in the dish, and pour on the developer on the center of
+the films. You will observe they lie perfectly flat, and are free from
+air bubbles. Rock the dish continually during development, and when
+the high lights are out add from 10 to 90 minims C, and finish
+development and fix. The negatives being complete, I ask you to
+observe that both are of equal quality, proving the latitude of
+exposure permissible.
+
+I now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all round than the
+negative with India rubber solution (see Eastman formula), and
+squeegee the negative face downward upon the rubber, interposing a
+sheet of blotting paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee
+to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface, and then place the
+negative under pressure with blotting paper interposed until
+moderately dry only.
+
+I then pour hot water upon it, and, gently rocking the dish, you see
+the paper floats from the film without the necessity for pulling it
+with a pin, leaving the film negative on the glass. Now, the
+instructions say remove the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's
+hair brush, but, unless it requires intensifying, which no properly
+developed negative should require, you need not do so, but simply pour
+on the gelatine solution (see Eastman formula), well covering the
+edges of the film, and put on a level shelf to dry.
+
+I will now take up a negative in this state on the glass, but dry, and
+carefully cut round the edges of the film, and you see I can readily
+pull off the film with its gelatine support. Having now passed through
+the whole of the process, it behooves us to consider for a few minutes
+the causes of failure in the hands of beginners and their remedies: 1.
+The rubber will not flow over glass? Solution too thick, glass greasy.
+2. Rubber peels off on drying? Dirty glass. 3. Negative not dense
+enough? Use more bromide and longer development. 4. Gelatine cracks on
+being pulled off? Add more glycerine. 5. Gelatine not thick enough?
+Gelatine varnish too thin, not strong enough. 6. Does not dry
+sufficiently hard? Too much glycerine.--_E.H. Jaques, Reported in Br.
+Jour. of Photography._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOW DIFFERENT TONES IN GELATINO-CHLORIDE PRINTS MAY BE VARIED BY
+DEVELOPERS.
+
+
+The following formulae are for use with gelatino-chloride paper or
+plates. The quantities are in each case calculated for one ounce,
+three parts of each of the following solutions being employed and
+added to one part of solution of protosulphate of iron. Strength, 140
+grains to the ounce.
+
+            _Slaty Blue._
+
+  1.--One part of the above solution
+  to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia.
+
+            _Greenish Brown._
+     2.--Citric acid.               180 grains
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       50   "
+
+     3.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          2   "
+
+     4.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          4   "
+
+            _Sepia Brown._
+     5.--Citrate of ammonia.        250 grains.
+         Chloride of sodium.          8   "
+
+            _Clear Red Brown._
+     6.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      76   "
+
+            _Warm Gray Brown._
+     7.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         205   "
+
+            _Deep Red Brown._
+     8.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of potash.       117   "
+
+            _Green Blue._
+     9.--Citric acid.                90 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         154   "
+         Citrate of potash.          24   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           6   "
+
+             _Sepia Red._
+    10.--Citric acid.                80 grains.
+         Carbonate of soda.         135   "
+         Citrate of potash.          12   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           3   "
+
+    11.--Citric acid.               108 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      68   "
+         Carbonate of potash.        12   "
+         Oxalate of potash.           3   "
+
+             _Sepia Yellow._
+    12.--Citric acid.                40 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      25   "
+         Citrate of ammonia.        166   "
+
+    13.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      72   "
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       72   "
+         Chloride of sodium.          8   "
+
+             _Blue Black._
+    14.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       70   "
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      15   "
+
+    15.--Citric acid.               120 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      38   "
+         Carbonate of ammonia.       44   "
+
+    16.--Citric acid.                90 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      57   "
+         Citrate of potash.          54   "
+         Oxlate of potash.           18   "
+
+    17.--Citric acid.                72 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      45   "
+         Citrate of potash.          54   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          18   "
+
+    18.--Citric acid.                60 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      38   "
+         Citrate of potash.          68   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          22   "
+
+        _A more Intense Blue Black._
+    19.--Citric acid.                30 grains.
+         Carbonate of magnesia.      18   "
+         Citrate of potash.         100   "
+         Oxalate of potash.          33   "
+
+           _A Clearer Blue._
+    20.--Citrate of potash.         136 grains.
+         Oxalate of potash.          44   "
+
+In the photographic exhibition at Florence, the firm of Corvan[1]
+places on view a frame containing twenty proofs produced by the
+foregoing twenty formulae, in such a way that the observer can compare
+the value of each tone and select that which pleases him best.--_Le
+Moniteur de la Photographie, translated by British Jour. of Photo._
+
+  [Footnote 1: Does this mean Mr. A. Cowan?--_Translator._]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISTILLERY CHIMNEY.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the Industrial Society of Amiens, Mr. Schmidt,
+engineer of the Steam Users' Association, read a paper in which he
+described the process employed in the construction of a large chimney
+of peculiar character for the Rocourt distillery, at St. Quentin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--ELEVATION.]
+
+This chimney, which is cylindrical in form, is 140 feet in height, and
+has an internal diameter of 81/2 feet from base to summit. The coal
+consumed for the nine generators varies between 860 and 1,200 pounds
+per hour and per 10 square feet of section.
+
+The ground that was to support this chimney consisted of very
+aquiferous, cracked beds of marl, disintegrated by infiltrations of
+water from the distillery, and alternating with strata of clay. It
+became necessary, therefore, to build as light a chimney as possible.
+The problem was solved as follows, by Mr. Guendt, who was then
+superintendent of the Rocourt establishment.
+
+Upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was built, in which were
+united the various smoke conduits, and upon this pedestal were erected
+four lattice girders, C, connected with each other by St. Andrew's
+crosses. The internal surface of these girders is vertical and the
+external is inclined. Within the framework there was built a five-inch
+thick masonry wall of bricks, made especially for the purpose. The
+masonry was then strengthened and its contact with the girders assured
+by numerous hoops, especially at the lower part; some of them
+internal, others external, to the surface of the girders, and others
+of angle irons, all in four parts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2--HORIZONTAL SECTION.]
+
+The anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate connected, through
+strong bolts embedded in the pedestal, with a second plate resting
+upon the concrete.
+
+As the metallic framework was calculated for resisting the wind, the
+brick lining does not rest against it permanently above. The weight of
+the chimney is 1,112,200 pounds, and the foundation is about 515
+square feet in area; and, consequently, the pressure upon the ground
+is about 900 pounds to the square inch. The cost was $3,840.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3--VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY.]
+
+The chimney was built six years ago, and has withstood the most
+violent hurricanes.
+
+The mounting of the iron framework was effected by means of a motor
+and two men, and took a month. The brick lining was built up in eight
+days by a mason and his assistant.
+
+A chimney of the same size, all of brick, erected on the same
+foundation, would have weighed 2,459,600 pounds (say a load of 3,070
+pounds to the square inch), and would have cost about $2,860.
+
+The chimney of the Rocourt distillery is, therefore, lighter by half,
+and cost about a third more, than one of brick; but, at the present
+price of metal, the difference would be slight.--_Annales
+Industrielles._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.
+
+
+Considerable interest has been aroused lately in scientific and
+industrial circles by a report that separation of the oxygen and
+nitrogen of the air was being effected on a large scale in London by a
+process which promises to render the gases available for general
+application in the arts. The cheap manufacture of the compounds of
+nitrogen from the gas itself is still a dream of chemical enthusiasts;
+and though the pure gas is now available, the methods of making its
+compounds have yet to be devised. But the industrial processes which
+already depend directly or indirectly on the chemical union of bodies
+with atmospheric oxygen are innumerable.
+
+In all these processes the action of the gas is impeded by the bulky
+presence of its fellow constituent of air, nitrogen. We may say, for
+instance, in homely phrase, that whenever a fire burns there are four
+volumes of nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of
+oxygen supporting its combustion, and to the same degree the nitrogen
+interferes with all other processes of atmospheric oxidation, of which
+most metallurgical operations may be given as instances. If, then, it
+has become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and cheaply in
+order to give the oxygen free play in its various applications, we are
+doubtless on the eve of a revolution among some of the most extensive
+and familiar of the world's industries.
+
+A series of chemical reactions has long been known by means of which
+oxygen could be separated out of air in the laboratory, and at various
+times processes based on these reactions have been patented for the
+production of oxygen on a large scale. Until recently, however, none
+of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory results. The simplest
+and perhaps the best of them was based on the fact first noticed by
+Boussingault, that when baryta (BaO) is heated to low redness in a
+current of air, it takes up oxygen and becomes barium dioxide
+(BaO_{2}), and that this dioxide at a higher temperature is
+reconverted into free oxygen and baryta, the latter being ready for
+use again. For many years it was assumed, however, by chemists that
+this ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial scale,
+owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb oxygen which was always
+found to take place in the baryta after a certain number of
+operations. About eight years ago Messrs. A. & L. Brin, who had
+studied chemistry under Boussingault, undertook experiments with the
+view of determining why the baryta lost its power of absorbing oxygen.
+
+They found that it was owing to molecular and physical changes caused
+in it by impurities in the air used and by the high temperature
+employed for decomposing the dioxide. They discovered that by heating
+the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature necessary to drive off
+its oxygen was much reduced. They also found that by supplying the air
+to the baryta under a moderate pressure, its absorption of oxygen was
+greatly assisted. Under these conditions, and by carefully purifying
+the air before use, they found that it became possible to use the
+baryta an indefinite number of times. Thus the process became
+practically, as it was theoretically, continuous.
+
+After securing patent protection for their process, Messrs. Brin
+erected a small producer in Paris, and successfully worked it for
+nearly three years without finding a renewal of the original charge of
+baryta once necessary. This producer was exhibited at the Inventions
+Exhibition in London, in 1885. Subsequently an English company was
+formed, and in the autumn of last year Brin's Oxygen Company began
+operations in Horseferry Road, Westminster, where a large and complete
+demonstration plant was erected, and the work commenced of developing
+the production and application of oxygen in the industrial world.
+
+[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MAKING OXYGEN.]
+
+We give herewith details of the plant now working at Westminster. It
+is exceedingly simple. On the left of the side elevation and plan are
+shown the retorts, on the right is an arrangement of pumps for
+alternately supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen
+from the retorts. As is shown in the plan, two sets of apparatus are
+worked side by side at Westminster, the seventy-two retorts shown in
+the drawings being divided into two systems of thirty-six. Each system
+is fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the boiler. Each
+set of retorts consists of six rows of six retorts each, one row above
+the other. They are heated by a small Wilson's producer, so that the
+attendant can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain complete
+control over the temperature of the retorts. The retorts, A, are made
+of wrought iron and are about 10 ft long and 8 in. diameter.
+Experience, however, goes to prove that there is a limit to the
+diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become less
+satisfactory. This limit is probably somewhat under 8 in. Each retort
+is closely packed with baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut. The
+baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared by carefully
+igniting the nitrate of barium; and of this each retort having the
+above dimensions holds about 125 lb. The retorts so charged are closed
+at each end by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight. From
+the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe, B, connects each retort
+with the next of its series, so that air introduced into the end
+retort of any row may pass through the whole series of six retorts.
+Suppose now that the operations are to commence.
+
+The retorts are first heated to a temperature of about 600 deg. C. or
+faint redness, then the air pumps, C C, are started. Air is drawn by
+them through the purifier, D, where it is freed from carbon dioxide
+and moisture by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which
+the purifier is charged. The air is then forced along the pipe, E,
+into the small air vessel, F, which acts as a sort of cushion to
+prevent the baryta in the retorts being disturbed by the pulsation of
+the pumps. From this vessel the air passes by the pipe, G, and is
+distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such a pressure
+that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed at the outlet registers
+about 15 lb. to the square inch. With the baryta so disposed in the
+retorts as to present as large a superficies as possible to the action
+of the air, it is found that in 11/2 to 2 hours--during which time about
+12,000 cub. ft of air have been passed through the retorts--the gas at
+the outlet fails to extinguish a glowing chip, indicating that oxygen
+is no longer being absorbed. The pumping now ceases, and the
+temperature of the retorts is raised to about 800 deg. C. The workman is
+able to judge the temperature with sufficient accuracy by means of the
+small inspection holes, H, fitted with panes of mica, through which
+the color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished. The pumps
+are now reversed and the process of exhaustion begins. At Westminster
+the pressure in the retorts is reduced to about 11/2 in. of mercury. In
+this partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly, and if forced by
+the pumps through another pipe and away into an ordinary gas holder,
+where it is stored for use. With powerful pumps such as are used in
+the plant under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in an
+hour, and from one charge a yield of about 2,000 cub. ft. is obtained.
+With a less perfect vacuum the time is longer--even as much as four
+hours. The whole operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can
+be completed in from three to four hours. As soon as the evolution of
+oxygen is finished, the doors, K, and ventilators, L, may be opened
+and the retorts cooled for recharging.
+
+The cost of producing oxygen at Westminster, under specially expensive
+conditions, is high--about 12s. per 1,000 cub. ft. When we consider,
+however, that the cost should only embrace attendance, fuel, wear and
+tear, and a little lime and soda for the purifiers, that the
+consumption of fuel is small, the wear and tear light, and that the
+raw material--air--is obtained for nothing, it ought to be possible to
+produce the gas for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our
+great manufacturing centers, where the price of fuel is but a third of
+that demanded in London, and where provision could be made for
+economizing the waste heat, which is entirely lost in the Westminster
+installation. Moreover, in estimating this cost all the charges are
+thrown on the oxygen; were there any means of utilizing the 4,000 cub.
+ft. of nitrogen at present blown away as waste for every thousand
+cubic feet of oxygen produced, the nitrogen would of course bear its
+share of the cost.
+
+The question of the application of the oxygen is one which must be
+determined in its manifold bearings mainly by the experiments of
+chemists and scientific men engaged in industrial work. Having
+ascertained the method by which and the limit of cost within which it
+is possible to use oxygen in their work, it can be seen whether by
+Brin's process the gas can be obtained within that limit.
+
+Mr. S.R. Ogden, the manager of the corporation gasworks at Blackburn,
+has already made interesting experiments on the application of oxygen
+in the manufacture of illuminating gas. In order to purify coal gas
+from compounds of sulphur, it is passed through purifiers charged with
+layers of oxide of iron. When the oxide of iron has absorbed as much
+sulphur as it can combine with, it is described as "foul." It is then
+discharged and spread out in the open air, when, under the influence
+of the atmospheric oxygen, it is rapidly decomposed, the sulphur is
+separated out in the free state, and oxide of iron is reformed ready
+for use again in the purifiers. This process is called revivification,
+and it is repeated until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is
+so great (45 to 55 per cent.) that it can be profitably sold to the
+vitriol maker. Hawkins discovered that by introducing about 3 per
+cent. of air into the gas before passing it through the purifiers, the
+oxygen of the air introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as
+fast as it was absorbed. Thus the process of revivification could be
+carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously with the
+absorption of the sulphur impurities in the gas.
+
+A great saving of labor was thus effected, and also an economy in the
+use of the iron oxide, which in this way could be left in the
+purifiers until charged with 75 per cent. of sulphur. Unfortunately it
+was found that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen
+meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen, which materially
+reduced the illuminating power of the gas. To restore this
+illuminating power the gas had to be recarbureted, and this again
+meant cost in labor and material. Now, Mr. Ogden has found by a series
+of conclusive experiments made during a period of seventy-eight days
+upon a quantity of about 4,000,000 cub. ft. of gas, that by
+introducing 1 per cent. of oxygen into the gas instead of 3 per cent.
+of air, not only is the revivification _in situ_ effected more
+satisfactorily than with air, but at the same time the illuminating
+power of the gas, so far from being decreased, is actually increased
+by one candle unit.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.]
+
+So satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended the
+corporation to erect a plant for the production of oxygen at the
+Blackburn gas works, by which he estimates that the saving to the town
+on the year's make of gas will be something like L2,500. The practical
+observations of Mr. Ogden are being followed up by a series of
+exhaustive experiments by Mr. Valon, A.M. Inst. C.E., also a gas
+engineer. The make of an entire works at Westgate is being treated by
+him with oxygen. Mr. Valon has not yet published his report, as the
+experiments are not quite complete; but we understand that his results
+are even more satisfactory than those obtained at Blackburn.
+
+In conclusion we may indicate a few other of the numerous possible
+applications of cheap oxygen which might be realized in the near
+future. The greatest illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is
+obtained by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen, and
+holding in the flame of the burning mixture a piece of some solid
+infusible and non-volatile substance, such as lime. This becomes
+heated to whiteness, and emits an intense light know as the Drummond
+light, used already for special purposes of illumination. By supplying
+oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary gas mains, it would
+be possible to fix small Drummond lights in place of the gas burners
+now used in houses; this would greatly reduce the consumption of gas
+and increase the light obtained, or even render possible the
+employment of cheap non-illuminating combustible gases other than coal
+gas for the purpose.
+
+Two obstacles at present lie in the way of this consummation--the cost
+of the oxygen and the want of a convenient and completely refractory
+material to take the place of the lime. Messrs. Brin believe they have
+overcome the first obstacle, and are addressing themselves, we
+believe, to the removal of the second. Again, the intense heat which
+the combustion of carbon in cheap oxygen will place at the disposal of
+the metallurgist cannot fail to play an important part in his
+operations. There are many processes, too, of metal refining which
+ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas. Then the production of
+pure metallic oxides for the manufacture of paints, the bleaching of
+oils and fats, the reduction of refractory ores of the precious metals
+on a large scale, the conversion of iron into steel, and numberless
+other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk is in the
+byways of applied chemistry, should all profit by the employment of
+this energetic agent. Doubtless, too, the investigation into methods
+of producing the compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant
+foods, and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of the
+mineral world, may be stimulated by the fact that there is available
+by Brin's process a cheap and inexhaustible supply of pure
+nitrogen.--_Industries._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FRENCH DISINFECTING APPARATUS.
+
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED DISINFECTING APPARATUS.]
+
+We represent herewith a sanitary train that was very successfully used
+during the prevalence of an epidemic of _sudor Anglicus_ in Poitou
+this year. It consisted of a movable stove and a boiler. In reality,
+to save time, such agricultural locomotives as could be found were
+utilized; but hereafter, apparatus like those shown in the engraving,
+and which are specially constructed to accompany the stoves, will be
+employed. We shall quote from a communication made by Prof. Brouardel
+to the Academy of Medicine on this subject, at its session of
+September 13:
+
+In the country we can never think of disinfecting houses with
+sulphurous acid, as the peasants often have but a single room, in
+which the beds of the entire family are congregated. Every one knows
+that the agglomerations that compose the same department are often
+distant from each other and the chief town by from two to three miles
+or more. This is usually the case in the departments of Vienne, Haute
+Vienne, Indre, etc. To find a disinfecting place in the chief town of
+the department is still difficult, and to find one in each of the
+hamlets is absolutely impossible. Families in which there are invalids
+are obliged to carry clothing and bedding to the chief town to be
+disinfected, and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four
+hours. This is not an easy thing to do.
+
+It is easy to understand what difficulties must be met with in many
+cases, and so one has to be content to prescribe merely washing, and
+bleaching with lime--something that is simple and everywhere accepted,
+but insufficient. So, then, disinfection with sulphurous acid, which
+is easy in large cities, as was taught by the cholera epidemics of
+last year, is often difficult in the country. The objection has always
+be made to it, too, that it is of doubtful efficacy. It is not for us
+to examine this question here, but there is no doubt that damp steam
+alone, under pressure, effects a perfect disinfection, and that if
+this mode of disinfection could be applied in the rural districts (as
+it can be easily done in cities), the public health would be better
+protected in case of an epidemic.
+
+In cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always be arranged;
+but in the country movable ones are necessary. From instructions given
+by Prof. Brouardel, Messrs. Geneste & Herscher have solved the problem
+of constructing such stoves in a few days, and four have been put at
+the disposal of the mission.
+
+Dr. Thoinot, who directed this mission, in order to make an experiment
+with these apparatus, selected two points in which cases of _sudor_
+were still numerous, and in which the conditions were entirely
+different, and permitted of studying the working of the service and
+apparatus under various phases. One of these points was Dorat, chief
+town of Haute Vienne, a locality with a crowded population and
+presenting every desirable resource; and the other was the commune of
+Mauvieres, in Indre, where the population was scattered through
+several hamlets.
+
+The first stove was operated at Dorat, on the 29th of June, and the
+second at Mauvieres, on the 1st of July. A gendarme accompanied the
+stove in all its movements and remained with it during the
+disinfecting experiments. The Dorat stove was operated on the 29th of
+June and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July. On the 30th of June it proceeded
+to disinfect the commune of Darnac. The Mauvieres stove, in the first
+place, disinfected the chief town of this commune on the 1st of July,
+and on the next day it was taken to Poulets, a small hamlet, and a
+dependent of the commune of Mauvieres. All the linen and all the
+clothing of the sick of this locality, which had been the seat of
+_sudor_, especially infantile, was disinfected. On the 4th of July,
+the stove went to Concremiers, a commune about three miles distant,
+and there finished up the disinfection that until then had been
+performed in the ordinary way.
+
+The epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at this epoch; but we
+judge that the test of the stoves was sufficient.
+
+We are able to advance the following statement boldly: For the
+application of disinfection in the rural districts, the movable stove
+is the most practical thing that we know of. It is easily used, can be
+taken to the smallest hamlets, and can be transported over the
+roughest roads. It inspires peasants with no distrust. The first
+repugnance is easily overcome, and every one, upon seeing that objects
+come from the stove unharmed, soon hastens to bring to it all the
+contaminated linen, etc., that he has in the house.
+
+Further, we may add that the disinfection is accomplished in a quarter
+of an hour, and that it therefore keeps the peasant but a very short
+time from his work--an advantage that is greatly appreciated. Finally,
+a day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement
+completely. Upon the whole, disinfection by the stove under
+consideration is the only method that can always and everywhere be
+carried out.
+
+We believe that it is called upon to render the greatest services in
+the future.
+
+The movable stove, regarding which Prof. Brouardel expresses himself
+in the above terms, consists of a cylindrical chamber, 31/2 feet in
+internal diameter and 5 feet in length, closed in front by a
+hermetically jointed door. This cylinder, which constitutes the
+disinfection chamber, is mounted upon wheels and is provided with
+shafts, so that it can easily be hauled by a horse or mule. The
+cylinder is of riveted iron plate, and is covered with a wooden
+jacket. The door is provided with a flange that enters a rubber lined
+groove in the cylinder, and to it are riveted wrought iron forks that
+receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the cylinder. The nuts are
+screwed up tight, and the flange of the door, compressing the rubber
+lining, renders the joint hermetical. The door, which is hinged, is
+provided with a handle, which, when the stove is closed, slides over
+an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder.
+
+The steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through a rubber tube
+provided with a threaded coupling. The entrance of the steam is
+regulated by a cock. The box is provided with a safety and pressure
+gauge and a small pinge cock. In the interior of the stove the
+entrance of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper screen, which
+is situated at the upper part and preserves the objects under
+treatment from drops of water of condensation. These latter fall here
+and there from the screen, follow the sides of the cylinder, and
+collect at the bottom, from whence they are drawn off through a cock
+placed in the rear.
+
+The sides are lined internally with wood, which prevents the objects
+to be infected from coming into contact with the metal. The objects to
+be treated are placed upon wire cloth shelves. The pinge cock likewise
+serves for drawing off the air or steam contained in the apparatus.
+
+The stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium of two
+angle irons riveted longitudinally upon the cylinder. The axle is
+cranked, and its wheels, which are of wood, are 41/2 feet in diameter.
+The shafts are fixed to the angle irons. The apparatus is, in
+addition, provided with a seat, a brake, and prop rods before and
+behind to keep it horizontal when in operation.
+
+The boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is mounted upon
+four wheels. It is jacketed with wood, and is provided with a water
+level, two gauge cocks, a pressure gauge, two spring safety valves, a
+steam cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with that of the
+stove, an ash pan, and a smoke stack. In the rear there are two
+cylindrical water reservoirs that communicate with each other, and are
+designed to feed the boiler through an injector. Beneath these
+reservoirs there is a fuel box. In front there is a seat whose box
+serves to hold tools and various other objects.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+AN ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.
+
+
+We abstract the following from a paper on electric lighting by Prof.
+J.A. Fleeming, read before the Iron and Steel Institute, Manchester.
+The illustration is from _Engineering_.
+
+[Illustration: ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.]
+
+One of the questions which most frequently occurs in reference to mill
+and factory lighting is whether the factory engines can be used to run
+the dynamo. As a broad, general rule, there can be no question that
+the best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo engine,
+controlled by a good governor, set apart for that purpose. With an
+ordinary shunt dynamo, the speed ought not to vary more than 2 or 3
+per cent. of its normal value on either side of that value. Hence, if
+a dynamo has a normal speed of 1,000, it should certainly not vary
+over a greater range than from 970 to 980 to 1,020 to 1,030. In many
+cases there may be shafting from which the necessary power can be
+taken, and of which the speed is variable only within these limits.
+There are several devices by which it has been found possible to
+enable a dynamo to maintain a constant electromotive force, even if
+the speed of rotation varies over considerable limits. One of these is
+that (see illustration) due to Messrs. Trotter & Ravenshaw, and
+applicable to shunt or series machines.
+
+In the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable resistance.
+This resistance is thrown in or out by means of a motor device
+actuated by an electromotive force indicator. A plunger of soft iron
+is suspended from a spring, and hangs within a solenoid of wire, which
+solenoid is in connection with the terminals of the dynamo. Any
+increase or diminution of the electromotive force causes this iron to
+move in or out of the core, and its movement is made to connect or
+disconnect the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance
+with a shaft driven by the engine itself. The principle of the
+apparatus is therefore that small variations of electromotive force
+are made to vary inversely the strength of the magnetic field through
+the intervention of a relay mechanism in which the power required to
+effect the movement is tapped from the engine.
+
+With the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive a dynamo from
+a mill shaft providing the requisite power, but of which the speed of
+rotation is not sufficiently uniform to secure alone efficient
+regulation of electromotive force. Another device, patented by Mr.
+Crompton, is a modification of that method of field magnet winding
+commonly known as compound winding. The field magnets are wound over
+with two wires, one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as
+a shunt, and the other of which has a low resistance and is arranged
+in series. Instead, however, of the magnetizing powers of these coils
+being united in the same direction as an ordinary compound winding,
+they are opposed to one another. That is to say, the current in the
+shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field magnets in an
+opposite direction to that of the series wire. It results from this
+that any slight increase of speed diminishes the strength of the
+magnetic field, and _vice versa_. Accordingly, within certain limits,
+the electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of the speed of
+rotation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE TRACTIVE ADHESION OF
+RAILWAY MOTORS AND OTHER ROLLING CONTACTS.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: Read before the American Association for the
+  Advancement of Science. New York meeting, 1887.]
+
+By ELIAS E. RIES.
+
+
+The object of this paper is to lay before you the results of some
+recent experiments in a comparatively new field of operation, but one
+that, judging from the results already attained, is destined to become
+of great importance and value in its practical application to various
+branches of industry.
+
+I say "comparatively new" because the underlying principles involved
+in the experiments referred to have, to a certain extent, been
+employed (in, however, a somewhat restricted sense) for purposes
+analogous to those that form the basis of this communication.
+
+As indicated by the title, the subject that will now occupy our
+attention is the use of the electric current as a means of increasing
+and varying the frictional adhesion of rolling contacts and other
+rubbing surfaces, and it is proposed to show how this effect may be
+produced, both by means of the direct action of the current itself and
+by its indirect action through the agency of electro-magnetism.
+
+Probably the first instance in which the electric current was directly
+employed to vary the amount of friction between two rubbing surfaces
+was exemplified in Edison's electro-motograph, in which the variations
+in the strength of a telephonic current caused corresponding
+variations in friction between a revolving cylinder of moistened chalk
+and the free end of an adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity
+was attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone. This device
+was extremely sensitive to the least changes in current strength, and
+if it were not for the complication introduced by the revolving
+cylinder, it is very likely that it would to-day be more generally
+used.
+
+It has also been discovered more recently that in the operation of
+electric railways in which the track rails form part of the circuit, a
+considerable increase in the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels
+is manifested, due to the passage of the return current from the
+wheels into the track. In the Baltimore and Hampden electric railway,
+using the Daft "third rail" system, this increased tractive adhesion
+enables the motors to ascend without slipping a long grade of 350 feet
+to the mile, drawing two heavily loaded cars, which result, it is
+claimed, is not attainable by steam or other self-propelling motors of
+similar weight. In the two instances just cited the conditions are
+widely different, as regards the nature of the current employed, the
+mechanical properties of the surfaces in contact, and the electrical
+resistance and the working conditions of the respective circuits. In
+both, however, as clearly demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter
+referred to, the cause of the increased friction is substantially the
+same.
+
+In order to ascertain the practical value of the electric current as a
+means of increasing mechanical friction, and, if possible, render it
+commercially and practically useful wherever such additional friction
+might be desirable, as for example in the transmission of power, etc.,
+a series of experiments were entered into by the author, which, though
+not yet fully completed, are sufficiently advanced to show that an
+electric current, when properly applied, is capable of very materially
+increasing the mechanical friction of rotating bodies, in some cases
+as much as from 50 to 100 per cent., with a very economical
+expenditure of current; this increase depending upon the nature of the
+substances in contact and being capable of being raised by an
+increased flow of current.
+
+Before entering into a description of the means by which this result
+is produced, and how it is proposed to apply this method practically
+to railway and other purposes, it may be well to give a general
+outline of what has so far been determined. These experiments have
+shown that the coefficient of friction between two conducting surfaces
+is very much increased by the passage therethrough of an electric
+current of _low electromotive force and large volume_, and this is
+especially noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral
+contact with each other, or between a rolling and a stationary
+surface, as in the case of a driving wheel running upon a railway
+rail. This effect increases with the number of amperes of current
+flowing through the circuit, of which the two surfaces form part, and
+is not materially affected by the electromotive force, so long as the
+latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical resistance of the
+circuit. This increase in frictional adhesion is principally
+noticeable in iron, steel, and other metallic bodies, and is due to a
+molecular change in the conducting substances at their point of
+contact (which is also the point of greatest resistance in the
+circuit), caused by the heat developed at that point. This heat is
+ordinarily imperceptible, and becomes apparent only when the current
+strength is largely augmented. It is therefore probable that a portion
+of this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the current
+itself aside from its heating effect, although I have not as yet been
+able to ascertain this definitely. The most economical and efficient
+results have been obtained by the employment of a transformed current
+of extremely low electromotive force (between 1/2 and 1 volt), but of
+very large volume or quantity, this latter being variable at will, so
+as to obtain different degrees of frictional resistance in the
+substances under observation.
+
+These experiments were originally directed mainly toward an endeavor
+to increase the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels of locomotives
+and other vehicles, and to utilize the electric current for this
+purpose in such a manner as to render it entirely safe, practical, and
+economical. It will be apparent at once that a method of increasing
+the tractive power of the present steam locomotives by more than 50
+per cent. without adding to their weight and without injury to the
+roadbed and wheel tires, such as is caused by the sand now commonly
+used, would prove of considerable value, and the same holds true with
+respect to electrically propelled street cars, especially as it has
+been found exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive
+adhesion on street railways during the winter season, as well as at
+other times, on roads having grades of more than ordinary steepness.
+As this, therefore, is probably the most important use for this
+application of the electric current, it has been selected for
+illustrating this paper.
+
+I have here a model car and track arranged to show the equipment and
+operation of the system as applied to railway motors. The current in
+the present instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted
+by this transformer into one having the required volume. The
+electromotive force of this secondary current is somewhat higher than
+is necessary. In practice it would be about half a volt. You will
+notice upon a closer inspection that one of the forward driving wheels
+is insulated from its axle, and the transformed current, after passing
+to a regulating switch under the control of the engineer or driver,
+goes to this insulated wheel, from which it enters the track rail,
+then through the rear pair of driving wheels and axles to the opposite
+rail, and then flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel, from
+the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush to the opposite
+terminal of the secondary coil of the transformer. Thus the current is
+made to flow _seriatim_ through all four of the driving wheels,
+completing its circuit through that portion of the rails lying between
+the two axles, and generating a sufficient amount of heat at each
+point of contact to produce the molecular change before referred to.
+By means of the regulating switch the engineer can control the amount
+of current flowing at any time, and can even increase its strength to
+such an extent, in wet or slippery weather, as to _evaporate any
+moisture_ that may adhere to the surface of the rails at the point of
+contact with the wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under
+full speed.
+
+It will be apparent that inasmuch as the "traction circuit" moves
+along with the locomotive, and is complete through its driving wheel
+base, the track rails in front and rear of the same are at all times
+entirely free from current, _and no danger whatever can occur by
+coming in contact with the rails between successive motors_. Moreover,
+the potential used in the present arrangement, while sufficient to
+overcome the extremely low resistance of the moving circuit, is too
+small to cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion of the
+rails in circuit, even under the most unfavorable conditions of the
+weather. In practice the primary current necessary is preferably
+generated by a small high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive,
+the current being converted by means of an inductional transformer. To
+avoid the necessity for electrically bridging the rail joints, a
+modified arrangement may be employed, in which the electrical
+connection is made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and
+rear driving axles, the current dividing itself in parallel between
+the two rails in such a manner that, if a defective joint exists in
+the rail at one side, the circuit is still complete through the rail
+on the other; and as the rails usually break joints on opposite sides,
+this arrangement is found very effective. The insulation of the
+driving wheels is very easily effected in either case.
+
+As the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced depends upon
+the _quantity_ of current flowing rather than upon its pressure, the
+reason for transforming the current as described will be apparent, and
+its advantages over a direct current of higher tension and less
+quantity, both from an economical and practical standpoint, will for
+this reason be clear. The amount of heat produced at the point of
+contact between the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure
+or otherwise affect them, although it may be quite possible to
+increase the current sufficiently to produce a very considerable
+heating effect. The amount of current sent through the traction
+circuit will of course vary with the requirements, and as the extent
+to which the resistance to slipping may be increased is very great,
+this method is likely to prove of considerable value. While in some
+cases the use of such a method of increasing the tractive power of
+locomotives would be confined to ascending gradients and the movement
+of exceptionally heavy loads, in others it would prove useful as a
+_constant_ factor in the work of transportation. In cases like that of
+the New York elevated railway system, where the traffic during certain
+hours is much beyond the capacity of the trains, and the structure
+unable to support the weight of heavier engines, a system like that
+just described would prove of very great benefit, as it would easily
+enable the present engines to draw two or three additional cars with
+far less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical
+friction alone, at a cost for tractive current that is insignificant
+compared to the advantages gained. Other cases may be cited in which
+this method of increasing friction will probably be found useful,
+aside from its application to railway purposes, but these will
+naturally suggest themselves and need not be further dwelt upon.
+
+In the course of the experiments above described, another and somewhat
+different method of increasing the traction of railway motors has been
+devised, which is more particularly adapted to electric motors for
+street railways, and is intended to be used in connection with a
+system of electric street railways now being developed by the author.
+In this system _electro-magnetism_ provides the means whereby the
+increase in tractive adhesion is produced, and this result is attained
+in an entirely novel manner. Several attempts have heretofore been
+made to utilize magnetism for this purpose, but apparently without
+success, chiefly because of the crude and imperfect manner in which
+most of these attempts have been carried out.
+
+The present system owes its efficiency to the formation of _a complete
+and constantly closed magnetic circuit_, moving with the vehicle and
+completed through the two driving axles, wheels, and that portion of
+the track rails lying between the two pairs of wheels, in a manner
+similar to that employed in the electrical method before shown. We
+have here a model of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus,
+mounted on a section of track and provided with means for measuring
+the amount of tractive force exerted both with and without the passage
+of the current.
+
+You will notice that each axle of the motor car is wound with a helix
+of insulated wire, the helices in the present instance being divided
+to permit the attachment to the axles of the motor connections. The
+helices on both axles are so connected that, when energized, they
+induce magnetic lines of force that flow in the same direction through
+the magnetic circuit. There are, therefore, four points at which the
+circuit is maintained closed by the rolling wheels, and as the
+resistance to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these
+points, the magnetic saturation there is more intense, and produces
+the most effective result just where it is most required. Now, when
+the battery circuit is closed through the helices, it will be observed
+that the torque, or pull, exerted by the motor car is fully twice that
+exerted by the motor with the traction circuit open, and, by
+increasing the battery current until the saturation point of the iron
+is reached, the tractive force is _increased nearly 200 per cent._, as
+shown by the dynamometer. A large portion of this resistance to the
+slipping or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to
+direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and track, this
+attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic saturation and the
+relative mass of metal involved.
+
+But by far the greatest proportion of the increased friction is purely
+the result of the change in position of the iron molecules due to the
+well known action of magnetism, which causes a direct and close
+_interlocking action_, so to speak, between the molecules of the two
+surfaces in contact. This may be illustrated by drawing a very thin
+knife blade over the poles of an ordinary electro-magnet, first with
+the current on and then off.
+
+In the model before you, the helices are fixed firmly to, and revolve
+with, the axles, the connections being maintained by brushes bearing
+upon contact rings at each end of the helices. If desired, however,
+the axles may revolve loosely within the helices, and instead of the
+latter being connected for cumulative effects, they may be arranged in
+other ways so as to produce either subsequent or opposing magnetic
+forces, leaving certain portions of the circuit neutral and
+concentrating the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable.
+Such a disposition will prove of advantage in some cases.
+
+The amount of current required to obtain this increased adhesion in
+practice is extremely small, and may be entirely neglected when
+compared to the great benefits derived. The system is very simple and
+inexpensive, and the amount of traction secured is entirely within the
+control of the motor man, as in the electric system. It will be seen
+that the car here will not, with the traction circuit open, propel
+itself up hill when one end of the track is raised more than 5 inches
+above the table; but with the circuit energized it will readily ascend
+the track as you now see it, with one end about 131/2, inches above the
+other in a length of three feet, _or the equivalent of a 40 per cent.
+grade_; and this could be increased still further if the motor had
+power enough to propel itself against the force of gravity on a
+steeper incline. As you will notice, the motor adheres very firmly to
+the track and requires a considerable push to force it down this 40
+per cent. grade, whereas with the traction circuit open it slips down
+in very short order, notwithstanding the efforts of the driving
+mechanism to propel it up.
+
+The resistance of the helices on this model is less than two ohms, and
+this will scarcely be exceeded when applied to a full sized car, the
+current from two or three cells of secondary batteries being probably
+sufficient to energize them.
+
+The revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not interfered with
+in the slightest, because in the former the axle boxes are outside the
+path of the lines of force, and in the case of the latter because each
+wheel practically forms a single pole piece, and in revolving presents
+continuously a new point of contact, of the same polarity, to the
+rail; the flow of the lines of force being most intense through the
+lower half of the wheels, and on a perpendicular line connecting the
+center of the axle with the rail. In winter all that is necessary is
+to provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning the track
+rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to make good contact
+therewith, and any tendency to slipping or skidding may be effectually
+checked. By this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive
+adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from 50 to 100 per cent.,
+without any increase in the load or weight upon the track; for it must
+be remembered that even that portion of the increased friction due to
+direct attraction does not increase the weight upon the roadbed, as
+this attraction is mutual between the wheels and track rails; and if
+this car and track were placed upon a scale and the circuit closed, it
+would not weigh a single ounce more than with the circuit open.
+
+It is obvious that this increase in friction between two moving
+surfaces can also be applied to _check_, as well as augment, the
+tractive power of a car or train of cars, and I have shown in
+connection with this model a system of braking that is intended to be
+used in conjunction with the electro-magnetic traction system just
+described. You will have noticed that in the experiments with the
+traction circuit the brake shoes here have remained idle; that is to
+say, they have not been attracted to the magnetized wheels. This is
+because a portion of the traction current has been circulating around
+this coil on the iron brake beam, inducing in the brake shoes
+magnetism of like polarity to that in the wheels to which they apply.
+They have therefore been _repelled_ from the wheel tires instead of
+being attracted to them. Suppose now that it is desired to stop the
+motor car; instead of opening the traction circuit, the current
+flowing through the helices is simply reversed by means of this pole
+changing switch, whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite
+direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to the wheels with a
+very great pressure, as the current in the helices and brake coil now
+assist each other in setting up a very strong magnetic flow,
+sufficient to bring the motor car almost to an instant stop, if
+desired.
+
+The same tractive force that has previously been applied to increase
+the tractive adhesion now exercises its influence upon the brake shoes
+and wheels, with the result of not only causing a very powerful
+pressure between the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction, but
+offering an extremely large frictional resistance in virtue of the
+molecular interlocking action before referred to. As shown in the
+present instance, a portion of the current still flows through the
+traction circuit and prevents the skidding of the wheels.
+
+The method thus described is equally applicable to increase the
+coefficient of friction in apparatus for the transmission of power,
+its chief advantage for this purpose being the ease and facility with
+which the amount of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit
+different requirements, or increased and diminished (either
+automatically or manually) according to the nature of the work being
+done. With soft iron contact surfaces the variation in friction is
+very rapid and sensitive to slight changes in current strength, and
+this fact may prove of value in connection with its application to
+regulating and measuring apparatus. In all cases the point to be
+observed is to maintain a closed magnetic circuit of low resistance
+through the two or more surfaces the friction of which it is desired
+to increase, and the same rule holds good with respect to the electric
+system, except that in the latter case the best effects are obtained
+when the area of surface in contact is smallest.
+
+For large contact areas the magnetic system is found to be most
+economical, and this system might possibly be used to advantage to
+prevent slipping of short wire ropes and belts upon their driving
+pulleys, in cases where longer belts are inapplicable as in the
+driving of dynamos and other machinery. Experiments have also been,
+and are still being, made with the object of increasing friction by
+means of permanent magnetism, and also with a view to _diminishing_
+the friction of revolving and other moving surfaces, the results of
+which will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent paper.
+
+Enough has been said to indicate that the development of these two
+methods of increasing mechanical friction opens up a new and extensive
+field of operation, and enables electricity to score another important
+point in the present age of progress. The great range and flexibility
+of this method peculiarly adapt it to the purposes we have considered
+and to numerous others that will doubtless suggest themselves to you.
+Its application to the increase of the tractive adhesion of railway
+motors is probably its most prominent and valuable feature at present,
+and is calculated to act as an important stimulus to the practical
+introduction of electric railways on our city streets, inasmuch as the
+claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect are now no
+longer exclusively its own. On trunk line railways the use of sand and
+other objectionable traction-increasing appliances will be entirely
+dispensed with, and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater
+speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger of derailment.
+Their tractive power can be nearly doubled without any increase in
+weight, enabling them to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper
+grades without imposing additional weight or strain upon bridges and
+other parts of the roadbed. Inertia of heavy trains can be more
+readily overcome, loss of time due to slippery tracks obviated, and
+the momentum of the train at full speed almost instantly checked by
+_one and the same means_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRIC LAUNCH.
+
+
+Trials have been made at Havre with an electric launch built to the
+order of the French government by the Forges et Chantiers de la
+Mediterranee. The vessel, which has rather full lines, measures 28 ft.
+between perpendiculars and 9 ft. beam, and is 5 tons register.
+
+The electromotor is the invention of Captain Krebs, who is already
+well known on account of his experiments in connection with navigable
+balloons, and of M. De Zede, naval architect. The propeller shaft is
+not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor, but is geared to
+it by spur wheels in the ratio of 1 to 3, in order to allow of the
+employment of a light high-speed motor. The latter makes 850
+revolutions per minute, and develops 12 horse power when driving the
+screw at 280 revolutions. Current is supplied by a new type of
+accumulators made by Messrs. Commelin & Desmazures. One hundred and
+thirty two of these accumulators are fitted in the bottom of the boat,
+the total weight being about 2 tons.
+
+In ordering this boat the French government stipulated a speed of 6
+knots to be maintained during three hours with an expenditure of 10
+horse power. The result of the trials gave a speed of 61/2 knots during
+five hours with 12 horse power, and sufficient charge was left in the
+accumulators to allow the boat to travel on the following day for four
+hours. This performance is exceedingly good, since it shows that one
+horse power hour has been obtained with less than 60 lb. of total
+weight of battery.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.
+
+
+Leveling the ground, pulling down old buildings, and distributing
+light and air through her wide streets, Paris is slowly and
+continuously pursuing her transformation. At this moment it is an
+entire district, and not one of the least curious ones, that is
+disappearing, leaving no other trace of its existence than the
+circular walls that once inclosed the wheat market.
+
+It is this building that, metamorphosed, is to become the Commercial
+Exchange that has been so earnestly demanded since 1880 by the
+commerce of Paris. The question, which was simple in the first place,
+and consisted in the conversion of the wheat market into a commercial
+exchange, became complicated by a project of enlarging the markets. It
+therefore became necessary to take possession, on the one hand, of
+sixty seven estates, of a total area of 116,715 square feet, to clear
+the exchange, and, on the other, of 49,965 square feet to clear the
+central markets. In other words, out of $5,000,000 voted by the common
+council for this work, $2,800,000 are devoted to the dispossessions
+necessitated by the new exchange, $1,800,000 to those necessitated by
+the markets, and $400,000 are appropriated to the wheat market.
+
+The work of demolition began last spring, and the odd number side of
+Orleans street, Deux-Ecus street, from this latter to J.J. Rousseau
+street, Babille street, Mercier street, and Sortine street, now no
+longer exist. All this part is to-day but a desert, in whose center
+stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola. It is on these
+grounds that will be laid out the prolongation of Louvre street in a
+straight line to Coquilliere street.
+
+Our engraving shows the present state of the work. What is seen of the
+wheat market will be preserved and utilized by Mr. Blondeau, the
+architect, who has obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to
+construct two edifices on two plots of an area of 32,220 square feet,
+fronting on Louvre street, and which will bring the city an annual
+rent of $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: THE NEW COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.]
+
+Around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular wall 61/2 feet
+in thickness. Mr. Blondeau has torn this down, and is now building
+another one appropriate to the new destination of the acquired
+estates. As for the trussing of the cupola, that is considered as a
+work of art, and care has been taken not to touch it. It was
+constructed at the beginning of this century, at an epoch when nothing
+but rudimentary tools were to be had for working iron, and it was, so
+to speak, forged. All the pieces were made with the hammer and were
+added one to the other in succession. This cupola will be glazed at
+the upper part, while the lower part will be covered with zinc. In the
+interior this part will be decorated with allegorical paintings
+representing the five divisions of the globe, with their commercial
+and industrial attributes. It was feared at one time that the hall, to
+which admission will be free, would not afford sufficient space, and
+the halls of the Bordeaux and Havre exchanges were cited. It is true
+that the hall of the wheat market has an area of but 11,825 square
+feet, but on utilizing the 5,000 feet of the circular gallery, which
+will not be occupied, it will reach 16,825 feet.
+
+As for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice, that was
+built by Marie de Medici for the astrologer whom she brought with her
+to Paris from Florence. On account of its historic interest, this
+structure will be preserved. On either side of this tower, overlooking
+the roofs of the neighboring dwellings, are perceived the summit of a
+tower of St. Eustache church and a campanile of a pavilion of the
+markets.--_L'Illustration._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE.
+
+
+Cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the _Erythroxylon
+coca_, which grows in the valleys of the East Cordilleras of South
+America--i.e., in the interior of Peru and Bolivia. The fresh leaves
+contain 0.003 to 0.006 per cent of cocaine, which percentage decreases
+considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time before being
+worked up. On the other hand, the alkaloid can be transported and kept
+without decomposition. This circumstance caused the author to devise a
+simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on the spot,
+neither Peru nor Bolivia being suitable countries for complicated
+chemical operations. After many experiments, he hit upon the following
+plan: The disintegrated coca leaves are digested at 70 deg. C. in closed
+vessels for two hours, with a very weak solution of sodium hydrate and
+petroleum (boiling between 200 deg. and 250 deg. C). The mass is filtered,
+pressed while still tepid, and the filtrate allowed to stand until the
+oil has completely separated from the aqueous solution. The oil is
+drawn off and carefully neutralized with very weak hydrochloric acid.
+A white bulky precipitate of cocaine hydrochloride is obtained,
+together with an aqueous solution of the same compound, while the
+petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for the extraction
+of a fresh batch of leaves. The precipitate is dried, and by
+concentrating the aqueous solution a further quantity of the
+hydrochloride is obtained. Both can be shipped without risk of
+decomposition. The product is not quite pure, but contains some
+hygrine, traces of gum and other matters. Its percentage of alkaloid
+is 75 per cent., while chemically pure cocaine hydrochloride
+(C_{17}H_{21}NO_{4}.2HCl) contains 80.6 per cent. of the alkaloid. The
+sodium hydrate solution cannot be replaced by milk of lime, nor can
+any other acid be used for neutralization. Alcohol or ether are not
+suitable for extraction. A repetition of the process with
+once-extracted coca leaves gave no further quantity of cocaine,
+proving that all the cocaine goes into solution by one treatment. The
+same process serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca
+leaves. 100 grms. of coca leaves are digested in a flask with 400 c.c.
+of water, 50 c.c. of 1/10 NaOH (10 grms. of NaOH in 100 c.c.) and 250
+c.c. of petroleum. The flask is loosely covered and warmed on the
+water bath for two hours, shaking it from to time. The mass is then
+filtered, the residue pressed, and the filtrate allowed to separate in
+two layers. The oil layer is run into a bottle and titrated back with
+1/100 HCl (1 grm. of HCl in 100 c.c.) until exactly neutral. The
+number of c.c. of hydrochloric acid required for titrating back
+multiplied by 0.42 gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample. The
+following are some of the results with different samples of coca
+leaves of various age:
+
+                                            Contained per cent.
+                                                 of Cocaine.
+  Coca leaves from Mapiri, 1 month old             0.5% \
+  "       "    "   Yungas    "     "               0.5%  |
+  "       "    "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |
+                          6 months old             0.4%  |    Of the
+  "       "    "   Cuzco (Peru)                          |_ weight of
+                          6 months old             0.3%  |   the dry
+  "       "    "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |   leaves.
+                          1 year old               0.3%  |
+  "      "     "   Cuzco  " "    "                 0.2%  |
+  "      "     "   Mapiri and Yungas                     |
+                          2 years old              0.15%/
+
+Coca leaves from Yungas and Cuzco, three years old, contained no trace
+of the alkaloid, whereas fresh green leaves from Yungas contained 0.7
+per cent. of the weight of the dry leaves. The same process is also
+applicable for the manufacture of quinine from poor quinine bark, with
+the single alteration that weak sulphuric acid must be used for the
+neutralization of the alkaline petroleum extract.--_H.T. Pfeiffer,
+Chem. Zeit. 11._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9941.]
+
+
+
+
+THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT FORMS.[1]
+
+By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT.
+
+
+The succession of plants from the lower to the higher forms will be
+reviewed superficially, and chemical compounds noted where they
+appear.
+
+When the germinating spores of the fungi, _myxomycetes_, rupture their
+walls and become masses of naked protoplasm, they are known as
+plasmodia. The plasmodium _AEthalium septicum_ occurs in moist places,
+on heaps of tan or decaying barks. It is a soft, gelatinous mass of
+yellowish color, sometimes measuring several inches in length.
+
+The plasmodium[2] has been chemically analyzed, though not in a state
+of absolute purity. The table of Reinke and Rodewold gives an idea of
+its proximate constitution.
+
+Many of the constituents given are always present in the living cells
+of higher plants. It cannot be too emphatically stated that where
+"biotic" force is manifested, these colloidal or albuminous compounds
+are found.
+
+The simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated individual, all
+of its functions being performed indifferently by all parts of its
+protoplasm.
+
+The chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely composed of
+complex albuminous substances, and correlated with this structureless
+body are other compounds derived from them. Aside from the chemical
+substances which are always present in living matter, and are
+essential properties of protoplasm, we find no other compounds. In the
+higher organisms, where these functions are not performed
+indifferently, specialization of tissues is accompanied by many other
+kinds of bodies.
+
+The algae are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale than the
+undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium. The simple _Alga
+protococcus_[3] may be regarded as a simple cell. All higher plants
+are masses of cells, varying in form, function, and chemical
+composition.
+
+A typical living cell may be described as composed of a cell wall and
+contents. The cell wall is a firm, elastic membrane closed on all
+sides, and consists mainly of cellulose, water, and inorganic
+constituents. The contents consist of a semi-fluid colloidal
+substance, lying in contact with the inner surface of the membrane,
+and, like it, closed on all sides. This always is composed of
+albuminous substances. In the higher plants, at least, a nucleus
+occurs embedded in it; a watery liquid holding salts and saccharine
+substances in solution fills the space called the vacuole, inclosed by
+the protoplasm.
+
+These simple plants may be seen as actively moving cells or as
+non-motile cells. The former consist of a minute mass of protoplasm,
+granular and mostly colored green, but clear and colorless at the more
+pointed end, and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments
+called cilia. After moving actively for a time they come to rest,
+acquire a spherical form, and invest themselves with a firm membrane
+of cellulose. This firm, outer membrane of the _Protococcus_
+accompanies a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of
+function than is found in the plasmodium.
+
+_Haeatococcus_ and plasmodium come under the classes algae and fungi of
+the Thallothyta group. The division[4] of this group into two classes
+is based upon the presence of chlorophyl in algae and its absence in
+fungi. Gelatinous starch is found in the algae; the fungi contain a
+starchy substance called glycogen, which also occurs in the liver and
+muscles of animals. Structureless bodies, as _aethalium_, contain no
+true sugar. Stratified starch[5] first appears in the phanerogams.
+Alkaloids have been found in fungi, and owe their presence doubtless
+to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies.
+
+In addition to the green coloring matter in algae are found other
+coloring matters.[6] The nature[7] of these coloring matters is
+usually the same through whole families, which also resemble each
+other in their modes of reproduction.
+
+In form, the algae differ greatly from filaments or masses of cells;
+they live in the water and cover damp surfaces of rocks and wood. In
+these they are remarkable for their ramifications and colors and grow
+to a gigantic size.
+
+The physiological functions of algae and fungi depend upon their
+chemical differences.
+
+These facts have been offered, simple as they are, as striking
+examples of chemical and structural opposition.
+
+The fungi include very simple organisms, as well as others of
+tolerably high development, of most varied form, from the simple
+bacillus and yeast to the truffle, lichens, and mushrooms.
+
+The cell membrane of this class contains no pure cellulose, but a
+modification called fungus cellulose. The membrane also contains an
+amyloid substance, amylomycin.[8] Many of the chemical constituents
+found in the entire class are given in _Die Pflanzenstoffe_.[9]
+
+Under the _Schizomycetes_ to which the _Micrococcus_ and
+_Bacterium_[10] belong are found minute organisms differing much in
+form and in the coloring[11] matters they produce, as that causing the
+red color of mouldy bread.
+
+The class of lichens[12] contains a number of different coloring
+substances, whose chemical composition has been examined. These
+substances are found separately in individuals differing in form. In
+the _Polyporus_[13] an acid has been found peculiar to it, as in many
+plants special compounds are found. In the agariceae the different
+kinds of vellum distinguish between species, and the color of the
+conidia is also of differential importance. In all cases of distinct
+characteristic habits of reproduction and form, one or more different
+chemical compounds is found.
+
+In the next group of the musiceae, or mosses, is an absence of some
+chemical compounds that were characteristic of the classes just
+described. Many of the albuminous substances are present. Starch[14]
+is found often in large quantities, and also oily fats, which are
+contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts; wax,[15] organic acids,
+including aconitic acid, and tannin, which is found for the first time
+at this evolutionary stage of the plant kingdom.
+
+The vascular cryptogams are especially characterized by their mineral
+composition.[16] The ash is extraordinarily rich in silicic acid and
+alumina.
+
+  Equisetum[17]..........silicic acid     60 per cent.
+  Aspidium...............  "     "        13
+  Asplenium..............  "     "        35
+  Osmunda................  "     "        53
+  Lycopodium[18].........  "     "        14
+       "         ........ alumina   26 to 27
+       "         ........ manganese 2 to 2.5
+
+These various plants contain acids and compounds peculiar to
+themselves.
+
+As we ascend in the plant scale, we reach the phanerogams. These
+plants are characterized by the production of true seeds, and many
+chemical compounds not found in lower plants.
+
+It will be convenient in speaking of these higher groups to follow M.
+Heckel's[19] scheme of plant evolution. All these plants are grouped
+under three main divisions: apetalous, monocotyledonous, and
+dicotyledonous; and these main divisions are further subdivided.
+
+It will be observed that these three main parallel columns are divided
+into three general horizontal planes.
+
+On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral elements, or parts;
+for example, the black walnut, with the simple flower contained in a
+catkin.
+
+On plane 2 plants which have a multiplicity of floral elements, as the
+many petals and stamens of the rose; and finally, the higher plants,
+the orchids among the monocotyledons and the composite among the
+dicotyledonous plants, come under the third division of condensation
+of floral elements.
+
+It will be impossible to take up in order for chemical consideration
+all these groups, and I shall restrict myself to pointing out the
+occurrence of certain constituents.
+
+I desire now to call attention to chemical groups under the apetalous
+plants having simplicity of floral elements.
+
+_Cassuarina equisetifolia_[20] possibly contains tannin, since it is
+used for curing hides. The bark contains a dye. It is said to resemble
+_Equisetum_[21] in appearance, and in this latter plant a yellow dye
+is found.
+
+The _Myrica_[22] contains ethereal oil, wax, resin, balsam, in all
+parts of the plant. The root contains in addition fats, tannin, and
+starch, also myricinic acid.
+
+In the willow and poplar,[23] a crystalline, bitter substance, salicin
+or populin, is found. This may be considered as the first appearance
+of a real glucoside, if tannin be excluded from the list.
+
+The oak, walnut, beech, alder, and birch contain tannin in large
+quantities; in the case of the oak, ten to twelve per cent. Oak galls
+yield as much as seventy per cent.[24]
+
+The numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable for ethereal
+oil, resin, and camphor.
+
+The plane[25] trees contain caoutchouc and gum; peppers,[26] ethereal
+oils, alkaloids, piperin, white resin, and malic acid. _Datisca
+cannabina_[27] contains a coloring matter and another substance
+peculiar to itself, datiscin, a kind of starch, or allied to the
+glucosides.
+
+Upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons, the dates
+and palms[28] contain in large quantities special starches, and this
+is in harmony with the principles of the theory. Alkaloids and
+glucosides have not yet been discovered in them.
+
+Other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of floral elements, such
+as the typhaceae, contain large quantities of starch; in the case of
+_Typha latifolia_[29] 12.5 per cent., and 1.5 per cent. gum. In the
+pollen of this same plant, 2.08 per cent. starch has been found.
+
+Under the dicotyledonous groups, there are no plants with simplicity
+of floral elements.
+
+Returning, now, to apetalous plants of multiplicity and simplification
+of floral elements, we find that the urticaceae[30] contain free formic
+acid; the hemp[31] contains alkaloids; the hop,[32] ethereal oil and
+resin; the rhubarb,[33] crysophonic acid; and the begonias,[34]
+chicarin and lapacho dyes. The highest apetalous plants contain
+camphors and oils; the highest of the monocotyledons contain a
+mucilage and oils; and the highest dicotyledons contain oils and
+special acids.
+
+The trees yielding common camphor and borneol are from genera of the
+lauraceae family; also sassafras camphor is from the same family. Small
+quantities of stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant
+kingdom.
+
+The gramineae, or grasses, are especially characterized by the large
+quantities of sugar and silica they contain. The ash of the rice hull,
+for example, contains ninety eight per cent. silica.
+
+The ranunculaceae contain many plants which yield alkaloids, as
+_Hydrastia canadensis_, or Indian hemp, _Helleborus_, _Delphinum_,
+_Aconitum_, and the alkaloid berberine has been obtained from genera
+of this family.
+
+The alkaloid[35] furnishing families belong, with few exceptions, to
+the dicotyledons. The colchiceae, from which is obtained veratrine,
+form an exception among the monocotyledons. The alkaloids of the
+fungus have already been noted.
+
+[36]Among the greater number of plant families, no alkaloids have been
+found. In the labiatae none has been discovered, nor in the compositae
+among the highest plants.
+
+One alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiaceae; berberine in
+genera of the berberidaceae, ranunculaceae, menispermaceae, rutaceae,
+papaveraceae, anonaceae.
+
+Waxes are widely distributed in plants. They occur in quantities in
+some closely related families.
+
+Ethereal oils occur in many families, in the bark, root, wood, leaf,
+flower, and fruit; particularly in myrtaceae, laurineae, cyperaceae,
+crucifereae, aurantiaceae, labiatae, and umbelliferae.
+
+Resins are found in most of the higher plants. Tropical plants are
+richer in resins than those of cold climates.
+
+Chemical resemblance between groups, as indicating morphological
+relations, has been well shown. For example: the similarity[37] of the
+viscid juices, and a like taste and smell, among cactaceae and
+portulaceae, indicate a closer relationship between these two orders
+than botanical classification would perhaps allow. This fact was
+corroborated by the discovery of irritable stamens in _Portulaca_ and
+_Opuntia_, and other genera of cactaceae.
+
+Darwin[38] states that in the compositae the ray florets are more
+poisonous than the disk florets, in the ratio of about 3 to 2.
+
+Comparing the cycadeae and palmae, the former are differently placed by
+different botanists, but the general resemblance is remarkable, and
+they both yield sago.
+
+Chemical constituents of plants are found in varying quantities during
+stated periods of the year. Certain compounds present at one stage of
+growth are absent at another. Many facts could be brought forward to
+show the different chemical composition of plants in different stages
+of growth. The _Thuja occidentalis_[39] in the juvenescent and adult
+form, offers an example where morphological and chemical differences
+go hand in hand. Analyses of this plant under both conditions show a
+striking difference.
+
+Different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical compounds, and
+the comparative chemical study of plant orders comprises the analysis
+of all parts of plants of different species.
+
+For example; four portions of the _Yucca angustifolia_[40] were
+examined chemically; the bark and wood of the root and the base and
+blades of the leaves. Fixed oils were separated from each part. These
+were not identical; two were fluid at ordinary temperature, and two
+were solid. Their melting and solidifying points were not the same.
+
+This difference in the physical character and chemical reaction of
+these fixed oils may be due to the presence of free fatty acid and
+glycerides in varying proportions in the four parts of the plants. It
+is of interest to note that, in the subterranean part of the _Yucca_,
+the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary temperature;
+from the wood it was of a less solid consistency; while the yellow
+base of the leaf contained an oil quite soft, and in the green leaf
+the oil is almost fluid.
+
+Two new resins were extracted from the yellow and green parts of the
+leaf. It was proposed to name them _yuccal_ and _pyrophaeal_ An
+examination of the contents of each extract showed a different
+quantitative and qualitative result.
+
+Saponin was found in all parts of the plant.
+
+Many of the above facts have been collected from the investigations of
+others. I have introduced these statements, selected from a mass of
+material, as evidences in favor of the view stated at the beginning of
+this paper.[41] My own study has been directed toward the discovery of
+saponin in those plants where it was presumably to be found. The
+practical use of this theory in plant analysis will lead the chemists
+at once to a search for those compounds which morphology shows are
+probably present.
+
+I have discovered saponin in all parts of the _Yucca angustifolia_, in
+the _Y. filimentosa_ and _Y. gloriosa_, in several species of agavae,
+and in plants belonging to the leguminosae family.
+
+The list[42] of plants in which saponin has been discovered is given
+in the note. All these plants are contained in the middle plane of
+Heckel's scheme. No plants containing saponin have been found among
+apetalous groups. No plants have been found containing saponin among
+the lower monocotyledons.
+
+The plane of saponin passes from the liliaceae and allied groups to the
+rosales and higher dicotyledons.
+
+Saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides. Under the
+action of dilute acids, it is split up into two substances, glucose
+and sopogenin. The chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly
+understood. The commercial[43] product is probably a mixture of
+several substances.
+
+This complexity of chemical composition of saponin is admirably
+adapted for the nutrition of the plant, and it is associated with the
+corresponding complexity of the morphological elements of the plant's
+organs. According to M. Perrey,[44] it seems that the power of a plant
+to direct the distribution of its carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to form
+complex glucosides is indicative of its higher functions and
+developments.
+
+The solvent action of saponin on resins has been already discussed.
+Saponin likewise acts as a solvent upon barium[45] sulphate and
+calcium[46] oxalate, and as a solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble
+salts would assist the plant in obtaining food, otherwise difficult of
+access.
+
+The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently
+Saponin is found in endogens and exogens. The line dividing these two
+groups is not always clearly defined. Statements pointing to this are
+found in the works of Haeckel, Bentham, and others.
+
+Smilax belongs to a transition class, partaking somewhat of the nature
+of endogen and of exogen. It is worthy of note that this intermediate
+group of the sarsaparillas should contain saponin.
+
+It is a significant fact that all the groups above named containing
+saponin belong to Heckel's middle division.
+
+It may be suggested that saponin is thus a constructive element in
+developing the plant from the multiplicity of floral elements to the
+cephalization of those organs.
+
+It has been observed that the composite occurs where the materials for
+growth are supplied in greatest abundance, and the more simple forms
+arise where sources of nutrition are remote. We may gather from this
+fact that the simpler organs of plants low in the evolutionary scale
+contain simpler non-nitrogenous chemical compounds for their
+nutrition.
+
+The presence of saponin seems essential to the life of the plant where
+it is found, and it is an indispensable principle in the progression
+of certain lines of plants, passing from their lower to their higher
+stages.
+
+Saponin is invariably absent where the floral elements are simple; it
+is invariably absent where the floral elements are condensed to their
+greatest extent. Its position is plainly that of a factor in the great
+middle realm of vegetable life, where the elements of the individual
+are striving to condense, and thus increase their physiological action
+and the economy of parts.
+
+It may be suggested as a line of research to study what are the
+conditions which control the synthesis and gradual formation of
+saponin in plants. The simpler compounds of which this complex
+substance is built up, if located as compounds of lower plants, would
+indicate the lines of progression from the lower to the saponin
+groups.
+
+In my paper[47] read in Buffalo at the last meeting of the American
+Association for the Advancement of Science, various suggestions were
+offered why chemical compounds should be used as a means of botanical
+classification.
+
+The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently
+unsatisfactory, that efforts in some directions have been made to
+introduce other methods.[48]
+
+There has been comparatively little study of the chemical principles
+of plants from a purely botanical view. It promises to become a new
+field of research.
+
+The leguminosae are conspicuous as furnishing us with important dyes,
+e.g., indigo, logwood, catechin. The former is obtained principally
+from different species of the genus _Indigofera_, and logwood from the
+_Haematoxylon_ and _Saraca indica_.
+
+The discovery[49] of haematoxylin in the _Saraca indica_ illustrates
+very well how this plant in its chemical, as well as botanical,
+character is related to the _Haematoxylon campechianum_; also, I found
+a substance like catechin in the _Saraca_. This compound is found in
+the _acacias_, to which class _Saraca_ is related by its chemical
+position, as well as botanically. Saponin is found in both of these
+plants, as well as in many other plants of the leguminosae. The
+leguminosae come under the middle plane or multiplicity of floral
+elements, and the presence of saponin in these plants was to be
+expected.
+
+From many of the facts above stated, it may be inferred that the
+chemical compounds of plants do not occur at random. Each stage of
+growth and development has its own particular chemistry.
+
+It is said that many of the constituents found in plants are the
+result of destructive metabolism, and are of no further use in the
+plant's economy. This subject is by no means settled, and even should
+we be forced to accept that ground, it is a significant fact that
+certain cells, tissues, or organs peculiar to a plant secrete or
+excrete chemical compounds peculiar to them, which are to be found in
+one family, or in species closely allied to it.
+
+It is a fact that the chemical compounds are there, no matter why or
+whence they came. They will serve our purposes of study and
+classification.
+
+The result of experiment shows that the presence of certain compounds
+is essential to the vigor and development of all plants and particular
+compounds to the development of certain plants. Plant chemistry and
+morphology are related. Future investigations will demonstrate this
+relation.
+
+In general terms, we may say that amides and carbohydrates are
+utilized in the manufacture of proteids. Organic acids cause a
+turgescence of cells. Glucosides may be a form of reserve food
+material.
+
+Resins and waxes may serve only as protection to the surfaces of
+plants; coloring matters, as screens to shut off or admit certain of
+the sun's rays; but we are still far from penetrating the mystery of
+life.
+
+A simple plant does what animals more highly endowed cannot do. From
+simplest substances they manufacture the most complex. We owe our
+existence to plants, as they do theirs to the air and soil.
+
+The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen pass through a
+cycle of changes from simple inorganic substances to the complex
+compounds of the living cell. Upon the decomposition of these bodies
+the elements return to their original state. During this transition
+those properties of protoplasm which were mentioned at the beginning,
+in turn, follow their path. From germination to death this course
+appears like a crescent, the other half of the circle closed from
+view. Where chemistry begins and ends it is difficult to say.--_Jour.
+Fr. Inst._
+
+  [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute,
+  January 24, 1887.]
+
+  [Footnote 2: Studien uber das Protoplasm, 1881.]
+
+  [Footnote 3: Vines, p. 1. Rostafinski: Mem. de la Soc. des Sc.
+  Nat. de Cherbourg, 1875. Strasburger: Zeitschr., xii, 1878.]
+
+  [Footnote 4: Botany: Prantl and Vines. London, 1886, p. 110.]
+
+  [Footnote 5: For the literature of starch, see p. 115, Die
+  Pflanzenstoffe, von Hilger and Husemann.]
+
+  [Footnote 6: Kutzing: Arch. Pharm., xli, 38. Kraus and Millardet:
+  Bul. Soc. Sciences Nat., Strasbourg, 1868, 22. Sorby: Jour. Lin.
+  Soc., xv, 34. J. Reinke: Jahrb. Wissenscht. Botan., x, B. 399.
+  Phipson: Phar. Jour. Trans., clxii, 479.]
+
+  [Footnote 7: Prantl and Vines, p. 111.]
+
+  [Footnote 8: L. Crie: Compt. Rend., lxxxviii, 759 and 985. J. De
+  Seynes, 820, 1043.]
+
+  [Footnote 9: Page 279.]
+
+  [Footnote 10: M. Nencki and F. Schaffer. N. Sieher: Jour. Pract.
+  Chem., 23, 412.]
+
+  [Footnote 11: E. Klein: Quar. Jour. Micros. Science, 1875, 381. O.
+  Helm: Arch. Pharm., 1875, 19-24. G. Gugini: Gaz. Chem., 7, 4. W.
+  Thorner: Bul. Ber, xi, 533.]
+
+  [Footnote 12: Handbook of Dyeing. By W. Crookes, London, 1874. p. 367.
+  Schunck: Ann. Chem. Pharm., 41, 157; 54, 261; 61, 72; 61, 64; 61, 78.
+  Rochelder and Heldt, ibid., 48, 2; 48, 9. Stenhouse, ibid., 68, 57;
+  68, 72; 68, 97, 104; 125, 353. See also researches of Strecker, O.
+  Hesse, Reymann, Liebermann, Lamparter, Knop, and Schnedermann.]
+
+  [Footnote 13: Stahlschmidt.]
+
+  [Footnote 14: E. Treffner: Inaugur. Diss. Dorpat, 1880.]
+
+  [Footnote 15: W. Pfeffer: Flora, 1874.]
+
+  [Footnote 16: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 323 W. Lange: Bul. Ber., xi,
+  822.]
+
+  [Footnote 17: Ann. Chim. Phys., 41, 62, 208; Ann. Chim. Pharm.,
+  77, 295.]
+
+  [Footnote 18: Fluckiger: Pharmakognosie. Kamp: Ann. Chim. Pharm.,
+  100, 300.]
+
+  [Footnote 19: Revue Scientifiqe, 13 Mars, 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 20: Dictionary of Economic Plants. By J. Smith. London,
+  1882, p. 294.]
+
+  [Footnote 21: Ibid., p. 160. Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs,
+  Wittstein, p. 736. Ann. Chem. Pharm., 77, 295.]
+
+  [Footnote 22: Rabenhorst: Repert. Pharm., lx, 214. Moore: Chem.
+  Centralbl., 1862, 779, Dana.]
+
+  [Footnote 23: Johansen: Arch. Pharm., 3, ix, 210. Ibid., 3, ix
+  103. Bente: Berl. Ber., viii, 476. Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2,
+  44, 296.]
+
+  [Footnote 24: Wittstein; Pharm. des Pflanzenreichs, p. 249.]
+
+  [Footnote 25: John; Ibid., p. 651.]
+
+  [Footnote 26: Dulong. Oersted, Lucas, Pontet; Ibid., p. 640.]
+
+  [Footnote 27: Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 3. 277. Stenhouse:
+  Ann. Chim. Phann., 198, 166].
+
+  [Footnote 28: 3 Pflanzenstoffe, p. 412.]
+
+  [Footnote 29: Lecocq: Braconnot: Pharmacog. Pflan, p. 693.]
+
+  [Footnote 30: Gorup-Besanez.]
+
+  [Footnote 31: Siebold and Brodbury: Phar. Jour. Trans., 3, 590,
+  1881, 326.]
+
+  [Footnote 32: Wagner: Jour. Prakt. Chem., 58, 352. B. Peters, v.
+  Gohren: Jahresb. Agric., viii, 114; ix, 105; v. 58. Ann. Jour.
+  Pharm., 4, 49.]
+
+  [Footnote 33: Dragendorff: Pharm. Zeitschr. Russ., xvii, 65-97.]
+
+  [Footnote 34: Bonssingault: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 27, 315. Erdmann:
+  Jour. Pract. Chem., 71, 198.]
+
+  [Footnote 35: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 21.]
+
+  [Footnote 36: Ibid.]
+
+  [Footnote 37: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.]
+
+  [Footnote 38: Different forms of flowers on plants of the same
+  species. Introduction.]
+
+  [Footnote 39: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.]
+
+  [Footnote 40: H.C. De S. Abbott: Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 41: For further facts confirming this theory, see
+  "Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants." By H.C. De S.
+  Abbott. Amer. Naturalist, August, 1887.]
+
+  [Footnote 42: Different genera and species of the following:
+  Ranunculaceae, Berberidaceae, Carophyllaceae, Polygalaceae,
+  Bromeliaceae, Liliaceae, Smilaceae, Yuccas, Amaryllideae, Leguminosae,
+  Primulaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae]
+
+  [Footnote 43: Kobert: Chem Ztg.]
+
+  [Footnote 44: Compt. Rend., xciv, p. 1124.]
+
+  [Footnote 45: Bul. de la Soc. Chim.]
+
+  [Footnote 46: "Yucca angus." Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Dec., 1885.]
+
+  [Footnote 47: Botanical Gazette, October, 1886.]
+
+  [Footnote 48: Borodin: Pharm. Jour. Trans., xvi, 369. Pax. Firemy:
+  Ann. Sci. Nat., xiii.]
+
+  [Footnote 49: H.C. De S. Abbott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Nov.
+  30, 1886.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF STARCH.
+
+A.V. ASBOTH.
+
+
+The author maintains that unsatisfactory results are obtained in
+determinations of starch when the method employed is based upon the
+inversion of sugar, formed as an intermediate product, since maltose,
+dextrose, and levulose are partly decomposed by boiling with dilute
+acids. He proposes to replace the methods hitherto employed by one
+which depends upon the formation of a barium salt of starch, to which
+he assigns the formula BaO.C_{24}H_{40}O_{20}. This salt is sparingly
+soluble in water and insoluble in dilute alcohol.
+
+In making a determination a weighed quantity of starch is saccharified
+with water, then mixed with an excess of normal baryta solution,
+dilute alcohol added to make up to a certain volume, and, after the
+precipitate has settled, the excess of baryta is titrated back with
+acid.
+
+[Illustration: Titrating apparatus]
+
+The author also describes the apparatus he employs for storing and
+titrating with baryta solution. The latter is contained in the bottle,
+A, and the drying tube attached to the neck of the same is filled with
+quicklime. The burette, B, which is in direct connection with the
+bottle, may be filled with the solution by opening the stop cock, and
+the small drying tube, _n_, is filled with dry KOH, thus preventing
+the entrance of any CO_{2}. Numbers are appended which seem to testify
+to the excellence of the method employed. The author finally gives a
+detailed account of the entire analysis of various cereals.--_A.R. in
+Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SYNTHESIS OF THE ALKALOIDS.
+
+
+In the note on the constitution of alkaloids in a recent issue, we
+referred more especially to what we may term the less highly organized
+bases. Most of our knowledge, as we now have it, regarding such
+alkaloids as muscarine and choline has been acquired during the past
+dozen years. This is not exactly the case with the higher groups of
+alkaloids--the derivatives of pyridine and quinoline. It so happens
+that the oldest alkaloids are in these groups. They have, almost
+necessarily, been subjected to a longer period of attack, but the
+extreme complexity of their molecules, and the infinite number of
+differing parts or substances into which these molecules split up when
+attacked, are the main cause of the small progress which has been made
+in this department. All, however, yield one or more bodies or bases in
+common, while each has its distinctive and peculiar decomposition
+product. For example, cinchonine and quinine both afford the basic
+quinoline under certain conditions, but on oxidation of cinchonine, an
+acid--cinchoninic acid (C_{10}H_{7}NO_{2})--is the principal body
+formed, while in the case of quinine, quininic acid (C_{10}H_{9}NO_{3})
+is the principal product. The acquirement through experiment of such
+knowledge as that is, however, so much gained. We find, indeed, that
+obstacles are gradually being cleared away, and the actual synthetic
+formation of such alkaloids as piperidine and coniine is a proof that
+the chemist is on the right track in studying the decomposition
+products, and building up from them, theoretically, bodies of similar
+constitution. It is noteworthy that the synthesis of the alkaloids has
+led to some of the most brilliant discoveries of the present day,
+especially in the discovery of dye stuffs. Many of our quinine
+substitutes, such as thalline, for example, are the result of
+endeavors to make quinine artificially. If there is romance in
+chemistry at all, it is to be found certainly in this branch of it,
+which is generally considered the most uninteresting and unfathomable.
+We may take piperidine and coniine as examples of the methods followed
+in alkaloidal synthesis; these are pyridine bases. Pyridine has the
+formula C_{5}H_{5}N, that is, it is benzene with CH replaced by N. The
+relationship between these and piperidine is seen in the following
+formulae:
+
+       CH            N                NH
+      /  \          /  \             /  \
+    HC    CH      HC    CH     H_{2}C    CH_{2}
+     |    |        |    |           |    |
+    HC    CH      HC    CH     H_{2}C    CH_{2}
+      \  /          \  /             \  /
+       CH            CH               CH_{2}
+
+    (Benzene,)    (Pyridine,)    (Piperidine,)
+    (C_{6}H_{6})  (C_{5}H_{5}N)  (C_{5}H_{11}N)
+
+If we introduce six hydrogen atoms into pyridine, we convert it into
+piperidine. Ladenburg succeeded in so hydrogenizing pyridine by acting
+upon an alcoholic solution with sodium, and from the base which was
+formed he obtained a platinochloride which agreed with the similar
+double salt of piperidine. He has also prepared it from trimethyline
+cyanide by the action of sodium. Pentamethylinediamine is the
+principal intermediary product, and this gives piperidine when
+distilled with superheated steam. He has proved that the alkaloid so
+obtained is identical with that prepared from piperine. Another
+curious point which Ladenburg has lately proved is that cadaverine
+(one of the products of flesh decomposition) is identical with
+pentamethylinediamine, and that its imine is the same as piperidine.
+The synthesis of coniine by Ladenburg is one of the most notable
+achievements of modern chemistry. He at first supposed that this
+alkaloid was piperidine in which two hydrogen atoms were replaced by
+the isopropyl radical (C_{3}H_{7}), its formula being taken as
+C_{5}H_{9}(C_{3}H_{7})NH. But he has since changed his view, as will
+be seen from what follows. In its synthesis 1,000 grammes of picoline
+were first converted into alphapicoline, 380 grammes being obtained.
+This was heated with paraldehyde, whereby it was converted into
+allylpyridine (48 grammes), and this by reduction with sodium yielded
+alpha-propylpyridine, a body in almost every respect identical with
+coniine. The more important difference was its optical inactivity, but
+he succeeded in splitting up a solution of the acid tartrate of the
+base by means of _Penicillium glaucum_. Crystals separated which had a
+dextro-rotatory power of [_a_]_{D} = 31 deg. 87' as compared with the
+[_a_]_{D} = 13 deg. 79' of natural coniine. This brief account conveys but
+a faint idea of the difficulties which were encountered in these
+researches. Optical methods of examination have proved of great value,
+and are destined to play an important part in such work.
+
+Among the most complex alkaloids are those of the quinine group. As
+yet chemists have got no further with these than the oxidation
+products; but the study has afforded us several new antipyretics and
+many interesting facts. It has been found, for example, that
+artificial quinine-like bodies, which fluoresce and give the green
+color with chlorine water and ammonia, have antipyretic properties
+like quinine, but their secondary effects are so pernicious as to
+prevent their use. If, however, such bodies are hydrogenized or
+methylated they lose their fluorescing property, do not give the green
+color, and their secondary effects are removed. Knowledge of these
+facts led to the discovery of thalline. It is prepared from
+paraquinanisol, one of the objectionable bodies, by reduction with tin
+and hydrochloric acid. The following formulae show the constitutional
+relationship of these compounds:
+
+               CH   CH                  CH   CH_{2}
+              /  \ /  \                /  \ /  \
+    (CH_{3}O)C    C    CH    (CH_{3}O)C    C    CH_{2}
+             |    |    |              |    |    |
+            HC    C    CH            HC    C    CH_{2}
+              \  / \  /                \  / \  /
+               CH   N                   CH   NH
+
+            Paraquinanisol              Thalline
+          C_{9}H_{6}.CH_{3}.NO.     C_{9}H_{10}.CH_{3}.NO.
+
+It is evident from the difficulties which have been encountered in
+this department of chemistry, and more especially from the costly
+nature of the work, that it will be many years before it will
+influence the manufacture of alkaloids from the drugs which yield
+them. Ladenburg has synthetized coniine, but he has not yet ventured
+to assert that his product will replace the natural alkaloid.--_Chem.
+and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+The _Southern California Advocate_ reports another magnificent
+donation of lands to the University of Southern California by Mr. D.
+Freeman, the owner of the Centinella ranch near Los Angeles--six
+hundred thousand dollars in all given to found a school of applied
+sciences, $100,000 for building and apparatus and $500,000 for
+endowment. The buildings will be in the vicinity of Inglewood, the new
+and beautiful town on the Ballona branch of the California Central.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A GROUP OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Hampshire Down breed of sheep originated about 80 years ago by a
+cross of South Downs on the horned, white-faced sheep which had for
+ages been native of the open, untilled, hilly stretch of land known as
+the Hampshire Downs, in the county of that name bordering on the
+English Channel, in the South of England. From time immemorial the
+South Downs had dark brown or black legs, matured early, produced the
+best of mutton and a fine quality of medium wool. The original
+Hampshire was larger, coarser, but hardier, slower to mature, with
+inferior flesh, and a longer but coarser wool. The South Down has
+always been remarkable for its power of transmitting its special
+characteristics to its progeny by other kinds of sheep, and hence it
+soon impressed its own characteristics on its progeny by the
+Hampshire. The horns of the original breed have disappeared; the face
+and legs have become dark, the frame has become more compact, the
+bones smaller, the back broader and straighter, the legs shorter, and
+the flesh and wool of better quality, while the superior hardiness and
+greater size, as well as the large head and Roman nose of the old
+breed, still remain. The Hampshires of to-day mature early and fatten
+readily. They clip from six to seven pounds of wool, suitable for
+combing, which is longer than South Down wool, but less fine. The
+mutton has a desirable proportion of fat and lean, and is juicy and
+fine flavored. The lambs are of large size and are usually dropped
+early and fed for market. Indeed, the Hampshire may be considered a
+larger and trifle coarser and hardier South Down. The breed is
+occasionally crossed with Cotswolds, when it produces a wool more
+valuable for worsted manufacturers than the pure Cotswold. Indeed,
+there is little doubt that in addition to South Down, the Hampshire
+has a dash of Cotswold blood in its composition. Considerable
+importations of the breed have been made into this country, but it has
+not become so popular as the South Down and some other English breeds.
+The excellent group shown is owned by Mr. James Wood, of Mount Kisco,
+New York.--_Rural New-Yorker._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE YALE COLLEGE MEASUREMENT OF THE PLEIADES.[1]
+
+  [Footnote 1: "Determination of the Relative Positions of the
+  Principal Stars in the Group of the Pleiades." By William L.
+  Elkin. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale
+  University, Vol. I., Part I. (New Haven: 1887.)]
+
+
+The Messrs. Repsold have established, and for the present seem likely
+to maintain, a practical monopoly in the construction of heliometers.
+That completed by them for the observatory of Yale College in 1882
+leaves so little to be desired as to show excellence not to be the
+exclusive result of competition. In mere size it does not indeed take
+the highest rank. Its aperture is of only six inches, while that of
+the Oxford heliometer is of seven and a half; but the perfection of
+the arrangements adapting it to the twofold function of equatorial and
+micrometer stamps it as a model not easy to be surpassed. Steel has
+been almost exclusively used in the mounting. Recommended as the
+material for the objective cell by its quality of changing volume
+under variations of temperature nearly _paripassu_ with glass, its
+employment was extended to the telescope tube and other portions of
+the mechanism. The optical part of the work was done by Merz, Alvan
+Clark having declined the responsibility of dividing the object lens.
+Its segments are separable to the extent of 2 deg., and through the
+contrivance of cylindrical slides (originally suggested by Bessel)
+perfect definition is preserved in all positions, giving a range of
+accurate measurement just six times that with a filar micrometer.
+(Gill, "Encyc. Brit.," vol. xvi., p. 253; Fischer, _Sirius_, vol.
+xvii., p. 145.)
+
+This beautiful engine of research was in 1883 placed in the already
+practiced and skillful hands of Dr. Elkin. He lost no time in fixing
+upon a task suited both to test the powers of the new instrument and
+to employ them to the highest advantage.
+
+The stars of the Pleiades have, from the earliest times, attracted the
+special notice of observers, whether savage or civilized. Hence, on
+the one hand, their prominence in stellar mythology all over the
+world; on the other, their unique interest for purposes of scientific
+study and comparison. They constitute an undoubted cluster; that is to
+say, they are really, and not simply in appearance, grouped together
+in space, so as to fall under the sway of prevailing mutual
+influences. And since there is, perhaps, no other stellar cluster so
+near the sun, the chance of perceptible displacements among them in a
+moderate lapse of time is greater than in any other similar case.
+Authentic data regarding them, besides, have now been so long garnered
+that their fruit may confidently be expected at least to begin to
+ripen.
+
+Dr. Elkin determined, accordingly, to repeat the survey of the
+Pleiades executed by Bessel at Konigsberg during about twelve years
+previous to 1841. Wolf and Pritchard had, it is true, been beforehand
+with him; but the wide scattering of the grouped stars puts the filar
+micrometer at a disadvantage in measuring them, producing minute
+errors which the arduous conditions of the problem render of serious
+account. The heliometer, there can be no doubt, is the special
+instrument for the purpose, and it was, moreover, that employed by
+Bessel; so that the Konigsberg and Yale results are comparable in a
+stricter sense than any others so far obtained.
+
+One of Bessel's fifty-three stars was omitted by Dr. Elkin as too
+faint for accurate determination. He added, however, seventeen stars
+from the Bonn _Durchmusterung_, so that his list comprised sixty-nine,
+down to 9.2 magnitude. Two independent triangulations were executed by
+him in 1884-85. For the first, four stars situated near the outskirts
+of the group, and marking the angles of quadrilateral by which it was
+inclosed, were chosen as reference points. The second rested upon
+measures of distance and position angle outward from Alcyone ([eta]
+Tauri). Thus, two wholly unconnected sets of positions were secured,
+the close accordance of which testified strongly to the high quality
+of the entire work. They were combined, with nearly equal weights, in
+the final results. A fresh reduction of the Konigsberg observations,
+necessitated by recent improvements in the value of some of the
+corrections employed, was the preliminary to their comparison with
+those made, after an interval of forty-five years, at Yale College.
+The conclusions thus laboriously arrived at are not devoid of
+significance, and appear perfectly secure, so far as they go.
+
+It has been known for some time that the stars of the Pleiades possess
+a small identical proper motion. Its direction, as ascertained by
+Newcomb in 1878, is about south-southeast; its amount is somewhat less
+than six seconds of arc in a century. The double star 61 Cygni, in
+fact, is displaced very nearly as much in one year as Alcyone with its
+train in one hundred. Nor is there much probability that this slow
+secular shifting is other than apparent; since it pretty accurately
+reverses the course of the sun's translation through space, it may be
+presumed that the _backward_ current of movement in which the Pleiades
+seem to float is purely an effect of our own _onward_ traveling.
+
+Now the curious fact emerges from Dr. Elkin's inquiries that six of
+Bessel's stars are exempt from the general drift of the group. They
+are being progressively left behind. The inference is obvious that
+they do not in reality belong to, but are merely accidentally
+projected upon, it; or, rather, that it is projected upon them; for
+their apparent immobility (which, in two of the six, may be called
+absolute) shows them with tolerable certainty to be indefinitely more
+remote--so remote that the path, moderately estimated at
+21,000,000,000 miles in length, traversed by the solar system during
+the forty-five years elapsed since the Konigsberg measures dwindles
+into visual insensibility when beheld from them. The brightest of
+these six far-off stars is just above the eighth (7.9) magnitude; the
+others range from 8.5 down to below the ninth.
+
+A chart of the relative displacements indicated for Bessel's stars by
+the differences in their inter-mutual positions as determined at
+Konigsberg and Yale accompanies the paper before us. Divergences
+exceeding 0.40" (taken as the limit of probable error) are regarded as
+due to real motion; and this is the case with twenty-six stars besides
+the half dozen already mentioned as destined deserters from the group.
+With these last may be associated two stars surmised, for an opposite
+reason, to stand aloof from it. Instead of tarrying behind, they are
+hurrying on in front.
+
+An excess of the proper movement of their companions belongs to them;
+and since that movement is presumably an effect of secular parallax,
+we are justified in inferring their possession of an extra share of it
+to signify their greater proximity to the sun. Hence, of all the stars
+in the Pleiades these are the most likely to have a measurable annual
+parallax. One is a star a little above the seventh magnitude,
+distinguished as _s_ Pleiadum; the other, of about the eighth, is
+numbered 25 in Bessel's list. Dr. Elkin has not omitted to remark that
+the conjecture of their disconnection from the cluster is confirmed by
+the circumstance that its typical spectrum (as shown on Prof.
+Pickering's plates) is varied in _s_ by the marked character of the K
+line. The spectrum of its fellow traveler (No. 25) is still
+undetermined.
+
+It is improbable, however, that even these nearer stars are
+practicable subjects for the direct determination of annual parallax.
+By indirect means, however, we can obtain some idea of their distance.
+All that we want to know for the purpose is the _rate_ of the sun's
+motion; its _direction_ we may consider as given with approximate
+accuracy by Airy's investigation. Now, spectroscopic measurements of
+stellar movements of approach and recession will eventually afford
+ample materials from which to deduce the solar, velocity; though they
+are as yet not accurate or numerous enough to found any definitive
+conclusion upon. Nevertheless, M. Homann's preliminary result of
+fifteen miles a second as the speed with which our system travels in
+its vast orbit inspires confidence both from the trustworthiness of
+the determinations (Mr. Seabroke's) serving as its basis and from its
+intrinsic probability. Accepting it provisionally, we find the
+parallax of Alcyone = about 0.02', implying a distance of
+954,000,000,000,000 miles and a light journey of 163 years. It is
+assumed that the whole of its proper motion of 2.61' in forty-five
+years is the visual projection of oar own movement toward a point in
+R.A. 261 deg., Decl. +25 deg..
+
+Thus the parallax of the two stars which we suspect to lie between us
+and the stars forming the genuine group of the Pleiades, at perhaps
+two-thirds of their distance, can hardly exceed 0.03'. This is just
+half that found by Dr. Gill for [xi] Toucani, which may be regarded
+as, up to this, the smallest annual displacement at all satisfactorily
+determined. And the error of the present estimate is more likely to be
+on the side of excess than of defect. That is, the stars in question
+can hardly be much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax
+of 0.03", and they may be considerably more remote.
+
+Dr. Elkin concludes, from the minuteness of the detected changes of
+position among the Pleiades, that "the hopes of obtaining any clew to
+the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized
+in an immediate future;" remarking further: "The bright stars in
+especial seem to form an almost rigid system, as for only one is there
+really much evidence of motion, and in this case the total amount is
+barely 1 per century." This one mobile member of the naked eye group
+is Electra; and it is noticeable that the apparent direction of its
+displacement favors the hypothesis of leisurely orbital circulation
+round the leading star. The larger movements, however, ascribed to
+some of the fainter associated stars are far from harmonizing with
+this preconceived notion of what they ought to be.
+
+On the contrary, so far as they are known at present, they force upon
+our minds the idea that the cluster may be undergoing some slow
+process of disintegration. M. Wolf's impression of incipient
+centrifugal tendencies among its components certainly derives some
+confirmation from Dr. Elkin's chart. Divergent movements are the most
+strongly marked; and the region round Alcyone suggests, at the first
+glance, rather a very confused area of radiation for a flight of
+meteors than the central seat of attraction of a revolving throng of
+suns.
+
+There are many signs, however, that adjacent stars in the cluster do
+not pursue independent courses. "Community of drift" is visible in
+many distinct sets; while there is as yet no perceptible evidence,
+from orbital motion, of association into subordinate systems. The
+three eighth-magnitude stars, for instance, arranged in a small
+isosceles triangle near Alcyone, do not, as might have been expected
+_a priori_, constitute a real ternary group. They are all apparently
+traveling directly away from the large star close by them, in straight
+lines which may, of course, be the projections of closed curves; but
+their rates of travel are so different as to involve certain
+progressive separation. Obviously, the order and method of such
+movements as are just beginning to develop to our apprehension among
+the Pleiades will not prove easy to divine.--_A.M. Clerke, in Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DEEP SEA DREDGINGS: EXAMINATION OF SEA BOTTOMS.
+
+By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN.
+
+
+I believe Prof. Ehrenberg was one of the first to examine,
+microscopically, deep sea dredgings, some of which were undertaken for
+the Atlantic cable expedition, 1857.
+
+I propose to deal with the bottoms brought up from tropical waters of
+the Atlantic, a few years ago, during certain telegraph cable
+operations. These soundings were made for survey purposes, and not for
+any biological or chemical investigations. Still I think that this
+imperfect record may be a useful contribution to chemical science,
+bearing especially on marine operations.
+
+Although there is little to be added to the chemistry of this subject,
+still I think there are few chemists who could successfully make an
+analysis of a deep sea "bottom" without some sacrifice of time and
+patience, to say nothing of the risk of wasting a valuable specimen.
+
+The muds, clays, oozes, etc., from deep water are so very fine that
+they pass readily through the best kinds of filters, and it is
+necessary to wash out all traces of sea water as a preliminary. The
+specimen must be _repeatedly_ washed by decantation, until the
+washings are perfectly free from chlorine, when the whole may be
+thrown onto a filter _merely_ to drain. The turbid water which passes
+through is allowed to stand so that the suspended matter may settle,
+and after decanting the clear supernatant water, the residuum is again
+thrown on to the filter.
+
+The washing and getting ready for the drying oven will, in some cases,
+require days to carry out, if we wish to avoid losing anything.
+
+So far the proceeding is exactly the same, except draining on a
+filter, which would be adopted for preparing for the microscope. On no
+account should the opportunity be missed of mounting several slides
+permanently for microscopic examination. Drawings or photographic
+enlargements will render us independent of direct microscopic appeal,
+which is not at all times convenient.
+
+The substance, if drained and allowed to dry on the filter, will
+adhere most tenaciously to it, so that it is better to complete the
+drying in a porcelain or platinum capsule, either by swilling the
+filter with a jet of water or by carefully removing with a spatula.
+The most strenuous care must be used not to contaminate the specimen
+with loose fibers from the filter.
+
+The perfectly dried matter is best treated in exactly the same way as a
+residuum in water analysis. It is a common thing to ignite the residuum,
+and to put the loss down, if any, to water. This ought not to satisfy an
+accurate observer, since organic matter, carbonates--especially in
+presence of silica--will easily add to the loss. The best plan is to
+heat a small portion very cautiously, and note if any smell or
+alteration in color, due to carbon, etc., is perceptible, and to proceed
+accordingly.
+
+I have seen some very satisfactory analyses made on board ship by a
+skillful use of the blowpipe, where liquid reagents would be very
+inconvenient to employ.
+
+It will be necessary to say a few words as to the way in which
+soundings are made at sea. When the bottom consists of sand, mud, or
+other loose matter, it is easy enough to bring specimens to the
+surface, and, of course, we know in such a case that the bottom has
+been reached, but, in the event of the bottom being hard and rocky, it
+is not easy to say that our sounding has been successful: and here we
+meet with a difficulty which unfortunately is most unsatisfactorily
+provided for.
+
+The lead is "cast," as the saying goes, "armed" for this emergency. An
+iron sinker is made with a hollow recess in the bottom; this is filled
+in with tallow, and on striking the bottom any loose matter may adhere
+by being pressed into the tallow. If the bottom is rocky or hard we
+get simply an imprint in the arming, and when such a result is
+obtained the usual construction is that "the bottom is rocky" or hard.
+
+Now, this seems to me a point on which chemistry may give some very
+valuable help, for I am convinced that no sounding should be accepted
+unless evidence of the bottom itself is obtained. A few considerations
+will show that when we are working in very deep water, where there is
+a difficulty of knowing for certain that we have an "up and down"
+sounding, and the hardening of the "arming" by the cold and pressure,
+unless we bring up something we cannot be sure that we have touched
+the bottom; leaving the doubt on this point on one side, unless we use
+a very heavy sinker, so as to get an indication of the released strain
+when it touches the bottom, we encounter another complication.
+
+Sir William Thomson's sounding wire has added the element of
+reliability to our soundings in this latter case. The note given out
+by the wire when the bottom is reached is perceptibly different when
+under strain, even if the dynamometer should give an unreliable
+indication.
+
+It has been found that when a "bottom" has been recovered by the
+arming with tallow, the adherent grease seriously detracts from the
+value of the specimen for scientific purposes. Washing with perfectly
+pure bisulphide carbon will save the sounding, but of course any
+living organism is destroyed. As we have plenty of contrivances for
+bringing up loose "bottoms" without arming, we have nothing to fear on
+this score.
+
+There is a great difficulty to explain the vast accumulations of clay
+deposits on the ocean bed, and it has been suggested that some minute
+organisms may produce these deposits, as others give us carbonate of
+lime. Is there not a very great probability of some of the apparently
+insoluble rocky formations being answerable for these accumulations?
+
+We must not forget the peculiar changes which such an apparently
+stable substance as feldspar undergoes when disintegrated and exposed
+to the chemical action of sea water. As these deposits contain both
+sodium and potassium, our chemical operations must provide for the
+analytical results; in other respects the analysis can be proceeded
+with according to the operator's analytical knowledge.
+
+Few operators are aware of the usefulness of an ordinary deep sea
+grapnel rope, as used for cable work, in recovering specimens of the
+fauna of any locality. The grapnel rope should be left down for a few
+months, so that the denizens of the deep may get used to it and make
+it their place of residence and _attachment_. The stench caused by
+their decomposition, unless the rope be kept in water, when hauled up
+will be in a few days intolerable, even to an individual with a
+sea-going stomach. I tried several chemical solutions for preserving
+specimens thus recovered, but nothing answered so well as the water
+itself drawn up from the same depth as the rope was recovered
+from.--_Chem. News._
+
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