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diff --git a/16270.txt b/16270.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..49601fa --- /dev/null +++ b/16270.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4680 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 623, +December 10, 1887, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 623, December 10, 1887 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 12, 2005 [EBook #16270] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net. + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 623 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 10, 1887 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XXIV., No. 623. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +I. ARCHITECTURE.--Notes on the Construction of a Distillery + Chimney--A new method of building lofty shafts, including a + metallic frame and brick lining--3 illustrations. 9949 + + The Commercial Exchange, Paris--The new Paris exchange now + in process of erection.--Present state of operations--1 + illustration. 9954 + +II. ASTRONOMY.--The Yale College Measurement of the Pleiades.-- + Dr. Elkin's work with the Repsold heliometer at Yale College. 9957 + +III. CHEMISTRY--New Method for the Quantitative Determination + of Starch.--By A.N. ASBOTH--Determination of starch by its + barium compound. 9956 + + Synthesis of the Alkaloids--A retrospect of the field of + work so far traveled over by synthetical chemists, and + future prospects. 9956 + + The Chemical Basis of Plant Forms--By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT + --Continuation of this important contribution to plant + chemistry, one of the most valuable of recent chemical + monographs. 9955 + +IV. ELECTRICITY.--An Electrical Governor--A new apparatus for + preserving a constant electromotive force with varying + dynamo speed--1 illustration. 9952 + + Electric Launch--A French government launch with Krebs + electric motor. 9954 + + The electric current as a means of increasing the tractive + adhesion of railway motors and other rolling contacts.--By + ELIAS E. RIES--A full review of this important subject, with + accounts of its experimental examination. 9953 + +V. ENGINEERING--Benier's Hot Air Engine--A new caloric engine + very fully illustrated and described--8 illustrations. 9943 + + Heating Marine Boilers with Liquid Fuel--A simple apparatus + and recent experiments with the same.--3 illustrations. 9945 + + The Change of Gauge of Southern Railroads in 1886--By C.H. + HUDSON.--The conclusion of the account of this great + engineering feat, with tables of statistics and data--16 + illustrations. 9946 + + Your Future Problems--By CHAS. E. EMERY--An address to + the graduating class of the Stevens Institute, N.J.--A + practical view of the engineering profession. 9943 + +VI. MISCELLANEOUS--A Group of Hampshire Downs--A typical + breed of sheep, their qualities and habits.--1 illustration. 9957 + +VII. NAVAL ENGINEERING--The Spanish Cruiser Reina Regente--A + further description of this celebrated vessel--4 + illustrations. 9948 + + Torpedo Boats for Spain--The Azor and Halcon, two Yarrow + torpedo boats, described and illustrated--7 illustrations. 9947 + +VIII. PHOTOGRAPHY--How Different Tones in Gelatino-chloride Prints + may be Varied by Developers.--Twenty different formulae for + the above purpose. 9949 + + Film Negatives--Eastman stripping films, their manipulation + and development. 9949 + +IX. SANITATION--French Disinfecting Apparatus--A portable + apparatus for disinfecting clothes and similar objects--1 + illustration. 9952 + +X. TECHNOLOGY.--The Manufacture of Cocaine--The extraction + of cocaine with alkali and petroleum, with statement of + percentage yielded by various leaves. 9954 + + The Production of Oxygen by Brin's Process--The commercial + manufacture of oxygen by means of baryta--3 illustrations. 9950 + + +#Transcriber's Note: Following entry not in original table of contents# + + Deep Sea Dredgings: Examination Of Sea Bottoms. By THOMAS 9958 + T.P. BRUCE WARREN. + + * * * * * + + + + +BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE. + + +The hot air engine, although theoretically recognized for some time +past as the most economical means of converting heat into motive +power, has up to the present met with little success. This is due to +the fact that the arrangement of the motors of this class that have +hitherto been constructed has been such as to render them but slightly +practical. In the Benier hot air engine (illustrated herewith), +however, obstacles that were once considered insurmountable have been +overcome, and the motor presents many advantages over all the types +that have preceded it. Among such advantages we shall cite the +possibility of utilizing air at a high temperature (1,200 or 1,500 +degrees), while the rubbing surfaces remain at a moderate temperature +(60 or 80 degrees). The fire grate is placed in the interior of the +cylinder, and is traversed by the cold air forced by a pump. The +expanded hot gases fill the cylinder and act against the piston +directly above the grate. + +The type herewith illustrated is of 6 horse power. The motive +cylinder, CC', is bolted to the extremity of the frame, A. Upon this +latter is fixed a column, B, which carries a working beam, E. This +latter transmits the motion of the piston, P, to the shaft, D. A pump, +G, placed within the frame, forces a certain quantity of cold air at +every revolution into the driving cylinder. The piston of this pump is +actuated by the connecting rod, G', jointed to the lever, F', which +receives its motion from the rod, F. A slide valve, _b'_, actuated by +a cam, regulates the entrance of the cold air into the pump during +suction, as well as its introduction into the cylinder. There is a +thrust upon the piston during its upward travel, and an escape of hot +gas through the eduction valve, _h_, during the downward travel. + +The cylinder is in two parts, C and C'. The piston, which is very +long, rubs at its upper end against the sides of the cylinder, C. The +lower end is of smaller diameter, and leaves an annular space between +it and the cylinder. The grate is at the bottom of the cylinder, C'. +The sides of the cylinder at the level of the fire box are protected +with a lining of plumbago. When the piston is at the bottom of its +travel, the eduction valve closes. The slide valve, _b'_, establishes +a communication between the pump chamber and the cylinder. The air +contained in the pump is already compressed in the latter to a +pressure of nearly a kilogramme at the moment of the communication. +This air enters the cylinder, and the communication between the latter +and the pump continues until all the air is forced into the driving +cylinder, the piston of the pump being at the bottom of its travel, +and that of the cylinder about midway. + +[Illustration: BENIER'S HOT AIR ENGINE.] + +The air forced by the pump piston enters the cylinder through two +conduits, one of which leads a portion of it toward the top of the +cylinder, and the other toward the bottom. The lower conduit debouches +under the grate, and the air that passes through it traverses the fire +box, and the hot gas fills the cylinder. The conduit that runs to the +top debouches in the cylinder, C, at the lower limit of the surface +rubbed by the piston. The air that traverses this conduit is +distributed through the annular space between the piston and cylinder. +The hot gas derived from combustion can therefore never introduce +itself into this annular space, and consequently cannot come into +contact with the rubbing surfaces of the cylinder and piston. + +As the quantity of air introduced at every stroke is constant, the +work developed at every stroke is varied by regulating the temperature +of the gas that fills the cylinder. When the temperature falls, the +pressure, and consequently the work developed, diminishes. This result +is obtained by varying the respective quantities of air that pass +through the fire box and around the piston. In measure as less air +passes through the fire box, the quantity that passes around the +piston augments by just so much, and the pressure diminishes. A valve, +_n'_, in the conduit that runs to the fire box is controlled by the +regulator, L', in the interior of the column. When the work to be +transmitted diminishes, the regulator closes the valve more or less, +and the work developed diminishes. + +The coke is put by shovelfuls into a hopper, I. Four buckets mounted +upon the periphery of a wheel, I', traverse the coke, and, taking up a +piece of it, let it fall upon the cover, J, of the slide valve, _j_, +whence it falls into the cavity of the latter when it is uncovered, +and from thence into the conduit, _c'_, of the box, _j'_, when the +cavity of the valve is opposite the conduit. From the conduit, _c'_, +the coke falls upon the grate. + +A small sight hole covered with glass, in the cover, J, permits the +grate to be seen when the cavity of the valve is opposite _c'_. + +As in gas engines, a current of water is made to flow around the +cylinder, C', in order to keep the sides from getting too hot. + +In order to set the engine in motion, we begin by opening the bottom, +C, of the cylinder, C', to clean the grate. This done, we close C and +introduce lighted charcoal through the conduit, _c'_ (the valve being +open). The valve is put in place, two or three revolutions are given +to the fly wheel, and the motor starts. The feeding is afterward done +with coke. + +The parts that transmit motion operate under conditions analogous to +those under which the same parts of a steam engine do. The air pump +sucks and forces nothing but cold air, and nothing but cold air passes +through the distributing slide valve. The pump and valve are therefore +rendered very durable. The piston and cylinder, at the points where +friction exists, are at a temperature of 60 or 80 degrees. These +surfaces are protected against hot gas charged with dust. + +The hot gas, which escapes from the cylinder through a valve, has +previously been cooled by contact with the sides of the cylinder and +by expansion. The eduction valve just mentioned works about like that +of a steam engine, and it is only necessary to polish it now and then +in order to keep it in good condition.--_Annales Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +YOUR FUTURE PROBLEMS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: An address to the graduating class, Stevens + Institute, Hoboken, N.J., 1887.] + +By CHARLES E. EMERY. + + +_Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen:_ It has not been considered +the duty of the speaker, in addressing the graduating class, to dwell +on the triumphs of science or the advantage of a liberal education. +These subjects have already been discussed, in connection with the +regular courses of study, better, and more at length, than he could +do. We propose rather to try and prepare the minds of the graduates +for the practical problems before them. + +All young men are impressed with the consciousness of higher powers as +they increase their stores of knowledge, and this feeling perhaps +reaches its maximum with those who have made a specialty of the +investigation and application of physical laws. Young men who have +learned how to harness the powers of nature and guide them to do their +will are apt to belittle the difficulties they have yet to overcome, +and have a false impression of the problems of life. This feeling is +shown to a minimum extent by graduates of the Stevens Institute, on +account of their careful practical training, in connection with the +thorough study of principles; but it has been thought best for one +from the outside world to supplement such teaching by calling to mind +instances which may have a useful counteracting effect, and, like +parables, serve the purpose of illustrative instruction. + +_Gentlemen of the Class of '87_: It was the pleasure of the speaker to +address the class of '79, under the title of "How to Succeed," some +words of counsel and warning, which, if they left an impression of +severity at the time, were apparently so well received afterward that +he has been tempted to continue the general subject, with the title of +"Your Future Problems." The notation of your future problems will not +be found at once among the known quantities, but with _x_, _y_, and +_z_, at the other end of the alphabet. Often word symbols will be +applicable, expressing at times disappointment and pain, at other +times renewed effort, and finally the active phases of individual +thought and exertion. + +The first serious problem with many of you will be to secure +satisfactory engagements. This problem cannot be illustrated by +parables. It needs, in general, patient, unremitting, and frequently +long continued effort. It may be that the fame of some of you, that +have already acquired the happy faculty of making yourselves +immediately useful, has already gone abroad and the coveted positions +been already assured. To be frank, we cannot promise you even a bed of +roses. We have in mind an instance where a superior authority in a +large business enterprise who had great respect, as he should have, +for the attainments of young gentlemen who have had the opportunities +of a technical education, deliberately ordered out a competent +mechanical engineer, familiar with the designs required in a large +repair shop, and sent in his place a young gentleman fresh from school +and flushed with hope, but who from the very nature of the case could +know little or nothing of his duties at that particular place. He was +practically alone in the drawing room, and did not know where to find +such drawings as were required, and candor requires it to be said that +he desired to ask many questions about those he did find. The +superintendent unfortunately had nothing to do with his appointment, +and rather resented it. So he did not trust any of his work, and the +new comer was obliged to learn his practical experience at that +establishment, where he was known as the mechanical engineer, by +having all his work done over by the pattern maker or others, under +the eye of the superintendent or master mechanic, and be subjected all +the time to the jealousies and annoyances incident to such a method of +introduction. + +His practical experience was certainly learned under difficulties +which I trust none of you may experience. This statement is made that +those of you who have not yet obtained positions may not envy those +who have, and that each and all of you may be careful not to take a +position so far above your experience, if not your capacity, as to +become unpleasantly situated in the beginning. The educational +facilities you have enjoyed are of such great value in some +exceptional cases that the parties thus benefited may do you an injury +by leading others to expect that you will be equally valuable in +performing duties which require much more practical experience and +knowledge of detail than it is possible that you could have obtained +in the time you have been here. + +The incident is ripe with suggestions. No matter how humble a position +you may take in the beginning, you will be embarrassed in much the +same way as the young gentleman in question, though it is hoped in a +less degree. Your course of action should be first to learn to do as +you are told, no matter what you think of it. And above everything +keep your eyes and ears open to obtain practical knowledge of all that +is going on about you. Let nothing escape you of an engineering +nature, though it has connection with the business in hand. It may be +your business the next day, and if you have taken advantage of the +various opportunities to know all about that particular matter in +every detail, you can intelligently act in relation to it, without +embarrassment to yourself and with satisfaction to your superior. + +Above all, avoid conflict with the practical force of the +establishment into which you are introduced. It is better, as we have +at another time advised, to establish friendly relations with the +workmen and practical men with whom you have to do. + +You are to be spared this evening any direct references to the +"conceit of learning," but you are asked and advised to bear with the +_conceit of ignorance_. You will find that practical men will be +jealous of you on account of your opportunities, and at the same time +jealous of their own practical information and experience, and that +they may take some pains to hinder rather than aid you in your +attempts to actively learn the practical details of the business. The +most disagreeable man about the establishment to persons like you, who +perhaps goes out of his way to insult you, and yet should be respected +for his age, may be one who can be of greatest use to you. Cultivate +his acquaintance. A kind word will generally be the best response to +an offensive remark, though gentlemanly words of resentment may be +necessary when others are present. Sometimes it will be sufficient to +say, "I wish a little talk with you by yourself," which will put the +bystanders at a distance and enable you to mature your plans. +Ascertain as soon as possible that man's tastes; what he reads and +what he delights in. Approach him as if you had no resentment and talk +on his favorite topic. If rebuffed, tell a pleasant story, and persist +from time to time in the attempt to please, until his hardened nature +relaxes and he begins to feel and perhaps speaks to others favorably +of you. St. Paul has said: "For though I be free from all men, yet +have I made myself servant of all that I might gain the more." This is +the keynote of policy, and though in humbling yourself you control and +hide your true feelings, recollect that all your faculties are given +you for proper use. + +We have referred to some who have acquired the happy faculty of making +themselves immediately useful. This is a much more difficult matter +than the words imply. If one of you should be so fortunate as to be +ordered to make certain tests almost like those you have already +conducted here, or to tabulate the results of tests as you have done +it here, or to make inspections akin to those which have been fully +explained here, there is every probability the work would be done +satisfactorily in the first instance. But let a much _simpler_ case +arise, for instance, if a superior hand one of you a letter with the +simple instructions, "Get me the facts on that," you may be very much +puzzled to know what is to be done and how to do it. It may be that +the letter is a request for information in regard to certain work that +was carried on in the past, in which case it will be necessary for you +to hunt through old records, copy books, engineering notes, drawings, +and the like, and get a list of all referring to the subject; to make +an abstract of the letters and notes if they are at all complicated; +and finally to lay the whole before the overworked superior in a +business manner, that he largely from recollection, aided by the +references and notes, can write an intelligent answer in a very brief +period. The way not to do it would be to say, "Yes, sir," very +promptly, go off and not more than half read the letter, do something +and be back in five minutes with some question or ill-digested answer; +then upon receiving a polite hint as to the method to be employed, go +off and repeat the operation the next five minutes; then on receiving +a short reply, in what appeared to be an unnecessary tone of voice, +get a little flurried perhaps, do worse next time, and in the end feel +very unpleasant without having accomplished much, and make the +gentleman seeking assistance lament the difficulty in teaching young +men practical work. + +It is possible, on the contrary, for a young man to exceed his +instructions and volunteer advice that has not been asked. If he has +unfortunately gone too far for some time and been sharply spoken to, +he may fail the next in not fully doing the work intended. Simply +putting down a column of figures would not necessarily mean tabulating +facts. The arrangement and rearrangement of the columns aid in +classifying such facts, so that the results shown by them will be +readily seen and a great deal of labor saved in examination. A good +rule in a case of this kind is to try and find some work done by other +parties of a similar nature, and thereby ascertain what is needed and +expected. Reasonable questions to ascertain, where records are to be +found and the kind of records accessible, are always proper if made at +the proper time without interrupting an immediate train of thought; +and with such information as a start, if a young man will endeavor to +imagine himself in a place like that of the one who has finally to +decide, and try to ascertain just what information will probably be +required, then patiently go to work to find and present it in +condensed shape, he from that moment really begins to be useful and +his services will be rapidly appreciated. It is a good rule always to +keep the memoranda obtained in accomplishing a result of this kind; so +that if further information is required, the whole investigation need +not be made over. + +This remark suggests another line of thought. Some young men with +quick perceptions get in the way at school of trusting their memories, +and omit making complete notes of lectures or of the various tests +illustrating their studies. This carelessness follows them into after +life, and there are instances where young men, who can make certain +kinds of investigations much better than their fellows, and promptly +give a statement of the general nature of the results, have, when +called on afterward for the details, forgotten then entirely, and +their notes and memoranda, if preserved, being of little use, the +labor is entirely lost. Such men necessarily have to learn more +careful ways in after life. It is a good rule in this, as in the +previous case, to make and copy complete records of everything in such +shape that they may be convenient for reference and criticism +afterward. + +One of the important problems with which you will have to deal in the +future is the labor question, and it is probable that your very first +experience with it may be in direct antagonism with the opinions of +many with whom you have heretofore been associated. It is an honor to +the feelings of those who stand outside and witness this so-called +struggle now in progress between capital and labor, that they believe +the whole question can be settled by kindly treatment and reasonable +argument. There are some cases that will yield to such treatment, and +one's whole duty is not performed till all possible, reasonable, and +humanitarian methods are adopted. There has been an excuse for the +organization of labor, and it, to some small extent, still exists. + +Time was that the surplus of unskilled labor was used on a mercantile +basis to reduce wages to such an extent that it was almost impossible +to rear a well nurtured, much less a well educated and well dressed +family, and, moreover, the hours of labor in some branches of business +were so long as to shorten the lives of operatives and make +self-improvement impossible. The natural progress of civilizing +influence did much to abate many of these evils, but the organization +of labor removed sores that had not and perhaps could not have been +reached in other ways. Having then an excuse for organization, and +supported by the success made in directions where public sympathy was +with them, is it to be wondered that they have gone too far in very +many cases, and that the leadership of such organization has in many +instances been captured by designing men, who control the masses to +accomplish selfish ends? Whatever may have been the method of +evolution, it is certain that the manufacturing operations of the +present day have to meet with elements entirely antagonistic to their +interests, and in very many ways antagonistic to the interests of the +workingman. The members of many organizations, even of intelligent +men, are blindly led by chiefs of various titles, of which perhaps the +walking delegate is the most offensive one to reasonable people. This +class of men claim the right to intrude themselves into the +establishments owned by others, and on the most trivial grounds make +demands more or less unreasonable, and order strikes and otherwise +interfere with the work of manufacturers, much in the way that we have +an idea that the agents of the barbarbous chieftains, feudal lords, +and semi-civilized rulers collected taxes and laid burdens in earlier +historical times. Necessarily these men must use their power so as to +insure its permanency. If strikes are popular, strikes must be +ordered. If funds run low, excuses for strikes, it is believed, in +many cases are sought, so as to stir the pulses of those who +sympathize with the labor cause. + +Co-operation has been suggested as a cure for the evil, and there are +cases where it has apparently succeeded, in connection with the +earlier forms of labor organization. The ambition of later labor +leaders almost prevents this remedy being of effect. It may be +possible still with very intelligent workmen, isolated from the large +mass of workmen in the country towns, to feel an interest in +co-operation; but such inducements, or the higher ones of personal +kindness to employes or their families, are not of much effect in +large manufacturing centers. As soon as dissatisfaction exists in one +mill or manufactory, all similar employes are ordered out. The final +result will be that combinations of employers must follow the +combination of employes, and those who have always been strong in the +past will be stronger in the future, as has appeared to be the case in +many contests that have already taken place. If there are any real +abuses of power by the employers, such as requiring work for unusual +hours or at less than living rates, the first thing to do is to +correct these abuses, so that complaints will not be upon a sound +foundation. Some men, when the labor epidemic strikes their places, +have sufficient force of character and influence with their men to +avert the blow for some time. Others find it is policy to compromise +with the representatives until a plan of action, conciliatory, +offensive, or defensive, can be determined upon. The whole matter must +be considered one of policy rather than of principles. The class of +men to be dealt with do not talk principles except as an excuse to +secure their ends. + +In spite of everything, there will be times when no compromise is +possible and you will be called upon to take part in defending your +employers' interests against what is called a "strike." You can do so +with heart when you know the employes are all well paid, and +particularly, as is frequently the case, when the labor organizers and +walking delegates claim that some old, tried foreman shall be +dismissed because they do like him, really because he has not been a +tool in carrying out their plans, and they defiantly acknowledge that +their war is against non-union labor, and that they have organized +your men and forced a strike to require your establishment to become +as it is called a "union shop." If your deluded employes were +permitted simply to go away and let you alone, and you were permitted +to employ others at the reasonable wages you were paying, the problem +would be a simple one. The principal labor organizations claim that +everything they do is by peaceable methods, but this, like many things +said, is simply to deceive, for if you attempt to employ other +assistants and carry on your business independently, you will surely +find that well known roughs are assembled who never do anything +without they are paid for it by somebody, that your men are assaulted +by such persons, and while the labor organizers talk about peaceable +methods and urge them aloud in public, in case one of the roughs is +arrested, the loud talkers are the first to go bail for the defender, +and you will feel morally sure that the sympathizing crowd with the +roughs who make the assaults are all part of or tools of the +organization. + +At such times, you will find your old employes standing around the +street corners, persuading other men not to go to work and thus +interfere with what are called the true interests of labor. Any new +employe who has to go in the street will be first met with inducements +of other employment, with offers of money, afterward with threats, +and, if opportunity occurs, with direct assault. All the features of +persuasion, intimidation, and violence will be carried out as +demanded, and strangers to everybody in the vicinity, but well known +as experienced leaders in this kind of work in other places, be +brought in to endeavor to make the strike a success. Then, young men, +is the time to show your pluck, and our experience is that educated +young men will do so every time. They can be depended upon to go +straight ahead with duty through every danger, bearing patiently +everything that may be said, defending themselves with nature's +weapons as long as possible, and without fear using reserve weapons in +case real danger of life is imminent. + +In carrying through a very important strike against a mere desire to +control and not to correct abuses, your speaker desires to pay the +highest tribute to a number of educated young men, mostly from the +technical schools, who fearlessly faced every danger, and by their +example stimulated others to do their duty, and all participated in +the results obtained by a great success. + +We would not by such references fire your hearts to a desire to +participate in such an unpleasant contest. It is the duty of all to +study this problem intelligently and earnestly, with a view of +overcoming the difficulties and permitting the prosperity of the +country to go on. While conciliation may be best at some times, policy +at another, and resistance at another, we must also be thinking of the +best means to prevent further outbreaks. It would seem to be true +policy not to interfere with organization, but to try and direct it +into higher channels. Those of the humanitarians who claim that the +disease will be rooted out eventually by a more general and better +education are undoubtedly largely in the right, notwithstanding that +some fairly educated men have acted against their best interests in +affiliating with the labor organizations. It seems to the speaker that +enough instances can be collected to show the utter folly of the +present selfish system, based, as it is, entirely on getting all that +is possible, independent of right in the matter, and by demanding +equal wages for all men, tending to lower all to one common +degradation, instead of rewarding industry and ability and advancing +the cause of civilization. + +Labor should not be organized for selfish ends, but for its own good, +_so as to secure steady and permanent employment_, rather than prevent +it by impracticable schemes and unwise methods, which will cripple +manufacturers and all kinds of industry. The men should organize under +the general laws of the State, so that their leaders will be +responsible to the laws and can be indicted, tried, and punished in +case they misappropriate funds or commit any breach of trust; and such +laws should be amended if necessary, so that wise, responsible leaders +of the organizations can contract to furnish labor for a certain time +at a fixed price, when manufacturers can make calculations ahead as to +the cost of labor the same as for the cost of material, and have such +confidence that they will use all their energies to do a larger amount +of business and benefit the workingman as well as themselves by +furnishing steady employment. Such a plan as is here outlined can +readily be carried into effect by selecting better men as leaders. It +is well known how well the organization known as the locomotive +brotherhood is conducted, and it should be an example to others. It +has had its day of dissensions, when the best counsels did not +prevail, which shows that any organization of the kind, no matter how +well conducted, may be diverted by its leaders into improper channels. + +When organized under the laws of the State and under by-laws designed +to secure steady employment, rather than any artificial condition of +things in regard to pay hours, and continuance of labor, the true +interests of the workman will be advanced. It may be that some one of +you will develop a talent in the direction of organization and be the +means of aiding in the solution of this great problem. Please think of +the matter seriously, watch the law of evolution while you are +advancing your professional knowledge, and if the opportunity offers, +do all you can to aid in a cause so important and beneficent. + +One writer has criticised the technical schools because they do not +teach mechanical intuition. The schools have enough to do in the time +available if they teach principles and sufficient practice to enable +the principles to be understood. The aptitude to design, which must be +what is meant by mechanical intuition, requires very considerable +practical experience, which you will readily learn if you do not keep +yourself above it. If you have used your leisure hours to study why a +certain piece of mechanism was made in a certain way rather than in +another; if you have wondered why one part is thick in one place +rather than in another, apparently in defiance of all rules of the +strength of material; if you have endeavored to ascertain why a +particular device is used rather than another more evident one; if you +have thought and studied why a boss is thrown in here and there in +designs to receive bolts or to lengthen a journal, and if you have in +your mind, by repeated observation, a fair idea of how work is +designed by other people, the so-called _mechanical intuition_ will be +learned and found to be the _combination of common sense and good +practice_. + +You will observe that some details have been copied for years and +years, although thoughtful men would say they are not the best, simply +because they are adapted to a large amount of work already done. This +is particularly true of the rolling stock on railroads. The cost of a +change in starting in a new country might be warranted, but it +practically cannot be done when the parts must interchange with so +much work done in other parts of the country. You will find in other +cases that the direct strain to which a piece of mechanism is +subjected is only one of the strains which occur in practice. A piece +of metal may have been thickened where it customarily broke, and you +may possibly surmise that certain jars took place that caused such +breakages, or that particular point was where the abuse of the +attendant was customarily applied. + +Wherever you go you will find matters of this kind affecting designs +staring you in the face, and you will soon see why a man who has +learned his trade in the shop, and from there worked into the drawing +room with much less technical information than you have, can get along +as well as he does. Reserve your strength, however. Your time will +come. Whenever there is a new departure to be taken, and matters to be +worked out from the solid which require close computation of strains +or the application of any principles, your education will put you far +ahead, and if you have, during the period of what may be called your +post-graduate course, which occurs during your early introduction into +practical life, been careful to keep your eyes and ears open so as to +learn all that a man in practical life has done, you will soon stand +far ahead. + +Reference was made to the use of leisure hours. Leisure hours can be +spent in various ways. For instance, in studying the composition and +resolution of forces and the laws of elasticity in a billiard room, +the poetry of motion, etc., in a ball room, and the chemical +properties of various malt and vinous extracts in another room; but +the philosophical reason why certain engineering work is done in the +way it is, and the proper way in which new work shall be done of a +similar character and original work of any kind carried on, can only +be learned by cultivating your powers of observation and ruminating on +the facts collected in the privacy of one's own room, away from the +allurements provided for those who have nothing to do. No one would +recommend you to so separate yourself from the world as to sacrifice +health and strength, or to become a recluse, even if you did learn all +about a certain thing. + +Remember, however, that the men who have accomplished most in this +world worked the longest hours, and any one with a regular occupation +must utilize his leisure hours to obtain prestige. The difference +between one man and another of the same natural ability lies entirely +in the amount of his information and the facility with which he can +use it. Life is short, and you must realize that now is your +opportunity. If any diversion in the way of pleasure or even certain +kinds of congenial work is offered, consider it in connection with the +question, "Will this be conducive to my higher aim?" This implies that +you have a higher aim; and if you have it, and weigh everything in +this way, you will find that every moment of exertion adds something +to your storehouse of information and brings you nearer to the +accomplishment of that higher aim. + +In closing, we thank the ladies and gentlemen present for their close +attention to details of special interest only to those engaged in +technical study or practice. + +We congratulate you, young gentlemen of the class of '87, for the +success you have thus far obtained, and trust that you will persevere +in well doing and win greater success in the future. We need hardly +state that all that has been said was in a spirit of kindness, and we +feel assured that much of it has been seconded by your parents, to +whom no less than to all parents here present off or on the stage, the +speaker not excepted, a serious, thoughtful problem has been, still +is, and will continue to be to many, "What shall we do with our +boys."--_Stevens Indicator._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HEATING MARINE BOILERS WITH LIQUID FUEL. + + +We were recently witness of an experiment made at Eragny Conflans on +the steam yacht Flamboyante. It was a question of testing a new +vaporizer or burner for liquid fuel. The experiment was a repetition +of the one that the inventor, Mr. G. Dietrich, recently performed with +success in the presence of Admirals Cloue and Miot. + +The Flamboyante is 58 ft. in length, 9 ft. in width, draws 5 ft. of +water, and has a displacement of 10 tons. She is provided with a +double vertical engine supplied by a Belleville boiler that develops +28 horse power. The screw makes 200 revolutions per minute, and gives +the yacht a speed of 61/2 knots. + +Mr. Dietrich's vaporizer appears to be very simple, and has given so +good results that we have thought it of interest to give our readers a +succinct description of it. In this apparatus, the inventor has +endeavored to obtain an easy regulation of the two essential +elements--naphtha and steam. + +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus in section. The steam enters through +the tubulure, A, and finds its way around the periphery of a tuyere, +D. It escapes with great velocity, carries along the petroleum that +runs from two lateral tubulures, B (Fig. 2), and throws it in a fine +spray into the fireplace, through the nozzle, C (Fig. 1), which is +flattened into the shape of a fan opened out horizontally. The mixture +at once ignites in contact with the hot gases, and gives a beautiful, +long, clear flame. The air necessary for the combustion is sucked +through the interior of the nozzle, H, which is in front of the +tuyere. It will be seen that the current of steam can be regulated by +moving the tuyere, D, from or toward the eduction orifice. This is +effected through a maneuver of the hand wheel, F. In the second place, +the flow of the petroleum is made regular by revolving the hand wheel, +G, which gives the piston, O, a to and fro motion in the tuyere, D. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--THE DIETRICH PETROLEUM BURNER.] + +The regulation may be performed with the greatest ease. It is possible +to instantly vary, together or separately, the steam and the +petroleum. Under such circumstances, choking is not to be feared at +the petroleum orifice, where, according to experiment, the thickness +of the substance to be vaporized should not be less than 0.04 of an +inch. + +The petroleum might evidently be made to enter at A and the steam at +B; but one of the conclusions of the experiments cited is that the +performance is better when the jet of steam surrounds the petroleum. +It will be understood, in fact, that by this means not a particle of +the liquid can escape vaporization and, consequently, combustion. +Moreover, as the jet of petroleum is completely surrounded by steam +its flow can be increased within the widest limits, and this, in +certain cases, may prevent an obstruction without much diminishing the +useful effect of the burner. + +The apparatus is easily and rapidly taken apart. It it is only +necessary to remove the nozzle, C, in order to partially clean it. It +would even seem that the cleaning might be done automatically by +occasionally reversing the flow of the steam and petroleum. However +efficacious such a method might prove, the apparatus as we have +described it can be very easily applied to any generator. Fig. 2 +represents it as applied to the front of a furnace provided with two +doors. A metallic box, with two compartments, is placed on one side of +the furnace, and is provided with two stuffing boxes that are capable +of revolving around the steam and petroleum pipes. The latter thus +form the pivots of the hinge that allows of the play of the vaporizers +and piping. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--THE BURNER APPLIED TO THE FURNACE OF A BOILER.] + +It was in this way that Mr. Dietrich arranged his apparatus in an +experiment made upon a stationary boiler belonging to a Mr. Corpet. +The experiment was satisfactory and led to the adoption of the +arrangement shown in Fig. 3. The fire bridge is constructed of +refractory bricks, and the majority of the grate bars are filled in +with brick. The few free bars permit of the firing of the boiler and +of access of air to the interior of the fire box. Under such +circumstances, the combustion is very regular, the furnace does not +roar, and the smoke-consuming qualities are perfect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3--APPLICATION OF THE BURNER TO A RETURN FLAME +BOILER.] + +In the experiment on the Flamboyante, the boiler was provided with but +one apparatus, and the grate remained covered with a layer of ignited +coal that had been used for firing up in order to obtain the necessary +pressure of steam to set the vaporizer in operation. This ignited coal +appeared to very advantageously replace the refractory bricks, the +role of which it exactly fulfilled. It has been found well, moreover, +to break the flames by a few piles of bricks in the furnace, in order +to obtain as intimate a mixture as possible of the inflammable gases. + +It is to be remarked that firing up in order to obtain the necessary +steam at first is a drawback that might be surmounted by using at the +beginning of the operation a very small auxiliary boiler. The main +furnace would then be fired by means of say a wad of cotton. But, in +current practice, if a grate and fire be retained, the firing will +perhaps be simpler. + +With but one apparatus, the pressure in the Flamboyante's boiler rose +in a few minutes from 6 to 25 pounds, and about a quarter of an hour +after leaving the wharf the apparatus had been so regulated that there +was no sign of smoke. This property of the Dietrich burner proceeds +naturally from the use of a jet of steam to carry along the petroleum +and air necessary for combustion. It is, in fact, an Orvis smoke +consumer transformed, and applied in a special way. + +It must be added that the regulating requires a certain amount of +practice and even a certain amount of time at every change in the +boat's running. So it is well to use two, and even three, apparatus, +of a size adapted to that of the boiler. The regulation of the furnace +temperature is then effected by extinguishing one or two, or even +three, of the apparatus, according as it is desired to slow up more or +less or to come to a standstill. + +The oil used by Mr. De Dosme on his yacht comes from Comaille, near +Antun. The price of it is quite low, and, seeing the feeble +consumption (from 33 to 45 lb. for the yacht's boiler), it competes +advantageously with the coal that Mr. De Dosme was formerly obliged to +use.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9935.] + + + + +THE CHANGE OF GAUGE OF SOUTHERN RAILROADS IN 1886.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A paper read before the Western Society of Engineers, + June 7, 1887.] + +By C.H. HUDSON. + + +Many of the wheels that were still in use with the long hub were put +into a lathe, and a groove was cut an inch and a half back from the +face, leaving our cast collar, which was easily split off as before. +(Fig. 24.) + +With tender wheels, as with our car wheels, the case was different. +Originally, the axle for the 5 ft. gauge was longer than for the 4 ft. +9 in.; but latterly the 5 ft. roads had used a great many master car +builders' axles for the 4 ft. 9 in. gauge, namely, 6 ft. 111/4 in. over +all, thus making the width of the truck the same as for 4 ft. 9 in. +gauge. To do this a dished wheel, or rather a wheel with a greater +dish by 11/2 in. than previously used, was needed, so that the tread of +the wheel could be at its proper place. (See Fig. 25.) There were, of +course, many of the wheels with small dish and long axles still in +use. Their treatment, however, when the day of change came, did not +vary from that of the short axle. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24 and FIG. 25] + +It had been the rule for some years that all axles should be turned +back 11/2 in. further than needed; but unfortunately the rule had not +been closely followed, and many were found not to be so turned. To +make the matter worse, quite a number of the wheels were found to have +been counterbored about 1/2 in. deep at the back end, and the axle +turned up to fit this counterbore; a good idea to prevent the running +in, in case the wheel worked loose, but bad from the standpoint of a +change of gauge. In such cases the wheels had to be started off before +the axle could be turned back, so that the wheels could be pushed on +in their proper position. (Fig. 26.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 26] + +If the work was done where they had a lathe large enough to swing a +pair of wheels, they were pressed off but half an inch, the wheels +swung in the lathe, the axles turned back 11/2 in., and the wheels then +pressed on 2 in. or 11/2 in. inside of their first position. + +Where no large lathe was in use, the wheels came entirely off before +the axles could be turned back. The work in the former case was both +the quicker and the cheaper. Where the large lathes were used they +were either set down into the floor, so a pair of wheels would easily +roll into place, or a raised platform was put before the lathe, with +an incline up which the wheels were rolled and then taken to the +lathe. These arrangements were found much quicker and cheaper than to +hoist the wheels up, as is usually done. + +In pressing the wheels on, where the axles had previously been turned +back, much trouble was at first experienced because of the rust that +had gathered upon the turned part behind the wheel, forming a ridge +over or upon which the wheel must be pushed. Some of the roads, at the +start, burst 10 or 15 per cent. of the wheels so pressed on. By +saturating this surface with coal oil, however, it was found that the +rust was easily removed and little trouble was had. It was found, +sometimes, that upon axles newly turned back a careless workman would +leave a ridge at the starting point of the turning. Frequently also +the axles were a little sprung, so that the new turning would be a +little scant upon one side when compared with the old surface, and +upon the opposite side a little full. As an indication that these +difficulties were overcome as they appeared, I will say that upon our +line only 202 wheels burst out of nearly 27,000 pressed on--an +exceedingly small percentage. + +After the change upon the early roads they were troubled for weeks +with hot boxes, caused, as we believed, by the changing of brasses. A +brass once fitted to a journal will work upon it without trouble, but +when placed upon some other journal will probably not fit. If the +journal had been worn hollow (and it was surprising to see how many +were so worn), the brass would be found worn down to fit it. (See Fig. +27. Exaggerated, of course.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 27 and FIG. 28] + +The next wheel may have an axle worn little or none. (See Fig. 28) + +Now, if these brasses are exchanged, we have the conditions as shown +in Figs. 29 and 30, and we must expect they will heat. The remedy was +simply to keep each brass upon its own journal. To do this the brasses +were fastened to the axle by a piece of small wire, and went with it +to the lathe and press. When its truck was reached, the brass was +there with its journal. Worn-out brasses, of course, could not be put +in, and new ones were substituted. The little trouble from that source +that followed the change showed the efficacy of the remedy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29 and FIG. 30] + +The manner in which the tires of engines were to be changed, when the +final day came, was a serious question. The old-fashioned fire upon +the ground could not be thought of. The M. & O. had used a fire of +pine under the wheel, which was covered by a box of sheet iron, so +arranged that the flame and heat would be conveyed around the tire, +and out at an aperture at the top. (Fig. 31.) Many thought this +perfect, while others were not satisfied, and began experiments for +something better. A device for using gas had been patented, but it was +somewhat complicated, as well as expensive, and did not meet with +general favor. A very simple device was soon hit upon. A two inch pipe +was bent around in a circle a little larger than the outer rim of the +wheel. Holes 1/10 in. in diameter and 3 or 4 in. apart were drilled +through the pipe on the inside of the circle. To this pipe was +fastened another with a branch or fork upon it. To one branch or fork +was connected a gas pipe from the meter, while to the other was +connected a pipe from an air pump. With the ordinary pressure of city +gas upon this pipe it was found that the air pump must keep an air +pressure of 40 pounds, that the air and gas might mix properly at the +branch or fork, so we could get the best combustion and most heat from +our "blowpipe," for such it was. (Fig. 32.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 31 and FIG. 32] + +We were able to heat a tire so it could be moved in ten to twenty +minutes, and the machine may be said to have been satisfactory. + +Gas, however, was not to be had at all places where it would be +necessary to change tires, and the item of cost was considerable. + +To reach a result as good, if possible, experiments were begun with +coal oil (headlight oil). They were crude and unsatisfactory at first, +but soon success was reached. + +A pipe was bent to fit the lower half of a wheel pretty closely and +then turned back under itself about the diameter of the pipe distant +from it. This under part had holes 1/10 in. diameter and 3 or 4 in. +apart drilled upon its upper side or under the upper pipe. Connected +with the upper pipe at its center was a pipe which ran to one side and +up to the can containing the kerosene. Between the can and the pipe +under the wheel was a stop cock, by which the flow of oil could be +controlled. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33] + +To use the device, open the cock and let a small amount of oil flow; +apply fire to the pipe under the wheel, and the oil in the upper pipe +is converted into gas, which flows out of the small holes in the lower +pipe, takes fire, and heats not only the tire, but the upper pipe, +thus converting more oil into gas. We had here a lot of blue flame +jets and the same result as with gas, but at less cost. We had also a +machine that was inexpensive and easily handled anywhere. Boxes were +placed over the upper parts of the wheels, that the heat might pass +closely to the tire. This device was extensively used by our people, +and with great satisfaction. In one way care had to be taken, viz.: +That in starting the fire it did not smoke and cover the tire with +carbon or "lampblack," which is a non-conductor of heat. + +Experiments were made with air forced through gasoline, and with oil +heated in a can to form gas. There was more danger in either of these +than with our blowpipe device, and no better results were obtained, +though the cost was greater. + +With the change of the wheels, the brakes had to be changed the same +amount, that is, each one set in 11/2 in. This it was thought would +either require new hangers or a change in the head or shoe in some +way. We found that the hangers could easily be bent without removal. +Fig. 34 shows three hangers after passing through the bending process. +A short lever arranged to clasp the hanger just below the point, A, +was the instrument; a forked "shore" is now placed, with the fork, +against the point, A, and the other end against the car sill; press +down on the lever and you bend the hanger at A; lower the lever to a +point just below B, reverse the process, and you have the bend at B; +the whole thing taking less than two minutes per hanger. A new bolt +hole, of course, has been bored in the brake beam 11/2 in. inside the +old hole. It takes but a short time after this to change the position +of the head and shoe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 34] + +Before the day of change, a portion of the spikes were drawn from the +inside of the rail to be moved, and spike set 3 in. inside of the +rail. As a rule two spikes were drawn and the third left. At least +every third spike was set for the new gauge, and in some cases every +other one. + +There were several devices with which to set the spike. A small piece +of iron 3 in. wide was common, and answered the purpose well. This had +a handle, sometimes small, just large enough for the hand to clasp, +while others had a handle long enough for a man to use it without +stooping down. (See Figs. 35 and 36.) Another device is shown in Fig. +37, so arranged that the measurements were made from the head of the +other rail. This was liked best, and, it is thought, gave the best +results, as the moved rail was more likely to be in good line than +when the measurements were taken from the flange. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35, FIG. 36 and FIG. 37] + +It was intended that great care should be taken in driving the spikes, +that they were in the proper place, square with the rail, and left +sticking up about an inch. + +The ties, of course, were all adzed down before the day of change. + +"Handspikes" were originally used to throw the rails, as were lining +bars. + +We found, however, that small "cant hooks" were more easily handled +and did better work. The first were made like Fig. 38, with a spike in +the end of a stick, while the hook was fastened with a bolt about 10 +or 12 inches above the foot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38 and FIG. 39] + +We afterward made them of a 11/4 in. rod, 31/2 ft. long, pointed at one +end, with a ring shrunk on 1 ft. from the bottom. Then the hook was +made with an eye, as shown in Fig. 39, which slipped down over the top +of the main rod. This was simple and cheap, and the iron was to be +used for repair purposes when this work was done. + +Upon the system with which the writer was connected we had some +branches where we could experiment upon the moving of the rail. +Between Selma and Lauderdale the traffic was light, and at Lauderdale +it connected with the Mobile & Ohio Railroad, which was narrow, and to +which all freight had to be transferred, either by hoisting the cars +or by handling through the house. By changing our gauge we would +simply change the point of transfer to Selma. Here was a chance to +experiment upon one hundred miles and cause little trouble to traffic. +We could see the practical workings of our plans, and, at the same +time, leave less to do on the final day. Upon the 20th of April we did +this work. It had been our plan to do it somewhat earlier, but floods +prevented. + +Most of the rail was old chair iron, short, and consequently more time +was used in making the change than would have been required had our +work been on fishplate rail. Our sections here were about eight miles +long, and we arranged our men on the basis blocked out by the +committee, viz., 24 to 26 men to the section, consisting of 6 spike +pullers, 4 throwing rails, 12 spikers, 2 to push the cars and carry +water. + +We soon found 5 ft. cars useless, and threw them into the ditch to be +picked up at some future time. + +The men were spread out so as not to be in each other's way, and when +the organization was understood and conformed to, it worked well. One +gang changed 5 miles in 5 hours and 10 minutes, including a number of +switches. We found, however, and it was demonstrated still more +strongly on later work, that after 5 or 6 miles the men began to lag. + +We believed we had the best results when we had sections of about that +length. + +It was arranged that two sections, alternately, commenced work +together at one point, working from each other and continuing until +the force of another section was met, working from the opposite +direction. + +The foreman in charge was expected to examine the work and know that +all was right. The push car which followed was a good test as to +gauge. + +A work train was started from each end with a small force (20 or 25 +men) to run over the changed track. This train, of course, had been +changed on a previous day to be ready for this work. + +If a force was overtaken by this train with its work not done, the men +on the train were at once spread out to aid in its completion. This +done, the train ran on. + +Not until this was done was a traffic train allowed to pass over the +track. The same rule was followed upon all the work. + +Upon the final day it was required that upon all high trestles and in +tunnels the track should be full-spiked before being left or a train +let over. This took extra time and labor, and possibly was not +necessary; but it was a precaution on the side of safety. + +Upon the day of the change of the Alabama Central Division (Selma to +Lauderdale), superintendents of other divisions, with their road +masters, supervisors, master mechanics and many section foremen, were +sent over to see the organization and work and the preparations that +had been made. Many of them lent a helping hand in the work. They saw +here in practice what had only been theory before. + +About a week before the general change that portion of the road +between Rome, Ga., and Selma, Ala., about 200 miles, was changed, and +again men from other divisions were sent to see and aid in the work. +So when the final day came, the largest possible number of men were +able to work understandingly. + +On the last day of May the Memphis & Charleston, Knoxville & Ohio, and +North Carolina branch were changed, and on June 1 the line from +Bristol to Chattanooga and Brunswick. + +Other roads changed their branch lines a day or two before the 1st of +June; but the main lines, as a rule, were changed on that day. + +It was a small matter to take care of the cars and arrange the train +service so there should be no hitches. It was not expected that +connections would move freight during the 48 hours prior to the +change, and these days were spent in clearing the road of everything, +and taking the cars to the points of rendezvous. All scheduled freight +trains were abandoned on the day prior to the change, and only trains +run _to_ such points. + +Upon the East Tennessee system these points were Knoxville, Rome, +Atlanta, Macon, Huntsville, and Memphis, and to these points all cars +must go, loaded or empty, and there they were parked upon the tracks +prepared for the purpose. Passenger trains were run to points where it +had been arranged to change them, generally to the general changing +point. + +Most of the Southern roads have double daily passenger service. Upon +all roads one of these trains, upon the day of change, was abandoned, +and upon some all. Some, even, did not run till next day. + +We were able to start the day trains out by 10 or 11 o'clock A.M., and +put them through in fair time. Of course, no freights were run that +day, and the next day was used in getting the cars which had been +changed out of the parks and into line. So our freight traffic over +the entire South was suspended practically three days. + +The work of changing was to commence at 3:30 A.M., but many of the men +were in position at an earlier hour, and did commence work as soon as +the last train was over, or an hour or so before the fixed time. +Half-past three A.M., however, can be set down as the general hour of +commencement. + +For five or six hours in the cool morning the work went on briskly, +the men working with much more than ordinary enthusiasm. But the day +was warm, and after 9 or 10 A.M. it began to lag. All was done, +however, before the day was over, and safe, so that trains could pass +at full speed. + +The men all received $1.50 for the work, whether it was finished early +or late in the day, and were paid that afternoon as soon as the work +was done. Tickets were given the men, which the nearest agent paid, +remitting as cash to the treasurer. + +On some lines it was deemed best to offer prizes to those who got +through first. + +Reports showed some very early finishes. But the facts seem to have +been that under such encouragement the men were apt to pull _too many_ +spikes before the change and put _too few_ in while changing. They +were thus reported through early, but their work was not done, and +they took great chances. + +It was by most considered unwise to offer such prizes, preferring to +have a little more time taken and be sure that all was safe. Such +lines seemed to get their trains in motion with as much promptness as +others. This, with freedom from accident, was the end sought. + +It was found after the work had been done that there had been little +inaccuracies in driving the gauge spike, to which the rail was thrown, +probably from various causes. The rail to be moved may not always have +been exactly in its proper place, and then the template in the hurry +may not have been accurately placed, or the spike may have turned or +twisted. + +Whatever was the cause, it was found that frequently the line on the +moved side was not perfect, and, of course, many spikes had to be +drawn and the rail lined up and respiked. The more careful the work +had been done, the less of this there was to do afterward. With rough +track this was least seen. The nearer perfect, the more noticeable it +was. + +Of course, we all planned to get foreign cars home and have ours sent +to us. But when the interchange stopped, we found we had many foreign +cars, which, of course, had to be changed. This subject had come up in +convention and it had been voted to charge three dollars per car when +axles did not need turning, and five dollars where they did. By +comparison with the cost of changing, as shown in this paper, it will +be seen that to our company, at least, there was no loss at these +figures. + +The following tables will explain the work done upon the Louisville & +Nashville and East Tennessee, Virginia & Georgia systems. + +It is to be regretted that the writer has not at hand information +regarding other roads, that fuller statements and comparisons might be +made and the showings be of greater value. + +The figures of the Mobile & Ohio are added, having been compiled from +the annual report of that road. + + + MOBILE & OHIO RAILROAD. + (_Compiled from Annual Report._) + +________________________________________________________________________ + | | | | | | + | Number | Cost of | Cost of | Total |Average| + |Changed.| Labor. | Material | Cost. | Cost. | + |________|__________|__________|__________|_______| + | | | | | | +Engines and tenders. | 47 |$ 8,031.42|$ 7,276.86|$15,308.28|$325.70| +Pass., bag., ex. cars.| 55 | 439.37| 104.25| 542.62| 9.87| +Freight cars, 1,361. }|1,4681/2 | 5,719.03| 739.57| 6,458.60| 4.40| +Freight trucks, 1071/2.}| | | | | | +Lever and push cars. | 143 | 1,427.55| 476.93| 1,904.48| 13.32| + | | | | | | + | Miles. | | | | | +Track (inc. sidings). | 583.5 | 17,109.53| 7,275.14| 24,384.87| 41.79| +Bridges. | 583.5 | 1,896.60| 190.00| 2,086.60| 3.58| +Track tools. | 583.5 | 170.72| 1,405.74| 1,576.46| 2.70| +Shop tools. | 583.5 | 419.70| 2,982.90| 3,402.60| 5.83| +Temp. side tracks. | 12.09| 1,958.94| 372.37| 2,331.31| 192.83| +Switching cars. | | 1,398.18| 16.50| 1,414.68| | +Car hoists. | | 2,499.38| 4,419.34| 6,918.72| | + |________|__________|__________|__________|_______| + | | | | | | + Total cost. | |$41,069.42|$25,259.60|$66,329.02| | + Total average cost | | | | | | + per mile. | | | | |$113.68| +______________________|________|__________|__________|__________|_______| + + + LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE RAILROAD. + (_Compiled from Annual Report._) + + +Miles of track--Main line 1,893.7 + --Side track 196.3 + ------- 2,090.0 + Cost + Track. Total. per Mile. +Section labor--Before day of change $28,106.60 + --On day of change 20,090.42 + --After day of change 19,713.19 + ---------- $67,910.21 $32.49 +Carpenter labor 3,799.19 1.82 +Spikes 20,873.70 9.99 +Switches 6,331.85 3.03 +Tools 2,749.50 1.31 +Hand cars and sundries 5,691.39 2.72 + ----------- ------ + Total $107,855.84 $51.36 + + _Equipment._ + Average + Number. Total. Cost. +Locomotives 264 $53,480.98 $202.58 +Cars (300 of these passenger--3.5%) 8,537 49,577.20 5.81 + ----------- -------- + Total cost $210,414.02 + Total average cost per mile $100.67 + + + EAST TENNESSEE, VIRGINIA & GEORGIA SYSTEM. + +__________________________________________________________________________ + | | | | | | + | Number | Cost of | Cost of | Total |Average| + | Changed.| Labor. | Material | Cost. | Cost. | + |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______| + | | | | | | +Engines and tenders. | 180 |$ 8,227.47|$ 2,904.30|$ 11,131.77|$ 61.82| +Pass., bag., and mail | | | | | | + cars. | 168 | 734.93| 59.67| 794.60| 4.73| +Freight cars and | | | | | | + cabooses. | 5,175 | 17,425.57| 1,224.08| 18,649.65| 3.60| +M. of W. cars. | 439 | 2,038.44| 549.47| 2,587.91| 5.89| + | Miles | | | | | + | Track. | | | | | +Track (inc. sidings). | 1,532.7 | 27,718.17| 40,912.09| 68,630.26| 44.78| +Bridges. | 1,532.7 | 1,808.57| 200.00| 2,008.57| 1.31| +Track tools. | 1,532.7 | 194.48| 2,573.83| 2,768.31| 1.80| +Storage tracks, inc. | | | | | | + taking up. | 37.02| 9,825.41| 1,481.59| 11,307.00| 305.44| +Shop tools. | | 472.20| 2,728.30| 3,200.50| | + |_________|__________|__________|___________|_______| + | | | | | | + Total cost. | |$68,445.24|$52.633.33|$121,078.57| | + Total average cost | | | | | | + per mile. | | | | |$ 79.06| +______________________|_________|__________|__________|___________|_______| + + + Axles condemned 577 + Wheels condemned 754 + Wheels burst 202 + New axles used 1,102 + New wheels used 2,783 + Axles turned back 8,316 + Wheels pressed on without turning axle 23,952 + New brasses used 10,723 + Cars narrowed (not including lever or push cars) 5,343 + Engines narrowed 180 + Average cost of new centers and crank pins, etc $264.46 + Average cost of cutting off hub and pressing wheels and new pins 130.67 + Average cost of pressing old tires on old centers 29.08 + Average cost of pressing old tires on broad centers 31.83 + Average cost of labor putting on new tires 22.94 + + + COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK. + +__________________________________________________________________________ + | | | | | + | M. & | L. & | E.T., V.|Average. | + | O. R.R. | N. R.R. |& G. R.R.| | + |_________|_________|_________|_________| + | | | | | +Engines and tenders--per engine | $325.70 | $202.58 | $61.82 | $196.70 | +Pass., bag., and ex. cars--per car| 9.87 |[2] 5.81 | 4.73 | 6.80 | +Freight cars, per car | 4.40 |[3] 5.81 | 3.60 | 4.60 | +M. of W. cars, per car | 13.32 | 2.72 | 5.89 | 7.31 | +Track (inc. sidings bridges, | | | | | + etc.), per mile | 45.37 | 47.83 | 46.09 | 46.26 | +Track tools, per mile | 2.70 | 1.31 | 1.80 | 1.94 | +Temporary side tracks, per mile | 192.83 | | 305.44 | 249.13 | + |_________|_________|_________|_________| + Total per mile of track, inc. | | | | | + sidings | $113.68 | $100.67 | $ 79.06 | $ 97.80 | +__________________________________|_________|_________|_________|_________| + + [Footnote 2: Expense not divided as between passenger and freight + cars.] + + [Footnote 3: 3.5 per cent. passenger, baggage, and express cars, + 96.5 per cent. freight cars.] + + +NOTE--Since the preparation of this paper the general manager of the +Norfolk & Western Railroad has kindly furnished the following items of +expense for that line: + + ___________________________________________________________________ + | | | | + | No. | Cost. | Average | + | | | Cost. | + |_________|____________|_________| + | | | | + Engines and tenders | 95 | $37,730.00 | $397.16 | + Cars (all kinds) | 3,615 | 37,994.65 | 10.51 | + Track, miles (including sidings) | 597.5 | | | + Labor | | 25,296.96 | | + Tools and supplies | | 3,531.12 | | + Changing M. of W. equipment | | 813.13 | | + Switches | | 571.67 | | + Spikes | | 8,508.22 | | + | | ---------- | | + Total track | | $38,721,10 | 64.80 | + | | ========== | | + Total | |$114,445.75 |---------| + Total average cost per mile | | | $191.53 | + __________________________________|_________|____________|_________| + + +And the superintendent of the S.F. & W. R.R. has also furnished the +expenses for that road: + + ___________________________________________________________________ + | | | + | No. | Average | + | | Cost. | + |__________|_________| + | | | + Engines and tenders | 75 | $76.31 | + Cars (passenger) | 95 | 4.67 | + Cars (freight) | 1,133 | 3.88 | + Track, including sidings | 601.76 | 44.49 | + ______________________________________________|__________|_________| + +Nothing was said about shop or other tools, storage tracks, or +changing of maintenance of way equipment. + + + COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF + LABOR OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK. + _________________________________________________________________ + | M. & | L. & | E.T., V. | | + | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average| + |_________|________|__________|________| + | | | | | + Engines and tenders. | $170.88}| | {$45.71 | $108.29| + Pass., bag., and ex cars | 7.97}| Not | { 4.38 | 6.17| + Freight cars | 3.89}| divided| { 3.36 | 3.62| + M. of W. cars | 9.98}| | { 4.64 | 7.31| + Miles track (including | | | | | + sidings, bridges, etc.) | 32.57 | $34.31| 19.26 | 28.71| + Track tools, per mile | .30 | Not | .13 | .21| + Temporary tracks | 162.03 | divided| 265.40 | 213.71| + |_________|________|__________|________| + | | Not | | | + Total per mile of track | $70.38 | divided| $44.72 | $57.55| + __________________________|_________|________|__________|________| + + + COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AVERAGE COST OF + MATERIAL OF VARIOUS ITEMS OF WORK. + _________________________________________________________________ + | M. & | L. & | E.T., V. | | + | O. R.R. | N. R.R.| & G. R.R.| Average| + |_________|________|__________|________| + | | | | | + Engines and tenders. | $154.82}| | { $16.11 | $85.46| + Pass., bag., and ex cars | 1.90}| Not | { .35 | 1.12| + Freight cars | .51}| divided| { .24 | .37| + M. of W. cars | 3.34}| | { 1.25 | 2.30| + Miles track (including | | | | | + sidings, bridges, etc.) | 12.80 | $13.02| 26.88 | 17.55| + Track tools, per mile | 2.40 | Not | 1.67 | 2.03| + Temporary tracks | 162.03 | divided| 40.04 | 101.03| + __________________________|_________|________|__________|________| + | | Not | | | + Total per mile of track | $43.30 | divided| $34.34 | $38.82| + __________________________|_________|________|__________|________| + + + SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS OF L.& N. AND E.T., + V.& G. RAILWAYS. + + The mileage changed of the L&N. and E.T., V.& G. + systems combined aggregates 3,622 miles. + The total cost of these two roads. $331,492.59 + Or an average per mile of 91.52 + Total miles changed was about 14,500 miles. + Which would give total cost, at same rate. $1,327,040 + + +We should really add to this a large sum for the great number of new +locomotives which were purchased to replace old ones, that could not +be changed, except at large cost, and which, when done, would have +been light and undesirable. + +Upon the basis of the work done upon the L. & N. and E.T., V. & G. +systems, which, combined, cover about one-fourth the mileage changed, +we have made the following estimates, which will, perhaps, convey a +better idea of the extent of the work than can be obtained in any +other way: + + Miles of track changed, about 14,500 + Locomotives changed, about 1,800 + Cars (pass, and freight) changed, about 45,000 + New axles used, about 9,000 + New wheels used, about 20,000 + Axles turned back, about 75,000 + Wheels pressed on without turning axles, about 220,000 + New brasses used, about 90,000 + Kegs of spikes used, about 50,000 + Cost of material used, about $600,000 + Cost of labor, about 730,000 + Total cost of work, about 1,330,000 + Amount expended on equipment, about 650,000 + Amount expended on track, about 680,000 + Amount expended on track on day of change in labor, about 140,000 + +The work was done economically, and so quietly that the public hardly +realized it was in progress. To the casual observer it was an every +day transaction. It was, however, a work of great magnitude, requiring +much thought and mechanical ability. + +That it was ably handled is evidenced by the uniform success attained, +the prompt changing at the agreed time, and the trifling inconvenience +to the public.--_Jour. Assn. Engineering Societies._ + + * * * * * + + + + +TORPEDO BOATS FOR SPAIN. + + +In our present issue, on page 9948, we give illustrations of two +torpedo boats, the Azor and Halcon, which have lately been constructed +by Messrs Yarrow & Co., of Poplar, for the Spanish government. They +are 135 ft. in length by 14 ft. beam, being of the same dimensions as +No. 80 torpedo boat, lately completed by the above firm for the +Admiralty, which is the largest and fastest torpedo-boat in the +British navy. + +[Illustration: TORPEDO BOATS FOR THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT.] + +The general arrangement of these torpedo boats is sufficiently clear +from the illustrations to need but little description. Suffice it to +say that the engines are of the triple compound type, capable of +indicating 1,550 horse power, steam being supplied by one large +locomotive boiler, which our readers are already aware is in +accordance with the usual practice of the makers, as, by using a +single boiler, great simplification of the machinery takes place, and +considerably less room is occupied than if two boilers were adopted. +It is worthy of record that although in some torpedo boats, and indeed +in a great number of them, trouble has been found with the locomotive +type of boiler, still we have no hesitation in saying that this is due +either to defective design or bad workmanship, and that, if properly +designed and constructed, such difficulty does not occur. And it is a +fact that Messrs. Yarrow & Co. have already constructed a great number +of locomotive boilers of the exceptional size adopted in these two +Spanish boats, and they have turned out in every respect, after actual +service, perfectly satisfactory. + +The forward part of the boat is provided with two torpedo-ejecting +tubes, as usual, and near the stern, on deck, it is proposed to place +turntables, with two torpedo guns for firing over the sides, as +already adopted by several governments. The trials of the Azor took +place about two months since, giving a speed during a run of two hours +and three quarters, carrying a load of 17 tons, of 24 knots (over 271/2 +miles) per hour. Since her trial she has steamed out to Spain, having +encountered, during a portion of the voyage very bad weather, when her +sea going qualities were found to be admirable. + +The Halcon, whose official trials took place lately, obtained a speed +of 23.5 knots, carrying a load of 17 tons. It may be remarked that a +speed of 24 knots, in a boat only 135 ft in length, under the Spanish +conditions of trial, is by far the best result that has ever been +obtained in a vessel of these dimensions There is, however, no doubt +that had the length of the boat been greater, a still higher speed +would have been obtained But it was desired by the authorities to keep +within the smallest possible dimensions, so as to expose as little +area as practicable to the fire of the enemy, it being clearly evident +that this is a consideration of the first importance in an unprotected +war vessel. + +In conclusion, we would add that the hulls of these two Spanish boats +are of much greater strength of construction than is usually adopted +in torpedo boats, it having been found that for the sake of obtaining +exceptional speeds, strength sufficient for actual service has often +been injudiciously sacrificed And, judging from the numerous accidents +which took place at the recent trials off Portland, we have no doubt +that in the future naval authorities will be quite ready and willing +to sacrifice a little speed so as to obtain vessels which are more +trustworthy. The necessity for this, we feel convinced, will be +conclusively shown if ever torpedo boats are engaged in actual +warfare, and this not only as regards strength of hull, but also as +regards the machinery, which at present is only capable of being +handled successfully by men of exceptional training, who in times of +war would not be readily procured--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPANISH CRUISER REINA REGENTE + + +In our SUPPLEMENT, No. 620 we gave an illustration of this ship, with +some particulars. The interest expressed in naval circles for further +information induces us to give still further engravings of this +remarkable vessel, with additional information, for which we are +indebted to the _Engineer_. + +[Illustration: THE NEW SPANISH WAR SHIP REINA REGENTE.] + +We gave recently a short account of two of the trials of this vessel, +and we are, by the courtesy of the builders--Messrs. Thomson, of +Clydebank--enabled to lay further particulars before our readers this +week. We give herewith engravings of the vessel, which will illustrate +her salient points. The principal dimensions are as follows. + +Length on water line, 317 ft., breadth, 50 ft. 7 in., depth moulded, +32 ft. 6 in., normal displacement, 4,800 tons, deep load displacement, +5,600 tons. We have before informed our readers that this vessel was +designed by Messrs. Thomson, in competition with several other +shipbuilding firms of this and other countries, in reply to an +invitation of the Spanish government for a cruiser of the first class. +The design submitted by the builders of the Reina Regente was +accepted, and the vessel was contracted to be built in June of last +year. The principal conditions of the contract were as follows. + +The ship to steam at a speed of 201/2 knots for four runs on the mile +and for two hours continuously afterward. She was further to be +capable of steaming for six hours continuously at a speed of 181/2 +knots, without any artificial means of producing draught. She was also +to be capable of steaming a distance of at least 5,700 knots for 500 +tons of coal, at some speed over 10 knots, to be chosen by the +builders. Over the length of her machinery and magazine spaces she was +to have a sloping deck extending to 6 ft. below the water line at the +side, and formed of plates 43/4 in. thick. This deck was to extend to +about 1 ft. above the water line, and the flat part to be 3-1/8 in. +thick. Beyond the machinery and magazine spaces, the deck was to be +gradually reduced to 3 in. thick at the ends. This deck is intended to +protect the vitals of the ship, such as boilers, engines, powder +magazines, steering gear, etc., from the effects of shot and shell, +but the floating and stability maintaining power of the ship was to be +dependent upon a similar structure raised above this protective deck +to a height of about 5 ft. above the water. + +This structure is covered by a water tight deck known as the main deck +of the ship, on which the cabins and living spaces are arranged. The +space between the main and protective deck is divided, as may be seen +by reference to the protective deck plan, into many strong, water +tight spaces, most of which are not more than about 500 cubic feet +capacity. The spaces next to the ship's side are principally coal +bunkers, and may, therefore, exclude largely any water that should +enter. The first line of defense is formed inside these coal bunkers +by a complete girdle of coffer dams, which can be worked from the main +deck. These it is intended to fill with water and cellulose material, +and as they are also minutely subdivided, the effects of damage by +shot and consequent flooding may be localized to a considerable +extent. The guns of the ship are to consist of four 20 centimeter +Hontorio breech loading guns on Vavasseur carriages, six 12 centimeter +guns, eight 6 pounder rapid firing, and eight or ten small guns for +boats and mitrailleuse purposes, four of which are in the crow's nests +at the top of the two masts of the ship. We may remark in passing that +the builders saw their way at an early period of the construction to +suggest an addition to the weight of the large sized guns, and there +will actually be on the ship four 24 centimeter guns, instead of four +20 centimeter. The vessel was to carry five torpedo tubes, two forward +in the bow, one in each broadside, and one aft. All these tubes to be +fixed. To fulfill the speed condition, four boilers were necessary and +two sets of triple expansion engines, capable of developing in all +12,000 horse power. + +[Illustration: PROTECTIVE DECK PLAN.] + +Now that the vessel has been completely tried, the promises by the +builders may be compared with the results determined by the commission +of Spanish officers appointed by the government of Spain to say +whether the vessel fulfilled in all respects the conditions laid down +in the contract. The mean speed attained for the two hours' run was +20.6 knots, as compared with 20.5 guaranteed, but this speed was +obtained with 11,500 horse power instead of the 12,000 which the +machinery is capable of developing. The officers of the Spanish +commission were anxious not to have the vessel's machinery pressed +beyond what was necessary to fulfill the speed conditions of the +contract; but they saw enough to warrant them in expressing their +belief that the vessel can easily do twenty-one knots when required, +and she actually did this for some time during the trial. + +During the natural draught trial the vessel obtained a mean speed of +18.68 knots, on an average of 943/4 revolutions--the forced draught +having been done on an average of 1051/2 revolutions. The consumption +trial, which lasted twelve hours, was made to determine the radius of +action, when the ship showed that at a speed of 11.6 knots she could +steam a distance of 5,900 knots. Further trials took place to test the +evolutionary powers of the vessel, though these trials were not +specified in the contract. + +The vessel, as may be seen from the engravings, is fitted with a +rudder of a new type, known as Thomson & Biles' rudder, with which it +is claimed that all the advantage of a balanced rudder is obtained, +while the ship loses the length due to the adoption of such a rudder. +It is formed in the shape of the hull of the vessel, and as the +partial balance of the lower foreside gradually reduces the strains, +the rudder head may be made of very great service. As a matter of +fact, this rudder is 230 ft. in area, and is probably the largest +rudder fitted to a warship. The efficiency of it was shown in the +turning trials, by its being able to bring the vessel round, when +going at about nineteen knots, in half a circle in one minute +twenty-three seconds, and a complete circle in two minutes fifty-eight +seconds, the diameter of the circle being 350 yards. This result, we +believe, is unrivaled, and makes this vessel equal in turning +capabilities to many recent warships not much more than half her +length. + + * * * * * + + + + +FILM NEGATIVES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A communication to the Birmingham Photographic + Society.] + + +Having had a certain measure of success with Eastman stripping films, +I have been requested by your council to give a paper this evening +dealing with the subject, and particularly with the method of working +which my experience has found most successful. In according to their +request, I feel I have imposed upon myself a somewhat difficult task. + +There is, undoubtedly, a strong prejudice in the minds of most +photographers, both amateur and professional, against a negative in +which paper is used as a permanent support, on account of the +inseparable "grain" and lack of brilliancy in the resulting prints; +and the idea of the paper being used only as a temporary support does +not seem to convey to their mind a correct impression of the true +position of the matter. + +It may be as well before entering into the technical details of the +manipulation to consider briefly the advantages to be derived--which +will be better appreciated after an actual trial. + +My experience (which is at present limited) is that they are far +superior to glass for all purposes except portraiture of the human +form or instantaneous pictures where extreme rapidity is necessary, +but for all ordinary cases of rapid exposure they are sufficiently +quick. The first advantage, which I soon discovered, is their entire +freedom from halation. This, with glass plates, is inseparable, and +even when much labor has been bestowed on backing them, the halation +is painfully apparent. + +These films never frill, being made of emulsion which has been made +insoluble. Compare the respective weights of the two substances--one +plate weighing more than a dozen films of the same size. + +Again, on comparing a stripping film negative with one on glass of the +same exposure and subject, it will be found there is a greater +sharpness or clearness in the detail, owing, I am of opinion, to the +paper absorbing the light immediately it has penetrated the emulsion, +the result being a brilliant negative. Landscapes on stripped films +can be retouched or printed from on either side, and the advantage in +this respect for carbon or mechanical printing is enormous. Now, +imagine the tourist working with glass, and compare him to another +working with films. The one works in harness, tugging, probably, a +half hundredweight of glass with him from place to place, paying extra +carriage, extra tips, and in a continual state of anxiety as to +possible breakage, difficulty of packing, and having to be continually +on the lookout for a dark place to change the plates, and, perhaps, on +his return finds numbers of his plates damaged owing to friction on +the surface; while the disciple of _films_, lightly burdened with only +camera and slide, and his (say two hundred) films in his pockets, for +they lie so compact together. Then the advantages to the tourists +abroad, their name is "legion," not the least being the ease of +guarding your exposed pictures from the custom house officials, who +almost always seek to make matters disagreeable in this respect, and +lastly, though not least, the ease with which the negatives can be +stowed away in envelopes or albums, etc., when reference to them is +easy in the extreme. + +Now, having come (rightly, I think, you will admit) to the conclusion +that films have these advantages, you naturally ask, What are their +disadvantages? Remembering, then, that I am only advocating stripping +films, I consider they have but two disadvantages: First, they entail +some additional outlay in the way of apparatus, etc. Second, they are +a little more trouble to finish than the glass negatives, which sink +into insignificance when the manifold advantages are considered. + +In order to deal effectively with the second objection I mentioned, +viz., the extra trouble and perseverance, I propose, with your +permission, to carry a negative through the different stages from +exposure to completion, and in so doing I shall endeavor to make the +process clear to you, and hope to enlist your attention. + +The developer I use is slightly different to that of the Eastman +company, and is as follows: + + A. + Sulphite of soda. 4 ounces. + +To be dissolved in 8 ounces of hot distilled water, then rendered +slightly acid with citric acid, then add-- + + Pyrogallic acid. 1 ounce. + Water to make up to 10 ounces. + + B. + Pure carbonate of soda. 1 ounce. + Water to make up in all to 10 ounces. + + C. + Pure carbonate of potash. 1 ounce. + Water to make up to 10 ounces. + + D. + Bromide of potassium. 1 ounce. + Water to make up to 10 ounces. + +I have here two half-plate films exposed at 8:30 A.M. to-day, one with +five and one with six seconds' exposure, subject chiefly middle +distance. I take 90 minims A, 10 minims D, and 90 minims B, and make +up to 2 ounces water. I do not soak the films in water. There is no +need for it. In fact, it is prejudicial to do so. I place the films +face uppermost in the dish, and pour on the developer on the center of +the films. You will observe they lie perfectly flat, and are free from +air bubbles. Rock the dish continually during development, and when +the high lights are out add from 10 to 90 minims C, and finish +development and fix. The negatives being complete, I ask you to +observe that both are of equal quality, proving the latitude of +exposure permissible. + +I now coat a piece of glass half an inch larger all round than the +negative with India rubber solution (see Eastman formula), and +squeegee the negative face downward upon the rubber, interposing a +sheet of blotting paper and oilskin between the negative and squeegee +to prevent injury to the exposed rubber surface, and then place the +negative under pressure with blotting paper interposed until +moderately dry only. + +I then pour hot water upon it, and, gently rocking the dish, you see +the paper floats from the film without the necessity for pulling it +with a pin, leaving the film negative on the glass. Now, the +instructions say remove the remaining soluble gelatine with camel's +hair brush, but, unless it requires intensifying, which no properly +developed negative should require, you need not do so, but simply pour +on the gelatine solution (see Eastman formula), well covering the +edges of the film, and put on a level shelf to dry. + +I will now take up a negative in this state on the glass, but dry, and +carefully cut round the edges of the film, and you see I can readily +pull off the film with its gelatine support. Having now passed through +the whole of the process, it behooves us to consider for a few minutes +the causes of failure in the hands of beginners and their remedies: 1. +The rubber will not flow over glass? Solution too thick, glass greasy. +2. Rubber peels off on drying? Dirty glass. 3. Negative not dense +enough? Use more bromide and longer development. 4. Gelatine cracks on +being pulled off? Add more glycerine. 5. Gelatine not thick enough? +Gelatine varnish too thin, not strong enough. 6. Does not dry +sufficiently hard? Too much glycerine.--_E.H. Jaques, Reported in Br. +Jour. of Photography._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW DIFFERENT TONES IN GELATINO-CHLORIDE PRINTS MAY BE VARIED BY +DEVELOPERS. + + +The following formulae are for use with gelatino-chloride paper or +plates. The quantities are in each case calculated for one ounce, +three parts of each of the following solutions being employed and +added to one part of solution of protosulphate of iron. Strength, 140 +grains to the ounce. + + _Slaty Blue._ + + 1.--One part of the above solution + to three parts of a solution of citrate of ammonia. + + _Greenish Brown._ + 2.--Citric acid. 180 grains + Carbonate of ammonia. 50 " + + 3.--Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. + Chloride of sodium. 2 " + + 4.--Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. + Chloride of sodium. 4 " + + _Sepia Brown._ + 5.--Citrate of ammonia. 250 grains. + Chloride of sodium. 8 " + + _Clear Red Brown._ + 6.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 76 " + + _Warm Gray Brown._ + 7.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of soda. 205 " + + _Deep Red Brown._ + 8.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of potash. 117 " + + _Green Blue._ + 9.--Citric acid. 90 grains. + Carbonate of soda. 154 " + Citrate of potash. 24 " + Oxalate of potash. 6 " + + _Sepia Red._ + 10.--Citric acid. 80 grains. + Carbonate of soda. 135 " + Citrate of potash. 12 " + Oxalate of potash. 3 " + + 11.--Citric acid. 108 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 68 " + Carbonate of potash. 12 " + Oxalate of potash. 3 " + + _Sepia Yellow._ + 12.--Citric acid. 40 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 25 " + Citrate of ammonia. 166 " + + 13.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 72 " + Carbonate of ammonia. 72 " + Chloride of sodium. 8 " + + _Blue Black._ + 14.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of ammonia. 70 " + Carbonate of magnesia. 15 " + + 15.--Citric acid. 120 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 38 " + Carbonate of ammonia. 44 " + + 16.--Citric acid. 90 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 57 " + Citrate of potash. 54 " + Oxlate of potash. 18 " + + 17.--Citric acid. 72 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 45 " + Citrate of potash. 54 " + Oxalate of potash. 18 " + + 18.--Citric acid. 60 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 38 " + Citrate of potash. 68 " + Oxalate of potash. 22 " + + _A more Intense Blue Black._ + 19.--Citric acid. 30 grains. + Carbonate of magnesia. 18 " + Citrate of potash. 100 " + Oxalate of potash. 33 " + + _A Clearer Blue._ + 20.--Citrate of potash. 136 grains. + Oxalate of potash. 44 " + +In the photographic exhibition at Florence, the firm of Corvan[1] +places on view a frame containing twenty proofs produced by the +foregoing twenty formulae, in such a way that the observer can compare +the value of each tone and select that which pleases him best.--_Le +Moniteur de la Photographie, translated by British Jour. of Photo._ + + [Footnote 1: Does this mean Mr. A. Cowan?--_Translator._] + + * * * * * + + + + +NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DISTILLERY CHIMNEY. + + +At a recent meeting of the Industrial Society of Amiens, Mr. Schmidt, +engineer of the Steam Users' Association, read a paper in which he +described the process employed in the construction of a large chimney +of peculiar character for the Rocourt distillery, at St. Quentin. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1--ELEVATION.] + +This chimney, which is cylindrical in form, is 140 feet in height, and +has an internal diameter of 81/2 feet from base to summit. The coal +consumed for the nine generators varies between 860 and 1,200 pounds +per hour and per 10 square feet of section. + +The ground that was to support this chimney consisted of very +aquiferous, cracked beds of marl, disintegrated by infiltrations of +water from the distillery, and alternating with strata of clay. It +became necessary, therefore, to build as light a chimney as possible. +The problem was solved as follows, by Mr. Guendt, who was then +superintendent of the Rocourt establishment. + +Upon a wide concrete foundation a pedestal was built, in which were +united the various smoke conduits, and upon this pedestal were erected +four lattice girders, C, connected with each other by St. Andrew's +crosses. The internal surface of these girders is vertical and the +external is inclined. Within the framework there was built a five-inch +thick masonry wall of bricks, made especially for the purpose. The +masonry was then strengthened and its contact with the girders assured +by numerous hoops, especially at the lower part; some of them +internal, others external, to the surface of the girders, and others +of angle irons, all in four parts. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--HORIZONTAL SECTION.] + +The anchors rest upon a cast iron foundation plate connected, through +strong bolts embedded in the pedestal, with a second plate resting +upon the concrete. + +As the metallic framework was calculated for resisting the wind, the +brick lining does not rest against it permanently above. The weight of +the chimney is 1,112,200 pounds, and the foundation is about 515 +square feet in area; and, consequently, the pressure upon the ground +is about 900 pounds to the square inch. The cost was $3,840. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3--VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY.] + +The chimney was built six years ago, and has withstood the most +violent hurricanes. + +The mounting of the iron framework was effected by means of a motor +and two men, and took a month. The brick lining was built up in eight +days by a mason and his assistant. + +A chimney of the same size, all of brick, erected on the same +foundation, would have weighed 2,459,600 pounds (say a load of 3,070 +pounds to the square inch), and would have cost about $2,860. + +The chimney of the Rocourt distillery is, therefore, lighter by half, +and cost about a third more, than one of brick; but, at the present +price of metal, the difference would be slight.--_Annales +Industrielles._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS. + + +Considerable interest has been aroused lately in scientific and +industrial circles by a report that separation of the oxygen and +nitrogen of the air was being effected on a large scale in London by a +process which promises to render the gases available for general +application in the arts. The cheap manufacture of the compounds of +nitrogen from the gas itself is still a dream of chemical enthusiasts; +and though the pure gas is now available, the methods of making its +compounds have yet to be devised. But the industrial processes which +already depend directly or indirectly on the chemical union of bodies +with atmospheric oxygen are innumerable. + +In all these processes the action of the gas is impeded by the bulky +presence of its fellow constituent of air, nitrogen. We may say, for +instance, in homely phrase, that whenever a fire burns there are four +volumes of nitrogen tending to extinguish it for every volume of +oxygen supporting its combustion, and to the same degree the nitrogen +interferes with all other processes of atmospheric oxidation, of which +most metallurgical operations may be given as instances. If, then, it +has become possible to remove this diluent gas simply and cheaply in +order to give the oxygen free play in its various applications, we are +doubtless on the eve of a revolution among some of the most extensive +and familiar of the world's industries. + +A series of chemical reactions has long been known by means of which +oxygen could be separated out of air in the laboratory, and at various +times processes based on these reactions have been patented for the +production of oxygen on a large scale. Until recently, however, none +of these methods gave sufficiently satisfactory results. The simplest +and perhaps the best of them was based on the fact first noticed by +Boussingault, that when baryta (BaO) is heated to low redness in a +current of air, it takes up oxygen and becomes barium dioxide +(BaO_{2}), and that this dioxide at a higher temperature is +reconverted into free oxygen and baryta, the latter being ready for +use again. For many years it was assumed, however, by chemists that +this ideally simple reaction was inapplicable on a commercial scale, +owing to the gradual loss of power to absorb oxygen which was always +found to take place in the baryta after a certain number of +operations. About eight years ago Messrs. A. & L. Brin, who had +studied chemistry under Boussingault, undertook experiments with the +view of determining why the baryta lost its power of absorbing oxygen. + +They found that it was owing to molecular and physical changes caused +in it by impurities in the air used and by the high temperature +employed for decomposing the dioxide. They discovered that by heating +the dioxide in a partial vacuum the temperature necessary to drive off +its oxygen was much reduced. They also found that by supplying the air +to the baryta under a moderate pressure, its absorption of oxygen was +greatly assisted. Under these conditions, and by carefully purifying +the air before use, they found that it became possible to use the +baryta an indefinite number of times. Thus the process became +practically, as it was theoretically, continuous. + +After securing patent protection for their process, Messrs. Brin +erected a small producer in Paris, and successfully worked it for +nearly three years without finding a renewal of the original charge of +baryta once necessary. This producer was exhibited at the Inventions +Exhibition in London, in 1885. Subsequently an English company was +formed, and in the autumn of last year Brin's Oxygen Company began +operations in Horseferry Road, Westminster, where a large and complete +demonstration plant was erected, and the work commenced of developing +the production and application of oxygen in the industrial world. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MAKING OXYGEN.] + +We give herewith details of the plant now working at Westminster. It +is exceedingly simple. On the left of the side elevation and plan are +shown the retorts, on the right is an arrangement of pumps for +alternately supplying air under pressure and exhausting the oxygen +from the retorts. As is shown in the plan, two sets of apparatus are +worked side by side at Westminster, the seventy-two retorts shown in +the drawings being divided into two systems of thirty-six. Each system +is fed by the two pumps on the corresponding side of the boiler. Each +set of retorts consists of six rows of six retorts each, one row above +the other. They are heated by a small Wilson's producer, so that the +attendant can easily regulate the supply of heat and obtain complete +control over the temperature of the retorts. The retorts, A, are made +of wrought iron and are about 10 ft long and 8 in. diameter. +Experience, however, goes to prove that there is a limit to the +diameter of the retorts beyond which the results become less +satisfactory. This limit is probably somewhat under 8 in. Each retort +is closely packed with baryta in lumps about the size of a walnut. The +baryta is a heavy grayish porous substance prepared by carefully +igniting the nitrate of barium; and of this each retort having the +above dimensions holds about 125 lb. The retorts so charged are closed +at each end by a gun metal lid riveted on so as to be air tight. From +the center of each lid a bent gun metal pipe, B, connects each retort +with the next of its series, so that air introduced into the end +retort of any row may pass through the whole series of six retorts. +Suppose now that the operations are to commence. + +The retorts are first heated to a temperature of about 600 deg. C. or +faint redness, then the air pumps, C C, are started. Air is drawn by +them through the purifier, D, where it is freed from carbon dioxide +and moisture by the layers of quicklime and caustic soda with which +the purifier is charged. The air is then forced along the pipe, E, +into the small air vessel, F, which acts as a sort of cushion to +prevent the baryta in the retorts being disturbed by the pulsation of +the pumps. From this vessel the air passes by the pipe, G, and is +distributed in the retorts as rapidly as possible at such a pressure +that the nitrogen which passes out unabsorbed at the outlet registers +about 15 lb. to the square inch. With the baryta so disposed in the +retorts as to present as large a superficies as possible to the action +of the air, it is found that in 11/2 to 2 hours--during which time about +12,000 cub. ft of air have been passed through the retorts--the gas at +the outlet fails to extinguish a glowing chip, indicating that oxygen +is no longer being absorbed. The pumping now ceases, and the +temperature of the retorts is raised to about 800 deg. C. The workman is +able to judge the temperature with sufficient accuracy by means of the +small inspection holes, H, fitted with panes of mica, through which +the color of the heat in the furnace can be distinguished. The pumps +are now reversed and the process of exhaustion begins. At Westminster +the pressure in the retorts is reduced to about 11/2 in. of mercury. In +this partial vacuum the oxygen is given off rapidly, and if forced by +the pumps through another pipe and away into an ordinary gas holder, +where it is stored for use. With powerful pumps such as are used in +the plant under notice the whole of the oxygen can be drawn off in an +hour, and from one charge a yield of about 2,000 cub. ft. is obtained. +With a less perfect vacuum the time is longer--even as much as four +hours. The whole operation of charging and exhausting the retorts can +be completed in from three to four hours. As soon as the evolution of +oxygen is finished, the doors, K, and ventilators, L, may be opened +and the retorts cooled for recharging. + +The cost of producing oxygen at Westminster, under specially expensive +conditions, is high--about 12s. per 1,000 cub. ft. When we consider, +however, that the cost should only embrace attendance, fuel, wear and +tear, and a little lime and soda for the purifiers, that the +consumption of fuel is small, the wear and tear light, and that the +raw material--air--is obtained for nothing, it ought to be possible to +produce the gas for a third or fourth of this amount in most of our +great manufacturing centers, where the price of fuel is but a third of +that demanded in London, and where provision could be made for +economizing the waste heat, which is entirely lost in the Westminster +installation. Moreover, in estimating this cost all the charges are +thrown on the oxygen; were there any means of utilizing the 4,000 cub. +ft. of nitrogen at present blown away as waste for every thousand +cubic feet of oxygen produced, the nitrogen would of course bear its +share of the cost. + +The question of the application of the oxygen is one which must be +determined in its manifold bearings mainly by the experiments of +chemists and scientific men engaged in industrial work. Having +ascertained the method by which and the limit of cost within which it +is possible to use oxygen in their work, it can be seen whether by +Brin's process the gas can be obtained within that limit. + +Mr. S.R. Ogden, the manager of the corporation gasworks at Blackburn, +has already made interesting experiments on the application of oxygen +in the manufacture of illuminating gas. In order to purify coal gas +from compounds of sulphur, it is passed through purifiers charged with +layers of oxide of iron. When the oxide of iron has absorbed as much +sulphur as it can combine with, it is described as "foul." It is then +discharged and spread out in the open air, when, under the influence +of the atmospheric oxygen, it is rapidly decomposed, the sulphur is +separated out in the free state, and oxide of iron is reformed ready +for use again in the purifiers. This process is called revivification, +and it is repeated until the accumulation of sulphur in the oxide is +so great (45 to 55 per cent.) that it can be profitably sold to the +vitriol maker. Hawkins discovered that by introducing about 3 per +cent. of air into the gas before passing it through the purifiers, the +oxygen of the air introduced set free the sulphur from the iron as +fast as it was absorbed. Thus the process of revivification could be +carried on in the purifiers themselves simultaneously with the +absorption of the sulphur impurities in the gas. + +A great saving of labor was thus effected, and also an economy in the +use of the iron oxide, which in this way could be left in the +purifiers until charged with 75 per cent. of sulphur. Unfortunately it +was found that this introduction of air for the sake of its oxygen +meant also the introduction of much useless nitrogen, which materially +reduced the illuminating power of the gas. To restore this +illuminating power the gas had to be recarbureted, and this again +meant cost in labor and material. Now, Mr. Ogden has found by a series +of conclusive experiments made during a period of seventy-eight days +upon a quantity of about 4,000,000 cub. ft. of gas, that by +introducing 1 per cent. of oxygen into the gas instead of 3 per cent. +of air, not only is the revivification _in situ_ effected more +satisfactorily than with air, but at the same time the illuminating +power of the gas, so far from being decreased, is actually increased +by one candle unit. + +[Illustration: THE PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN BY BRIN'S PROCESS.] + +So satisfied is he with his results that he has recommended the +corporation to erect a plant for the production of oxygen at the +Blackburn gas works, by which he estimates that the saving to the town +on the year's make of gas will be something like L2,500. The practical +observations of Mr. Ogden are being followed up by a series of +exhaustive experiments by Mr. Valon, A.M. Inst. C.E., also a gas +engineer. The make of an entire works at Westgate is being treated by +him with oxygen. Mr. Valon has not yet published his report, as the +experiments are not quite complete; but we understand that his results +are even more satisfactory than those obtained at Blackburn. + +In conclusion we may indicate a few other of the numerous possible +applications of cheap oxygen which might be realized in the near +future. The greatest illuminating effect from a given bulk of gas is +obtained by mixing it with the requisite proportion of oxygen, and +holding in the flame of the burning mixture a piece of some solid +infusible and non-volatile substance, such as lime. This becomes +heated to whiteness, and emits an intense light know as the Drummond +light, used already for special purposes of illumination. By supplying +oxygen in pipes laid by the side of the ordinary gas mains, it would +be possible to fix small Drummond lights in place of the gas burners +now used in houses; this would greatly reduce the consumption of gas +and increase the light obtained, or even render possible the +employment of cheap non-illuminating combustible gases other than coal +gas for the purpose. + +Two obstacles at present lie in the way of this consummation--the cost +of the oxygen and the want of a convenient and completely refractory +material to take the place of the lime. Messrs. Brin believe they have +overcome the first obstacle, and are addressing themselves, we +believe, to the removal of the second. Again, the intense heat which +the combustion of carbon in cheap oxygen will place at the disposal of +the metallurgist cannot fail to play an important part in his +operations. There are many processes, too, of metal refining which +ought to be facilitated by the use of the gas. Then the production of +pure metallic oxides for the manufacture of paints, the bleaching of +oils and fats, the reduction of refractory ores of the precious metals +on a large scale, the conversion of iron into steel, and numberless +other processes familiar to the specialists whose walk is in the +byways of applied chemistry, should all profit by the employment of +this energetic agent. Doubtless, too, the investigation into methods +of producing the compounds of nitrogen so indispensable as plant +foods, and for which we are now dependent on the supplies of the +mineral world, may be stimulated by the fact that there is available +by Brin's process a cheap and inexhaustible supply of pure +nitrogen.--_Industries._ + + * * * * * + + + + +FRENCH DISINFECTING APPARATUS. + + +[Illustration: IMPROVED DISINFECTING APPARATUS.] + +We represent herewith a sanitary train that was very successfully used +during the prevalence of an epidemic of _sudor Anglicus_ in Poitou +this year. It consisted of a movable stove and a boiler. In reality, +to save time, such agricultural locomotives as could be found were +utilized; but hereafter, apparatus like those shown in the engraving, +and which are specially constructed to accompany the stoves, will be +employed. We shall quote from a communication made by Prof. Brouardel +to the Academy of Medicine on this subject, at its session of +September 13: + +In the country we can never think of disinfecting houses with +sulphurous acid, as the peasants often have but a single room, in +which the beds of the entire family are congregated. Every one knows +that the agglomerations that compose the same department are often +distant from each other and the chief town by from two to three miles +or more. This is usually the case in the departments of Vienne, Haute +Vienne, Indre, etc. To find a disinfecting place in the chief town of +the department is still difficult, and to find one in each of the +hamlets is absolutely impossible. Families in which there are invalids +are obliged to carry clothing and bedding to the chief town to be +disinfected, and to go after them after the expiration of twenty-four +hours. This is not an easy thing to do. + +It is easy to understand what difficulties must be met with in many +cases, and so one has to be content to prescribe merely washing, and +bleaching with lime--something that is simple and everywhere accepted, +but insufficient. So, then, disinfection with sulphurous acid, which +is easy in large cities, as was taught by the cholera epidemics of +last year, is often difficult in the country. The objection has always +be made to it, too, that it is of doubtful efficacy. It is not for us +to examine this question here, but there is no doubt that damp steam +alone, under pressure, effects a perfect disinfection, and that if +this mode of disinfection could be applied in the rural districts (as +it can be easily done in cities), the public health would be better +protected in case of an epidemic. + +In cities one or more stationary steam stoves can always be arranged; +but in the country movable ones are necessary. From instructions given +by Prof. Brouardel, Messrs. Geneste & Herscher have solved the problem +of constructing such stoves in a few days, and four have been put at +the disposal of the mission. + +Dr. Thoinot, who directed this mission, in order to make an experiment +with these apparatus, selected two points in which cases of _sudor_ +were still numerous, and in which the conditions were entirely +different, and permitted of studying the working of the service and +apparatus under various phases. One of these points was Dorat, chief +town of Haute Vienne, a locality with a crowded population and +presenting every desirable resource; and the other was the commune of +Mauvieres, in Indre, where the population was scattered through +several hamlets. + +The first stove was operated at Dorat, on the 29th of June, and the +second at Mauvieres, on the 1st of July. A gendarme accompanied the +stove in all its movements and remained with it during the +disinfecting experiments. The Dorat stove was operated on the 29th of +June and the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July. On the 30th of June it proceeded +to disinfect the commune of Darnac. The Mauvieres stove, in the first +place, disinfected the chief town of this commune on the 1st of July, +and on the next day it was taken to Poulets, a small hamlet, and a +dependent of the commune of Mauvieres. All the linen and all the +clothing of the sick of this locality, which had been the seat of +_sudor_, especially infantile, was disinfected. On the 4th of July, +the stove went to Concremiers, a commune about three miles distant, +and there finished up the disinfection that until then had been +performed in the ordinary way. + +The epidemic was almost everywhere on the wane at this epoch; but we +judge that the test of the stoves was sufficient. + +We are able to advance the following statement boldly: For the +application of disinfection in the rural districts, the movable stove +is the most practical thing that we know of. It is easily used, can be +taken to the smallest hamlets, and can be transported over the +roughest roads. It inspires peasants with no distrust. The first +repugnance is easily overcome, and every one, upon seeing that objects +come from the stove unharmed, soon hastens to bring to it all the +contaminated linen, etc., that he has in the house. + +Further, we may add that the disinfection is accomplished in a quarter +of an hour, and that it therefore keeps the peasant but a very short +time from his work--an advantage that is greatly appreciated. Finally, +a day well employed suffices to disinfect a small settlement +completely. Upon the whole, disinfection by the stove under +consideration is the only method that can always and everywhere be +carried out. + +We believe that it is called upon to render the greatest services in +the future. + +The movable stove, regarding which Prof. Brouardel expresses himself +in the above terms, consists of a cylindrical chamber, 31/2 feet in +internal diameter and 5 feet in length, closed in front by a +hermetically jointed door. This cylinder, which constitutes the +disinfection chamber, is mounted upon wheels and is provided with +shafts, so that it can easily be hauled by a horse or mule. The +cylinder is of riveted iron plate, and is covered with a wooden +jacket. The door is provided with a flange that enters a rubber lined +groove in the cylinder, and to it are riveted wrought iron forks that +receive the nuts of hinged bolts fixed upon the cylinder. The nuts are +screwed up tight, and the flange of the door, compressing the rubber +lining, renders the joint hermetical. The door, which is hinged, is +provided with a handle, which, when the stove is closed, slides over +an inclined plane fixed to the cylinder. + +The steam enters a cast iron box in the stove through a rubber tube +provided with a threaded coupling. The entrance of the steam is +regulated by a cock. The box is provided with a safety and pressure +gauge and a small pinge cock. In the interior of the stove the +entrance of the steam is masked by a large tinned copper screen, which +is situated at the upper part and preserves the objects under +treatment from drops of water of condensation. These latter fall here +and there from the screen, follow the sides of the cylinder, and +collect at the bottom, from whence they are drawn off through a cock +placed in the rear. + +The sides are lined internally with wood, which prevents the objects +to be infected from coming into contact with the metal. The objects to +be treated are placed upon wire cloth shelves. The pinge cock likewise +serves for drawing off the air or steam contained in the apparatus. + +The stove is supported upon an axle through the intermedium of two +angle irons riveted longitudinally upon the cylinder. The axle is +cranked, and its wheels, which are of wood, are 41/2 feet in diameter. +The shafts are fixed to the angle irons. The apparatus is, in +addition, provided with a seat, a brake, and prop rods before and +behind to keep it horizontal when in operation. + +The boiler that supplies this stove is vertical and is mounted upon +four wheels. It is jacketed with wood, and is provided with a water +level, two gauge cocks, a pressure gauge, two spring safety valves, a +steam cock provided with a rubber tube that connects with that of the +stove, an ash pan, and a smoke stack. In the rear there are two +cylindrical water reservoirs that communicate with each other, and are +designed to feed the boiler through an injector. Beneath these +reservoirs there is a fuel box. In front there is a seat whose box +serves to hold tools and various other objects.--_La Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +AN ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR. + + +We abstract the following from a paper on electric lighting by Prof. +J.A. Fleeming, read before the Iron and Steel Institute, Manchester. +The illustration is from _Engineering_. + +[Illustration: ELECTRICAL GOVERNOR.] + +One of the questions which most frequently occurs in reference to mill +and factory lighting is whether the factory engines can be used to run +the dynamo. As a broad, general rule, there can be no question that +the best results are obtained by using a separate dynamo engine, +controlled by a good governor, set apart for that purpose. With an +ordinary shunt dynamo, the speed ought not to vary more than 2 or 3 +per cent. of its normal value on either side of that value. Hence, if +a dynamo has a normal speed of 1,000, it should certainly not vary +over a greater range than from 970 to 980 to 1,020 to 1,030. In many +cases there may be shafting from which the necessary power can be +taken, and of which the speed is variable only within these limits. +There are several devices by which it has been found possible to +enable a dynamo to maintain a constant electromotive force, even if +the speed of rotation varies over considerable limits. One of these is +that (see illustration) due to Messrs. Trotter & Ravenshaw, and +applicable to shunt or series machines. + +In the circuit of the field magnet is placed a variable resistance. +This resistance is thrown in or out by means of a motor device +actuated by an electromotive force indicator. A plunger of soft iron +is suspended from a spring, and hangs within a solenoid of wire, which +solenoid is in connection with the terminals of the dynamo. Any +increase or diminution of the electromotive force causes this iron to +move in or out of the core, and its movement is made to connect or +disconnect the gearing which throws in the field magnet resistance +with a shaft driven by the engine itself. The principle of the +apparatus is therefore that small variations of electromotive force +are made to vary inversely the strength of the magnetic field through +the intervention of a relay mechanism in which the power required to +effect the movement is tapped from the engine. + +With the aid of such a governor it is possible to drive a dynamo from +a mill shaft providing the requisite power, but of which the speed of +rotation is not sufficiently uniform to secure alone efficient +regulation of electromotive force. Another device, patented by Mr. +Crompton, is a modification of that method of field magnet winding +commonly known as compound winding. The field magnets are wound over +with two wires, one of which has a high resistance and is arranged as +a shunt, and the other of which has a low resistance and is arranged +in series. Instead, however, of the magnetizing powers of these coils +being united in the same direction as an ordinary compound winding, +they are opposed to one another. That is to say, the current in the +shunt wire tends to magnetize the iron of the field magnets in an +opposite direction to that of the series wire. It results from this +that any slight increase of speed diminishes the strength of the +magnetic field, and _vice versa_. Accordingly, within certain limits, +the electromotive force of the dynamo is independent of the speed of +rotation. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE TRACTIVE ADHESION OF +RAILWAY MOTORS AND OTHER ROLLING CONTACTS.[1] + + [Footnote 1: Read before the American Association for the + Advancement of Science. New York meeting, 1887.] + +By ELIAS E. RIES. + + +The object of this paper is to lay before you the results of some +recent experiments in a comparatively new field of operation, but one +that, judging from the results already attained, is destined to become +of great importance and value in its practical application to various +branches of industry. + +I say "comparatively new" because the underlying principles involved +in the experiments referred to have, to a certain extent, been +employed (in, however, a somewhat restricted sense) for purposes +analogous to those that form the basis of this communication. + +As indicated by the title, the subject that will now occupy our +attention is the use of the electric current as a means of increasing +and varying the frictional adhesion of rolling contacts and other +rubbing surfaces, and it is proposed to show how this effect may be +produced, both by means of the direct action of the current itself and +by its indirect action through the agency of electro-magnetism. + +Probably the first instance in which the electric current was directly +employed to vary the amount of friction between two rubbing surfaces +was exemplified in Edison's electro-motograph, in which the variations +in the strength of a telephonic current caused corresponding +variations in friction between a revolving cylinder of moistened chalk +and the free end of an adjustable contact arm whose opposite extremity +was attached to the diaphragm of the receiving telephone. This device +was extremely sensitive to the least changes in current strength, and +if it were not for the complication introduced by the revolving +cylinder, it is very likely that it would to-day be more generally +used. + +It has also been discovered more recently that in the operation of +electric railways in which the track rails form part of the circuit, a +considerable increase in the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels +is manifested, due to the passage of the return current from the +wheels into the track. In the Baltimore and Hampden electric railway, +using the Daft "third rail" system, this increased tractive adhesion +enables the motors to ascend without slipping a long grade of 350 feet +to the mile, drawing two heavily loaded cars, which result, it is +claimed, is not attainable by steam or other self-propelling motors of +similar weight. In the two instances just cited the conditions are +widely different, as regards the nature of the current employed, the +mechanical properties of the surfaces in contact, and the electrical +resistance and the working conditions of the respective circuits. In +both, however, as clearly demonstrated by the experiments hereinafter +referred to, the cause of the increased friction is substantially the +same. + +In order to ascertain the practical value of the electric current as a +means of increasing mechanical friction, and, if possible, render it +commercially and practically useful wherever such additional friction +might be desirable, as for example in the transmission of power, etc., +a series of experiments were entered into by the author, which, though +not yet fully completed, are sufficiently advanced to show that an +electric current, when properly applied, is capable of very materially +increasing the mechanical friction of rotating bodies, in some cases +as much as from 50 to 100 per cent., with a very economical +expenditure of current; this increase depending upon the nature of the +substances in contact and being capable of being raised by an +increased flow of current. + +Before entering into a description of the means by which this result +is produced, and how it is proposed to apply this method practically +to railway and other purposes, it may be well to give a general +outline of what has so far been determined. These experiments have +shown that the coefficient of friction between two conducting surfaces +is very much increased by the passage therethrough of an electric +current of _low electromotive force and large volume_, and this is +especially noticeable between two rolling surfaces in peripheral +contact with each other, or between a rolling and a stationary +surface, as in the case of a driving wheel running upon a railway +rail. This effect increases with the number of amperes of current +flowing through the circuit, of which the two surfaces form part, and +is not materially affected by the electromotive force, so long as the +latter is sufficient to overcome the electrical resistance of the +circuit. This increase in frictional adhesion is principally +noticeable in iron, steel, and other metallic bodies, and is due to a +molecular change in the conducting substances at their point of +contact (which is also the point of greatest resistance in the +circuit), caused by the heat developed at that point. This heat is +ordinarily imperceptible, and becomes apparent only when the current +strength is largely augmented. It is therefore probable that a portion +of this increased tractive adhesion is due directly to the current +itself aside from its heating effect, although I have not as yet been +able to ascertain this definitely. The most economical and efficient +results have been obtained by the employment of a transformed current +of extremely low electromotive force (between 1/2 and 1 volt), but of +very large volume or quantity, this latter being variable at will, so +as to obtain different degrees of frictional resistance in the +substances under observation. + +These experiments were originally directed mainly toward an endeavor +to increase the tractive adhesion of the driving wheels of locomotives +and other vehicles, and to utilize the electric current for this +purpose in such a manner as to render it entirely safe, practical, and +economical. It will be apparent at once that a method of increasing +the tractive power of the present steam locomotives by more than 50 +per cent. without adding to their weight and without injury to the +roadbed and wheel tires, such as is caused by the sand now commonly +used, would prove of considerable value, and the same holds true with +respect to electrically propelled street cars, especially as it has +been found exceedingly difficult to secure sufficient tractive +adhesion on street railways during the winter season, as well as at +other times, on roads having grades of more than ordinary steepness. +As this, therefore, is probably the most important use for this +application of the electric current, it has been selected for +illustrating this paper. + +I have here a model car and track arranged to show the equipment and +operation of the system as applied to railway motors. The current in +the present instance is one of alternating polarity which is converted +by this transformer into one having the required volume. The +electromotive force of this secondary current is somewhat higher than +is necessary. In practice it would be about half a volt. You will +notice upon a closer inspection that one of the forward driving wheels +is insulated from its axle, and the transformed current, after passing +to a regulating switch under the control of the engineer or driver, +goes to this insulated wheel, from which it enters the track rail, +then through the rear pair of driving wheels and axles to the opposite +rail, and then flows up through the forward uninsulated wheel, from +the axle of which it returns by way of a contact brush to the opposite +terminal of the secondary coil of the transformer. Thus the current is +made to flow _seriatim_ through all four of the driving wheels, +completing its circuit through that portion of the rails lying between +the two axles, and generating a sufficient amount of heat at each +point of contact to produce the molecular change before referred to. +By means of the regulating switch the engineer can control the amount +of current flowing at any time, and can even increase its strength to +such an extent, in wet or slippery weather, as to _evaporate any +moisture_ that may adhere to the surface of the rails at the point of +contact with the wheels while the locomotive or motor car is under +full speed. + +It will be apparent that inasmuch as the "traction circuit" moves +along with the locomotive, and is complete through its driving wheel +base, the track rails in front and rear of the same are at all times +entirely free from current, _and no danger whatever can occur by +coming in contact with the rails between successive motors_. Moreover, +the potential used in the present arrangement, while sufficient to +overcome the extremely low resistance of the moving circuit, is too +small to cause an appreciable loss of current from that portion of the +rails in circuit, even under the most unfavorable conditions of the +weather. In practice the primary current necessary is preferably +generated by a small high speed alternating dynamo on the locomotive, +the current being converted by means of an inductional transformer. To +avoid the necessity for electrically bridging the rail joints, a +modified arrangement may be employed, in which the electrical +connection is made directly with a fixed collar on the forward and +rear driving axles, the current dividing itself in parallel between +the two rails in such a manner that, if a defective joint exists in +the rail at one side, the circuit is still complete through the rail +on the other; and as the rails usually break joints on opposite sides, +this arrangement is found very effective. The insulation of the +driving wheels is very easily effected in either case. + +As the amount of additional tractive adhesion produced depends upon +the _quantity_ of current flowing rather than upon its pressure, the +reason for transforming the current as described will be apparent, and +its advantages over a direct current of higher tension and less +quantity, both from an economical and practical standpoint, will for +this reason be clear. The amount of heat produced at the point of +contact between the wheels and rails is never large enough to injure +or otherwise affect them, although it may be quite possible to +increase the current sufficiently to produce a very considerable +heating effect. The amount of current sent through the traction +circuit will of course vary with the requirements, and as the extent +to which the resistance to slipping may be increased is very great, +this method is likely to prove of considerable value. While in some +cases the use of such a method of increasing the tractive power of +locomotives would be confined to ascending gradients and the movement +of exceptionally heavy loads, in others it would prove useful as a +_constant_ factor in the work of transportation. In cases like that of +the New York elevated railway system, where the traffic during certain +hours is much beyond the capacity of the trains, and the structure +unable to support the weight of heavier engines, a system like that +just described would prove of very great benefit, as it would easily +enable the present engines to draw two or three additional cars with +far less slipping and lost motion than is the case with mechanical +friction alone, at a cost for tractive current that is insignificant +compared to the advantages gained. Other cases may be cited in which +this method of increasing friction will probably be found useful, +aside from its application to railway purposes, but these will +naturally suggest themselves and need not be further dwelt upon. + +In the course of the experiments above described, another and somewhat +different method of increasing the traction of railway motors has been +devised, which is more particularly adapted to electric motors for +street railways, and is intended to be used in connection with a +system of electric street railways now being developed by the author. +In this system _electro-magnetism_ provides the means whereby the +increase in tractive adhesion is produced, and this result is attained +in an entirely novel manner. Several attempts have heretofore been +made to utilize magnetism for this purpose, but apparently without +success, chiefly because of the crude and imperfect manner in which +most of these attempts have been carried out. + +The present system owes its efficiency to the formation of _a complete +and constantly closed magnetic circuit_, moving with the vehicle and +completed through the two driving axles, wheels, and that portion of +the track rails lying between the two pairs of wheels, in a manner +similar to that employed in the electrical method before shown. We +have here a model of a second motor car equipped with the apparatus, +mounted on a section of track and provided with means for measuring +the amount of tractive force exerted both with and without the passage +of the current. + +You will notice that each axle of the motor car is wound with a helix +of insulated wire, the helices in the present instance being divided +to permit the attachment to the axles of the motor connections. The +helices on both axles are so connected that, when energized, they +induce magnetic lines of force that flow in the same direction through +the magnetic circuit. There are, therefore, four points at which the +circuit is maintained closed by the rolling wheels, and as the +resistance to the flow of the lines of force is greatest at these +points, the magnetic saturation there is more intense, and produces +the most effective result just where it is most required. Now, when +the battery circuit is closed through the helices, it will be observed +that the torque, or pull, exerted by the motor car is fully twice that +exerted by the motor with the traction circuit open, and, by +increasing the battery current until the saturation point of the iron +is reached, the tractive force is _increased nearly 200 per cent._, as +shown by the dynamometer. A large portion of this resistance to the +slipping or skidding of the driving wheels is undoubtedly due to +direct magnetic attraction between the wheels and track, this +attraction depending upon the degree of magnetic saturation and the +relative mass of metal involved. + +But by far the greatest proportion of the increased friction is purely +the result of the change in position of the iron molecules due to the +well known action of magnetism, which causes a direct and close +_interlocking action_, so to speak, between the molecules of the two +surfaces in contact. This may be illustrated by drawing a very thin +knife blade over the poles of an ordinary electro-magnet, first with +the current on and then off. + +In the model before you, the helices are fixed firmly to, and revolve +with, the axles, the connections being maintained by brushes bearing +upon contact rings at each end of the helices. If desired, however, +the axles may revolve loosely within the helices, and instead of the +latter being connected for cumulative effects, they may be arranged in +other ways so as to produce either subsequent or opposing magnetic +forces, leaving certain portions of the circuit neutral and +concentrating the lines of force wherever they maybe most desirable. +Such a disposition will prove of advantage in some cases. + +The amount of current required to obtain this increased adhesion in +practice is extremely small, and may be entirely neglected when +compared to the great benefits derived. The system is very simple and +inexpensive, and the amount of traction secured is entirely within the +control of the motor man, as in the electric system. It will be seen +that the car here will not, with the traction circuit open, propel +itself up hill when one end of the track is raised more than 5 inches +above the table; but with the circuit energized it will readily ascend +the track as you now see it, with one end about 131/2, inches above the +other in a length of three feet, _or the equivalent of a 40 per cent. +grade_; and this could be increased still further if the motor had +power enough to propel itself against the force of gravity on a +steeper incline. As you will notice, the motor adheres very firmly to +the track and requires a considerable push to force it down this 40 +per cent. grade, whereas with the traction circuit open it slips down +in very short order, notwithstanding the efforts of the driving +mechanism to propel it up. + +The resistance of the helices on this model is less than two ohms, and +this will scarcely be exceeded when applied to a full sized car, the +current from two or three cells of secondary batteries being probably +sufficient to energize them. + +The revolution of the driving axles and wheels is not interfered with +in the slightest, because in the former the axle boxes are outside the +path of the lines of force, and in the case of the latter because each +wheel practically forms a single pole piece, and in revolving presents +continuously a new point of contact, of the same polarity, to the +rail; the flow of the lines of force being most intense through the +lower half of the wheels, and on a perpendicular line connecting the +center of the axle with the rail. In winter all that is necessary is +to provide each motor car with a suitable brush for cleaning the track +rails sufficiently to enable the wheels to make good contact +therewith, and any tendency to slipping or skidding may be effectually +checked. By this means it is easily possible to increase the tractive +adhesion of an ordinary railway motor from 50 to 100 per cent., +without any increase in the load or weight upon the track; for it must +be remembered that even that portion of the increased friction due to +direct attraction does not increase the weight upon the roadbed, as +this attraction is mutual between the wheels and track rails; and if +this car and track were placed upon a scale and the circuit closed, it +would not weigh a single ounce more than with the circuit open. + +It is obvious that this increase in friction between two moving +surfaces can also be applied to _check_, as well as augment, the +tractive power of a car or train of cars, and I have shown in +connection with this model a system of braking that is intended to be +used in conjunction with the electro-magnetic traction system just +described. You will have noticed that in the experiments with the +traction circuit the brake shoes here have remained idle; that is to +say, they have not been attracted to the magnetized wheels. This is +because a portion of the traction current has been circulating around +this coil on the iron brake beam, inducing in the brake shoes +magnetism of like polarity to that in the wheels to which they apply. +They have therefore been _repelled_ from the wheel tires instead of +being attracted to them. Suppose now that it is desired to stop the +motor car; instead of opening the traction circuit, the current +flowing through the helices is simply reversed by means of this pole +changing switch, whereupon the axles are magnetized in the opposite +direction and the brake shoes are instantly drawn to the wheels with a +very great pressure, as the current in the helices and brake coil now +assist each other in setting up a very strong magnetic flow, +sufficient to bring the motor car almost to an instant stop, if +desired. + +The same tractive force that has previously been applied to increase +the tractive adhesion now exercises its influence upon the brake shoes +and wheels, with the result of not only causing a very powerful +pressure between the two surfaces due to the magnetic attraction, but +offering an extremely large frictional resistance in virtue of the +molecular interlocking action before referred to. As shown in the +present instance, a portion of the current still flows through the +traction circuit and prevents the skidding of the wheels. + +The method thus described is equally applicable to increase the +coefficient of friction in apparatus for the transmission of power, +its chief advantage for this purpose being the ease and facility with +which the amount of friction between the wheels can be varied to suit +different requirements, or increased and diminished (either +automatically or manually) according to the nature of the work being +done. With soft iron contact surfaces the variation in friction is +very rapid and sensitive to slight changes in current strength, and +this fact may prove of value in connection with its application to +regulating and measuring apparatus. In all cases the point to be +observed is to maintain a closed magnetic circuit of low resistance +through the two or more surfaces the friction of which it is desired +to increase, and the same rule holds good with respect to the electric +system, except that in the latter case the best effects are obtained +when the area of surface in contact is smallest. + +For large contact areas the magnetic system is found to be most +economical, and this system might possibly be used to advantage to +prevent slipping of short wire ropes and belts upon their driving +pulleys, in cases where longer belts are inapplicable as in the +driving of dynamos and other machinery. Experiments have also been, +and are still being, made with the object of increasing friction by +means of permanent magnetism, and also with a view to _diminishing_ +the friction of revolving and other moving surfaces, the results of +which will probably form the subject matter of a subsequent paper. + +Enough has been said to indicate that the development of these two +methods of increasing mechanical friction opens up a new and extensive +field of operation, and enables electricity to score another important +point in the present age of progress. The great range and flexibility +of this method peculiarly adapt it to the purposes we have considered +and to numerous others that will doubtless suggest themselves to you. +Its application to the increase of the tractive adhesion of railway +motors is probably its most prominent and valuable feature at present, +and is calculated to act as an important stimulus to the practical +introduction of electric railways on our city streets, inasmuch as the +claims heretofore made for cable traction in this respect are now no +longer exclusively its own. On trunk line railways the use of sand and +other objectionable traction-increasing appliances will be entirely +dispensed with, and locomotives will be enabled to run at greater +speed with less slipping of the wheels and less danger of derailment. +Their tractive power can be nearly doubled without any increase in +weight, enabling them to draw heavier trains and surmount steeper +grades without imposing additional weight or strain upon bridges and +other parts of the roadbed. Inertia of heavy trains can be more +readily overcome, loss of time due to slippery tracks obviated, and +the momentum of the train at full speed almost instantly checked by +_one and the same means_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRIC LAUNCH. + + +Trials have been made at Havre with an electric launch built to the +order of the French government by the Forges et Chantiers de la +Mediterranee. The vessel, which has rather full lines, measures 28 ft. +between perpendiculars and 9 ft. beam, and is 5 tons register. + +The electromotor is the invention of Captain Krebs, who is already +well known on account of his experiments in connection with navigable +balloons, and of M. De Zede, naval architect. The propeller shaft is +not directly coupled with the spindle of the motor, but is geared to +it by spur wheels in the ratio of 1 to 3, in order to allow of the +employment of a light high-speed motor. The latter makes 850 +revolutions per minute, and develops 12 horse power when driving the +screw at 280 revolutions. Current is supplied by a new type of +accumulators made by Messrs. Commelin & Desmazures. One hundred and +thirty two of these accumulators are fitted in the bottom of the boat, +the total weight being about 2 tons. + +In ordering this boat the French government stipulated a speed of 6 +knots to be maintained during three hours with an expenditure of 10 +horse power. The result of the trials gave a speed of 61/2 knots during +five hours with 12 horse power, and sufficient charge was left in the +accumulators to allow the boat to travel on the following day for four +hours. This performance is exceedingly good, since it shows that one +horse power hour has been obtained with less than 60 lb. of total +weight of battery. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS. + + +Leveling the ground, pulling down old buildings, and distributing +light and air through her wide streets, Paris is slowly and +continuously pursuing her transformation. At this moment it is an +entire district, and not one of the least curious ones, that is +disappearing, leaving no other trace of its existence than the +circular walls that once inclosed the wheat market. + +It is this building that, metamorphosed, is to become the Commercial +Exchange that has been so earnestly demanded since 1880 by the +commerce of Paris. The question, which was simple in the first place, +and consisted in the conversion of the wheat market into a commercial +exchange, became complicated by a project of enlarging the markets. It +therefore became necessary to take possession, on the one hand, of +sixty seven estates, of a total area of 116,715 square feet, to clear +the exchange, and, on the other, of 49,965 square feet to clear the +central markets. In other words, out of $5,000,000 voted by the common +council for this work, $2,800,000 are devoted to the dispossessions +necessitated by the new exchange, $1,800,000 to those necessitated by +the markets, and $400,000 are appropriated to the wheat market. + +The work of demolition began last spring, and the odd number side of +Orleans street, Deux-Ecus street, from this latter to J.J. Rousseau +street, Babille street, Mercier street, and Sortine street, now no +longer exist. All this part is to-day but a desert, in whose center +stands the iron trussing of the wheat market cupola. It is on these +grounds that will be laid out the prolongation of Louvre street in a +straight line to Coquilliere street. + +Our engraving shows the present state of the work. What is seen of the +wheat market will be preserved and utilized by Mr. Blondeau, the +architect, who has obtained a grant from the commercial exchange to +construct two edifices on two plots of an area of 32,220 square feet, +fronting on Louvre street, and which will bring the city an annual +rent of $60,000. + +[Illustration: THE NEW COMMERCIAL EXCHANGE, PARIS.] + +Around the rotunda that still exists there was a circular wall 61/2 feet +in thickness. Mr. Blondeau has torn this down, and is now building +another one appropriate to the new destination of the acquired +estates. As for the trussing of the cupola, that is considered as a +work of art, and care has been taken not to touch it. It was +constructed at the beginning of this century, at an epoch when nothing +but rudimentary tools were to be had for working iron, and it was, so +to speak, forged. All the pieces were made with the hammer and were +added one to the other in succession. This cupola will be glazed at +the upper part, while the lower part will be covered with zinc. In the +interior this part will be decorated with allegorical paintings +representing the five divisions of the globe, with their commercial +and industrial attributes. It was feared at one time that the hall, to +which admission will be free, would not afford sufficient space, and +the halls of the Bordeaux and Havre exchanges were cited. It is true +that the hall of the wheat market has an area of but 11,825 square +feet, but on utilizing the 5,000 feet of the circular gallery, which +will not be occupied, it will reach 16,825 feet. + +As for the tower which stands at one side of the edifice, that was +built by Marie de Medici for the astrologer whom she brought with her +to Paris from Florence. On account of its historic interest, this +structure will be preserved. On either side of this tower, overlooking +the roofs of the neighboring dwellings, are perceived the summit of a +tower of St. Eustache church and a campanile of a pavilion of the +markets.--_L'Illustration._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF COCAINE. + + +Cocaine is manufactured from the dry leaves of the _Erythroxylon +coca_, which grows in the valleys of the East Cordilleras of South +America--i.e., in the interior of Peru and Bolivia. The fresh leaves +contain 0.003 to 0.006 per cent of cocaine, which percentage decreases +considerably if the leaves are stored any length of time before being +worked up. On the other hand, the alkaloid can be transported and kept +without decomposition. This circumstance caused the author to devise a +simple process for the manufacture of crude cocaine on the spot, +neither Peru nor Bolivia being suitable countries for complicated +chemical operations. After many experiments, he hit upon the following +plan: The disintegrated coca leaves are digested at 70 deg. C. in closed +vessels for two hours, with a very weak solution of sodium hydrate and +petroleum (boiling between 200 deg. and 250 deg. C). The mass is filtered, +pressed while still tepid, and the filtrate allowed to stand until the +oil has completely separated from the aqueous solution. The oil is +drawn off and carefully neutralized with very weak hydrochloric acid. +A white bulky precipitate of cocaine hydrochloride is obtained, +together with an aqueous solution of the same compound, while the +petroleum is free from the alkaloid and may be used for the extraction +of a fresh batch of leaves. The precipitate is dried, and by +concentrating the aqueous solution a further quantity of the +hydrochloride is obtained. Both can be shipped without risk of +decomposition. The product is not quite pure, but contains some +hygrine, traces of gum and other matters. Its percentage of alkaloid +is 75 per cent., while chemically pure cocaine hydrochloride +(C_{17}H_{21}NO_{4}.2HCl) contains 80.6 per cent. of the alkaloid. The +sodium hydrate solution cannot be replaced by milk of lime, nor can +any other acid be used for neutralization. Alcohol or ether are not +suitable for extraction. A repetition of the process with +once-extracted coca leaves gave no further quantity of cocaine, +proving that all the cocaine goes into solution by one treatment. The +same process serves on the small scale for the valuation of coca +leaves. 100 grms. of coca leaves are digested in a flask with 400 c.c. +of water, 50 c.c. of 1/10 NaOH (10 grms. of NaOH in 100 c.c.) and 250 +c.c. of petroleum. The flask is loosely covered and warmed on the +water bath for two hours, shaking it from to time. The mass is then +filtered, the residue pressed, and the filtrate allowed to separate in +two layers. The oil layer is run into a bottle and titrated back with +1/100 HCl (1 grm. of HCl in 100 c.c.) until exactly neutral. The +number of c.c. of hydrochloric acid required for titrating back +multiplied by 0.42 gives the percentage of cocaine in the sample. The +following are some of the results with different samples of coca +leaves of various age: + + Contained per cent. + of Cocaine. + Coca leaves from Mapiri, 1 month old 0.5% \ + " " " Yungas " " 0.5% | + " " " Mapiri and Yungas | + 6 months old 0.4% | Of the + " " " Cuzco (Peru) |_ weight of + 6 months old 0.3% | the dry + " " " Mapiri and Yungas | leaves. + 1 year old 0.3% | + " " " Cuzco " " " 0.2% | + " " " Mapiri and Yungas | + 2 years old 0.15%/ + +Coca leaves from Yungas and Cuzco, three years old, contained no trace +of the alkaloid, whereas fresh green leaves from Yungas contained 0.7 +per cent. of the weight of the dry leaves. The same process is also +applicable for the manufacture of quinine from poor quinine bark, with +the single alteration that weak sulphuric acid must be used for the +neutralization of the alkaline petroleum extract.--_H.T. Pfeiffer, +Chem. Zeit. 11._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 622, page 9941.] + + + + +THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF PLANT FORMS.[1] + +By HELEN C. DE S. ABBOTT. + + +The succession of plants from the lower to the higher forms will be +reviewed superficially, and chemical compounds noted where they +appear. + +When the germinating spores of the fungi, _myxomycetes_, rupture their +walls and become masses of naked protoplasm, they are known as +plasmodia. The plasmodium _AEthalium septicum_ occurs in moist places, +on heaps of tan or decaying barks. It is a soft, gelatinous mass of +yellowish color, sometimes measuring several inches in length. + +The plasmodium[2] has been chemically analyzed, though not in a state +of absolute purity. The table of Reinke and Rodewold gives an idea of +its proximate constitution. + +Many of the constituents given are always present in the living cells +of higher plants. It cannot be too emphatically stated that where +"biotic" force is manifested, these colloidal or albuminous compounds +are found. + +The simplest form of plant life is an undifferentiated individual, all +of its functions being performed indifferently by all parts of its +protoplasm. + +The chemical basis of plasmodium is almost entirely composed of +complex albuminous substances, and correlated with this structureless +body are other compounds derived from them. Aside from the chemical +substances which are always present in living matter, and are +essential properties of protoplasm, we find no other compounds. In the +higher organisms, where these functions are not performed +indifferently, specialization of tissues is accompanied by many other +kinds of bodies. + +The algae are a stage higher in the evolutionary scale than the +undifferentiated noncellular plasmodium. The simple _Alga +protococcus_[3] may be regarded as a simple cell. All higher plants +are masses of cells, varying in form, function, and chemical +composition. + +A typical living cell may be described as composed of a cell wall and +contents. The cell wall is a firm, elastic membrane closed on all +sides, and consists mainly of cellulose, water, and inorganic +constituents. The contents consist of a semi-fluid colloidal +substance, lying in contact with the inner surface of the membrane, +and, like it, closed on all sides. This always is composed of +albuminous substances. In the higher plants, at least, a nucleus +occurs embedded in it; a watery liquid holding salts and saccharine +substances in solution fills the space called the vacuole, inclosed by +the protoplasm. + +These simple plants may be seen as actively moving cells or as +non-motile cells. The former consist of a minute mass of protoplasm, +granular and mostly colored green, but clear and colorless at the more +pointed end, and where it is prolonged into two delicate filaments +called cilia. After moving actively for a time they come to rest, +acquire a spherical form, and invest themselves with a firm membrane +of cellulose. This firm, outer membrane of the _Protococcus_ +accompanies a higher differentiation of tissue and localization of +function than is found in the plasmodium. + +_Haeatococcus_ and plasmodium come under the classes algae and fungi of +the Thallothyta group. The division[4] of this group into two classes +is based upon the presence of chlorophyl in algae and its absence in +fungi. Gelatinous starch is found in the algae; the fungi contain a +starchy substance called glycogen, which also occurs in the liver and +muscles of animals. Structureless bodies, as _aethalium_, contain no +true sugar. Stratified starch[5] first appears in the phanerogams. +Alkaloids have been found in fungi, and owe their presence doubtless +to the richness of these plants in nitrogenous bodies. + +In addition to the green coloring matter in algae are found other +coloring matters.[6] The nature[7] of these coloring matters is +usually the same through whole families, which also resemble each +other in their modes of reproduction. + +In form, the algae differ greatly from filaments or masses of cells; +they live in the water and cover damp surfaces of rocks and wood. In +these they are remarkable for their ramifications and colors and grow +to a gigantic size. + +The physiological functions of algae and fungi depend upon their +chemical differences. + +These facts have been offered, simple as they are, as striking +examples of chemical and structural opposition. + +The fungi include very simple organisms, as well as others of +tolerably high development, of most varied form, from the simple +bacillus and yeast to the truffle, lichens, and mushrooms. + +The cell membrane of this class contains no pure cellulose, but a +modification called fungus cellulose. The membrane also contains an +amyloid substance, amylomycin.[8] Many of the chemical constituents +found in the entire class are given in _Die Pflanzenstoffe_.[9] + +Under the _Schizomycetes_ to which the _Micrococcus_ and +_Bacterium_[10] belong are found minute organisms differing much in +form and in the coloring[11] matters they produce, as that causing the +red color of mouldy bread. + +The class of lichens[12] contains a number of different coloring +substances, whose chemical composition has been examined. These +substances are found separately in individuals differing in form. In +the _Polyporus_[13] an acid has been found peculiar to it, as in many +plants special compounds are found. In the agariceae the different +kinds of vellum distinguish between species, and the color of the +conidia is also of differential importance. In all cases of distinct +characteristic habits of reproduction and form, one or more different +chemical compounds is found. + +In the next group of the musiceae, or mosses, is an absence of some +chemical compounds that were characteristic of the classes just +described. Many of the albuminous substances are present. Starch[14] +is found often in large quantities, and also oily fats, which are +contained in the oil bodies of the liverworts; wax,[15] organic acids, +including aconitic acid, and tannin, which is found for the first time +at this evolutionary stage of the plant kingdom. + +The vascular cryptogams are especially characterized by their mineral +composition.[16] The ash is extraordinarily rich in silicic acid and +alumina. + + Equisetum[17]..........silicic acid 60 per cent. + Aspidium............... " " 13 + Asplenium.............. " " 35 + Osmunda................ " " 53 + Lycopodium[18]......... " " 14 + " ........ alumina 26 to 27 + " ........ manganese 2 to 2.5 + +These various plants contain acids and compounds peculiar to +themselves. + +As we ascend in the plant scale, we reach the phanerogams. These +plants are characterized by the production of true seeds, and many +chemical compounds not found in lower plants. + +It will be convenient in speaking of these higher groups to follow M. +Heckel's[19] scheme of plant evolution. All these plants are grouped +under three main divisions: apetalous, monocotyledonous, and +dicotyledonous; and these main divisions are further subdivided. + +It will be observed that these three main parallel columns are divided +into three general horizontal planes. + +On plane 1 are all plants of simplicity of floral elements, or parts; +for example, the black walnut, with the simple flower contained in a +catkin. + +On plane 2 plants which have a multiplicity of floral elements, as the +many petals and stamens of the rose; and finally, the higher plants, +the orchids among the monocotyledons and the composite among the +dicotyledonous plants, come under the third division of condensation +of floral elements. + +It will be impossible to take up in order for chemical consideration +all these groups, and I shall restrict myself to pointing out the +occurrence of certain constituents. + +I desire now to call attention to chemical groups under the apetalous +plants having simplicity of floral elements. + +_Cassuarina equisetifolia_[20] possibly contains tannin, since it is +used for curing hides. The bark contains a dye. It is said to resemble +_Equisetum_[21] in appearance, and in this latter plant a yellow dye +is found. + +The _Myrica_[22] contains ethereal oil, wax, resin, balsam, in all +parts of the plant. The root contains in addition fats, tannin, and +starch, also myricinic acid. + +In the willow and poplar,[23] a crystalline, bitter substance, salicin +or populin, is found. This may be considered as the first appearance +of a real glucoside, if tannin be excluded from the list. + +The oak, walnut, beech, alder, and birch contain tannin in large +quantities; in the case of the oak, ten to twelve per cent. Oak galls +yield as much as seventy per cent.[24] + +The numerous genera of pine and fir trees are remarkable for ethereal +oil, resin, and camphor. + +The plane[25] trees contain caoutchouc and gum; peppers,[26] ethereal +oils, alkaloids, piperin, white resin, and malic acid. _Datisca +cannabina_[27] contains a coloring matter and another substance +peculiar to itself, datiscin, a kind of starch, or allied to the +glucosides. + +Upon the same evolutionary plane among the monocotyledons, the dates +and palms[28] contain in large quantities special starches, and this +is in harmony with the principles of the theory. Alkaloids and +glucosides have not yet been discovered in them. + +Other monocotyledonous groups with simplicity of floral elements, such +as the typhaceae, contain large quantities of starch; in the case of +_Typha latifolia_[29] 12.5 per cent., and 1.5 per cent. gum. In the +pollen of this same plant, 2.08 per cent. starch has been found. + +Under the dicotyledonous groups, there are no plants with simplicity +of floral elements. + +Returning, now, to apetalous plants of multiplicity and simplification +of floral elements, we find that the urticaceae[30] contain free formic +acid; the hemp[31] contains alkaloids; the hop,[32] ethereal oil and +resin; the rhubarb,[33] crysophonic acid; and the begonias,[34] +chicarin and lapacho dyes. The highest apetalous plants contain +camphors and oils; the highest of the monocotyledons contain a +mucilage and oils; and the highest dicotyledons contain oils and +special acids. + +The trees yielding common camphor and borneol are from genera of the +lauraceae family; also sassafras camphor is from the same family. Small +quantities of stereoptenes are widely distributed through the plant +kingdom. + +The gramineae, or grasses, are especially characterized by the large +quantities of sugar and silica they contain. The ash of the rice hull, +for example, contains ninety eight per cent. silica. + +The ranunculaceae contain many plants which yield alkaloids, as +_Hydrastia canadensis_, or Indian hemp, _Helleborus_, _Delphinum_, +_Aconitum_, and the alkaloid berberine has been obtained from genera +of this family. + +The alkaloid[35] furnishing families belong, with few exceptions, to +the dicotyledons. The colchiceae, from which is obtained veratrine, +form an exception among the monocotyledons. The alkaloids of the +fungus have already been noted. + +[36]Among the greater number of plant families, no alkaloids have been +found. In the labiatae none has been discovered, nor in the compositae +among the highest plants. + +One alkaloid is found in many genera of the loganiaceae; berberine in +genera of the berberidaceae, ranunculaceae, menispermaceae, rutaceae, +papaveraceae, anonaceae. + +Waxes are widely distributed in plants. They occur in quantities in +some closely related families. + +Ethereal oils occur in many families, in the bark, root, wood, leaf, +flower, and fruit; particularly in myrtaceae, laurineae, cyperaceae, +crucifereae, aurantiaceae, labiatae, and umbelliferae. + +Resins are found in most of the higher plants. Tropical plants are +richer in resins than those of cold climates. + +Chemical resemblance between groups, as indicating morphological +relations, has been well shown. For example: the similarity[37] of the +viscid juices, and a like taste and smell, among cactaceae and +portulaceae, indicate a closer relationship between these two orders +than botanical classification would perhaps allow. This fact was +corroborated by the discovery of irritable stamens in _Portulaca_ and +_Opuntia_, and other genera of cactaceae. + +Darwin[38] states that in the compositae the ray florets are more +poisonous than the disk florets, in the ratio of about 3 to 2. + +Comparing the cycadeae and palmae, the former are differently placed by +different botanists, but the general resemblance is remarkable, and +they both yield sago. + +Chemical constituents of plants are found in varying quantities during +stated periods of the year. Certain compounds present at one stage of +growth are absent at another. Many facts could be brought forward to +show the different chemical composition of plants in different stages +of growth. The _Thuja occidentalis_[39] in the juvenescent and adult +form, offers an example where morphological and chemical differences +go hand in hand. Analyses of this plant under both conditions show a +striking difference. + +Different parts of plants may contain distinct chemical compounds, and +the comparative chemical study of plant orders comprises the analysis +of all parts of plants of different species. + +For example; four portions of the _Yucca angustifolia_[40] were +examined chemically; the bark and wood of the root and the base and +blades of the leaves. Fixed oils were separated from each part. These +were not identical; two were fluid at ordinary temperature, and two +were solid. Their melting and solidifying points were not the same. + +This difference in the physical character and chemical reaction of +these fixed oils may be due to the presence of free fatty acid and +glycerides in varying proportions in the four parts of the plants. It +is of interest to note that, in the subterranean part of the _Yucca_, +the oil extracted from the bark is solid at the ordinary temperature; +from the wood it was of a less solid consistency; while the yellow +base of the leaf contained an oil quite soft, and in the green leaf +the oil is almost fluid. + +Two new resins were extracted from the yellow and green parts of the +leaf. It was proposed to name them _yuccal_ and _pyrophaeal_ An +examination of the contents of each extract showed a different +quantitative and qualitative result. + +Saponin was found in all parts of the plant. + +Many of the above facts have been collected from the investigations of +others. I have introduced these statements, selected from a mass of +material, as evidences in favor of the view stated at the beginning of +this paper.[41] My own study has been directed toward the discovery of +saponin in those plants where it was presumably to be found. The +practical use of this theory in plant analysis will lead the chemists +at once to a search for those compounds which morphology shows are +probably present. + +I have discovered saponin in all parts of the _Yucca angustifolia_, in +the _Y. filimentosa_ and _Y. gloriosa_, in several species of agavae, +and in plants belonging to the leguminosae family. + +The list[42] of plants in which saponin has been discovered is given +in the note. All these plants are contained in the middle plane of +Heckel's scheme. No plants containing saponin have been found among +apetalous groups. No plants have been found containing saponin among +the lower monocotyledons. + +The plane of saponin passes from the liliaceae and allied groups to the +rosales and higher dicotyledons. + +Saponin belongs to a class of substances called glucosides. Under the +action of dilute acids, it is split up into two substances, glucose +and sopogenin. The chemical nature of this substance is not thoroughly +understood. The commercial[43] product is probably a mixture of +several substances. + +This complexity of chemical composition of saponin is admirably +adapted for the nutrition of the plant, and it is associated with the +corresponding complexity of the morphological elements of the plant's +organs. According to M. Perrey,[44] it seems that the power of a plant +to direct the distribution of its carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to form +complex glucosides is indicative of its higher functions and +developments. + +The solvent action of saponin on resins has been already discussed. +Saponin likewise acts as a solvent upon barium[45] sulphate and +calcium[46] oxalate, and as a solvent of insoluble or slightly soluble +salts would assist the plant in obtaining food, otherwise difficult of +access. + +The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently +Saponin is found in endogens and exogens. The line dividing these two +groups is not always clearly defined. Statements pointing to this are +found in the works of Haeckel, Bentham, and others. + +Smilax belongs to a transition class, partaking somewhat of the nature +of endogen and of exogen. It is worthy of note that this intermediate +group of the sarsaparillas should contain saponin. + +It is a significant fact that all the groups above named containing +saponin belong to Heckel's middle division. + +It may be suggested that saponin is thus a constructive element in +developing the plant from the multiplicity of floral elements to the +cephalization of those organs. + +It has been observed that the composite occurs where the materials for +growth are supplied in greatest abundance, and the more simple forms +arise where sources of nutrition are remote. We may gather from this +fact that the simpler organs of plants low in the evolutionary scale +contain simpler non-nitrogenous chemical compounds for their +nutrition. + +The presence of saponin seems essential to the life of the plant where +it is found, and it is an indispensable principle in the progression +of certain lines of plants, passing from their lower to their higher +stages. + +Saponin is invariably absent where the floral elements are simple; it +is invariably absent where the floral elements are condensed to their +greatest extent. Its position is plainly that of a factor in the great +middle realm of vegetable life, where the elements of the individual +are striving to condense, and thus increase their physiological action +and the economy of parts. + +It may be suggested as a line of research to study what are the +conditions which control the synthesis and gradual formation of +saponin in plants. The simpler compounds of which this complex +substance is built up, if located as compounds of lower plants, would +indicate the lines of progression from the lower to the saponin +groups. + +In my paper[47] read in Buffalo at the last meeting of the American +Association for the Advancement of Science, various suggestions were +offered why chemical compounds should be used as a means of botanical +classification. + +The botanical classifications based upon morphology are so frequently +unsatisfactory, that efforts in some directions have been made to +introduce other methods.[48] + +There has been comparatively little study of the chemical principles +of plants from a purely botanical view. It promises to become a new +field of research. + +The leguminosae are conspicuous as furnishing us with important dyes, +e.g., indigo, logwood, catechin. The former is obtained principally +from different species of the genus _Indigofera_, and logwood from the +_Haematoxylon_ and _Saraca indica_. + +The discovery[49] of haematoxylin in the _Saraca indica_ illustrates +very well how this plant in its chemical, as well as botanical, +character is related to the _Haematoxylon campechianum_; also, I found +a substance like catechin in the _Saraca_. This compound is found in +the _acacias_, to which class _Saraca_ is related by its chemical +position, as well as botanically. Saponin is found in both of these +plants, as well as in many other plants of the leguminosae. The +leguminosae come under the middle plane or multiplicity of floral +elements, and the presence of saponin in these plants was to be +expected. + +From many of the facts above stated, it may be inferred that the +chemical compounds of plants do not occur at random. Each stage of +growth and development has its own particular chemistry. + +It is said that many of the constituents found in plants are the +result of destructive metabolism, and are of no further use in the +plant's economy. This subject is by no means settled, and even should +we be forced to accept that ground, it is a significant fact that +certain cells, tissues, or organs peculiar to a plant secrete or +excrete chemical compounds peculiar to them, which are to be found in +one family, or in species closely allied to it. + +It is a fact that the chemical compounds are there, no matter why or +whence they came. They will serve our purposes of study and +classification. + +The result of experiment shows that the presence of certain compounds +is essential to the vigor and development of all plants and particular +compounds to the development of certain plants. Plant chemistry and +morphology are related. Future investigations will demonstrate this +relation. + +In general terms, we may say that amides and carbohydrates are +utilized in the manufacture of proteids. Organic acids cause a +turgescence of cells. Glucosides may be a form of reserve food +material. + +Resins and waxes may serve only as protection to the surfaces of +plants; coloring matters, as screens to shut off or admit certain of +the sun's rays; but we are still far from penetrating the mystery of +life. + +A simple plant does what animals more highly endowed cannot do. From +simplest substances they manufacture the most complex. We owe our +existence to plants, as they do theirs to the air and soil. + +The elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen pass through a +cycle of changes from simple inorganic substances to the complex +compounds of the living cell. Upon the decomposition of these bodies +the elements return to their original state. During this transition +those properties of protoplasm which were mentioned at the beginning, +in turn, follow their path. From germination to death this course +appears like a crescent, the other half of the circle closed from +view. Where chemistry begins and ends it is difficult to say.--_Jour. +Fr. Inst._ + + [Footnote 1: A lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, + January 24, 1887.] + + [Footnote 2: Studien uber das Protoplasm, 1881.] + + [Footnote 3: Vines, p. 1. Rostafinski: Mem. de la Soc. des Sc. + Nat. de Cherbourg, 1875. Strasburger: Zeitschr., xii, 1878.] + + [Footnote 4: Botany: Prantl and Vines. London, 1886, p. 110.] + + [Footnote 5: For the literature of starch, see p. 115, Die + Pflanzenstoffe, von Hilger and Husemann.] + + [Footnote 6: Kutzing: Arch. Pharm., xli, 38. Kraus and Millardet: + Bul. Soc. Sciences Nat., Strasbourg, 1868, 22. Sorby: Jour. Lin. + Soc., xv, 34. J. Reinke: Jahrb. Wissenscht. Botan., x, B. 399. + Phipson: Phar. Jour. Trans., clxii, 479.] + + [Footnote 7: Prantl and Vines, p. 111.] + + [Footnote 8: L. Crie: Compt. Rend., lxxxviii, 759 and 985. J. De + Seynes, 820, 1043.] + + [Footnote 9: Page 279.] + + [Footnote 10: M. Nencki and F. Schaffer. N. Sieher: Jour. Pract. + Chem., 23, 412.] + + [Footnote 11: E. Klein: Quar. Jour. Micros. Science, 1875, 381. O. + Helm: Arch. Pharm., 1875, 19-24. G. Gugini: Gaz. Chem., 7, 4. W. + Thorner: Bul. Ber, xi, 533.] + + [Footnote 12: Handbook of Dyeing. By W. Crookes, London, 1874. p. 367. + Schunck: Ann. Chem. Pharm., 41, 157; 54, 261; 61, 72; 61, 64; 61, 78. + Rochelder and Heldt, ibid., 48, 2; 48, 9. Stenhouse, ibid., 68, 57; + 68, 72; 68, 97, 104; 125, 353. See also researches of Strecker, O. + Hesse, Reymann, Liebermann, Lamparter, Knop, and Schnedermann.] + + [Footnote 13: Stahlschmidt.] + + [Footnote 14: E. Treffner: Inaugur. Diss. Dorpat, 1880.] + + [Footnote 15: W. Pfeffer: Flora, 1874.] + + [Footnote 16: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 323 W. Lange: Bul. Ber., xi, + 822.] + + [Footnote 17: Ann. Chim. Phys., 41, 62, 208; Ann. Chim. Pharm., + 77, 295.] + + [Footnote 18: Fluckiger: Pharmakognosie. Kamp: Ann. Chim. Pharm., + 100, 300.] + + [Footnote 19: Revue Scientifiqe, 13 Mars, 1886.] + + [Footnote 20: Dictionary of Economic Plants. By J. Smith. London, + 1882, p. 294.] + + [Footnote 21: Ibid., p. 160. Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs, + Wittstein, p. 736. Ann. Chem. Pharm., 77, 295.] + + [Footnote 22: Rabenhorst: Repert. Pharm., lx, 214. Moore: Chem. + Centralbl., 1862, 779, Dana.] + + [Footnote 23: Johansen: Arch. Pharm., 3, ix, 210. Ibid., 3, ix + 103. Bente: Berl. Ber., viii, 476. Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, + 44, 296.] + + [Footnote 24: Wittstein; Pharm. des Pflanzenreichs, p. 249.] + + [Footnote 25: John; Ibid., p. 651.] + + [Footnote 26: Dulong. Oersted, Lucas, Pontet; Ibid., p. 640.] + + [Footnote 27: Braconnot: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 3. 277. Stenhouse: + Ann. Chim. Phann., 198, 166]. + + [Footnote 28: 3 Pflanzenstoffe, p. 412.] + + [Footnote 29: Lecocq: Braconnot: Pharmacog. Pflan, p. 693.] + + [Footnote 30: Gorup-Besanez.] + + [Footnote 31: Siebold and Brodbury: Phar. Jour. Trans., 3, 590, + 1881, 326.] + + [Footnote 32: Wagner: Jour. Prakt. Chem., 58, 352. B. Peters, v. + Gohren: Jahresb. Agric., viii, 114; ix, 105; v. 58. Ann. Jour. + Pharm., 4, 49.] + + [Footnote 33: Dragendorff: Pharm. Zeitschr. Russ., xvii, 65-97.] + + [Footnote 34: Bonssingault: Ann. Chim. Phys., 2, 27, 315. Erdmann: + Jour. Pract. Chem., 71, 198.] + + [Footnote 35: Die Pflanzenstoffe, p. 21.] + + [Footnote 36: Ibid.] + + [Footnote 37: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.] + + [Footnote 38: Different forms of flowers on plants of the same + species. Introduction.] + + [Footnote 39: Meehan: Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.] + + [Footnote 40: H.C. De S. Abbott: Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1886.] + + [Footnote 41: For further facts confirming this theory, see + "Comparative Chemistry of Higher and Lower Plants." By H.C. De S. + Abbott. Amer. Naturalist, August, 1887.] + + [Footnote 42: Different genera and species of the following: + Ranunculaceae, Berberidaceae, Carophyllaceae, Polygalaceae, + Bromeliaceae, Liliaceae, Smilaceae, Yuccas, Amaryllideae, Leguminosae, + Primulaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae] + + [Footnote 43: Kobert: Chem Ztg.] + + [Footnote 44: Compt. Rend., xciv, p. 1124.] + + [Footnote 45: Bul. de la Soc. Chim.] + + [Footnote 46: "Yucca angus." Trans. Am. Philos. Soc., Dec., 1885.] + + [Footnote 47: Botanical Gazette, October, 1886.] + + [Footnote 48: Borodin: Pharm. Jour. Trans., xvi, 369. Pax. Firemy: + Ann. Sci. Nat., xiii.] + + [Footnote 49: H.C. De S. Abbott, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Nov. + 30, 1886.] + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATION OF STARCH. + +A.V. ASBOTH. + + +The author maintains that unsatisfactory results are obtained in +determinations of starch when the method employed is based upon the +inversion of sugar, formed as an intermediate product, since maltose, +dextrose, and levulose are partly decomposed by boiling with dilute +acids. He proposes to replace the methods hitherto employed by one +which depends upon the formation of a barium salt of starch, to which +he assigns the formula BaO.C_{24}H_{40}O_{20}. This salt is sparingly +soluble in water and insoluble in dilute alcohol. + +In making a determination a weighed quantity of starch is saccharified +with water, then mixed with an excess of normal baryta solution, +dilute alcohol added to make up to a certain volume, and, after the +precipitate has settled, the excess of baryta is titrated back with +acid. + +[Illustration: Titrating apparatus] + +The author also describes the apparatus he employs for storing and +titrating with baryta solution. The latter is contained in the bottle, +A, and the drying tube attached to the neck of the same is filled with +quicklime. The burette, B, which is in direct connection with the +bottle, may be filled with the solution by opening the stop cock, and +the small drying tube, _n_, is filled with dry KOH, thus preventing +the entrance of any CO_{2}. Numbers are appended which seem to testify +to the excellence of the method employed. The author finally gives a +detailed account of the entire analysis of various cereals.--_A.R. in +Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus._ + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNTHESIS OF THE ALKALOIDS. + + +In the note on the constitution of alkaloids in a recent issue, we +referred more especially to what we may term the less highly organized +bases. Most of our knowledge, as we now have it, regarding such +alkaloids as muscarine and choline has been acquired during the past +dozen years. This is not exactly the case with the higher groups of +alkaloids--the derivatives of pyridine and quinoline. It so happens +that the oldest alkaloids are in these groups. They have, almost +necessarily, been subjected to a longer period of attack, but the +extreme complexity of their molecules, and the infinite number of +differing parts or substances into which these molecules split up when +attacked, are the main cause of the small progress which has been made +in this department. All, however, yield one or more bodies or bases in +common, while each has its distinctive and peculiar decomposition +product. For example, cinchonine and quinine both afford the basic +quinoline under certain conditions, but on oxidation of cinchonine, an +acid--cinchoninic acid (C_{10}H_{7}NO_{2})--is the principal body +formed, while in the case of quinine, quininic acid (C_{10}H_{9}NO_{3}) +is the principal product. The acquirement through experiment of such +knowledge as that is, however, so much gained. We find, indeed, that +obstacles are gradually being cleared away, and the actual synthetic +formation of such alkaloids as piperidine and coniine is a proof that +the chemist is on the right track in studying the decomposition +products, and building up from them, theoretically, bodies of similar +constitution. It is noteworthy that the synthesis of the alkaloids has +led to some of the most brilliant discoveries of the present day, +especially in the discovery of dye stuffs. Many of our quinine +substitutes, such as thalline, for example, are the result of +endeavors to make quinine artificially. If there is romance in +chemistry at all, it is to be found certainly in this branch of it, +which is generally considered the most uninteresting and unfathomable. +We may take piperidine and coniine as examples of the methods followed +in alkaloidal synthesis; these are pyridine bases. Pyridine has the +formula C_{5}H_{5}N, that is, it is benzene with CH replaced by N. The +relationship between these and piperidine is seen in the following +formulae: + + CH N NH + / \ / \ / \ + HC CH HC CH H_{2}C CH_{2} + | | | | | | + HC CH HC CH H_{2}C CH_{2} + \ / \ / \ / + CH CH CH_{2} + + (Benzene,) (Pyridine,) (Piperidine,) + (C_{6}H_{6}) (C_{5}H_{5}N) (C_{5}H_{11}N) + +If we introduce six hydrogen atoms into pyridine, we convert it into +piperidine. Ladenburg succeeded in so hydrogenizing pyridine by acting +upon an alcoholic solution with sodium, and from the base which was +formed he obtained a platinochloride which agreed with the similar +double salt of piperidine. He has also prepared it from trimethyline +cyanide by the action of sodium. Pentamethylinediamine is the +principal intermediary product, and this gives piperidine when +distilled with superheated steam. He has proved that the alkaloid so +obtained is identical with that prepared from piperine. Another +curious point which Ladenburg has lately proved is that cadaverine +(one of the products of flesh decomposition) is identical with +pentamethylinediamine, and that its imine is the same as piperidine. +The synthesis of coniine by Ladenburg is one of the most notable +achievements of modern chemistry. He at first supposed that this +alkaloid was piperidine in which two hydrogen atoms were replaced by +the isopropyl radical (C_{3}H_{7}), its formula being taken as +C_{5}H_{9}(C_{3}H_{7})NH. But he has since changed his view, as will +be seen from what follows. In its synthesis 1,000 grammes of picoline +were first converted into alphapicoline, 380 grammes being obtained. +This was heated with paraldehyde, whereby it was converted into +allylpyridine (48 grammes), and this by reduction with sodium yielded +alpha-propylpyridine, a body in almost every respect identical with +coniine. The more important difference was its optical inactivity, but +he succeeded in splitting up a solution of the acid tartrate of the +base by means of _Penicillium glaucum_. Crystals separated which had a +dextro-rotatory power of [_a_]_{D} = 31 deg. 87' as compared with the +[_a_]_{D} = 13 deg. 79' of natural coniine. This brief account conveys but +a faint idea of the difficulties which were encountered in these +researches. Optical methods of examination have proved of great value, +and are destined to play an important part in such work. + +Among the most complex alkaloids are those of the quinine group. As +yet chemists have got no further with these than the oxidation +products; but the study has afforded us several new antipyretics and +many interesting facts. It has been found, for example, that +artificial quinine-like bodies, which fluoresce and give the green +color with chlorine water and ammonia, have antipyretic properties +like quinine, but their secondary effects are so pernicious as to +prevent their use. If, however, such bodies are hydrogenized or +methylated they lose their fluorescing property, do not give the green +color, and their secondary effects are removed. Knowledge of these +facts led to the discovery of thalline. It is prepared from +paraquinanisol, one of the objectionable bodies, by reduction with tin +and hydrochloric acid. The following formulae show the constitutional +relationship of these compounds: + + CH CH CH CH_{2} + / \ / \ / \ / \ + (CH_{3}O)C C CH (CH_{3}O)C C CH_{2} + | | | | | | + HC C CH HC C CH_{2} + \ / \ / \ / \ / + CH N CH NH + + Paraquinanisol Thalline + C_{9}H_{6}.CH_{3}.NO. C_{9}H_{10}.CH_{3}.NO. + +It is evident from the difficulties which have been encountered in +this department of chemistry, and more especially from the costly +nature of the work, that it will be many years before it will +influence the manufacture of alkaloids from the drugs which yield +them. Ladenburg has synthetized coniine, but he has not yet ventured +to assert that his product will replace the natural alkaloid.--_Chem. +and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + +The _Southern California Advocate_ reports another magnificent +donation of lands to the University of Southern California by Mr. D. +Freeman, the owner of the Centinella ranch near Los Angeles--six +hundred thousand dollars in all given to found a school of applied +sciences, $100,000 for building and apparatus and $500,000 for +endowment. The buildings will be in the vicinity of Inglewood, the new +and beautiful town on the Ballona branch of the California Central. + + * * * * * + + + + +A GROUP OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS. + + +[Illustration] + +The Hampshire Down breed of sheep originated about 80 years ago by a +cross of South Downs on the horned, white-faced sheep which had for +ages been native of the open, untilled, hilly stretch of land known as +the Hampshire Downs, in the county of that name bordering on the +English Channel, in the South of England. From time immemorial the +South Downs had dark brown or black legs, matured early, produced the +best of mutton and a fine quality of medium wool. The original +Hampshire was larger, coarser, but hardier, slower to mature, with +inferior flesh, and a longer but coarser wool. The South Down has +always been remarkable for its power of transmitting its special +characteristics to its progeny by other kinds of sheep, and hence it +soon impressed its own characteristics on its progeny by the +Hampshire. The horns of the original breed have disappeared; the face +and legs have become dark, the frame has become more compact, the +bones smaller, the back broader and straighter, the legs shorter, and +the flesh and wool of better quality, while the superior hardiness and +greater size, as well as the large head and Roman nose of the old +breed, still remain. The Hampshires of to-day mature early and fatten +readily. They clip from six to seven pounds of wool, suitable for +combing, which is longer than South Down wool, but less fine. The +mutton has a desirable proportion of fat and lean, and is juicy and +fine flavored. The lambs are of large size and are usually dropped +early and fed for market. Indeed, the Hampshire may be considered a +larger and trifle coarser and hardier South Down. The breed is +occasionally crossed with Cotswolds, when it produces a wool more +valuable for worsted manufacturers than the pure Cotswold. Indeed, +there is little doubt that in addition to South Down, the Hampshire +has a dash of Cotswold blood in its composition. Considerable +importations of the breed have been made into this country, but it has +not become so popular as the South Down and some other English breeds. +The excellent group shown is owned by Mr. James Wood, of Mount Kisco, +New York.--_Rural New-Yorker._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE YALE COLLEGE MEASUREMENT OF THE PLEIADES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: "Determination of the Relative Positions of the + Principal Stars in the Group of the Pleiades." By William L. + Elkin. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale + University, Vol. I., Part I. (New Haven: 1887.)] + + +The Messrs. Repsold have established, and for the present seem likely +to maintain, a practical monopoly in the construction of heliometers. +That completed by them for the observatory of Yale College in 1882 +leaves so little to be desired as to show excellence not to be the +exclusive result of competition. In mere size it does not indeed take +the highest rank. Its aperture is of only six inches, while that of +the Oxford heliometer is of seven and a half; but the perfection of +the arrangements adapting it to the twofold function of equatorial and +micrometer stamps it as a model not easy to be surpassed. Steel has +been almost exclusively used in the mounting. Recommended as the +material for the objective cell by its quality of changing volume +under variations of temperature nearly _paripassu_ with glass, its +employment was extended to the telescope tube and other portions of +the mechanism. The optical part of the work was done by Merz, Alvan +Clark having declined the responsibility of dividing the object lens. +Its segments are separable to the extent of 2 deg., and through the +contrivance of cylindrical slides (originally suggested by Bessel) +perfect definition is preserved in all positions, giving a range of +accurate measurement just six times that with a filar micrometer. +(Gill, "Encyc. Brit.," vol. xvi., p. 253; Fischer, _Sirius_, vol. +xvii., p. 145.) + +This beautiful engine of research was in 1883 placed in the already +practiced and skillful hands of Dr. Elkin. He lost no time in fixing +upon a task suited both to test the powers of the new instrument and +to employ them to the highest advantage. + +The stars of the Pleiades have, from the earliest times, attracted the +special notice of observers, whether savage or civilized. Hence, on +the one hand, their prominence in stellar mythology all over the +world; on the other, their unique interest for purposes of scientific +study and comparison. They constitute an undoubted cluster; that is to +say, they are really, and not simply in appearance, grouped together +in space, so as to fall under the sway of prevailing mutual +influences. And since there is, perhaps, no other stellar cluster so +near the sun, the chance of perceptible displacements among them in a +moderate lapse of time is greater than in any other similar case. +Authentic data regarding them, besides, have now been so long garnered +that their fruit may confidently be expected at least to begin to +ripen. + +Dr. Elkin determined, accordingly, to repeat the survey of the +Pleiades executed by Bessel at Konigsberg during about twelve years +previous to 1841. Wolf and Pritchard had, it is true, been beforehand +with him; but the wide scattering of the grouped stars puts the filar +micrometer at a disadvantage in measuring them, producing minute +errors which the arduous conditions of the problem render of serious +account. The heliometer, there can be no doubt, is the special +instrument for the purpose, and it was, moreover, that employed by +Bessel; so that the Konigsberg and Yale results are comparable in a +stricter sense than any others so far obtained. + +One of Bessel's fifty-three stars was omitted by Dr. Elkin as too +faint for accurate determination. He added, however, seventeen stars +from the Bonn _Durchmusterung_, so that his list comprised sixty-nine, +down to 9.2 magnitude. Two independent triangulations were executed by +him in 1884-85. For the first, four stars situated near the outskirts +of the group, and marking the angles of quadrilateral by which it was +inclosed, were chosen as reference points. The second rested upon +measures of distance and position angle outward from Alcyone ([eta] +Tauri). Thus, two wholly unconnected sets of positions were secured, +the close accordance of which testified strongly to the high quality +of the entire work. They were combined, with nearly equal weights, in +the final results. A fresh reduction of the Konigsberg observations, +necessitated by recent improvements in the value of some of the +corrections employed, was the preliminary to their comparison with +those made, after an interval of forty-five years, at Yale College. +The conclusions thus laboriously arrived at are not devoid of +significance, and appear perfectly secure, so far as they go. + +It has been known for some time that the stars of the Pleiades possess +a small identical proper motion. Its direction, as ascertained by +Newcomb in 1878, is about south-southeast; its amount is somewhat less +than six seconds of arc in a century. The double star 61 Cygni, in +fact, is displaced very nearly as much in one year as Alcyone with its +train in one hundred. Nor is there much probability that this slow +secular shifting is other than apparent; since it pretty accurately +reverses the course of the sun's translation through space, it may be +presumed that the _backward_ current of movement in which the Pleiades +seem to float is purely an effect of our own _onward_ traveling. + +Now the curious fact emerges from Dr. Elkin's inquiries that six of +Bessel's stars are exempt from the general drift of the group. They +are being progressively left behind. The inference is obvious that +they do not in reality belong to, but are merely accidentally +projected upon, it; or, rather, that it is projected upon them; for +their apparent immobility (which, in two of the six, may be called +absolute) shows them with tolerable certainty to be indefinitely more +remote--so remote that the path, moderately estimated at +21,000,000,000 miles in length, traversed by the solar system during +the forty-five years elapsed since the Konigsberg measures dwindles +into visual insensibility when beheld from them. The brightest of +these six far-off stars is just above the eighth (7.9) magnitude; the +others range from 8.5 down to below the ninth. + +A chart of the relative displacements indicated for Bessel's stars by +the differences in their inter-mutual positions as determined at +Konigsberg and Yale accompanies the paper before us. Divergences +exceeding 0.40" (taken as the limit of probable error) are regarded as +due to real motion; and this is the case with twenty-six stars besides +the half dozen already mentioned as destined deserters from the group. +With these last may be associated two stars surmised, for an opposite +reason, to stand aloof from it. Instead of tarrying behind, they are +hurrying on in front. + +An excess of the proper movement of their companions belongs to them; +and since that movement is presumably an effect of secular parallax, +we are justified in inferring their possession of an extra share of it +to signify their greater proximity to the sun. Hence, of all the stars +in the Pleiades these are the most likely to have a measurable annual +parallax. One is a star a little above the seventh magnitude, +distinguished as _s_ Pleiadum; the other, of about the eighth, is +numbered 25 in Bessel's list. Dr. Elkin has not omitted to remark that +the conjecture of their disconnection from the cluster is confirmed by +the circumstance that its typical spectrum (as shown on Prof. +Pickering's plates) is varied in _s_ by the marked character of the K +line. The spectrum of its fellow traveler (No. 25) is still +undetermined. + +It is improbable, however, that even these nearer stars are +practicable subjects for the direct determination of annual parallax. +By indirect means, however, we can obtain some idea of their distance. +All that we want to know for the purpose is the _rate_ of the sun's +motion; its _direction_ we may consider as given with approximate +accuracy by Airy's investigation. Now, spectroscopic measurements of +stellar movements of approach and recession will eventually afford +ample materials from which to deduce the solar, velocity; though they +are as yet not accurate or numerous enough to found any definitive +conclusion upon. Nevertheless, M. Homann's preliminary result of +fifteen miles a second as the speed with which our system travels in +its vast orbit inspires confidence both from the trustworthiness of +the determinations (Mr. Seabroke's) serving as its basis and from its +intrinsic probability. Accepting it provisionally, we find the +parallax of Alcyone = about 0.02', implying a distance of +954,000,000,000,000 miles and a light journey of 163 years. It is +assumed that the whole of its proper motion of 2.61' in forty-five +years is the visual projection of oar own movement toward a point in +R.A. 261 deg., Decl. +25 deg.. + +Thus the parallax of the two stars which we suspect to lie between us +and the stars forming the genuine group of the Pleiades, at perhaps +two-thirds of their distance, can hardly exceed 0.03'. This is just +half that found by Dr. Gill for [xi] Toucani, which may be regarded +as, up to this, the smallest annual displacement at all satisfactorily +determined. And the error of the present estimate is more likely to be +on the side of excess than of defect. That is, the stars in question +can hardly be much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax +of 0.03", and they may be considerably more remote. + +Dr. Elkin concludes, from the minuteness of the detected changes of +position among the Pleiades, that "the hopes of obtaining any clew to +the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized +in an immediate future;" remarking further: "The bright stars in +especial seem to form an almost rigid system, as for only one is there +really much evidence of motion, and in this case the total amount is +barely 1 per century." This one mobile member of the naked eye group +is Electra; and it is noticeable that the apparent direction of its +displacement favors the hypothesis of leisurely orbital circulation +round the leading star. The larger movements, however, ascribed to +some of the fainter associated stars are far from harmonizing with +this preconceived notion of what they ought to be. + +On the contrary, so far as they are known at present, they force upon +our minds the idea that the cluster may be undergoing some slow +process of disintegration. M. Wolf's impression of incipient +centrifugal tendencies among its components certainly derives some +confirmation from Dr. Elkin's chart. Divergent movements are the most +strongly marked; and the region round Alcyone suggests, at the first +glance, rather a very confused area of radiation for a flight of +meteors than the central seat of attraction of a revolving throng of +suns. + +There are many signs, however, that adjacent stars in the cluster do +not pursue independent courses. "Community of drift" is visible in +many distinct sets; while there is as yet no perceptible evidence, +from orbital motion, of association into subordinate systems. The +three eighth-magnitude stars, for instance, arranged in a small +isosceles triangle near Alcyone, do not, as might have been expected +_a priori_, constitute a real ternary group. They are all apparently +traveling directly away from the large star close by them, in straight +lines which may, of course, be the projections of closed curves; but +their rates of travel are so different as to involve certain +progressive separation. Obviously, the order and method of such +movements as are just beginning to develop to our apprehension among +the Pleiades will not prove easy to divine.--_A.M. Clerke, in Nature._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DEEP SEA DREDGINGS: EXAMINATION OF SEA BOTTOMS. + +By THOMAS T.P. BRUCE WARREN. + + +I believe Prof. Ehrenberg was one of the first to examine, +microscopically, deep sea dredgings, some of which were undertaken for +the Atlantic cable expedition, 1857. + +I propose to deal with the bottoms brought up from tropical waters of +the Atlantic, a few years ago, during certain telegraph cable +operations. These soundings were made for survey purposes, and not for +any biological or chemical investigations. Still I think that this +imperfect record may be a useful contribution to chemical science, +bearing especially on marine operations. + +Although there is little to be added to the chemistry of this subject, +still I think there are few chemists who could successfully make an +analysis of a deep sea "bottom" without some sacrifice of time and +patience, to say nothing of the risk of wasting a valuable specimen. + +The muds, clays, oozes, etc., from deep water are so very fine that +they pass readily through the best kinds of filters, and it is +necessary to wash out all traces of sea water as a preliminary. The +specimen must be _repeatedly_ washed by decantation, until the +washings are perfectly free from chlorine, when the whole may be +thrown onto a filter _merely_ to drain. The turbid water which passes +through is allowed to stand so that the suspended matter may settle, +and after decanting the clear supernatant water, the residuum is again +thrown on to the filter. + +The washing and getting ready for the drying oven will, in some cases, +require days to carry out, if we wish to avoid losing anything. + +So far the proceeding is exactly the same, except draining on a +filter, which would be adopted for preparing for the microscope. On no +account should the opportunity be missed of mounting several slides +permanently for microscopic examination. Drawings or photographic +enlargements will render us independent of direct microscopic appeal, +which is not at all times convenient. + +The substance, if drained and allowed to dry on the filter, will +adhere most tenaciously to it, so that it is better to complete the +drying in a porcelain or platinum capsule, either by swilling the +filter with a jet of water or by carefully removing with a spatula. +The most strenuous care must be used not to contaminate the specimen +with loose fibers from the filter. + +The perfectly dried matter is best treated in exactly the same way as a +residuum in water analysis. It is a common thing to ignite the residuum, +and to put the loss down, if any, to water. This ought not to satisfy an +accurate observer, since organic matter, carbonates--especially in +presence of silica--will easily add to the loss. The best plan is to +heat a small portion very cautiously, and note if any smell or +alteration in color, due to carbon, etc., is perceptible, and to proceed +accordingly. + +I have seen some very satisfactory analyses made on board ship by a +skillful use of the blowpipe, where liquid reagents would be very +inconvenient to employ. + +It will be necessary to say a few words as to the way in which +soundings are made at sea. When the bottom consists of sand, mud, or +other loose matter, it is easy enough to bring specimens to the +surface, and, of course, we know in such a case that the bottom has +been reached, but, in the event of the bottom being hard and rocky, it +is not easy to say that our sounding has been successful: and here we +meet with a difficulty which unfortunately is most unsatisfactorily +provided for. + +The lead is "cast," as the saying goes, "armed" for this emergency. An +iron sinker is made with a hollow recess in the bottom; this is filled +in with tallow, and on striking the bottom any loose matter may adhere +by being pressed into the tallow. If the bottom is rocky or hard we +get simply an imprint in the arming, and when such a result is +obtained the usual construction is that "the bottom is rocky" or hard. + +Now, this seems to me a point on which chemistry may give some very +valuable help, for I am convinced that no sounding should be accepted +unless evidence of the bottom itself is obtained. A few considerations +will show that when we are working in very deep water, where there is +a difficulty of knowing for certain that we have an "up and down" +sounding, and the hardening of the "arming" by the cold and pressure, +unless we bring up something we cannot be sure that we have touched +the bottom; leaving the doubt on this point on one side, unless we use +a very heavy sinker, so as to get an indication of the released strain +when it touches the bottom, we encounter another complication. + +Sir William Thomson's sounding wire has added the element of +reliability to our soundings in this latter case. The note given out +by the wire when the bottom is reached is perceptibly different when +under strain, even if the dynamometer should give an unreliable +indication. + +It has been found that when a "bottom" has been recovered by the +arming with tallow, the adherent grease seriously detracts from the +value of the specimen for scientific purposes. Washing with perfectly +pure bisulphide carbon will save the sounding, but of course any +living organism is destroyed. As we have plenty of contrivances for +bringing up loose "bottoms" without arming, we have nothing to fear on +this score. + +There is a great difficulty to explain the vast accumulations of clay +deposits on the ocean bed, and it has been suggested that some minute +organisms may produce these deposits, as others give us carbonate of +lime. Is there not a very great probability of some of the apparently +insoluble rocky formations being answerable for these accumulations? + +We must not forget the peculiar changes which such an apparently +stable substance as feldspar undergoes when disintegrated and exposed +to the chemical action of sea water. As these deposits contain both +sodium and potassium, our chemical operations must provide for the +analytical results; in other respects the analysis can be proceeded +with according to the operator's analytical knowledge. + +Few operators are aware of the usefulness of an ordinary deep sea +grapnel rope, as used for cable work, in recovering specimens of the +fauna of any locality. The grapnel rope should be left down for a few +months, so that the denizens of the deep may get used to it and make +it their place of residence and _attachment_. The stench caused by +their decomposition, unless the rope be kept in water, when hauled up +will be in a few days intolerable, even to an individual with a +sea-going stomach. I tried several chemical solutions for preserving +specimens thus recovered, but nothing answered so well as the water +itself drawn up from the same depth as the rope was recovered +from.--_Chem. 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