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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***
+
+  [Illustration: THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR
+
+  The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to
+  the stirrup leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an
+  avalanche upon the German lines, tearing great gaps in their massed
+  formations.]
+
+
+
+
+  COMPLETE EDITION
+
+  HISTORY OF THE
+  WORLD WAR
+
+  An Authentic Narrative of
+  The World’s Greatest War
+
+  BY FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D.
+  In Collaboration with
+  RICHARD J. BEAMISH
+  Special War Correspondent
+  and Military Analyst
+
+  With an Introduction
+  BY GENERAL PEYTON C. MARCH
+  Chief of Staff of the United States Army
+
+  With Exclusive Photographs by
+  JAMES H. HARE and DONALD THOMPSON
+  World-Famed War Photographers
+  and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs
+  of the United States, Canadian, British,
+  French and Italian Governments
+
+  MCMXIX
+  LESLIE-JUDGE COMPANY
+  NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1918
+
+  FRANCIS A. MARCH
+
+
+  This history is an original work and is fully protected by the
+  copyright laws, including the right of translation. All persons are
+  warned against reproducing the text in whole or in part without the
+  permission of the publishers.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I. NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+  War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation
+  of No Man’s Land--Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over
+  Four Years--Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for
+  Every Foot of Gain                                                   1
+
+
+  CHAPTER II. ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA
+
+  Her Great Decision--D’Annunzio, Poet and Patriot--Italia
+  Irredenta--German Indignation--The Campaigns
+  on the Isonzo and in the Tyrol                                      29
+
+
+  CHAPTER III. GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+  A Titanic Enterprise--Its Objects--Disasters and Deeds
+  of Deathless Glory--The Heroic Anzacs--Bloody Dashes up
+  Impregnable Slopes--Silently they Stole Away--A Successful
+  Failure                                                             58
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV. THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+  The Battle of Jutland--Every Factor on Sea and in Sky
+  Favorable to the Germans--Low Visibility a Great Factor--A
+  Modern Sea Battle--Light Cruisers Screening Battleship
+  Squadron--Germans Run Away when British Fleet
+  Marshals Its Full Strength--Death of Lord Kitchener                 78
+
+
+  CHAPTER V. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+  The Advance on Cracow--Von Hindenburg Strikes at
+  Warsaw--German Barbarism--The War in Galicia--The
+  Fall of Przemysl--Russia’s Ammunition Fails--The Russian
+  Retreat--The Fall of Warsaw--The Last Stand--Czernowitz            104
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI. HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+  Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany--Dramatic
+  Scene in the King’s Palace--The Die is Cast--Bulgaria
+  Succumbs to Seductions of Potsdam Gang--Greece
+  Mobilizes--French and British Troops at Saloniki--Serbia
+  Over-run--Roumania’s Disastrous Venture in the Arena of Mars       145
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII. THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+  British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara--After
+  Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders
+  after 143 Days of Siege--New British Expedition
+  Recaptures Kut--Troops Push on Up the Tigris--Fall of
+  Bagdad the Magnificent                                             187
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII. IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+  Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and
+  the Crown Prince--Hindenburg’s Warning--Why the Germans
+  Made the Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great
+  Fortress--Heroic France Reveals Itself to the World--“They
+  Shall Not Pass”--Nivelle’s Glorious Stand on
+  Dead Man Hill--Lord Northcliffe’s Description--A Defense
+  Unsurpassed in the History of France                               209
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR                              _Frontispiece_
+
+  THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS                             4
+
+  CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS                           6
+
+  BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT NEUVE
+    CHAPELLE                                                          10
+
+  CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS                            12
+
+  AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS                                  18
+
+  ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS                           30
+
+  WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK                                         38
+
+  TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN
+    MOUNTAIN FRONT                                                    42
+
+  THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”                                      68
+
+  THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR          76
+
+  ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS                                             98
+
+  ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY                                            98
+
+  GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR                                  110
+
+  BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH                        208
+
+  AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS                                            224
+
+  HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED                                               224
+
+
+
+
+THE WORLD WAR
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+
+After the immortal stand of Joffre at the first battle of the Marne
+and the sudden savage thrust at the German center which sent von Kluck
+and his men reeling back in retreat to the prepared defenses along the
+line of the Aisne, the war in the western theater resolved itself into
+a play for position from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would come a
+sudden big push by one side or the other in which artillery was massed
+until hub touched hub and infantry swept to glory and death in waves
+of gray, or blue or khaki as the case might be. But these tremendous
+efforts and consequent slaughters did not change the long battle line
+from the Alps to the North Sea materially. Here and there a bulge
+would be made by the terrific pressure of men and material in some
+great assault like that first push of the British at Neuve Chapelle,
+like the German attack at Verdun or like the tremendous efforts by both
+sides on that bloodiest of all battlefields, the Somme.
+
+Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention as the test in which the
+British soldiers demonstrated their might in equal contest against
+the enemy. There had been a disposition in England as elsewhere up to
+that time to rate the Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of the
+scientific equipment with which the German army had taken the field.
+When the battle of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although its losses
+were heavy, there was no longer any doubt in the British nation that
+victory was only a question of time.
+
+The action came as a pendant to the attack by General de Langle de
+Cary’s French army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that had been
+a steady relentless pressure by artillery and infantry upon a strong
+German position. To meet it heavy reinforcements had been shifted
+by the Germans from the trenches between La Bassée and Lille. The
+earthworks at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly depleted and only
+a comparatively small body of Saxons and Bavarians defended them.
+Opposite this body was the first British army. The German intrenchments
+at Neuve Chapelle surrounded and defended the highlands upon which were
+placed the German batteries and in their turn defended the road towards
+Lille, Roubaix and Turcoing.
+
+  [Illustration: THE BATTLE-GROUND OF NEUVE CHAPELLE]
+
+The task assigned to Sir John French was to make an assault with only
+forty-eight thousand men on a comparatively narrow front. There was
+only one practicable method for effective preparation, and this was
+chosen by the British general. An artillery concentration absolutely
+unprecedented up to that time was employed by him. Field pieces firing
+at point-blank range were used to cut the barbed wire entanglements
+defending the enemy intrenchments, while howitzers and bombing
+airplanes were used to drop high explosives into the defenseless
+earthworks.
+
+Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief of the British
+forces, was in command of the first army. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien
+commanded the second army. It was the first army that bore the brunt of
+the attack.
+
+  [Illustration: THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS
+
+  An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of
+  eleven guns posted in a wood had caused havoc in the British ranks. The
+  Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of
+  shell from the other German batteries, cut down all the gunners, and
+  put every gun out of action.]
+
+No engagement during the years on the western front was more sudden
+and surprising in its onset than that drive of the British against
+Neuve Chapelle. At seven o’clock on the morning of Wednesday, March
+10, 1915, the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing over
+a desultory shell fire upon the German trenches. It was the usual
+breakfast appetizer, and nobody on the German side took any unusual
+notice of it. Really, however, the shelling was scientific “bracketing”
+of the enemy’s important position. The gunners were making sure of
+their ranges.
+
+At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar that shook the earth the
+most destructive and withering artillery action of the war up to that
+time was on. Field pieces sending their shells hurtling only a few
+feet above the earth tore the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces
+and made kindling wood of the supports. Howitzers sent high explosive
+shells, containing lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber
+into the doomed trenches and later into the ruined village. It was
+eight o’clock in the morning, one-half hour after the beginning of the
+artillery action, that the village was bombarded. During this time
+British soldiers were enabled to walk about in No Man’s Land behind
+the curtain of fire with absolute immunity. No German rifleman or
+machine gunner left cover. The scene on the German side of the line was
+like that upon the blasted surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell
+holes, and with no trace of human life to be seen above ground.
+
+An eye-witness describing the scene said:
+
+“The dawn, which broke reluctantly through a veil of clouds on the
+morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the
+Germans behind the white and blue sandbags in their long line of
+trenches curving in a hemicycle about the battered village of Neuve
+Chapelle. For five months they had remained undisputed masters of the
+positions they had here wrested from the British in October. Ensconced
+in their comfortably-arranged trenches with but a thin outpost in their
+fire trenches, they had watched day succeed day and night succeed night
+without the least variation from the monotony of trench warfare, the
+intermittent bark of the machine guns--rat-tat-tat-tat-tat--and the
+perpetual rattle of rifle fire, with here and there a bomb, and now
+and then an exploded mine.
+
+  [Illustration: © _Illustrated London News_.
+
+  CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS
+
+  In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed
+  by the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up in
+  the face of a murderous German fire.]
+
+“For weeks past the German airmen had grown strangely shy. On this
+Wednesday morning none were aloft to spy out the strange doings which,
+as dawn broke, might have been descried on the desolate roads behind
+the British lines.
+
+“From ten o’clock of the preceding evening endless files of men marched
+silently down the roads leading towards the German positions through
+Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast, poor shattered villages of the
+dead where months of incessant bombardment have driven away the last
+inhabitants and left roofless houses and rent roadways....
+
+“Two days before, a quiet room, where Nelson’s Prayer stands on the
+mantel-shelf, saw the ripening of the plans that sent these sturdy sons
+of Britain’s four kingdoms marching all through the night. Sir John
+French met the army corps commanders and unfolded to them his plans for
+the offensive of the British army against the German line at Neuve
+Chapelle.
+
+“The onslaught was to be a surprise. That was its essence. The Germans
+were to be battered with artillery, then rushed before they recovered
+their wits. We had thirty-six clear hours before us. Thus long, it was
+reckoned (with complete accuracy as afterwards appeared), must elapse
+before the Germans, whose line before us had been weakened, could rush
+up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy’s being pinned down right and
+left of the ‘great push,’ an attack was to be delivered north and south
+of the main thrust simultaneously with the assault on Neuve Chapelle.”
+
+After describing the impatience of the British soldiers as they
+awaited the signal to open the attack, and the actual beginning of the
+engagement, the narrator continues:
+
+“Then hell broke loose. With a mighty, hideous, screeching burst of
+noise, hundreds of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches were
+deafened by the sharp reports of the field-guns spitting out their
+shells at close range to cut through the Germans’ barbed wire
+entanglements. In some cases the trajectory of these vicious missiles
+was so flat that they passed only a few feet above the British trenches.
+
+“The din was continuous. An officer who had the curious idea of
+putting his ear to the ground said it was as though the earth were
+being smitten great blows with a Titan’s hammer. After the first few
+shells had plunged screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into the
+German trenches, a dense pall of smoke hung over the German lines.
+The sickening fumes of lyddite blew back into the British trenches.
+In some places the troops were smothered in earth and dust or even
+spattered with blood from the hideous fragments of human bodies that
+went hurtling through the air. At one point the upper half of a German
+officer, his cap crammed on his head, was blown into one of our
+trenches.
+
+“Words will never convey any adequate idea of the horror of those five
+and thirty minutes. When the hands of officers’ watches pointed to
+five minutes past eight, whistles resounded along the British lines.
+At the same moment the shells began to burst farther ahead, for, by
+previous arrangement, the gunners, lengthening their fuses, were
+‘lifting’ on to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to leave the road
+open for our infantry to rush in and finish what the guns had begun.
+
+“The shells were now falling thick among the houses of Neuve Chapelle,
+a confused mass of buildings seen reddish through the pillars of smoke
+and flying earth and dust. At the sound of the whistle--alas for the
+bugle, once the herald of victory, now banished from the fray!--our
+men scrambled out of the trenches and hurried higgledy-piggledy into
+the open. Their officers were in front. Many, wearing overcoats and
+carrying rifles with fixed bayonets, closely resembled their men.
+
+  [Illustration: BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT
+  NEUVE CHAPELLE
+
+  Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved
+  to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters in the Imperial
+  forces.]
+
+“It was from the center of our attacking line that the assault was
+pressed home soonest. The guns had done their work well. The trenches
+were blown to irrecognizable pits dotted with dead. The barbed wire
+had been cut like so much twine. Starting from the Rue Tilleloy the
+Lincolns and the Berkshires were off the mark first, with orders to
+swerve to right and left respectively as soon as they had captured the
+first line of trenches, in order to let the Royal Irish Rifles and the
+Rifle Brigade through to the village. The Germans left alive in the
+trenches, half demented with fright, surrounded by a welter of dead
+and dying men, mostly surrendered. The Berkshires were opposed with
+the utmost gallantry by two German officers who had remained alone
+in a trench serving a machine gun. But the lads from Berkshire made
+their way into that trench and bayoneted the Germans where they stood,
+fighting to the last. The Lincolns, against desperate resistance,
+eventually occupied their section of the trench and then waited for
+the Irishmen and the Rifle Brigade to come and take the village ahead
+of them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth Garhwalis on the right had
+taken their trenches with a rush and were away towards the village and
+the Biez Wood.
+
+“Things had moved so fast that by the time the troops were ready to
+advance against the village the artillery had not finished its work.
+So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled the prisoners who were
+trooping out of the trenches in all directions, the infantry on whom
+devolved the honor of capturing the village, waited. One saw them
+standing out in the open, laughing and cracking jokes amid the terrific
+din made by the huge howitzer shells screeching overhead and bursting
+in the village, the rattle of machine guns all along the line, and
+the popping of rifles. Over to the right where the Garhwalis had been
+working with the bayonet, men were shouting hoarsely and wounded were
+groaning as the stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved
+swiftly to and fro over the shell-torn ground.
+
+  [Illustration: CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS
+
+  Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm
+  of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even a whiff
+  of the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows
+  the earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to keep up
+  with Germany’s development of gas warfare.]
+
+“There was bloody work in the village of Neuve Chapelle. The capture
+of a place at the bayonet point is generally a grim business, in which
+instant, unconditional surrender is the only means by which bloodshed,
+a deal of bloodshed, can be prevented. If there is individual
+resistance here and there the attacking troops cannot discriminate.
+They must go through, slaying as they go such as oppose them (the
+Germans have a monopoly of the finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise
+the enemy’s resistance would not be broken, and the assailants would be
+sniped and enfiladed from hastily prepared strongholds at half a dozen
+different points.
+
+“The village was a sight that the men say they will never forget. It
+looked as if an earthquake had struck it. The published photographs do
+not give any idea of the indescribable mass of ruins to which our guns
+reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very line of the streets is
+all but obliterated.
+
+“It was indeed a scene of desolation into which the Rifle Brigade--the
+first regiment to enter the village, I believe--raced headlong. Of the
+church only the bare shell remained, the interior lost to view beneath
+a gigantic mound of débris. The little churchyard was devastated,
+the very dead plucked from their graves, broken coffins and ancient
+bones scattered about amid the fresher dead, the slain of that
+morning--gray-green forms asprawl athwart the tombs. Of all that once
+fair village but two things remained intact--two great crucifixes
+reared aloft, one in the churchyard, the other over against the
+château. From the cross, that is the emblem of our faith, the figure of
+Christ, yet intact though all pitted with bullet marks, looked down in
+mute agony on the slain in the village.
+
+“The din and confusion were indescribable. Through the thick pall
+of shell smoke Germans were seen on all sides, some emerging half
+dazed from cellars and dugouts, their hands above their heads, others
+dodging round the shattered houses, others firing from the windows,
+from behind carts, even from behind the overturned tombstones. Machine
+guns were firing from the houses on the outskirts, rapping out their
+nerve-racking note above the noise of the rifles.
+
+“Just outside the village there was a scene of tremendous enthusiasm.
+The Rifle Brigade, smeared with dust and blood, fell in with the Third
+Gurkhas with whom they had been brigaded in India. The little brown men
+were dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had very thoroughly gone
+through some houses at the cross-roads on the Rue du Bois and silenced
+a party of Germans who were making themselves a nuisance there with
+some machine guns. Riflemen and Gurkhas cheered themselves hoarse.”
+
+Unfortunately for the complete success of the brilliant attack a great
+delay was caused by the failure of the artillery that was to have
+cleared the barbed-wire entanglements for the Twenty-third Brigade, and
+because of the unlooked for destruction of the British field telephone
+system by shell and rifle fire. The check of the Twenty-third Brigade
+banked other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth Brigade was
+obliged to fight at right angles to the line of battle. The Germans
+quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific toll in British
+lives. Particularly was this true at three specially strong German
+positions. One called Port Arthur by the British, another at Pietre
+Mill and the third was the fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek.
+
+Because of the lack of telephone communication it was impossible to
+send reinforcements to the troops that had been held up by barbed wire
+and other emplacements and upon which German machine guns were pouring
+a steady stream of death.
+
+As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held up by unbroken barbed wire
+northwest of Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of the Fourth
+Corps was also checked in its action against the ridge of Aubers on
+the left of Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir Douglas Haig the
+Seventh Division was to have waited until the Eighth Division had
+reached Neuve Chapelle, when it was to charge through Aubers. With
+the tragic mistake that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly, the
+plan affecting the Seventh Division went awry. The German artillery,
+observing the concentration of the Seventh Division opposite Aubers,
+opened a vigorous fire upon that front. During the afternoon General
+Haig ordered a charge upon the German positions. The advance was made
+in short rushes in the face of a fire that seemed to blaze from an
+inferno. Inch by inch the ground was drenched with British blood. At
+5.30 in the afternoon the men dug themselves in under the relentless
+German fire. Further advance became impossible.
+
+The night was one of horror. Every minute the men were under heavy
+bombardment. At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British infantry
+rushed from the trenches in an effort to carry Aubers, but the enemy
+artillery now greatly reinforced made that task an impossible one.
+The trenches occupied by the British forces were consolidated and the
+salient made by the push was held by the British with bulldog tenacity.
+
+The number of men employed in the action on the British side was
+forty-eight thousand. During the early surprise of the action the loss
+was slight. Had the wire in front of the Twenty-third Brigade been cut
+by the artillery assigned to such action, and had the telephone system
+not been destroyed the success of the thrust would have been complete.
+The delay of four and a half hours between the first and second
+phases of the attack caused virtually all the losses sustained by the
+attacking force. The total casualties were 12,811 men of the British
+forces. Of these 1,751 officers and privates were taken prisoners and
+10,000 officers and men were killed and wounded.
+
+The action continued throughout Thursday, March 11th, with little
+change in the general situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle
+and their intrenchments threatened Aubers. On Friday morning, March
+12th, the Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate attempt under
+cover of a heavy fog to recapture the village. The effort was made in
+characteristic German dense formations. The Westphalian and Bavarian
+troops came out of Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be
+blown to pieces by British guns already loaded and laid on the mark.
+Elsewhere the British waited until the Germans were scarcely more than
+fifty paces away when they opened with deadly rapid fire before
+which the German waves melted like snow before steam. It was such
+slaughter as the British had experienced when held up before Aubers.
+Slaughter that staggered Germany.
+
+  [Illustration: AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS
+
+  A Bavarian battery caught in British gunfire while limbering up. Only
+  three guns escaped in the hail of bursting shells.]
+
+So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which the decision rested with the
+British, a victory for which a fearful price had been paid but out of
+which came a confidence that was to hearten the British nation and to
+put sinews of steel into the British army for the dread days to come.
+
+The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated in large and in miniature many
+times during the deadlock of trench warfare on the western front until
+victory finally came to the Allies. During those years the western
+battle-front lay like a wounded snake across France and Belgium. It
+writhed and twisted, now this way, now that, as one side or the other
+gambled with men and shells and airplanes for some brief advantage.
+It bent back in a great bulge when von Hindenburg made his famous
+retreat in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had pressed heavily
+against the Teutonic front upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The
+record is one of great value to military strategists, to the layman it
+is only a succession of artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial
+reconnaissances and combats.
+
+One day grew to be very much like another in that deadlock of pythons.
+A play for position here was met by a counter-thrust in another place.
+German inventions were outmatched and outnumbered by those coming from
+the Allied side.
+
+Trench warfare became the daily life of the men. They learned to
+fight and live in the open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal
+conditions was never better exemplified than in those weary, dreary
+years on the western front.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME
+
+  The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence.
+  Peronne was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17;
+  in the last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged
+  through Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with awful
+  losses by Marshal Foch.]
+
+The fighting-lines consisted generally of one, two, or three lines
+of shelter-trenches lying parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five
+inches in width, and varying in length according to the number they
+hold; the trenches were joined together by zigzag approaches and by
+a line of reinforced trenches (armed with machine guns), which were
+almost completely proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire. The
+ordinary German trenches were almost invisible from 350 yards away, a
+distance which permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to realize that
+if the enemy occupied three successive lines and a line of reinforced
+intrenchments, the attacking line was likely, at the lowest estimate,
+to be decimated during an advance of 350 yards--by rifle fire at a
+range of 350 yards’ distance, and by the extremely quick fire of the
+machine guns, each of which delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute
+with absolute precision. In the field-trench, a soldier enjoyed far
+greater security than he would if merely prone behind his knapsack in
+an excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He had merely to stoop down
+a little to disappear below the level of the ground and be immune from
+infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns fired without endangering
+him. In addition, this stooping position brought the man’s knapsack on
+a level with his helmet, thus forming some protection against shrapnel
+and shell-splinters.
+
+At the back of the German trenches shelters were dug for
+non-commissioned officers and for the commander of the unit.
+
+Ever since the outbreak of the war, the French troops in Lorraine,
+after severe experiences, realized rapidly the advantages of the German
+trenches, and began to study those they had taken gloriously. Officers,
+non-commissioned officers, and men of the engineers were straightway
+detached in every unit to teach the infantry how to construct similar
+shelters. The education was quick, and very soon they had completed
+the work necessary for the protection of all. The tools of the enemy
+“casualties,” the spades and picks left behind in deserted villages,
+were all gladly piled on to the French soldiers’ knapsacks, to be
+carried willingly by the very men who used to grumble at being loaded
+with even the smallest regulation tool. As soon as night had set in on
+the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the digging of the trenches
+was begun. Sometimes, in the darkness, the men of each fighting
+nation--less than 500 yards away from their enemy--would hear the noise
+of the workers of the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers’
+words of encouragement; and tacitly they would agree to an armistice
+during which to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they would
+dash out, to fight once more.
+
+Commodious, indeed, were some of the trench barracks. One French
+soldier wrote:
+
+“In really up-to-date intrenchments you may find kitchens,
+dining-rooms, bedrooms, and even stables. One regiment has first class
+cow-sheds. One day a whimsical ‘piou-piou,’ finding a cow wandering
+about in the danger zone, had the bright idea of finding shelter for it
+in the trenches. The example was quickly followed, and at this moment
+the --th Infantry possess an underground farm, in which fat kine, well
+cared for, give such quantities of milk that regular distributions of
+butter are being made--and very good butter, too.”
+
+But this is not all. An officer writes home a tale of yet another one
+of the comforts of home added to the equipment of the trenches:
+
+“We are clean people here. Thanks to the ingenuity of ----, we are able
+to take a warm bath every day from ten to twelve. We call this teasing
+the ‘boches,’ for this bathing-establishment of the latest type is
+fitted up--would you believe it?--in the trenches!”
+
+Describing trenches occupied by the British in their protracted
+“siege-warfare” in Northern France along and to the north of the Aisne
+Valley, a British officer wrote: “In the firing-line the men sleep
+and obtain shelter in the dugouts they have hollowed or ‘undercut’ in
+the side of the trenches. These refuges are lightly raised above the
+bottom of the trench, so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor
+of the trench is also sloped for purposes of draining. Some trenches
+are provided with head-cover, and others with overhead cover, the
+latter, of course, giving protection from the weather as well as from
+shrapnel balls and splinters of shells.... At all points subject
+to shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind is provided by
+communication-trenches. These are now so good that it is possible to
+cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced trenches from the
+billets in villages, the bivouacs in quarries, or the other places
+where the headquarters of units happen to be.”
+
+A cavalry subaltern gave the following account of life in the trenches:
+“Picnicking in the open air, day and night (you never see a roof now),
+is the only real method of existence. There are loads of straw to bed
+down on, and everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with shrapnel
+bursting within fifty yards.”
+
+One English officer described the ravages of modern artillery fire, not
+only upon all men, animals and buildings within its zone, but upon the
+very face of nature itself: “In the trenches crouch lines of men, in
+brown or gray or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed with the
+continual strain.”
+
+“The fighting is now taking place over ground where both sides have for
+weeks past been excavating in all directions,” said another letter
+from the front, “until it has become a perfect labyrinth. A trench
+runs straight for a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks in
+three or four directions. One branch merely leads into a ditch full of
+water, used in drier weather as a means of communication; another ends
+abruptly in a cul-de-sac, probably an abandoned sap-head; the third
+winds on, leading into galleries and passages further forward.
+
+“Sometimes where new ground is broken the spade turns up the
+long-buried dead, ghastly relics of former fights, and on all sides the
+surface of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by fragments of shell and
+bombs and distorted by mines. Seen from a distance, this apparently
+confused mass of passages, crossing and re-crossing one another,
+resembles an irregular gridiron.
+
+“The life led by the infantry on both sides at close quarters is a
+strange, cramped existence, with death always near, either by means
+of some missile from above or some mine explosion from beneath--a
+life which has one dull, monotonous background of mud and water.
+Even when there is but little fighting the troops are kept hard at
+work strengthening the existing defenses, constructing others, and
+improvising the shelter imperative in such weather.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA
+
+
+For many years before the great war began the great powers of Europe
+were divided into two great alliances, the Triple Entente, composed
+of Russia, France and England, and the Triple Alliance, composed of
+Germany, Austria and Italy. When the war began Italy refused to join
+with Germany and Austria. Why? The answer to this question throws a
+vivid light on the origin of the war.
+
+Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance; she knew the facts, not
+only what was given to the public, but the inside facts. According to
+the terms of the alliance each member was bound to stand by each other
+only in case of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria and Germany
+because they were the aggressors. The constant assertions of the
+German statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war had been forced
+upon them were declared untrue by their associate Italy in the very
+beginning, and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of the world. Not
+much was said in the beginning about Italy’s abstention from war. The
+Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted that some day Italy would
+be made to regret her course, but now that the Teuton snake is scotched
+the importance of Italy’s action has been perceived and appraised at
+its true value.
+
+The Germans from the very beginning understood the real danger that
+might come to the Central Powers through Italian action. Every effort
+was made by the foreign office to keep her neutral. First threats were
+used, later promises were held out of addition to Italian territory if
+she would send her troops to Germany’s assistance. When this failed the
+most strenuous efforts were made to keep Italy neutral, and a former
+German premier, Prince von Bülow, was sent to Italy for this purpose.
+Socialist leaders, too, were sent from Germany to urge the Italian
+Socialists to insist upon neutrality.
+
+  [Illustration: ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS
+
+  When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against
+  Austria descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable natural
+  obstacles they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into
+  position in the mountains, as shown above, over the track that had to
+  be built for every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.]
+
+In July, 1914, the Italian Government was not taken by surprise. They
+had observed the increase year by year of the German army and of
+the German fleet. At the end of the Balkan wars they had been asked
+whether they would agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia. They had
+consequently long been deliberating as to what their course should
+be in case of war, and they had made up their minds that under no
+circumstances would they aid Germany against England.
+
+Quite independently of her long-standing friendship with England it
+would be suicide to Italy in her geographical position to enter a war
+which should permit her coast to be attacked by the English and French
+navies, and her participation in the Triple Alliance always carried the
+proviso that it did not bind her to fight England. This was well known
+in the German foreign office, and, indeed, in France where the writers
+upon war were reckoning confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from
+the Triple Alliance, and planning to use the entire forces of France
+against Germany.
+
+A better understanding of the Italian position will result from a
+consideration of the origin of the Triple Alliance.
+
+After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving the quick recovery of
+France, considered the advisability of attacking her again, and, to use
+his own words, “bleeding her white.” He found, however, that if this
+were attempted France would be joined by Russia and England and he gave
+up this plan. In order, however, to render France powerless he planned
+an alliance which should be able to control Europe. A league between
+Germany, Austria and Russia was his desire, and for some time every
+opportunity was taken to develop friendship with the Czar. Russia,
+however, remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies were opposed to the
+interests of Germany. Bismarck, therefore, determined, without losing
+the friendship of Russia, to persuade Italy to join in the continental
+combination. Italy, at the time, was the least formidable of the six
+great powers, but Bismarck foresaw that she could be made good use of
+in such a combination.
+
+At that time Italy, just after the completion of Italian unity, found
+herself in great perplexity. Her treatment of the Pope had brought
+about the hostility of Roman Catholics throughout the world. She feared
+both France and Austria, who were strong Catholic countries, and hardly
+knew where to look for friends. The great Italian leader at the time
+was Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a Radical and a conspirator,
+had become a constitutional statesman. Bismarck professed the greatest
+friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi to understand that he approved
+of Italy’s aspirations on the Adriatic and in Tunis.
+
+The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress, Italy’s interests
+were ignored, and finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the great
+indignation of the Italians. It has been shown in more recent times
+that the French seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck’s
+instigation.
+
+The Italians having been roused to wrath, Bismarck proceeded to offer
+them a place in the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was an easy
+argument that such an alliance would protect them against France,
+and no doubt it was promised that it would free them from the danger
+of attack by Austria. England, at the time, was isolated, and Italy
+continued on the best understanding with her.
+
+The immediate result of the alliance was a growth of Italian hostility
+toward France, which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France. Meanwhile
+German commercial and financial enterprises were pushed throughout
+the Italian peninsula. What did Italy gain by this? Her commerce was
+weakened, and Austria permitted herself every possible unfriendly act
+except open war.
+
+As time went on Germany and Austria became more and more arrogant.
+Italy’s ambitions on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely ignored.
+In 1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia and Herzegovina, another blow to
+Italy. By this time Italy understood the situation well, and that
+same year, seeing no future for herself in Europe, she swooped down on
+Tripoli. In doing this she forestalled Germany herself, for Germany had
+determined to seize Tripoli.
+
+  [Illustration: HOW THE POWERS DIVIDED NORTHERN AFRICA]
+
+Both Germany and Austria were opposed to this action of Italy, but
+Italy’s eyes were now open. Thirty years of political alliance had
+created no sympathy among the Italians for the Germans. Moreover, it
+was not entirely a question of policy. The lordly arrogance of the
+Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The Italians were lovers of liberty;
+the Germans pledged toward autocracy. They found greater sympathy in
+England and in France.
+
+“I am a son of liberty,” said Cavour, “to her I owe all that I am.”
+That, too, is Italy’s motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy
+in Italy was therefore strongly in favor of the Allies. The party in
+power, the Liberals, adopted the policy of neutrality for the time
+being, but thousands of Italians volunteered for the French and British
+service, and the anti-German feeling grew greater as time went on.
+
+Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian Government withdrew
+its ambassador to Austria and declared war. A complete statement of
+the negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary, which led to this
+declaration, was delivered to the Government of the United States
+by the Italian Ambassador on May 25th. This statement, of which the
+following is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position:
+
+“The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive, and designed solely to
+preserve the _status quo_, or in other words equilibrium, in Europe.
+That these were its only objects and purposes is established by the
+letter and spirit of the treaty, as well as by the intentions clearly
+described and set forth in official acts of the ministers who created
+the alliance and confirmed and renewed it in the interests of peace,
+which always has inspired Italian policy. The treaty, as long as its
+intents and purposes had been loyally interpreted and regarded, and
+as long as it had not been used as a pretext for aggression against
+others, greatly contributed to the elimination and settlement of causes
+of conflict, and for many years assured to Europe the inestimable
+benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary severed the treaty by her own
+hands. She rejected the response of Serbia which gave to her all the
+satisfaction she could legitimately claim. She refused to listen to the
+conciliatory proposals presented by Italy in conjunction with other
+powers in the effort to spare Europe from a vast conflict, certain to
+drench the Continent with blood and to reduce it to ruin beyond the
+conception of human imagination, and finally she provoked that conflict.
+
+“Article first of the treaty embodied the usual and necessary
+obligation of such pacts--the pledge to exchange views upon any fact
+and economic questions of a general nature that might arise pursuant to
+its terms. None of the contracting parties had the right to undertake
+without a previous agreement any step the consequence of which might
+impose a duty upon the other signatories arising under the alliance, or
+which would in any way whatsoever encroach upon their vital interests.
+This article was violated by Austria-Hungary, when she sent to Serbia
+her note dated July 23, 1914, an action taken without the previous
+assent of Italy. Thus, Austria-Hungary violated beyond doubt one of the
+fundamental provisions of the treaty. The obligation of Austria-Hungary
+to come to a previous understanding with Italy was the greater because
+her obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a situation which
+directly tended toward the provocation of a European war.
+
+  [Illustration: _Photo by James H. Hare._
+
+  WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK
+
+  Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order
+  came to hurl themselves against the Austrians.]
+
+“As far back as the beginning of July, 1914, the Italian Government,
+preoccupied by the prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid
+before the Austro-Hungarian Government a number of suggestions
+advising moderation, and warning it of the impending danger of a
+European outbreak. The course adopted by Austria-Hungary against
+Serbia constituted, moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general
+interests of Italy both political and economical in the Balkan
+peninsula. Austria-Hungary could not for a moment imagine that Italy
+could remain indifferent while Serbian independence was being trodden
+upon. On a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave Austria to
+understand, in friendly but clear terms, that the independence of
+Serbia was considered by Italy as essential to the Balkan equilibrium.
+Austria-Hungary was further advised that Italy could never permit that
+equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice. This warning had been
+conveyed not only by her diplomats in private conversations with
+responsible Austro-Hungarian officials, but was proclaimed publicly by
+Italian statesmen on the floors of Parliament.
+
+“Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored the usual practices and
+menaced Serbia by sending her ultimatum, without in any way notifying
+the Italian Government of what she proposed to do, indeed leaving
+that government to learn of her action through the press, rather than
+through the usual channels of diplomacy, when Austria-Hungary took this
+unprecedented course she not only severed her alliance with Italy but
+committed an act inimical to Italy’s interests....
+
+“After the European war broke out Italy sought to come to an
+understanding with Austria-Hungary with a view to a settlement
+satisfactory to both parties which might avert existing and future
+trouble. Her efforts were in vain, notwithstanding the efforts of
+Germany, which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary to
+comply with Italy’s suggestion thereby recognizing the propriety and
+legitimacy of the Italian attitude. Therefore Italy found herself
+compelled by the force of events to seek other solutions.
+
+“Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary had ceased
+virtually to exist and served only to prolong a state of continual
+friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador at Vienna was
+instructed to declare to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the
+Italian Government considered itself free from the ties arising out
+of the treaty of the Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary was
+concerned. This communication was delivered in Vienna on May 4th.
+
+“Subsequently to this declaration, and after we had been obliged to
+take steps for the protection of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian
+Government submitted new concessions, which, however, were deemed
+insufficient and by no means met our minimum demands. These offers
+could not be considered under the circumstances. The Italian Government
+taking into consideration what has been stated above, and supported by
+the vote of Parliament and the solemn manifestation of the country
+came to the decision that any further delay would be inadvisable.
+Therefore, on May 23d, it was declared, in the name of the King, to
+the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that, beginning the following
+day, May 24th, it would consider itself in a state of war with
+Austria-Hungary.”
+
+It was a closely reasoned argument that the Italian statesmen
+presented, but there was something more than reasoned argument in
+Italy’s course. She had been waiting for years for the opportunity to
+bring under her flag the men of her own race still held in subjection
+by hated Austria. Now was the time or never. Her people had become
+roused. Mobs filled the streets. Great orators, even the great poet,
+D’Annunzio, proclaimed a holy war. The sinking of the Lusitania poured
+oil on the flames, and the treatment of Belgium and eastern France
+added to the fury.
+
+  [Illustration: _Photo by International Film Service._
+
+  TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN
+  FRONT
+
+  The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of
+  operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during the
+  Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the
+  mountain by this means.]
+
+Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired, could not have
+withstood the pressure. It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for
+civilization, for humanity. The country had been flooded by
+representatives of German propaganda, papers had been hired and, by all
+report, money in large amounts distributed. But every German effort was
+swept away in the flood of feeling. It was the people’s war.
+
+Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber of Deputies adopted by vote of
+407 to 74 the bill conferring upon the government full power to make
+war. All members of the Cabinet maintained absolute silence regarding
+what step should follow the action of the chamber. When the chamber
+reassembled on May 20th, after its long recess, there were present
+482 Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining away on account of
+illness. The Deputies especially applauded were those who wore military
+uniforms and who had asked permission for leave from their military
+duties to be present at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled to
+overflowing. No representatives of Germany, Austria or Turkey were
+to be seen in the diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive was
+Thomas Nelson Page, the American Ambassador, who was accompanied by
+his staff. M. Barrere, Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and Michel de Giers, the
+French, British and Russian Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a few
+minutes later and all were greeted with applause, which was shared
+by the Belgian, Greek and Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan,
+one-time mayor of New York, occupied a seat in the President’s tribune.
+
+A few minutes before the session began the poet, Gabrielle D’Annunzio,
+one of the strongest advocates of war, appeared in the rear of the
+public tribune which was so crowded that it seemed impossible to
+squeeze in anybody else. But the moment the people saw him they lifted
+him shoulder high and passed him over their heads to the first row.
+
+The entire chamber, and all those occupying the other tribunes, rose
+and applauded for five minutes, crying “Viva D’Annunzio!” Later
+thousands sent him their cards and in return received his autograph
+bearing the date of this eventful day. Señor Marcora, President of
+the Chamber, took his place at three o’clock. All the members of the
+House, and everybody in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old
+follower of Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed by all the members of
+the Cabinet, entered shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment. Then a
+delirium of cries broke out.
+
+“Viva Salandra!” roared the Deputies, and the cheering lasted for a
+long time. After the formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra,
+deeply moved by the demonstration, arose and said:
+
+“Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to you a bill to meet the
+eventual expenditures of a national war.”
+
+The announcement was greeted by further prolonged applause. The
+Premier’s speech was continually interrupted by enthusiasm, and at
+times he could hardly continue on account of the wild cheering. The
+climax was reached when he made a reference to the army and navy. Then
+the cries seemed interminable, and those on the floor of the House
+and in the galleries turned to the military tribune from which the
+officers answered by waving their hands and handkerchiefs.
+
+At the end of the Premier’s speech there were deafening vivas for the
+King, war and Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join the cheers,
+even in the cry “Viva Italia!” and they were hooted and hissed.
+
+The action of the Italian Government created intense feeling. A
+newspaper man in Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation, said:
+
+“The exasperation and contempt which Italy’s treacherous surprise
+attack and her hypocritical justification aroused here, are quite
+indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia, despite a long and costly
+war, is hated. Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be
+politicians and business men who offer violence to the majority of
+peaceful Italian people, are unutterably hated.” On the other hand
+German papers spoke with much more moderation and recognized that Italy
+was acting in an entirely natural manner.
+
+On the very day on which war was declared active operations were
+begun. Both sides had been making elaborate preparations. Austria
+had prepared herself by building strong fortifications in which were
+employed the latest technical improvements in defensive warfare. Upon
+the Carso and around Gorizia the Austrians had placed innumerable
+batteries of powerful guns mounted on rails and protected by armor
+plates. They also had a great number of medium and smaller guns. A net
+of trenches had been excavated and constructed in cement all along the
+edge of the hills which dominated the course of the Isonzo River.
+
+These trenches, occupying a position nearly impregnable because so
+mountainous, were defended by every modern device. They were protected
+with numerous machine guns, surrounded by wire entanglements through
+which ran a strong electric current. These lines of trenches followed
+without interruption from the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the
+mountains which dominate it; they formed a kind of formidable staircase
+which had to be conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice.
+
+During this same period General Cadorna, then head of the Italian army,
+had been bringing that army up to date, working for high efficiency and
+piling up munitions.
+
+The Army of Italy was a formidable one. Every man in Italy is liable to
+military service for a period of nineteen years from the age of twenty
+to thirty-nine.
+
+At the time of the war the approximate war strength of the army was
+as follows: Officers, 41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910;
+reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial militia,
+1,889,659; total strength, 3,159,836. The above number of total men
+available included upward of 1,200,000 fully trained soldiers, with
+perhaps another 800,000 partially trained men, the remaining million
+being completely untrained men. This army was splendidly armed, its
+officers well educated, and the men brave and disciplined.
+
+The Italian plan of campaign apparently consisted first, in
+neutralizing the Trentino by capturing or covering the defenses and
+cutting the two lines of communication with Austria proper, the railway
+which ran south from Insbruck, and that which ran southwest from Vienna
+and joined the former at Fransensfets; and second, in a movement in
+force on the eastern frontier, with Trieste captured or covered on the
+right flank in the direction of the Austrian fortress at Klagenfurt and
+Vienna.
+
+The first blow was struck by Austria on the day that war was declared.
+On that day bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other Adriatic ports
+were shelled from air, and some from sea. The Italian armies invaded
+Austria on the east with great rapidity, and by May 27th a part of the
+Italian forces had moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone, sixteen
+miles northwest of Trieste. Another force penetrated further to the
+north in the Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisca. Reports from Italy
+were that encounters with the enemy had thus far been merely outpost
+skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy advantageous positions on
+Austrian territory. By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the greater
+part of the west bank of the Isonzo, with little opposition. The left
+wing was beyond the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among the boulders
+of Monte Nero, where the Austrian artillery had strong positions.
+Monfalcone was kept under constant bombardment.
+
+A general Italian advance took place on June 7th across the Isonzo
+River from Caporetto to the sea, a distance of about forty miles.
+Monfalcone was taken by the Italians on June the 10th, the first
+serious blow against Trieste, as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and
+its electrical works operated the light and power of Trieste.
+
+Next day the center made a great blow against Gradisca and Sagrado, but
+the river line proved too strong. The only success was won that night
+at Plava, north of Borrigia, which was carried by a surprise attack.
+The Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious obstacle to the onrush
+of the Italians. By June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed
+forward along the gulf of Trieste toward the town of Nebrosina, nine
+miles from Trieste.
+
+Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being constantly strengthened. The
+initial weakness of the Austrian defensive was due to the fact that the
+armies normally assigned to the invaded region had been sent to defend
+the Austrian line in Galicia against the Russians. When Italy began
+her invasion the defenses of the country were chiefly in the hands
+of hastily mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen, and
+men above the military age of forty-two. From now on Austrian troops
+began to arrive from the Galician front, some of these representing
+the finest fighting material in the Austrian ranks. The chance of an
+easy victory was slipping from Italy’s hands. The Italian advance was
+checked.
+
+On the 15th of June the Italians carried an important position on Monte
+Nero, climbing the rocks by night and attacking by dawn. But this
+conquest did not help much. No guns of great caliber could be carried
+on the mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily fortified, and
+contained a garrison of some thirty thousand men, was entirely safe.
+The following week there were repeated counter-attacks at Plava and on
+Monte Nero, but the Italians held what they had won.
+
+The position was now that Cadorna’s left wing was in a strong position,
+but could not do much against Tolmino. His center was facing the great
+camp of Gorizia, while his right was on the edge of the Carso, and
+had advanced as far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad. The
+army was in position to make an attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July
+an attack on a broad front was aimed directly at Gorizia. The left
+was to swing around against the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the
+center was directed against the Gorizia bridge head, and the right was
+to swing around to the northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it
+succeeded the Trieste railway would be cut and Gorizia must fall.
+
+  [Illustration: AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS
+
+  Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the
+  Italians August 9, 1916.]
+
+Long and confused fighting followed. The center and the right
+of the Italian army slowly advanced their line, taking over one
+thousand prisoners. For days there was continuous bombardment and
+counter-bombardment. The fighting on the left was terrific. In the
+neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found themselves opposed by
+Hungarian troops, unaccustomed to mountain warfare, who at first fell
+back. Austrian reserves came to their aid, and flung back three times
+the Italian charge.
+
+Three new Italian brigades were brought up, and King Victor Emanuel
+himself came to encourage his troops. The final assault carried the
+heights. On the 22d of July the Italian right captured the crest of San
+Michele, which dominates the Doberdo plateau.
+
+Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being heavily reinforced, and
+General Cadorna found himself unable to make progress. Much ground
+had been won but Gorizia was still unredeemed. Many important vantage
+points were in Italian hands, but it was difficult to advance. The
+result of the three months’ campaign was a stalemate. In the high
+mountains to the north Italy’s campaign was a war of defense. To
+undertake her offensive on the Isonzo it was necessary that she guard
+her flanks and rear. The Tyrolese battle-ground contained three
+distinct points where it was necessary to operate; the Trentino
+Salient, the passes of the Dolomites, and the passes of the Carnic Alps.
+
+Early in June Italy had won control of the ridges of the mountains
+in the two latter points, but the problem in the Trentino was more
+difficult. It was necessary, because of the converging valleys, to push
+her front well inland. On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of
+unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle centered around the pass of
+Monte Croce Carnico.
+
+In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating positions to the west
+of the pass, but the Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great
+deal of picturesque fighting went on, but not much progress was made.
+Further west in the Dolomite region there was more fighting. On the
+30th of May Cartina had been captured, and the Italians moved north
+toward the Pusterthal Railway. Progress was slow, as the main routes to
+the railway were difficult.
+
+By the middle of August they were only a few miles from the railway,
+but all the routes led through defiles, and the neighboring heights
+were in the possession of the Austrians. To capture these heights
+was a most difficult feat, which the Italians performed in the most
+brilliant way; but even after they had passed these defiles success was
+not yet won. Each Italian column was in its own grove, with no lateral
+communication. The Austrians could mass themselves where they pleased.
+As a result the Italian forces were compelled to halt.
+
+In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon captured the passes, and
+moved against Trente and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified,
+as were their surrounding heights. The campaign became a series of
+small fights on mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only small bodies
+of troops could maneuver, and the raising of guns up steep precipices
+was extremely difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded in gaining
+ground, and established a chain of posts around the heights so that
+often one would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments at a height of
+more than ten thousand feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The
+Alpini performed wonderful feats of physical endurance, but the plains
+of Lombardy were still safe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+
+If ever the true mettle and temper of a people were tried and
+exemplified in the crucible of battle, that battle was the naval and
+land engagement embracing Gallipoli and the Dardanelles and the people
+so tested, the British race. Separated in point of time but united in
+its general plan, the engagements present a picture of heroism founded
+upon strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and dogged determination
+against overwhelming natural and artificial odds as even the pages of
+supreme British bravery cannot parallel. The immortal charge of the
+Light Brigade was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely a battle
+fragment and its glorious record was written in blood within the scope
+of a comparatively few inspired minutes. In the mine-strewn Dardanelles
+and upon the sun-baked, blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli,
+death always partnered every sailor and soldier. As at Balaklava,
+virtually everyone knew that some one had blundered, but the army and
+the navy as one man fought to the bitter end to make the best of a bad
+bargain, to tear triumph out of impossibilities.
+
+France co-operated with the British in the naval engagement, but the
+greater sacrifice, the supreme charnel house of the war, the British
+race reserved for itself. There, the yeomanry of England, the unsung
+county regiments whose sacrifices and achievements have been neglected
+in England’s generous desire to honor the men from “down under,” the
+Australians and New Zealanders grouped under the imperishable title
+of the Anzacs--there the Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted
+British Army with the great fighters from the self-governing colonies
+waged a battle so hopeless and so gallant that the word Gallipoli shall
+always remind the world how man may triumph over the fear of death; how
+with nothing but defeat and disaster before them, men may go to their
+deaths as unconcernedly as in other days they go to their nightly sleep.
+
+On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Turkey.
+Hostilities, however, had preceded the declaration. On November 3d the
+combined French and British squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts.
+This was merely intended to draw the fire of the forts and make an
+estimate of their power. From that time on a blockade was maintained,
+and on the 13th of December a submarine, commanded by Lieutenant
+Holbrook, entered the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship
+Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine fields.
+
+By the end of January the blockading fleet, through constant
+reinforcement, had become very strong, and had seized the Island of
+Tenedos and taken possession of Lemnos, which nominally belonged to
+Greece, as bases for naval operations. On the 19th of February began
+the great attack upon the forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles,
+which attracted the attention of the world for nearly a year.
+
+The expedition against the Dardanelles had been considered with the
+greatest care, and approved by the naval authorities. That their
+judgment was correct, however, is another question. The history of
+naval warfare seems to make very plain that a ship, however powerful,
+is at a tremendous disadvantage when attacking forts on land. The badly
+served cannon of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British fleet, but
+Gallipoli had been fortified by German engineers, and its guns were the
+Krupp cannon. The British fleet found itself opposed by unsurmountable
+obstacles. Looking backward it seems possible, that if at the very
+start Lord Kitchener had permitted a detachment of troops to accompany
+the fleet, success might have been attained, but without the army the
+navy was powerless.
+
+The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of land about fifty miles long,
+varying in width from twelve to two or three miles. It is a mass of
+rocky hills so steep that in many places it is a matter of difficulty
+to reach their tops. On it are a few villages, but there are no
+decent roads and little cultivated land. On the southern shore of the
+Dardanelles conditions are nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a
+flat and marshy plain, but east of this plain are hills three thousand
+feet high. The high ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides,
+and with the exception of narrow bits of beach at their base, presents
+almost no opportunity for landing.
+
+A strong current continually sifts down the straits from the Sea of
+Marmora.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
+
+  Showing the various landing places, with inset of the Sari-Bair
+  Region.]
+
+Forts were placed at the entrance on both the north and south side, but
+they were not heavily armed and were merely outposts. Fourteen miles
+from the mouth the straits become quite narrow, making a sharp turn
+directly north and then resuming their original direction. The channel
+thus makes a sharp double bend. At the entrance to the strait, known as
+the Narrows, were powerful fortresses, and the slopes were studded with
+batteries. Along both sides of the channel the low ground was lined
+with batteries. It was possible to attack the forts at fairly long
+range, but there was no room to bring any large number of ships into
+action at the same time.
+
+At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there were probably nearly
+half a million of men available for a defense of the straits, men
+well armed and well trained under German leadership. The first step
+was comparatively easy. The operations against the other forts began
+at 8 A. M. on Friday, the 19th of February. The ships engaged were
+the Inflexible, the Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance and
+the Triumph from the British fleet, and the Bouvet, Suffren, and
+the Gaulois from the French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral
+Sackville Carden. The French squadron was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette.
+A flotilla of destroyers accompanied the fleet, and airplanes were sent
+up to guide the fire of the battleships.
+
+At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle some miles out to sea
+from the entrance to the strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as
+the ships came along and took up position, and the picture became most
+awe-inspiring when the guns began to boom. The bombardment at first
+was slow. Shells from the various ships screaming through the air at
+the rate of about one every two minutes.
+
+The Turkish batteries, however, were not to be drawn, and, seeing this,
+the British Admiral sent one British ship and one French ship close in
+shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr forts. As they went in they sped right
+under the guns of the shore batteries, which could no longer resist
+the temptation to see what they could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted
+the landscape on the far shore, and dull booms echoed over the placid
+water. Around the ships fountains of water sprang up into the air. The
+enemy had been drawn, but his marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not
+a single shot directed against the ships went within a hundred yards of
+either.
+
+At sundown on account of the failing light Admiral Carden withdrew the
+fleet. On account of the bad weather the attack was not renewed until
+February 25th. It appeared that the outer forts had not been seriously
+damaged on the 19th, and that what injury had been done had been
+repaired. In an hour and a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced.
+The Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range of six miles, which
+killed three men and wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr
+was attacked at close range, but not silenced till after 5 P. M. At
+this time British trawlers began sweeping the entrance for mines, and
+during the next day the mine field was cleared for a distance of four
+miles up the straits.
+
+As soon as this clearance was made the Albion, Vengeance and Majestic
+steamed into the strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification
+some distance below the Narrows. The Turks replied vigorously, not only
+from Dardanos but from batteries scattered along the shore. Believing
+that the Turks had abandoned the forts at the entrance, landing parties
+of marines were sent to shore. In a short time, however, they met a
+detachment of the enemy and were compelled to retreat to their boats.
+The outer forts, however, were destroyed, and their destruction was
+extremely encouraging to the Allies.
+
+For a time a series of minor operations was carried on, meeting with
+much success. Besides attacks on forts inside of the strait, Smyrna was
+bombarded on March the 5th, and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth,
+the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded the forts at Chanak on the
+Asiatic side of the Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros on
+the outer side of the Gallipoli Peninsula. To all of these attacks
+the Turks replied vigorously and the attacking ships were repeatedly
+struck, but with no loss of life. On the 7th of March Fort Dardanos was
+silenced, and Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned out, only
+temporarily.
+
+Preparations were now being made for a serious effort against the
+Narrows. The date of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather
+permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden was stricken down with illness
+and was invalided by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck, second in
+command, who had been very active in the operations, was appointed
+to succeed him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial sympathy with the
+purposes of the expedition and determined to attack on the 18th of
+March. At a quarter to eleven that morning, the Queen Elizabeth,
+Inflexible, Agamemnon, Lord Nelson, the Triumph and Prince George
+steamed up the straits towards the Narrows, and bombarded the forts
+of Chanak. At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting of the Suffren,
+Gaulois, Charlemagne, and Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid
+their English associates.
+
+Under the combined fire of the two squadrons the Turkish forts, which
+at first replied strongly, were finally silenced. All of the ships,
+however, were hit several times during this part of the action.
+A third squadron, including the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion,
+Ocean, Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced to relieve the six old
+battleships inside the strait.
+
+  [Illustration: THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”
+
+  During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship
+  “Irresistible” struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe
+  losses of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible
+  to force the strait by naval attack.]
+
+As the French squadron, which had engaged the forts in a most brilliant
+fashion, was passing out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting mine
+and sank in less than three minutes, carrying with her most of her
+crew. At 2.36 P. M. the relief battleships renewed the attack on the
+forts, which again opened fire. The Turks were now sending mines down
+with the current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the line, listing
+heavily, and at 5.50 she sank, having probably struck a drifting mine.
+At 6.05 the Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in deep water.
+Practically the whole of the crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was
+damaged by gunfire; the Inflexible had her forward control position hit
+by a heavy shell, which killed and wounded the majority of the men and
+officers at that station and set her on fire. At sunset the forts were
+still in action, and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped out
+of the Dardanelles.
+
+Meantime, an expeditionary force was being gathered. The largest
+portion of this force came from Great Britain, but France also provided
+a considerable number from her marines and from her Colonial army. Both
+nations avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the armies destined
+for service in France.
+
+In the English army there were divisions from Australia and New Zealand
+and there were a number of Indian troops and Territorials. The whole
+force was put under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The
+commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was the German General Liman von
+Sanders, the former chief of the military mission at Constantinople.
+The bulk of the expeditionary force, which numbered altogether about a
+hundred and twenty thousand men, were, therefore, men whose presence in
+the east did not weaken the Allied strength in the west.
+
+The great difficulty of the new plan was that it was impossible to
+surprise the enemy. The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small that
+a landing at any point would be promptly observed, and the nature of
+the ground was of such a character that progress from any point must
+necessarily be slow. The problem was therefore a simple one.
+
+The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt during the first half of
+April, and about the middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos.
+Germany was well aware of the English plans, and was doing all that it
+could to provide a defense.
+
+On April 23d the movement began, and about five o’clock in the
+afternoon the first of the transports slowly made its way through the
+maze of shipping toward the entrance of Mudros Bay.
+
+Immediately the patent apathy, which had gradually overwhelmed
+everyone, changed to the utmost enthusiasm, and as the huge liners
+steamed through the fleet, their decks yellow with khaki, the crews of
+the warships cheered them on to victory while the bands played them
+out with an unending variety of popular airs. The soldiers in the
+transports answered this last salutation from the navy with deafening
+cheers, and no more inspiring spectacle has ever been seen than this
+great expedition.
+
+The whole of the fleet from the transports had been divided up into
+five divisions and there were three main landings. The 29th Division
+disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr,
+where its operations were covered both from the gulf of Saros and from
+the Dardanelles by the fire of the covering warships. The Australian
+and New Zealand contingent disembarked north of Gaba Tepe. Further
+north a naval division made a demonstration.
+
+Awaiting the Australians was a party of Turks who had been intrenched
+almost on the shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade. The
+Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to the occasion. They waited
+neither for orders nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing
+out into the sea they went in to the shore, and forming some sort of
+a rough line rushed straight on the flashes of the enemy’s rifles. In
+less than a quarter of an hour the Turks were in full flight.
+
+While the Australians and New Zealanders, or Anzacs as they are now
+generally known from the initials of the words Australian-New Zealand
+Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly at Gaba Tepe, the British troops
+were landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The
+advance was slow and difficult. The Turk was pushed back, little by
+little, and the ground gained organized. The details of this progress,
+though full of incidents of the greatest courage and daring, need not
+be recounted.
+
+On June the 4th a general attack was made, preceded by heavy
+bombardments by all guns, but after terrific fighting, in which many
+prisoners were captured and great losses suffered, the net result was
+an advance of about five hundred yards. As time went on the general
+impression throughout the Allied countries was that the expedition had
+failed. On June 30th the losses of the Turks were estimated at not
+less than seventy thousand, and the British naval and military losses
+up to June 1st, aggregated 38,635 officers and men. At that time the
+British and French allies held but a small corner of the area to be
+conquered. In all of these attacks the part played by the Australian
+and New Zealand army corps was especially notable. Reinforcements were
+repeatedly sent to the Allies, who worked more and more feverishly as
+time went on with the hope of aiding Russia, which was then desperately
+struggling against the great German advance.
+
+On August 17th it was reported that a landing had been made at Suvla
+Bay, the extreme western point of the Peninsula. From this point it
+was hoped to threaten the Turkish communications with their troops at
+the lower end of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however, failed
+to make any impression, and in the first part of September, vigorous
+Turkish counter offensives gained territory from the Franco-British
+troops. According to the English reports the Turks paid a terrible
+price for their success.
+
+It had now become evident that the expedition was a failure. The
+Germans were already gloating over what they called the “failure of
+British sea power,” and English publicists were attempting to show
+that, though the enterprise had failed, the very presence of a strong
+Allied force at Saloniki had been an enormous gain. The first official
+announcement of failure was made December 20, 1916, when it was
+announced that the British forces at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been
+withdrawn, and that only the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr were
+occupied. Great Britain’s loss of officers and men at the Dardanelles
+up to December 11th was 112,921, according to an announcement made in
+the House of Commons by the Parliamentary Under Secretary for War.
+Besides these casualties the number of sick admitted to hospitals was
+96,683. The decision to evacuate Gallipoli was made in the course of
+November by the British Government as the result of the early expressed
+opinion of General Monro, who had succeeded General Hamilton on October
+28, 1915.
+
+General Monro found himself confronted with a serious problem in the
+attempt to withdraw an army of such a size from positions not more than
+three hundred yards from the enemy’s trenches, and to embark on open
+beaches every part of which was within effective range of Turkish guns.
+Moreover, the evacuation must be done gradually, as it was impossible
+to move the whole army at once with such means of transportation as
+existed. The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies and heavy guns
+by instalments, working only at night, carrying off at the same time a
+large portion of the troops, but leaving certain picked battalions to
+guard the trenches. Every endeavor had to be made for concealment. The
+plan was splendidly successful, and the Turks apparently completely
+deceived. On December 20th the embarkation of the last troops at
+Suvla was accomplished. The operations at Anzac were conducted in the
+same way. Only picked battalions were left to the end, and these were
+carried safely off.
+
+  [Illustration: THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL
+  BAHR
+
+  An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were
+  sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of the
+  Turkish machine guns on shore.]
+
+The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation made the position at Cape
+Helles more dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout, and it seemed
+almost impossible that they could be again deceived. On January 7th an
+attack was made by the Turks upon the trenches, which was beaten back.
+That night more than half the troops had left the Peninsula. The
+next day there was a heavy storm which made embarkation difficult, but
+it was nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation was a clever and
+successful bit of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+
+Germany’s ambition for conquest at sea had been nursed and carefully
+fostered for twenty years. During the decade immediately preceding the
+declaration of war, it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building
+that brought it into direct conflict with England’s sea policy.
+Thereafter it became a race in naval construction, England piling up a
+huge debt in its determination to construct two tons of naval shipping
+to every one ton built by Germany.
+
+Notwithstanding Great Britain’s efforts in this direction, Germany’s
+naval experts, with the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained
+that, given a fair seaway with ideal weather conditions favoring the
+low visibility tactics of the German sea command, a victory for the
+Teutonic ships would follow. It was this belief that drew the ships
+of the German cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the coast of
+Jutland and Horn Reef into the great battle that decided the supremacy
+of the sea.
+
+The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in history as the date of this
+titanic conflict. The British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty
+near Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o’clock on the afternoon of that
+day, that it had sighted smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy
+vessels from the direction of Helgoland Bight. Fifteen minutes later
+the smoke plumes were in such number and volume that the advance of
+a considerable force to the northward and eastward was indicated. It
+was reasoned by Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea had sent the
+news by radio, that the enemy in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably
+be brought into action. The first ships of the enemy were sighted at
+3.31 o’clock. These were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. Back
+of these were five modern battle cruisers of the highest power and
+armament.
+
+The report of the battle, by an eye-witness, that was issued upon
+semiofficial authority of the British Government, follows:
+
+First Phase, 3.30 P. M. May 31st. Beatty’s battle cruisers, consisting
+of the Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible,
+Indomitable, Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand, were on a
+southeasterly course, followed at about two miles distance by the four
+battleships of the class known as Queen Elizabeths.
+
+Enemy light cruisers were sighted and shortly afterward the head of
+the German battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new cruiser
+Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, Lützow, Moltke, and possibly the
+Salamis.
+
+Beatty at once began firing at a range of about 20,000 yards (twelve
+miles) which shortened to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets
+closed. The Germans could see the British distinctly outlined against
+the light yellow sky. The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very
+indistinctly made out by the British gunners.
+
+The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one after another as they came
+within range. The German battle cruisers turned to port and drew away
+to about 20,000 yards.
+
+Second Phase, 4.40 P. M. A destroyer screen then appeared beyond the
+German battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen
+approaching on the northeastern horizon in three divisions, coming to
+the support of their battle cruisers.
+
+The German battle cruisers now turned right around 16 points and took
+station in front of the battleships of the High Fleet.
+
+Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting battleships, therefore,
+had before him the whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe was
+still some distance away.
+
+The opposing fleets were now moving parallel to one another in opposite
+directions, and but for a master maneuver on the part of Beatty the
+British advance ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe’s Grand
+Fleet. In order to avoid this and at the same time prepare the way so
+that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary, Beatty immediately also
+turned right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships parallel to
+the German battle cruisers and facing the same direction.
+
+As soon as he was around he increased to full speed to get ahead of the
+Germans and take up a tactical position in advance of their line. He
+was able to do this owing to the superior speed of the British battle
+cruisers.
+
+Just before the turning point was reached, the Indefatigable sank, and
+the Queen Mary and the Invincible also were lost at the turning point,
+where, of course, the High Seas Fleet concentrated their fire.
+
+A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers were turning, the Queen
+Elizabeths had in similar manner concentrated their fire on the turning
+point and destroyed a new German battle cruiser, believed to be the
+Hindenburg.
+
+Beatty had now got around and headed away with the loss of three ships,
+racing parallel to the German battle cruisers. The Queen Elizabeths
+followed behind engaging the main High Seas Fleet.
+
+Third Phase, 5 P. M. The Queen Elizabeths now turned short to port 16
+points in order to follow Beatty. The Warspite jammed her steering
+gear, failed to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
+closed in upon her.
+
+The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have
+been lost, but, as a matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by
+shell fire with the water boiling up all around her, she was not
+seriously hit, and was able to sink one of her opponents. Her captain
+recovered control of the vessel, brought her around, and followed her
+consorts.
+
+In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and Malaya turned short so as to
+avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible had been
+lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe arrived, fought a delaying action
+against the High Seas Fleet.
+
+The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 o’clock, and all four ships were
+so successfully maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections
+of their opponents that no hits of a seriously disabling character
+were suffered. They had the speed over their opponents by fully four
+knots, and were able to draw away from part of the long line of German
+battleships, which almost filled up the horizon.
+
+At this time the Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing on at the
+flashes of German guns at a range which varied between 12,000 and
+15,000 yards, especially against those ships which were nearest them.
+The Germans were enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes were
+visible.
+
+By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had been left out of range, and the
+Queen Elizabeths were steaming fast to join hands with Jellicoe.
+
+To return to Beatty’s battle cruisers. They had succeeded in
+outflanking the German battle cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged
+to turn a full right angle to starboard to avoid being headed.
+
+Heavy fighting was renewed between the opposing battle cruiser
+squadrons, during which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 o’clock
+the German fire slackened very considerably, showing that Beatty’s
+battle cruisers and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted serious damage
+on their immediate opponents.
+
+Fourth Phase, 6 P. M. The Grand Fleet was now in sight, and, coming up
+fast in three directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their course
+four points to the starboard and drew in toward the enemy to allow
+Jellicoe room to deploy into line.
+
+The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered and the very difficult
+operation of deploying between the battle cruisers and the Queen
+Elizabeths was perfectly timed.
+
+Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty’s cruisers, and followed by the
+damaged but still serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right across
+the head of the German fleet.
+
+The first of the ships to come into action were the Revenue and the
+Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch guns, and the Agincourt which fired
+from her seven turrets with the speed almost of a Maxim gun.
+
+The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. They had been
+perfectly maneuvered, so as to “cross the T” of the High Seas Fleet,
+and, indeed, only decent light was necessary to complete their work
+of destroying the Germans in detail. The light did improve for a few
+minutes, and the conditions were favorable to the British fleet, which
+was now in line approximately north and south across the head of the
+Germans.
+
+During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe smashed up the first
+three German ships, but the mist came down, visibility suddenly failed,
+and the defeated High Seas Fleet was able to draw off in ragged
+divisions.
+
+Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were followed by the British, who still
+had them enveloped between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty on the north,
+and Evan-Thomas with his three Queen Elizabeths on the south. The
+Warspite had been sent back to her base.
+
+During the night the torpedo-boat destroyers heavily attacked the
+German ships, and, although they lost seriously themselves, succeeded
+in sinking two of the enemy.
+
+  [Illustration: HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT
+
+  This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses
+  of the opposing German and British battle fleets.]
+
+Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was practically impossible to
+keep up, and the Germans discovered by the rays of their search-lights
+the three Queen Elizabeths, not more than 4,000 yards away.
+Unfortunately they were then able to escape between the battleships
+and Jellicoe, since the British gunners were not able to fire, as the
+destroyers were in the way.
+
+So ended the Jutland battle, which was fought as had been planned and
+very nearly a great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable weather
+conditions, especially at the critical moment, when the whole British
+fleet was concentrated and engaged in crushing the head of the German
+line.
+
+Commenting on the engagement, Admiral Jellicoe said: “The battle
+cruiser fleet, gallantly led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably
+supported by the ships of the fifth battle squadron under Rear-Admiral
+Evan-Thomas, fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous
+conditions, especially in regard to light, in a manner that was in
+keeping with the best traditions of the service.”
+
+His estimate of the German losses was: two battleships of the
+dreadnought type, one of the Deutschland type, which was seen to sink;
+the battle cruiser Lützow, admitted by the Germans; one battle cruiser
+of the dreadnought type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely
+damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; five light cruisers,
+seen to sink--one of them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen to
+sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was doubtful if they would be
+able to reach port, and a submarine sunk. The official German report
+admitted only eleven ships sunk; the first British report placed the
+total at eighteen, but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one German
+vessels as probably lost.
+
+The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German naval men: “The enemy,”
+he said, “fought with the gallantry that was expected of him. We
+particularly admired the conduct of those on board a disabled German
+light cruiser which passed down the British line shortly after the
+deployment under a heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun left
+in action. The conduct of the officers and men was entirely beyond
+praise. On all sides it is reported that the glorious traditions of the
+past were most worthily upheld; whether in the heavy ships, cruisers,
+light cruisers, or destroyers, the same admirable spirit prevailed. The
+officers and men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness that would
+have carried them through anything. The heroism of the wounded was the
+admiration of all. I cannot adequately express the pride with which the
+spirit of the fleet filled me.”
+
+At daylight on the 1st of June the British battle fleet, being
+southward of Horn Reef, turned northward in search of the enemy
+vessels. The visibility early on the first of June was three to four
+miles less than on May 31st, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out
+of visual touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 A. M. The British
+fleet remained in the proximity of the battlefield and near the line
+of approach to the German ports until 11 A. M., in spite of the
+disadvantage of long distances from fleet bases and the danger incurred
+in waters adjacent to the enemy’s coasts from submarines and torpedo
+craft.
+
+The enemy, however, made no sign, and the admiral was reluctantly
+compelled to the conclusion that the High Sea Fleet had returned into
+port. Subsequent events proved this assumption to have been correct.
+The British position must have been known to the enemy, as at 4 A. M.
+the fleet engaged a Zeppelin about five minutes, during which time she
+had ample opportunity to note and subsequently report the position and
+course of the British fleet.
+
+The Germans at first claimed a victory for their fleet. The test, of
+course, was the outcome of the battle. The fact that the German fleet
+retreated and nevermore ventured forth from beneath the protecting guns
+and mine fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond dispute that the
+British were entitled to the triumph. The German official report makes
+the best presentation of the German case. It follows in full:
+
+  The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship squadrons, five
+  battle cruisers, and a large number of small cruisers, with several
+  destroyer flotillas, was cruising in the Skagerrak on May 31 for the
+  purpose, as on earlier occasions, of offering battle to the British
+  fleet. The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o’clock in the
+  afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety miles west of
+  Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest coast of Jutland), a group of
+  eight of the newest cruisers of the Calliope class and fifteen or
+  twenty of the most modern destroyers.
+
+  While the German light forces and the first cruiser squadron under
+  Vice-Admiral Hipper were following the British, who were retiring
+  northwestward, the German battle cruisers sighted to the westward
+  Vice-Admiral Beatty’s battle squadron of six ships, including four of
+  the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. Beatty’s squadron
+  developed a battle line on a southeasterly course and Vice-Admiral
+  Hipper formed his line ahead on the same general course and
+  approached for a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o’clock in the
+  afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 meters against
+  the superior enemy. The weather was clear and light, and the sea was
+  light with a northwest wind.
+
+  After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion occurred on the
+  last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. It was caused by a heavy
+  shell, and destroyed the vessel.
+
+  About 6.20 o’clock in the afternoon five warships of the Queen
+  Elizabeth type came from the west and joined the British battle
+  cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing with their fifteen-inch guns
+  the five British battle cruisers remaining after 6.20 o’clock. To
+  equalize this superiority Vice-Admiral Hipper ordered the destroyers
+  to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small cruisers
+  interposed, and a bitter engagement at close range ensued, in the
+  course of which a light cruiser participated.
+
+  The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of which were rescued
+  by sister ships under a heavy fire. Two British destroyers were sunk
+  by artillery, and two others--the Nestor and Nomad--remained on the
+  scene in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by the main
+  fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued all the survivors.
+
+  While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, caused by
+  a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, the third ship in line, asunder,
+  at 6.30 o’clock.
+
+  Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was sighted to the
+  southward, steering north. The hostile fast squadrons thereupon
+  turned northward, closing the first part of the fight, which lasted
+  about an hour.
+
+  The British retired at high speed before the German fleet, which
+  followed closely. The German battle cruisers continued the artillery
+  combat with increasing intensity, particularly with the division of
+  the vessels of the Queen Elizabeth type, and in this the leading
+  German battleship division participated intermittently. The hostile
+  ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead of the point of
+  our line and to cross it.
+
+  At 7.45 o’clock in the evening British small cruisers and destroyers
+  launched an attack against our battle cruisers, who avoided the
+  torpedoes by manoeuvring, while the British battle cruisers retired
+  from the engagement, in which they did not participate further as
+  far as can be established. Shortly thereafter a German reconnoitring
+  group, which was parrying the destroyer attack, received an attack
+  from the northeast. The cruiser Wiesbaden was soon put out of action
+  in this attack. The German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the
+  heavy ships.
+
+  Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the northeast was made
+  out a long line of at least twenty-five battleships, which at first
+  sought a junction with the British battle cruisers and those of the
+  Queen Elizabeth type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and then
+  turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.
+
+  With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre consisted of
+  three squadrons of eight battleships each, with a fast division of
+  three battle cruisers of the Invincible type on the northern end, and
+  three of the newest vessels of the Royal Sovereign class, armed with
+  fifteen-inch guns, at the southern end, there began about 8 o’clock
+  in the evening the third section of the engagement, embracing the
+  combat between the main fleets.
+
+  Vice-Admiral Scheer determined to attack the British main fleet,
+  which he now recognized was completely assembled and about doubly
+  superior. The German battleship squadron, headed by battle cruisers,
+  steered first toward the extensive haze bank to the northeast,
+  where the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still receiving a heavy
+  fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual fights under quickly
+  changing conditions now occurred.
+
+  The light enemy forces, supported by an armored cruiser squadron of
+  five ships of the Minotaur, Achilles, and Duke of Edinburgh classes
+  coming from the northeast, were encountered and apparently surprised
+  on account of the decreasing visibility of our battle cruisers and
+  leading battleship division. The squadron came under a violent and
+  heavy fire, by which the small cruisers Defense and Black Prince were
+  sunk. The cruiser Warrior regained its own line a wreck and later
+  sank. Another small cruiser was damaged severely.
+
+  Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack of German
+  torpedo boats against the leading British battleships and a small
+  cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The German battle cruisers
+  and leading battleship division had in these engagements come under
+  increased fire of the enemy’s battleship squadron, which, shortly
+  after 8 o’clock, could be made out in the haze turning to the
+  northeastward and finally to the east. Germans observed, amid the
+  artillery combat and shelling of great intensity, signs of the effect
+  of good shooting between 8.20 and 8.30 o’clock particularly. Several
+  officers on German ships observed that a battleship of the Queen
+  Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar to that of the Queen
+  Mary. The Invincible sank after being hit severely. A ship of the
+  Iron Duke class had earlier received a torpedo hit, and one of the
+  Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle, its steering
+  apparatus apparently having been hit.
+
+  The Lützow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells and was unable
+  to maintain its place in line. Vice-Admiral Hipper, therefore,
+  transshipped to the Moltke on a torpedo boat and under a heavy fire.
+  The Derfflinger meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of the
+  German torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy’s main fleet and heard
+  detonations. In the action the Germans lost a torpedo boat. An enemy
+  destroyer was seen in a sinking condition, having been hit by a
+  torpedo.
+
+  After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the superior
+  enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in the smoke by powder
+  clouds. After a short cessation in the artillery combat Vice-Admiral
+  Scheer ordered a new attack by all the available forces.
+
+  German battle cruisers, which with several light cruisers and torpedo
+  boats again headed the line, encountered the enemy soon after 9
+  o’clock and renewed the heavy fire, which was answered by them from
+  the mist, and then by the leading division of the main fleet. Armored
+  cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset at extreme speed
+  against the enemy line in order to cover the attack of the torpedo
+  boats. They approached the enemy line, although covered with shot
+  from 6,000 meters distances. Several German torpedo flotillas dashed
+  forward to attack, delivered torpedoes, and returned, despite the
+  most severe counterfire, with the loss of only one boat. The bitter
+  artillery fire was again interrupted, after this second violent
+  onslaught, by the smoke from guns and funnels.
+
+  Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack somewhat
+  later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, that the enemy
+  fleet was no longer before them; nor, when the fleet commander again
+  brought the German squadrons upon the southerly and southwesterly
+  course where the enemy was last seen, could our opponents be found.
+  Only once more--shortly before 10.30 o’clock--did the battle
+  flare up. For a short time in the late twilight German battle
+  cruisers sighted four enemy capital ships to seaward and opened
+  fire immediately. As the two German battleship squadrons attacked,
+  the enemy turned and vanished in the darkness. Older German light
+  cruisers of the fourth reconnaissance group also were engaged with
+  the older enemy armored cruisers in a short fight.
+
+  This ended the day battle.
+
+  The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the enemy, began
+  a night cruise in a southerly direction, were attacked until dawn by
+  enemy light force in rapid succession.
+
+  The attacks were favored by the general strategic situation and the
+  particularly dark night.
+
+  The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during the engagement of
+  the fourth reconnaissance group with a superior cruiser force, and
+  was lost from sight.
+
+  One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared close to
+  a German battleship and was shot into fire after forty seconds, and
+  sank in four minutes.
+
+  The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard to decipher in
+  the darkness and therefore were uncertainly established) and four
+  destroyers--3, 78, 06, and 27--were destroyed by our fire. One
+  destroyer was cut in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven
+  destroyers, including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged. These,
+  including the Tipperary and Turbulent, which after saving survivors,
+  were left behind in a sinking condition, drifted past our line, some
+  of them burning at the bow or stern.
+
+  The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the German ships,
+  but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell an immediate victim to
+  a torpedo. The cruiser Rostock was hit, but remained afloat.
+  The cruiser Elbing was damaged by a German battleship during an
+  unavoidable maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat
+  the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had embarked on
+  torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was struck by a mine laid by the
+  enemy.
+
+ADMITTED LOSSES--BRITISH
+
+               NAME                 TONNAGE    PERSONNEL
+
+  Queen Mary (battle cruiser)        27,000        1,000
+  Indefatigable (battle cruiser)     18,750          800
+  Invincible (battle cruiser)        17,250          750
+  Defense (armored cruiser)          14,600          755
+  Warrior (armored cruiser)          13,550          704
+  Black Prince (armored cruiser)     13,550          704
+  Tipperary (destroyer)               1,850          150
+  Turbulent (destroyer)               1,850          150
+  Shark (destroyer)                     950          100
+  Sparrowhawk (destroyer)               950          100
+  Ardent (destroyer)                    950          100
+  Fortune (destroyer)                   950          100
+  Nomad (destroyer)                     950          100
+  Nestor (destroyer)                    950          100
+
+
+BRITISH TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                    63,000        2,550
+  Armored cruisers                   41,700        2,163
+  Destroyers                          9,400          900
+                                   --------       ------
+      Fourteen ships                114,100        5,613
+
+
+ADMITTED LOSSES--GERMAN[A]
+
+                NAME                TONNAGE    PERSONNEL
+
+  Lützow (battle cruiser)            26,600        1,200
+  Pommern (battleship)               13,200          729
+  Wiesbaden (cruiser)                 5,600          450
+  Frauenlob (cruiser)                 2,715          264
+  Elbing (cruiser)                    5,000          450
+  Rostock (cruiser)                   4,900          373
+  Five destroyers                     5,000          500
+
+
+GERMAN TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                    39,800        1,929
+  Cruisers                           18,215        1,537
+  Destroyers                          5,000          500
+                                     ------       ------
+  Eleven ships                       63,015        3,966
+
+  [A] These figures are given for what they are worth, but no one
+      outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were very much
+      greater than admitted in the official report.
+
+  [Illustration: ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS
+
+  Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.]
+
+  [Illustration: ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY
+
+  Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.]
+
+
+TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN
+
+            BRITISH
+
+  Dead or missing             6,104
+  Wounded                       513
+                             ------
+        Total                 6,617
+
+            GERMAN
+
+  Dead or missing             2,414
+  Wounded                       449
+                             ------
+        Total                 2,863
+
+LOSS IN MONEY VALUE (Rough Estimate)
+
+  British              $115,000,000
+  German                 63,000,000
+                       ------------
+        Total          $178,000,000
+
+While the world was still puzzling over the conflicting reports of
+the Battle of Jutland came the shocking news that Field Marshal Lord
+Horatio Herbert Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, had
+perished off the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through the sinking
+of the British cruiser Hampshire. The entire crew was also lost, except
+twelve men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who escaped on a raft.
+Earl Kitchener was on his way to Russia, at the request of the Russian
+Government, for a consultation regarding munitions to be furnished the
+Russian army. He was intending to go to Archangel and visit Petrograd,
+and expected to be back in London by June 20th. He was accompanied
+by Hugh James O’Beirne, former Councillor of the British Embassy at
+Petrograd, O. A. Fitz-Gerald, his military secretary, Brigadier-General
+Ellarshaw, and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of whom were lost.
+
+The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire is not known. It is supposed
+that it struck a mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought into
+existence many stories which ascribe his death to more direct German
+action.
+
+  [Illustration: WHERE EARL KITCHENER MET HIS DEATH]
+
+Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes Lord Kitchener’s last
+moments as follows: “Of those who left the ship, and have survived, I
+was the one who saw Lord Kitchener last. He went down with the ship,
+he did not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his boat’s crew to
+clear away his galley. At the same time the Captain was calling to
+Lord Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the noise made by the
+wind and sea, Lord Kitchener could not hear him, I think. When the
+explosion occurred, Kitchener walked calmly from the Captain’s cabin,
+went up the ladder and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him walking
+quite collectedly, talking to two of the officers. All three were
+wearing khaki and had no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched the
+preparations for abandoning the ship, which were going on in a steady
+and orderly way. The crew just went to their stations, obeyed orders,
+and did their best to get out the boats. But it was impossible. Owing
+to the rough weather, no boats could be lowered. Those that were got
+out were smashed up at once. No boats left the ship. What people on
+the shore thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. Men did get into
+the boats as these lay in their cradles, thinking that as the ship
+went under the boats would float, but the ship sank by the head, and
+when she went she turned a somersault forward, carrying down with her
+all the boats and those in them. I do not think Kitchener got into a
+boat. When I sprang to a raft he was still on the starboard side of
+the quarter deck, talking with the officers. From the little time that
+elapsed between my leaving the ship and her sinking I feel certain
+Kitchener went down with her, and was on deck at the time she sank.”
+
+The British Admiralty, after investigation, gave out a statement
+declaring that the vessel struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes
+after.
+
+The news of Lord Kitchener’s death shocked the whole Allied world. He
+was the most important personality in the British Empire. He had built
+up the British army, and his name was one to conjure by. His efficiency
+was a proverb, and he had an air of mystery about him that made him
+a sort of a popular hero. He was great before the World War began;
+he was the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner of the South African
+campaign; the reorganizer of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of War he
+had met with some criticism, but he possessed, more than any other man,
+the public confidence. At the beginning of the war he was appointed
+Secretary of War at the demand of an overwhelming public opinion. He
+realized more than any one else what such a war would mean. When others
+thought of it as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized that
+there would be years of bitter conflict. He asked England to give up
+its cherished tradition of a volunteer army; to go through arduous
+military training; he saw the danger to the Empire, and he alone,
+perhaps, had the authority to inspire his countrymen with the will to
+sacrifice. But his work was done. The great British army was in the
+field.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+
+In the very beginning Russia had marked out one point for attack. This
+was the city of Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas had not hoped
+to be able to invest that city early. The slowness of the mobilization
+of the Russian army made a certain prudence advisable at the beginning
+of the campaign. But the great success of his armies in Lemberg
+encouraged more daring aims. He had invested Przemysl, and Galicia lay
+before him. Accordingly, he set his face toward Cracow.
+
+Cracow, from a military point of view, is the gate both of Vienna
+and Berlin. A hundred miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia,
+between the Carpathian and the Bohemian mountains, which leads down
+into Austria. Through this gap runs the great railway connecting
+Silesia with Vienna, and the Grand Duke knew that if he could capture
+Cracow he would have an easy road before him to the Austrian capital.
+Cracow also is the key of Germany.
+
+Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder River. An army might
+enter Germany by this gate and turn the line of Germany’s frontier
+fortresses. The Oder had been well fortified, but an invader coming
+from Cracow might move upon the western bank. The Russian plan no doubt
+was to threaten both enemy capitals. Moreover, an advance of Russia
+from Cracow would take its armies into Silesia, full of coal and iron
+mines, and one of the greatest manufacturing districts in the German
+Empire. This would be a real success, and all Germany would feel the
+blow.
+
+Another reason for the Russian advance in Galicia was her desire to
+control the Galician oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one of
+the foremost munitions of war. Since she could not obtain it from
+either America or Russia she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian
+oil fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself, would explain the
+Galician campaign. Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains it was
+possible to make frequent raids into Hungary, and Russia understood
+well the feeling of Hungary toward her German allies. She hoped that
+when Hungary perceived her regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun
+by Russian troops, she would regret that she had allowed herself to
+be sacrificed to Prussian ambition. The Russians, therefore, suddenly
+moved toward Cracow.
+
+Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue. The supreme command of
+the Austrian forces was given to him. The defenses of Cracow were
+strengthened under the direction of the Germans, and a German army
+advanced from the Posen frontier toward the northern bank of the
+Vistula. The advance threatened the Russian right, and, accordingly,
+within ten days’ march of Cracow, the Russians stopped. The German
+offensive in Poland had begun. The news of the German advance came
+about the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who had been fighting in
+East Prussia, had at last perceived that nothing could be gained
+there. The vulnerable part of Russia was the city of Warsaw. This was
+the capital of Poland, with a population of about three-quarters of
+a million. If he could take Warsaw, he would not only have pleasant
+quarters for the winter but Russia would be so badly injured that no
+further offensive from her need be anticipated for a long period. Von
+Hindenburg had with him a large army. In his center he probably had
+three-quarters of a million men, and on his right the Austrian army in
+Cracow, which must have reached a million.
+
+Counting the troops operating in East Prussia and along the
+Carpathians, and the garrison of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have
+had two and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the other hand, though
+her mobilization was still continuing, at this time could not have
+had as many as two million men in the whole nine hundred miles of her
+battle-front.
+
+The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October 16th, and continued for
+three days, von Hindenburg being personally in command. On Monday
+the Germans found themselves in trouble. A Russian attack on their
+left wing had come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg found his left
+wing thrown back, and the whole German movement thrown into disorder.
+Meanwhile an attempt to cross the Vistula at Josefov had also been
+a failure. The Russians allowed the Germans to pass with slight
+resistance, waited until they arrived at the village Kazimirjev, a
+district of low hills and swampy flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed
+them.
+
+Next day the Russians crossed the river themselves, and advanced along
+the whole line, driving the enemy before them, through great woods of
+spruce out into the plains on the west. This forest region was well
+known to the Russian guides, and the Germans suffered much as the
+Russians had suffered in East Prussia. Ruzsky, the Russian commander,
+pursued persistently; the Germans retreating first to Kielce, whence
+they were driven, on the 3d of November, with great losses, and then
+being broken into two pieces, with the north retiring westward and the
+south wing southwest toward Cracow.
+
+Rennenkampf’s attack on the German left wing was equally successful,
+and von Hindenburg was driven into full retreat. The only success
+won during this campaign was that in the far south where Austrian
+troops were sweeping eastward toward the San. This army drove back
+the Russians under Ivanov, reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl.
+This was a welcome relief to Przemysl, for the garrison was nearly
+starved, and it was well for the garrison that the relief came, for in
+a few days the Russians returned, recaptured Jaroslav and reinvested
+Przemysl. As von Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction
+in his wake, roads, bridges, railroad tracks, water towers, railway
+stations, all were destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or sawn
+through, and insulators broken to bits.
+
+It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature advance, and to pay
+for it. Doubtless the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up to this
+point had been so admirable, knew very well the danger of a new advance
+in Galicia, but he realized the immense political as well as military
+advantages which were to be obtained by the capture of Cracow. He
+therefore attempted to move an army through Poland as well as through
+Galicia, hoping that the army in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy,
+while the Galician army would deal with Cracow.
+
+The advance was slow on account of the damaged Polish roads. It was
+preceded by a cavalry screen which moved with more speed. On November
+10th, the vanguard crossed the Posen frontier and cut the railway
+on the Cracow-Posen line. This reconnaissance convinced the Russian
+general that the German army did not propose to make a general stand,
+and it seemed to him that if he struck strongly with his center along
+the Warta, he might destroy the left flank of the German southern army,
+while his own left flank was assaulting Cracow. He believed that even
+if his attack upon the Warta failed, the Russian center could at any
+rate prevent the enemy from interfering with the attack further south
+upon Cracow.
+
+  [Illustration: GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR
+
+  A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.]
+
+The movement therefore began, and by November 12th, the Russian cavalry
+had taken Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty miles north of
+Cracow. Its main forces were still eighty miles to the east. About this
+time Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg was preparing
+a counter stroke. He had retreated north, and then, by means of his
+railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn. Large reinforcements
+were sent him, some from the western front, giving him a total of
+about eight hundred thousand men. In his retreat from Warsaw, while
+he had destroyed all roads and railways in the south and west, he had
+carefully preserved those of the north already planning to use them in
+another movement. He now was beginning an advance, once again, against
+Warsaw. On account of the roads he perceived that it would be difficult
+for the Russians to obtain reinforcements. Von Hindenburg had with him
+as Chief of Staff General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest staff
+officers in the German army, and General von Mackensen, a commander of
+almost equal repute.
+
+The Russian army in the north had been pretty well scattered. The
+Russian forces were now holding a front of nearly a thousand miles,
+with about two million men. The Russian right center, which now
+protected Warsaw from the new attack could hardly number more than two
+hundred thousand men. Von Hindenburg’s aim was Warsaw only, and did
+not affect directly the Russian advance to Cracow, which was still
+going on. Indeed, by the end of the first week in December, General
+Dmitrieff had cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and his main force was
+on the line of the River Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had been
+strongly fortified, and much entrenching had been done in a wide circle
+around the city.
+
+The German plan was to use its field army in Cracow’s defense rather
+than a garrison. Two separate forces were used; one moving southwest
+of Cracow along the Carpathian hills, struck directly at Ivanov’s
+left; the other, operating from Hungary, threatened the Russian rear.
+These two divisions struck at the same time and the Russians found it
+necessary to fight rear actions as they moved forward. They were doing
+this with reasonable success and working their way toward Cracow, when,
+on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces working from Hungary
+carried the Dukla Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be able to
+pour troops down into the rear of the Russian advance, and the Russian
+army would be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly back, until
+the opening of the Dukla Pass was in front of his line, and the Russian
+army was once more safe.
+
+Meanwhile the renewed siege of Przemysl was going on with great
+vigor, and attracting the general attention of the Allied world. The
+Austrians attempted to follow up their successes at the Dukla Pass by
+attempting to seize the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still further
+to the east, but the Russians were tired of retreating. New troops had
+arrived, and about the 20th of December a new advance was begun.
+
+With the right of the army swinging up along the river Nida, northeast
+of Cracow, the Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great force,
+driving Austrians back and capturing over ten thousand men. On
+Christmas Day all three great western passes were in Russian hands. The
+Austrian fighting, during this period, was the best they had so far
+shown, the brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops, who, at this
+time, were saving Germany.
+
+Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his movement in the direction of
+Warsaw. The Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information.
+Each day came the chronicle of contests, some victories, some defeats,
+and it soon appeared that a strong force was crushing in the Russian
+outposts from the direction of Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky
+found himself faced by a superior German force, and was compelled to
+retreat. The Russian aim was to fall back behind the river Bzura, which
+lies between the Thorn and Warsaw. Bzura is a strong line of defense,
+with many fords but no bridges. The Russian right wing passed by the
+city of Lowicz, moved southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz. West
+of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible for the movement of
+armies.
+
+The first German objective was the city of Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew
+that he must move quickly before the Russians should get up reserves.
+His campaign of destruction had made it impossible for aid to be sent
+to the Russian armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but every moment
+counted. His right pushed forward and won the western crossings of the
+marshes. His extreme left moved towards Plock, but the main effort was
+against Piontek, where there is a famous causeway engineered for heavy
+transport through the marshes.
+
+At first the Russians repelled the attack on the causeway, but on
+November 19th the Russians broke and were compelled to fall back.
+Over the causeway, then, the German troops were rushed in great
+numbers, splitting the Russian army into two parts; one on the south
+surrounding Lodz, and the other running east of Brezin on to the
+Vistula. The Russian army around Lodz was assailed on the front flank
+and rear. It looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russian army.
+At the very last moment possible, Russian reinforcements appeared--a
+body of Siberians from the direction of Warsaw. They were thrown at
+once into the battle and succeeded in re-establishing the Russian line.
+This left about ninety thousand Germans almost entirely surrounded, as
+if they were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his best to close the mouth
+of the sack, but he was unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by
+the 26th the Germans in the sack had escaped.
+
+The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements and still largely
+outnumbered the Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined on a new
+assault. The German left wing was now far in front of the Russian city
+of Lodz, one of the most important of the Polish cities. The population
+was about half a million. Such a place was a constant danger, for it
+was the foundation of a Russian salient. When the German movement
+began the Russian general, perceiving how difficult it would have
+been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew, and on December 6th the
+Germans entered Lodz without opposition.
+
+The retreat relieved the Russians of a great embarrassment. Its capture
+was considered in Germany as a great German victory, and at this time
+von Hindenburg seems to have felt that he had control of the situation.
+His movement, to be sure, had not interfered with the Russian advance
+on Cracow, but Warsaw must have seemed to him almost in his power.
+He therefore concentrated his forces for a blow at Warsaw. His first
+new movement was directed at the Russian right wing, which was then
+north of the Bzura River and east of Lowicz. He also directed the
+German forces in East Prussia to advance and attempted to cut the main
+railway line between Warsaw and Petrograd. If this attempt had been
+successful it would have been a highly serious matter for the Russians.
+The Russians, however, defeated it, and drove the enemy back to the
+East Prussian border. The movement against the Russian right wing
+was more successful, and the Russians fell back slowly. This was not
+because they were defeated in battle, but because the difficult weather
+interfered with communications. There had been a thaw, and the whole
+country was waterlogged. The Grand Duke was willing that the Germans
+should fight in the mud.
+
+This slow retreat continued from the 7th of December to Christmas Eve,
+and involved the surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it left the
+Russians in a strong position. They were able to entrench themselves so
+that every attack of the enemy was broken. The Germans tried hard. Von
+Hindenburg would have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas. The citizens
+heard day and night the sound of the cannon, but they were entirely
+safe.
+
+The German attack was a failure. On the whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas
+had shown better strategy than the best of the German generals.
+Outnumbered from the very start, his tactics had been admirable. Twice
+he had saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening Cracow. The Russian
+armies were fighting with courage and efficiency, and were continually
+growing in numbers as the days went by.
+
+During the first weeks of 1915 while there were a number of attacks and
+counter-attacks both armies had come to the trench warfare, so familiar
+in France. The Germans in particular had constructed a most elaborate
+trench system, with underground rooms containing many of the ordinary
+comforts of life. Toward the end of the month the Russians began to
+move in East Prussia in the north and also far south in the Bukovina.
+The object of these movements was probably to prevent von Hindenburg
+from releasing forces on the west. Russia was still terribly weak in
+equipment and was not ready for a serious advance. An attack on sacred
+East Prussia would stir up the Germans, while Hungary would be likewise
+disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von Hindenburg, however, was
+still full of the idea of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice but
+the old Field Marshal was stubborn and moreover he knew well what the
+capture of Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried again.
+
+The Russian front now followed the west bank of the Bzura for a few
+miles, changed to the eastern bank following the river until it met
+with the Rawka, from there a line of trenches passed south and east
+of Balinov and from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen concentrated
+a considerable army at Balinov and had on the 1st of February about
+a hundred and forty thousand men there. That night, with the usual
+artillery preparation, he moved from Balinov against the Russian
+position at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans lost heavily but drove
+forward into the enemy’s line, and by the 3d of February had almost
+made a breach in it. This point, however, could be readily reinforced
+and troops were hurried there from Warsaw in such force that on
+February 4th the German advance was checked. Von Mackensen had lost
+heavily, and by the time it was checked he had become so weak that his
+forces yielded quickly to the counter-attack and were flung back.
+
+This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw. Von Hindenburg then
+determined to attack Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed to
+move forward along the whole Carpathian front, while he himself, with
+strong forces, undertook to move from East Prussia behind the Polish
+capital, and cut the communications between Warsaw and Petrograd. If
+Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be relieved, Lemberg recaptured,
+and Russia forced back so far on the south that Warsaw would have
+to be abandoned. On the other hand if the East Prussia effort were
+successful, the Polish capital would certainly fall. These plans, if
+they had developed successfully, would have crippled the power of
+Russia for at least six months. Meantime, troops could be sent to the
+west front, and perhaps enable Germany to overwhelm France. By this
+time almost all of Poland west of the Vistula was in the power of the
+Germans, while three-fourths of Galicia was controlled by Russia.
+
+Von Hindenburg now returned to his old battle-ground near the Masurian
+Lakes. The Russian forces, which, at the end of January, had made a
+forward movement in East Prussia, had been quite successful. Their
+right was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested upon the town of
+Johannisburg. Further south was the Russian army of the Narev. Von
+Hindenburg determined to surprise the invaders, and he gathered an army
+of about three hundred thousand men to face the Russian forces which
+did not number more than a hundred and twenty thousand, and which were
+under the command of General Baron Sievers. The Russian army soon found
+itself in a desperate position. A series of bitter fights ensued at
+some of which the Kaiser himself was present. The Russians were driven
+steadily back for a week, but the German stories of their tremendous
+losses are obviously unfounded. They retreated steadily until February
+20th, fighting courageously, and by that date the Germans began to find
+themselves exhausted.
+
+Russian reinforcements came up, and a counter-attack was begun. The
+German aim had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the main line
+from Warsaw to Petrograd, which passes through that city. They had now
+reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but were unable to advance
+further, though the Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten miles away.
+The southern portion of von Hindenburg’s army was moving against the
+railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz. But Ossowietz put
+up a determined resistance, and the attack was unsuccessful. By the
+beginning of March, von Hindenburg ordered a gradual retreat to the
+East Prussian frontier.
+
+While this movement to drive the Russians from East Prussia was under
+way, von Hindenburg had also launched an attack against the Russian
+army on the Narev. If he could force the lower Narev from that point,
+too, he could cut the railroad running east from the Polish capital. He
+had hoped that the attacks just described further east would distract
+the Russian attention so that he would find the Narev ill guarded.
+The advance began on February 22d, and after numerous battles captured
+Przasnysz, and found itself with only one division to oppose its
+progress to the railroad. On the 23d this force was attacked by the
+German right, but resisted with the utmost courage. It held out for
+more than thirty-six hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian
+reinforcements began to come up, and drove the invaders north through
+Przasnysz in retreat.
+
+It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians were unable to supply all
+their troops with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men fought without
+rifles, armed only with a bayonet. All they could do was to charge
+with cold steel, and they did it so desperately that, though they were
+outnumbered, they drove the Germans before them. By all the laws of war
+the Russians should have been defeated with ease. As it was, the German
+attempt to capture Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated. While the
+struggle was going on in the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia
+were also moving. Russia was still holding the three great passes in
+the Carpathian Mountains, but had not been able to begin an offensive
+in Hungary.
+
+The Austrians had been largely reinforced by German troops, and were
+moving forward to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive Brussilov
+from the Galician mountains. Brussilov’s movements had been partly
+military and partly political. From the passes in those mountains
+Hungary could be attacked, and unless he could be driven away there was
+no security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which Germany was looking
+for food supplies. Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian movement
+in Galicia, northern Bukovina had been in Russian hands. Bukovina was
+not only a great supply ground for petrol and grain, but she adjoined
+Roumania which, while still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the
+Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a Russian army on her border
+might encourage her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired to
+free Roumania from this pressure. The leading Austrian statesmen, at
+this time, were especially interested in Hungary. The Austrian Minister
+of Foreign Affairs was Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist,
+belonging to the party of the Hungarian Premier, Count Tisza. It
+was his own country that was threatened. The prizes of a victorious
+campaign were therefore great.
+
+The campaign began in January amid the deepest snow, and continued
+during February in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians were divided
+into three separate armies. The first was charged with the relief of
+Przemysl. The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg, and the
+third moved upon Bukovina. The first made very little progress, after a
+number of lively battles. It was held pretty safely by Brussilov. The
+second army was checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however, the army
+of the Bukovina crossed the Carpathian range, and made considerable
+advances. This campaign was fought out in a great number of battles,
+the most serious of which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa. At that
+point Brussilov’s center withstood for several days the Austrian second
+army which was commanded by the German General von Linsingen. The
+Russian success here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of Przemysl
+and gave time to send reinforcements into Bukovina.
+
+The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina, had the greatest Austrian
+success. They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea, and
+Stanislau. They did not succeed, however, in driving the Russians from
+the province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting for reinforcements.
+These reinforcements came, whereupon the Austrians were pushed steadily
+back. The passes in the Carpathians still remained in Austrian hands,
+but Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured. On March 22d
+Przemysl fell.
+
+The capture of Przemysl was the greatest success that Russia had so far
+attained. It had been besieged for about four months, and the taking of
+the fortress was hailed as the first spectacular success of the war.
+Its capture altered the whole situation. It released a large Russian
+army, which was sent to reinforce the armies of Ivanov, where the
+Austrians were vigorously attacked.
+
+By the end of March the Russians had captured the last Austrian
+position on the Lupkow pass and were attacking vigorously the pass of
+Uzzok, which maintained a stubborn defense. Brussilov tried to push
+his way to the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the Austrians
+delivered a vigorous counter-attack they were ultimately defeated. In
+five weeks of fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand prisoners.
+
+During this period there was considerable activity in East Prussia, and
+the Courland coast was bombarded by the German Baltic squadron. There
+was every indication that Austria was near collapse, but all the time
+the Germans were preparing for a mighty effort, and the secret was kept
+with extraordinary success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians
+and in East Prussia were meant to deceive, while a great army, with an
+enormous number of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition
+were being gathered. The Russian commanders were completely deceived.
+There had been no change in the generals in command except that General
+Ruzsky, on account of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev. The
+new German army was put under the charge of von Hindenburg’s former
+lieutenant, General von Mackensen. This was probably the strongest army
+that Germany ever gathered, and could not have numbered less than two
+millions of men, with nearly two thousand pieces in its heavy batteries.
+
+On April 28th, the action began. The Austro-German army lay along the
+left bank of the Donajetz River to its junction with the Biala, and
+along the Biala to the Carpathian Mountains. Von Mackensen’s right
+moved in the direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff was compelled to
+weaken his front to protect Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st
+of May, the great attack began. Under cover of artillery fire such
+as had never been seen before bridges were pushed across the Biala
+and Ciezkowice was taken. The Russian positions were blown out of
+existence. The Russian armies did what they could but their defense
+collapsed and they were soon in full retreat.
+
+The German armies advanced steadily, and though the Russians made a
+brave stand at many places they could do nothing. On the Wisloka they
+hung on for five days, but they were attempting an impossibility. From
+that time on each day marked a new German victory, and in spite of the
+most desperate fighting the Russians were forced back until, on the
+11th, the bulk of their line lay just west of the lower San as far
+as Przemysl and then south to the upper Dniester. The armies were in
+retreat, but were not routed. In a fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had
+fallen back eighty-five miles.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood the situation. He
+perceived that it was impossible to make a stand. The only thing to do
+was to retreat steadily until Germany’s mass of war material should
+be used up, even though miles of territory should be sacrificed.
+It should be a retreat in close contact with the enemy, so that the
+Austro-German troops would have to fight for every mile. This meant a
+retreat not for days, but perhaps for weeks. It meant that Przemysl
+must be given up, and Lemberg, and even Warsaw, but the safety of the
+Russian army was of more importance than a province or a city.
+
+On May 13th the German War Office announced their successes in the
+following terms: “The army under General von Mackensen in the course
+of its pursuit of the Russians reached yesterday the neighborhood of
+Subiecko, on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa, northeast of Debica.
+Under the pressure of this advance the Russians also retreated from
+their positions north of the Vistula. In this section the troops under
+General von Woyrach, closely following the enemy, penetrated as far as
+the region northwest of Kielce. In the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and
+German troops under General von Linsingen conquered the hills east of
+the Upper Stryi, and took 3,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing
+six machine guns. At the present moment, while the armies under General
+von Mackensen are approaching the Przemysl fortresses and the lower
+San, it is possible to form an approximate idea of the booty taken. In
+the battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles during the pursuit
+of these armies, we have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners, 69
+cannon, and 255 machine guns. In these figures the booty taken by the
+Allied troops fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the Vistula,
+is not included. This amounts to a further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl
+surrendered to the Germans on June 3, 1915, only ten weeks after the
+Russian capture of the fortress, which had caused such exultation.”
+
+General von Mackensen continued toward Lemberg, the capital of Galicia.
+On June 18th, when the victorious German armies were approaching the
+gates of Lemberg, the Russian losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and
+wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000 lost before Marshal
+von Hindenburg’s forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d Lemberg
+fell. The weakness of Russia in this campaign arose from the exhaustion
+of her ammunition supplies, but great shipments of such supplies were
+being constantly forwarded from Vladivostock.
+
+When the German army crossed the San, Wilhelm II, then German Emperor,
+was present. It is interesting to look back on the scene. Here is
+a paragraph from the account of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: “The
+Emperor had hurried forward to his troops by automobile. On the way he
+was greeted with loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in wagons.
+On the heights of Jaroslav the Emperor met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and
+then, from several points of observation, for hours followed with keen
+attention the progress of the battle for the crossing.”
+
+While the great offensive in Galicia was well under way, the Germans
+were pushing forward in East Prussia. Finding little resistance they
+ultimately invaded Courland, captured Libau, and established themselves
+firmly in that province. The sweep of the victorious German armies
+through Galicia was continued into Poland. On July 19th William the War
+Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the Queen of Greece, to the
+effect that he had “paralyzed Russia for at least six months to come,”
+and was on the eve of “delivering a coup on the western front that will
+make all Europe tremble.”
+
+It would be futile to recount the details of the various German
+victories which followed the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the
+German line ran from Novogard in the north, south of Przasnysz, thence
+to Novogeorgievsk, then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw it
+passed close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin, Chelm, and then south to
+a point just east of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the jaws of
+the German nutcracker.
+
+On July 21st, the bells in all the churches throughout Russia clanged a
+call to prayer for twenty-four hours’ continual service of intercession
+for victory. In spite of the heat the churches were packed. Hour after
+hour the people stood wedged together, while the priests and choirs
+chanted their litanies. Outside the Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass
+was celebrated in the presence of an enormous crowd. But the German
+victories continued.
+
+On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned. Up to July 29th hope was
+entertained in military quarters in London and Paris that the Germans
+would stand a siege in their fortresses along the Warsaw salient,
+but on that date advices came from Petrograd that in order to save
+the Russian armies a retreat must be made, and the Warsaw fortresses
+abandoned. For some time before this the Russian resistance had
+perceptibly stiffened, and many vigorous counter-attacks had been made
+against the German advance, but it was the same old story, the lack of
+ammunition. The armies were compelled to retire and await the munitions
+necessary for a new offensive.
+
+The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw were days of extraordinary
+interest. The inhabitants, to the number of nearly half a millions,
+sought refuge in Russia. All goods that could be useful to the Germans
+were either removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in the surrounding
+fields. When the Germans entered they found an empty and deserted
+city, with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of Jews still left.
+Warsaw is a famous city, full of ancient palaces, tastefully adorned
+shops, finely built streets, and fourscore church towers where the
+bells are accustomed to ring melodiously for matins and vespers. In
+the Ujazdowske Avenue one comes to the most charming building in all
+Warsaw, the Lazienki Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in a
+lovely lake. It is a beautiful city.
+
+The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian Poland, but Russia was
+not yet defeated. Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon was in
+1812. The strategy of the Grand Duke was sound; so long as he could
+save the army the victories of Germany would be futile. It is true that
+the German armies were not compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live
+on the land. They could bring their supplies from Berlin day by day,
+but every mile they advanced into hostile territory made their task
+harder. The German line of communication, as it grew longer, became
+weaker, and the troops needed for garrison duty in the captured towns,
+seriously diminished the strength of the fighting army. The Russian
+retreat was good strategy and it was carried on with most extraordinary
+cleverness.
+
+It is unnecessary to describe the events which succeeded the fall of
+Warsaw in great detail. There was a constant succession of German
+victories and Russian defeats, but never was one of the Russian armies
+enveloped or destroyed. Back they went, day after day, always fighting;
+each great Russian fortress resisted until it saw itself in danger, and
+then safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and Novogeorgievsk, and
+Ivangorad, then Ossowietz was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and Grodno.
+On September 5th the Emperor of Russia signed the following order:
+
+  Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces of the sea and
+  land armies operating in the theater of war. With firm faith in the
+  clemency of God, with unshakable assurance in final victory, we
+  shall fulfil our sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We
+  will not dishonor the Russian land.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy of the Caucasus, a post which
+took him out of the main theater of fighting but gave him a great field
+for fresh military activity. He had been bearing a heavy burden, and
+had shown himself to be a great commander. He had outmaneuvered von
+Hindenburg again and again, and though finally the Russian armies under
+his command had been driven back, the retreat itself was a proof of his
+military ability, not only in its conception, but in the way in which
+it was done.
+
+The Emperor chose General Alexeiev as his Chief of General Staff. He
+was the ablest of the great generals who had been leading the Russian
+army. With this change in command a new spirit seemed to come over
+Russia. The German advance, however, was not yet completely checked. It
+was approaching Vilna.
+
+The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest in the whole long retreat.
+On the 18th of September it fell, but the Russian troops were safely
+removed and the Russian resistance had become strong. Munitions were
+pouring into the new Russian army. The news from the battle-front began
+to show improvement. On September 8th General Brussilov, further in the
+south, had attacked the Germans in front of Tarnopol, and defeated them
+with heavy loss. More than seventeen thousand men were captured with
+much artillery. Soon the news came of other advances. Dubno was retaken
+and Lutsk.
+
+The end of September saw the German advance definitely checked. The
+Russian forces were now extended in a line from Riga on the north,
+along the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk. Then turning to the east along
+the river, it again turned south and so on down east of the Pripet
+Marshes, it followed an almost straight line to the southern frontier.
+Its two strongest points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga, which lay
+under the protection of the guns of the fleet, and Dvinsk, through
+which ran the great Petrograd Railway line. Against these two points
+von Hindenburg directed his attack. And now, for the first time in many
+months, he met with complete failure. The German fleet attempted to
+assist him on the Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian Baltic
+fleet with heavy losses. A bombardment turned out a failure and the
+German armies were compelled to retire.
+
+A more serious effort was made against Dvinsk but was equally
+unsuccessful and the German losses were immense. Again and again the
+attempt was made to cross the Dvina River, but without success; the
+German invasion was definitely stopped. By the end of October there
+was complete stagnation in the northern sector of the battle line, and
+though in November there were a number of battles, nothing happened of
+great importance.
+
+  [Illustration: THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD]
+
+Further south, however, Russia had become active. An army had been
+organized at her Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was
+necessary that that army should move. At this time the great question
+was, what was Roumania about to do? To prevent her from being
+forced to join the Central Powers she must have encouragement. It was
+determined therefore that an offensive should be made in the direction
+of Czernowitz. This town was the railway center of a wide region, and
+lay close to Roumania’s northern frontier.
+
+The Russian aggressive met with great success. It is true that it
+never approached the defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the
+north, had been able to make great gains of ground, and the very fact
+that such a powerful movement could be made so soon after the Russian
+retreat was an encouragement to every friend of the Allied cause. This
+offensive continued till up to the fourth week of January when it came
+to an abrupt stop. A despatch from Petrograd explained the movement as
+follows: “The recent Russian offensive in Bessarabia and Galicia was
+carried out in accordance with the plan prepared by the Entente Allies’
+War Council to relieve the pressure on the Entente forces while they
+were fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation of the Gallipoli
+Peninsula.” Russia had sacrificed more than seventy thousand soldiers
+for her Allies.
+
+During the year 1916 the Russian armies seemed to have had a new
+birth. At last they were supplied with guns and munitions. They waited
+until they were ready. In March a series of battles was fought in
+the neighborhood of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks were
+made against the German army, intrenched between Lake Narotch and
+Lake Vischenebski. The Germans at first were driven back and badly
+defeated. Later on, however, the Russian artillery was sent to another
+section, and the Germans were able to recover their position. During
+June the Russians attacked all along the southern part of their line.
+In three weeks they had regained a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had
+been retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds of guns, had been
+captured, and the Austrian line had been pierced and shattered. Further
+south the German army had been compelled to retreat, and the Russian
+armies were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th of August Stanislau
+fell.
+
+By this time two Austrian armies had been shattered, over three hundred
+and fifty thousand prisoners taken, and nearly a million men put out
+of action. Germany, however, was sending reinforcements as fast as
+possible, and putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless everything
+was encouraging for Russia and she entered upon the winter in a very
+different condition from her condition in the previous year. Then she
+had just ended her great retreat. Now she had behind her a series of
+successes. But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of the political
+harmony at home which had marked the first years of the war. Dark days
+were ahead.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+
+For more than half a century the Balkans have presented a problem which
+has disturbed the minds of the statesmen of Europe. Again and again,
+during that period, it has seemed that in the Balkan mountains might
+be kindled a blaze which might set the world afire. Balkan politics
+is a labyrinth in which one might easily be lost. The inhabitants of
+the Balkans represent many races, each with its own ambition, and, for
+the most part, military. There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks,
+and Roumanians, and Greeks, and their territorial divisions did not
+correspond to their nationalities. The land was largely mountainous,
+with great gaps that make it, in a sense, the highway of the world.
+From 1466 to 1878 the Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks. In the
+early days while the Turks were warring against Hungary, their armies
+marched through the Balkan hills. The natives kept apart, and preserved
+their language, religion and customs.
+
+In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew weaker, their subject
+people began to seek independence. Greece came first, and, in 1829,
+aided by France, Russia and Great Britain, she became an independent
+kingdom. Serbia revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous state,
+though still tributary to Turkey. In 1859, Roumania became autonomous.
+The rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really the beginning of
+the succession of events which ultimately led to the World War of
+1914-18. The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the Turks in such
+a way as to stir the indignation of the whole world. What are known
+as the “Bulgarian Atrocities” seem mild today, but they led to the
+Russo-Turkish War in 1877.
+
+The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was settled in 1878, was
+one of those treaties which could only lead to trouble. It deprived
+Russia of much of the benefit of her victory, and left nearly every
+racial question unsettled. Roumania lost Bessarabia, which was mainly
+inhabited by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to
+the administration of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain Macedonia,
+Albania and Thrace. Serbia was given Nish, but had no outlet to the
+sea. Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province was made of the
+country south of the Balkans called Eastern Rumelia. From that time
+on, quarrel after quarrel made up the history of the Balkan peoples,
+each of whom sought the assistance and support of some one of the great
+powers. Russia and Austria were constantly intriguing with the new
+states, in the hope of extending their own domains in the direction of
+Constantinople.
+
+The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation has been continually
+the center of these intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign
+Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose career might almost be called
+romantic. A splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman, he stands
+out as an interesting figure in the sordid politics of the Balkans.
+He identified himself with his new country. In 1885 he brought about a
+union with Eastern Rumelia, which led to a disagreement with Russia.
+
+Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly declared war,
+but was overwhelmed by Prince Alexander in short order. Russia then
+abducted Prince Alexander, but later was forced to restore him.
+However, Russian intrigues, and his failure to obtain support from one
+of the great powers, forced his abdication in 1886.
+
+In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became the Prince of
+Bulgaria. He, also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic figure
+of his predecessor. He seems to have been a sort of a parody of a king.
+He was fond of ostentation, and full of ambition. He was a personal
+coward, but extremely cunning. During his long reign he built up
+Bulgaria into a powerful, independent kingdom, and even assumed the
+title of Czar of Bulgaria. During the first days of his reign he was
+kept safely on the throne by his mother, the Princess Clementine,
+a daughter of Louis Phillippe, who, according to Gladstone, was the
+cleverest woman in Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria was at peace.
+In 1908 he declared Bulgaria independent, and its independence was
+recognized by Turkey on the payment of an indemnity. During this period
+Russia was the protector of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian fox was looking
+also for the aid of Austria. Serbia more and more relied upon Russia.
+
+The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a source of constant irritation
+to Serbia. Roumania had a divided feeling. Her loss of Bessarabia
+to Russia had caused ill feeling, but in Austria’s province of
+Transylvania there were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania desired
+to bring under her rule. Greece was fearful of Russia, because of
+Russia’s desire for the control of Constantinople. All of these
+nations, too, were deeply conscious of the Austro-German ambitions
+for extension of their power through to the East. Each of these
+principalities was also jealous of the other. Bulgaria and Serbia had
+been at war; many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory, many
+Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia. There was only one tie in
+common, that was their hatred of Turkey. In 1912 a league was formed,
+under the direction of the Greek statesman, Venizelos, having for its
+object an attack on Turkey. By secret treaties arrangements were made
+for the division of the land, which they hoped to obtain from Turkey.
+
+War was declared, and Turkey was decisively defeated, and then the
+trouble began. Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious for an
+outlet to the sea, and in the treaty between them it had been arranged
+that Serbia should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while Bulgaria
+was to obtain an outlet on the Ægean. The Triple Alliance positively
+refused Serbia its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted,
+therefore, on a revision of the treaty, which would enable her to have
+a seaport on the Ægean.
+
+An attempt was made to settle the question by arbitration, but King
+Ferdinand refused, whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan War
+began. Bulgaria was attacked by Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took
+a chance and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania, which had been
+neutral in the First Baltic War, mobilized her armies and marched
+toward Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th of August the
+Treaty of Bucharest was signed by the Balkan States.
+
+As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a thoroughly dissatisfied
+state of mind. She had been the leader in the war against Turkey, she
+had suffered heavy losses, and she had gained almost nothing. Moreover
+she had lost to Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of a million
+Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece
+were the big winners. Such a treaty could not be a final settlement.
+The Balkans were left seething with unrest. Serbia, though she had
+gained much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions, however, now turned
+in the direction of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and it
+was her agitation in this matter which directly brought on the Great
+War. But Bulgaria was sullen and ready for revenge. When the Great
+War began, therefore, Roumania, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were
+strongly in sympathy with Russia, who had been their backer and friend.
+Bulgaria, in spite of all she owed to Russia in the early days, was
+now ready to find protection from an alliance with the Central Powers.
+Her feeling was well known to the Allies, and every effort was made to
+obtain her friendship and, if possible, her aid.
+
+Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address before the French
+Chamber of Deputies, said:
+
+  The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the war, even before
+  it came to the attention of the world. The Bucharest Treaty had left
+  in Bulgaria profound heartburnings. Neither King nor people were
+  resigned to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and sacrifices,
+  and to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they had waged upon
+  their former allies. From the first day, the Allied governments
+  took into account the dangers of such a situation, and sought a
+  means to remedy it. Their policy has proceeded in a spirit of
+  justice and generosity which has characterized the attitude of Great
+  Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have attempted to
+  re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples, and in accord with them
+  seek the realization of their principal national aspirations. The
+  equilibrium thus obtained by mutual sacrifices really made by each
+  would have been the best guarantee of future peace. Despite constant
+  efforts in which Roumania, Greece and Serbia lent their assistance,
+  we have been unable to obtain the sincere collaboration of the
+  Bulgarian Government. The difficulties respecting the negotiations
+  were always at Sofia.
+
+At the beginning of the war it appears, therefore, that Bulgaria was
+entering into negotiations with the Allies, hoping to regain in this
+way, some of the territory she had lost in the Second Baltic War. Many
+of her leading statesmen and most distinguished generals favored the
+cause of Russia, but in May came the great German advance in Galicia,
+and the Allies’ stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the king, and his
+supporters, found the way clear for a movement in favor of Germany.
+Still protesting neutrality they signed a secret treaty with Berlin,
+Vienna and Constantinople on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised
+them not only what they had been asking, in Macedonia, but also the
+Greek territory of Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those
+Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and on the 5th of October
+Bulgaria formally entered into war on the side of Germany, and began an
+attack on Serbia.
+
+The full account of the intrigue which led to this action has never
+been told. It is not improbable that King Ferdinand himself never had
+any other idea than to act as he did, but he dissembled for a long
+time. He set forth his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every
+effort to induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia to make the concessions
+that would be necessary. Such concessions were made, but not until it
+was too late. In a telegram from Milan dated September 24th, an account
+is given of an interview between Czar Ferdinand and a committee from
+those Bulgarians who were opposed to the King’s policy.
+
+“Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!” are the words which the King
+spoke to M. Stambulivski when he received the five opposition members
+who had come to warn him of the danger to which he was exposing
+himself and the nation.
+
+The five members were received by the King in the red room at the Royal
+Palace and chairs had been placed for them around a big table. The King
+entered the room, accompanied by Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and
+his secretary, M. Boocovitch.
+
+“Be seated, gentlemen,” said the King, as he sat down himself, as if
+for a very quiet talk. His secretary took a seat at the table, a little
+apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately became so heated
+and rapid that he was unable to write it down.
+
+The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader of the Democratic party,
+who said: “The policy adopted by the Government is one of adventure,
+tending to throw Bulgaria into the arms of Germany, and driving her to
+attack Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations, feeling and
+interests of the country, and if the Government obstinately continues
+in this way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest gravity.”
+It was the first allusion to the possibility of a revolution, but the
+King listened without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded: “For these
+reasons we beg your Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government,
+to convoke the Chamber immediately, and we ask this convocation for the
+precise object of saving the country from dangerous adventures by the
+formation of a coalition Ministry.”
+
+The King remained silent, and, with a nod, invited M. Stambulivski to
+speak. M. Stambulivski was a leader of the Agrarian party, a man of
+sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed to speak out his mind boldly, and
+exceedingly popular among the peasant population. He grew up himself
+as a peasant, and wore the laborer’s blouse up till very recently. He
+stood up and looking the King straight in the face said in resolute
+tones: “In the name of every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M.
+Malinoff has just said, that the Bulgarian people hold you personally
+responsible more than your Government, for the disastrous adventure of
+1913. If a similar adventure were to be repeated now its gravity this
+time would be irreparable. The responsibility would once more fall on
+your policy, which is contrary to the welfare of our country, and the
+nation would not hesitate to call you personally to account. That there
+may be no mistake as to the real wishes of the country I present to
+your Majesty my country’s demand in writing.”
+
+He handed the King a letter containing the resolution voted by the
+Agrarians. The King read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of the
+Radical Democrats, and asked him to speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking
+very slowly and impressively, and also looking the King straight in the
+face: “Sire, I had sworn never again to set foot inside your palace,
+and if I come today it is because the interests of my country are above
+personal questions, and have compelled me. Your Majesty may read what
+I have to say in this letter, which I submit to you in behalf of our
+party.”
+
+He handed the letter and the King read it and still remained silent.
+Then he said, turning to his former Prime Minister and ablest
+politician: “Gueshoff, it is now your turn to speak.”
+
+M. Gueshoff got up and said: “I also am fully in accord with what M.
+Stambulivski has just said. No matter how severe his words may have
+been in their simple unpolished frankness, which ignores the ordinary
+formalities of etiquette, they entirely express our unanimous opinion.
+We all, as representing the opposition, consider the present policy of
+the Government contrary to the sentiments and interests of the country,
+because by driving it to make common cause with Germany it makes us
+the enemies of Russia, which was our deliverer, and the adventure
+into which we are thus thrown compromises our future. We disapprove
+most absolutely of such a policy, and we also ask that the Chamber be
+convoked, and a Ministry formed with the co-operation of all parties.”
+
+After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M. Daneff also spoke, and
+associated himself with what had already been said.
+
+The King remained still silent for a while, then he, also, stood up
+and said: “Gentlemen, I have listened to your threats, and will refer
+them to the President of the Council of Ministers, that he may know and
+decide what to do.”
+
+All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed. The King had
+evidently taken the frank warning given him as a threat to him
+personally, and he walked up and down nervously for a while. Prince
+Boris turned aside to talk with the Secretary, who had resumed taking
+notes. The King continued pacing to and fro, evidently very nettled.
+Then, approaching M. Zanoff, and as if to change the conversation, he
+asked him for news about this season’s harvest.
+
+M. Zanoff abruptly replied: “Your Majesty knows that we have not come
+here to talk about the harvest, but of something far more important at
+present, namely, the policy of your Government, which is on the point
+of ruining our country. We can on no account approve the policy that
+is anti-Russian. If the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their
+policy we shall not answer for the consequences. We have not desired
+to seek out those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because other
+grave events have been precipitated. But it was a disaster due to
+criminal folly. It must not be repeated by an attack on Serbia by
+Bulgaria, as seems contemplated by M. Radoslavoff, and which according
+to all appearances, has the approval of your Majesty. It would be a
+premeditated crime, and deserve to be punished.”
+
+The King hesitated a moment, and then held out his hand to M. Zanoff,
+saying: “All right. At all events I thank you for your frankness.”
+Then, approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated to him his question
+about the harvest.
+
+M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at first allowed himself to be
+led into a discussion of this secondary matter, and had expressed the
+hope that the prohibition on the export of cereals would be removed,
+when he suddenly remembered, and said: “But this is not the moment to
+speak of these things. I again repeat to your Majesty that the country
+does not want a policy of adventure which cost it so dear in 1913.
+It was your own policy too. Before 1913 we thought you were a great
+diplomatist, but since then we have seen what fruits your diplomacy
+bears. You took advantage of all the loopholes in the Constitution to
+direct the country according to your own views. Your Ministers are
+nothing. You alone are the author of this policy and you will have to
+bear the responsibility.”
+
+The King replied frigidly, “The policy which I have decided to follow
+is that which I consider the best for the welfare of the country.”
+
+“It is a policy which will only bring misfortune,” replied the sturdy
+Agrarian. “It will lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not only
+the future of our country, but that of your dynasty, and may cost you
+your head.”
+
+It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered before a King, and
+Ferdinand looked astonished at the peasant who was thus speaking to
+him. He said, “Do not mind my head; it is already old. Rather mind
+your own!” he added with a disdainful smile, and turned away.
+
+M. Stambulivski retorted: “My head matters little, Sire. What matters
+more is the good of our country.”
+
+The King paid no more attention to him, and took M. Gueshoff and M.
+Daneff apart, who again insisted on convoking the Chamber, and assured
+him that M. Radoslavoff’s government would be in a minority. They also
+referred to the Premier’s oracular utterances.
+
+“Ah!” said the King. “Has Radoslavoff spoken to you, and what has he
+said?”
+
+“He has said--” replied the leaders, “that Bulgaria would march with
+Germany and attack Serbia.”
+
+The King made a vague gesture, and then said: “Oh, I did not know.”
+
+This incident throws a strong light upon the conflict which was going
+on in the Balkan states, between those Kings who were of German
+origin, and who believed in the German power, and their people who
+loved Russia. King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not listen,
+and he lost his throne. All this, however, took place before the
+Bulgarian declaration of war. Yet much had already shown what King
+Ferdinand was about to do. The Allies, to be sure, were incredulous,
+and were doing their best to cultivate the good will of the treacherous
+King. On September 23rd the official order was given for Bulgaria’s
+mobilization. She, however, officially declared that her position was
+that of armed neutrality and that she had no aggressive intentions. As
+it has developed, she was acting under the direction of the German High
+Command.
+
+It was at this period that Germany had failed to crush Russia in the
+struggle on the Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy when
+one plan failed, another was undertaken. It seemed to her, therefore,
+that the punishment of Serbia would make up for other failures, and
+moreover would enable her to assist Turkey, which needed munitions,
+besides releasing for Germany supplies of food and other material
+which might come from Turkey. They therefore entrusted an expedition
+against Serbia to Field Marshal von Mackensen, and had begun to gather
+an army for that purpose, north of the Danube.
+
+This army of course was mainly composed of Austrian troops, but was
+stiffened throughout by some of the best regiments from the German
+army. To assist this new army they counted upon Bulgaria, with whom
+they had already a secret treaty, and in spite of the falsehoods issued
+from Sofia, the Bulgarian mobilization was meant for an attack on
+Serbia. The condition of affairs was well understood in Russia.
+
+On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+issued the following statement: “The situation in the Balkans is very
+grave. The whole Russian nation is aroused by the unthinkable treachery
+of Ferdinand and his Government to the Slavic cause. Bulgaria owes her
+independence to Russia, and yet seems willing now to become a vassal
+of Russia’s enemies. In her attitude towards Serbia, when Serbia is
+fighting for her very existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class
+with Turkey. We do not believe that the Bulgarian people sympathize
+with the action of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed
+to give them time for reflection. If they persist in their present
+treacherous course they must answer to Russia.” The next day the
+following ultimatum from Russia was handed the Bulgarian Prime Minister:
+
+  Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this moment give
+  evidence of the definite decision of King Ferdinand’s Government to
+  place the fate of its country in the hands of Germany. The presence
+  of German and Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the
+  staffs of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone bordering
+  on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted from her
+  enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer leave any doubt as to the
+  object of the present military preparations of Bulgaria. The powers
+  of the Entente, who have at heart the realization of the aspirations
+  of the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned M. Radoslavoff
+  that any hostile act against Serbia would be considered as directed
+  against themselves. The assurances given by the head of the Bulgarian
+  Cabinet in reply to these warnings are contradicted by facts. The
+  representative of Russia, bound to Bulgaria by the imperishable
+  memory of her liberation from the Turkish yoke, cannot sanction by
+  his presence preparations for fratricidal aggression against a Slav
+  and allied people. The Russian Minister has, therefore, received
+  orders to leave Bulgaria with all the staffs of the Legation and the
+  Consulates if the Bulgarian Government does not within twenty-four
+  hours openly break with the enemies of the Slav cause and of Russia,
+  and does not at once proceed to send away the officers belonging to
+  the armies of states who are at war with the powers of the Entente.
+
+Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives of France and
+Great Britain. Bulgaria’s reply to these ultimatums was described as
+bold to the verge of insolence. In substance she denied that German
+officers were on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that if they
+were present that fact concerned only Bulgaria, which reserved the
+right to invite whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government then
+issued a manifesto to the nation, announcing its decision to enter the
+war on the side of the Central Powers. The manifesto reads as follows:
+
+  The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia, creating an
+  Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely necessary for
+  Bulgaria’s independence of the Serbians. We do not believe in the
+  promises of the Quadruple Entente. Italy, one of the Allies,
+  treacherously broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in
+  Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her treaty
+  with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor’s side. The Germans
+  and Austro-Hungarians are victorious on all fronts. Russia soon will
+  have collapsed entirely. Then will come the turn of France, Italy
+  and Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not fight on
+  the side of the Central Powers, which offer the only possibility of
+  realizing her desire for a union of all Bulgarian peoples.
+
+The manifesto also stated that Russia was fighting for Constantinople
+and the Dardanelles; Great Britain to destroy Germany’s competition;
+France for Alsace and Lorraine, and the other allies to rob foreign
+countries; the Central Powers were declared to be fighting to defend
+property and assure peaceful progress. The manifesto filled seven
+columns in the newspapers, and discussed at some length Bulgaria’s
+trade interests. It attacked Serbia most bitterly, declaring that
+Serbia had oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia in a most
+barbarous manner; that she had attacked Bulgarian territory and that
+the Bulgarian troops had been forced to fight for the defense of their
+own soil. In fact it was written in quite the usual German manner.
+
+Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek Premier, had perceived what
+was coming. Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if she were
+attacked by Bulgaria. On September 21st, Venizelos asked France and
+Britain for a hundred and fifty thousand troops. On the 24th, the
+Allies agreed to this and Greece at once began to mobilize. His policy
+was received with great enthusiasm in the Greek Chamber, and former
+Premier Gounaris, amid great applause, expressed his support of the
+government.
+
+On October 6th an announcement from Athens stated that Premier
+Venizelos had resigned, the King having informed him that he was
+unable to support the policy of his Minister. King Constantine was
+a brother-in-law of the German Emperor, and although professing
+neutrality he had steadily opposed M. Venizelos’ policy. He had once
+before forced M. Venizelos’ resignation, but at the general elections
+which followed, the Greek statesman was returned to power by a
+decisive majority.
+
+  [Illustration: SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA
+  IN SEPTEMBER, 1918]
+
+Intense indignation was caused by the King’s action, though the King
+was able to procure the support of a considerable party. Venizelos’
+resignation was precipitated by the landing of the Allied troops
+in Saloniki. They had come at the invitation of Venizelos, but the
+opposition protested against the occupation of Greek territory by
+foreign troops. After a disorderly session in which Venizelos explained
+to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances connected with the
+landing, the Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the Government
+by 142 to 102. The substance of his argument may be found in his
+conclusion:
+
+“We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are honest we will leave nothing
+undone to insure its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we are
+rogues may we find excuses to avoid our obligations.”
+
+Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed Premier, and
+declared for a policy of armed neutrality. This position was sharply
+criticised by Venizelos, but for a time became the policy of the Greek
+Government. Meantime the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki. On
+October 3d, seventy thousand French troops arrived. A formal protest
+was made by the Greek commandant, who then directed the harbor
+officials to assist in arranging the landing. In a short time the
+Allied forces amounted to a hundred and fifty thousand men, but the
+German campaign was moving rapidly.
+
+The German Balkan army captured Belgrade on the 9th of October, and by
+that date two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian frontier. Serbia
+found herself opposed by two hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a
+quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and Roumania fully mobilized
+and were watching the conflict, and the small allied contingent at
+Saloniki was preparing to march inland to the aid of Serbia.
+
+The conduct of Greece on this occasion has led to universal criticism.
+The King himself, no doubt, was mainly moved by his German wife and the
+influence of his Imperial brother-in-law. Those that were associated
+with him were probably moved by fear. They had been much impressed by
+the strength of the German armies. They had seen the success of the
+great German offensive in Russia, while the French and British were
+being held in the West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria. The
+national characteristic of the Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be
+denied that there was great reason to suppose that the armies of Greece
+would not be able to resist the new attack. With these views Venizelos,
+the greatest statesman that Greece had produced for many years, did not
+agree, and the election seemed to show that he was supported by the
+majority of the Greek people.
+
+This was another case where the Allies, faced by a dangerous situation,
+were acting with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had failed,
+because at the very beginning they had not used their full strength.
+Now, again, knowing as they did all that depended upon it, bound as
+they were to the most loyal support of Serbia, the aid they sent was
+too small to be more than a drop in the bucket. It must be remembered,
+however, that the greatest leaders among the Allies were at all
+times opposed to in any way scattering their strength. They believed
+that the war was to be won in France. Military leaders in particular
+yielded under protest to the political leaders when expeditions of this
+character were undertaken.
+
+Certainly this is true, that the world believed that Serbia had a right
+to Allied assistance. The gallant little nation was fighting for her
+life, and public honor demanded that she should be aided. It was this
+strong feeling that led to the action that was taken, in spite of the
+military opinions. It was, however, too late.
+
+In the second week of October Serbia found herself faced by an enemy
+which was attacking her on three sides. She herself had been greatly
+weakened. Her losses in 1914, when she had driven Austria from her
+border, must have been at least two hundred thousand men. She had
+suffered from pestilence and famine. Her strength now could not have
+been more than two hundred thousand, and though she was fairly well
+supplied with munitions, she was so much outnumbered that she could
+hardly hope for success. On her west she was facing the Austro-German
+armies; on her east Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source of
+supplies was Saloniki and this was really her only hope. If the Allies
+at Saloniki could stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians might face
+again the Austro-Germans. They expected this help from the Allies.
+
+At Nish the town was decorated and the school children waited outside
+the station with bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements. But
+the Allies did not come.
+
+Von Mackensen’s plan was simple enough. His object was to win a way
+to Constantinople. This could be done either by the control of the
+Danube or the Ottoman Railroad. To control the Danube he had to seize
+northeastern Serbia for the length of the river. This was comparatively
+easy and would give him a clear water way to the Bulgarian railways
+connected with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway was a harder route
+to win. It meant an advance to the southeast, which would clear the
+Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava valley up to Bulgaria.
+The movements involved were somewhat complex, but easily carried out
+on account of the very great numerical superiority of von Mackensen’s
+forces.
+
+On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded. The Serbian positions were
+gradually destroyed. On the 7th of October the German armies crossed
+the Danube, and on the 8th the Serbians began to retreat. There was
+great destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian General, Mishitch, was
+forced slowly back to the foothills of the Tser range.
+
+For a time von Mackensen moved slowly. He did not wish to drive the
+Serbians too far south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian army began
+its attack. At first it was held, but by October 17th was pushing
+forward all along the line. On the 20th they entered Uskub, a central
+point of all the routes of southern Serbia. This practically separated
+the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian armies further north.
+Disaster followed disaster. On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction of
+Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was completed in the Dobravodo
+mountains. General von Gallwitz announced that a moment of world
+significance has come, that the “Orient and Occident had been united,
+and on the basis of this firm and indissoluble union a new and mighty
+vierbund comes into being, created by the victory of our arms.”
+
+  [Illustration: GERMANY’S DREAM: “THE
+  BREMEN-BERLIN-BOSPORUS-BAGDAD-BAHN”]
+
+The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria to Turkey
+lay open. On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on November 2nd,
+Kraguyevac surrendered, the decisive battle of the war. On November
+7th, Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced: “After fierce and
+sanguinary fighting the fortress of Nish has been conquered by our
+brave victorious troops and the Bulgarian flag has been hoisted to
+remain forever.”
+
+The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat, until on November 8th,
+advancing Franco-British troops almost joined with them, presenting a
+line from Prilep to Dorolovo on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time
+the Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor and also at Strumitza.
+The Allied armies were now reported to number three hundred thousand
+men. The Austro-Germans by this time had reached the mountainous region
+of Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance.
+
+On November 13th, German despatches from the front claimed the capture
+of 54,000 Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of Serbia was in full
+flight, followed by the Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were still
+fighting and on November 15th, made a stand on the western bank of the
+Morava River, and recaptured the town of Tatova.
+
+At this time the Allied world was watching the Serbian struggle
+with interest and sympathy. In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne
+in a discussion of the English effort to give them aid said: “It
+is impossible to think or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the
+wondrous gallantry with which that little country withstood two
+separate invasions, and has lately been struggling against a third. She
+repelled the first two invasions by an effort which I venture to think
+formed one of the most glorious chapters in the history of this Great
+War.”
+
+Serbia, however, was compelled once more to retreat, and their retreat
+soon became a rout. Their guns were abandoned and the roads were strewn
+with fainting, starving men. The sufferings of the Serbian people
+during this time are indescribable. Men, women, and children struggled
+along in the wake of the armies without food or shelter. King Peter
+himself was able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By traveling
+on horseback and mule back in disguise he finally reached Scutari and
+crossed to Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New Year’s Day,
+crippled and almost blind, but still full of fight.
+
+“I believe,” he said, “in the liberty of Serbia, as I believe in God.
+It was the dream of my youth. It was for that I fought throughout
+manhood. It has become the faith of the twilight of my life. I live
+only to see Serbia free. I pray that God may let me live until the day
+of redemption of my people. On that day I am ready to die, if the Lord
+wills. I have struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired, bruised
+and broken from it, but I will see, I shall see, this triumph. I shall
+not die before the victory of my country.”
+
+The Serbian army had been driven out of Serbia. But the Allies who
+had come up from Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October 12th, the
+French General Serrail arrived and moved with the French forces, as
+has already been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with a number
+of successes. On October 19th they seized the Bulgarian town of
+Struminitza, and occupied strong positions on the left bank of the
+Vardar. On October 27th they occupied Krivolak, with the British Tenth
+Division, which had joined them on their right. They then occupied the
+summit of Karahodjali, which commanded the whole section of the valley.
+This the Bulgarians attacked in force on the 5th of November, but
+were badly repulsed. They then attempted to move toward Babuna Pass,
+twenty-five miles west of Krivolak, where they hoped to join hands with
+the Serbian column at that point.
+
+They were being faced by a Bulgarian army numbering one hundred and
+twenty-five thousand men, and found themselves in serious danger. They
+were compelled to fall back into what is called the “Entrenched Camp
+of Kavodar” without bringing the aid to the Serbian army that they had
+hoped. The Allied expedition to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless
+from the start, and, if anything, had injured Serbia by raising false
+expectations which had interfered with their plans.
+
+During the whole of this disastrous campaign a desperate political
+struggle was going on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis Cabinet
+tendered its resignation to King Constantine. The trouble was over
+a bill for extra pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate
+discussion of the Greek war policy. M. Venizelos made two long speeches
+defending his policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents in
+regard to the Balkan situation. He said that he deplored the fact that
+Serbia was being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece’s hereditary
+enemy, who would not scruple later to fall on Greece herself. He spoke
+of the King in a friendly way, criticizing, however, his position. He
+had been twice removed from the Premiership, although he had a majority
+behind him in the Greek Chamber.
+
+“Our State,” he said, “is a democracy, presided over by the King, and
+the whole responsibility rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the Crown
+has a right to disagree with the responsible Government if he thinks
+the latter is not in agreement with the national will. But after the
+recent election, non-agreement is out of the question, and now the
+Crown has not the right to disagree again on the same question. It is
+not a question of patriotism but of constitutional liberty.”
+
+When the vote was taken the Government was defeated by 147 to 114.
+Instead of appointing Venizelos Premier, King Constantine gave the
+position to M. Skouloudis, and then dissolved the Greek Chamber by
+royal decree. Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be neutrality
+with the character of sincerest benevolence toward the Entente Powers.
+The general conditions at Athens during this whole time were causing
+great anxiety in the Allied capitals, and the Allied expedition were
+in continual fear of an attack in the rear in case of reverse. They
+endeavored to obtain satisfactory assurances on this point, and while
+assurances were given, during the whole period of King Constantine’s
+reign aggressive action was prevented because of the doubt as to what
+course King Constantine would take.
+
+In the end Constantine was compelled to abdicate. Venizelos became
+Premier, and Greece formally declared war on the Central Powers.
+
+It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania cast aside her rôle
+of neutral and entered the war with a declaration of hostilities on
+Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were founded upon the supposedly
+well-trained Roumanian army and upon the nation which, because of its
+alertness and discipline, was known as “the policeman of Europe.” The
+belief was general in Paris and London that the weight of men and
+material thrown into the scale by Roumania would bring the war to a
+speedy, victorious end.
+
+Germany, however, was confident. A spy system excelling in its detailed
+reports anything that had heretofore been attempted, made smooth the
+path of the German army. Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a
+drive in force into Transylvania on August 30th, when the message
+spread from Bucharest “von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army. Draft
+all males of military age. Prepare for the worst.”
+
+And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania. A vast force of military
+engineers moving like a human screen in front of von Mackensen’s
+army, followed routes carefully mapped out by German spies during the
+period of Roumania’s neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the
+inch, had been prepared to carry cannon, material and men over streams
+and ravines. Every Roumanian oil well, mine and store-house had been
+located and mapped. German scientists had studied Roumanian weather
+conditions and von Mackensen attacked while the roads were at their
+best and the weather most favorable. As the Germans swept forward,
+spies met them giving them military information of the utmost value.
+A swarm of airplanes spied out the movements of the Roumanians and no
+Roumanian airplanes rose to meet them.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with von Mackensen, smashed his
+way through Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to Bucharest
+at Craiova. The Dobrudja region was overrun and the central Roumanian
+plain was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition to the German
+advance. The seat of government was transferred from Bucharest to Jassy
+on November 28, 1916, and on December 6th Bucharest was entered by von
+Mackensen, definitely putting an end to Roumania as a factor in the war.
+
+The immediate result of the fall of Roumania was to release immense
+stores of petroleum for German use. British and Roumanian engineers
+had done their utmost by the use of explosives to make useless the
+great Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers soon had the precious
+fluid in full flow. This furnished the fuel which Germany had long and
+ardently desired. The oil-burning submarine now came into its own. It
+was possible to plan a great fleet of submersibles to attempt execution
+of von Tirpitz’s plan for unrestricted submarine warfare. This was
+decided upon by the German High Command the day Bucharest fell. It was
+realized that such a policy would bring the United States into the
+war, but the Kaiser and his advisers hoped the submarine on sea and a
+great western front offensive on land would force a decision in favor
+of Germany before America could get ready. How that hope failed was
+revealed at Château-Thierry and in the humiliation of Germany.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+
+In our previous discussion of the British campaign in Mesopotamia we
+left the British forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying Basra,
+the port of Bagdad. The object of the Mesopotamia Expedition was
+primarily to keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of Persia. If
+the English had been satisfied with that, the misfortune which was to
+come to them might never have occurred, but the whole expedition was
+essentially political rather than military in its nature.
+
+The British were defending India. The Germans, unable to attack the
+British Empire by sea, were hoping to attack her by land. They had
+already attempted to stir up a Holy War with the full expectation that
+it would lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had failed, for the
+millions of Mohammedans in India cared little for the Turkish Sultan
+or his proclamations. Through Bagdad, however, they hoped to strike
+a blow at the English influence on the Persian Gulf. The English,
+therefore, felt strongly that it was not enough to sit safely astride
+the Tigris, but that a blow at Bagdad would produce a tremendous
+political effect. It would practically prevent German communication
+with Persia, and the Indian frontier.
+
+As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and the oil fields were safe so
+long as the English held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of no
+special consequence. The real reason for the expedition was probably
+that about this time matters were moving badly for the Allies. Serbia
+was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli was a failure, something it
+seemed ought to be done to restore the British prestige. Up to this
+time the Mesopotamia Expedition had been a great success, but it had
+made no great impression on the world. The little villages in the hands
+of the British had unknown names, but if Bagdad should be captured
+Great Britain would have something to boast of; something that would
+keep up its prestige among its Mohammedan subjects.
+
+Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined on, there had been
+several lively fights between the English forces and the Turks. On
+March 3d a Turkish force numbering about twelve thousand appeared at
+Ahwaz where the British had placed a small garrison to protect the pipe
+line of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The British retirement led to
+heavy fighting, with severe losses.
+
+A number of lively skirmishes followed, and then came the serious
+attack against Shaiba. The Turkish army numbered about eighteen
+thousand men, of whom eleven thousand were regulars. The fighting
+lasted for several days, the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of
+April, however, the English attacked in turn and put the whole enemy
+force to flight. The British lost about seven hundred officers and men,
+and reported a Turkish loss of about six thousand. In their retreat
+the Turks were attacked by their Arab allies, and suffered additional
+losses. From that time till summer there were no serious contests,
+although there were occasional skirmishes which turned out favorably to
+the British.
+
+By this time the Turks had collected a considerable army north of
+Kurna, and on May 31st an expedition was made to disperse it. On
+June 3d the British captured Amara, seventy-five miles above Kurna,
+scattering the Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition was
+sent against Nasiriyeh, which led to serious fighting, the Turks being
+badly defeated with a loss of over two thousand five hundred men.
+
+Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in August an expedition was
+directed against that point. The Turks were found in great force, well
+intrenched, and directed by German officers. The battle lasted for four
+days. The English suffered great hardship on account of the scarcity of
+water and the blinding heat, but on September 29th they drove the enemy
+from the city and took possession. More than two thousand prisoners
+were taken. The town was found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate
+system of trenches extending for miles, built in the true German
+fashion. Its capture was the end of the summer campaign.
+
+  [Illustration: THE MESOPOTAMIAN SECTOR, WHERE THE BRITISH ROUTED THE
+  TURKISH ARMY]
+
+The British now had at last made up their minds to push on to Bagdad.
+General Townshend, whose work so far had been admirable, protested,
+but Sir John Nixon, and the Indian military authorities, were strongly
+in favor of the expedition. By October, Turkey was able to gather a
+large army. She was fighting in Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and
+Mesopotamia. Little was going on in the first three of these fronts,
+and she was able therefore to send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a
+million men.
+
+To meet these, General Townshend had barely fifteen thousand men, of
+whom only one-third were white soldiers. He was backed by a flotilla
+of boats of almost every kind,--river boats, motor launches, paddle
+steamers, native punts. The British army was almost worn out by the
+fighting during the intense heat of the previous summer. But their
+success had given them confidence.
+
+In the early days of October the advance began. For some days it
+proceeded with no serious fighting. On the 23d of October it reached
+Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish force numbering about four
+thousand. These were soon routed, and the advance continued until
+General Townshend arrived at Lajj, about seven miles from Ctesiphon,
+where the Turks were found heavily intrenched and in great numbers.
+Ctesiphon was a famous old city which had been the battle-ground of
+Romans and Parthians, but was now mainly ruins. In these ruins,
+however, the Turks found admirable shelter for nests of machine guns.
+On the 21st of November General Townshend made his attack.
+
+The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments, and had about twenty
+thousand men, the English about twelve thousand. General Townshend’s
+plan was to divide his army into three columns. The first was to attack
+the center of the first Turkish position. A second was directed at the
+left of that position, and a third was to swing widely around and come
+in on the rear of the Turkish force. This plan was entirely successful,
+but the Turkish army was not routed, and retreated fighting desperately
+to its second line. There it was reinforced and counter-attacked with
+such vigor that it drove the British back to its old first trenches.
+The next day the Turks were further reinforced and attacked again. The
+British drove them back over and over, but found themselves unable to
+advance. The Turks had lost enormously but the English had lost about
+one-third of their strength, and were compelled to fall back. They
+therefore returned on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately, after continual
+rear guard actions, to Kut. There they found themselves surrounded, and
+there was nothing to do but to wait for help.
+
+By this time the eyes of the world were upon the beleaguered British
+army. Help was being hurried to them from India, but Germany also was
+awake and Marshal von Der Goltz, who had been military instructor in
+the Turkish army, was sent down to take command of the Turkish forces.
+The town of Kut lies in the loop of the Tigris, making it almost an
+island. There was an intrenched line across the neck of land on the
+north, and the place could resist any ordinary assault. The great
+difficulty was one of supplies. However, as the relieving force was on
+the way, no great anxiety was felt. For some days there was constant
+bombardment, which did no great damage. On the 23d an attempt was made
+to carry the place by assault, but this too failed. The relieving
+force, however, was having its troubles. These were the days of
+floods, and progress was slow and at times almost impossible. Moreover,
+the Turks were constantly resisting.
+
+The relief expedition was composed of thirty thousand Indian troops,
+two Anglo-Indian divisions, and the remnants of Townshend’s expedition,
+a total of about ninety thousand men. General Sir Percy Lake was in
+command of the entire force. The march began on January 6th. By January
+8th the British had reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated
+in two pitched battles. On January 22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna,
+where the Turks had intrenched themselves.
+
+After artillery bombardment the Turkish positions were attacked, but
+heavy rains had converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering
+rapid movement impossible. The enemy’s fire was heavy and effective,
+inflicting severe losses, and though every effort was made, the assault
+failed.
+
+For days the British troops bivouacked in driving rain on soaked and
+sodden ground. Three times they were called upon to advance over a
+perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and absolutely devoid of cover
+against well-constructed and well-planned trenches, manned by a brave
+and stubborn enemy, approximately their equal in numbers. They showed a
+spirit of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their country may well
+be proud.
+
+But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage the British army. It was
+decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish
+position at the Dujailah redoubt. This meant a night march across the
+desert with great danger that there would be no water supply and that,
+unless the enemy was routed, the army would be in great danger.
+
+General Lake says: “On the afternoon of March 7th, General Aylmer
+assembled his subordinate commanders and gave his final instructions,
+laying particular stress on the fact that the operation was designed to
+effect a surprise, and that to prevent the enemy forestalling us, it
+was essential that the first phase of the operation should be pushed
+through with the utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly, as
+follows: The greater part of a division under General Younghusband,
+assisted by naval gunboats, controlled the enemy on the left bank. The
+remaining troops were formed into two columns, under General Kemball
+and General Keary respectively, a reserve of infantry, and the cavalry
+brigade, being held at the Corps Commander’s own disposal. Kemball’s
+column covered on the outer flank by the cavalry brigade was to make
+a turning movement to attack the Dujailah redoubt from the south,
+supported by the remainder of the force, operating from a position to
+the east of the redoubt. The night march by this large force, which
+led across the enemy’s front to a position on his right flank, was
+a difficult operation, entailing movement over unknown ground, and
+requiring most careful arrangement to attain success.”
+
+Thanks to excellent staff work and good march discipline the troops
+reached their allotted position apparently undiscovered by the enemy,
+but while Keary’s column was in position at daybreak, ready to support
+Kemball’s attack, the latter’s command did not reach the point selected
+for its deployment in the Dujailah depression until more than an
+hour later. This delay was highly prejudicial to the success of the
+operation.
+
+When, nearly three hours later, Kemball’s troops advanced to the
+attack, they were strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches cleverly
+concealed in the brushwood, and were unable to make further ground for
+some time, though assisted by Keary’s attack upon the redoubt from the
+east. The southern attack was now reinforced, and by 1 P. M. had pushed
+forward to within five hundred yards of the redoubt, but concealed
+trenches again stopped further progress and the Turks made several
+counter-attacks with reinforcements which had by now arrived from the
+direction of Magasis.
+
+It was about this time that the Corps Commander received from his
+engineer officers the unwelcome news that the water supply contained
+in rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression, upon which he had
+reckoned, was insufficient and could not be increased by digging. It
+was clear, therefore, that unless the Dujailah redoubt could be carried
+that day the scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the troops to
+fall back. Preparations were accordingly made for a further assault on
+the redoubt, and attacks were launched from the south and east under
+cover of a heavy bombardment.
+
+The attacking forces succeeded in gaining a foothold in the
+redoubt. But here they were heavily counter-attacked by large enemy
+reinforcements, and being subjected to an extremely rapid and accurate
+shrapnel fire from concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After, they
+were forced to fall back to the position from which they started. The
+troops who had been under arms for some thirty hours, including a long
+night march, were now much exhausted, and General Aylmer considered
+that a renewal of the assault during the night could not be made with
+any prospect of success. Next morning the enemy’s position was found
+to be unchanged and General Aylmer, finding himself faced with the
+deficiency of order already referred to, decided upon the immediate
+withdrawal of his troops to Wadi, which was reached the same night.
+
+For the next month the English were held in their positions by the
+Tigris floods. On April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to
+permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna, which this time was
+successful. On April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat was
+attacked, but the English were repulsed. They then determined to
+make another attempt to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On April
+17th the fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles from Es Sinn, on the left
+bank, was captured after heavy bombardment, and held against serious
+counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st the Sanna-i-yat position was
+bombarded and a vigorous assault was made, which met with some success.
+The Turks, however, delivered a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in
+forcing the British troops back.
+
+General Lake says: “Persistent and repeated attempts on both banks
+have thus failed, and it was known that at the outside not more than
+six days’ supplies remained to the Kut garrison. The British troops
+were nearly worn out. The same troops had advanced time and again
+to assault positions strong by art and held by a determined enemy.
+For eighteen consecutive days they had done all that men could do
+to overcome, not only the enemy, but also exceptional climatic and
+physical obstacles, and this on a scale of rations which was far from
+being sufficient in view of the exertions they had undergone, but which
+the shortage of river transports, had made it impossible to augment.
+The need for rest was imperative.”
+
+On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara surrendered
+unconditionally, after a heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three
+days. According to British figures the surrendered army was composed of
+2,970 English and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish figures are 13,300.
+The Turks also captured a large amount of booty, although General
+Townshend destroyed most of his guns and munitions.
+
+During the period in which Kut-el-Amara was besieged by the Turks, the
+British troops had suffered much. The enemy bombarded the town almost
+every day, but did little damage. The real foe was starvation. At first
+the British were confident that a relief expedition would soon reach
+them, and they amused themselves by cricket and hockey and fishing
+in the river. By early February, however, it was found necessary
+to reduce the rations, and a month later they were suffering from
+hunger. Some little help was given them by airplanes, which brought
+tobacco and some small quantities of supplies. Soon the horses and
+the mules were slaughtered and eaten. As time went on the situation
+grew desperate; till almost the end, however, they did not lose hope.
+Through the wireless they were informed about the progress of the
+relief expeditions and had even heard their guns in the distance. They
+gradually grew, however, weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender
+the troops in the first lines were too weak to march back with their
+kits.
+
+The Turks treated the prisoners in a chivalric manner; food and tobacco
+was at once distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia, except
+General Townshend and his staff, who were taken to Constantinople.
+Later on it was General Townshend who was to have the honor of carrying
+the Turkish plea for an armistice in the closing days of the war.
+
+The surrender of Kut created a world-wide sensation. The loss of eight
+thousand troops was, of course, not a serious matter, and the road to
+India was still barred, but the moral effect was most unfortunate.
+That the great British nation, whose power had been so respected in
+the Orient, should now be forced to yield, was a great blow to its
+prestige. In England, of course, there was a flood of criticism. It was
+very plain that a mistake had been made. A commission was appointed to
+inquire into the whole business. This committee reported to Parliament
+on June 26, 1917, and the report created a great sensation. The
+substance of the report was, that while the expedition was justifiable
+from a political point of view, it was undertaken with insufficient
+forces and inadequate preparation, and it sharply criticized those that
+were responsible.
+
+It seems plain that the military authorities in India under-estimated
+their opponent. The report especially criticized General Sir
+John Eccles Nixon, the former commander of the British forces in
+Mesopotamia, who had urged the expedition, in spite of the objection of
+General Townshend. Others sharing the blame were the Viceroy of India,
+Baron Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff, Commander-in-Chief of the
+British forces in India, and, in England, Major-General Sir Edmund
+Barrow, Military Secretary of the India office, J. Austin Chamberlain,
+Secretary for India, and the War Committee of the Cabinet. According
+to the report, beside the losses incurred by the surrender more than
+twenty-three thousand men were lost in the relieving expedition.
+The general armament and equipment were declared to be not only
+insufficient, but not up to the standard.
+
+In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain resigned as secretary
+for India. In the House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge, who, at the time of the report,
+was Under Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared the criticism of
+Baron Hardinge to be grossly unjust. After some discussion the House
+of Commons supported Mr. Balfour’s refusal to accept Baron Hardinge’s
+resignation, by a vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that the
+civil administration of India were not responsible for the blunders
+of the expedition. Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter
+controversy with Lord Curzon, had made the military side of the Indian
+Government free of all civilian criticism and control. The blunders
+here were military blunders.
+
+The English, of course, were not satisfied to leave the situation in
+such a condition, and at once began their plans for a new attempt to
+capture Bagdad. The summer campaign, however, was uneventful, though on
+May 18th a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in Persia joined
+the British camp. A few days afterwards the British army went up the
+Tigris and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they had been so badly
+defeated on the 8th of March. They then approached close to Kut, but
+the weather was unsuitable, and there was now no object in capturing
+the city.
+
+In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Sir
+Frederick Stanley Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded to
+prepare for an expedition which should capture Bagdad. A dispatch
+from General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a full account of this
+expedition. It was thoroughly successful. This time with a sufficient
+army and a thorough equipment the British found no difficulties, and
+on February 26th they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought
+battle, but as the result of a successful series of small engagements.
+The Turks kept up a steady resistance, but the British blood was up.
+They were remembering General Townshend’s surrender, and the Turks were
+driven before them in great confusion.
+
+The capture of Kut, however, was not an object in itself, and the
+British pushed steadily on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally made
+a stand, but without effect. On the 28th of February the English had
+arrived at Azizie, half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made. On the
+5th of March the advance was renewed. The Ctesiphon position, which
+had defied General Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched,
+but empty. On March 7th the enemy made a stand on the River Diala,
+which enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad. Some lively fighting
+followed, the enemy resisting four attempts to cross the Diala.
+However, on March 10th the British forces crossed, and were now close
+to Bagdad. The enemy suddenly retired and the British troops found that
+their main opponent was a dust storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad,
+and on March 11th the city was occupied by the English.
+
+The fall of Bagdad was an important event. It cheered the Allies, and
+proved, especially to the Oriental world, the power of the British
+army. Those who originally planned its capture had been right, but
+those who were to carry out the plan had not done their duty. Under
+General Maude it was a comparatively simple operation, though full of
+admirable details, and it produced all the good effects expected. The
+British, of course, did not stop at Bagdad. The city itself is not
+of strategic importance. The surrounding towns were occupied and an
+endeavor was made to conciliate the inhabitants. The real object of the
+expedition was attained.
+
+  [Illustration: BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH
+
+  Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of
+  the British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the
+  ancient city at the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+
+France was revealed to herself, to Germany and to the world as the
+heroic defender of civilization, as a defender defying death in the
+victory of Verdun. There, with the gateway to Paris lying open at its
+back, the French army, in the longest pitched battle in all history,
+held like a cold blue rock against the uttermost man-power and
+resources of the German army.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff and military
+dictator of the Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace. There
+the mettle of the Crown Prince was tested and he was found to be merely
+a thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was under the domination
+of von Falkenhayn.
+
+For the tremendous offensive which was planned to end the war by one
+terrific thrust, von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other fronts of
+effective men and munitions. Field Marshal von Hindenburg and his
+crafty Chief of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a campaign
+against Russia designed to put that tottering military Colossus out
+of the war. The plans were upon a scale that might well have proved
+successful. The Kaiser, influenced by the Crown Prince and by von
+Falkenhayn, decreed that the Russian campaign must be postponed and
+that von Hindenburg must send his crack troops to join the army of the
+Crown Prince fronting Verdun. Ludendorff promptly resigned as Chief
+of Staff to von Hindenburg and suggested that the Field Marshal also
+resign. That grim old warrior declined to take this action, preferring
+to remain idle in East Prussia and watch what he predicted would be a
+useless effort on the western front. His warning to the General Staff
+was explicit, but von Falkenhayn coolly ignored the message.
+
+  [Illustration: IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS WITH
+  THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, “THEY SHALL NOT PASS”]
+
+Why did Germany select this particular point for its grand offensive?
+The answer is to be found in a demand made by the great Junker
+associations of Germany in May, 1915, nine months before the attack
+was undertaken. That demand was to the effect that Verdun should be
+attacked and captured. They declared that the Verdun fortifications
+made a menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields of the Briey
+basin. From this metalliferous field of Lorraine came the ore that
+supplied eighty per cent of the steel required for German and Austrian
+guns and munitions. These fields of Briey were only twenty miles from
+the great guns of Verdun. They were French territory at the beginning
+of the war and had been seized by the army of the Crown Prince,
+co-operating with the Army of Metz because of their immense value to
+the Germans in war making.
+
+As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn placed a semicircle of
+huge howitzers and rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling
+the vast forces drained from all the fronts and having erected
+ammunition dumps covering many acres, the great battle commenced with
+a surprise attack upon the village of Haumont on February 21, 1916.
+
+The first victory of the Germans at that point was an easy one. The
+great fort of Douaumont was the next objective. This was taken on
+February 25th after a concentrated bombardment that for intensity
+surpassed anything that heretofore had been shown in the war.
+
+Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending the disposition of guns and
+men, had now penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun. The tide was
+running against the French, and shells, more shells for the guns of all
+caliber; men, more men for the earthworks surrounding the devoted city
+were needed. The narrow-gauge railway connecting Verdun with the great
+French depots of supplies was totally inadequate for the transportation
+burdens suddenly cast upon it. In this desperate emergency a transport
+system was born of necessity, a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet
+upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles; anything that could
+pack a few shells or a handful of men was utilized. The backbone of
+the system was a great fleet of trucks driven by men whose average
+daily rest was four hours, and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the
+stains of snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were indelibly fixed
+through the winter, spring, summer and fall of 1916, for the glorious
+engagement continued from February 21st until November 2d, when the
+Germans were forced into full retreat from the field of honor, the
+evacuation of Fort Vaux putting a period to Germany’s disastrous plan
+and to von Falkenhayn’s military career.
+
+Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days of the immortal battle,
+wrote:
+
+“Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary of battles. The
+mass of metal used on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the
+transformation on the Douaumont Ridge was more suddenly dramatic than
+even the battle of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the
+conflict already looks as if it would surpass anything in history. More
+than a month has elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre and
+General Pétain, I was able to watch the struggle from various vital
+viewpoints. The battle had then been raging with great intensity for
+a fortnight, and, as I write, four to five thousand guns are still
+thundering round Verdun. Impossible, therefore, any man to describe the
+entire battle. The most one can do is to set down one’s impressions of
+the first phases of a terrible conflict, the end of which cannot be
+foreseen.
+
+“My chief impression is one of admiration for the subtle powers of
+mind of the French High Command. General Joffre and General Castelnau
+are men with especially fine intellects tempered to terrible keenness.
+Always they have had to contend against superior numbers. In 1870,
+when they were subalterns, their country lost the advantage of its
+numerous population by abandoning general military service at a time
+when Prussia was completely realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In
+1914, when they were commanders, France was inferior to a still greater
+degree in point of numbers to Prussianized Germany. In armament, also,
+France was inferior at first to her enemy. The French High Command
+has thus been trained by adversity to do all that human intellect can
+against almost overwhelming hostile material forces. General Joffre,
+General Castelnau--and, later, General Pétain, who at a moment’s notice
+displaced General Herr--had to display genius where the Germans were
+exhibiting talent, and the result is to be seen at Verdun. They there
+caught the enemy in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown in
+modern warfare--something elemental, and yet subtle, neo-primitive, and
+befitting the atavistic character of the Teuton. They caught him in a
+web of his own unfulfilled boasts.
+
+“The enemy began by massing a surprising force on the western front.
+Tremendous energy and organizing power were the marks of his supreme
+efforts to obtain a decision. It was usually reckoned that the Germans
+maintain on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four and a half
+army corps, which at full strength number three million men. Yet, while
+holding the Russians from Riga to the south of the Pripet Marshes,
+and maintaining a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems to have
+succeeded in bringing up nearly two millions and a half of men for her
+grand spring offensive in the west. At one time her forces in France
+and Flanders were only ninety divisions. But troops and guns were
+withdrawn in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia in December,
+1915, until there were, it is estimated, a hundred and eighteen
+divisions on the Franco-British-Belgian front. A large number of
+six-inch and twelve-inch Austrian howitzers were added to the enormous
+Krupp batteries. Then a large proportion of new recruits of the 1916
+class were moved into Rhineland depots to serve as drafts for the
+fifty-nine army corps, and it is thought that nearly all the huge shell
+output that had accumulated during the winter was transported westward.
+
+“The French Staff reckoned that Verdun would be attacked when the
+ground had dried somewhat in the March winds. It was thought that the
+enemy movement would take place against the British front in some of
+the sectors of which there were chalk undulations, through which the
+rains of winter quickly drained. The Germans skilfully encouraged this
+idea by making an apparent preliminary attack at Lions, on a five-mile
+front with rolling gas-clouds and successive waves of infantry. During
+this feint the veritable offensive movement softly began on Saturday,
+February 19, 1916, when the enormous masses of hostile artillery west,
+east, and north of the Verdun salient started registering on the French
+positions. Only in small numbers did the German guns fire, in order not
+to alarm their opponents. But even this trial bombardment by shifts
+was a terrible display of power, calling forth all the energies of
+the outnumbered French gunners to maintain the artillery duels that
+continued day and night until Monday morning, February 21st.
+
+“The enemy seems to have maintained a bombardment all round General
+Herr’s lines on February 21, 1916, but this general battering was
+done with a thousand pieces of field artillery. The grand masses of
+heavy howitzers were used in a different way. At a quarter past seven
+in the morning they concentrated on the small sector of advanced
+intrenchments near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch shells fell
+with terrible precision every few yards, according to the statements
+made by the French troops. I afterwards saw a big German shell, from
+at least six miles distant from my place of observation, hit quite a
+small target. So I can well believe that, in the first bombardment of
+French positions, which had been photographed from the air and minutely
+measured and registered by the enemy gunners in the trial firing, the
+great, destructive shots went home with extraordinary effect. The
+trenches were not bombarded--they were obliterated. In each small
+sector of the six-mile northward bulge of the Verdun salient the work
+of destruction was done with surprising quickness.
+
+“After the line from Brabant to Haumont was smashed, the main fire
+power was directed against the other end of the bow at Herbebois,
+Ornes, and Maucourt. Then when both ends of the bow were severely
+hammered, the central point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods, was
+smothered in shells of all sizes, poured in from east, north and west.
+In this manner almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery was
+centered upon mile after mile of the French front. When the great guns
+lifted over the lines of craters, the lighter field artillery, placed
+row after row in front of the wreckage, maintained an unending fire
+curtain over the communicating saps and support intrenchments.
+
+“Then came the second surprising feature in the new German system of
+attack. No waves of storming infantry swept into the battered works.
+Only strong patrols at first came cautiously forward, to discover if
+it were safe for the main body of troops to advance and reorganize the
+French line so as to allow the artillery to move onward. There was thus
+a large element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards told by
+German prisoners. Their commanders thought it would be possible to do
+all the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving the infantry to
+act as squatters to the great guns and occupy and rebuild line after
+line of the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand struggles.
+All they had to do was to protect the gunners from surprise attack,
+while the guns made an easy path for them and also beat back any
+counter-attack in force.
+
+“But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving the man-power of
+Germany by an unparalleled expenditure of shell, it required for full
+success the co-operation of the French troops. But the French did not
+co-operate. Their High Command had continually improved their system
+of trench defense in accordance with the experiences of their own
+hurricane bombardments in Champagne and the Carency sector. General
+Castelnau, the acting Commander-in-Chief on the French front, was
+indeed the inventor of hurricane fire tactics, which he had used for
+the first time in February, 1915, in Champagne. When General Joffre
+took over the conduct of all French operations, leaving to General
+Castelnau the immediate control of the front in France, the victor of
+the battle of Nancy weakened his advance lines and then his support
+lines, until his troops actually engaged in fighting were very little
+more than a thin covering body, such as is thrown out towards the
+frontier while the main forces connect well behind.
+
+“We shall see the strategical effect of this extraordinary measure in
+the second phase of the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to
+leave remarkably few French troops exposed to the appalling tempest
+of German and Austrian shells. The fire-trench was almost empty, and
+in many cases the real defenders of the French line were men with
+machine guns, hidden in dugouts at some distance from the photographed
+positions at which the German gunners aimed. The batteries of light
+guns, which the French handled with the flexibility and continuity of
+fire of Maxims, were also concealed in widely scattered positions. The
+main damage caused by the first intense bombardment was the destruction
+of all the telephone wires along the French front. In one hour the
+German guns plowed up every yard of ground behind the observing
+posts and behind the fire-trench. Communications could only be slowly
+re-established by messengers, so that many parties of men had to fight
+on their own initiative, with little or no combination of effort with
+their comrades.
+
+“Yet, desperate as were their circumstances, they broke down the German
+plan for capturing trenches without an infantry attack. They caught the
+patrols and annihilated them, and then swept back the disillusioned
+and reluctant main bodies of German troops. First, the bombing parties
+were felled, then the sappers as they came forward to repair the line
+for their infantry, and at last the infantry itself in wave after wave
+of field-gray. The small French garrison of every center of resistance
+fought with cool, deadly courage, and often to the death.
+
+“Artillery fire was practically useless against them, for though
+their tunnel shelters were sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch
+shells, which they regarded as their special terror by reason of their
+penetrative power and wide blast, even the Germans had not sufficient
+shells to search out all their underground chambers, every one of which
+have two or three exits.
+
+“The new organization of the French Machine-gun Corps was a fine factor
+in the eventual success. One gun fired ten thousand rounds daily for
+a week, most of the positions selected being spots from which each
+German infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered. Then the
+French 75’s which had been masked during the overwhelming fire of the
+enemy howitzers, came unexpectedly into action when the German infantry
+attacks increased in strength. Near Haumont, for example, eight
+successive furious assaults were repulsed by three batteries of 75’s.
+One battery was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch guns, but it
+remained in action until all its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners
+then blew up their guns and retired, with the loss of only one man.
+
+  [Illustration: AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS
+
+  Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a
+  shattered village.]
+
+  [Illustration: HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED
+
+  The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of
+  action.]
+
+“Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown Prince’s army from the fourteen
+divisions--that battled at Douaumont Fort--to twenty-five divisions.
+In April he added five more divisions to the forces around Verdun by
+weakening the effectives in other sectors and drawing more troops from
+the Russian front. It was rumored that von Hindenburg was growing
+restive and complaining that the wastage at Verdun would tell against
+the success of the campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was to open
+when the Baltic ice melted.
+
+“Great as was the wastage of life, it was in no way immediately
+decisive. But when the expenditure of shells almost outran the highest
+speed of production of the German munition factories, and the wear
+on the guns was more than Krupp and Skoda could make good, there was
+danger to the enemy in beginning another great offensive likely to
+overtax his shellmakers and gunmakers.”
+
+Immortal and indomitable France had won over her foe more power than
+she had possessed even after the battle of the Marne. If her Allies,
+with the help of Japan and the United States, could soon overtake
+the production of the German and Austrian munition factories, it
+was possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan, might become one of the
+turning points of the war.
+
+Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with the whole population of
+France roused to the supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like a
+rock. Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green lines were sent against
+the twenty-five miles of earthworks, while the French guns took their
+toll of the crack German regiments. German dead lay upon the field
+until exposed flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms. No
+Man’s Land around Verdun was a waste and a stench.
+
+General Joffre’s plan was very simple. It was to hold out. As was
+afterwards revealed, much to the satisfaction of the French people, Sir
+Douglas Haig had placed himself completely at the service of the French
+Commander-in-Chief, and had suggested that he should use the British
+army to weaken the thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had refused the
+proffered help. No man knew better than he what his country, with its
+exceedingly low birthrate, was suffering on the Meuse. He had but to
+send a telegram to British Headquarters, and a million Britons, with
+thousands of heavy guns, would fling themselves upon the German lines
+and compel Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy artillery,
+and his millions of men between Verdun and the Somme. But General
+Joffre, instead of sending the telegram in question, merely dispatched
+officers to British Headquarters to assure and calm the chafing
+Scotsman commanding the military forces of the British Empire.
+
+Throughout that long summer the battle cry of Verdun, “_Ne passeront
+pas!_” (“They shall not pass!”), was an inspiration to the French army
+and to the world. Then as autumn drifted its red foliage over the
+heights surrounding the bloody field, the French struck back. General
+Nivelle, who had taken command at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a
+series of attacks and a persistent pressure against the German forces
+on both sides of the Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden
+sweeping attack which on October 24th, resulted in the recapture by
+Nivelle’s forces of Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the recapture
+of Fort Vaux.
+
+Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle in the long and honorable
+history of France.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
+
+
+  Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
+
+  Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.
+
+  Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
+
+  New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
+    public domain.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, History of the World War, Vol. 3, by Francis
+A. March and Richard J. Beamish, Illustrated by James H. Hare and Donald
+Thompson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: History of the World War, Vol. 3
+
+
+Author: Francis A. March and Richard J. Beamish
+
+
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2005  [eBook #16282]
+
+Language: en
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOL. 3***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Jennifer Zickerman, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 16282-h.htm or 16282-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/2/8/16282/16282-h/16282-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/2/8/16282/16282-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+Complete Edition
+
+HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOLUME III
+
+An Authentic Narrative of the World's Greatest War
+
+by
+
+FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D.
+
+In Collaboration with
+
+RICHARD J. BEAMISH
+Special War Correspondent and Military Analyst
+
+With an Introduction by General Peyton C. March
+Chief of Staff of the United States Army
+
+With Exclusive Photographs by James H. Hare and Donald Thompson
+World-Famed War Photographers
+and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs of the
+United States, Canadian, British, French and Italian Governments
+
+Leslie-Judge Company
+New York
+
+MCMXIX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR
+
+The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to the
+stirrup leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an
+avalanche upon the German lines, tearing great gaps in their massed
+formations.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+CHAPTER I. NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR
+IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation
+of No Man's Land--Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over
+Four Years--Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for
+Every Foot of Gain                                                   1
+
+
+CHAPTER II. ITALY DECLARES WAR ON
+AUSTRIA
+
+Her Great Decision--D'Annunzio, Poet and Patriot--Italia
+Irredenta--German Indignation--The Campaigns on the Isonzo
+and in the Tyrol                                                    29
+
+CHAPTER III. GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+A Titanic Enterprise--Its Objects--Disasters and Deeds
+of Deathless Glory--The Heroic Anzacs--Bloody Dashes up
+Impregnable Slopes--Silently they Stole Away--A Successful
+Failure                                                             58
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE GREATEST NAVAL
+BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+The Battle of Jutland--Every Factor on Sea and in Sky
+Favorable to the Germans--Low Visibility a Great Factor--A
+Modern Sea Battle--Light Cruisers Screening Battleship
+Squadron--Germans Run Away when British Fleet Marshals Its
+Full Strength--Death of Lord Kitchener                              78
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+The Advance on Cracow--Von Hindenburg Strikes at
+Warsaw--German Barbarism--The War in Galicia--The
+Fall of Przemysl--Russia's Ammunition Fails--The Russian
+Retreat--The Fall of Warsaw--The Last Stand--Czernowitz            104
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany--Dramatic
+Scene in the King's Palace--The Die is Cast--Bulgaria Succumbs
+to Seductions of Potsdam Gang--Greece Mobilizes--French and
+British Troops at Saloniki--Serbia Over-run--Roumania's
+Disastrous Venture in the Arena of Mars                            145
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara--After
+Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders after 143 Days of
+Siege--New British Expedition Recaptures Kut--Troops Push on Up
+the Tigris--Fall of Bagdad the Magnificent                         187
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and the
+Crown Prince--Hindenburg's Warning--Why the Germans Made the
+Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great Fortress--Heroic
+France Reveals Itself to the World--"They Shall Not
+Pass"--Nivelle's Glorious Stand on Dead Man Hill--Lord
+Northcliffe's Description--A Defense Unsurpassed in the
+History of France                                                  209
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR                              _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS                             4
+
+CHARGING THROUGH BARBED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS                           6
+
+BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN
+  TRENCHES AT NEUVE CHAPELLE                                        10
+
+CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS                            12
+
+AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS                                  18
+   [Transcriber's Note: This illustration was missing from
+   the source for this e-book.]
+
+ITALY'S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS                           30
+
+WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK                                         38
+
+TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES
+  OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT                                     42
+
+THE LOSS OF THE "IRRESISTIBLE"                                      68
+
+THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE "RIVER CLYDE"
+  AT SEDDUL BAHR                                                    76
+
+ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS                                             98
+
+ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY                                            98
+
+GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR                                  110
+
+BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH                        208
+
+AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS                                            224
+
+HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED                                               224
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+
+After the immortal stand of Joffre at the first battle of the Marne and
+the sudden savage thrust at the German center which sent von Kluck and
+his men reeling back in retreat to the prepared defenses along the line
+of the Aisne, the war in the western theater resolved itself into a play
+for position from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would come a sudden
+big push by one side or the other in which artillery was massed until
+hub touched hub and infantry swept to glory and death in waves of gray,
+or blue or khaki as the case might be. But these tremendous efforts and
+consequent slaughters did not change the long battle line from the Alps
+to the North Sea materially. Here and there a bulge would be made by
+the terrific pressure of men and material in some great assault like
+that first push of the British at Neuve Chapelle, like the German attack
+at Verdun or like the tremendous efforts by both sides on that bloodiest
+of all battlefields, the Somme.
+
+Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention as the test in which the
+British soldiers demonstrated their might in equal contest against the
+enemy. There had been a disposition in England as elsewhere up to that
+time to rate the Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of the
+scientific equipment with which the German army had taken the field.
+When the battle of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although its losses
+were heavy, there was no longer any doubt in the British nation that
+victory was only a question of time.
+
+[Illustration: THE BATTLE GROUND OF NEUVE CHAPELLE]
+
+The action came as a pendant to the attack by General de Langle de
+Cary's French army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that had been a
+steady relentless pressure by artillery and infantry upon a strong
+German position. To meet it heavy reinforcements had been shifted by
+the Germans from the trenches between La Bass�e and Lille. The
+earthworks at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly depleted and only a
+comparatively small body of Saxons and Bavarians defended them. Opposite
+this body was the first British army. The German intrenchments at Neuve
+Chapelle surrounded and defended the highlands upon which were placed
+the German batteries and in their turn defended the road towards Lille,
+Roubaix and Turcoing.
+
+The task assigned to Sir John French was to make an assault with only
+forty-eight thousand men on a comparatively narrow front. There was only
+one practicable method for effective preparation, and this was chosen by
+the British general. An artillery concentration absolutely unprecedented
+up to that time was employed by him. Field pieces firing at point-blank
+range were used to cut the barbed wire entanglements defending the enemy
+intrenchments, while howitzers and bombing airplanes were used to drop
+high explosives into the defenseless earthworks.
+
+Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief of the British
+forces, was in command of the first army. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien
+commanded the second army. It was the first army that bore the brunt of
+the attack.
+
+No engagement during the years on the western front was more sudden and
+surprising in its onset than that drive of the British against Neuve
+Chapelle. At seven o'clock on the morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915,
+the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing over a desultory
+shell fire upon the German trenches. It was the usual breakfast
+appetizer, and nobody on the German side took any unusual notice of it.
+Really, however, the shelling was scientific "bracketing" of the enemy's
+important position. The gunners were making sure of their ranges.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS
+
+An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of
+eleven guns posted in a wood, had caused havoc in the British ranks. The
+Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of
+shell from the other German batteries, cut down all the gunners, and put
+every gun out of action.]
+
+At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar that shook the earth the
+most destructive and withering artillery action of the war up to that
+time was on. Field pieces sending their shells hurtling only a few feet
+above the earth tore the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces and
+made kindling wood of the supports. Howitzers sent high explosive
+shells, containing lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber into
+the doomed trenches and later into the ruined village. It was eight
+o'clock in the morning, one-half hour after the beginning of the
+artillery action, that the village was bombarded. During this time
+British soldiers were enabled to walk about in No Man's Land behind the
+curtain of fire with absolute immunity. No German rifleman or machine
+gunner left cover. The scene on the German side of the line was like
+that upon the blasted surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell holes,
+and with no trace of human life to be seen above ground.
+
+An eye witness describing the scene said:
+
+"The dawn, which broke reluctantly through a veil of clouds on the
+morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the
+Germans behind the white and blue sandbags in their long line of
+trenches curving in a hemi-cycle about the battered village of
+Neuve Chapelle. For five months they had remained undisputed
+masters of the positions they had here wrested from the British in
+October. Ensconced in their comfortably-arranged trenches with but
+a thin outpost in their fire trenches, they had watched day succeed
+day and night succeed night without the least variation from the
+monotony of trench warfare, the intermittent bark of the machine
+guns--rat-tat-tat-tat-tat--and the perpetual rattle of rifle fire,
+with here and there a bomb, and now and then an exploded mine.
+
+[Illustration: _Illustrated London News_.
+
+CHARGING THROUGH BARBED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS
+
+In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed by
+the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up in the
+face of a murderous German fire.]
+
+"For weeks past the German airmen had grown strangely shy. On this
+Wednesday morning none were aloft to spy out the strange doings
+which, as dawn broke, might have been descried on the desolate
+roads behind the British lines.
+
+"From ten o'clock of the preceding evening endless files of men
+marched silently down the roads leading towards the German
+positions through Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast, poor shattered
+villages of the dead where months of incessant bombardment have
+driven away the last inhabitants and left roofless houses and rent
+roadways....
+
+"Two days before, a quiet room, where Nelson's Prayer stands on the
+mantel-shelf, saw the ripening of the plans that sent these sturdy
+sons of Britain's four kingdoms marching all through the night. Sir
+John French met the army corps commanders and unfolded to them his
+plans for the offensive of the British army against the German
+line at Neuve Chapelle.
+
+"The onslaught was to be a surprise. That was its essence. The
+Germans were to be battered with artillery, then rushed before they
+recovered their wits. We had thirty-six clear hours before us. Thus
+long, it was reckoned (with complete accuracy as afterwards
+appeared), must elapse before the Germans, whose line before us had
+been weakened, could rush up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy's
+being pinned down right and left of the 'great push,' an attack was
+to be delivered north and south of the main thrust simultaneously
+with the assault on Neuve Chapelle."
+
+After describing the impatience of the British soldiers as they awaited
+the signal to open the attack, and the actual beginning of the
+engagement, the narrator continues:
+
+"Then hell broke loose. With a mighty, hideous, screeching burst of
+noise, hundreds of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches were
+deafened by the sharp reports of the field-guns spitting out their
+shells at close range to cut through the Germans' barbed wire
+entanglements. In some cases the trajectory of these vicious
+missiles was so flat that they passed only a few feet above the
+British trenches.
+
+"The din was continuous. An officer who had the curious idea of
+putting his ear to the ground said it was as though the earth were
+being smitten great blows with a Titan's hammer. After the first
+few shells had plunged screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into
+the German trenches, a dense pall of smoke hung over the German
+lines. The sickening fumes of lyddite blew back into the British
+trenches. In some places the troops were smothered in earth and
+dust or even spattered with blood from the hideous fragments of
+human bodies that went hurtling through the air. At one point the
+upper half of a German officer, his cap crammed on his head, was
+blown into one of our trenches.
+
+"Words will never convey any adequate idea of the horror of those
+five and thirty minutes. When the hands of officers' watches
+pointed to five minutes past eight, whistles resounded along the
+British lines. At the same moment the shells began to burst farther
+ahead, for, by previous arrangement, the gunners, lengthening their
+fuses, were 'lifting' on to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to
+leave the road open for our infantry to rush in and finish what the
+guns had begun.
+
+"The shells were now falling thick among the houses of Neuve
+Chapelle, a confused mass of buildings seen reddish through the
+pillars of smoke and flying earth and dust. At the sound of the
+whistle--alas for the bugle, once the herald of victory, now
+banished from the fray!--our men scrambled out of the trenches and
+hurried higgledy-piggledy into the open. Their officers were in
+front. Many, wearing overcoats and carrying rifles with fixed
+bayonets, closely resembled their men.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT
+NEUVE CHAPELLE
+
+Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved
+to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters in the Imperial
+forces.]
+
+"It was from the center of our attacking line that the assault was
+pressed home soonest. The guns had done their work well. The
+trenches were blown to irrecognizable pits dotted with dead. The
+barbed wire had been cut like so much twine. Starting from the
+Rue Tilleloy the Lincolns and the Berkshires were off the mark
+first, with orders to swerve to right and left respectively as soon
+as they had captured the first line of trenches, in order to let
+the Royal Irish Rifles and the Rifle Brigade through to the
+village. The Germans left alive in the trenches, half demented with
+fright, surrounded by a welter of dead and dying men, mostly
+surrendered. The Berkshires were opposed with the utmost gallantry
+by two German officers who had remained alone in a trench serving a
+machine gun. But the lads from Berkshire made their way into that
+trench and bayoneted the Germans where they stood, fighting to the
+last. The Lincolns, against desperate resistance, eventually
+occupied their section of the trench and then waited for the
+Irishmen and the Rifle Brigade to come and take the village ahead
+of them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth Garhwalis on the right
+had taken their trenches with a rush and were away towards the
+village and the Biez Wood.
+
+"Things had moved so fast that by the time the troops were ready
+to advance against the village the artillery had not finished its
+work. So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled the prisoners
+who were trooping out of the trenches in all directions, the
+infantry on whom devolved the honor of capturing the village,
+waited. One saw them standing out in the open, laughing and
+cracking jokes amid the terrific din made by the huge howitzer
+shells screeching overhead and bursting in the village, the rattle
+of machine guns all along the line, and the popping of rifles. Over
+to the right where the Garhwalis had been working with the bayonet,
+men were shouting hoarsely and wounded were groaning as the
+stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved swiftly to and
+fro over the shell-torn ground.
+
+"There was bloody work in the village of Neuve Chapelle. The
+capture of a place at the Bayonet point is generally a grim
+business, in which instant, unconditional surrender is the only
+means by which bloodshed, a deal of bloodshed, can be prevented. If
+there is individual resistance here and there the attacking
+troops cannot discriminate. They must go through, slaying as they
+go such as oppose them (the Germans have a monopoly of the
+finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise the enemy's resistance
+would not be broken, and the assailants would be sniped and
+enfiladed from hastily prepared strongholds at half a dozen
+different points.
+
+[Illustration: CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS
+
+Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm
+of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even a whiff of
+the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows the
+earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to keep up with
+Germany's development of gas warfare.]
+
+"The village was a sight that the men say they will never forget.
+It looked as if an earthquake had struck it. The published
+photographs do not give any idea of the indescribable mass of ruins
+to which our guns reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very
+line of the streets is all but obliterated.
+
+"It was indeed a scene of desolation into which the Rifle
+Brigade--the first regiment to enter the village, I believe--raced
+headlong. Of the church only the bare shell remained, the interior
+lost to view beneath a gigantic mound of d�bris. The little
+churchyard was devastated, the very dead plucked from their graves,
+broken coffins and ancient bones scattered about amid the fresher
+dead, the slain of that morning--gray-green forms asprawl athwart
+the tombs. Of all that once fair village but two things remained
+intact--two great crucifixes reared aloft, one in the churchyard,
+the other over against the ch�teau. From the cross, that is the
+emblem of our faith, the figure of Christ, yet intact though all
+pitted with bullet marks, looked down in mute agony on the slain in
+the village.
+
+"The din and confusion were indescribable. Through the thick pall
+of shell smoke Germans were seen on all sides, some emerging half
+dazed from cellars and dugouts, their hands above their heads,
+others dodging round the shattered houses, others firing from the
+windows, from behind carts, even from behind the overturned
+tombstones. Machine guns were firing from the houses on the
+outskirts, rapping out their nerve-racking note above the noise of
+the rifles.
+
+"Just outside the village there was a scene of tremendous
+enthusiasm. The Rifle Brigade, smeared with dust and blood, fell in
+with the Third Gurkhas with whom they had been brigaded in India.
+The little brown men were dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had
+very thoroughly gone through some houses at the cross-roads on the
+Rue du Bois and silenced a party of Germans who were making
+themselves a nuisance there with some machine guns. Riflemen and
+Gurkhas cheered themselves hoarse."
+
+Unfortunately for the complete success of the brilliant attack a great
+delay was caused by the failure of the artillery that was to have
+cleared the barbed wire entanglements for the Twenty-third Brigade, and
+because of the unlooked for destruction of the British field telephone
+system by shell and rifle fire. The check of the Twenty-third Brigade
+banked other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth Brigade was
+obliged to fight at right angles to the line of battle. The Germans
+quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific toll in British
+lives. Particularly was this true at three specially strong German
+positions. One called Port Arthur by the British, another at Pietre
+Mill and the third was the fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek.
+
+Because of the lack of telephone communication it was impossible to send
+reinforcements to the troops that had been held up by barbed wire and
+other emplacements and upon which German machine guns were pouring a
+steady stream of death.
+
+As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held up by unbroken barbed wire
+northwest of Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of the Fourth Corps
+was also checked in its action against the ridge of Aubers on the left
+of Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir Douglas Haig the Seventh
+Division was to have waited until the Eighth Division had reached Neuve
+Chapelle, when it was to charge through Aubers. With the tragic mistake
+that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly, the plan affecting the
+Seventh Division went awry. The German artillery, observing the
+concentration of the Seventh Division opposite Aubers, opened a vigorous
+fire upon that front. During the afternoon General Haig ordered a
+charge upon the German positions. The advance was made in short rushes
+in the face of a fire that seemed to blaze from an inferno. Inch by inch
+the ground was drenched with British blood. At 5.30 in the afternoon the
+men dug themselves in under the relentless German fire. Further advance
+became impossible.
+
+The night was one of horror. Every minute the men were under heavy
+bombardment. At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British infantry rushed
+from the trenches in an effort to carry Aubers, but the enemy artillery
+now greatly reinforced made that task an impossible one. The trenches
+occupied by the British forces were consolidated and the salient made by
+the push was held by the British with bulldog tenacity.
+
+The number of men employed in the action on the British side was
+forty-eight thousand. During the early surprise of the action the loss
+was slight. Had the wire in front of the Twenty-third Brigade been cut
+by the artillery assigned to such action, and had the telephone system
+not been destroyed the success of the thrust would have been complete.
+The delay of four and a half hours between the first and second phases
+of the attack caused virtually all the losses sustained by the attacking
+force. The total casualties were 12,811 men of the British forces. Of
+these 1,751 officers and privates were taken prisoners and 10,000
+officers and men were killed and wounded.
+
+The action continued throughout Thursday, March 11th, with little change
+in the general situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle and
+their intrenchments threatened Aubers. On Friday morning, March 12th,
+the Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate attempt under cover of a
+heavy fog to recapture the village. The effort was made in
+characteristic German dense formations. The Westphalian and Bavarian
+troops came out of Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be blown to
+pieces by British guns already loaded and laid on the mark. Elsewhere
+the British waited until the Germans were scarcely more than fifty paces
+away when they opened with deadly rapid fire before which the German
+waves melted like snow before steam. It was such slaughter as the
+British had experienced when held up before Aubers. Slaughter that
+staggered Germany.
+
+So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which the decision rested with the
+British, a victory for which a fearful price had been paid but out of
+which came a confidence that was to hearten the British nation and to
+put sinews of steel into the British army for the dread days to come.
+
+The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated in large and in miniature many
+times during the deadlock of trench warfare on the western front until
+victory finally came to the Allies. During those years the western
+battle front lay like a wounded snake across France and Belgium. It
+writhed and twisted, now this way, now that, as one side or the other
+gambled with men and shells and airplanes for some brief advantage. It
+bent back in a great bulge when von Hindenburg made his famous retreat
+in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had pressed heavily against the
+Teutonic front upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The record is one of
+great value to military strategists, to the layman it is only a
+succession of artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial
+reconnaissances and combats.
+
+One day grew to be very much like another in that deadlock of pythons. A
+play for position here was met by a counter-thrust in another place.
+German inventions were out-matched and outnumbered by those coming from
+the Allied side.
+
+Trench warfare became the daily life of the men. They learned to fight
+and live in the open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal
+conditions was never better exemplified than in those weary, dreary
+years on the western front.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME
+
+The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence. Peronne
+was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17; in the
+last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged through
+Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with awful losses by
+Marshal Foch.]
+
+The fighting-lines consisted generally of one, two, or three lines of
+shelter-trenches lying parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five inches
+in width, and varying in length according to the number they hold; the
+trenches were joined together by zigzag approaches and by a line of
+reinforced trenches (armed with machine guns), which were almost
+completely proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire. The ordinary
+German trenches were almost invisible from 350 yards away, a distance
+which permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to realize that if the
+enemy occupied three successive lines and a line of reinforced
+intrenchments, the attacking line was likely, at the lowest estimate, to
+be decimated during an advance of 350 yards--by rifle fire at a range of
+350 yards' distance, and by the extremely quick fire of the machine
+guns, each of which delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute with
+absolute precision. In the field-trench, a soldier enjoyed far greater
+security than he would if merely prone behind his knapsack in an
+excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He had merely to stoop down a
+little to disappear below the level of the ground and be immune from
+infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns fired without endangering him.
+In addition, this stooping position brought the man's knapsack on a
+level with his helmet, thus forming some protection against shrapnel
+and shell-splinters.
+
+At the back of the German trenches shelters were dug for
+non-commissioned officers and for the commander of the unit.
+
+Ever since the outbreak of the war, the French troops in Lorraine, after
+severe experiences, realized rapidly the advantages of the German
+trenches, and began to study those they had taken gloriously. Officers,
+non-commissioned officers, and men of the engineers were straightway
+detached in every unit to teach the infantry how to construct similar
+shelters. The education was quick, and very soon they had completed the
+work necessary for the protection of all. The tools of the enemy
+"casualties," the spades and picks left behind in deserted villages,
+were all gladly piled on to the French soldiers' knapsacks, to be
+carried willingly by the very men who used to grumble at being loaded
+with even the smallest regulation tool. As soon as night had set in on
+the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the digging of the trenches was
+begun. Sometimes, in the darkness, the men of each fighting
+nation--less than 500 yards away from their enemy--would hear the noise
+of the workers of the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers'
+words of encouragement; and tacitly they would agree to an armistice
+during which to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they would dash
+out, to fight once more.
+
+Commodious, indeed, were some of the trench barracks. One French soldier
+wrote:
+
+"In really up-to-date intrenchments you may find kitchens,
+dining-rooms, bedrooms, and even stables. One regiment has first
+class cow-sheds. One day a whimsical 'piou-piou,' finding a cow
+wandering about in the danger zone, had the bright idea of finding
+shelter for it in the trenches. The example was quickly followed,
+and at this moment the ----th Infantry possess an underground farm,
+in which fat kine, well cared for, give such quantities of milk
+that regular distributions of butter are being made--and very good
+butter, too."
+
+But this is not all. An officer writes home a tale of yet another one
+of the comforts of home added to the equipment of the trenches:
+
+"We are clean people here. Thanks to the ingenuity of ----, we are
+able to take a warm bath every day from ten to twelve. We call this
+teasing the 'boches,' for this bathing-establishment of the latest
+type is fitted up--would you believe it?--in the trenches!"
+
+Describing trenches occupied by the British in their protracted
+"siege-warfare" in Northern France along and to the north of the Aisne
+Valley, a British officer wrote: "In the firing-line the men sleep and
+obtain shelter in the dugouts they have hollowed or 'undercut' in the
+side of the trenches. These refuges are slightly raised above the
+bottom of the trench, so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor of
+the trench is also sloped for purposes of draining. Some trenches
+are provided with head-cover, and others with overhead cover, the
+latter, of course, giving protection from the weather as well as from
+shrapnel balls and splinters of shells.... At all points subject to
+shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind is provided by
+communication-trenches. These are now so good that it is possible to
+cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced trenches from the
+billets in villages, the bivouacs in quarries, or the other places where
+the headquarters of units happen to be."
+
+A cavalry subaltern gave the following account of life in the trenches:
+"Picnicking in the open air, day and night (you never see a roof now),
+is the only real method of existence. There are loads of straw to bed
+down on, and everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with shrapnel
+bursting within fifty yards."
+
+One English officer described the ravages of modern artillery fire, not
+only upon all men, animals and buildings within its zone, but upon the
+very face of nature itself: "In the trenches crouch lines of men, in
+brown or gray or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed with the
+continual strain."
+
+"The fighting is now taking place over ground where both sides have for
+weeks past been excavating in all directions," said another letter from
+the front, "until it has become a perfect labyrinth. A trench runs
+straight for a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks in three or
+four directions. One branch merely leads into a ditch full of water,
+used in drier weather as a means of communication; another ends abruptly
+in a cul-de-sac, probably an abandoned sap-head; the third winds on,
+leading into galleries and passages further forward.
+
+"Sometimes where new ground is broken the spade turns up the
+long-buried dead, ghastly relics of former fights, and on all sides
+the surface of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by fragments of
+shell and bombs and distorted by mines. Seen from a distance, this
+apparently confused mass of passages, crossing and recrossing one
+another, resembles an irregular gridiron.
+
+"The life led by the infantry on both sides at close quarters is a
+strange, cramped existence, with death always near, either by means
+of some missile from above or some mine explosion from beneath--a
+life which has one dull, monotonous background of mud and water.
+Even when there is but little fighting the troops are kept hard at
+work strengthening the existing defenses, constructing others, and
+improvising the shelter imperative in such weather."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA
+
+
+For many years before the great war began the great powers of Europe
+were divided into two great alliances, the Triple Entente, composed of
+Russia, France and England, and the Triple Alliance, composed of
+Germany, Austria and Italy. When the war began Italy refused to join
+with Germany and Austria. Why? The answer to this question throws a
+vivid light on the origin of the war.
+
+Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance; she knew the facts, not only
+what was given to the public, but the inside facts. According to the
+terms of the alliance each member was bound to stand by each other only
+in case of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria and Germany
+because they were the aggressors. The constant assertions of the German
+statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war had been forced upon
+them were declared untrue by their associate Italy in the very
+beginning, and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of the world. Not
+much was said in the beginning about Italy's abstention from war. The
+Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted that some day Italy would
+be made to regret her course, but now that the Teuton snake is scotched
+the importance of Italy's action has been perceived and appraised at its
+true value.
+
+The Germans from the very beginning understood the real danger that
+might come to the Central Powers through Italian action. Every effort
+was made by the foreign office to keep her neutral. First threats were
+used, later promises were held out of addition to Italian territory if
+she would send her troops to Germany's assistance. When this failed the
+most strenuous efforts were made to keep Italy neutral, and a former
+German premier, Prince von B�low, was sent to Italy for this purpose.
+Socialist leaders, too, were sent from Germany to urge the Italian
+Socialists to insist upon neutrality.
+
+[Illustration: ITALY'S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS
+
+When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against Austria
+descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable natural obstacles
+they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into position in
+the mountains, as shown above, over the track that had to be built for
+every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.]
+
+In July, 1914, the Italian Government was not taken by surprise. They
+had observed the increase year by year of the German army and of the
+German fleet. At the end of the Balkan wars they had been asked whether
+they would agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia. They had
+consequently long been deliberating as to what their course should be in
+case of war, and they had made up their minds that under no
+circumstances would they aid Germany against England.
+
+Quite independently of her long-standing friendship with England it
+would be suicide to Italy in her geographical position to enter a war
+which should permit her coast to be attacked by the English and French
+navies, and her participation in the Triple Alliance always carried the
+proviso that it did not bind her to fight England. This was well known
+in the German foreign office, and, indeed, in France where the writers
+upon war were reckoning confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from the
+Triple Alliance, and planning to use the entire forces of France against
+Germany.
+
+A better understanding of the Italian position will result from a
+consideration of the origin of the Triple Alliance.
+
+After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving the quick recovery of
+France, considered the advisability of attacking her again, and, to use
+his own words, "bleeding her white." He found, however, that if this
+were attempted France would be joined by Russia and England and he gave
+up this plan. In order, however, to render France powerless he planned
+an alliance which should be able to control Europe. A league between
+Germany, Austria and Russia was his desire, and for some time every
+opportunity was taken to develop friendship with the Czar. Russia,
+however, remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies were opposed to the
+interests of Germany. Bismarck, therefore, determined, without losing
+the friendship of Russia, to persuade Italy to join in the continental
+combination. Italy, at the time, was the least formidable of the six
+great powers, but Bismarck foresaw that she could be made good use of
+in such a combination.
+
+At that time Italy, just after the completion of Italian unity, found
+herself in great perplexity. Her treatment of the Pope had brought about
+the hostility of Roman Catholics throughout the world. She feared both
+France and Austria, who were strong Catholic countries, and hardly knew
+where to look for friends. The great Italian leader at the time was
+Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a Radical and a conspirator, had
+become a constitutional statesman. Bismarck professed the greatest
+friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi to understand that he approved of
+Italy's aspirations on the Adriatic and in Tunis.
+
+The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress, Italy's interests were
+ignored, and finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the great
+indignation of the Italians. It has been shown in more recent times that
+the French seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck's instigation.
+
+The Italians having been roused to wrath, Bismarck proceeded to offer
+them a place in the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was an easy
+argument that such an alliance would protect them against France, and no
+doubt it was promised that it would free them from the danger of attack
+by Austria. England, at the time, was isolated, and Italy continued on
+the best understanding with her.
+
+The immediate result of the alliance was a growth of Italian hostility
+toward France, which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France. Meanwhile
+German commercial and financial enterprises were pushed throughout the
+Italian peninsula. What did Italy gain by this? Her commerce was
+weakened, and Austria permitted herself every possible unfriendly act
+except open war.
+
+As time went on Germany and Austria became more and more arrogant.
+Italy's ambitions on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely ignored. In
+1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia and Herzegovina, another blow to Italy.
+By this time Italy understood the situation well, and that same year,
+seeing no future for herself in Europe, she swooped down on Tripoli. In
+doing this she forestalled Germany herself, for Germany had determined
+to seize Tripoli.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE POWERS DIVIDED NORTHERN AFRICA]
+
+Both Germany and Austria were opposed to this action of Italy, but
+Italy's eyes were now open. Thirty years of political alliance had
+created no sympathy among the Italians for the Germans. Moreover, it was
+not entirely a question of policy. The lordly arrogance of the
+Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The Italians were lovers of liberty;
+the Germans pledged toward autocracy. They found greater sympathy in
+England and in France.
+
+"I am a son of liberty," said Cavour, "to her I owe all that I am."
+That, too, is Italy's motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy in
+Italy was therefore strongly in favor of the Allies. The party in power,
+the Liberals, adopted the policy of neutrality for the time being, but
+thousands of Italians volunteered for the French and British service,
+and the anti-German feeling grew greater as time went on.
+
+Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian Government withdrew its
+ambassador to Austria and declared war. A complete statement of the
+negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary, which led to this
+declaration, was delivered to the Government of the United States by the
+Italian Ambassador on May 25th. This statement, of which the following
+is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position:
+
+"The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive, and designed solely
+to preserve the _status quo_, or in other words equilibrium, in
+Europe. That these were its only objects and purposes is
+established by the letter and spirit of the treaty, as well as by
+the intentions clearly described and set forth in official acts of
+the ministers who created the alliance and confirmed and renewed it
+in the interests of peace, which always has inspired Italian
+policy. The treaty, as long as its intents and purposes had been
+loyally interpreted and regarded, and as long as it had not been
+used as a pretext for aggression against others, greatly
+contributed to the elimination and settlement of causes of
+conflict, and for many years assured to Europe the inestimable
+benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary severed the treaty by her
+own hands. She rejected the response of Serbia which gave to her
+all the satisfaction she could legitimately claim. She refused to
+listen to the conciliatory proposals presented by Italy in
+conjunction with other powers in the effort to spare Europe from a
+vast conflict, certain to drench the Continent with blood and to
+reduce it to ruin beyond the conception of human imagination, and
+finally she provoked that conflict.
+
+"Article first of the treaty embodied the usual and necessary
+obligation of such pacts--the pledge to exchange views upon any
+fact and economic questions of a general nature that might arise
+pursuant to its terms. None of the contracting parties had the
+right to undertake without a previous agreement any step the
+consequence of which might impose a duty upon the other signatories
+arising under the alliance, or which would in any way whatsoever
+encroach upon their vital interests. This article was violated by
+Austria-Hungary, when she sent to Serbia her note dated July 23,
+1914, an action taken without the previous assent of Italy. Thus,
+Austria-Hungary violated beyond doubt one of the fundamental
+provisions of the treaty. The obligation of Austria-Hungary to come
+to a previous understanding with Italy was the greater because her
+obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a situation which
+directly tended toward the provocation of a European war.
+
+[Illustration: _Photo by James H. Hare_.
+
+WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK
+
+Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order
+came to hurl themselves against the Austrians.]
+
+"As far back as the beginning of July, 1914, the Italian Government,
+preoccupied by the prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid
+before the Austro-Hungarian Government a number of suggestions
+advising moderation, and warning it of the impending danger of a
+European outbreak. The course adopted by Austria-Hungary against
+Serbia constituted, moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general
+interests of Italy both political and economical in the Balkan
+peninsula. Austria-Hungary could not for a moment imagine that Italy
+could remain indifferent while Serbian independence was being trodden
+upon. On a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave Austria to
+understand, in friendly but clear terms, that the independence of
+Serbia was considered by Italy as essential to the Balkan equilibrium.
+Austria-Hungary was further advised that Italy could never permit that
+equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice. This warning had been
+conveyed not only by her diplomats in private conversations with
+responsible Austro-Hungarian officials, but was proclaimed publicly
+by Italian statesmen on the floors of Parliament.
+
+"Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored the usual practices and
+menaced Serbia by sending her ultimatum, without in any way
+notifying the Italian Government of what she proposed to do, indeed
+leaving that government to learn of her action through the press,
+rather than through the usual channels of diplomacy, when
+Austria-Hungary took this unprecedented course she not only severed
+her alliance with Italy but committed an act inimical to Italy's
+interests....
+
+"After the European war broke out Italy sought to come to an
+understanding with Austria-Hungary with a view to a settlement
+satisfactory to both parties which might avert existing and future
+trouble. Her efforts were in vain, notwithstanding the efforts of
+Germany, which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary to
+comply with Italy's suggestion thereby recognizing the propriety
+and legitimacy of the Italian attitude. Therefore Italy found
+herself compelled by the force of events to seek other solutions.
+
+"Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary had ceased
+virtually to exist and served only to prolong a state of continual
+friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador at Vienna was
+instructed to declare to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the
+Italian Government considered itself free from the ties arising out
+of the treaty of the Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary
+was concerned. This communication was delivered in Vienna on May
+4th.
+
+"Subsequently to this declaration, and after we had been obliged to
+take steps for the protection of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian
+Government submitted new concessions, which, however, were deemed
+insufficient and by no means met our minimum demands. These offers
+could not be considered under the circumstances. The Italian
+Government taking into consideration what has been stated above, and
+supported by the vote of Parliament and the solemn manifestation of
+the country came to the decision that any further delay would be
+inadvisable. Therefore, on May 23d, it was declared, in the name of
+the King, to the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that, beginning
+the following day, May 24th, it would consider itself in a state of
+war with Austria-Hungary."
+
+It was a closely reasoned argument that the Italian statesmen presented,
+but there was something more than reasoned argument in Italy's course.
+She had been waiting for years for the opportunity to bring under her
+flag the men of her own race still held in subjection by hated Austria.
+Now was the time or never. Her people had become roused. Mobs filled the
+streets. Great orators, even the great poet, D'Annunzio, proclaimed a
+holy war. The sinking of the Lusitania poured oil on the flames, and the
+treatment of Belgium and eastern France added to the fury.
+
+[Illustration: _Photo by International Film Service_.
+
+TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT
+
+The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of
+operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during the
+Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the mountain
+by this means.]
+
+Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired, could not have withstood
+the pressure. It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for
+civilization, for humanity. The country had been flooded by
+representatives of German propaganda, papers had been hired and, by all
+report, money in large amounts distributed. But every German effort was
+swept away in the flood of feeling. It was the people's war.
+
+Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber of Deputies adopted by vote of
+407 to 74 the bill conferring upon the government full power to make
+war. All members of the Cabinet maintained absolute silence regarding
+what step should follow the action of the chamber. When the chamber
+reassembled on May 20th, after its long recess, there were present 482
+Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining away on account of illness.
+The Deputies especially applauded were those who wore military uniforms
+and who had asked permission for leave from their military duties to be
+present at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled to overflowing. No
+representatives of Germany, Austria or Turkey were to be seen in the
+diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive was Thomas Nelson Page,
+the American Ambassador, who was accompanied by his staff. M. Barrere,
+Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and Michel de Giers, the French, British and
+Russian Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a few minutes later and all
+were greeted with applause, which was shared by the Belgian, Greek and
+Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan, one-time mayor of New York,
+occupied a seat in the President's tribune.
+
+A few minutes before the session began the poet, Gabrielle D'Annunzio,
+one of the strongest advocates of war, appeared in the rear of the
+public tribune which was so crowded that it seemed impossible to squeeze
+in anybody else. But the moment the people saw him they lifted him
+shoulder high and passed him over their heads to the first row.
+
+The entire chamber, and all those occupying the other tribunes, rose and
+applauded for five minutes, crying "Viva D'Annunzio!" Later thousands
+sent him their cards and in return received his autograph bearing the
+date of this eventful day. Se�or Marcora, President of the Chamber,
+took his place at three o'clock. All the members of the House, and
+everybody in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old follower of
+Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed by all the members of the Cabinet,
+entered shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment. Then a delirium of
+cries broke out.
+
+"Viva Salandra!" roared the Deputies, and the cheering lasted for a long
+time. After the formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra, deeply
+moved by the demonstration, arose and said:
+
+"Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to you a bill to meet the
+eventual expenditures of a national war."
+
+The announcement was greeted by further prolonged applause. The
+Premier's speech was continually interrupted by enthusiasm, and at times
+he could hardly continue on account of the wild cheering. The climax was
+reached when he made a reference to the army and navy. Then the cries
+seemed interminable, and those on the floor of the House and in the
+galleries turned to the military tribune from which the officers
+answered by waving their hands and handkerchiefs.
+
+At the end of the Premier's speech there were deafening vivas for the
+King, war and Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join the cheers,
+even in the cry "Viva Italia!" and they were hooted and hissed.
+
+The action of the Italian Government created intense feeling. A
+newspaper man in Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation, said:
+
+"The exasperation and contempt which Italy's treacherous surprise attack
+and her hypocritical justification aroused here, are quite
+indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia, despite a long and costly war,
+is hated. Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be politicians
+and business men who offer violence to the majority of peaceful Italian
+people, are unutterably hated." On the other hand German papers spoke
+with much more moderation and recognized that Italy was acting in an
+entirely natural manner.
+
+On the very day on which war was declared active operations were begun.
+Both sides had been making elaborate preparations. Austria had prepared
+herself by building strong fortifications in which were employed the
+latest technical improvements in defensive warfare. Upon the Garso and
+around Gorizia the Austrians had placed innumerable batteries of
+powerful guns mounted on rails and protected by armor plates. They also
+had a great number of medium and smaller guns. A net of trenches had
+been excavated and constructed in cement all along the edge of the hills
+which dominated the course of the Isonzo River.
+
+These trenches, occupying a position nearly impregnable because so
+mountainous, were defended by every modern device. They were protected
+with numerous machine guns, surrounded by wire entanglements through
+which ran a strong electric current. These lines of trenches followed
+without interruption from the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the
+mountains which dominate it; they formed a kind of formidable staircase
+which had to be conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice.
+
+During this same period General Cadorna, then head of the Italian army,
+had been bringing that army up to date, working for high efficiency and
+piling up munitions.
+
+The Army of Italy was a formidable one. Every man in Italy is liable to
+military service for a period of nineteen years from the age of twenty
+to thirty-nine.
+
+At the time of the war the approximate war strength of the army was as
+follows: Officers, 41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910;
+reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial militia,
+1,889,659; total strength, 3,159,836. The above number of total men
+available included upward of 1,200,000 fully trained soldiers, with
+perhaps another 800,000 partially trained men, the remaining million
+being completely untrained men. This army was splendidly armed, its
+officers well educated, and the men brave and disciplined.
+
+The Italian plan of campaign apparently consisted first, in neutralizing
+the Trentino by capturing or covering the defenses and cutting the two
+lines of communication with Austria proper, the railway which ran south
+from Insbruck, and that which ran southwest from Vienna and joined the
+former at Fransensfets; and second, in a movement in force on the
+eastern frontier, with Trieste captured or covered on the right flank in
+the direction of the Austrian fortress at Klagenfurt and Vienna.
+
+The first blow was struck by Austria on the day that war was declared.
+On that day bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other Adriatic ports
+were shelled from air, and some from sea. The Italian armies invaded
+Austria on the east with great rapidity, and by May 27th a part of the
+Italian forces had moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone, sixteen
+miles northwest of Trieste. Another force penetrated further to the
+north in the Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisco. Reports from Italy
+were that encounters with the enemy had thus far been merely outpost
+skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy advantageous positions on
+Austrian territory. By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the greater
+part of the west bank of the Isonzo, with little opposition. The left
+wing was beyond the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among the boulders of
+Monte Nero, where the Austrian artillery had strong positions.
+Monfalcone was kept under constant bombardment.
+
+A general Italian advance took place on June 7th across the Isonzo River
+from Caporetto to the sea, a distance of about forty miles. Monfalcone
+was taken by the Italians on June the 10th, the first serious blow
+against Trieste, as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and its
+electrical works operated the light and power of Trieste.
+
+Next day the center made a great blow against Gradisca and Sagrado, but
+the river line proved too strong. The only success was won that night at
+Plava, north of Borrigia, which was carried by a surprise attack. The
+Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious obstacle to the onrush of
+the Italians. By June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed forward
+along the gulf of Trieste toward the town of Nebrosina, nine miles from
+Trieste.
+
+Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being constantly strengthened. The
+initial weakness of the Austrian defensive was due to the fact that the
+armies normally assigned to the invaded region had been sent to defend
+the Austrian line in Galicia against the Russians. When Italy began her
+invasion the defenses of the country were chiefly in the hands of
+hastily mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen, and men
+above the military age of forty-two. From now on Austrian troops began
+to arrive from the Galician front, some of these representing the finest
+fighting material in the Austrian ranks. The chance of an easy victory
+was slipping from Italy's hands. The Italian advance was checked.
+
+On the 15th of June the Italians carried an important position on Monte
+Nero, climbing the rocks by night and attacking by dawn. But this
+conquest did not help much. No guns of great caliber could be carried on
+the mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily fortified, and
+contained a garrison of some thirty thousand men, was entirely safe.
+The following week there were repeated counter-attacks at Plava and on
+Monte Nero, but the Italians held what they had won.
+
+The position was now that Cadorna's left wing was in a strong position,
+but could not do much against Tolmino. His center was facing the great
+camp of Gorizia, while his right was on the edge of the Carso, and had
+advanced as far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad. The army
+was in position to make an attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July an
+attack on a broad front was aimed directly at Gorizia. The left was to
+swing around against the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the center
+was directed against the Gorizia bridge head, and the right was to swing
+around to the northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it succeeded the
+Trieste railway would be cut and Gorizia must fall.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF CADORNA'S OPERATIONS
+
+Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the
+Italians August 9, 1916.]
+
+Long and confused fighting followed. The center and the right of the
+Italian army slowly advanced their line, taking over one thousand
+prisoners. For days there was continuous bombardment and
+counter-bombardment. The fighting on the left was terrific. In the
+neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found themselves opposed by
+Hungarian troops, unaccustomed to mountain warfare, who at first fell
+back. Austrian reserves came to their aid, and flung back three times
+the Italian charge.
+
+Three new Italian brigades were brought up, and King Victor Emanuel
+himself came to encourage his troops. The final assault carried the
+heights. On the 22d of July the Italian right captured the crest of San
+Michele, which dominates the Doberdo plateau.
+
+Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being heavily reinforced, and General
+Cadorna found himself unable to make progress. Much ground had been won
+but Gorizia was still unredeemed. Many important vantage points were in
+Italian hands, but it was difficult to advance. The result of the three
+months' campaign was a stalemate. In the high mountains to the north
+Italy's campaign was a war of defense. To undertake her offensive on the
+Isonzo it was necessary that she guard her flanks and rear. The
+Tyrolese battle-ground contained three distinct points where it was
+necessary to operate; the Trentino Salient, the passes of the Dolomites,
+and the passes of the Carnic Alps.
+
+Early in June Italy had won control of the ridges of the mountains in
+the two latter points, but the problem in the Trentino was more
+difficult. It was necessary, because of the converging valleys, to push
+her front well inland. On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of
+unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle centered around the pass of
+Monte Croce Carnico.
+
+In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating positions to the west of
+the pass, but the Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great deal of
+picturesque fighting went on, but not much progress was made. Further
+west in the Dolomite region there was more fighting. On the 30th of May
+Cartina had been captured, and the Italians moved north toward the
+Pusterthal Railway. Progress was slow, as the main routes to the railway
+were difficult.
+
+By the middle of August they were only a few miles from the railway,
+but all the routes led through defiles, and the neighboring heights were
+in the possession of the Austrians. To capture these heights was a most
+difficult feat, which the Italians performed in the most brilliant way;
+but even after they had passed these defiles success was not yet won.
+Each Italian column was in its own grove, with no lateral communication.
+The Austrians could mass themselves where they pleased. As a result the
+Italian forces were compelled to halt.
+
+In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon captured the passes, and
+moved against Trente and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified,
+as were their surrounding heights. The campaign became a series of small
+fights on mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only small bodies of
+troops could maneuver, and the raising of guns up steep precipices was
+extremely difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded in gaining ground,
+and established a chain of posts around the heights so that often one
+would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments at a height of more than
+ten thousand feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The Alpini
+performed wonderful feats of physical endurance, but the plains of
+Lombardy were still safe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+
+If ever the true mettle and temper of a people were tried and
+exemplified in the crucible of battle, that battle was the naval and
+land engagement embracing Gallipoli and the Dardanelles and the people
+so tested, the British race. Separated in point of time but united in
+its general plan, the engagements present a picture of heroism founded
+upon strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and dogged determination
+against overwhelming natural and artificial odds as even the pages of
+supreme British bravery cannot parallel. The immortal charge of the
+Light Brigade was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely a battle
+fragment and its glorious record was written in blood within the scope
+of a comparatively few inspired minutes. In the mine-strewn Dardanelles
+and upon the sun-baked, blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli, death
+always partnered every sailor and soldier. As at Balaklava, virtually
+everyone knew that some one had blundered, but the army and the navy as
+one man fought to the bitter end to make the best of a bad bargain, to
+tear triumph out of impossibilities.
+
+France co-operated with the British in the naval engagement, but the
+greater sacrifice, the supreme charnel house of the war, the British
+race reserved for itself. There, the yeomanry of England, the unsung
+county regiments whose sacrifices and achievements have been neglected
+in England's generous desire to honor the men from "down under," the
+Australians and New Zealanders grouped under the imperishable title of
+the Anzacs--there the Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted
+British Army with the great fighters from the self-governing colonies
+waged a battle so hopeless and so gallant that the word Gallipoli shall
+always remind the world how man may triumph over the fear of death; how
+with nothing but defeat and disaster before them, men may go to their
+deaths as unconcernedly as in other days they go to their nightly sleep.
+
+On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Turkey.
+Hostilities, however, had preceded the declaration. On November 3d the
+combined French and British squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts.
+This was merely intended to draw the fire of the forts and make an
+estimate of their power. From that time on a blockade was maintained,
+and on the 13th of December a submarine, commanded by Lieutenant
+Holbrook, entered the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship
+Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine fields.
+
+By the end of January the blockading fleet, through constant
+reinforcement, had become very strong, and had seized the Island of
+Tenedos and taken possession of Lemnos, which nominally belonged to
+Greece, as bases for naval operations. On the 19th of February began the
+great attack upon the forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles, which
+attracted the attention of the world for nearly a year.
+
+The expedition against the Dardanelles had been considered with the
+greatest care, and approved by the naval authorities. That their
+judgment was correct, however, is another question. The history of naval
+warfare seems to make very plain that a ship, however powerful, is at a
+tremendous disadvantage when attacking forts on land. The badly served
+cannon of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British fleet, but Gallipoli
+had been fortified by German engineers, and its guns were the Krupp
+cannon. The British fleet found itself opposed by unsurmountable
+obstacles. Looking backward it seems possible, that if at the very start
+Lord Kitchener had permitted a detachment of troops to accompany the
+fleet, success might have been attained, but without the army the navy
+was powerless.
+
+The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of land about fifty miles long,
+varying in width from twelve to two or three miles. It is a mass of
+rocky hills so steep that in many places it is a matter of difficulty to
+reach their tops. On it are a few villages, but there are no decent
+roads and little cultivated land. On the southern shore of the
+Dardanelles conditions are nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a flat
+and marshy plain, but east of this plain are hills three thousand feet
+high. The high ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides, and with
+the exception of narrow bits of beach at their base, presents almost no
+opportunity for landing.
+
+A strong current continually sifts down the straits from the Sea of
+Marmora.
+
+Forts were placed at the entrance on both the north and south side, but
+they were not heavily armed and were merely outposts. Fourteen miles
+from the mouth the straits become quite narrow, making a sharp turn
+directly north and then resuming their original direction. The channel
+thus makes a sharp double bend. At the entrance to the strait, known as
+the Narrows, were powerful fortresses, and the slopes were studded with
+batteries. Along both sides of the channel the low ground was lined with
+batteries. It was possible to attack the forts at fairly long range,
+but there was no room to bring any large number of ships into action
+at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
+
+Showing the various landing-places, with inset of the Sari-Bair Region.]
+
+At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there were probably nearly half a
+million of men available for a defense of the straits, men well armed
+and well trained under German leadership. The first step was
+comparatively easy. The operations against the other forts began at 8
+A.M. on Friday, the 19th of February. The ships engaged were the
+Inflexible, the Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance and the Triumph
+from the British fleet, and the Bouvet, Suffren, and the Gaulois from
+the French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral Sackville Carden. The
+French squadron was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette. A flotilla of
+destroyers accompanied the fleet, and airplanes were sent up to guide
+the fire of the battleships.
+
+At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle some miles out to sea
+from the entrance to the strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as
+the ships came along and took up position, and the picture became most
+awe-inspiring when the guns began to boom. The bombardment at first was
+slow. Shells from the various ships screaming through the air at the
+rate of about one every two minutes.
+
+The Turkish batteries, however, were not to be drawn, and, seeing this,
+the British Admiral sent one British ship and one French ship close in
+shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr forts. As they went in they sped right
+under the guns of the shore batteries, which could no longer resist the
+temptation to see what they could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted the
+landscape on the far shore, and dull booms echoed over the placid water.
+Around the ships fountains of water sprang up into the air. The enemy
+had been drawn, but his marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not a
+single shot directed against the ships went within a hundred yards of
+either.
+
+At sundown on account of the failing light Admiral Carden withdrew the
+fleet. On account of the bad weather the attack was not renewed until
+February 25th. It appeared that the outer forts had not been seriously
+damaged on the 19th, and that what injury had been done had been
+repaired. In an hour and a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced. The
+Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range of six miles, which killed
+three men and wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr was
+attacked at close range, but not silenced till after 5 P.M. At this time
+British trawlers began sweeping the entrance for mines, and during the
+next day the mine field was cleared for a distance of four miles up the
+straits.
+
+As soon as this clearance was made the Albion, Vengeance and Majestic
+steamed into the strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification some
+distance below the Narrows. The Turks replied vigorously, not only from
+Dardanos but from batteries scattered along the shore. Believing that
+the Turks had abandoned the forts at the entrance, landing parties of
+marines were sent to shore. In a short time, however, they met a
+detachment of the enemy and were compelled to retreat to their boats.
+The outer forts, however, were destroyed, and their destruction was
+extremely encouraging to the Allies.
+
+For a time a series of minor operations was carried on, meeting with
+much success. Besides attacks on forts inside of the strait, Smyrna was
+bombarded on March the 5th, and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth,
+the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded the forts at Chanak on the Asiatic
+side of the Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros on the outer
+side of the Gallipoli Peninsula. To all of these attacks the Turks
+replied vigorously and the attacking ships were repeatedly struck, but
+with no loss of life. On the 7th of March Fort Dardanos was silenced,
+and Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned out, only temporarily.
+
+Preparations were now being made for a serious effort against the
+Narrows. The date of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather
+permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden was stricken down with illness
+and was invalided by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck, second in
+command, who had been very active in the operations, was appointed to
+succeed him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial sympathy with the
+purposes of the expedition and determined to attack on the 18th of
+March. At a quarter to eleven that morning, the Queen Elizabeth,
+Inflexible, Agamemnon, Lord Nelson, the Triumph and Prince George
+steamed up the straits towards the Narrows, and bombarded the forts of
+Chanak. At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting of the Suffren,
+Gaulois, Charlemagne, and Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid
+their English associates.
+
+Under the combined fire of the two squadrons the Turkish forts, which at
+first replied strongly, were finally silenced. All of the ships,
+however, were hit several times during this part of the action. A third
+squadron, including the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion, Ocean,
+Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced to relieve the six old
+battleships inside the strait.
+
+[Illustration: THE LOSS OF THE "IRRESISTIBLE"
+
+During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship
+"Irresistible" struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe
+losses of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible to
+force the strait by naval attack.]
+
+As the French squadron, which had engaged the forts in a most brilliant
+fashion, was passing out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting mine
+and sank in less than three minutes, carrying with her most of her crew.
+At 2.36 P.M. the relief battleships renewed the attack on the forts,
+which again opened fire. The Turks were now sending mines down with the
+current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the line, listing heavily, and
+at 5.50 she sank, having probably struck a drifting mine. At 6.05 the
+Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in deep water. Practically the
+whole of the crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was damaged by
+gunfire; the Inflexible had her forward control position hit by a heavy
+shell, which killed and wounded the majority of the men and officers at
+that station and set her on fire. At sunset the forts were still in
+action, and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped out of the
+Dardanelles.
+
+Meantime, an expeditionary force was being gathered. The largest portion
+of this force came from Great Britain, but France also provided a
+considerable number from her marines and from her Colonial army. Both
+nations avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the armies destined
+for service in France.
+
+In the English army there were divisions from Australia and New Zealand
+and there were a number of Indian troops and Territorials. The whole
+force was put under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The
+commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was the German General Liman von
+Sanders, the former chief of the military mission at Constantinople. The
+bulk of the expeditionary force, which numbered altogether about a
+hundred and twenty thousand men, were, therefore, men whose presence in
+the east did not weaken the Allied strength in the west.
+
+The great difficulty of the new plan was that it was impossible to
+surprise the enemy. The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small that a
+landing at any point would be promptly observed, and the nature of the
+ground was of such a character that progress from any point must
+necessarily be slow. The problem was therefore a simple one.
+
+The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt during the first half of
+April, and about the middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos.
+Germany was well aware of the English plans, and was doing all that it
+could to provide a defense.
+
+On April 28d the movement began, and about five o'clock in the afternoon
+the first of the transports slowly made its way through the maze of
+shipping toward the entrance of Mudros Bay.
+
+Immediately the patent apathy, which had gradually overwhelmed everyone,
+changed to the utmost enthusiasm, and as the liners steamed through the
+fleet, their decks yellow with khaki, the crews of the warships cheered
+them on to victory while the bands played them out with an unending
+variety of popular airs. The soldiers in the transports answered this
+last salutation from the navy with deafening cheers, and no more
+inspiring spectacle has ever been seen than this great expedition.
+
+The whole of the fleet from the transports had been divided up into five
+divisions and there were three main landings. The 29th Division
+disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr,
+where its operations were covered both from the gulf of Saros and from
+the Dardanelles by the fire of the covering warships. The Australian and
+New Zealand contingent disembarked north of Gaba Tepe. Further north a
+naval division made a demonstration.
+
+Awaiting the Australians was a party of Turks who had been intrenched
+almost on the shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade. The
+Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to the occasion. They waited
+neither for orders nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing
+out into the sea they went in to the shore, and forming some sort of a
+rough line rushed straight on the flashes of the enemy's rifles. In less
+than a quarter of an hour the Turks were in full flight.
+
+While the Australians and New Zealanders, or Anzacs as they are now
+generally known from the initials of the words Australian-New Zealand
+Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly at Gaba Tepe, the British troops
+were landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The
+advance was slow and difficult. The Turk was pushed back, little by
+little, and the ground gained organized. The details of this progress,
+though full of incidents of the greatest courage and daring, need not be
+recounted.
+
+On June the 4th a general attack was made, preceded by heavy
+bombardments by all guns, but after terrific fighting, in which many
+prisoners were captured and great losses suffered, the net result was an
+advance of about five hundred yards. As time went on the general
+impression throughout the Allied countries was that the expedition had
+failed. On June 30th the losses of the Turks were estimated at not less
+than seventy thousand, and the British naval and military losses up to
+June 1st, aggregated 38,635 officers and men. At that time the British
+and French allies held but a small corner of the area to be conquered.
+In all of these attacks the part played by the Australian and New
+Zealand army corps was especially notable. Reinforcements were
+repeatedly sent to the Allies, who worked more and more feverishly as
+time went on with the hope of aiding Russia, which was then desperately
+struggling against the great German advance.
+
+On August 17th it was reported that a landing had been made at Suvla
+Bay, the extreme western point of the Peninsula. From this point it was
+hoped to threaten the Turkish communications with their troops at the
+lower end of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however, failed to make
+any impression, and in the first part of September, vigorous Turkish
+counter, offensives gained territory from the Franco-British troops.
+According to the English reports the Turks paid a terrible price for
+their success.
+
+It had now become evident that the expedition was a failure. The Germans
+were already gloating over what they called the "failure of British sea
+power," and English publicists were attempting to show that, though the
+enterprise had failed, the very presence of a strong Allied force at
+Saloniki had been an enormous gain. The first official announcement of
+failure was made December 20, 1916, when it was announced that the
+British forces at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been withdrawn, and that only
+the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr were occupied. Great Britain's
+loss of officers and men at the Dardanelles up to December 11th was
+112,921, according to an announcement made in the House of Commons by
+the Parliamentary Under Secretary for War. Besides these casualties the
+number of sick admitted to hospitals was 96,688. The decision to
+evacuate Gallipoli was made in the course of November by the British
+Government as the result of the early expressed opinion of General
+Monro, who had succeeded General Hamilton on October 28, 1915.
+
+General Monro found himself confronted with a serious problem in the
+attempt to withdraw an army of such a size from positions not more than
+three hundred yards from the enemy's trenches, and to embark on open
+beaches every part of which was within effective range of Turkish guns.
+Moreover, the evacuation must be done gradually, as it was impossible
+to move the whole army at once with such means of transportation as
+existed. The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies and heavy guns
+by instalments, working only at night, carrying off at the same time a
+large portion of the troops, but leaving certain picked battalions to
+guard the trenches. Every endeavor had to be made for concealment. The
+plan was splendidly successful, and the Turks apparently completely
+deceived. On December 20th the embarkation of the last troops at Suvla
+was accomplished. The operations at Anzac were conducted in the same
+way. Only picked battalions were left to the end, and these were carried
+safely off.
+
+[Illustration: THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE "RIVER CLYDE" AT SEDDUL
+BAHR
+
+An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were
+sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of the Turkish
+machine guns on shore.]
+
+The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation made the position at Cape
+Helles more dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout, and it seemed
+almost impossible that they could be again deceived. On January 7th an
+attack was made by the Turks upon the trenches, which was beaten back.
+That night more than half the troops had left the Peninsula. The next
+day there was a heavy storm which made embarkation difficult, but it was
+nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation was a clever and
+successful bit of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+
+Germany's ambition for conquest at sea had been nursed and carefully
+fostered for twenty years. During the decade immediately preceding the
+declaration of war, it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building
+that brought it into direct conflict with England's sea policy.
+Thereafter it became a race in naval construction, England piling up a
+huge debt in its determination to construct two tons of naval shipping
+to every one ton built by Germany.
+
+Notwithstanding Great Britain's efforts in this direction, Germany's
+naval experts, with the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained
+that, given a fair seaway with ideal weather conditions favoring the low
+visibility tactics of the German sea command, a victory for the Teutonic
+ships would follow. It was this belief that drew the ships of the
+German cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the coast of Jutland and
+Horn Reef into the great battle that decided the supremacy of the sea.
+
+The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in history as the date of this
+titanic conflict. The British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty near
+Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o'clock on the afternoon of that day, that it
+had sighted smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy vessels from the
+direction of Helgoland Bight. Fifteen minutes later the smoke plumes
+were in such number and volume that the advance of a considerable force
+to the northward and eastward was indicated. It was reasoned by
+Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea had sent the news by radio,
+that the enemy in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably be brought into
+action. The first ships of the enemy were sighted at 3.31 o'clock. These
+were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. Back of these were five
+modern battle cruisers of the highest power and armament.
+
+The report of the battle, by an eye-witness, that was issued upon
+semiofficial authority of the British Government, follows:
+
+First Phase, 3.30 P.M. May 31st. Beatty's battle cruisers, consisting
+of the Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible, Indomitable,
+Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand, were on a southeasterly
+course, followed at about two miles distance by the four battleships of
+the class known as Queen Elizabeths.
+
+Enemy light cruisers were sighted and shortly afterward the head of the
+German battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new cruiser
+Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, L�tzow, Moltke, and possibly the
+Salamis.
+
+Beatty at once began firing at a range of about 20,000 yards (twelve
+miles) which shortened to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets
+closed. The Germans could see the British distinctly outlined against
+the light yellow sky. The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very
+indistinctly made out by the British gunners.
+
+The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one after another as they came
+within range. The German battle cruisers turned to port and drew away
+to about 20,000 yards.
+
+Second Phase, 4.40 P.M. A destroyer screen then appeared beyond the
+German battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen
+approaching on the northeastern horizon in three divisions, coming to
+the support of their battle cruisers.
+
+The German battle cruisers now turned right around 16 points and took
+station in front of the battleships of the High Fleet.
+
+Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting battleships, therefore,
+had before him the whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe was
+still some distance away.
+
+The opposing fleets were now moving parallel to one another in opposite
+directions, and but for a master maneuver on the part of Beatty the
+British advance ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe's Grand
+Fleet. In order to avoid this and at the same time prepare the way so
+that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary, Beatty immediately also
+turned right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships parallel to the
+German battle cruisers and facing the same direction.
+
+As soon as he was around he increased to full speed to get ahead of the
+Germans and take up a tactical position in advance of their line. He was
+able to do this owing to the superior speed of the British battle
+cruisers.
+
+Just before the turning point was reached, the Indefatigable sank, and
+the Queen Mary and the Invincible also were lost at the turning point,
+where, of course, the High Seas Fleet concentrated their fire.
+
+A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers were turning the Queen
+Elizabeths had in similar manner concentrated their fire on the turning
+point and destroyed a new German battle cruiser, believed to be the
+Hindenburg.
+
+Beatty had now got around and headed away with the loss of three ships,
+racing parallel to the German battle cruisers. The Queen Elizabeths
+followed behind engaging the main Seas Fleet.
+
+Third Phase, 5 P.M. The Queen Elizabeths now turned short to port 16
+points in order to follow Beatty. The Warspite jammed her steering
+gear, failed to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
+closed in upon her.
+
+The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have been
+lost, but, as a matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by shell fire
+with the water boiling up all around her, she was not seriously hit, and
+was able to sink one of her opponents. Her captain recovered control of
+the vessel, brought her around, and followed her consorts.
+
+In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and Malaya turned short so as to
+avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible had been
+lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe arrived, fought a delaying action
+against the High Seas Fleet.
+
+The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 o'clock, and all four ships were
+so successfully maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections of
+their opponents that no hits of a seriously disabling character were
+suffered. They had the speed over their opponents by fully four knots,
+and were able to draw away from part of the long line of German
+battleships, which almost filled up the horizon.
+
+At this time the Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing on at the flashes
+of German guns at a range which varied between 12,000 and 15,000 yards,
+especially against those ships which were nearest them. The Germans were
+enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes were visible.
+
+By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had been left out of range, and the
+Queen Elizabeths were steaming fast to join hands with Jellicoe.
+
+To return to Beatty's battle cruisers. They had succeeded in outflanking
+the German battle cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged to turn a
+full right angle to starboard to avoid being headed.
+
+Heavy fighting was renewed between the opposing battle cruiser
+squadrons, during which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 o'clock
+the German fire slackened very considerably, showing that Beatty's
+battle cruisers and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted serious damage
+on their immediate opponents.
+
+Fourth Phase, 6 P.M. The Grand Fleet was now in sight, and, coming up
+fast in three directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their course four
+points to the starboard and drew in toward the enemy to allow Jellicoe
+room to deploy into line.
+
+The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered and the very difficult
+operation of deploying between the battle cruisers and the Queen
+Elizabeths was perfectly timed.
+
+Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty's cruisers, and followed by the
+damaged but still serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right across the
+head of the German fleet.
+
+The first of the ships to come into action were the Revenue and the
+Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch guns, and the Agincourt which fired
+from her seven turrets with the speed almost of a Maxim gun.
+
+The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. They had been
+perfectly maneuvered, so as to "cross the T" of the High Seas Fleet,
+and, indeed, only decent light was necessary to complete their work of
+destroying the Germans in detail. The light did improve for a few
+minutes, and the conditions were favorable to the British fleet, which
+was now in line approximately north and south across the head of the
+Germans.
+
+During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe smashed up the first three
+German ships, but the mist came down, visibility suddenly failed, and
+the defeated High Seas Fleet was able to draw off in ragged divisions.
+
+Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were followed by the British, who still
+had them enveloped between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty on the north,
+and Evan Thomas with his three Queen Elizabeths on the south. The
+Warspite had been sent back to her base.
+
+During the night the torpedo boat destroyers heavily attacked the German
+ships, and, although they lost seriously themselves, succeeded in
+sinking two of the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT
+
+This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses of
+the opposing German and British battle fleets.]
+
+Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was practically impossible to
+keep up, and the Germans discovered by the rays of their searchlights
+the three Queen Elizabeths, not more than 4,000 yards away.
+Unfortunately they were then able to escape between the battleships and
+Jellicoe, since the British gunners were not able to fire, as the
+destroyers were in the way.
+
+So ended the Jutland battle, which was fought as had been planned and
+very nearly a great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable weather
+conditions, especially at the critical moment, when the whole British
+fleet was concentrated and engaged in crushing the head of the German
+line.
+
+Commenting on the engagement, Admiral Jellicoe said: "The battle cruiser
+fleet, gallantly led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably supported by
+the ships of the fifth battle squadron under Rear Admiral Evan-Thomas,
+fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous conditions,
+especially in regard to light, in a manner that was in keeping with the
+best traditions of the service."
+
+His estimate of the German losses was: two battleships of the
+dreadnought type, one of the Deutschland type, which was seen to sink;
+the battle cruiser L�tzow, admitted by the Germans; one battle cruiser
+of the dreadnought type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely
+damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; five light cruisers,
+seen to sink--one of them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen to
+sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was doubtful if they would be
+able to reach port, and a submarine sunk. The official German report
+admitted only eleven ships sunk; the first British report placed the
+total at eighteen, but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one German
+vessels as probably lost.
+
+The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German naval men: "The enemy," he
+said, "fought with the gallantry that was expected of him. We
+particularly admired the conduct of those on board a disabled German
+light cruiser which passed down the British line shortly after the
+deployment under a heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun left
+in action. The conduct of the officers and men war entirely beyond
+praise. On all sides it is reported that the glorious traditions of the
+past were most worthily upheld; whether in the heavy ships, cruisers,
+light cruisers, or destroyers, the same admirable spirit prevailed. The
+officers and men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness that would
+have carried them through anything. The heroism of the wounded was the
+'admiration' of all. I cannot adequately express the pride with which
+the spirit of the fleet filled me."
+
+At daylight on the 1st of June the British battle fleet, being
+southward of Horn Reef, turned northward in search of the enemy vessels.
+The visibility early on the first of June was three to four miles less
+than on May 31st, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out of visual
+touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 A.M. The British fleet remained
+in the proximity of the battlefield and near the line of approach to the
+German ports until 11 A.M., in spite of the disadvantage of long
+distances from fleet bases and the danger incurred in waters adjacent
+to the enemy's coasts from submarines and torpedo craft.
+
+The enemy, however, made no sign, and the admiral was reluctantly
+compelled to the conclusion that the High Sea Fleet had returned into
+port. Subsequent events proved this assumption to have been correct. The
+British position must have been known to the enemy, as at 4 A.M. the
+fleet engaged a Zeppelin about five minutes, during which time she had
+ample opportunity to note and subsequently report the position and
+course of the British fleet.
+
+The Germans at first claimed a victory for their fleet. The test, of
+course, was the outcome of the battle. The fact that the German fleet
+retreated and nevermore ventured forth from beneath the protecting guns
+and mine fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond dispute that the
+British were entitled to the triumph. The German official report makes
+the best presentation of the German case. It follows in full:
+
+     The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship squadrons, five
+     battle cruisers, and a large number of small cruisers, with several
+     destroyer flotillas, was cruising in the Skagerrak on May 31 for
+     the purpose, as on earlier occasions, of offering battle to the
+     British fleet. The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o'clock
+     in the afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety miles
+     west of Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest coast of Jutland), a
+     group of eight of the newest cruisers of the Calliope class and
+     fifteen or twenty of the most modern destroyers.
+
+     While the German light forces and the first cruiser squadron under
+     Vice Admiral Hipper were following the British, who were retiring
+     north-westward, the German battle cruisers sighted to the westward
+     Vice Admiral Beatty's battle squadron of six ships, including four
+     of the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. Beatty's
+     squadron developed a battle line on a southeasterly course and Vice
+     Admiral Hipper formed his line ahead on the same general course and
+     approached for a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o'clock in
+     the afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 meters
+     against the superior enemy. The weather was clear and light, and
+     the sea was light with a northwest wind.
+
+     After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion occurred on
+     the last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. It was caused by a
+     heavy shell, and destroyed the vessel.
+
+     About 6.20 o'clock in the afternoon five warships of the Queen
+     Elizabeth type came from the west and joined the British battle
+     cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing with their fifteen-inch guns
+     the five British battle cruisers remaining after 6.20 o'clock. To
+     equalize this superiority Vice Admiral Hipper ordered the
+     destroyers to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small
+     cruisers interposed, and a bitter engagement at close range
+     ensued, in the course of which a light cruiser participated.
+
+     The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of which were rescued
+     by sister ships under a heavy fire. Two British destroyers were
+     sunk by artillery, and two others--the Nestor and Nomad--remained
+     on the scene in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by
+     the main fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued all the
+     survivors.
+
+     While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, caused
+     by a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, the third ship in line,
+     asunder, at 6.30 o'clock.
+
+     Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was sighted to the
+     southward, steering north. The hostile fast squadrons thereupon
+     turned northward, closing the first part of the fight, which lasted
+     about an hour.
+
+     The British retired at high speed before the German fleet, which
+     followed closely. The German battle cruisers continued the
+     artillery combat with increasing intensity, particularly with the
+     division of the vessels of the Queen Elizabeth type, and in this
+     the leading German battleship division participated intermittently.
+     The hostile ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead of
+     the point of our line and to cross it.
+
+     At 7.45 o'clock in the evening British small cruisers and
+     destroyers launched an attack against our battle cruisers, who
+     avoided the torpedoes by manoeuvring, while the British battle
+     cruisers retired from the engagement, in which they did not
+     participate further as far as can be established. Shortly
+     thereafter a German reconnoitring group, which was parrying the
+     destroyer attack, received an attack from the northeast. The
+     cruiser Wiesbaden was soon put out of action in this attack. The
+     German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the heavy ships.
+
+     Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the northeast was made
+     out a long line of at least twenty-five battleships, which at first
+     sought a junction with the British battle cruisers and those of the
+     Queen Elizabeth type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and
+     then turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.
+
+     With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre consisted
+     of three squadrons of eight battleships each, with a fast division
+     of three battle cruisers of the Invincible type on the
+     northern-end, and three of the newest vessels of the Royal
+     Sovereign class, armed with fifteen-inch guns, at the southern end,
+     there began about 8 o'clock in the evening the third section of the
+     engagement, embracing the combat between the main fleets.
+
+     Vice Admiral Seheer determined to attack the British main fleet,
+     which he now recognised was completely assembled and about doubly
+     superior. The German battleship squadron, headed by battle
+     cruisers, steered first toward the extensive haze bank to the
+     northeast, where the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still
+     receiving a heavy fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual
+     fights under quickly changing conditions now occurred.
+
+     The light enemy forces, supported by an armored cruiser squadron of
+     five ships of the Minatour, Achilles, and Duke of Edinburgh classes
+     coming from the northeast, were encountered and apparently
+     surprised on account of the decreasing visibility of our battle
+     cruisers and leading battleship division. The squadron came under
+     a violent and heavy fire by which the small cruisers Defense and
+     Black Prince were sunk. The cruiser Warrior regained its own line a
+     wreck and later sank. Another small cruiser was damaged severely.
+
+     Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack of German
+     torpedo boats against the leading British battleships and a small
+     cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The German battle cruisers
+     and leading battleship division had in these engagements come under
+     increased fire of the enemy's battleship squadron, which, shortly
+     after 8 o'clock, could be made out in the haze turning to the
+     north-eastward and finally to the east, Germans observed, amid the
+     artillery combat and shelling of great intensity, signs of the
+     effect of good shooting between 8.20 and 8.30 o'clock particularly.
+     Several officers on German ships observed that a battleship of the
+     Queen Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar to that of
+     the Queen Mary. The Invincible sank after being hit severely. A
+     ship of the Iron Duke class had earlier received a torpedo hit, and
+     one of the Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle,
+     its steering apparatus apparently having been hit.
+
+     The L�tzow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells and was unable
+     to maintain its place in line. Vice Admiral Hipper, therefore,
+     transshipped to the Moltke on a torpedo boat and under a heavy
+     fire. The Derfflinger meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of
+     the German torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy's main fleet and
+     heard detonations. In the action the Germans lost a torpedo boat.
+     An enemy destroyer was seen in a sinking condition, having been hit
+     by a torpedo.
+
+     After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the superior
+     enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in the smoke by powder
+     clouds. After a short cessation in the artillery combat Vice
+     Admiral Scheer ordered a new attack by all the available forces.
+
+     German battle cruisers, which with several light cruisers and
+     torpedo boats again headed the line, encountered the enemy soon
+     after 9 o'clock and renewed the heavy fire, which was answered by
+     them from the mist, and then by the leading division of the main
+     fleet. Armored cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset at
+     extreme speed against the enemy line in order to cover the attack
+     of the torpedo boats. They approached the enemy line, although
+     covered with shot from 6,000 meters distances. Several German
+     torpedo flotillas dashed forward to attack, delivered torpedoes,
+     and returned, despite the most severe counterfire, with the loss of
+     only one boat. The bitter artillery fire was again interrupted,
+     after this second violent onslaught, by the smoke from guns and
+     funnels.
+
+     Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack somewhat
+     later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, that the enemy
+     fleet was no longer before them; nor, when the fleet commander
+     again brought the German squadrons upon the southerly and
+     southwesterly course where the enemy was last seen, could our
+     opponents be found. Only once more--shortly before 10.30
+     o'clock--did the battle flare up. For a short time in the late
+     twilight German battle cruisers sighted four enemy capital ships to
+     seaward and opened fire immediately. As the two German battleship
+     squadrons attacked, the enemy turned and vanished in the darkness.
+     Older German light cruisers of the fourth reconnoissance group
+     also were engaged with the older enemy armored cruisers in a short
+     fight.
+
+     This ended the day battle.
+
+     The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the enemy, began
+     a night cruise in a southerly direction, were attacked until dawn
+     by enemy light force in rapid succession.
+
+     The attacks were favored by the general strategic situation and the
+     particularly dark night.
+
+     The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during the engagement of
+     the fourth reconnoissance group with a superior cruiser force, and
+     was lost from sight.
+
+     One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared close to
+     a German battleship and was shot into fire after forty seconds, and
+     sank in four minutes.
+
+     The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard to decipher in
+     the darkness and therefore were uncertainly established) and four
+     destroyers--3, 78, 06, and 27--were destroyed by our fire. One
+     destroyer was cut in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven
+     destroyers, including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged.
+     These, including the Tipperary and Turbulent, which after saving
+     survivors, were left behind in a sinking condition, drifted past
+     our line, some of them burning at the bow or stern.
+
+     The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the German ships,
+     but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell an immediate victim to a
+     torpedo. The cruiser Rostock was hit, but remained afloat. The
+     cruiser Elbing was damaged by a German battleship during an
+     unavoidable maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat
+     the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had embarked on
+     torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was struck by a mine laid by the
+     enemy.
+
+                   ADMITTED LOSSES--BRITISH
+
+  NAME                                TONNAGE  PERSONNEL
+
+  Queen Mary (battle cruiser)          27,000      1,000
+  Indefatigable (battle cruiser)       18,750        800
+  Invincible (battle cruiser)          17,250        750
+  Defense (armored cruiser)            14,600        755
+  Warrior (armored cruiser)            13,550        704
+  Black Prince (armored cruiser)       13,550        704
+  Tipperary (destroyer)                 1,850        150
+  Turbulent (destroyer)                 1,850        150
+  Shark (destroyer)                       950        100
+  Sparrowhawk (destroyer)                 950        100
+  Ardent  (destroyer)                     950        100
+  Fortune (destroyer)                     950        100
+  Nomad (destroyer)                       950        100
+  Nestor (destroyer)                      950        100
+
+                        BRITISH TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                      63,000      2,550
+  Armored cruisers                     41,700      2,163
+  Destroyers                            9,400        900
+
+  Fourteen ships                      114,100      5,613
+
+
+                  ADMITTED LOSSES--GERMAN[A]
+
+  NAME                                TONNAGE  PERSONNEL
+
+  Lutzow (battle cruiser)              26,600      1,200
+  Pommern (battleship)                 13,200        729
+  Wiesbaden (cruiser)                   5,600        450
+  Frauenlob (cruiser)                   2,715        264
+  Elbing (cruiser)                      5,000        450
+  Rostock (cruiser)                     4,900        373
+  Five destroyers                       5,000        500
+
+                         GERMAN TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                      39,800      1,929
+  Cruisers                             18,215      1,537
+  Destroyers                            5,000        500
+
+  Eleven ships                         63,015      3,966
+
+[Footnote A: These figures are given for what they are worth, but no one
+outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were very much greater
+than admitted in the official report.]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS
+
+Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY
+
+Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.]
+
+                   TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN
+
+                        BRITISH
+
+  Dead or missing.............................. 6,104
+  Wounded......................................   513
+
+  Total........................................ 6,617
+
+                         GERMAN
+
+  Dead or missing.............................. 2,414
+  Wounded .....................................   449
+
+  Total........................................ 2,863
+
+
+                 LOSS IN MONEY VALUE
+                  (Rough Estimate)
+
+  British ............................... $115,000,000
+  German ................................   63,000,000
+
+  Total.................................. $178,000,000
+
+
+While the world was still puzzling over the conflicting reports of the
+Battle of Jutland came the shocking news that Field Marshal Lord Horatio
+Herbert Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, had perished
+off the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through the sinking of the
+British cruiser Hampshire. The entire crew was also lost, except twelve
+men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who escaped on a raft. Earl
+Kitchener was on his way to Russia, at the request of the Russian
+Government, for a consultation regarding munitions to be furnished the
+Russian army. He was intending to go to Archangel and visit Petrograd,
+and expected to be back in London by June 20th. He was accompanied
+by Hugh James O'Beirne, former Councillor of the British Embassy at
+Petrograd, O.A. Fitz-Gerald, his military secretary, Brigadier-General
+Ellarshaw, and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of whom were lost.
+
+The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire is not known. It is supposed
+that it struck a mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought into
+existence many stories which ascribe his death to more direct German
+action.
+
+Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes Lord Kitchener's last
+moments as follows: "Of those who left the ship, and have survived, I
+was the one who saw Lord Kitchener last. He went down with the ship, he
+did not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his boat's crew to clear
+away his galley. At the same time the Captain was calling to Lord
+Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the noise made by the wind
+and sea, Lord Kitchener could not hear him, I think. When the explosion
+occurred, Kitchener walked calmly from the Captain's cabin, went up
+the ladder and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him walking quite
+collectedly, talking to two of the officers. All three were wearing
+khaki and had no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched the preparations
+for abandoning the ship, which were going on in a steady and orderly
+way. The crew just went to their stations, obeyed orders, and did their
+best to get out the boats. But it was impossible. Owing to the rough
+weather, no boats could be lowered. Those that were got out were
+smashed up at once. No boats left the ship. What people on the shore
+thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. Men did get into the boats as
+these lay in their cradles, thinking that as the ship went under the
+boats would float, but the ship sank by the head, and when she went she
+turned a somersault forward, carrying down with her all the boats and
+those in them. I do not think Kitchener got into a boat. When I sprang
+to a raft he was still on the starboard side of the quarter deck,
+talking with the officers. From the little time that elapsed between my
+leaving the ship and her sinking I feel certain Kitchener went down with
+her, and was on deck at the time she sank."
+
+[Illustration: WHERE EARL KITCHENER MET HIS DEATH]
+
+The British Admiralty, after investigation, gave out a statement
+declaring that the vessel struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes
+after.
+
+The news of Lord Kitchener's death shocked the whole Allied world. He
+was the most important personality in the British Empire. He had built
+up the British army, and his name was one to conjure by. His efficiency
+was a proverb, and he had an air of mystery about him that made him a
+sort of a popular hero. He was great before the World War began; he was
+the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner of the South African campaign;
+the reorganizer of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of War he had
+met with some criticism, but he possessed, more than any other man,
+the public confidence. At the beginning of the war he was appointed
+Secretary of War at the demand of an overwhelming public opinion. He
+realized more than any one else what such a war would mean. When others
+thought of it as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized that
+there would be years of bitter conflict. He asked England to give up its
+cherished tradition of a volunteer army; to go through arduous military
+training; he saw the danger to the Empire, and he alone, perhaps, had
+the authority to inspire his countrymen with the will to sacrifice. But
+his work was done. The great British army was in the field.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+
+In the very beginning Russia had marked out one point for attack. This
+was the city of Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas had not hoped
+to be able to invest that city early. The slowness of the mobilization
+of the Russian army made a certain prudence advisable at the beginning
+of the campaign. But the great success of his armies in Lemberg
+encouraged more daring aims. He had invested Przemysl, and Galicia lay
+before him. Accordingly, he set his face toward Cracow.
+
+Cracow, from a military point of view, is the gate both of Vienna
+and Berlin. A hundred miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia,
+between the Carpathian and the Bohemian mountains, which leads down into
+Austria. Through this gap runs the great railway connecting Silesia
+with Vienna, and the Grand Duke knew that if he could capture Cracow he
+would have an easy road before him to the Austrian capital. Cracow also
+is the key of Germany.
+
+Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder River. An army might enter
+Germany by this gate and turn the line of Germany's frontier fortresses.
+The Oder had been well fortified, but an invader coming from Cracow
+might move upon the western bank. The Russian plan no doubt was to
+threaten both enemy capitals. Moreover, an advance of Russia from Cracow
+would take its armies into Silesia, full of coal and iron mines, and one
+of the greatest manufacturing districts in the German Empire. This would
+be a real success, and all Germany would feel the blow.
+
+Another reason for the Russian advance in Galicia was her desire to
+control the Galician oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one of the
+foremost munitions of war. Since she could not obtain it from either
+America or Russia she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian oil
+fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself, would explain the Galician
+campaign. Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains it was possible
+to make frequent raids into Hungary, and Russia understood well the
+feeling of Hungary toward her German allies. She hoped that when Hungary
+perceived her regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun by Russian
+troops, she would regret that she had allowed herself to be sacrificed
+to Prussian ambition. The Russians, therefore, suddenly, moved toward
+Cracow.
+
+Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue. The supreme command of the
+Austrian forces was given to him. The defenses of Cracow were
+strengthened under the direction of the Germans, and a German army
+advanced from the Posen frontier toward the northern bank of the
+Vistula. The advance threatened the Russian right, and, accordingly,
+within ten days' march of Cracow, the Russians stopped. The German
+offensive in Poland had begun. The news of the German advance came about
+the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who had been fighting in East
+Prussia, had at last perceived that nothing could be gained there. The
+vulnerable part of Russia was the city of Warsaw. This was the capital
+of Poland, with a population of about three-quarters of a million. If
+he could take Warsaw, he would not only have pleasant quarters for the
+winter but Russia would be so badly injured that no further offensive
+from her need be anticipated for a long period. Von Hindenburg had with
+him a large army. In his center he probably had three-quarters of a
+million men, and on his right the Austrian army in Cracow, which must
+have reached a million.
+
+Counting the troops operating in East Prussia and along the Carpathians,
+and the garrison of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have had two
+and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the other hand, though her
+mobilization was still continuing, at this time could not have had as
+many as two million men in the whole nine hundred miles of her battle
+front.
+
+The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October 16th, and continued for three
+days, von Hindenburg being personally in command. On Monday the Germans
+found themselves in trouble. A Russian attack on their left wing had
+come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg found his left wing thrown
+back, and the whole German movement thrown into disorder. Meanwhile an
+attempt to cross the Vistula at Josefov had also been a failure. The
+Russians allowed the Germans to pass with slight resistance, waited
+until they arrived at the village Kazimirjev, a district of low hills
+and swampy flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed them.
+
+Next day the Russians crossed the river themselves, and advanced along
+the whole line, driving the enemy before them, through great woods of
+spruce out into the plains on the west. This forest region was well
+known to the Russian guides, and the Germans suffered much as the
+Russians had suffered in East Prussia. Ruzsky, the Russian commander,
+pursued persistently; the Germans retreating first to Kielce, whence
+they were driven, on the 3d of November, with great losses, and then
+being broken into two pieces, with the north retiring westward and the
+south wing southwest toward Cracow.
+
+Rennenkampf's attack on the German left wing was equally successful, and
+von Hindenburg was driven into full retreat. The only success won during
+this campaign was that in the far south where Austrian troops were
+sweeping eastward toward the San. This army drove back the Russians
+under Ivanov, reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl. This was a
+welcome relief to Przemysl, for the garrison was nearly starved, and it
+was well for the garrison that the relief came, for in a few days the
+Russians returned, recaptured Jaroslav and reinvested Przemysl. As von
+Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction in his wake, roads,
+bridges, railroad tracks, water towers, railway stations, all were
+destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or sawn through, and insulators
+broken to bits.
+
+It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature advance, and to pay
+for it. Doubtless the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up to this
+point had been so admirable, knew very well the danger of a new advance
+in Galicia, but he realized the immense political as well as military
+advantages which were to be obtained by the capture of Cracow. He
+therefore attempted to move an army through Poland as well as through
+Galicia, hoping that the army in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy,
+while the Galician army would deal with Cracow.
+
+The advance was slow on account of the damaged Polish roads. It was
+preceded by a cavalry screen which moved with more speed. On November
+10th, the vanguard crossed the Posen frontier and cut the railway on the
+Cracow-Posen line. This reconnaissance convinced the Russian general
+that the German army did not propose to make a general stand, and it
+seemed to him that if he struck strongly with his center along the
+Warta, he might destroy the left flank of the German southern army,
+while his own left flank was assaulting Cracow. He believed that even if
+his attack upon the Warta failed, the Russian center could at any
+rate prevent the enemy from interfering with the attack further south
+upon Cracow.
+
+[Illustration: GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR
+
+A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.]
+
+The movement therefore began, and by November 12th, the Russian cavalry
+had taken Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty miles north of
+Cracow. Its main forces were still eighty miles to the east. About this
+time Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg was preparing a
+counter stroke. He had retreated north, and then, by means of his
+railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn. Large reinforcements were
+sent him, some from the western front, giving him a total of about eight
+hundred thousand men. In his retreat from Warsaw, while he had destroyed
+all roads railways in the south and west, he had carefully preserved
+those of the north already planning to use them in another movement. He
+now was beginning an advance, once again, against Warsaw. On account of
+the roads he perceived that it would be difficult for the Russians to
+obtain reinforcements. Von Hindenburg had with him as Chief of Staff
+General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest staff officers in the
+German army, and General von Mackensen, a commander of almost equal
+repute.
+
+The Russian army in the north had been pretty well scattered. The
+Russian forces were now holding a front of nearly a thousand miles, with
+about two million men. The Russian right center, which now protected
+Warsaw from the new attack could hardly number more than two hundred
+thousand men. Von Hindenburg's aim was Warsaw only, and did not affect
+directly the Russian advance to Cracow, which was still going on.
+Indeed, by the end of the first week in December, General Dmitrieff had
+cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and his main force was on the line of
+the River Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had been strongly
+fortified, and much entrenching had been done in a wide circle around
+the city.
+
+The German plan was to use its field army in Cracow's defense rather
+than a garrison. Two separate forces were used; one moving southwest of
+Cracow along the Carpathian hills, struck directly at Ivanov's left;
+the other, operating from Hungary, threatened the Russian rear. These
+two divisions struck at the same time and the Russians found it
+necessary to fight rear actions as they moved forward. They were doing
+this with reasonable success and working their way toward Cracow, when,
+on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces working from Hungary
+carried the Dukla Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be able to
+pour troops down into the rear of the Russian advance, and the Russian
+army would be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly back, until
+the opening of the Dukla Pass was in front of his line, and the Russian
+army was once more safe.
+
+Meanwhile the renewed seige of Przemysl was going on with great vigor,
+and attracting the general attention of the Allied world. The Austrians
+attempted to follow up their successes at the Dukla Pass by attempting
+to seize the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still further to the east,
+but the Russians were tired of retreating. New troops had arrived, and
+about the 20th of December a new advance was begun.
+
+With the right of the army swinging up along the river Nida, northeast
+of Cracow, the Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great force,
+driving Austrians back and capturing over ten thousand men. On Christmas
+Day all three great western passes were in Russian hands. The Austrian
+fighting, during this period, was the best they had so far shown, the
+brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops, who, at this time, were
+saving Germany.
+
+Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his movement in the direction of
+Warsaw. The Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information.
+Each day came the chronicle of contests, some victories, some defeats,
+and it soon appeared that a strong force was crushing in the Russian
+outposts from the direction of Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky
+found himself faced by a superior German force, and was compelled to
+retreat. The Russian aim was to fall back behind the river Bzura, which
+lies between the Thorn and Warsaw. Bzura is a strong line of defense,
+with many fords but no bridges. The Russian right wing passed by the
+city of Lowicz, moved southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz. West
+of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible for the movement of
+armies.
+
+The first German objective was the city of Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew
+that he must move quickly before the Russians should get up reserves.
+His campaign of destruction had made it impossible for aid to be sent to
+the Russian armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but every moment
+counted. His right pushed forward and won the western crossings of the
+marshes. His extreme left moved towards Plock, but the main effort was
+against Piontek, where there is a famous causeway engineered for heavy
+transport through the marshes.
+
+At first the Russians repelled the attack on the causeway, but on
+November 19th the Russians broke and were compelled to fall back. Over
+the causeway, then, the German troops were rushed in great numbers,
+splitting the Russian army into two parts; one on the south surrounding
+Lodz, and the other running east of Brezin on to the Vistula. The
+Russian army around Lodz was assailed on the front flank and rear. It
+looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russian army. At the very
+last moment possible, Russian reinforcements appeared--a body of
+Siberians from the direction of Warsaw. They were thrown at once into
+the battle and succeeded in re-establishing the Russian line. This left
+about ninety thousand Germans almost entirely surrounded, as if they
+were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his best to close the mouth of the
+sack, but he was unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by the
+26th the Germans in the sack had escaped.
+
+The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements and still largely
+outnumbered the Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined on a new
+assault. The German left wing was now far in front of the Russian city
+of Lodz, one of the most important of the Polish cities. The population
+was about half a million. Such a place was a constant danger, for it was
+the foundation of a Russian salient.
+
+When the German movement began the Russian general, perceiving how
+difficult it would have been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew,
+and on December 6th the Germans entered Lodz without opposition.
+
+The retreat relieved the Russians of a great embarrassment. Its capture
+was considered in Germany as a great German victory, and at this time
+von Hindenburg seems to have felt that he had control of the situation.
+His movement, to be sure, had not interfered with the Russian advance on
+Cracow, but Warsaw must have seemed to him almost in his power. He
+therefore concentrated his forces for a blow at Warsaw. His first new
+movement was directed at the Russian right wing, which was then north of
+the Bzura River and east of Lowicz. He also directed the German forces
+in East Prussia to advance and attempted to cut the main railway line
+between Warsaw and Petrograd. If this attempt had been successful it
+would have been a highly serious matter for the Russians. The Russians,
+however, defeated it, and drove the enemy back to the East Prussian
+border. The movement against the Russian right wing was more successful,
+and the Russians fell back slowly. This was not because they were
+defeated in battle, but because the difficult weather interfered with
+communications. There had been a thaw, and the whole country was
+waterlogged. The Grand Duke was willing that the Germans should fight in
+the mud.
+
+This slow retreat continued from the 7th of December to Christmas Eve,
+and involved the surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it left the
+Russians in a strong position. They were able to entrench themselves so
+that every attack of the enemy Was broken. The Germans tried hard. Von
+Hindenburg would have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas. The citizens
+heard day and night the sound of the cannon, but they were entirely
+safe.
+
+The German attack was a failure. On the whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas
+had shown better strategy than the best of the German generals.
+Outnumbered from the very start, his tactics had been admirable. Twice
+he had saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening Cracow. The Russian
+armies were fighting with courage and efficiency, and were continually
+growing in numbers as the days went by.
+
+During the first weeks of 1915 while there were a number of attacks and
+counter attacks both armies had come to the trench warfare, so familiar
+in France. The Germans in particular had constructed a most elaborate
+trench system, with underground rooms containing many of the ordinary
+comforts of life. Toward the end of the month the Russians began to move
+in East Prussia in the north and also far south in the Bukovina. The
+object of these movements was probably to prevent von Hindenburg from
+releasing forces on the west. Russia was still terribly weak in
+equipment and was not ready for a serious advance. An attack on sacred
+East Prussia would stir up the Germans, while Hungary would be likewise
+disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von Hindenburg, however, was still
+full of the idea of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice but the old
+Field Marshal was stubborn and moreover he knew well what the capture of
+Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried again.
+
+The Russian front now followed the west bank of the Bzura for a few
+miles, changed to the eastern bank following the river until it met with
+the Rawka, from there a line of trenches passed south and east, of
+Balinov and from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen concentrated a
+considerable army at Balinov and had on the 1st of February about a
+hundred and forty thousand men there. That night, with the usual
+artillery preparation, he moved from Balinov against the Russian
+position at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans lost heavily but drove
+forward into the enemy's line, and by the 3d of February had almost made
+a breach in it. This point, however, could be readily reinforced and
+troops were hurried there from Warsaw in such force that on February 4th
+the German advance was checked. Von Mackensen had lost heavily, and by
+the time it was checked he had become so weak that his forces yielded
+quickly to the counter-attack and were flung back.
+
+This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw. Von Hindenburg then
+determined to attack Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed to
+move forward along the whole Carpathian front, while he himself, with
+strong forces, undertook to move from East Prussia behind the Polish
+capital, and cut the communications between Warsaw and Petrograd. If
+Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be relieved, Lemberg recaptured,
+and Russia forced back so far on the south that Warsaw would have to be
+abandoned. On the other hand if the East Prussia effort were successful,
+the Polish capital would certainly fall. These plans, if they had
+developed successfully, would have crippled the power of Russia for at
+least six months. Meantime, troops could be sent to the west front, and
+perhaps enable Germany to overwhelm France. By this time almost all of
+Poland west of the Vistula was in the power of the Germans, while
+three-fourths of Galicia was controlled by Russia.
+
+Von Hindenburg now returned to his old battle-ground near the Masurian
+Lakes. The Russian forces, which, at the end of January, had made a
+forward movement in East Prussia, had been quite successful. Their right
+was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested upon the town of
+Johannisburg. Further south was the Russian army of the Narev. Von
+Hindenburg determined to surprise the invaders, and he gathered an army
+of about three hundred thousand men to face the Russian forces which did
+not number more than a hundred and twenty thousand, and which were under
+the command of General Baron Sievers. The Russian army soon found itself
+in a desperate position. A series of bitter fights ensued, at some of
+which the Kaiser himself was present. The Russians were driven steadily
+back for a week, but the German stories of their tremendous losses are
+obviously unfounded They retreated steadily until February 20th,
+fighting courageously, and by that date the Germans began to find
+themselves exhausted.
+
+Russian reinforcements came up, and a counter-attack was begun. The
+German aim had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the main line from
+Warsaw to Petrograd, which passes through that city. They had now
+reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but were unable to advance
+further, though the Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten miles away.
+The southern portion of von Hindenburg's army was moving against the
+railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz. But Ossowietz put
+up a determined resistance, and the attack was unsuccessful. By the
+beginning of March, von Hindenburg ordered a gradual retreat to the East
+Prussian frontier.
+
+While this movement to drive the Russians from East Prussia was under
+way, von Hindenburg had also launched an attack against the Russian army
+on the Narev. If he could force the lower Narev from that point, too, he
+could cut the railroad running east from the Polish capital. He had
+hoped that the attacks just described further east would distract the
+Russian attention so that he would find the Narev ill guarded. The
+advance began on February 22d, and after numerous battles captured
+Przasnysz, and found itself with only one division to oppose its
+progress to the railroad. On the 23d this force was attacked by the
+German right, but resisted with the utmost courage. It held out for more
+than thirty-six hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian
+reinforcements began to come up, and drove the invaders north through
+Przasnysz in retreat.
+
+It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians were unable to supply all
+their troops with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men fought without
+rifles, armed only with a bayonet. All they could do was to charge with
+cold steel, and they did it so desperately that, though they were
+outnumbered, they drove the Germans before them. By all the laws of war
+the Russians should have been defeated with ease. As it was, the German
+attempt to capture Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated. While the
+struggle was going on in the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia were
+also moving, Russia was still holding the three great passes in the
+Carpathian Mountains, but had not been able to begin an offensive in
+Hungary.
+
+The Austrians had been largely reinforced by German troops, and were
+moving forward to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive Brussilov
+from the Galician mountains. Brussilov's movements had been partly
+military and partly political. From the passes, in those mountains
+Hungary could be attacked, and unless he could be driven away there was
+no security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which Germany was looking
+for food supplies. Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian movement
+in Galicia, northern Bukovina had been in Russian hands. Bukovina was
+not only a great supply ground for petrol and grain, but she adjoined
+Roumania which, while still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the
+Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a Russian army on her border
+might encourage her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired to
+free Roumania from this pressure. The leading Austrian statesmen, at
+this time, were especially interested in Hungary. The Austrian Minister
+of Foreign Affairs was Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist,
+belonging to the party of the Hungarian Premier, Count Tisza. It was his
+own country that was threatened. The prizes of a victorious campaign
+were therefore great.
+
+The campaign began in January amid the deepest snow, and continued
+during February in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians were divided
+into three separate armies. The first was charged with the relief of
+Przemysl. The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg, and the third
+moved upon Bukovina. The first made very little progress, after a number
+of lively battles. It was held pretty safely by Brussilov. The second
+army was checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however, the army of the
+Bukovina crossed the Carpathian range, and made considerable advances.
+This campaign was fought out in a great number of battles, the most
+serious of which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa. At that point
+Brussilov's center withstood for several days the Austrian second army
+which was commanded by the German General von Linsengen. The Russian
+success here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of Przemysl and gave
+time to send reinforcements into Bukovina.
+
+The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina, had the greatest Austrian
+success. They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea, and Stanislau.
+They did not succeed, however, in driving the Russians from the
+province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting for reinforcements. These
+reinforcements came, whereupon the Austrians were pushed steadily back.
+The passes in the Carpathians still remained in Austrian hands, but
+Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured. On March 22d Przemysl
+fell.
+
+The capture of Przemysl was the greatest success that Russia had so far
+attained. It had been besieged for about four months, and the taking of
+the fortress was hailed as the first spectacular success of the war. Its
+capture altered the whole situation. It released a large Russian army,
+which was sent to reinforce the armies of Ivanov, where the Austrians
+were vigorously attacked.
+
+By the end of March the Russians had captured the last Austrian position
+on the Lupkow pass and were attacking vigorously the pass of Uzzok,
+which maintained a stubborn defense. Brussilov tried to push his way to
+the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the Austrians delivered a
+vigorous counter-attack they were ultimately defeated. In fire weeks of
+fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand prisoners.
+
+During this period there was considerable activity in East Prussia, and
+the Courland coast was bombarded by the German Baltic squadron. There
+was every indication that Austria was near collapse, but all the time
+the Germans were preparing for a mighty effort, and the secret was kept
+with extraordinary success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians and
+in East Prussia were meant to deceive, while a great army, with an
+enormous number of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition,
+were being gathered. The Russian commanders were completely deceived.
+There had been no change in the generals in command except that General
+Ruzsky, on account of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev. The
+new German army was put under the charge of von Hindenburg's former
+lieutenant, General von Mackensen. This was probably the strongest army
+that Germany ever gathered, and could not have numbered less than two
+millions of men, with nearly two thousand pieces in its heavy batteries.
+
+On April 28th, the action began. The Austro-German army lay along the
+left of the Donajetz River to its junction with the Biala, and along the
+Biala to the Carpathian Mountains. Von Mackensen's right moved in the
+direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff was compelled to weaken his
+front to protect Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st of May, the
+great attack began. Under cover of artillery fire such as had never been
+seen before bridges were pushed across the Biala and Ciezkowice was
+taken. The Russian positions were blown out of existence. The Russian
+armies did what they could but their defense collapsed and they were
+soon in full retreat.
+
+The German armies advanced steadily, and though the Russians made a
+brave stand at many places they could do nothing. On the Wisloka they
+hung on for five days, but they were attempting an impossibility. From
+that time on each day marked a new German victory, and in spite of the
+most desperate fighting the Russians were forced back until, on the
+11th, the bulk of their line lay just west of the lower San as far as
+Przemysl and then south to the upper Dniester. The armies were in
+retreat, but were not routed. In a fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had
+fallen back eighty-five miles.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood the situation. He
+perceived that it was impossible to make a stand. The only thing to do
+was to retreat steadily until Germany's mass of war material should be
+used up, even though miles of territory should be sacrificed. It should
+be a retreat in close contact with the enemy, so that the Austro-German
+troops would have to fight for every mile. This meant a retreat not for
+days, but perhaps for weeks. It meant that Przemysl must be given up,
+and Lemberg, and even Warsaw, but the safety of the Russian army was of
+more importance than a province or a city.
+
+On May 18th the German War Office announced their successes in the
+following terms: "The army under General von Mackensen in the course of
+its pursuit of the Russians reached yesterday the neighborhood of
+Subiecko, on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa, northeast of Debica.
+Under the pressure of this advance the Russians also retreated from
+their positions north of the Vistula. In this section the troops under
+General von Woyrach, closely following the enemy, penetrated as far as
+the region northwest of Kielce. In the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and
+German troops under General von Linsingen conquered the hills east of
+the Upper Stryi, and took 8,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing six
+machine guns. At the present moment, while the armies under General von
+Mackensen are approaching the Przemysl fortresses and the lower San, it
+is possible to form an approximate idea of the booty taken. In the
+battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles during the pursuit of
+these armies, we have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners, 69 cannon,
+and 255 machine guns. In these figures the booty taken by the Allied
+troops fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the Vistula, is not
+included. This amounts to a further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl
+surrendered to the German's on June 3, 1915, only ten weeks after the
+Russian capture of the fortress, which had caused such exultation."
+
+General von Mackensen continued toward Lemberg, the capital of Galicia.
+On June 18th, when the victorious German armies were approaching the
+gates of Lemberg, the Russian losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and
+wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000 lost before Marshal von
+Hindenburg's forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d Lemberg fell.
+The weakness of Russia in this campaign arose from the exhaustion of her
+ammunition supplies, but great shipments of such supplies were being
+constantly forwarded from Vladivostock.
+
+When the German army crossed the San, Wilhelm II, then German Emperor,
+was present. It is interesting to look back on the scene. Here is a
+paragraph from the account of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: "The Emperor
+had hurried forward to his troops by automobile. On the way he was
+greeted with loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in wagons. On the
+heights of Jaroslav the Emperor met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and then,
+from several points of observation, for hours followed with keen
+attention the progress of the battle for the crossing."
+
+While the great offensive in Galicia was well under way, the Germans
+were pushing forward in East Prussia. Finding little resistance they
+ultimately invaded Courland, captured Libau, and established themselves
+firmly in that province. The sweep of the victorious German armies
+through Galicia was continued into Poland. On July 19th William the War
+Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the Queen of Greece, to the
+effect that he had "paralyzed Russia for at least six months to come"
+and was on the eve of "delivering a coup on the western front that will
+make all Europe tremble."
+
+It would be futile to recount the details of the various German
+victories which followed the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the
+German line ran from Novogard in the north, south of Przasnysz, thence
+to Novogeorgievsk, then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw it passed
+close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin, Chelm, and then south to a point
+just east of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the jaws of the German
+nutcracker.
+
+On July 21st, the bells in all the churches throughout Russia clanged a
+call to prayer for twenty-four hours' continual service of intercession
+for victory. In spite of the heat the churches were packed. Hour after
+hour the people stood wedged together, while the priests and choirs
+chanted their litanies. Outside the Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass
+was celebrated in the presence of an enormous crowd. But the German
+victories continued.
+
+On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned. Up to July 29th hope was entertained
+in military quarters in London and Paris that the Germans would stand a
+siege in their fortresses along the Warsaw salient, but on that date
+advices came from Petrograd that in order to save the Russian armies a
+retreat must be made, and the Warsaw fortresses abandoned. For some time
+before this the Russian resistance had perceptibly stiffened, and many
+vigorous counter-attacks had been made against the German advance, but
+it was the same old story, the lack of ammunition. The armies were
+compelled to retire and await the munitions necessary for a new
+offensive.
+
+The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw were days of extraordinary
+interest. The inhabitants, to the number of nearly half a million,
+sought refuge in Russia. All goods that could be useful to the Germans
+were either removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in the surrounding
+fields. When the Germans entered they found an empty and deserted city,
+with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of Jews still left. Warsaw
+is a famous city, full of ancient palaces, tastefully, adorned shops,
+finely built streets, and fourscore church towers where the bells are
+accustomed to ring melodiously for matins and vespers. In the Ujazdowske
+Avenue one comes to the most charming building in all Warsaw, the
+Lazienki Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in a lovely lake.
+It is a beautiful city.
+
+The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian Poland, but Russia was not
+yet defeated. Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon was in 1812,
+The strategy of the Grand Duke was sound; so long as he could save the
+army the victories of Germany would be futile, It is true that the
+German armies were not compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live on the
+land. They could bring their supplies from Berlin day by day, but every
+mile they advanced into hostile territory made their task harder. The
+German line of communication, as it grew longer, became weaker and the
+troops needed for garrison duty in the captured towns, seriously
+diminished the strength of the fighting army, The Russian retreat was
+good strategy and it was carried on with extraordinary cleverness.
+
+It is unnecessary to describe the events which succeeded the fall of
+Warsaw in great detail. There was a constant succession of German
+victories and Russian defeats, but never one of the Russian armies
+enveloped or destroyed. Back they went, day after day, always fighting;
+each great Russian fortress resisted until it saw itself in danger, and
+then safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and Novogeorgievsk, and
+Ivangorad, then Ossowietz was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and Grodno.
+On September 5th the Emperor of Russia the following order:
+
+     Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces of the sea and
+     land armies operating in the theater of war. With firm faith in the
+     clemency of God, with unshakable assurance in final victory, we
+     shall fulfil our sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We
+     will not dishonor the Russian land.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy of the Caucasus, a post which
+took him out of the main theater of fighting but gave him a great field
+for fresh military activity. He had been bearing a heavy burden, and had
+shown himself to be a great commander. He had outmaneuvered von
+Hindenberg again and again, and though finally the Russian armies under
+his command had been driven back, the retreat itself was a proof of his
+military ability, not only in its conception, but in the way in which it
+was done.
+
+The Emperor chose General Alexieff as his Chief of General Staff. He was
+the ablest of the great generals who had been leading the Russian army.
+With this change in command a new spirit seemed to come over Russia. The
+German advance, however, was not yet completely checked. It was
+approaching Vilna.
+
+The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest in the whole long retreat.
+On the 18th of September it fell, but the Russian troops were safely
+removed and the Russian resistance had become strong. Munitions were
+pouring into the new Russian army. The news from the battle-front began
+to show improvement. On September 8th General Brussilov, further in the
+south, had attacked the Germans in front of Tarnopol, and defeated them
+with heavy loss. More than seventeen thousand men were captured with
+much artillery. Soon the news came of other advances. Dubno was retaken
+and Lutsk.
+
+The end of September saw the German advance definitely checked. The
+Russian forces were now extended in a line from Riga on the north, along
+the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk. Then turning to the east along the
+river, it again turned south and so on down east of the Pripet Marshes,
+it followed an almost straight line to the southern frontier. Its two
+strongest points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga, which lay under the
+protection of the guns of the fleet, and Dvinsk, through which ran the
+great Petrograd Railway line. Against these two points von Hindenburg
+directed his attack. And now, for the first time in many months, he met
+with complete failure. The German fleet attempted to assist him on the
+Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian Baltic fleet with heavy
+losses. A bombardment turned out a failure and the German armies were
+compelled to retire.
+
+A more serious effort was made against Dvinsk but was equally
+unsuccessful and the German losses were immense. Again and again the
+attempt was made to cross the Dvina River, but without success; the
+German invasion was definitely stopped. By the end of October there was
+complete stagnation in the northern sector of the battle line, and
+though in November there were a number of battles, nothing happened of
+great importance.
+
+Further south, however, Russia become active. An army had been organized
+at her Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was necessary that
+that army should move. At this time the great question was, what was
+Roumania about to do? To prevent her from being forced to join the
+Central Powers she must have encouragement. It was determined therefore
+that an offensive should be made in the direction of Czernowitz. This
+town was the railway center of a wide region, and lay close to
+Roumania's northern frontier.
+
+[Illustration: THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD]
+
+The Russian aggressive met with great success. It is true that it never
+approached the defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the north, had
+been able to make great gains of ground, and the very fact that such a
+powerful movement could be made so soon after the Russian retreat was an
+encouragement to every friend of the Allied cause. This offensive
+continued till up to the fourth week of January when it came to an
+abrupt stop. A despatch from Petrograd explained the movement as
+follows: "The recent Russian offensive in Bessarabia and Galicia was
+carried out in accordance with the plan prepared by the Entente Allies'
+War Council to relieve the pressure on the Entente forces while they
+were fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation of the Gallipoli
+Peninsula." Russia had sacrificed more than seventy thousand soldiers for
+her Allies.
+
+During the year 1916 the Russian armies seemed to have had a new birth.
+At last they were supplied with guns and munitions. They waited until
+they were ready. In March a series of battles was fought in the
+neighborhood of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks were made
+against the German army, intrenched between Lake Narotch and Lake
+Vischenebski. The Germans at first were driven back and badly defeated.
+Later on, however, the Russian artillery was sent to another section,
+and the Germans were able to recover their position. During June the
+Russians attacked all along the southern part of their line. In three
+weeks they had regained a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had been
+retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds of guns, had been
+captured, and the Austrian line had been pierced and shattered. Further
+south the German army had been compelled to retreat and the Russian
+armies were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th of August Stanislau
+fell.
+
+By this time two Austrian armies had been shattered, over three hundred
+and fifty thousand prisoners taken, and nearly a million men put out of
+action. Germany, however, was sending reinforcements as fast as
+possible, and putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless everything
+was encouraging for Russia and she entered upon the winter in a very
+different condition from her condition in the previous year. Then she
+had just ended her great retreat. Now she had behind her a series of
+successes. But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of the political
+harmony at home which had marked the first years of the war. Dark days
+were ahead.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+
+For more than half a century the Balkans have presented a problem which
+disturbed the minds of the statesmen of Europe. Again and again, during
+that period, it seemed that in the Balkan mountains might be kindled a
+blaze which might set the world afire. Balkan politics is a labyrinth in
+which one might easily be lost. The inhabitants of the Balkans represent
+many races, each with its own ambition, and, for the most part,
+military. There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks, and Roumanians,
+and Greeks, and their territorial divisions did not correspond to their
+nationalities. The land was largely mountainous, with great gaps that
+make it, in a sense, the highway of the world. From 1466 to 1878 the
+Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks. In the early days while the
+Turks were warring against Hungary, their armies marched through the
+Balkan hills. The natives kept apart, and preserved their language,
+religion and customs.
+
+In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew weaker, their subject
+people began to seek independence. Greece came first, and, in 1829,
+aided by France, Russia and Great Britain, she became an independent
+kingdom. Serbia revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous state,
+though still tributary to Turkey. In 1859, Roumania became autonomous.
+The rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really the beginning of the
+succession of events which ultimately led to the World War of 1914-18.
+The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the Turks in such a way as to
+stir the indignation of the whole world. What are known as the
+"Bulgarian Atrocities" seem mild today, but they led to the
+Russo-Turkish War in 1877.
+
+The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was settled in 1878, was one of
+those treaties which could only lead to trouble. It deprived Russia of
+much of the benefit of her victory, and left nearly every racial
+question unsettled. Roumania lost Bessarabia, which was mainly inhabited
+by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to the
+administration of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain Macedonia,
+Albania and Thrace. Serbia was given Nish, but had no outlet to the sea.
+Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province was made of the country
+south of the Balkans called Eastern Rumelia. From that time on, quarrel
+after quarrel made up the history of the Balkan peoples, each of whom
+sought the assistance and support of some one of the great powers.
+Russia and Austria were constantly intriguing with the new states, in
+the hope of extending their own domains in the direction of
+Constantinople.
+
+The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation has been continually the
+center of these intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign
+Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose career might almost be called
+romantic. A splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman, he stands
+out as an interesting figure in the sordid politics of the Balkans. He
+identified himself with his new country. In 1885 he brought about a
+union with Eastern Rumelia, which led to a disagreement with Russia.
+
+Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly declared war, but was
+overwhelmed by Prince Alexander in short order. Russia then abducted
+Prince Alexander, but later was forced to restore him. However, Russian
+intrigues, and his failure to obtain support from one of the great
+powers, forced his abdication in 1886.
+
+In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became the Prince of
+Bulgaria. He, also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic of his
+predecessor. He seems to have been a sort of a parody of a king. He was
+fond of ostentation, and full of ambition. He was a personal coward, but
+extremely cunning. During his long reign he built up Bulgaria into a
+powerful, independent kingdom, and even assumed the title of Czar of
+Bulgaria. During the first days of his reign he was kept safely on the
+throne by his mother, the Princess Clementine, a daughter of Louis
+Phillippe, who, according to Gladstone, was the cleverest woman in
+Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria was at peace. In 1908 he declared
+Bulgaria independent, and its independence was recognized by Turkey on
+the payment of an indemnity. During this period Russia was the protector
+of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian fox was looking also for the aid of
+Austria. Serbia more and more relied upon Russia.
+
+The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a source of constant
+irritation to Serbia. Roumania had a divided feeling. Her loss of
+Bessarabia to Russia had caused ill feeling, but in Austria's province
+of Transylvania there were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania
+desired to bring under her rule. Greece was fearful of Russia, because
+of Russia's desire for the control of Constantinople. All of these
+nations, too, were deeply conscious of the Austro-German ambitions
+for extension of their power through to the East. Each of these
+principalities was also jealous of the other. Bulgaria and Serbia
+had been at war; many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory,
+many Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia. There was only
+one tie in common, that was their hatred of Turkey. In 1912 a league
+was formed, under the direction of the Greek statesman, Venizelos,
+having for its object an attack on Turkey. By secret treaties
+arrangements were made for the division of the land, which they
+hoped to obtain from Turkey.
+
+War was declared, and Turkey was decisively defeated, and then the
+trouble began. Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious for an
+outlet to the sea, and in the treaty between them it had been arranged
+that Serbia should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while Bulgaria was to
+obtain an outlet on the �gean. The Triple Alliance positively refused
+Serbia its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted, therefore, on a
+revision of the treaty, which would enable her to have a seaport on the
+�gean.
+
+An attempt was made to settle the question by arbitration, but King
+Ferdinand refused, whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan War
+began. Bulgaria was attacked by Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took a
+chance and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania, which had been
+neutral in the First Baltic War, mobilized her armies and marched toward
+Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th of August the Treaty of
+Bucharest was signed by the Balkan States.
+
+As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a thoroughly dissatisfied state
+of mind. She had been the leader in the war against Turkey, she had
+suffered heavy losses, and she had gained almost nothing. Moreover she
+had lost to Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of a million
+Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece
+were the big winners. Such a treaty could not be a final settlement. The
+Balkans were left seething with unrest. Serbia, though she had gained
+much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions, however, now turned in the
+direction of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and it was her
+agitation in this matter which directly brought on the Great War. But
+Bulgaria was sullen and ready for revenge. When the Great War began,
+therefore, Roumania, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were strongly in
+sympathy with Russia, who had been their backer and friend. Bulgaria, in
+spite of all she owed to Russia in the early days, was now ready to find
+protection from an alliance with the Central Powers. Her feeling was
+well known to the Allies, and every effort was made to obtain her
+friendship and, if possible, her aid.
+
+Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address before the French Chamber
+of Deputies, said:
+
+     The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the war, even
+     before it came to the attention of the world. The Bucharest Treaty
+     had left in Bulgaria profound heartburnings. Neither King nor
+     people were resigned to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and
+     sacrifices, and to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they
+     had waged upon their former allies. From the first day, the Allied
+     governments took into account the dangers of such a situation, and
+     sought a means to remedy it. Their policy has proceeded in a spirit
+     of justice and generosity which has characterized the attitude of
+     Great Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have
+     attempted to re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples, and in
+     accord with them seek the realization of their principal national
+     aspirations. The equilibrium thus obtained by mutual sacrifices
+     really made by each would have been the best guarantee of future
+     peace. Despite constant efforts in which Roumania, Greece and
+     Serbia lent their assistance, we have been unable to obtain the
+     sincere collaboration of the Bulgarian Government. The difficulties
+     respecting the negotiations were always at Sofia.
+
+At the beginning of the war it appears, therefore, that Bulgaria was
+entering into negotiations with the Allies, hoping to regain in this
+way, some of the territory she had lost in the Second Baltic War. Many
+of her leading statesmen and most distinguished generals favored the
+cause of Russia, but in May came the great German advance in Galicia,
+and the Allies' stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the king, and his
+supporters, found the way clear for a movement in favor of Germany.
+Still protesting neutrality they signed a secret treaty with Berlin,
+Vienna and Constantinople on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised
+them not only what they had been asking, in Macedonia, but also the
+Greek territory of Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those
+Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and on the 5th of October
+Bulgaria formally entered into war on the side of Germany, and began an
+attack on Serbia.
+
+The full account of the intrigue which led to this action has never been
+told. It is not improbable that King Ferdinand himself never had any
+other idea than to act as he did, but he dissembled for a long time. He
+set forth his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every effort to
+induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia to make the concessions that would be
+necessary. Such concessions were made, but not until it was too late. In
+a telegram from Milan dated September 24th, an account is given of an
+interview between Czar Ferdinand and a committee from those Bulgarians
+who were opposed to the King's policy.
+
+"Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!" are the words which the King
+spoke to M. Stambulivski when he received the five opposition members
+who had come to warn him of the danger to which he was exposing himself
+and the nation.
+
+The five members were received by the King in the red room at the Royal
+Palace and chairs had been placed for them around a big table. The King
+entered the room, accompanied by Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and
+his secretary, M. Boocovitch.
+
+"Be seated, gentlemen," said the King, as he sat down himself, as if for
+a very quiet talk. His secretary took a seat at the table, a little
+apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately became so heated
+and rapid that he was unable to write it down.
+
+The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader of the Democratic party, who
+said: "The policy adopted by the Government is one of adventure, tending
+to throw Bulgaria into the arms of Germany, and driving her to attack
+Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations, feeling and
+interests of the country, and if the Government obstinately continues in
+this way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest gravity." It was
+the first allusion to the possibility of a revolution, but the King
+listened without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded: "For these reasons we
+beg your Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government, to convoke
+the Chamber immediately, and we ask this convocation for the precise
+object of saving the country from dangerous adventures by the formation
+of a coalition Ministry."
+
+The King remained silent, and, with a nod, invited M. Stambulivski to
+speak. M. Stambulivski was a leader of the Agrarian party, a man of
+sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed to speak out his mind boldly, and
+exceedingly popular among the peasant population. He grew up himself as
+a peasant, and wore the laborer's blouse up till very recently. He stood
+up and looking the King straight in the face said in resolute tones: "In
+the name of every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M. Malinoff has just
+said, that the Bulgarian people hold you personally responsible more
+than your Government, for the disastrous adventure of 1913. If a
+similar adventure were to be repeated now its gravity this time would be
+irreparable. The responsibility would once more fall on your policy,
+which is contrary to the welfare of our country, and the nation would
+not hesitate to call you personally to account. That there may be no
+mistake as to the real wishes of the country I present to your Majesty
+my country's demand in writing."
+
+He handed the King a letter containing the resolution voted by the
+Agrarians. The King read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of the
+Radical Democrats, and asked him to speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking
+very slowly and impressively, and also looking the King straight in the
+face: "Sire, I had sworn never again to set foot inside your palace, and
+if I come today it is because the interests of my country are above
+personal questions, and have compelled me. Your Majesty may read what I
+have to say in this letter, which I submit to you in behalf of our
+party."
+
+He handed the letter and the King read it and still remained silent.
+Then he said, turning to his former Prime Minister and ablest
+politician: "Gueshoff, it is now your turn to speak."
+
+M. Gueshoff got up and said: "I also am fully in accord with what M.
+Stambulivski has just said. No matter how severe his words may have been
+in their simple unpolished frankness, which ignores the ordinary
+formalities of etiquette, they entirely express our unanimous opinion.
+We all, as representing the opposition, consider the present policy of
+the Government contrary to the sentiments and interests of the country,
+because by driving it to make common cause with Germany it makes us the
+enemies of Russia, which was our deliverer, and the adventure into which
+we are thus thrown compromises our future. We disapprove most absolutely
+of such a policy, and we also ask that the Chamber be convoked, and a
+Ministry formed with the co-operation of all parties."
+
+After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M. Daneff also spoke, and
+associated himself with what had already been said.
+
+The King remained still silent for a while, then he, also, stood up and
+said: "Gentlemen, I have listened to your threats, and will refer them
+to the President of the Council of Ministers, that he may know and
+decide what to do."
+
+All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed. The King had evidently
+taken the frank warning given him as a threat to him personally, and he
+walked up and down nervously for a while. Prince Boris turned aside to
+talk with the Secretary, who had resumed taking notes. The King
+continued pacing to and fro, evidently very nettled. Then, approaching
+M. Zanoff, and as if to change the conversation, he asked him for news
+about this season's harvest.
+
+M. Zanoff abruptly replied: "Your Majesty knows that we have not come
+here to talk about the harvest, but of something far more important at
+present, namely, the policy of your Government, which is on the point of
+ruining our country. We can on no account approve the policy that is
+anti-Russian. If the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their policy
+we shall not answer for the consequences. We have not desired to seek
+out those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because other grave
+events have been precipitated. But it was a disaster due to criminal
+folly. It must not be repeated by an attack on Serbia by Bulgaria, as
+seems contemplated by M. Radoslavoff, and which according to all
+appearances, has the approval of your Majesty. It would be a
+premeditated crime, and deserve to be punished."
+
+The King hesitated a moment, and then held out his hand to M. Zanoff,
+saying: "All right. At all events I thank you for your frankness." Then,
+approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated to him his question about the
+harvest.
+
+M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at first allowed himself to be led
+into a discussion of this secondary matter, and had expressed the hope
+that the prohibition on the export of cereals would be removed, when he
+suddenly remembered, and said: "But this is not the moment to speak of
+these things. I again repeat to your Majesty that the country does not
+want a policy of adventure which cost it so dear in 1913. It was your
+own policy too. Before 1913 we thought you were a great diplomatist, but
+since then we have seen what fruits your diplomacy bears. You took
+advantage of all the loopholes in the Constitution to direct the country
+according to your own views. Your Ministers are nothing. You alone are
+the author of this policy and you will have to bear the responsibility."
+
+The King replied frigidly, "The policy which I have decided to follow is
+that which I consider the best for the welfare of the country."
+
+"It is a policy which will only bring misfortune," replied the sturdy
+Agrarian. "It will lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not only
+the future of our country, but that of your dynasty, and may cost you
+your head."
+
+It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered before a King, and Ferdinand
+looked astonished at the peasant who was thus speaking to him. He said,
+"Do not mind my head; it is already old. Rather mind your own!" he
+added with a disdainful smile, and turned away.
+
+M. Stambulivski retorted: "My head matters little, Sire. What matters
+more is the good of our country."
+
+The King paid no more attention to him, and took M. Gueshoff and M.
+Danoff apart, who again insisted on convoking the Chamber, and assured
+him that M. Radoslavoff's government would be in a minority. They also
+referred to the Premier's oracular utterances.
+
+"Ah!" said the King. "Has Radoslavoff spoken to you, and what has he
+said?"
+
+"He has said--" replied the leaders, "that Bulgaria would march with
+Germany and attack Serbia."
+
+The King made a vague gesture, and then said: "Oh, I did not know."
+
+This incident throws a strong light upon the conflict which was going on
+in the Balkan states, between those Kings who were of German origin, and
+who believed in the German power, and their people who loved Russia.
+King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not listen, and he lost his
+throne. All this, however, took place before the Bulgarian declaration
+of war. Yet much had already shown what King Ferdinand was about to do.
+The Allies, to be sure, were incredulous, and were doing their best to
+cultivate the good will of the treacherous King, On September 23rd the
+official order was given for Bulgaria's mobilization. She, however,
+officially declared that her position was that of armed neutrality and
+that she had no aggressive intentions. As it has developed, she was
+acting under the direction of the German High Command.
+
+It was at this period that Germany had failed to crash Russia in the
+struggle on the Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy when
+one plan failed, another was undertaken. It seemed to her, therefore,
+that the punishment of Serbia would make up for other failures, and
+moreover would enable her to assist Turkey, which needed munitions,
+besides releasing for Germany supplies of food and other material which
+might come from Turkey.
+
+They therefore entrusted an expedition against Serbia to Field Marshal
+von Mackensen, and had begun to gather an army for that purpose, north
+of the Danube.
+
+This army of course was mainly composed of Austrian troops, but was
+stiffened throughout by some of the best regiments from the German army.
+To assist this new army they counted upon Bulgaria, with whom they had
+already a secret treaty, and in spite of the falsehoods issued from
+Sofia, the Bulgarian mobilization was meant for an attack on Serbia. The
+condition of affairs was well understood in Russia.
+
+On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+issued the following statement: "The situation in the Balkans is very
+grave. The whole Russian nation is aroused by the unthinkable treachery
+of Ferdinand and his Government to the Slavic cause. Bulgaria owes her
+independence to Russia, and yet seems willing now to become a vassal of
+Russia's enemies. In her attitude towards Serbia, when Serbia is
+fighting for her very existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class with
+Turkey. We do not believe that the Bulgarian people sympathize with the
+action of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed to give them
+time for reflection. If they persist in their present treacherous course
+they must answer to Russia." The next day the following ultimatum from
+Russia was handed the Bulgarian Prime Minister:
+
+     Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this moment give
+     evidence of the definite decision of King Ferdinand's Government to
+     place the fate of its country in the hands of Germany. The presence
+     of German and Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the
+     staffs of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone
+     bordering on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted
+     from her enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer leave any doubt as
+     to the object of the present military preparations of Bulgaria. The
+     powers of the Entente, who have at heart the realization of the
+     aspirations of the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned
+     M. Radoslavoff that any hostile act against Serbia would be
+     considered as directed against themselves. The assurances given by
+     the head of the Bulgarian Cabinet in reply to these warnings are
+     contradicted by facts. The representative of Russia, bound to
+     Bulgaria by the imperishable memory of her liberation from the
+     Turkish yoke, cannot sanction by his presence preparations for
+     fratricidal aggression against a Slav and allied people. The
+     Russian Minister has, therefore, received orders to leave Bulgaria
+     with all the staffs of the Legation and the Consulates if the
+     Bulgarian Government does not within twenty-four hours openly break
+     with the enemies of the Slav cause and of Russia, and does not at
+     once proceed to send away the officers belonging to the armies of
+     states who are at war with the powers of the Entente.
+
+Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives of France and Great
+Britain. Bulgaria's reply to these ultimatums was described as bold to
+the verge of insolence. In substance she denied that German officers
+were on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that if they were
+present that fact concerned only Bulgaria, which reserved the right to
+invite whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government then issued a
+manifesto to the nation, announcing its decision to enter the war on the
+side of the Central Powers. The manifesto reads as follows:
+
+     The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia, creating an
+     Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely necessary for
+     Bulgaria's independence of the Serbians. We do not believe in the
+     promises of the Quadruple Entente. Italy, one of the Allies,
+     treacherously broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in
+     Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her treaty
+     with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor's side. The Germans
+     and Austro-Hungarians are victorious on all fronts. Russia soon
+     will have collapsed entirely. Then will come the turn of France.
+     Italy and Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not
+     fight on the side of the Central Powers, which offer the only
+     possibility of realizing her desire for a union of all Bulgarian
+     peoples.
+
+The manifesto also stated that Russia was fighting for Constantinople
+and the Dardanelles; Great Britain to destroy Germany's competition;
+France for Alsace and Lorraine, and the other allies to rob foreign
+countries; the Central Powers were declared to be fighting to defend
+property and assure peaceful progress. The manifesto filled seven
+columns in the newspapers, and discussed at some length Bulgaria's trade
+interests. It attacked Serbia most bitterly, declaring that Serbia had
+oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia in a most barbarous
+manner; that she had attacked Bulgarian territory and that the Bulgarian
+troops had been forced to fight for the defense of their own soil. In
+fact it was written in quite the usual German manner.
+
+Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek Premier, had perceived what was
+coming. Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if she were attacked
+by Bulgaria. On September 21st, Venizelos asked France and Britain for a
+hundred and fifty thousand troops. On the 24th, the Allies agreed to
+this and Greece at once began to mobilize. His policy was received with
+great enthusiasm in the Greek Chamber, and former Premier Gounaris, amid
+applause, expressed his support of the government.
+
+On October 6th an announcement from Athens stated that Premier Venizelos
+had resigned, the King having informed him that he was unable to support
+the policy of his Minister. King Constantine was a brother-in-law of the
+German Emperor, and although professing neutrality he had steadily
+opposed M. Venizelos' policy. He had once before forced M. Venizelos'
+resignation, but at the general elections which followed, the Greek
+statesman was returned to power by a decisive majority.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA IN
+SEPTEMBER, 1918]
+
+Intense indignation was caused by the King's action, though the King was
+able to procure the support of a considerable party. Venizelos'
+resignation was precipitated by the landing of the Allied troops in
+Saloniki. They had come at the invitation of Venizelos, but the
+opposition protested against the occupation of Greek territory by
+foreign troops. After a disorderly session in which Venizelos explained
+to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances connected with the landing,
+the Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the Government by 142 to 102.
+The substance of his argument may be found in his conclusion:
+
+"We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are honest we will leave nothing
+undone to insure its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we are
+rogues may we find excuses to avoid our obligations."
+
+Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed Premier, and declared
+for a policy of armed neutrality. This position was sharply criticised
+by Venizelos, but for a time became the policy of the Greek Government.
+Meantime the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki. On October 3d,
+seventy thousand French troops arrived. A formal protest was made by the
+Greek commandant, who then directed the harbor officials to assist in
+arranging the landing. In a short time the Allied forces amounted to a
+hundred and fifty thousand men, but the German campaign was moving
+rapidly.
+
+The German Balkan army captured Belgrade on the 9th of October, and by
+that date two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian frontier. Serbia
+found herself opposed by two hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a
+quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and Roumania fully mobilized and
+were watching the conflict, and the small allied contingent at Saloniki
+was preparing to march inland to the aid of Serbia.
+
+The conduct of Greece on this occasion has led to universal criticism.
+The King himself, no doubt, was mainly moved by his German wife and the
+influence of his Imperial brother-in-law. Those that were associated
+with him were probably moved by fear. They had been much impressed by
+the strength of the German armies. They had seen the success of the
+great German offensive in Russia, while the French and British were
+being held in the West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria. The
+national characteristic of the Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be
+denied that there was great reason to suppose that the armies of Greece
+would not be able to resist the new attack. With these views Venizelos,
+the greatest statesman that Greece had produced for many years, did not
+agree, and the election seemed to show that he was supported by the
+majority of the Greek people.
+
+This was another case where the Allies, faced by a dangerous situation,
+were acting with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had failed,
+because at the very beginning they had not used their full strength.
+Now, again, knowing as they did all that depended upon it, bound as they
+were to the most loyal support of Serbia, the aid they sent was too
+small to be more than a drop in the bucket. It must be remembered,
+however, that the greatest leaders among the Allies were at all times
+opposed to in any way scattering their strength. They believed that the
+war was to be won in France. Military leaders in particular yielded
+under protest to the political leaders when expeditions of this
+character were undertaken.
+
+Certainly this is true, that the world believed that Serbia had a right
+to Allied assistance. The gallant little nation was fighting for her
+life, and public honor demanded that she should be aided. It was this
+strong feeling that led to the action that was taken, in spite of the
+military opinions. It was, however, too late.
+
+In the second week of October Serbia found herself faced by an enemy
+which was attacking her on three sides. She herself had been greatly
+weakened. Her losses in 1914, when she had driven Austria from her
+border, must have been at least two hundred thousand men. She had
+suffered from pestilence and famine. Her strength now could not have
+been more than two hundred thousand, and though she was fairly well
+supplied with munitions, she was so much outnumbered that she could
+hardly hope for success. On her west she was facing the Austro-German
+armies; on her east Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source of
+supplies was Saloniki and this was really her only hope. If the Allies
+at Saloniki could stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians might face
+again the Austro-Germans. They expected this help from the Allies.
+
+At Nish the town was decorated and the school children waited outside
+the station with bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements. But
+the Allies did not come.
+
+Von Mackensen's plan was simple enough. His object was to win a way to
+Constantinople. This could be done either by the control of the Danube
+or the Ottoman Railroad. To control the Danube he had to seize
+northeastern Serbia for the length of the river. This was comparatively
+easy and would give him a clear water way to the Bulgarian railways
+connected with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway was a harder route
+to win. It meant an advance to the southeast, which would clear the
+Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava valley up to Bulgaria.
+The movements involved were somewhat complex, but easily carried out on
+account of the very great numerical superiority of von Mackensen's
+forces.
+
+On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded. The Serbian positions were
+gradually destroyed. On the 7th of October the German armies crossed the
+Danube, and on the 8th the Serbians began to retreat. There was great
+destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian General, Mishitch, was forced
+slowly back to the foothills of the Tser range.
+
+For a time von Mackensen moved slowly. He did not wish to drive the
+Serbians too far south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian army began
+its attack. At first it was held, but by October 17th was pushing
+forward all along the line. On the 20th they entered Uskub, a central
+point of all the routes of southern Serbia. This practically separated
+the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian armies further north.
+Disaster followed disaster. On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction of
+Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was completed in the Dobravodo
+mountains. General von Gallwitz announced that a moment of world
+significance had come, that the "Orient and Occident had been united,
+and on the basis of this firm and indissoluble union a new and mighty
+vierbund comes into being, created by the victory of our arms."
+
+[Illustration: GERMANY'S DREAM: "THE
+BREMEN-BERLIN-BOSPORUS-BAGDAD-BAHN"]
+
+The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria to Turkey
+lay open. On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on November 2nd,
+Kraguyevac surrendered, the decisive battle of the war. On November
+7th, Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced: "After fierce and
+sanguinary fighting the fortress of Nish has been conquered by our brave
+victorious troops and the Bulgarian flag has been hoisted to remain
+forever."
+
+The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat, until on November 8th,
+advancing Franco-British troops almost joined with them, presenting a
+line from Prilep to Dorolovo on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time the
+Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor, and also at Strumitza. The
+Allied armies were now reported to number three hundred thousand men.
+The Austro-Germans by this time had reached the mountainous region of
+Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance.
+
+On November 13th, German despatches from the front claimed the capture
+of 54,000 Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of Serbia was in full
+flight, followed by the Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were still
+fighting and on November 15th, made a stand on the western bank of the
+Morava River, and recaptured the town of Tatova.
+
+At this time the Allied world was watching the Serbian struggle with
+interest and sympathy. In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne in a
+discussion of the English effort to give them aid said: "It is
+impossible to think or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the wondrous
+gallantry with which that little country withstood two separate
+invasions, and has lately been struggling against a third. She repelled
+the first two invasions by an effort which I venture to think formed one
+of the most glorious chapters in the history of this Great War."
+
+Serbia, however, was compelled once more to retreat, and their retreat
+soon became a rout. Their guns were abandoned and the roads were strewn
+with fainting, starving men. The sufferings of the Serbian people during
+this time are indescribable. Men, women, and children struggled along in
+the wake of the armies without food or shelter. King Peter himself was
+able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By traveling on horseback
+and mule back in disguise he finally reached Scutari and crossed to
+Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New Year's Day, crippled and
+almost blind, but still full of fight.
+
+"I believe," he said, "in the liberty of Serbia, as I believe in God. It
+was the dream of my youth. It was for that I fought throughout manhood.
+It has become the faith of the twilight of my life, I live only to see
+Serbia free. I pray that God may let me live until the day of redemption
+of my people. On that day I am ready to die, if the Lord wills. I have
+struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired, bruised and broken from
+it, but I will see, I shall see, this triumph. I shall not die before
+the victory of my country."
+
+The Serbian army had been driven out of Serbia. But the Allies who had
+come up from Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October 12th, the French
+General Serrail arrived and moved with the French forces, as has already
+been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with a number of successes. On
+October 19th they seized the Bulgarian town of Struminitza, and
+occupied strong positions on the left bank of the Vardar. On October
+27th they occupied Krivolak, with the British Tenth Division, which had
+joined them on their right. They then occupied the summit of
+Karahodjali, which commanded the whole section of the valley. This the
+Bulgarians attacked in force on the 5th of November, but were badly
+repulsed. They then attempted to move toward Babuna Pass, twenty-five
+miles west of Krivolak, where they hoped to join hands with the Serbian
+column at that point.
+
+They were being faced by a Bulgarian army numbering one hundred and
+twenty-five thousand men, and found themselves in serious danger. They
+were compelled to fall back into what is called the "Entrenched Camp of
+Kavodar" without bringing the aid to the Serbian army that they had
+hoped. The Allied expedition to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless
+from the start, and, if anything, had injured Serbia by raising false
+expectations which had interfered with their plans.
+
+During the whole of this disastrous campaign a desperate political
+struggle was going on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis Cabinet
+tendered its resignation to King Constantine. The trouble was over a
+bill for extra pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate
+discussion of the Greek war policy, M. Venizelos made two long speeches
+defending his policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents in
+regard to the Balkan situation. He said that he deplored the fact that
+Serbia was being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece's hereditary
+enemy, who would not scruple later to fall on Greece herself. He spoke
+of the King in a friendly way, criticizing, however, his position. He
+had been twice removed from the Premiership, although he had a majority
+behind him in the Greek Chamber.
+
+"Our State," he said, "is a democracy, presided over by the King, and
+the whole responsibility rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the Crown
+has a right to disagree with the responsible Government if he thinks the
+latter is not in agreement with the national will. But after the recent
+election, non-agreement is out of the question, and now the Crown has
+not the right to disagree again on the same question. It is not a
+question of patriotism but of constitutional liberty."
+
+When the vote was taken the Government was defeated by 147 to 114.
+Instead of appointing Venizelos Premier, King Constantine gave the
+position to M. Skouloudis, and then dissolved the Greek Chamber by royal
+decree. Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be neutrality with the
+character of sincerest benevolence toward the Entente Powers. The
+general conditions at Athens during this whole time were causing great
+anxiety in the Allied capitals, and the Allied expedition were in
+continual fear of an attack in the rear in case of reverse. They
+endeavored to obtain satisfactory assurances on this point, and while
+assurances were given, during the whole period of King Constantine's
+reign aggressive action was prevented because of the doubt as to what
+course King Constantine would take.
+
+In the end Constantine was compelled to abdicate. Venizelos became
+Premier, and Greece formally declared war on the Central Powers.
+
+It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania cast aside her r�le of
+neutral and entered the war with a declaration of hostilities on
+Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were founded upon the supposedly
+well-trained Roumanian army and upon the nation which, because of its
+alertness and discipline, was known as "the policeman of Europe." The
+belief was general in Paris and London that the weight of men and
+material thrown into the scale by Roumania would bring the to a speedy,
+victorious end.
+
+Germany, however, was confident. A spy system excelling in its detailed
+reports anything that had heretofore been attempted, made smooth the
+path of the German army. Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a
+drive in force into Transylvania on August 30th, when the message spread
+from Bucharest "von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army. Draft all
+males of military age. Prepare for the worst."
+
+And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania. A vast force of military
+engineers moving like a human screen in front of von Mackensen's array,
+followed routes carefully mapped out by German spies during the period
+of Roumanians neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the inch, had
+been prepared to carry cannon, material and men over streams and
+ravines. Every Roumanian oil well, mine and storehouse had been located
+and mapped. German scientists had studied Roumanian weather conditions
+and von Mackensen attacked while the roads were at their best and the
+weather most favorable. As the Germans swept forward, spies met them
+giving them military information of the utmost value. A swarm of
+airplanes spied out the movements of the Roumanians and no Roumanian
+airplanes rose to meet them.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with von Mackensen, smashed his way
+through Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to Bucharest at
+Craiova. The Dobrudja region was over-run and the central Roumanian
+plain was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition to the German advance.
+The seat of government transferred from Bucharest to Jassy on November
+28, 1916, and on December 6th Bucharest was entered by von Mackensen,
+definitely putting an end to Roumania as a factor in the war.
+
+The result of the fall of Roumania was to release immense stores of
+petroleum for German use. British and Roumanian engineers had done
+their utmost by the use of explosives to make useless the great
+Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers soon the precious fluid in
+full flow. This furnished the fuel which Germany had long and ardently
+desired. The oil-burning submarine now came into its own. It was
+possible to plan a great fleet of submersibles to attempt execution of
+von Tirpitz's plan for unrestricted submarine warfare. This was decided
+upon by the German High Command, the day Bucharest fell. It was realized
+that such a policy would bring the United States into the war, but the
+Kaiser and his advisers hoped the submarine on sea and a great western
+front offensive on land would force a decision in favor of Germany
+before America could get ready. How that hope failed was revealed at
+Ch�teau-Thierry and in the humiliation of Germany.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+
+In our previous discussion of the British campaign in Mesopotamia we
+left the British forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying Basra,
+the port of Bagdad. The object of the Mesopotamia Expedition was
+primarily to keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of Persia. If
+the English had been satisfied with that, the misfortune which was to
+come to them might never have occurred, but the whole expedition was
+essentially political rather than military in its nature.
+
+The British were defending India. The Germans, unable to attack the
+British Empire by sea, were hoping to attack her by land. They had
+already attempted to stir up a Holy War with the full expectation that
+it would lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had failed, for the
+millions of Mohammedans in India cared little for the Turkish Sultan or
+his proclamations. Through Bagdad, however, they hoped to strike a blow
+at the English influence on the Persian Gulf. The English, therefore,
+felt strongly that it was not enough to sit safely astride the Tigris,
+but that a blow at Bagdad would produce a tremendous political effect.
+It would practically prevent German communication with Persia, and the
+Indian frontier.
+
+As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and the oil fields were safe so
+long as the English held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of no
+special consequence. The real reason for the expedition was probably
+that about this time matters were moving badly for the Allies. Serbia
+was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli was a failure, something it
+seemed ought to be done to restore the British prestige. Up to this time
+the Mesopotamia Expedition had been a great success, but it had made no
+great impression on the world. The little villages in the hands of the
+British had unknown names, but if Bagdad should be captured Great
+Britain would have something to boast of; something would keep up its
+prestige among its Mohammedan subjects.
+
+Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined on, there had been
+several lively fights between the English forces and the Turks. On March
+3d a Turkish force numbering about twelve thousand appeared at Ahwaz
+where the British had placed a small garrison to protect the pipe line
+of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The British retirement led to heavy
+fighting, with severe losses.
+
+A number of lively skirmishes followed, and then the serious attack
+against Shaiba. The Turkish army numbered about eighteen thousand men,
+of whom eleven thousand were regulars. The fighting lasted for several
+days, the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of April, however, the
+English attacked in turn and put the whole enemy force to flight. The
+British lost about seven hundred officers and men, reported a Turkish
+loss of about six thousand. In their retreat the Turks were attacked by
+their Arab allies, and suffered additional losses. From that time till
+summer there were no serious contests, although there were occasional
+skirmishes which turned out favorably to the British.
+
+By this time the Turks had collected a considerable army north of Kurna,
+and on May 31st an expedition was made to disperse it. On June 3d the
+British captured Amara, seventy-five miles above Kurna, scattering the
+Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition was sent against
+Nasiriyeh, which led to serious fighting, the Turks being badly defeated
+with a loss of over two thousand five hundred men.
+
+Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in August an expedition was
+directed against that point. The Turks were found in great force, well
+intrenched, and directed by German officers. The battle lasted for four
+days. The English suffered great hardship on account of the scarcity of
+water and the blinding heat, but on September 29th they drove the enemy
+from the city and took possession. More than two thousand prisoners were
+taken. The town was found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate
+system of trenches extending for miles, built in the true German
+fashion. Its capture was the end of the summer campaign.
+
+[Illustration: THE MESOPOTAMIAN SECTOR, WHERE THE BRITISH ROUTED THE
+TURKISH ARMY]
+
+The British now had at last made up their minds to push on to Bagdad.
+General Townshend, whose work so far had been admirable, protested, but
+Sir John Nixon, and the Indian military authorities, were strongly in
+favor of the expedition. By October, Turkey was able to gather a large
+army. She was fighting in Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and
+Mesopotamia. Little was going on in the first three of these fronts,
+and she was able therefore to send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a
+million men.
+
+To meet these, General Townshend had barely fifteen thousand men, of
+whom only one-third were white soldiers. He was backed by a flotilla of
+boats of almost every kind,--river boats, motor launches, paddle
+steamers, native punts. The British army was almost worn out by the
+fighting during the intense heat of the previous summer. But their
+success had given them confidence.
+
+In the early days of October the advance began. For some days it
+proceeded with no serious fighting. On the 23d of October it reached
+Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish force numbering about four thousand.
+These were soon routed, and the advance continued until General
+Townshend arrived at Lajj, about seven miles from Ctesiphon, where the
+Turks were found heavily intrenched and in great numbers. Ctesiphon was
+a famous old city which had been the battle ground of Romans and
+Parthians, but was now mainly ruins. In these ruins, however, the Turks
+found admirable shelter for nests of machine guns. On the 21st of
+November General Townshend made his attack.
+
+The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments, and had about twenty
+thousand men, the English about twelve thousand. General Townshend's
+plan was to divide his army into three columns. The first was to attack
+the center of the first Turkish position. A second was directed at the
+left of that position, and a third was to swing widely around and come
+in on the rear of the Turkish force. This plan was entirely successful,
+but the Turkish army was not routed, and retreated fighting desperately
+to its second line. There it was reinforced and counter-attacked with
+such vigor that it drove the British back to its old first trenches. The
+next day the Turks were further reinforced and attacked again. The
+British drove them back over and over, but found themselves unable to
+advance. The Turks had lost enormously but the English had lost about
+one-third of their strength, and were compelled to fall back. They
+therefore returned on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately, after continual
+rear guard actions, to Kut. There they found themselves surrounded, and
+there was nothing to do but to wait for help. By this time the eyes of
+the world were upon the beleaguered British army. Help was being hurried
+to them from India, but Germany also was awake and Marshal von Der
+Goltz, who had been military instructor in the Turkish army, was sent
+down to take command of the Turkish forces. The town of Kut lies in the
+loop of the Tigris, making it almost an island. There was an intrenched
+line across the neck of land on the north, and the place could resist
+any ordinary assault. The great difficulty was one of supplies. However,
+as the relieving force was on the way, no great anxiety was felt. For
+some days there was constant bombardment, which did no great damage. On
+the 23d an attempt was made to carry the place by assault, but this too
+failed. The relieving force, however, was having its troubles. These
+were the days of floods, and progress was slow and at times almost
+impossible. Moreover, the Turks were constantly resisting.
+
+The relief expedition was composed of thirty thousand Indian troops, two
+Anglo-Indian divisions, and the remnants of Townshend's expedition, a
+total of about ninety thousand men. General Sir Percy Lake was in
+command of the entire force. The march began on January 6th. By January
+8th the British had reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated
+in two pitched battles. On January 22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna,
+where the Turks had intrenched themselves.
+
+After artillery bombardment the Turkish positions were attacked, but
+heavy rains had converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering rapid
+movement impossible. The enemy's fire was heavy and effective,
+inflicting severe losses, and though every effort was made, the assault
+failed.
+
+For days the British troops bivouacked in driving rain on soaked and
+sodden ground. Three times they were called upon to advance over a
+perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and absolutely devoid of cover
+against well-constructed and well-planned trenches, manned by a brave
+and stubborn enemy, approximately their equal in numbers. They showed a
+spirit of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their country may well
+be proud.
+
+But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage the British army. It was
+decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish
+position at the Dujailah redoubt. This meant a night march across the
+desert with great danger that there would be no water supply and that,
+unless the enemy was routed, the army would be in great danger.
+
+General Lake says: "On the afternoon of March 7th, General Aylmer
+assembled his subordinate commanders and gave his final instructions,
+laying particular stress on the fact that the operation was designed to
+effect a surprise, and that to prevent the enemy forestalling us, it was
+essential that the first phase of the operation should be pushed through
+with the utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly, as follows: The
+greater part of a division under General Younghusband, assisted by naval
+gunboats, controlled the enemy on the left bank. The remaining troops
+were formed into two columns, under General Kemball and General Keary
+respectively, a reserve of infantry, and the cavalry brigade, being held
+at the Corps Commander's own disposal. Kemball's column covered on the
+outer flank by the cavalry brigade was to make a turning movement to
+attack the Dujailah redoubt from the south, supported by the remainder
+of the force, operating from a position to the east of the redoubt. The
+night march by this large force, which led across the enemy's front to a
+position on his right flank, was a difficult operation, entailing
+movement over unknown ground, and requiring most careful arrangement to
+attain success."
+
+Thanks to excellent staff work and good march discipline the troops
+reached their allotted position apparently undiscovered by the enemy,
+but while Keary's column was in position at daybreak, ready to support
+Kemball's attack, the latter's command did not reach the point selected
+for its deployment in the Dujailah depression until more than an hour
+later. This delay was highly prejudicial to the success of the
+operation.
+
+When, nearly three hours later, Kemball's troops advanced to the attack,
+they were strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches cleverly concealed
+in the brushwood, and were unable to make further ground for some time,
+though assisted by Keary's attack upon the redoubt from the east. The
+southern attack was now reinforced, and by 1 P.M. had pushed forward to
+within five hundred yards of the redoubt, but concealed trenches again
+stopped further progress and the Turks made several counter-attacks with
+reinforcements which had by now arrived from the direction of Magasis.
+
+It was about this time that the Corps Commander received from his
+engineer officers the unwelcome news that the water supply contained in
+rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression, upon which he had reckoned,
+was insufficient and could not be increased by digging. It was clear,
+therefore, that unless the Dujailah redoubt could be carried that day
+the scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the troops to fall back.
+Preparations were accordingly made for a further assault on the redoubt,
+and attacks were launched from the south and east under cover of a heavy
+bombardment.
+
+The attacking forces succeeded in gaining a foothold in the redoubt. But
+here they were heavily counter-attacked by large enemy reinforcements,
+and being subjected to an extremely rapid and accurate shrapnel fire
+from concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After, they were forced to
+fall back to the position from which they started. The troops who had
+been under arms for some thirty hours, including a long night march,
+were now much exhausted, and General Aylmer considered that a renewal of
+the assault during the night could not be made with any prospect of
+success. Next morning the enemy's position was found to be unchanged and
+General Aylmer, finding himself faced with the deficiency of order
+already referred to, decided upon the immediate withdrawal of his troops
+to Wadi, which was reached the same night.
+
+For the next month the English were held in their positions by the
+Tigris floods. On April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to
+permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna, which this time was
+successful. On April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat was
+attacked, but the English were repulsed. They then determined to make
+another attempt to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On April 17th the
+fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles from Es Sinn, on the left bank, was
+captured after heavy bombardment, and held against serious
+counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st the Sanna-i-yat position was
+bombarded and a vigorous assault was made, which met with some success.
+The Turks, however, delivered a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in
+forcing the British troops back.
+
+General Lake says: "Persistent and repeated attempts on both banks have
+thus failed, and it was known that at the outside not more than six
+days' supplies remained to the Kut garrison. The British troops were
+nearly worn out. The same troops had advanced time and again to assault
+positions strong by art and held by a determined enemy. For eighteen
+consecutive days they had done all that men could do to overcome, not
+only the enemy, but also exceptional climatic and physical obstacles,
+and this on a scale of rations which was far from being sufficient in
+view of the exertions they had undergone but which the shortage of river
+transports, had made it impossible to augment. The need for rest was
+imperative."
+
+On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara surrendered
+unconditionally, after a heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three
+days. According to British figures the surrendered army was composed of
+2,970 English and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish figures are 13,300.
+The Turks also captured a large amount of booty, although General
+Townshend destroyed most of his guns and munitions.
+
+During the period in which Kut-el-Amara was besieged by the Turks, the
+British troops had suffered much. The enemy bombarded the town almost
+every day, but did little damage. The real foe was starvation. At first
+the British were confident that a relief expedition would soon reach
+them, and they amused themselves by cricket and hockey and fishing in
+the river. By early February, however, it was found necessary to reduce
+the rations, and a month later they were suffering from hunger. Some
+little help was given them by airplanes, which brought tobacco and some
+small quantities of supplies. Soon the horses and the mules were
+slaughtered and eaten. As time went on the situation grew desperate;
+till almost the end, however, they did not lose hope. Through the
+wireless they were informed about the progress of the relief expeditions
+and had even heard their guns in the distance. They gradually grew,
+however, weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender the troops in the
+first lines were too weak to march back with their kits.
+
+The Turks treated the prisoners in a chivalric manner; food and tobacco
+was at once distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia, except
+General Townshend and his staff, who were taken to Constantinople. Later
+on it was General Townshend who was to have the honor of carrying the
+Turkish plea for an armistice in the closing days of the war.
+
+The surrender of Kut created a world-wide sensation. The loss of eight
+thousand troops was, of course, not a serious matter, and the road to
+India was still barred, but the moral effect was most unfortunate. That
+the great British nation, whose power had been so respected in the
+Orient, should now be forced to yield, was a great blow to its prestige.
+In England, of course, there was a flood of criticism. It was very plain
+that a mistake had been made. A commission was appointed to inquire into
+the whole business. This committee reported to Parliament on June 26,
+1917, and the report created a great sensation. The substance of the
+report was, that while the expedition was justifiable from a political
+point of view, it was undertaken with insufficient forces and inadequate
+preparation, and it sharply criticized those that were responsible.
+
+It seems plain that the military authorities in India under-estimated
+their opponent. The report especially criticized General Sir John Eccles
+Nixon, the former commander of the British forces in Mesopotamia, who
+had urged the expedition, in spite of the objection of General
+Townshend. Others sharing the blame were the Viceroy of India, Baron
+Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff, Commander-in-Chief of the British
+forces in India, and, in England, Major-General Sir Edmund Barrow,
+Military Secretary of the India office, J. Austin Chamberlain, Secretary
+for India, and the War Committee of the Cabinet. According to the
+report, beside the losses incurred by the surrender more than
+twenty-three thousand men were lost in the relieving expedition. The
+general armament and equipment were declared to be not only
+insufficient, but not up to the standard.
+
+In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain resigned as secretary for
+India. In the House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge, who, at the time of the report, was
+Under Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared the criticism of Baron
+Hardinge to be grossly unjust. After some discussion the House of
+Commons supported Mr. Balfour's refusal to accept Baron Hardinge's
+resignation, by a vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that the
+civil administration of India were not responsible for the blunders of
+the expedition. Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter
+controversy with Lord Curzon, had made the military side of the Indian
+Government free of all civilian criticism and control. The blunders here
+were military blunders.
+
+The English, of course, were not satisfied to leave the situation in
+such a condition, and at once began their plans for a new attempt to
+capture Bagdad. The summer campaign, however, was uneventful, though on
+May 18th a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in Persia joined the
+British camp. A few days afterwards the British army went up the Tigris
+and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they had been so badly defeated
+on the 8th of March. They then approached close to Kut, but the weather
+was unsuitable, and there was now no object in capturing the city.
+
+In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Sir
+Frederick Stanley Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded to
+prepare for an expedition which should capture Bagdad. A dispatch from
+General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a full account of this
+expedition. It was thoroughly successful. This time with a sufficient
+army and a thorough equipment the British found no difficulties, and on
+February 26th they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought
+battle, but as the result of a successful series of small engagements.
+The Turks kept up a steady resistance, but the British blood was up.
+They were remembering General Townshend's surrender, and the Turks were
+driven before them in great confusion.
+
+The capture of Kut, however, was not an object in itself, and the
+British pushed steadily on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally made a
+stand, but without effect. On the 28th of February the English had
+arrived at Azizie, half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made. On the 5th
+of March the advance was renewed. The Ctesiphon position, which had
+defied General Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched, but
+empty. On March 7th the enemy made a stand on the River Diala, which
+enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad. Some lively fighting
+followed, the enemy resisting four attempts to cross the Diala. However,
+on March 10th the British forces crossed, and were now close to Bagdad.
+The enemy suddenly retired and the British troops found that their main
+opponent was a dust storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad, and on March
+11th the city was occupied by the English.
+
+The fall of Bagdad was an important event. It cheered the Allies, and
+proved, especially to the Oriental world, the power of the British army.
+Those who originally planned its capture had been right, but those who
+were to carry out the plan had not done their duty. Under General Maude
+it was a comparatively simple operation, though full of admirable
+details, and it produced all the good effects expected. The British, of
+course, did not stop at Bagdad. The city itself is not of strategic
+importance. The surrounding towns were occupied and an endeavor was made
+to conciliate the inhabitants. The real object of the expedition was
+attained.
+
+[Illustration: BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH
+
+Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of
+the British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the
+ancient city at the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+
+France was revealed to herself, to Germany and to the world as the
+heroic defender of civilization, as a defender defying death in the
+victory of Verdun. There, with the gateway to Paris lying open at its
+back, the French army, in the longest pitched battle in all history,
+held like a cold blue rock against the uttermost man power and resources
+of the German army.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff and military
+dictator of the Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace. There
+the mettle of the Crown Prince was tested and he was found to be merely
+a thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was under the domination of
+von Falkenhayn.
+
+For the tremendous offensive which was planned to end the war by one
+terrific thrust, von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other fronts of
+effective men and munitions. Field Marshal von Hindenburg and his crafty
+Chief of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a campaign against
+Russia designed to put that tottering military Colossus out of the war.
+The plans were upon a scale that might well have proved successful. The
+Kaiser, influenced by the Crown Prince and by von Falkenhayn, decreed
+that the Russian campaign must be postponed and that von Hindenburg must
+send his crack troops to join the army of the Crown Prince fronting
+Verdun. Ludendorff promptly resigned as Chief of Staff to von Hindenburg
+and suggested that the Field Marshal also resign. That grim old warrior
+declined to take this action, preferring to remain idle in East Prussia
+and watch what he predicted would be a useless effort on the western
+front. His warning to the General Staff was explicit, but von Falkenhayn
+coolly ignored the message.
+
+[Illustration: IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS WITH
+THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, "THEY SHALL NOT PASS"]
+
+Why did Germany select this particular point for its grand offensive?
+The answer is to be found in a demand made by the great Junker
+associations of Germany in May, 1915, nine months before the attack was
+undertaken. That demand was to the effect that Verdun should be attacked
+and captured. They declared that the Verdun fortifications made a
+menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields of the Briey basin.
+From this metalliferous field of Lorraine came the ore that supplied
+eighty per cent of the steel required for German and Austrian guns and
+munitions. These fields of Briey were only twenty miles from the great
+guns of Verdun. They were French territory at the beginning of the war
+and had been seized by the army of the Crown Prince, co-operating with
+the Army of Metz because of their immense value to the Germans in war
+making.
+
+As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn placed a semicircle of
+huge howitzers and rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling the
+vast forces drained from all the fronts and having erected ammunition
+dumps covering many acres, the great battle commenced with a surprise
+attack upon the village of Haumont on February 21, 1916.
+
+The first victory of the Germans at that point was an easy one. The
+great fort of Douaumont was the next objective. This was taken on
+February 25th after a concentrated bombardment that for intensity
+surpassed anything that heretofore had been shown in the war.
+
+Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending the disposition of guns and
+men, had now penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun. The tide was
+running against the French, and shells, more shells for the guns of all
+caliber; men, more men for the earthworks surrounding the devoted city
+were needed. The narrow-gauge railway connecting Verdun with the great
+French depots of supplies was totally inadequate for the transportation
+burdens suddenly cast upon it. In this desperate emergency a transport
+system was born of necessity, a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet
+upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles; anything that could
+pack a few shells or a handful of men was utilized. The backbone of the
+system was a great fleet of trucks driven by men whose average daily
+rest was four hours, and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the stains of
+snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were indelibly fixed through the
+winter, spring, summer and fall of 1916, for the glorious engagement
+continued from February 21st until November 2d, when the Germans were
+forced into full retreat from the field of honor, the evacuation of Fort
+Vaux putting a period to Germany's disastrous plan and to von
+Falkenhayn's military career.
+
+Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days of the immortal battle,
+wrote:
+
+"Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary of battles. The mass of
+metal used on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the transformation
+on the Douaumont Ridge was more suddenly dramatic than even the battle
+of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the conflict already looks
+as if it would surpass anything in history. More than a month has
+elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre and General P�tain, I
+was able to watch the struggle from various vital viewpoints. The battle
+had then been raging with great intensity for a fortnignt, and, as I
+write, four to five thousand guns are still thundering round Verdun.
+Impossible, therefore, any man to describe the entire battle. The most
+one can do is to set down one's impressions of the first phases of a
+terrible conflict, the end of which cannot be foreseen.
+
+"My chief impression is one of admiration for the subtle powers of mind
+of the French High Command. General Joffre and General Castelnau are men
+with especially fine intellects tempered to terrible keenness. Always
+they have had to contend against superior numbers. In 1870, when they
+were subalterns, their country lost the advantage of its numerous
+population by abandoning general military service at a time when Prussia
+was completely realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In 1914, when
+they were commanders, France was inferior to a still greater degree in
+point of numbers to Prussianized Germany. In armament, France was
+inferior at first to her enemy. The French High Command has thus been
+trained by adversity to do all that human intellect can against almost
+overwhelming hostile material forces. General Joffre, General
+Castelnau--and, later, General P�tain, who at a moment's notice
+displaced General Herr--had to display genius where the Germans were
+exhibiting talent, and the result is to be seen at Verdun. They there
+caught the enemy in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown in
+modern warfare--something elemental, and yet subtle, neo-primitive,
+and befitting the atavistic character of the Teuton. They caught him in
+a web of his own unfulfilled boasts.
+
+"The enemy began by massing a surprising force on the western front.
+Tremendous energy and organizing power were the marks of his supreme
+efforts to obtain a decision. It was usually reckoned that the Germans
+maintain on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four and a half
+army corps, which at full strength number three million men. Yet, while
+holding the Russians from Riga to the south of the Pripet Marshes, and
+maintaining a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems to have
+succeeded in bringing up nearly two millions and a half of men for her
+grand spring offensive in the west. At one time her forces in France and
+Flanders were only ninety divisions. But troops and guns were withdrawn
+in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia in December, 1915, until
+there were, it is estimated, a hundred and eighteen divisions on the
+Franco-British-Belgian front. A large number of six-inch and twelve-inch
+Austrian howitzers were added to the enormous Krupp batteries. Then a
+large proportion of new recruits of the 1916 class were moved into
+Rhine-land depots to serve as drafts for the fifty-nine army corps, and
+it is thought that nearly all the huge shell output that had accumulated
+during the winter was transported westward.
+
+"The French Staff reckoned that Verdun would be attacked when the ground
+had dried somewhat in the March winds. It was thought that the enemy
+movement would take place against the British front in some of the
+sectors of which there were chalk undulations, through which the rains
+of winter quickly drained. The Germans skilfully encouraged this idea by
+making an apparent preliminary attack at Lions, on a five-mile front
+with rolling gas-clouds and successive waves of infantry. During this
+feint the veritable offensive movement softly began on Saturday,
+February 19, 1916, when the enormous masses of hostile artillery west,
+east, and north of the Verdun salient started registering on the French
+positions. Only in small numbers did the German guns fire, in order not
+to alarm their opponents. But even this trial bombardment by shifts was
+a terrible display of power, calling forth all the energies of the
+outnumbered French gunners to maintain the artillery duels that
+continued day and night until Monday morning, February 21st.
+
+"The enemy seems to have maintained a bombardment all round General
+Herr's lines on February 21, 1916, but this general battering was done
+with a thousand pieces of field artillery. The grand masses of heavy
+howitzers were used in a different way. At a quarter past seven in the
+morning they concentrated on the small sector of advanced intrenchments
+near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch shells fell with terrible
+precision every few yards, according to the statements made by the
+French troops. I afterwards saw a big German shell, from at least six
+miles distant from my place of observation, hit quite a small target. So
+I can well believe that, in the first bombardment of French positions,
+which had been photographed from the air and minutely measured and
+registered by the enemy gunners in the trial firing, the great,
+destructive shots went home with extraordinary effect. The trenches were
+not bombarded--they were obliterated. In each small sector of the
+six-mile northward bulge of the Verdun salient the work of destruction
+was done with surprising quickness.
+
+"After the line from Brabant to Haumont was smashed, the main fire power
+was directed against the other end of the bow at Herbebois, Ornes, and
+Maucourt. Then when both ends of the bow were severely hammered, the
+central point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods, was smothered in
+shells of all sizes, poured in from east, north and west. In this manner
+almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery was centered upon
+mile after mile of the French front. When the great guns lifted over the
+lines of craters, the lighter field artillery placed row after row in
+front of the wreckage, maintained an unending fire curtain over the
+communicating saps and support intrenchments.
+
+"Then came the second surprising feature in the new German system of
+attack. No waves of storming infantry swept into the battered works.
+Only strong patrols at first came cautiously forward, to discover if it
+were safe for the main body of troops to advance and reorganize the
+French line so as to allow the artillery to move onward. There was thus
+a large element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards told by
+German prisoners. Their commanders thought it would be possible to do
+all the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving the infantry to act
+as squatters to the great guns and occupy and rebuild line after line of
+the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand struggles. All they
+had to do was to protect the gunners from surprise attack, while the
+guns made an easy path for them and also beat back any counter-attack in
+force.
+
+"But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving the man-power of Germany
+by an unparalleled expenditure of shell, it required for full success
+the co-operation of the French troops. But the French did not
+co-operate. Their High Command had continually improved their system of
+trench defense in accordance with the experiences of their own hurricane
+bombardments in Champagne and the Carency sector. General Castelnau, the
+acting Commander-in-Chief on the French front, was indeed the inventor
+of hurricane fire tactics, which he had used for the first time in
+February, 1915, in Champagne. When General Joffre took over the conduct
+of all French operations, leaving to General Castelnau the immediate
+control of the front in France, the victor of the battle of Nancy
+weakened his advance lines and then his support lines, until his troops
+actually engaged in fighting were very little more than a thin covering
+body, such as is thrown out towards the frontier while the main forces
+connect well behind.
+
+"We shall see the strategical effect of this extraordinary measure in
+the second phase of the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to
+leave remarkably few French troops exposed to the appalling tempest of
+German and Austrian shells. The fire-trench was almost empty, and in
+many cases the real defenders of the French line were men with machine
+guns, hidden in dug-outs at some distance from the photographed
+positions at which the German gunners aimed. The batteries of light
+guns, which the French handled with the flexibility and continuity of
+fire of Maxims, were also concealed in widely scattered positions. The
+main damage caused by the first intense bombardment was the destruction
+of all the telephone wires along the French front. In one hour the
+German guns plowed up every yard of ground behind the observing posts
+and behind the fire trench. Communications could only be slowly
+re-established by messengers, so that many parties of men had to fight
+on their own initiative, with little or no combination of effort with
+their comrades.
+
+"Yet, desperate as were their circumstances, they broke down the German
+plan for capturing trenches without an infantry attack. They caught the
+patrols and annihilated them, and then swept back the disillusioned and
+reluctant main bodies of German troops. First, the bombing parties were
+felled, then the sappers as they came forward to repair the line for
+their infantry, and at last the infantry itself in wave after wave of
+field-gray. The small French garrison of every center of resistance
+fought with cool, deadly courage, and often to the death.
+
+"Artillery fire was practically useless against them, for though their
+tunnel shelters were sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch shells, which
+they regarded as their special terror by reason of their penetrative
+power and wide blast, even the Germans had not sufficient shells to
+search out all their underground chambers, every one of which have two
+or three exits.
+
+"The new organization of the French Machine-gun Corps was a fine factor
+in the eventual success. One gun fired ten thousand rounds daily for a
+week, most of the positions selected being spots from which each German
+infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered. Then the French 75's
+which had been masked during the overwhelming fire of the enemy
+howitzers, came unexpectedly into action when the German infantry
+attacks increased in strength. Near Haumont, for example, eight
+successive furious assaults were repulsed by three batteries of 75's.
+One battery was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch guns, but it
+remained in action until all its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners
+then blew up their guns and retired, with the loss of only one man.
+
+[Illustration: AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS
+
+Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a
+shattered village.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED
+
+The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of
+action.]
+
+"Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown Prince's army from the fourteen
+divisions--that battled at Douaumont Fort--to twenty-five divisions.
+In April he added five more divisions to the forces around Verdun by
+weakening the effectives in other sectors and drawing more troops from
+the Russian front. It was rumored that von Hindenburg was growing
+restive and complaining that the wastage at Verdun would tell against
+the success of the campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was to open
+when the Baltic ice melted.
+
+"Great as was the wastage of life, it was in no way immediately
+decisive. But when the expenditure of shells almost outran the highest
+speed of production of the German munition factories, and the wear on
+the guns was more than Krupp and Skoda could make good, there was danger
+to the enemy in beginning another great offensive likely to overtax his
+shellmakers and gunmakers."
+
+Immortal and indomitable France had won over her foe more power than she
+had possessed even after the battle of the Marne. If her Allies, with
+the help of Japan and the United States, could soon overtake the
+production of the German and Austrian munition factories, it was
+possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan, might become one of the turning
+points of the war.
+
+Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with the whole population of France
+roused to the supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like a rock.
+Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green lines were sent against the
+twenty-five miles of earthworks, while the French guns took their toll
+of the crack German regiments. German dead lay upon the field until
+exposed flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms. No Man's
+Land around Verdun was a waste and a stench.
+
+General Joffre's plan was very simple. It was to hold out. As was
+afterwards revealed, much to the satisfaction of the French people, Sir
+Douglas Haig had placed himself completely at the service of the French
+Commander-in-Chief, and had suggested that he should use the British
+army to weaken the thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had refused the
+proffered help. No man knew better than he what his country, with its
+exceedingly low birthrate, was suffering on the Meuse. He had but to
+send a telegram to British Headquarters, and a million Britons, with
+thousands of heavy guns, would fling themselves upon the German lines
+and compel Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy artillery,
+and his millions of men between Verdun and the Somme. But General
+Joffre, instead of sending the telegram in question, merely dispatched
+officers to British Headquarters to assure and calm the chafing Scotsman
+commanding the military forces of the British Empire.
+
+Throughout that long summer the battle cry of Verdun, "_Ne passeront
+pas_!" ("They shall not pass!"), was an inspiration to the French army
+and to the world. Then as autumn drifted its red foliage over the
+heights surrounding the bloody field, the French struck back. General
+Nivelle, who had taken command at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a
+series of attacks and a persistent pressure against the German forces on
+both sides of the Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden sweeping
+attack which on October 24th, resulted in the recapture by Nivelle's
+forces of Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the recapture of Fort
+Vaux.
+
+Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle in the long and honorable
+history of France.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOL. 3***
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+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+    <meta charset="UTF-8">
+    <title>
+      History of the World War (Volume 3 of 7) | Project Gutenberg
+    </title>
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+    <style>
+
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter hide"><img src="images/coversmall.jpg" width="450" alt="cover"></div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_0"></span>
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_frontispiece">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_frontispiece.jpg" alt="THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR</p>
+
+<p>The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to the stirrup
+leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an avalanche upon the German
+lines, tearing great gaps in their massed formations.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt="title page"></div>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<p class="ph1">COMPLETE EDITION</p>
+<hr class="small">
+<h1><small>HISTORY OF THE</small><br>
+WORLD WAR</h1>
+
+<p><span class="xlarge">An Authentic Narrative of<br>
+The World’s Greatest War</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="large"><span class="smcap">By</span> FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D.</span><br>
+
+In Collaboration with<br>
+
+RICHARD J. BEAMISH<br>
+
+Special War Correspondent<br>
+and Military Analyst</p>
+
+<p>With an Introduction<br>
+<span class="large"><span class="smcap">By</span> GENERAL PEYTON C. MARCH</span><br>
+Chief of Staff of the United States Army</p>
+
+<p>With Exclusive Photographs by<br>
+JAMES H. HARE and DONALD THOMPSON<br>
+World-Famed War Photographers<br>
+
+and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs<br>
+of the United States, Canadian, British,<br>
+French and Italian Governments</p>
+
+<p>MCMXIX<br>
+<span class="large">LESLIE-JUDGE COMPANY<br>
+<span class="smcap">New York</span></span></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center">Copyright, 1918<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">Francis A. March</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+<p>This history is an original work and is fully<br>
+protected by the copyright laws, including the<br>
+right of translation. All persons are warned<br>
+against reproducing the text in whole or in<br>
+part without the permission of the publishers.</p>
+</div></div></div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS<br>
+
+<small>VOLUME III</small></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<table>
+<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. Neuve Chapelle and War
+in Blood-Soaked Trenches</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation
+of No Man’s Land—Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over
+Four Years—Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for
+Every Foot of Gain</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">      1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Italy Declares War on
+Austria</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Her Great Decision—D’Annunzio, Poet and Patriot—Italia
+Irredenta—German Indignation—The Campaigns
+on the Isonzo and in the Tyrol</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">      29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Glorious Gallipoli</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">A Titanic Enterprise—Its Objects—Disasters and Deeds
+of Deathless Glory—The Heroic Anzacs—Bloody Dashes up
+Impregnable Slopes—Silently they Stole Away—A Successful
+Failure</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">      58</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. The Greatest Naval
+Battle in History</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">The Battle of Jutland—Every Factor on Sea and in Sky
+Favorable to the Germans—Low Visibility a Great Factor—A
+Modern Sea Battle—Light Cruisers Screening Battleship
+Squadron—Germans Run Away when British Fleet
+Marshals Its Full Strength—Death of Lord Kitchener</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">      78</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. The Russian Campaign</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">The Advance on Cracow—Von Hindenburg Strikes at
+Warsaw—German Barbarism—The War in Galicia—The
+Fall of Przemysl—Russia’s Ammunition Fails—The Russian
+Retreat—The Fall of Warsaw—The Last Stand—Czernowitz</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104">      104</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. How the Balkans Decided</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany—Dramatic
+Scene in the King’s Palace—The Die is Cast—Bulgaria
+Succumbs to Seductions of Potsdam Gang—Greece
+Mobilizes—French and British Troops at Saloniki—Serbia
+Over-run—Roumania’s Disastrous Venture in the Arena
+of Mars</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145">      145</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII. The Campaign in Mesopotamia</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara—After
+Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders
+after 143 Days of Siege—New British Expedition
+Recaptures Kut—Troops Push on Up the Tigris—Fall of
+Bagdad the Magnificent</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">      187</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII. Immortal Verdun</span></th></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdl">Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and
+the Crown Prince—Hindenburg’s Warning—Why the Germans
+Made the Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great
+Fortress—Heroic France Reveals Itself to the World—“They
+Shall Not Pass”—Nivelle’s Glorious Stand on
+Dead Man Hill—Lord Northcliffe’s Description—A Defense
+Unsurpassed in the History of France</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209">      209</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">ILLUSTRATIONS<br>
+
+<small>VOLUME III</small></h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<table>
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Thrill of Old-Time War</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_0">     <i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Glorious Charge of the Ninth Lancers</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4">      4</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charging Through Barbed-Wire Entanglements</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6">      6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">British Indian Troops Charging the German
+Trenches at Neuve Chapelle</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">      10</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charging on German Trenches in Gas Masks</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12">      12</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">An Incident of the War in Flanders</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">      18</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Italy’s Titanic Labor to Conquer the Alps</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">      30</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Waiting the Order to Attack</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38">      38</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Transporting Wounded Amid the Difficulties
+of the Italian Mountain Front</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42">      42</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Loss of the “Irresistible”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68">      68</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Historic Landing from the “River Clyde”
+at Seddul Bahr</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76">      76</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Admiral William S. Sims</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">      98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Admiral Sir David Beatty</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98">      98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">German Frightfulness from the Air</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110">      110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Bagdad the Magnificent Falls to the British</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208">      208</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Ammunition for the Guns</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">      224</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">How Verdun was Saved</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224">      224</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span>
+
+<p class="ph2">THE WORLD WAR</p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br>
+
+
+<span class="smcap">Neuve Chapelle and War in Blood-Soaked
+Trenches</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap2">AFTER the immortal stand of Joffre at
+the first battle of the Marne and the sudden
+savage thrust at the German center which
+sent von Kluck and his men reeling back in
+retreat to the prepared defenses along the
+line of the Aisne, the war in the western theater
+resolved itself into a play for position
+from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would
+come a sudden big push by one side or the
+other in which artillery was massed until hub
+touched hub and infantry swept to glory and
+death in waves of gray, or blue or khaki as the
+case might be. But these tremendous efforts
+and consequent slaughters did not change the
+long battle line from the Alps to the North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>
+Sea materially. Here and there a bulge would
+be made by the terrific pressure of men and
+material in some great assault like that first
+push of the British at Neuve Chapelle, like the
+German attack at Verdun or like the tremendous
+efforts by both sides on that bloodiest of
+all battlefields, the Somme.</p>
+
+<p>Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention
+as the test in which the British soldiers demonstrated
+their might in equal contest against the
+enemy. There had been a disposition in England
+as elsewhere up to that time to rate the
+Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of
+the scientific equipment with which the German
+army had taken the field. When the battle
+of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although
+its losses were heavy, there was no
+longer any doubt in the British nation that victory
+was only a question of time.</p>
+
+<p>The action came as a pendant to the attack
+by General de Langle de Cary’s French
+army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that
+had been a steady relentless pressure by artillery
+and infantry upon a strong German position.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
+To meet it heavy reinforcements had
+been shifted by the Germans from the trenches
+between La Bassée and Lille. The earthworks
+at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly
+depleted and only a comparatively small body
+of Saxons and Bavarians defended them. Opposite
+this body was the first British army.
+The German intrenchments at Neuve Chapelle
+surrounded and defended the highlands upon
+which were placed the German batteries and
+in their turn defended the road towards Lille,
+Roubaix and Turcoing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_003">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="The Battle-Ground of Neuve Chapelle">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Battle-Ground of Neuve Chapelle</span></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>The task assigned to Sir John French was
+to make an assault with only forty-eight thousand
+men on a comparatively narrow front.
+There was only one practicable method for effective
+preparation, and this was chosen by
+the British general. An artillery concentration
+absolutely unprecedented up to that time
+was employed by him. Field pieces firing at
+point-blank range were used to cut the barbed
+wire entanglements defending the enemy intrenchments,
+while howitzers and bombing airplanes
+were used to drop high explosives into
+the defenseless earthworks.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief
+of the British forces, was in
+command of the first army. Sir Horace
+Smith-Dorrien commanded the second army.
+It was the first army that bore the brunt of
+the attack.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_004">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS<">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS</p>
+
+<p>An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of eleven guns posted in a wood had caused havoc in the
+British ranks. The Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of shell from the other German batteries,
+cut down all the gunners, and put every gun out of action.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>No engagement during the years on the
+western front was more sudden and surprising
+in its onset than that drive of the British
+against Neuve Chapelle. At seven o’clock on
+the morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>
+the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing
+over a desultory shell fire upon the German
+trenches. It was the usual breakfast appetizer,
+and nobody on the German side took
+any unusual notice of it. Really, however, the
+shelling was scientific “bracketing” of the enemy’s
+important position. The gunners were
+making sure of their ranges.</p>
+
+<p>At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar
+that shook the earth the most destructive and
+withering artillery action of the war up to that
+time was on. Field pieces sending their shells
+hurtling only a few feet above the earth tore
+the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces
+and made kindling wood of the supports.
+Howitzers sent high explosive shells, containing
+lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber
+into the doomed trenches and later into the
+ruined village. It was eight o’clock in the
+morning, one-half hour after the beginning of
+the artillery action, that the village was bombarded.
+During this time British soldiers
+were enabled to walk about in No Man’s Land
+behind the curtain of fire with absolute immunity.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>
+No German rifleman or machine
+gunner left cover. The scene on the German
+side of the line was like that upon the blasted
+surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell
+holes, and with no trace of human life to be
+seen above ground.</p>
+
+<p>An eye-witness describing the scene said:</p>
+
+<p>“The dawn, which broke reluctantly through
+a veil of clouds on the morning of Wednesday,
+March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the
+Germans behind the white and blue sandbags
+in their long line of trenches curving in a hemicycle
+about the battered village of Neuve Chapelle.
+For five months they had remained undisputed
+masters of the positions they had here
+wrested from the British in October. Ensconced
+in their comfortably-arranged trenches
+with but a thin outpost in their fire trenches,
+they had watched day succeed day and night
+succeed night without the least variation from
+the monotony of trench warfare, the intermittent
+bark of the machine guns—rat-tat-tat-tat-tat—and
+the perpetual rattle of rifle fire, with
+here and there a bomb, and now and then an
+exploded mine.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_006">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><small>© <i>Illustrated London News</i>.</small></p>
+
+<p class="center">CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS</p>
+
+<p>In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed by the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up
+in the face of a murderous German fire.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>“For weeks past the German airmen had
+grown strangely shy. On this Wednesday
+morning none were aloft to spy out the strange
+doings which, as dawn broke, might have been
+descried on the desolate roads behind the British
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>“From ten o’clock of the preceding evening
+endless files of men marched silently down the
+roads leading towards the German positions
+through Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast,
+poor shattered villages of the dead where
+months of incessant bombardment have driven
+away the last inhabitants and left roofless
+houses and rent roadways....</p>
+
+<p>“Two days before, a quiet room, where
+Nelson’s Prayer stands on the mantel-shelf,
+saw the ripening of the plans that sent these
+sturdy sons of Britain’s four kingdoms marching
+all through the night. Sir John French
+met the army corps commanders and unfolded
+to them his plans for the offensive of the British<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>
+army against the German line at Neuve
+Chapelle.</p>
+
+<p>“The onslaught was to be a surprise. That
+was its essence. The Germans were to be
+battered with artillery, then rushed before they
+recovered their wits. We had thirty-six clear
+hours before us. Thus long, it was reckoned
+(with complete accuracy as afterwards appeared),
+must elapse before the Germans,
+whose line before us had been weakened, could
+rush up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy’s
+being pinned down right and left of the
+‘great push,’ an attack was to be delivered
+north and south of the main thrust simultaneously
+with the assault on Neuve Chapelle.”</p>
+
+<p>After describing the impatience of the British
+soldiers as they awaited the signal to open
+the attack, and the actual beginning of the engagement,
+the narrator continues:</p>
+
+<p>“Then hell broke loose. With a mighty,
+hideous, screeching burst of noise, hundreds
+of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches
+were deafened by the sharp reports of the
+field-guns spitting out their shells at close<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>
+range to cut through the Germans’ barbed wire
+entanglements. In some cases the trajectory
+of these vicious missiles was so flat that they
+passed only a few feet above the British
+trenches.</p>
+
+<p>“The din was continuous. An officer who
+had the curious idea of putting his ear to the
+ground said it was as though the earth were
+being smitten great blows with a Titan’s hammer.
+After the first few shells had plunged
+screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into
+the German trenches, a dense pall of smoke
+hung over the German lines. The sickening
+fumes of lyddite blew back into the British
+trenches. In some places the troops were
+smothered in earth and dust or even spattered
+with blood from the hideous fragments of
+human bodies that went hurtling through the
+air. At one point the upper half of a German
+officer, his cap crammed on his head, was
+blown into one of our trenches.</p>
+
+<p>“Words will never convey any adequate
+idea of the horror of those five and thirty minutes.
+When the hands of officers’ watches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>
+pointed to five minutes past eight, whistles resounded
+along the British lines. At the same
+moment the shells began to burst farther
+ahead, for, by previous arrangement, the gunners,
+lengthening their fuses, were ‘lifting’ on
+to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to leave
+the road open for our infantry to rush in and
+finish what the guns had begun.</p>
+
+<p>“The shells were now falling thick among
+the houses of Neuve Chapelle, a confused mass
+of buildings seen reddish through the pillars
+of smoke and flying earth and dust. At the
+sound of the whistle—alas for the bugle, once
+the herald of victory, now banished from the
+fray!—our men scrambled out of the trenches
+and hurried higgledy-piggledy into the open.
+Their officers were in front. Many, wearing
+overcoats and carrying rifles with fixed bayonets,
+closely resembled their men.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_011">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT NEUVE CHAPELLE</p>
+
+<p>Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters
+in the Imperial forces.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“It was from the center of our attacking
+line that the assault was pressed home soonest.
+The guns had done their work well. The
+trenches were blown to irrecognizable pits
+dotted with dead. The barbed wire had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
+cut like so much twine. Starting from the
+Rue Tilleloy the Lincolns and the Berkshires
+were off the mark first, with orders to swerve
+to right and left respectively as soon as they
+had captured the first line of trenches, in order
+to let the Royal Irish Rifles and the Rifle
+Brigade through to the village. The Germans
+left alive in the trenches, half demented
+with fright, surrounded by a welter of dead
+and dying men, mostly surrendered. The
+Berkshires were opposed with the utmost gallantry
+by two German officers who had remained
+alone in a trench serving a machine
+gun. But the lads from Berkshire made their
+way into that trench and bayoneted the Germans
+where they stood, fighting to the last.
+The Lincolns, against desperate resistance,
+eventually occupied their section of the trench
+and then waited for the Irishmen and the Rifle
+Brigade to come and take the village ahead of
+them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth
+Garhwalis on the right had taken their trenches
+with a rush and were away towards the village
+and the Biez Wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>“Things had moved so fast that by the time
+the troops were ready to advance against the
+village the artillery had not finished its work.
+So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled
+the prisoners who were trooping out of
+the trenches in all directions, the infantry on
+whom devolved the honor of capturing the village,
+waited. One saw them standing out in
+the open, laughing and cracking jokes amid
+the terrific din made by the huge howitzer
+shells screeching overhead and bursting in the
+village, the rattle of machine guns all along
+the line, and the popping of rifles. Over to
+the right where the Garhwalis had been working
+with the bayonet, men were shouting
+hoarsely and wounded were groaning as the
+stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved
+swiftly to and fro over the shell-torn ground.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe46_0625" id="i_013">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS</p>
+
+<p>Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even
+a whiff of the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows the earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to
+keep up with Germany’s development of gas warfare.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“There was bloody work in the village of
+Neuve Chapelle. The capture of a place at
+the bayonet point is generally a grim business,
+in which instant, unconditional surrender is the
+only means by which bloodshed, a deal of
+bloodshed, can be prevented. If there is individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>
+resistance here and there the attacking
+troops cannot discriminate. They must
+go through, slaying as they go such as oppose
+them (the Germans have a monopoly of the
+finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise the
+enemy’s resistance would not be broken, and
+the assailants would be sniped and enfiladed
+from hastily prepared strongholds at half a
+dozen different points.</p>
+
+<p>“The village was a sight that the men say
+they will never forget. It looked as if an
+earthquake had struck it. The published
+photographs do not give any idea of the indescribable
+mass of ruins to which our guns
+reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very
+line of the streets is all but obliterated.</p>
+
+<p>“It was indeed a scene of desolation into
+which the Rifle Brigade—the first regiment to
+enter the village, I believe—raced headlong.
+Of the church only the bare shell remained,
+the interior lost to view beneath a gigantic
+mound of débris. The little churchyard was
+devastated, the very dead plucked from their
+graves, broken coffins and ancient bones scattered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>
+about amid the fresher dead, the slain of
+that morning—gray-green forms asprawl
+athwart the tombs. Of all that once fair village
+but two things remained intact—two
+great crucifixes reared aloft, one in the churchyard,
+the other over against the château.
+From the cross, that is the emblem of our
+faith, the figure of Christ, yet intact though
+all pitted with bullet marks, looked down in
+mute agony on the slain in the village.</p>
+
+<p>“The din and confusion were indescribable.
+Through the thick pall of shell smoke Germans
+were seen on all sides, some emerging
+half dazed from cellars and dugouts, their
+hands above their heads, others dodging round
+the shattered houses, others firing from the
+windows, from behind carts, even from behind
+the overturned tombstones. Machine guns
+were firing from the houses on the outskirts,
+rapping out their nerve-racking note above the
+noise of the rifles.</p>
+
+<p>“Just outside the village there was a scene
+of tremendous enthusiasm. The Rifle Brigade,
+smeared with dust and blood, fell in with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>
+the Third Gurkhas with whom they had been
+brigaded in India. The little brown men were
+dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had
+very thoroughly gone through some houses at
+the cross-roads on the Rue du Bois and silenced
+a party of Germans who were making themselves
+a nuisance there with some machine
+guns. Riflemen and Gurkhas cheered themselves
+hoarse.”</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for the complete success of
+the brilliant attack a great delay was caused
+by the failure of the artillery that was to have
+cleared the barbed-wire entanglements for the
+Twenty-third Brigade, and because of the unlooked
+for destruction of the British field telephone
+system by shell and rifle fire. The
+check of the Twenty-third Brigade banked
+other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth
+Brigade was obliged to fight at right
+angles to the line of battle. The Germans
+quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific
+toll in British lives. Particularly was this
+true at three specially strong German positions.
+One called Port Arthur by the British,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>
+another at Pietre Mill and the third was the
+fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the lack of telephone communication
+it was impossible to send reinforcements
+to the troops that had been held up by barbed
+wire and other emplacements and upon which
+German machine guns were pouring a steady
+stream of death.</p>
+
+<p>As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held
+up by unbroken barbed wire northwest of
+Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of
+the Fourth Corps was also checked in its action
+against the ridge of Aubers on the left of
+Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir
+Douglas Haig the Seventh Division was to
+have waited until the Eighth Division had
+reached Neuve Chapelle, when it was to charge
+through Aubers. With the tragic mistake
+that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly,
+the plan affecting the Seventh Division went
+awry. The German artillery, observing the
+concentration of the Seventh Division opposite
+Aubers, opened a vigorous fire upon that front.
+During the afternoon General Haig ordered a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span>
+charge upon the German positions. The advance
+was made in short rushes in the face of
+a fire that seemed to blaze from an inferno.
+Inch by inch the ground was drenched with
+British blood. At 5.30 in the afternoon the
+men dug themselves in under the relentless
+German fire. Further advance became impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The night was one of horror. Every minute
+the men were under heavy bombardment.
+At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British
+infantry rushed from the trenches in an effort
+to carry Aubers, but the enemy artillery now
+greatly reinforced made that task an impossible
+one. The trenches occupied by the British
+forces were consolidated and the salient
+made by the push was held by the British with
+bulldog tenacity.</p>
+
+<p>The number of men employed in the action
+on the British side was forty-eight thousand.
+During the early surprise of the action the loss
+was slight. Had the wire in front of the
+Twenty-third Brigade been cut by the artillery
+assigned to such action, and had the telephone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>
+system not been destroyed the success of the
+thrust would have been complete. The delay
+of four and a half hours between the first and
+second phases of the attack caused virtually
+all the losses sustained by the attacking force.
+The total casualties were 12,811 men of the
+British forces. Of these 1,751 officers and
+privates were taken prisoners and 10,000 officers
+and men were killed and wounded.</p>
+
+<p>The action continued throughout Thursday,
+March 11th, with little change in the general
+situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle
+and their intrenchments threatened Aubers.
+On Friday morning, March 12th, the
+Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate
+attempt under cover of a heavy fog to recapture
+the village. The effort was made in characteristic
+German dense formations. The
+Westphalian and Bavarian troops came out of
+Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be
+blown to pieces by British guns already loaded
+and laid on the mark. Elsewhere the British
+waited until the Germans were scarcely more
+than fifty paces away when they opened with
+deadly rapid fire before which the German
+waves melted like snow before steam. It was
+such slaughter as the British had experienced
+when held up before Aubers. Slaughter that
+staggered Germany.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_018">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS</p>
+
+<p>A Bavarian battery caught in British gunfire while limbering up. Only three guns escaped in the hail of bursting shells.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which
+the decision rested with the British, a victory
+for which a fearful price had been paid but out
+of which came a confidence that was to hearten
+the British nation and to put sinews of steel
+into the British army for the dread days to
+come.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated
+in large and in miniature many times during
+the deadlock of trench warfare on the western
+front until victory finally came to the Allies.
+During those years the western battle-front lay
+like a wounded snake across France and Belgium.
+It writhed and twisted, now this way,
+now that, as one side or the other gambled with
+men and shells and airplanes for some brief
+advantage. It bent back in a great bulge
+when von Hindenburg made his famous retreat
+in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>
+pressed heavily against the Teutonic front
+upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The
+record is one of great value to military strategists,
+to the layman it is only a succession of
+artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial reconnaissances
+and combats.</p>
+
+<p>One day grew to be very much like another
+in that deadlock of pythons. A play for position
+here was met by a counter-thrust in another
+place. German inventions were outmatched
+and outnumbered by those coming
+from the Allied side.</p>
+
+<p>Trench warfare became the daily life of the
+men. They learned to fight and live in the
+open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal
+conditions was never better exemplified
+than in those weary, dreary years on the western
+front.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_021">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME</p>
+
+<p>The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence.
+Peronne was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17;
+in the last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged
+through Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with
+awful losses by Marshal Foch.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The fighting-lines consisted generally of one,
+two, or three lines of shelter-trenches lying
+parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five inches
+in width, and varying in length according
+to the number they hold; the trenches were
+joined together by zigzag approaches and by a
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>line of reinforced trenches (armed with machine
+guns), which were almost completely
+proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire.
+The ordinary German trenches were almost invisible
+from 350 yards away, a distance which
+permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to
+realize that if the enemy occupied three successive
+lines and a line of reinforced intrenchments,
+the attacking line was likely, at the
+lowest estimate, to be decimated during an
+advance of 350 yards—by rifle fire at a range
+of 350 yards’ distance, and by the extremely
+quick fire of the machine guns, each of which
+delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute
+with absolute precision. In the field-trench, a
+soldier enjoyed far greater security than he
+would if merely prone behind his knapsack in
+an excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He
+had merely to stoop down a little to disappear
+below the level of the ground and be immune
+from infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns
+fired without endangering him. In addition,
+this stooping position brought the man’s knapsack
+on a level with his helmet, thus forming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>
+some protection against shrapnel and shell-splinters.</p>
+
+<p>At the back of the German trenches shelters
+were dug for non-commissioned officers and for
+the commander of the unit.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since the outbreak of the war, the
+French troops in Lorraine, after severe experiences,
+realized rapidly the advantages of
+the German trenches, and began to study those
+they had taken gloriously. Officers, non-commissioned
+officers, and men of the engineers
+were straightway detached in every unit to
+teach the infantry how to construct similar
+shelters. The education was quick, and very
+soon they had completed the work necessary
+for the protection of all. The tools of the
+enemy “casualties,” the spades and picks left
+behind in deserted villages, were all gladly
+piled on to the French soldiers’ knapsacks, to
+be carried willingly by the very men who used
+to grumble at being loaded with even the smallest
+regulation tool. As soon as night had set
+in on the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the
+digging of the trenches was begun. Sometimes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>
+in the darkness, the men of each fighting
+nation—less than 500 yards away from their
+enemy—would hear the noise of the workers of
+the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers’
+words of encouragement; and tacitly
+they would agree to an armistice during which
+to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they
+would dash out, to fight once more.</p>
+
+<p>Commodious, indeed, were some of the
+trench barracks. One French soldier wrote:</p>
+
+<p>“In really up-to-date intrenchments you
+may find kitchens, dining-rooms, bedrooms,
+and even stables. One regiment has first class
+cow-sheds. One day a whimsical ‘piou-piou,’
+finding a cow wandering about in the danger
+zone, had the bright idea of finding shelter for
+it in the trenches. The example was quickly
+followed, and at this moment the —th Infantry
+possess an underground farm, in which fat
+kine, well cared for, give such quantities of
+milk that regular distributions of butter are
+being made—and very good butter, too.”</p>
+
+<p>But this is not all. An officer writes home a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>
+tale of yet another one of the comforts of home
+added to the equipment of the trenches:</p>
+
+<p>“We are clean people here. Thanks to the
+ingenuity of ——, we are able to take a warm
+bath every day from ten to twelve. We call
+this teasing the ‘boches,’ for this bathing-establishment
+of the latest type is fitted up—would
+you believe it?—in the trenches!”</p>
+
+<p>Describing trenches occupied by the British
+in their protracted “siege-warfare” in Northern
+France along and to the north of the Aisne
+Valley, a British officer wrote: “In the firing-line
+the men sleep and obtain shelter in the
+dugouts they have hollowed or ‘undercut’ in
+the side of the trenches. These refuges are
+lightly raised above the bottom of the trench,
+so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor
+of the trench is also sloped for purposes of
+draining. Some trenches are provided with
+head-cover, and others with overhead cover,
+the latter, of course, giving protection from the
+weather as well as from shrapnel balls and
+splinters of shells.... At all points subject<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>
+to shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind
+is provided by communication-trenches.
+These are now so good that it is possible to
+cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced
+trenches from the billets in villages, the
+bivouacs in quarries, or the other places where
+the headquarters of units happen to be.”</p>
+
+<p>A cavalry subaltern gave the following account
+of life in the trenches: “Picnicking in
+the open air, day and night (you never see a
+roof now), is the only real method of existence.
+There are loads of straw to bed down on, and
+everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with
+shrapnel bursting within fifty yards.”</p>
+
+<p>One English officer described the ravages of
+modern artillery fire, not only upon all men,
+animals and buildings within its zone, but upon
+the very face of nature itself: “In the
+trenches crouch lines of men, in brown or gray
+or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed
+with the continual strain.”</p>
+
+<p>“The fighting is now taking place over
+ground where both sides have for weeks past
+been excavating in all directions,” said another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>
+letter from the front, “until it has become a
+perfect labyrinth. A trench runs straight for
+a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks
+in three or four directions. One branch
+merely leads into a ditch full of water, used in
+drier weather as a means of communication;
+another ends abruptly in a cul-de-sac, probably
+an abandoned sap-head; the third winds on,
+leading into galleries and passages further forward.</p>
+
+<p>“Sometimes where new ground is broken the
+spade turns up the long-buried dead, ghastly
+relics of former fights, and on all sides the surface
+of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by
+fragments of shell and bombs and distorted by
+mines. Seen from a distance, this apparently
+confused mass of passages, crossing and re-crossing
+one another, resembles an irregular
+gridiron.</p>
+
+<p>“The life led by the infantry on both sides
+at close quarters is a strange, cramped existence,
+with death always near, either by means
+of some missile from above or some mine explosion
+from beneath—a life which has one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
+dull, monotonous background of mud and
+water. Even when there is but little fighting
+the troops are kept hard at work strengthening
+the existing defenses, constructing others, and
+improvising the shelter imperative in such
+weather.”</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">Italy Declares War on Austria</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">FOR many years before the great war began
+the great powers of Europe were divided
+into two great alliances, the Triple Entente,
+composed of Russia, France and England,
+and the Triple Alliance, composed of Germany,
+Austria and Italy. When the war began
+Italy refused to join with Germany and
+Austria. Why? The answer to this question
+throws a vivid light on the origin of the war.</p>
+
+<p>Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance;
+she knew the facts, not only what was given
+to the public, but the inside facts. According
+to the terms of the alliance each member
+was bound to stand by each other only in case
+of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria
+and Germany because they were the aggressors.
+The constant assertions of the German
+statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>
+had been forced upon them were declared untrue
+by their associate Italy in the very beginning,
+and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of
+the world. Not much was said in the beginning
+about Italy’s abstention from war. The
+Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted
+that some day Italy would be made to regret
+her course, but now that the Teuton snake is
+scotched the importance of Italy’s action has
+been perceived and appraised at its true value.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans from the very beginning understood
+the real danger that might come to
+the Central Powers through Italian action.
+Every effort was made by the foreign office
+to keep her neutral. First threats were used,
+later promises were held out of addition to
+Italian territory if she would send her troops
+to Germany’s assistance. When this failed
+the most strenuous efforts were made to keep
+Italy neutral, and a former German premier,
+Prince von Bülow, was sent to Italy for this
+purpose. Socialist leaders, too, were sent from
+Germany to urge the Italian Socialists to insist
+upon neutrality.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_031">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS</p>
+
+<p>When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against Austria descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable
+natural obstacles they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into position in the mountains, as shown above, over the
+track that had to be built for every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>In July, 1914, the Italian Government was
+not taken by surprise. They had observed the
+increase year by year of the German army and
+of the German fleet. At the end of the Balkan
+wars they had been asked whether they would
+agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia.
+They had consequently long been deliberating
+as to what their course should be in case of
+war, and they had made up their minds that
+under no circumstances would they aid Germany
+against England.</p>
+
+<p>Quite independently of her long-standing
+friendship with England it would be suicide to
+Italy in her geographical position to enter a
+war which should permit her coast to be attacked
+by the English and French navies, and
+her participation in the Triple Alliance always
+carried the proviso that it did not bind her to
+fight England. This was well known in the
+German foreign office, and, indeed, in France
+where the writers upon war were reckoning
+confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from
+the Triple Alliance, and planning to use the
+entire forces of France against Germany.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>A better understanding of the Italian position
+will result from a consideration of the
+origin of the Triple Alliance.</p>
+
+<p>After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving
+the quick recovery of France, considered
+the advisability of attacking her again, and, to
+use his own words, “bleeding her white.” He
+found, however, that if this were attempted
+France would be joined by Russia and England
+and he gave up this plan. In order,
+however, to render France powerless he
+planned an alliance which should be able to
+control Europe. A league between Germany,
+Austria and Russia was his desire, and for
+some time every opportunity was taken to develop
+friendship with the Czar. Russia, however,
+remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies
+were opposed to the interests of Germany.
+Bismarck, therefore, determined, without
+losing the friendship of Russia, to persuade
+Italy to join in the continental combination.
+Italy, at the time, was the least formidable
+of the six great powers, but Bismarck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>
+foresaw that she could be made good use of
+in such a combination.</p>
+
+<p>At that time Italy, just after the completion
+of Italian unity, found herself in great perplexity.
+Her treatment of the Pope had
+brought about the hostility of Roman Catholics
+throughout the world. She feared both
+France and Austria, who were strong Catholic
+countries, and hardly knew where to look for
+friends. The great Italian leader at the time
+was Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a
+Radical and a conspirator, had become a constitutional
+statesman. Bismarck professed the
+greatest friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi
+to understand that he approved of Italy’s aspirations
+on the Adriatic and in Tunis.</p>
+
+<p>The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress,
+Italy’s interests were ignored, and
+finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the
+great indignation of the Italians. It has been
+shown in more recent times that the French
+seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck’s
+instigation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>The Italians having been roused to wrath,
+Bismarck proceeded to offer them a place in
+the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was
+an easy argument that such an alliance would
+protect them against France, and no doubt it
+was promised that it would free them from the
+danger of attack by Austria. England, at the
+time, was isolated, and Italy continued on the
+best understanding with her.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate result of the alliance was a
+growth of Italian hostility toward France,
+which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France.
+Meanwhile German commercial and financial
+enterprises were pushed throughout the Italian
+peninsula. What did Italy gain by this?
+Her commerce was weakened, and Austria permitted
+herself every possible unfriendly act except
+open war.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on Germany and Austria became
+more and more arrogant. Italy’s ambitions
+on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely
+ignored. In 1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia
+and Herzegovina, another blow to Italy.
+By this time Italy understood the situation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>
+well, and that same year, seeing no future for
+herself in Europe, she swooped down on Tripoli.
+In doing this she forestalled Germany
+herself, for Germany had determined to seize
+Tripoli.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_035">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="How the Powers Divided Northern Africa">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">How the Powers Divided Northern Africa</span></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Both Germany and Austria were opposed to
+this action of Italy, but Italy’s eyes were now
+open. Thirty years of political alliance had
+created no sympathy among the Italians for the
+Germans. Moreover, it was not entirely a
+question of policy. The lordly arrogance of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>
+the Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The
+Italians were lovers of liberty; the Germans
+pledged toward autocracy. They found
+greater sympathy in England and in France.</p>
+
+<p>“I am a son of liberty,” said Cavour, “to
+her I owe all that I am.” That, too, is Italy’s
+motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy
+in Italy was therefore strongly in favor
+of the Allies. The party in power, the Liberals,
+adopted the policy of neutrality for the
+time being, but thousands of Italians volunteered
+for the French and British service, and
+the anti-German feeling grew greater as time
+went on.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian
+Government withdrew its ambassador to Austria
+and declared war. A complete statement
+of the negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary,
+which led to this declaration, was
+delivered to the Government of the United
+States by the Italian Ambassador on May
+25th. This statement, of which the following
+is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>“The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive,
+and designed solely to preserve the <i>status
+quo</i>, or in other words equilibrium, in Europe.
+That these were its only objects and purposes
+is established by the letter and spirit of the
+treaty, as well as by the intentions clearly described
+and set forth in official acts of the ministers
+who created the alliance and confirmed
+and renewed it in the interests of peace, which
+always has inspired Italian policy. The
+treaty, as long as its intents and purposes had
+been loyally interpreted and regarded, and as
+long as it had not been used as a pretext for
+aggression against others, greatly contributed
+to the elimination and settlement of causes of
+conflict, and for many years assured to Europe
+the inestimable benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary
+severed the treaty by her own
+hands. She rejected the response of Serbia
+which gave to her all the satisfaction she could
+legitimately claim. She refused to listen to
+the conciliatory proposals presented by Italy
+in conjunction with other powers in the effort
+to spare Europe from a vast conflict, certain to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>
+drench the Continent with blood and to reduce
+it to ruin beyond the conception of human imagination,
+and finally she provoked that conflict.</p>
+
+<p>“Article first of the treaty embodied the
+usual and necessary obligation of such pacts—the
+pledge to exchange views upon any fact
+and economic questions of a general nature
+that might arise pursuant to its terms. None
+of the contracting parties had the right to undertake
+without a previous agreement any step
+the consequence of which might impose a duty
+upon the other signatories arising under the
+alliance, or which would in any way whatsoever
+encroach upon their vital interests. This
+article was violated by Austria-Hungary,
+when she sent to Serbia her note dated July 23,
+1914, an action taken without the previous assent
+of Italy. Thus, Austria-Hungary violated
+beyond doubt one of the fundamental
+provisions of the treaty. The obligation of
+Austria-Hungary to come to a previous understanding
+with Italy was the greater because her
+obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a
+situation which directly tended toward the
+provocation of a European war.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_038">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><small><i>Photo by James H. Hare.</i></small></p>
+
+<p class="caption">WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK</p>
+
+<p>Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order came to hurl
+themselves against the Austrians.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>“As far back as the beginning of July, 1914,
+the Italian Government, preoccupied by the
+prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid
+before the Austro-Hungarian Government a
+number of suggestions advising moderation,
+and warning it of the impending danger of a
+European outbreak. The course adopted by
+Austria-Hungary against Serbia constituted,
+moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general
+interests of Italy both political and economical
+in the Balkan peninsula. Austria-Hungary
+could not for a moment imagine that
+Italy could remain indifferent while Serbian
+independence was being trodden upon. On
+a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave
+Austria to understand, in friendly but clear
+terms, that the independence of Serbia was considered
+by Italy as essential to the Balkan
+equilibrium. Austria-Hungary was further
+advised that Italy could never permit that
+equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice.
+This warning had been conveyed not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span>
+only by her diplomats in private conversations
+with responsible Austro-Hungarian officials,
+but was proclaimed publicly by Italian statesmen
+on the floors of Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>“Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored
+the usual practices and menaced Serbia by
+sending her ultimatum, without in any way notifying
+the Italian Government of what she
+proposed to do, indeed leaving that government
+to learn of her action through the press,
+rather than through the usual channels of diplomacy,
+when Austria-Hungary took this unprecedented
+course she not only severed her alliance
+with Italy but committed an act inimical
+to Italy’s interests....</p>
+
+<p>“After the European war broke out Italy
+sought to come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary
+with a view to a settlement satisfactory
+to both parties which might avert existing
+and future trouble. Her efforts were in
+vain, notwithstanding the efforts of Germany,
+which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary
+to comply with Italy’s suggestion
+thereby recognizing the propriety and legitimacy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>
+of the Italian attitude. Therefore
+Italy found herself compelled by the force of
+events to seek other solutions.</p>
+
+<p>“Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with
+Austria-Hungary had ceased virtually to exist
+and served only to prolong a state of continual
+friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador
+at Vienna was instructed to declare
+to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the
+Italian Government considered itself free
+from the ties arising out of the treaty of the
+Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary
+was concerned. This communication was delivered
+in Vienna on May 4th.</p>
+
+<p>“Subsequently to this declaration, and after
+we had been obliged to take steps for the protection
+of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian
+Government submitted new concessions, which,
+however, were deemed insufficient and by no
+means met our minimum demands. These
+offers could not be considered under the circumstances.
+The Italian Government taking
+into consideration what has been stated above,
+and supported by the vote of Parliament and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>
+the solemn manifestation of the country came
+to the decision that any further delay would
+be inadvisable. Therefore, on May 23d, it
+was declared, in the name of the King, to the
+Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that,
+beginning the following day, May 24th, it
+would consider itself in a state of war with
+Austria-Hungary.”</p>
+
+<p>It was a closely reasoned argument that the
+Italian statesmen presented, but there was
+something more than reasoned argument in
+Italy’s course. She had been waiting for years
+for the opportunity to bring under her flag
+the men of her own race still held in subjection
+by hated Austria. Now was the time or never.
+Her people had become roused. Mobs filled
+the streets. Great orators, even the great poet,
+D’Annunzio, proclaimed a holy war. The
+sinking of the Lusitania poured oil on the
+flames, and the treatment of Belgium and eastern
+France added to the fury.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe46_0625" id="i_043">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><small><i>Photo by International Film Service.</i></small></p>
+
+<p class="caption">TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT</p>
+
+<p>The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during
+the Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the mountain by this means.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired,
+could not have withstood the pressure.
+It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for civilization,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>
+for humanity. The country had been
+flooded by representatives of German propaganda,
+papers had been hired and, by all report,
+money in large amounts distributed.
+But every German effort was swept away in
+the flood of feeling. It was the people’s
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber
+of Deputies adopted by vote of 407 to 74 the
+bill conferring upon the government full power
+to make war. All members of the Cabinet
+maintained absolute silence regarding what
+step should follow the action of the chamber.
+When the chamber reassembled on May 20th,
+after its long recess, there were present 482
+Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining
+away on account of illness. The Deputies especially
+applauded were those who wore military
+uniforms and who had asked permission
+for leave from their military duties to be present
+at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled
+to overflowing. No representatives of Germany,
+Austria or Turkey were to be seen in
+the diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>
+was Thomas Nelson Page, the American
+Ambassador, who was accompanied by his
+staff. M. Barrere, Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and
+Michel de Giers, the French, British and Russian
+Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a
+few minutes later and all were greeted with applause,
+which was shared by the Belgian, Greek
+and Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan,
+one-time mayor of New York, occupied
+a seat in the President’s tribune.</p>
+
+<p>A few minutes before the session began the
+poet, Gabrielle D’Annunzio, one of the strongest
+advocates of war, appeared in the rear of
+the public tribune which was so crowded that
+it seemed impossible to squeeze in anybody else.
+But the moment the people saw him they lifted
+him shoulder high and passed him over their
+heads to the first row.</p>
+
+<p>The entire chamber, and all those occupying
+the other tribunes, rose and applauded for five
+minutes, crying “Viva D’Annunzio!” Later
+thousands sent him their cards and in return
+received his autograph bearing the date of this
+eventful day. Señor Marcora, President of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>
+the Chamber, took his place at three o’clock.
+All the members of the House, and everybody
+in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old
+follower of Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed
+by all the members of the Cabinet, entered
+shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment.
+Then a delirium of cries broke out.</p>
+
+<p>“Viva Salandra!” roared the Deputies, and
+the cheering lasted for a long time. After the
+formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra,
+deeply moved by the demonstration, arose and
+said:</p>
+
+<p>“Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to
+you a bill to meet the eventual expenditures of
+a national war.”</p>
+
+<p>The announcement was greeted by further
+prolonged applause. The Premier’s speech
+was continually interrupted by enthusiasm,
+and at times he could hardly continue on account
+of the wild cheering. The climax was
+reached when he made a reference to the army
+and navy. Then the cries seemed interminable,
+and those on the floor of the House and
+in the galleries turned to the military tribune<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>
+from which the officers answered by waving
+their hands and handkerchiefs.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the Premier’s speech there
+were deafening vivas for the King, war and
+Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join
+the cheers, even in the cry “Viva Italia!” and
+they were hooted and hissed.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the Italian Government created
+intense feeling. A newspaper man in
+Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation,
+said:</p>
+
+<p>“The exasperation and contempt which
+Italy’s treacherous surprise attack and her
+hypocritical justification aroused here, are
+quite indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia,
+despite a long and costly war, is hated.
+Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be
+politicians and business men who offer violence
+to the majority of peaceful Italian people,
+are unutterably hated.” On the other
+hand German papers spoke with much more
+moderation and recognized that Italy was acting
+in an entirely natural manner.</p>
+
+<p>On the very day on which war was declared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>
+active operations were begun. Both sides had
+been making elaborate preparations. Austria
+had prepared herself by building strong
+fortifications in which were employed the latest
+technical improvements in defensive warfare.
+Upon the Carso and around Gorizia
+the Austrians had placed innumerable batteries
+of powerful guns mounted on rails and
+protected by armor plates. They also had a
+great number of medium and smaller guns.
+A net of trenches had been excavated and constructed
+in cement all along the edge of the
+hills which dominated the course of the Isonzo
+River.</p>
+
+<p>These trenches, occupying a position nearly
+impregnable because so mountainous, were defended
+by every modern device. They were
+protected with numerous machine guns, surrounded
+by wire entanglements through which
+ran a strong electric current. These lines of
+trenches followed without interruption from
+the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the
+mountains which dominate it; they formed a
+kind of formidable staircase which had to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span>
+conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>During this same period General Cadorna,
+then head of the Italian army, had been bringing
+that army up to date, working for high
+efficiency and piling up munitions.</p>
+
+<p>The Army of Italy was a formidable one.
+Every man in Italy is liable to military service
+for a period of nineteen years from the age of
+twenty to thirty-nine.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the war the approximate war
+strength of the army was as follows: Officers,
+41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910;
+reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial
+militia, 1,889,659; total strength,
+3,159,836. The above number of total men
+available included upward of 1,200,000 fully
+trained soldiers, with perhaps another 800,000
+partially trained men, the remaining million being
+completely untrained men. This army
+was splendidly armed, its officers well educated,
+and the men brave and disciplined.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian plan of campaign apparently
+consisted first, in neutralizing the Trentino by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span>
+capturing or covering the defenses and cutting
+the two lines of communication with Austria
+proper, the railway which ran south from Insbruck,
+and that which ran southwest from
+Vienna and joined the former at Fransensfets;
+and second, in a movement in force on the eastern
+frontier, with Trieste captured or covered
+on the right flank in the direction of the Austrian
+fortress at Klagenfurt and Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>The first blow was struck by Austria on the
+day that war was declared. On that day
+bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other
+Adriatic ports were shelled from air, and some
+from sea. The Italian armies invaded Austria
+on the east with great rapidity, and by
+May 27th a part of the Italian forces had
+moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone,
+sixteen miles northwest of Trieste. Another
+force penetrated further to the north in the
+Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisca. Reports
+from Italy were that encounters with
+the enemy had thus far been merely outpost
+skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy
+advantageous positions on Austrian territory.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>
+By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the
+greater part of the west bank of the Isonzo,
+with little opposition. The left wing was beyond
+the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among
+the boulders of Monte Nero, where the Austrian
+artillery had strong positions. Monfalcone
+was kept under constant bombardment.</p>
+
+<p>A general Italian advance took place on
+June 7th across the Isonzo River from Caporetto
+to the sea, a distance of about forty miles.
+Monfalcone was taken by the Italians on June
+the 10th, the first serious blow against Trieste,
+as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and its
+electrical works operated the light and power
+of Trieste.</p>
+
+<p>Next day the center made a great blow
+against Gradisca and Sagrado, but the river
+line proved too strong. The only success was
+won that night at Plava, north of Borrigia,
+which was carried by a surprise attack. The
+Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious
+obstacle to the onrush of the Italians. By
+June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed
+forward along the gulf of Trieste toward the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span>
+town of Nebrosina, nine miles from Trieste.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being
+constantly strengthened. The initial weakness
+of the Austrian defensive was due to the
+fact that the armies normally assigned to the invaded
+region had been sent to defend the Austrian
+line in Galicia against the Russians.
+When Italy began her invasion the defenses of
+the country were chiefly in the hands of hastily
+mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen,
+and men above the military age of forty-two.
+From now on Austrian troops began
+to arrive from the Galician front, some of these
+representing the finest fighting material in the
+Austrian ranks. The chance of an easy victory
+was slipping from Italy’s hands. The
+Italian advance was checked.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th of June the Italians carried an
+important position on Monte Nero, climbing
+the rocks by night and attacking by dawn.
+But this conquest did not help much. No
+guns of great caliber could be carried on the
+mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily
+fortified, and contained a garrison of some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>
+thirty thousand men, was entirely safe. The
+following week there were repeated counter-attacks
+at Plava and on Monte Nero, but the
+Italians held what they had won.</p>
+
+<p>The position was now that Cadorna’s left
+wing was in a strong position, but could not do
+much against Tolmino. His center was facing
+the great camp of Gorizia, while his right was
+on the edge of the Carso, and had advanced as
+far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad.
+The army was in position to make an
+attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July an
+attack on a broad front was aimed directly at
+Gorizia. The left was to swing around against
+the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the center
+was directed against the Gorizia bridge
+head, and the right was to swing around to the
+northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it
+succeeded the Trieste railway would be cut and
+Gorizia must fall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_053">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS</p>
+
+<p>Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the
+Italians August 9, 1916.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Long and confused fighting followed. The
+center and the right of the Italian army slowly
+advanced their line, taking over one thousand
+prisoners. For days there was continuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>
+bombardment and counter-bombardment.
+The fighting on the left was terrific. In the
+neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found
+themselves opposed by Hungarian troops, unaccustomed
+to mountain warfare, who at first
+fell back. Austrian reserves came to their aid,
+and flung back three times the Italian charge.</p>
+
+<p>Three new Italian brigades were brought up,
+and King Victor Emanuel himself came to encourage
+his troops. The final assault carried
+the heights. On the 22d of July the Italian
+right captured the crest of San Michele, which
+dominates the Doberdo plateau.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being
+heavily reinforced, and General Cadorna found
+himself unable to make progress. Much
+ground had been won but Gorizia was still unredeemed.
+Many important vantage points
+were in Italian hands, but it was difficult to
+advance. The result of the three months’ campaign
+was a stalemate. In the high mountains
+to the north Italy’s campaign was a war of
+defense. To undertake her offensive on the
+Isonzo it was necessary that she guard her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>
+flanks and rear. The Tyrolese battle-ground
+contained three distinct points where it was
+necessary to operate; the Trentino Salient, the
+passes of the Dolomites, and the passes of the
+Carnic Alps.</p>
+
+<p>Early in June Italy had won control of the
+ridges of the mountains in the two latter points,
+but the problem in the Trentino was more difficult.
+It was necessary, because of the converging
+valleys, to push her front well inland.
+On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of
+unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle
+centered around the pass of Monte Croce
+Carnico.</p>
+
+<p>In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating
+positions to the west of the pass, but the
+Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great
+deal of picturesque fighting went on, but not
+much progress was made. Further west in
+the Dolomite region there was more fighting.
+On the 30th of May Cartina had been captured,
+and the Italians moved north toward the Pusterthal
+Railway. Progress was slow, as the
+main routes to the railway were difficult.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>By the middle of August they were only a
+few miles from the railway, but all the routes
+led through defiles, and the neighboring
+heights were in the possession of the Austrians.
+To capture these heights was a most difficult
+feat, which the Italians performed in the most
+brilliant way; but even after they had passed
+these defiles success was not yet won. Each
+Italian column was in its own grove, with no
+lateral communication. The Austrians could
+mass themselves where they pleased. As a result
+the Italian forces were compelled to halt.</p>
+
+<p>In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon
+captured the passes, and moved against Trente
+and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified,
+as were their surrounding heights. The
+campaign became a series of small fights on
+mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only
+small bodies of troops could maneuver, and the
+raising of guns up steep precipices was extremely
+difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded
+in gaining ground, and established a
+chain of posts around the heights so that often
+one would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>
+at a height of more than ten thousand
+feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The
+Alpini performed wonderful feats of physical
+endurance, but the plains of Lombardy were
+still safe.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">Glorious Gallipoli</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">IF ever the true mettle and temper of a
+people were tried and exemplified in the
+crucible of battle, that battle was the naval
+and land engagement embracing Gallipoli and
+the Dardanelles and the people so tested, the
+British race. Separated in point of time but
+united in its general plan, the engagements
+present a picture of heroism founded upon
+strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and
+dogged determination against overwhelming
+natural and artificial odds as even the pages
+of supreme British bravery cannot parallel.
+The immortal charge of the Light Brigade
+was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely
+a battle fragment and its glorious record was
+written in blood within the scope of a comparatively
+few inspired minutes. In the
+mine-strewn Dardanelles and upon the sun-baked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> 
+blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli,
+death always partnered every sailor and
+soldier. As at Balaklava, virtually everyone
+knew that some one had blundered, but the
+army and the navy as one man fought to the
+bitter end to make the best of a bad bargain,
+to tear triumph out of impossibilities.</p>
+
+<p>France co-operated with the British in the
+naval engagement, but the greater sacrifice,
+the supreme charnel house of the war, the
+British race reserved for itself. There, the
+yeomanry of England, the unsung county regiments
+whose sacrifices and achievements have
+been neglected in England’s generous desire
+to honor the men from “down under,” the Australians
+and New Zealanders grouped under
+the imperishable title of the Anzacs—there the
+Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted
+British Army with the great fighters from the
+self-governing colonies waged a battle so hopeless
+and so gallant that the word Gallipoli
+shall always remind the world how man may
+triumph over the fear of death; how with nothing
+but defeat and disaster before them, men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>
+may go to their deaths as unconcernedly as in
+other days they go to their nightly sleep.</p>
+
+<p>On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared
+war upon Turkey. Hostilities, however,
+had preceded the declaration. On November
+3d the combined French and British
+squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts.
+This was merely intended to draw the fire of
+the forts and make an estimate of their power.
+From that time on a blockade was maintained,
+and on the 13th of December a submarine,
+commanded by Lieutenant Holbrook, entered
+the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship
+Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine
+fields.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of January the blockading fleet,
+through constant reinforcement, had become
+very strong, and had seized the Island of Tenedos
+and taken possession of Lemnos, which
+nominally belonged to Greece, as bases for
+naval operations. On the 19th of February
+began the great attack upon the forts at the
+entrance to the Dardanelles, which attracted
+the attention of the world for nearly a year.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>The expedition against the Dardanelles had
+been considered with the greatest care, and
+approved by the naval authorities. That their
+judgment was correct, however, is another
+question. The history of naval warfare seems
+to make very plain that a ship, however powerful,
+is at a tremendous disadvantage when attacking
+forts on land. The badly served cannon
+of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British
+fleet, but Gallipoli had been fortified by
+German engineers, and its guns were the
+Krupp cannon. The British fleet found itself
+opposed by unsurmountable obstacles.
+Looking backward it seems possible, that if at
+the very start Lord Kitchener had permitted
+a detachment of troops to accompany the fleet,
+success might have been attained, but without
+the army the navy was powerless.</p>
+
+<p>The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of
+land about fifty miles long, varying in width
+from twelve to two or three miles. It is a
+mass of rocky hills so steep that in many places
+it is a matter of difficulty to reach their tops.
+On it are a few villages, but there are no decent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>
+roads and little cultivated land. On the southern
+shore of the Dardanelles conditions are
+nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a flat
+and marshy plain, but east of this plain are
+hills three thousand feet high. The high
+ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides,
+and with the exception of narrow bits of beach
+at their base, presents almost no opportunity
+for landing.</p>
+
+<p>A strong current continually sifts down the
+straits from the Sea of Marmora.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_063">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA</p>
+
+<p>Showing the various landing places, with inset of the Sari-Bair Region.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Forts were placed at the entrance on both
+the north and south side, but they were not
+heavily armed and were merely outposts.
+Fourteen miles from the mouth the straits become
+quite narrow, making a sharp turn directly
+north and then resuming their original
+direction. The channel thus makes a sharp
+double bend. At the entrance to the strait,
+known as the Narrows, were powerful fortresses,
+and the slopes were studded with batteries.
+Along both sides of the channel the
+low ground was lined with batteries. It was
+possible to attack the forts at fairly long range,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
+but there was no room to bring any large number
+of ships into action at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there
+were probably nearly half a million of men
+available for a defense of the straits, men well
+armed and well trained under German leadership.
+The first step was comparatively easy.
+The operations against the other forts began
+at 8 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> on Friday, the 19th of February.
+The ships engaged were the Inflexible, the
+Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance
+and the Triumph from the British fleet, and the
+Bouvet, Suffren, and the Gaulois from the
+French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral
+Sackville Carden. The French squadron
+was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette. A
+flotilla of destroyers accompanied the fleet, and
+airplanes were sent up to guide the fire of the
+battleships.</p>
+
+<p>At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle
+some miles out to sea from the entrance to the
+strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as
+the ships came along and took up position, and
+the picture became most awe-inspiring when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>
+the guns began to boom. The bombardment
+at first was slow. Shells from the various
+ships screaming through the air at the rate of
+about one every two minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish batteries, however, were not
+to be drawn, and, seeing this, the British Admiral
+sent one British ship and one French
+ship close in shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr
+forts. As they went in they sped right under
+the guns of the shore batteries, which could
+no longer resist the temptation to see what they
+could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted the
+landscape on the far shore, and dull booms
+echoed over the placid water. Around the
+ships fountains of water sprang up into the
+air. The enemy had been drawn, but his
+marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not
+a single shot directed against the ships went
+within a hundred yards of either.</p>
+
+<p>At sundown on account of the failing light
+Admiral Carden withdrew the fleet. On account
+of the bad weather the attack was not
+renewed until February 25th. It appeared
+that the outer forts had not been seriously damaged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>
+on the 19th, and that what injury had
+been done had been repaired. In an hour and
+a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced. The
+Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range
+of six miles, which killed three men and
+wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr
+was attacked at close range, but not
+silenced till after 5 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> At this time British
+trawlers began sweeping the entrance for
+mines, and during the next day the mine field
+was cleared for a distance of four miles up
+the straits.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as this clearance was made the Albion,
+Vengeance and Majestic steamed into the
+strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification
+some distance below the Narrows. The
+Turks replied vigorously, not only from Dardanos
+but from batteries scattered along the
+shore. Believing that the Turks had abandoned
+the forts at the entrance, landing parties
+of marines were sent to shore. In a short
+time, however, they met a detachment of the
+enemy and were compelled to retreat to their
+boats. The outer forts, however, were destroyed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>
+and their destruction was extremely
+encouraging to the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>For a time a series of minor operations was
+carried on, meeting with much success. Besides
+attacks on forts inside of the strait,
+Smyrna was bombarded on March the 5th,
+and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth,
+the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded
+the forts at Chanak on the Asiatic side of the
+Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros
+on the outer side of the Gallipoli Peninsula.
+To all of these attacks the Turks replied vigorously
+and the attacking ships were repeatedly
+struck, but with no loss of life. On the
+7th of March Fort Dardanos was silenced, and
+Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned
+out, only temporarily.</p>
+
+<p>Preparations were now being made for a
+serious effort against the Narrows. The date
+of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather
+permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden
+was stricken down with illness and was invalided
+by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck,
+second in command, who had been very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span>
+active in the operations, was appointed to succeed
+him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial
+sympathy with the purposes of the expedition
+and determined to attack on the 18th
+of March. At a quarter to eleven that morning,
+the Queen Elizabeth, Inflexible, Agamemnon,
+Lord Nelson, the Triumph and
+Prince George steamed up the straits towards
+the Narrows, and bombarded the forts of Chanak.
+At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting
+of the Suffren, Gaulois, Charlemagne, and
+Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid
+their English associates.</p>
+
+<p>Under the combined fire of the two squadrons
+the Turkish forts, which at first replied
+strongly, were finally silenced. All of the
+ships, however, were hit several times during
+this part of the action. A third squadron, including
+the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion,
+Ocean, Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced
+to relieve the six old battleships inside
+the strait.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_068">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”</p>
+
+<p>During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship “Irresistible” struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe losses
+of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible to force the strait by naval attack.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As the French squadron, which had engaged
+the forts in a most brilliant fashion, was passing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
+out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting
+mine and sank in less than three minutes,
+carrying with her most of her crew. At 2.36
+<span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> the relief battleships renewed the attack
+on the forts, which again opened fire. The
+Turks were now sending mines down with the
+current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the
+line, listing heavily, and at 5.50 she sank, having
+probably struck a drifting mine. At 6.05
+the Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in
+deep water. Practically the whole of the
+crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was
+damaged by gunfire; the Inflexible had her
+forward control position hit by a heavy shell,
+which killed and wounded the majority of the
+men and officers at that station and set her on
+fire. At sunset the forts were still in action,
+and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped
+out of the Dardanelles.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, an expeditionary force was being
+gathered. The largest portion of this force
+came from Great Britain, but France also provided
+a considerable number from her marines
+and from her Colonial army. Both nations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>
+avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the
+armies destined for service in France.</p>
+
+<p>In the English army there were divisions
+from Australia and New Zealand and there
+were a number of Indian troops and Territorials.
+The whole force was put under the
+command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The
+commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was
+the German General Liman von Sanders, the
+former chief of the military mission at Constantinople.
+The bulk of the expeditionary
+force, which numbered altogether about a hundred
+and twenty thousand men, were, therefore,
+men whose presence in the east did not
+weaken the Allied strength in the west.</p>
+
+<p>The great difficulty of the new plan was
+that it was impossible to surprise the enemy.
+The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small
+that a landing at any point would be promptly
+observed, and the nature of the ground was of
+such a character that progress from any point
+must necessarily be slow. The problem was
+therefore a simple one.</p>
+
+<p>The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span>
+during the first half of April, and about the
+middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos.
+Germany was well aware of the English plans,
+and was doing all that it could to provide a
+defense.</p>
+
+<p>On April 23d the movement began, and
+about five o’clock in the afternoon the first
+of the transports slowly made its way through
+the maze of shipping toward the entrance of
+Mudros Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately the patent apathy, which had
+gradually overwhelmed everyone, changed to
+the utmost enthusiasm, and as the huge liners
+steamed through the fleet, their decks yellow
+with khaki, the crews of the warships cheered
+them on to victory while the bands played
+them out with an unending variety of popular
+airs. The soldiers in the transports answered
+this last salutation from the navy with deafening
+cheers, and no more inspiring spectacle has
+ever been seen than this great expedition.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the fleet from the transports
+had been divided up into five divisions and
+there were three main landings. The 29th<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>
+Division disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli
+Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr, where its
+operations were covered both from the gulf
+of Saros and from the Dardanelles by the fire
+of the covering warships. The Australian and
+New Zealand contingent disembarked north
+of Gaba Tepe. Further north a naval division
+made a demonstration.</p>
+
+<p>Awaiting the Australians was a party of
+Turks who had been intrenched almost on the
+shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade.
+The Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to
+the occasion. They waited neither for orders
+nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing
+out into the sea they went in to the shore,
+and forming some sort of a rough line rushed
+straight on the flashes of the enemy’s rifles. In
+less than a quarter of an hour the Turks were
+in full flight.</p>
+
+<p>While the Australians and New Zealanders,
+or Anzacs as they are now generally known
+from the initials of the words Australian-New
+Zealand Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly
+at Gaba Tepe, the British troops were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>
+landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli
+Peninsula. The advance was slow and difficult.
+The Turk was pushed back, little by
+little, and the ground gained organized. The
+details of this progress, though full of incidents
+of the greatest courage and daring, need
+not be recounted.</p>
+
+<p>On June the 4th a general attack was made,
+preceded by heavy bombardments by all guns,
+but after terrific fighting, in which many prisoners
+were captured and great losses suffered,
+the net result was an advance of about five hundred
+yards. As time went on the general impression
+throughout the Allied countries was
+that the expedition had failed. On June 30th
+the losses of the Turks were estimated at not
+less than seventy thousand, and the British
+naval and military losses up to June 1st, aggregated
+38,635 officers and men. At that
+time the British and French allies held but a
+small corner of the area to be conquered. In
+all of these attacks the part played by the Australian
+and New Zealand army corps was especially
+notable. Reinforcements were repeatedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>
+sent to the Allies, who worked more and
+more feverishly as time went on with the hope
+of aiding Russia, which was then desperately
+struggling against the great German advance.</p>
+
+<p>On August 17th it was reported that a landing
+had been made at Suvla Bay, the extreme
+western point of the Peninsula. From this
+point it was hoped to threaten the Turkish communications
+with their troops at the lower end
+of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however,
+failed to make any impression, and in
+the first part of September, vigorous Turkish
+counter offensives gained territory from the
+Franco-British troops. According to the
+English reports the Turks paid a terrible price
+for their success.</p>
+
+<p>It had now become evident that the expedition
+was a failure. The Germans were already
+gloating over what they called the “failure
+of British sea power,” and English publicists
+were attempting to show that, though
+the enterprise had failed, the very presence
+of a strong Allied force at Saloniki had been
+an enormous gain. The first official announcement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>
+of failure was made December 20, 1916,
+when it was announced that the British forces
+at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been withdrawn,
+and that only the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr
+were occupied. Great Britain’s loss
+of officers and men at the Dardanelles up to
+December 11th was 112,921, according to an
+announcement made in the House of Commons
+by the Parliamentary Under Secretary
+for War. Besides these casualties the number
+of sick admitted to hospitals was 96,683.
+The decision to evacuate Gallipoli was made
+in the course of November by the British Government
+as the result of the early expressed
+opinion of General Monro, who had succeeded
+General Hamilton on October 28, 1915.</p>
+
+<p>General Monro found himself confronted
+with a serious problem in the attempt to withdraw
+an army of such a size from positions not
+more than three hundred yards from the
+enemy’s trenches, and to embark on open
+beaches every part of which was within effective
+range of Turkish guns. Moreover, the
+evacuation must be done gradually, as it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>
+impossible to move the whole army at once
+with such means of transportation as existed.
+The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies
+and heavy guns by instalments, working
+only at night, carrying off at the same time a
+large portion of the troops, but leaving certain
+picked battalions to guard the trenches.
+Every endeavor had to be made for concealment.
+The plan was splendidly successful,
+and the Turks apparently completely deceived.
+On December 20th the embarkation of the last
+troops at Suvla was accomplished. The operations
+at Anzac were conducted in the same
+way. Only picked battalions were left to the
+end, and these were carried safely off.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_077">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR</p>
+
+<p>An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of
+the Turkish machine guns on shore.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation
+made the position at Cape Helles more
+dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout,
+and it seemed almost impossible that they
+could be again deceived. On January 7th an
+attack was made by the Turks upon the
+trenches, which was beaten back. That night
+more than half the troops had left the Peninsula.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span>
+The next day there was a heavy storm
+which made embarkation difficult, but it was
+nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation
+was a clever and successful bit of work.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">The Greatest Naval Battle in History</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">GERMANY’S ambition for conquest
+at sea had been nursed and carefully
+fostered for twenty years. During the decade
+immediately preceding the declaration of war,
+it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building
+that brought it into direct conflict
+with England’s sea policy. Thereafter it became
+a race in naval construction, England
+piling up a huge debt in its determination to
+construct two tons of naval shipping to every
+one ton built by Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding Great Britain’s efforts in
+this direction, Germany’s naval experts, with
+the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained
+that, given a fair seaway with ideal
+weather conditions favoring the low visibility
+tactics of the German sea command, a victory
+for the Teutonic ships would follow. It was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
+this belief that drew the ships of the German
+cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the
+coast of Jutland and Horn Reef into the great
+battle that decided the supremacy of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in
+history as the date of this titanic conflict. The
+British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty
+near Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o’clock on
+the afternoon of that day, that it had sighted
+smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy
+vessels from the direction of Helgoland Bight.
+Fifteen minutes later the smoke plumes were
+in such number and volume that the advance
+of a considerable force to the northward and
+eastward was indicated. It was reasoned by
+Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea
+had sent the news by radio, that the enemy
+in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably be
+brought into action. The first ships of the
+enemy were sighted at 3.31 o’clock. These
+were the battle screen of fast light cruisers.
+Back of these were five modern battle cruisers
+of the highest power and armament.</p>
+
+<p>The report of the battle, by an eye-witness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>
+that was issued upon semiofficial authority of
+the British Government, follows:</p>
+
+<p>First Phase, 3.30 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> May 31st. Beatty’s
+battle cruisers, consisting of the Lion, Princess
+Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible, Indomitable,
+Invincible, Indefatigable, and New
+Zealand, were on a southeasterly course, followed
+at about two miles distance by the four
+battleships of the class known as Queen Elizabeths.</p>
+
+<p>Enemy light cruisers were sighted and
+shortly afterward the head of the German
+battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new
+cruiser Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger,
+Lützow, Moltke, and possibly the Salamis.</p>
+
+<p>Beatty at once began firing at a range of
+about 20,000 yards (twelve miles) which shortened
+to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets
+closed. The Germans could see the British
+distinctly outlined against the light yellow sky.
+The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very
+indistinctly made out by the British gunners.</p>
+
+<p>The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one
+after another as they came within range. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>
+German battle cruisers turned to port and
+drew away to about 20,000 yards.</p>
+
+<p>Second Phase, 4.40 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> A destroyer
+screen then appeared beyond the German
+battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas
+Fleet could be seen approaching on the northeastern
+horizon in three divisions, coming to
+the support of their battle cruisers.</p>
+
+<p>The German battle cruisers now turned
+right around 16 points and took station in front
+of the battleships of the High Fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting
+battleships, therefore, had before him the
+whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe
+was still some distance away.</p>
+
+<p>The opposing fleets were now moving parallel
+to one another in opposite directions, and
+but for a master maneuver on the part of
+Beatty the British advance ships would have
+been cut off from Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet. In
+order to avoid this and at the same time prepare
+the way so that Jellicoe might envelop
+his adversary, Beatty immediately also turned
+right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>
+parallel to the German battle cruisers and facing
+the same direction.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as he was around he increased to
+full speed to get ahead of the Germans and
+take up a tactical position in advance of their
+line. He was able to do this owing to the superior
+speed of the British battle cruisers.</p>
+
+<p>Just before the turning point was reached,
+the Indefatigable sank, and the Queen Mary
+and the Invincible also were lost at the turning
+point, where, of course, the High Seas
+Fleet concentrated their fire.</p>
+
+<p>A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers
+were turning, the Queen Elizabeths had in similar
+manner concentrated their fire on the turning
+point and destroyed a new German battle
+cruiser, believed to be the Hindenburg.</p>
+
+<p>Beatty had now got around and headed
+away with the loss of three ships, racing parallel
+to the German battle cruisers. The Queen
+Elizabeths followed behind engaging the main
+High Seas Fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Third Phase, 5 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> The Queen Elizabeths
+now turned short to port 16 points in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>
+order to follow Beatty. The Warspite
+jammed her steering gear, failed to get around,
+and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
+closed in upon her.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on
+paper she ought to have been lost, but, as a
+matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by
+shell fire with the water boiling up all around
+her, she was not seriously hit, and was able
+to sink one of her opponents. Her captain
+recovered control of the vessel, brought her
+around, and followed her consorts.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and
+Malaya turned short so as to avoid the danger
+spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible
+had been lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe
+arrived, fought a delaying action against the
+High Seas Fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The Warspite joined them at about 5.15
+o’clock, and all four ships were so successfully
+maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections
+of their opponents that no hits of a
+seriously disabling character were suffered.
+They had the speed over their opponents by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>
+fully four knots, and were able to draw away
+from part of the long line of German battleships,
+which almost filled up the horizon.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the Queen Elizabeths were
+steadily firing on at the flashes of German
+guns at a range which varied between 12,000
+and 15,000 yards, especially against those ships
+which were nearest them. The Germans were
+enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes
+were visible.</p>
+
+<p>By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had
+been left out of range, and the Queen Elizabeths
+were steaming fast to join hands with
+Jellicoe.</p>
+
+<p>To return to Beatty’s battle cruisers. They
+had succeeded in outflanking the German battle
+cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged to
+turn a full right angle to starboard to avoid being
+headed.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy fighting was renewed between the
+opposing battle cruiser squadrons, during
+which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6
+o’clock the German fire slackened very considerably,
+showing that Beatty’s battle cruisers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span>
+and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted
+serious damage on their immediate opponents.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth Phase, 6 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> The Grand Fleet
+was now in sight, and, coming up fast in three
+directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their
+course four points to the starboard and drew in
+toward the enemy to allow Jellicoe room to
+deploy into line.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered
+and the very difficult operation of deploying
+between the battle cruisers and the Queen
+Elizabeths was perfectly timed.</p>
+
+<p>Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty’s
+cruisers, and followed by the damaged but still
+serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right
+across the head of the German fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the ships to come into action were
+the Revenue and the Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch
+guns, and the Agincourt which fired
+from her seven turrets with the speed almost
+of a Maxim gun.</p>
+
+<p>The whole British fleet had now become concentrated.
+They had been perfectly maneuvered,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>
+so as to “cross the T” of the High Seas
+Fleet, and, indeed, only decent light was necessary
+to complete their work of destroying the
+Germans in detail. The light did improve for
+a few minutes, and the conditions were favorable
+to the British fleet, which was now in line
+approximately north and south across the head
+of the Germans.</p>
+
+<p>During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe
+smashed up the first three German ships,
+but the mist came down, visibility suddenly
+failed, and the defeated High Seas Fleet was
+able to draw off in ragged divisions.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were
+followed by the British, who still had them enveloped
+between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty
+on the north, and Evan-Thomas with his three
+Queen Elizabeths on the south. The Warspite
+had been sent back to her base.</p>
+
+<p>During the night the torpedo-boat destroyers
+heavily attacked the German ships, and, although
+they lost seriously themselves, succeeded
+in sinking two of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_087">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT</p>
+
+<p>This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses
+of the opposing German and British battle fleets.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>
+practically impossible to keep up, and the Germans
+discovered by the rays of their search-lights
+the three Queen Elizabeths, not more
+than 4,000 yards away. Unfortunately they
+were then able to escape between the battleships
+and Jellicoe, since the British gunners
+were not able to fire, as the destroyers were in
+the way.</p>
+
+<p>So ended the Jutland battle, which was
+fought as had been planned and very nearly a
+great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable
+weather conditions, especially at the critical
+moment, when the whole British fleet was
+concentrated and engaged in crushing the head
+of the German line.</p>
+
+<p>Commenting on the engagement, Admiral
+Jellicoe said: “The battle cruiser fleet, gallantly
+led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably
+supported by the ships of the fifth
+battle squadron under Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas,
+fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous
+conditions, especially in regard
+to light, in a manner that was in keeping with
+the best traditions of the service.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>His estimate of the German losses was: two
+battleships of the dreadnought type, one of the
+Deutschland type, which was seen to sink; the
+battle cruiser Lützow, admitted by the Germans;
+one battle cruiser of the dreadnought
+type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely
+damaged that its return was extremely doubtful;
+five light cruisers, seen to sink—one of
+them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen
+to sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was
+doubtful if they would be able to reach port,
+and a submarine sunk. The official German
+report admitted only eleven ships sunk; the
+first British report placed the total at eighteen,
+but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one
+German vessels as probably lost.</p>
+
+<p>The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German
+naval men: “The enemy,” he said,
+“fought with the gallantry that was expected
+of him. We particularly admired the conduct
+of those on board a disabled German light
+cruiser which passed down the British line
+shortly after the deployment under a heavy
+fire, which was returned by the only gun left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>
+in action. The conduct of the officers and men
+was entirely beyond praise. On all sides it is
+reported that the glorious traditions of the past
+were most worthily upheld; whether in the
+heavy ships, cruisers, light cruisers, or destroyers,
+the same admirable spirit prevailed. The
+officers and men were cool and determined, with
+a cheeriness that would have carried them
+through anything. The heroism of the
+wounded was the admiration of all. I cannot
+adequately express the pride with which the
+spirit of the fleet filled me.”</p>
+
+<p>At daylight on the 1st of June the British
+battle fleet, being southward of Horn Reef,
+turned northward in search of the enemy vessels.
+The visibility early on the first of June
+was three to four miles less than on May 31st,
+and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out of
+visual touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>
+The British fleet remained in the proximity of
+the battlefield and near the line of approach
+to the German ports until 11 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>, in spite of
+the disadvantage of long distances from fleet
+bases and the danger incurred in waters adjacent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span>
+to the enemy’s coasts from submarines and
+torpedo craft.</p>
+
+<p>The enemy, however, made no sign, and the
+admiral was reluctantly compelled to the conclusion
+that the High Sea Fleet had returned
+into port. Subsequent events proved this assumption
+to have been correct. The British
+position must have been known to the enemy,
+as at 4 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> the fleet engaged a Zeppelin about
+five minutes, during which time she had ample
+opportunity to note and subsequently report
+the position and course of the British fleet.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans at first claimed a victory for
+their fleet. The test, of course, was the outcome
+of the battle. The fact that the German
+fleet retreated and nevermore ventured forth
+from beneath the protecting guns and mine
+fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond
+dispute that the British were entitled to the
+triumph. The German official report makes
+the best presentation of the German case. It
+follows in full:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship
+squadrons, five battle cruisers, and a large number of
+small cruisers, with several destroyer flotillas, was cruising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span>
+in the Skagerrak on May 31 for the purpose, as on
+earlier occasions, of offering battle to the British fleet.
+The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o’clock in the
+afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety
+miles west of Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest
+coast of Jutland), a group of eight of the newest cruisers
+of the Calliope class and fifteen or twenty of the
+most modern destroyers.</p>
+
+<p>While the German light forces and the first cruiser
+squadron under Vice-Admiral Hipper were following the
+British, who were retiring northwestward, the German
+battle cruisers sighted to the westward Vice-Admiral
+Beatty’s battle squadron of six ships, including four of
+the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type.
+Beatty’s squadron developed a battle line on a southeasterly
+course and Vice-Admiral Hipper formed his
+line ahead on the same general course and approached for
+a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o’clock in the
+afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000
+meters against the superior enemy. The weather was
+clear and light, and the sea was light with a northwest
+wind.</p>
+
+<p>After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion
+occurred on the last cruiser of the Indefatigable type.
+It was caused by a heavy shell, and destroyed the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>About 6.20 o’clock in the afternoon five warships of
+the Queen Elizabeth type came from the west and joined
+the British battle cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing
+with their fifteen-inch guns the five British battle cruisers
+remaining after 6.20 o’clock. To equalize this superiority
+Vice-Admiral Hipper ordered the destroyers
+to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>
+cruisers interposed, and a bitter engagement at close
+range ensued, in the course of which a light cruiser participated.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of
+which were rescued by sister ships under a heavy fire.
+Two British destroyers were sunk by artillery, and two
+others—the Nestor and Nomad—remained on the scene
+in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by
+the main fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued
+all the survivors.</p>
+
+<p>While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion,
+caused by a big shell, broke the Queen Mary,
+the third ship in line, asunder, at 6.30 o’clock.</p>
+
+<p>Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was
+sighted to the southward, steering north. The hostile
+fast squadrons thereupon turned northward, closing the
+first part of the fight, which lasted about an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The British retired at high speed before the German
+fleet, which followed closely. The German battle cruisers
+continued the artillery combat with increasing intensity,
+particularly with the division of the vessels of the
+Queen Elizabeth type, and in this the leading German
+battleship division participated intermittently. The
+hostile ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead
+of the point of our line and to cross it.</p>
+
+<p>At 7.45 o’clock in the evening British small cruisers
+and destroyers launched an attack against our battle
+cruisers, who avoided the torpedoes by manoeuvring,
+while the British battle cruisers retired from the engagement,
+in which they did not participate further as far as
+can be established. Shortly thereafter a German reconnoitring
+group, which was parrying the destroyer attack,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>
+received an attack from the northeast. The cruiser
+Wiesbaden was soon put out of action in this attack.
+The German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the
+heavy ships.</p>
+
+<p>Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the
+northeast was made out a long line of at least twenty-five
+battleships, which at first sought a junction with
+the British battle cruisers and those of the Queen Elizabeth
+type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and
+then turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre
+consisted of three squadrons of eight battleships each,
+with a fast division of three battle cruisers of the Invincible
+type on the northern end, and three of the newest
+vessels of the Royal Sovereign class, armed with fifteen-inch
+guns, at the southern end, there began about 8
+o’clock in the evening the third section of the engagement,
+embracing the combat between the main fleets.</p>
+
+<p>Vice-Admiral Scheer determined to attack the British
+main fleet, which he now recognized was completely assembled
+and about doubly superior. The German battleship
+squadron, headed by battle cruisers, steered first
+toward the extensive haze bank to the northeast, where
+the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still receiving a
+heavy fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual
+fights under quickly changing conditions now occurred.</p>
+
+<p>The light enemy forces, supported by an armored
+cruiser squadron of five ships of the Minotaur, Achilles,
+and Duke of Edinburgh classes coming from the northeast,
+were encountered and apparently surprised on account
+of the decreasing visibility of our battle cruisers
+and leading battleship division. The squadron came<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>
+under a violent and heavy fire, by which the small cruisers
+Defense and Black Prince were sunk. The cruiser
+Warrior regained its own line a wreck and later sank.
+Another small cruiser was damaged severely.</p>
+
+<p>Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack
+of German torpedo boats against the leading British
+battleships and a small cruiser and two destroyers
+were damaged. The German battle cruisers and leading
+battleship division had in these engagements come under
+increased fire of the enemy’s battleship squadron, which,
+shortly after 8 o’clock, could be made out in the haze
+turning to the northeastward and finally to the east.
+Germans observed, amid the artillery combat and shelling
+of great intensity, signs of the effect of good shooting
+between 8.20 and 8.30 o’clock particularly. Several
+officers on German ships observed that a battleship of
+the Queen Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar
+to that of the Queen Mary. The Invincible sank
+after being hit severely. A ship of the Iron Duke class
+had earlier received a torpedo hit, and one of the
+Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle,
+its steering apparatus apparently having been hit.</p>
+
+<p>The Lützow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells
+and was unable to maintain its place in line. Vice-Admiral
+Hipper, therefore, transshipped to the Moltke on
+a torpedo boat and under a heavy fire. The Derfflinger
+meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of the German
+torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy’s main fleet and
+heard detonations. In the action the Germans lost a
+torpedo boat. An enemy destroyer was seen in a sinking
+condition, having been hit by a torpedo.</p>
+
+<p>After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>
+superior enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in
+the smoke by powder clouds. After a short cessation
+in the artillery combat Vice-Admiral Scheer ordered a
+new attack by all the available forces.</p>
+
+<p>German battle cruisers, which with several light
+cruisers and torpedo boats again headed the line, encountered
+the enemy soon after 9 o’clock and renewed
+the heavy fire, which was answered by them from the
+mist, and then by the leading division of the main fleet.
+Armored cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset
+at extreme speed against the enemy line in order to
+cover the attack of the torpedo boats. They approached
+the enemy line, although covered with shot from 6,000
+meters distances. Several German torpedo flotillas
+dashed forward to attack, delivered torpedoes, and returned,
+despite the most severe counterfire, with the loss
+of only one boat. The bitter artillery fire was again
+interrupted, after this second violent onslaught, by the
+smoke from guns and funnels.</p>
+
+<p>Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack
+somewhat later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud,
+that the enemy fleet was no longer before them; nor,
+when the fleet commander again brought the German
+squadrons upon the southerly and southwesterly course
+where the enemy was last seen, could our opponents be
+found. Only once more—shortly before 10.30 o’clock—did
+the battle flare up. For a short time in the late
+twilight German battle cruisers sighted four enemy capital
+ships to seaward and opened fire immediately. As
+the two German battleship squadrons attacked, the
+enemy turned and vanished in the darkness. Older
+German light cruisers of the fourth reconnaissance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>
+group also were engaged with the older enemy armored
+cruisers in a short fight.</p>
+
+<p>This ended the day battle.</p>
+
+<p>The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the
+enemy, began a night cruise in a southerly direction,
+were attacked until dawn by enemy light force in rapid
+succession.</p>
+
+<p>The attacks were favored by the general strategic
+situation and the particularly dark night.</p>
+
+<p>The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during
+the engagement of the fourth reconnaissance group with
+a superior cruiser force, and was lost from sight.</p>
+
+<p>One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared
+close to a German battleship and was shot into
+fire after forty seconds, and sank in four minutes.</p>
+
+<p>The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard
+to decipher in the darkness and therefore were uncertainly
+established) and four destroyers—3, 78, 06, and
+27—were destroyed by our fire. One destroyer was cut
+in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven destroyers,
+including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged.
+These, including the Tipperary and Turbulent,
+which after saving survivors, were left behind in a
+sinking condition, drifted past our line, some of them
+burning at the bow or stern.</p>
+
+<p>The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the
+German ships, but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell
+an immediate victim to a torpedo. The cruiser Rostock
+was hit, but remained afloat. The cruiser Elbing was
+damaged by a German battleship during an unavoidable
+maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat
+the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>
+embarked on torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was
+struck by a mine laid by the enemy.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center">ADMITTED LOSSES—BRITISH</p>
+
+<table>
+<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">NAME</span></td><td class="tdc">  <span class="allsmcap">TONNAGE</span></td><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">PERSONNEL</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Queen Mary (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">        27,000</td><td class="tdr">        1,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Indefatigable (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">     18,750</td><td class="tdr">          800</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Invincible (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">        17,250</td><td class="tdr">          750</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Defense (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">          14,600</td><td class="tdr">          755</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Warrior (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">          13,550</td><td class="tdr">          704</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Black Prince (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">     13,550</td><td class="tdr">          704</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tipperary (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">               1,850</td><td class="tdr">          150</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Turbulent (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">               1,850</td><td class="tdr">          150</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Shark (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">                     950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sparrowhawk (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">               950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Ardent (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">                    950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fortune (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">                   950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nomad (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">                     950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Nestor (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr">                    950</td><td class="tdr">          100</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">British Totals</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Battle cruisers</td><td class="tdr">                     63,000</td><td class="tdr">       2,550</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Armored cruisers</td><td class="tdr">                    41,700</td><td class="tdr">       2,163</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Destroyers</td><td class="tdr">                           9,400</td><td class="tdr">         900</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&#160;</td><td class="tdr">———</td><td class="tdr">  ———</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Fourteen ships</td><td class="tdr"> 114,100</td><td class="tdr"> 5,613</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">ADMITTED LOSSES—GERMAN<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">NAME</span></td><td class="tdc">  <span class="allsmcap">TONNAGE</span></td><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">PERSONNEL</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Lützow (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">             26,600</td><td class="tdr">       1,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Pommern (battleship)</td><td class="tdr">                13,200</td><td class="tdr">         729</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wiesbaden (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">                 5,600</td><td class="tdr">         450</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Frauenlob (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">                  2,715</td><td class="tdr">         264</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Elbing (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">                     5,000</td><td class="tdr">         450</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Rostock (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr">                    4,900</td><td class="tdr">         373</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Five destroyers</td><td class="tdr">     5,000</td><td class="tdr">     500</td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">German Totals</span></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td>Battle cruisers</td><td class="tdr">                    39,800</td><td class="tdr">      1,929</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cruisers</td><td class="tdr">                           18,215</td><td class="tdr">      1,537</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Destroyers</td><td class="tdr">                          5,000</td><td class="tdr">        500</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&#160;</td><td class="tdr">———</td><td class="tdr">  ———</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Eleven ships</td><td class="tdr">     63,015</td><td class="tdr">    3,966</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[A]</a> These figures are given for what they are worth, but no
+one outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were
+very much greater than admitted in the official report.</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_098">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS and ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY<">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<table class="equal">
+<tr><td class="tdc"><b>ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY</b></td></tr>    
+<tr><td class="tdc"><b>Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.</b></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p>
+
+<table>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2">&#160;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">British</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dead or missing</td><td class="tdr">            6,104</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Wounded</td><td class="tdr">                      513</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">———</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> 6,617</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">German</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dead or missing</td><td class="tdr">            2,414</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wounded </td><td class="tdr">                     449</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">———</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> 2,863</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2">&#160;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">LOSS IN MONEY VALUE<br>(Rough Estimate)</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&#160;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>British</td><td class="tdr">              $115,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td>German </td><td class="tdr">                63,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">——————</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> $178,000,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>While the world was still puzzling over the
+conflicting reports of the Battle of Jutland
+came the shocking news that Field Marshal
+Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener, the British
+Secretary of State for War, had perished off
+the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through
+the sinking of the British cruiser Hampshire.
+The entire crew was also lost, except twelve
+men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who
+escaped on a raft. Earl Kitchener was on his
+way to Russia, at the request of the Russian
+Government, for a consultation regarding munitions
+to be furnished the Russian army. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>
+was intending to go to Archangel and visit
+Petrograd, and expected to be back in London
+by June 20th. He was accompanied by Hugh
+James O’Beirne, former Councillor of the British
+Embassy at Petrograd, O. A. Fitz-Gerald,
+his military secretary, Brigadier-General Ellarshaw,
+and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of
+whom were lost.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire
+is not known. It is supposed that it struck a
+mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought
+into existence many stories which ascribe his
+death to more direct German action.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_101">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="Where Earl Kitchener Met His Death">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Where Earl Kitchener Met His Death</span></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes
+Lord Kitchener’s last moments as follows:
+“Of those who left the ship, and have
+survived, I was the one who saw Lord Kitchener
+last. He went down with the ship, he did
+not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his
+boat’s crew to clear away his galley. At the
+same time the Captain was calling to Lord
+Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the
+noise made by the wind and sea, Lord Kitchener
+could not hear him, I think. When the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span>
+explosion occurred, Kitchener walked calmly
+from the Captain’s cabin, went up the ladder
+and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him
+walking quite collectedly, talking to two of the
+officers. All three were wearing khaki and had
+no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched
+the preparations for abandoning the ship, which
+were going on in a steady and orderly way.
+The crew just went to their stations, obeyed
+orders, and did their best to get out the boats.
+But it was impossible. Owing to the rough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>
+weather, no boats could be lowered. Those
+that were got out were smashed up at once.
+No boats left the ship. What people on the
+shore thought to be boats leaving, were rafts.
+Men did get into the boats as these lay in their
+cradles, thinking that as the ship went under
+the boats would float, but the ship sank by the
+head, and when she went she turned a somersault
+forward, carrying down with her all the
+boats and those in them. I do not think Kitchener
+got into a boat. When I sprang to a raft
+he was still on the starboard side of the quarter
+deck, talking with the officers. From the little
+time that elapsed between my leaving the ship
+and her sinking I feel certain Kitchener went
+down with her, and was on deck at the time she
+sank.”</p>
+
+<p>The British Admiralty, after investigation,
+gave out a statement declaring that the vessel
+struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes
+after.</p>
+
+<p>The news of Lord Kitchener’s death shocked
+the whole Allied world. He was the most important
+personality in the British Empire.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>
+He had built up the British army, and his name
+was one to conjure by. His efficiency was a
+proverb, and he had an air of mystery about
+him that made him a sort of a popular hero.
+He was great before the World War began;
+he was the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner
+of the South African campaign; the reorganizer
+of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of
+War he had met with some criticism, but he possessed,
+more than any other man, the public
+confidence. At the beginning of the war he
+was appointed Secretary of War at the demand
+of an overwhelming public opinion. He
+realized more than any one else what such a
+war would mean. When others thought of it
+as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized
+that there would be years of bitter conflict.
+He asked England to give up its cherished
+tradition of a volunteer army; to go
+through arduous military training; he saw the
+danger to the Empire, and he alone, perhaps,
+had the authority to inspire his countrymen
+with the will to sacrifice. But his work was
+done. The great British army was in the field.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="smcap">The Russian Campaign</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">IN the very beginning Russia had marked out
+one point for attack. This was the city of
+Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas
+had not hoped to be able to invest that city
+early. The slowness of the mobilization of the
+Russian army made a certain prudence advisable
+at the beginning of the campaign. But
+the great success of his armies in Lemberg encouraged
+more daring aims. He had invested
+Przemysl, and Galicia lay before him. Accordingly,
+he set his face toward Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>Cracow, from a military point of view, is the
+gate both of Vienna and Berlin. A hundred
+miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia,
+between the Carpathian and the Bohemian
+mountains, which leads down into Austria.
+Through this gap runs the great railway connecting
+Silesia with Vienna, and the Grand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span>
+Duke knew that if he could capture Cracow he
+would have an easy road before him to the Austrian
+capital. Cracow also is the key of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder
+River. An army might enter Germany by this
+gate and turn the line of Germany’s frontier
+fortresses. The Oder had been well fortified,
+but an invader coming from Cracow might
+move upon the western bank. The Russian
+plan no doubt was to threaten both enemy capitals.
+Moreover, an advance of Russia from
+Cracow would take its armies into Silesia, full
+of coal and iron mines, and one of the greatest
+manufacturing districts in the German Empire.
+This would be a real success, and all
+Germany would feel the blow.</p>
+
+<p>Another reason for the Russian advance in
+Galicia was her desire to control the Galician
+oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one
+of the foremost munitions of war. Since she
+could not obtain it from either America or Russia
+she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian
+oil fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>
+would explain the Galician campaign.
+Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains
+it was possible to make frequent raids into
+Hungary, and Russia understood well the feeling
+of Hungary toward her German allies.
+She hoped that when Hungary perceived her
+regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun by
+Russian troops, she would regret that she had
+allowed herself to be sacrificed to Prussian ambition.
+The Russians, therefore, suddenly
+moved toward Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue.
+The supreme command of the Austrian forces
+was given to him. The defenses of Cracow
+were strengthened under the direction of the
+Germans, and a German army advanced from
+the Posen frontier toward the northern bank
+of the Vistula. The advance threatened the
+Russian right, and, accordingly, within ten
+days’ march of Cracow, the Russians stopped.
+The German offensive in Poland had begun.
+The news of the German advance came about
+the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who
+had been fighting in East Prussia, had at last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>
+perceived that nothing could be gained there.
+The vulnerable part of Russia was the city of
+Warsaw. This was the capital of Poland,
+with a population of about three-quarters of a
+million. If he could take Warsaw, he would
+not only have pleasant quarters for the winter
+but Russia would be so badly injured that no
+further offensive from her need be anticipated
+for a long period. Von Hindenburg had with
+him a large army. In his center he probably
+had three-quarters of a million men, and on his
+right the Austrian army in Cracow, which must
+have reached a million.</p>
+
+<p>Counting the troops operating in East Prussia
+and along the Carpathians, and the garrison
+of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have had
+two and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the
+other hand, though her mobilization was still
+continuing, at this time could not have had as
+many as two million men in the whole nine hundred
+miles of her battle-front.</p>
+
+<p>The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October
+16th, and continued for three days, von
+Hindenburg being personally in command.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span>
+On Monday the Germans found themselves in
+trouble. A Russian attack on their left wing
+had come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg
+found his left wing thrown back, and the
+whole German movement thrown into disorder.
+Meanwhile an attempt to cross the Vistula at
+Josefov had also been a failure. The Russians
+allowed the Germans to pass with slight resistance,
+waited until they arrived at the village
+Kazimirjev, a district of low hills and swampy
+flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed them.</p>
+
+<p>Next day the Russians crossed the river
+themselves, and advanced along the whole line,
+driving the enemy before them, through great
+woods of spruce out into the plains on the west.
+This forest region was well known to the Russian
+guides, and the Germans suffered much as
+the Russians had suffered in East Prussia.
+Ruzsky, the Russian commander, pursued persistently;
+the Germans retreating first to
+Kielce, whence they were driven, on the 3d of
+November, with great losses, and then being
+broken into two pieces, with the north retiring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>
+westward and the south wing southwest toward
+Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>Rennenkampf’s attack on the German left
+wing was equally successful, and von Hindenburg
+was driven into full retreat. The only
+success won during this campaign was that in
+the far south where Austrian troops were
+sweeping eastward toward the San. This
+army drove back the Russians under Ivanov,
+reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl.
+This was a welcome relief to Przemysl, for the
+garrison was nearly starved, and it was well
+for the garrison that the relief came, for in a
+few days the Russians returned, recaptured
+Jaroslav and reinvested Przemysl. As von
+Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction
+in his wake, roads, bridges, railroad
+tracks, water towers, railway stations, all were
+destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or
+sawn through, and insulators broken to bits.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature
+advance, and to pay for it. Doubtless
+the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>
+to this point had been so admirable, knew very
+well the danger of a new advance in Galicia,
+but he realized the immense political as well as
+military advantages which were to be obtained
+by the capture of Cracow. He therefore attempted
+to move an army through Poland as
+well as through Galicia, hoping that the army
+in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy,
+while the Galician army would deal with Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>The advance was slow on account of the damaged
+Polish roads. It was preceded by a
+cavalry screen which moved with more speed.
+On November 10th, the vanguard crossed the
+Posen frontier and cut the railway on the Cracow-Posen
+line. This reconnaissance convinced
+the Russian general that the German
+army did not propose to make a general stand,
+and it seemed to him that if he struck strongly
+with his center along the Warta, he might destroy
+the left flank of the German southern
+army, while his own left flank was assaulting
+Cracow. He believed that even if his attack
+upon the Warta failed, the Russian center
+could at any rate prevent the enemy from interfering
+with the attack further south upon Cracow.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_111">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>The movement therefore began, and by November
+12th, the Russian cavalry had taken
+Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty
+miles north of Cracow. Its main forces were
+still eighty miles to the east. About this time
+Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg
+was preparing a counter stroke. He
+had retreated north, and then, by means of his
+railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn.
+Large reinforcements were sent him, some
+from the western front, giving him a total of
+about eight hundred thousand men. In his retreat
+from Warsaw, while he had destroyed all
+roads and railways in the south and west, he
+had carefully preserved those of the north already
+planning to use them in another movement.
+He now was beginning an advance,
+once again, against Warsaw. On account of
+the roads he perceived that it would be difficult
+for the Russians to obtain reinforcements.
+Von Hindenburg had with him as Chief of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span>
+Staff General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest
+staff officers in the German army, and
+General von Mackensen, a commander of almost
+equal repute.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian army in the north had been
+pretty well scattered. The Russian forces
+were now holding a front of nearly a thousand
+miles, with about two million men. The Russian
+right center, which now protected Warsaw
+from the new attack could hardly number more
+than two hundred thousand men. Von Hindenburg’s
+aim was Warsaw only, and did not
+affect directly the Russian advance to Cracow,
+which was still going on. Indeed, by the end
+of the first week in December, General Dmitrieff
+had cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and
+his main force was on the line of the River
+Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had
+been strongly fortified, and much entrenching
+had been done in a wide circle around the city.</p>
+
+<p>The German plan was to use its field army in
+Cracow’s defense rather than a garrison. Two
+separate forces were used; one moving southwest
+of Cracow along the Carpathian hills,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>
+struck directly at Ivanov’s left; the other, operating
+from Hungary, threatened the Russian
+rear. These two divisions struck at the same
+time and the Russians found it necessary to
+fight rear actions as they moved forward.
+They were doing this with reasonable success
+and working their way toward Cracow, when,
+on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces
+working from Hungary carried the Dukla
+Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be
+able to pour troops down into the rear of the
+Russian advance, and the Russian army would
+be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly
+back, until the opening of the Dukla Pass was
+in front of his line, and the Russian army was
+once more safe.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the renewed siege of Przemysl
+was going on with great vigor, and attracting
+the general attention of the Allied world. The
+Austrians attempted to follow up their successes
+at the Dukla Pass by attempting to seize
+the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still
+further to the east, but the Russians were tired
+of retreating. New troops had arrived, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>
+about the 20th of December a new advance was
+begun.</p>
+
+<p>With the right of the army swinging up
+along the river Nida, northeast of Cracow, the
+Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great
+force, driving Austrians back and capturing
+over ten thousand men. On Christmas Day
+all three great western passes were in Russian
+hands. The Austrian fighting, during this
+period, was the best they had so far shown, the
+brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops,
+who, at this time, were saving Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his
+movement in the direction of Warsaw. The
+Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information.
+Each day came the chronicle of
+contests, some victories, some defeats, and it
+soon appeared that a strong force was crushing
+in the Russian outposts from the direction of
+Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky
+found himself faced by a superior German
+force, and was compelled to retreat. The Russian
+aim was to fall back behind the river
+Bzura, which lies between the Thorn and Warsaw.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>
+Bzura is a strong line of defense, with
+many fords but no bridges. The Russian right
+wing passed by the city of Lowicz, moved
+southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz.
+West of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible
+for the movement of armies.</p>
+
+<p>The first German objective was the city of
+Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew that he must
+move quickly before the Russians should get up
+reserves. His campaign of destruction had
+made it impossible for aid to be sent to the Russian
+armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but
+every moment counted. His right pushed forward
+and won the western crossings of the
+marshes. His extreme left moved towards
+Plock, but the main effort was against Piontek,
+where there is a famous causeway engineered
+for heavy transport through the marshes.</p>
+
+<p>At first the Russians repelled the attack on
+the causeway, but on November 19th the Russians
+broke and were compelled to fall back.
+Over the causeway, then, the German troops
+were rushed in great numbers, splitting the
+Russian army into two parts; one on the south<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>
+surrounding Lodz, and the other running east
+of Brezin on to the Vistula. The Russian
+army around Lodz was assailed on the front
+flank and rear. It looked like an overwhelming
+defeat for the Russian army. At the very
+last moment possible, Russian reinforcements
+appeared—a body of Siberians from the direction
+of Warsaw. They were thrown at once
+into the battle and succeeded in re-establishing
+the Russian line. This left about ninety thousand
+Germans almost entirely surrounded, as
+if they were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his
+best to close the mouth of the sack, but he was
+unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by
+the 26th the Germans in the sack had escaped.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements
+and still largely outnumbered the
+Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined
+on a new assault. The German left
+wing was now far in front of the Russian city
+of Lodz, one of the most important of the
+Polish cities. The population was about half
+a million. Such a place was a constant danger,
+for it was the foundation of a Russian salient.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>
+When the German movement began the Russian
+general, perceiving how difficult it would
+have been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew,
+and on December 6th the Germans entered
+Lodz without opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The retreat relieved the Russians of a great
+embarrassment. Its capture was considered in
+Germany as a great German victory, and at
+this time von Hindenburg seems to have felt
+that he had control of the situation. His
+movement, to be sure, had not interfered with
+the Russian advance on Cracow, but Warsaw
+must have seemed to him almost in his power.
+He therefore concentrated his forces for a blow
+at Warsaw. His first new movement was directed
+at the Russian right wing, which was
+then north of the Bzura River and east of
+Lowicz. He also directed the German forces
+in East Prussia to advance and attempted to
+cut the main railway line between Warsaw and
+Petrograd. If this attempt had been successful
+it would have been a highly serious matter
+for the Russians. The Russians, however, defeated
+it, and drove the enemy back to the East<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>
+Prussian border. The movement against the
+Russian right wing was more successful, and
+the Russians fell back slowly. This was not
+because they were defeated in battle, but because
+the difficult weather interfered with communications.
+There had been a thaw, and the
+whole country was waterlogged. The Grand
+Duke was willing that the Germans should
+fight in the mud.</p>
+
+<p>This slow retreat continued from the 7th of
+December to Christmas Eve, and involved the
+surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it
+left the Russians in a strong position. They
+were able to entrench themselves so that every
+attack of the enemy was broken. The Germans
+tried hard. Von Hindenburg would
+have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas.
+The citizens heard day and night the sound of
+the cannon, but they were entirely safe.</p>
+
+<p>The German attack was a failure. On the
+whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas had shown
+better strategy than the best of the German
+generals. Outnumbered from the very start,
+his tactics had been admirable. Twice he had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>
+saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening
+Cracow. The Russian armies were fighting
+with courage and efficiency, and were continually
+growing in numbers as the days went
+by.</p>
+
+<p>During the first weeks of 1915 while there
+were a number of attacks and counter-attacks
+both armies had come to the trench warfare, so
+familiar in France. The Germans in particular
+had constructed a most elaborate trench
+system, with underground rooms containing
+many of the ordinary comforts of life. Toward
+the end of the month the Russians began
+to move in East Prussia in the north and also
+far south in the Bukovina. The object of
+these movements was probably to prevent von
+Hindenburg from releasing forces on the west.
+Russia was still terribly weak in equipment
+and was not ready for a serious advance. An
+attack on sacred East Prussia would stir up the
+Germans, while Hungary would be likewise
+disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von
+Hindenburg, however, was still full of the idea
+of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>
+but the old Field Marshal was stubborn and
+moreover he knew well what the capture of
+Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried
+again.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian front now followed the west
+bank of the Bzura for a few miles, changed to
+the eastern bank following the river until it
+met with the Rawka, from there a line of
+trenches passed south and east of Balinov and
+from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen
+concentrated a considerable army at Balinov
+and had on the 1st of February about a hundred
+and forty thousand men there. That
+night, with the usual artillery preparation, he
+moved from Balinov against the Russian position
+at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans
+lost heavily but drove forward into the enemy’s
+line, and by the 3d of February had almost
+made a breach in it. This point, however,
+could be readily reinforced and troops were
+hurried there from Warsaw in such force that
+on February 4th the German advance was
+checked. Von Mackensen had lost heavily,
+and by the time it was checked he had become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>
+so weak that his forces yielded quickly to the
+counter-attack and were flung back.</p>
+
+<p>This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw.
+Von Hindenburg then determined to attack
+Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed
+to move forward along the whole Carpathian
+front, while he himself, with strong
+forces, undertook to move from East Prussia
+behind the Polish capital, and cut the communications
+between Warsaw and Petrograd.
+If Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be
+relieved, Lemberg recaptured, and Russia
+forced back so far on the south that Warsaw
+would have to be abandoned. On the other
+hand if the East Prussia effort were successful,
+the Polish capital would certainly fall. These
+plans, if they had developed successfully, would
+have crippled the power of Russia for at least
+six months. Meantime, troops could be sent
+to the west front, and perhaps enable Germany
+to overwhelm France. By this time almost all
+of Poland west of the Vistula was in the power
+of the Germans, while three-fourths of Galicia
+was controlled by Russia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>Von Hindenburg now returned to his old
+battle-ground near the Masurian Lakes. The
+Russian forces, which, at the end of January,
+had made a forward movement in East Prussia,
+had been quite successful. Their right
+was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested
+upon the town of Johannisburg. Further
+south was the Russian army of the Narev.
+Von Hindenburg determined to surprise the
+invaders, and he gathered an army of about
+three hundred thousand men to face the Russian
+forces which did not number more than a
+hundred and twenty thousand, and which were
+under the command of General Baron Sievers.
+The Russian army soon found itself in a desperate
+position. A series of bitter fights ensued
+at some of which the Kaiser himself was
+present. The Russians were driven steadily
+back for a week, but the German stories of their
+tremendous losses are obviously unfounded.
+They retreated steadily until February 20th,
+fighting courageously, and by that date the
+Germans began to find themselves exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>Russian reinforcements came up, and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span>
+counter-attack was begun. The German aim
+had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the
+main line from Warsaw to Petrograd, which
+passes through that city. They had now
+reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but
+were unable to advance further, though the
+Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten
+miles away. The southern portion of von
+Hindenburg’s army was moving against the
+railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz.
+But Ossowietz put up a determined resistance,
+and the attack was unsuccessful. By
+the beginning of March, von Hindenburg
+ordered a gradual retreat to the East Prussian
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>While this movement to drive the Russians
+from East Prussia was under way, von Hindenburg
+had also launched an attack against
+the Russian army on the Narev. If he could
+force the lower Narev from that point, too, he
+could cut the railroad running east from the
+Polish capital. He had hoped that the attacks
+just described further east would distract
+the Russian attention so that he would find the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>
+Narev ill guarded. The advance began on
+February 22d, and after numerous battles captured
+Przasnysz, and found itself with only one
+division to oppose its progress to the railroad.
+On the 23d this force was attacked by the German
+right, but resisted with the utmost courage.
+It held out for more than thirty-six
+hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian
+reinforcements began to come up, and
+drove the invaders north through Przasnysz in
+retreat.</p>
+
+<p>It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians
+were unable to supply all their troops
+with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men
+fought without rifles, armed only with a bayonet.
+All they could do was to charge with
+cold steel, and they did it so desperately that,
+though they were outnumbered, they drove the
+Germans before them. By all the laws of war
+the Russians should have been defeated with
+ease. As it was, the German attempt to capture
+Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated.
+While the struggle was going on in
+the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>
+also moving. Russia was still holding the
+three great passes in the Carpathian Mountains,
+but had not been able to begin an offensive
+in Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrians had been largely reinforced
+by German troops, and were moving forward
+to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive
+Brussilov from the Galician mountains. Brussilov’s
+movements had been partly military and
+partly political. From the passes in those
+mountains Hungary could be attacked, and
+unless he could be driven away there was no
+security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which
+Germany was looking for food supplies.
+Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian
+movement in Galicia, northern Bukovina had
+been in Russian hands. Bukovina was not
+only a great supply ground for petrol and
+grain, but she adjoined Roumania which, while
+still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the
+Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a
+Russian army on her border might encourage
+her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired
+to free Roumania from this pressure.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>
+The leading Austrian statesmen, at this time,
+were especially interested in Hungary. The
+Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs was
+Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist,
+belonging to the party of the Hungarian
+Premier, Count Tisza. It was his
+own country that was threatened. The prizes
+of a victorious campaign were therefore great.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign began in January amid the
+deepest snow, and continued during February
+in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians
+were divided into three separate armies. The
+first was charged with the relief of Przemysl.
+The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg,
+and the third moved upon Bukovina.
+The first made very little progress, after a
+number of lively battles. It was held pretty
+safely by Brussilov. The second army was
+checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however,
+the army of the Bukovina crossed the
+Carpathian range, and made considerable advances.
+This campaign was fought out in a
+great number of battles, the most serious of
+which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>
+At that point Brussilov’s center withstood
+for several days the Austrian second army
+which was commanded by the German General
+von Linsingen. The Russian success
+here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of
+Przemysl and gave time to send reinforcements
+into Bukovina.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina,
+had the greatest Austrian success.
+They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea,
+and Stanislau. They did not succeed,
+however, in driving the Russians from the
+province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting
+for reinforcements. These reinforcements
+came, whereupon the Austrians were
+pushed steadily back. The passes in the Carpathians
+still remained in Austrian hands, but
+Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured.
+On March 22d Przemysl fell.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of Przemysl was the greatest
+success that Russia had so far attained. It
+had been besieged for about four months, and
+the taking of the fortress was hailed as the first
+spectacular success of the war. Its capture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>
+altered the whole situation. It released a
+large Russian army, which was sent to reinforce
+the armies of Ivanov, where the Austrians
+were vigorously attacked.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of March the Russians had captured
+the last Austrian position on the Lupkow
+pass and were attacking vigorously the
+pass of Uzzok, which maintained a stubborn
+defense. Brussilov tried to push his way to
+the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the
+Austrians delivered a vigorous counter-attack
+they were ultimately defeated. In five weeks
+of fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand
+prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>During this period there was considerable
+activity in East Prussia, and the Courland
+coast was bombarded by the German Baltic
+squadron. There was every indication that
+Austria was near collapse, but all the time the
+Germans were preparing for a mighty effort,
+and the secret was kept with extraordinary
+success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians
+and in East Prussia were meant to deceive,
+while a great army, with an enormous number<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span>
+of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition
+were being gathered. The Russian
+commanders were completely deceived. There
+had been no change in the generals in command
+except that General Ruzsky, on account
+of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev.
+The new German army was put under the
+charge of von Hindenburg’s former lieutenant,
+General von Mackensen. This was probably
+the strongest army that Germany ever gathered,
+and could not have numbered less than
+two millions of men, with nearly two thousand
+pieces in its heavy batteries.</p>
+
+<p>On April 28th, the action began. The
+Austro-German army lay along the left bank
+of the Donajetz River to its junction with the
+Biala, and along the Biala to the Carpathian
+Mountains. Von Mackensen’s right moved
+in the direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff
+was compelled to weaken his front to protect
+Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st of May,
+the great attack began. Under cover of artillery
+fire such as had never been seen before
+bridges were pushed across the Biala and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>
+Ciezkowice was taken. The Russian positions
+were blown out of existence. The Russian
+armies did what they could but their defense
+collapsed and they were soon in full retreat.</p>
+
+<p>The German armies advanced steadily, and
+though the Russians made a brave stand at
+many places they could do nothing. On the
+Wisloka they hung on for five days, but they
+were attempting an impossibility. From that
+time on each day marked a new German victory,
+and in spite of the most desperate fighting
+the Russians were forced back until, on
+the 11th, the bulk of their line lay just west
+of the lower San as far as Przemysl and then
+south to the upper Dniester. The armies
+were in retreat, but were not routed. In a
+fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had fallen
+back eighty-five miles.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood
+the situation. He perceived that it
+was impossible to make a stand. The only
+thing to do was to retreat steadily until Germany’s
+mass of war material should be used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span>
+up, even though miles of territory should be
+sacrificed. It should be a retreat in close contact
+with the enemy, so that the Austro-German
+troops would have to fight for every mile.
+This meant a retreat not for days, but perhaps
+for weeks. It meant that Przemysl must be
+given up, and Lemberg, and even Warsaw,
+but the safety of the Russian army was of
+more importance than a province or a city.</p>
+
+<p>On May 13th the German War Office announced
+their successes in the following terms:
+“The army under General von Mackensen in
+the course of its pursuit of the Russians
+reached yesterday the neighborhood of Subiecko,
+on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa,
+northeast of Debica. Under the pressure of
+this advance the Russians also retreated from
+their positions north of the Vistula. In this
+section the troops under General von Woyrach,
+closely following the enemy, penetrated
+as far as the region northwest of Kielce. In
+the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and German
+troops under General von Linsingen conquered
+the hills east of the Upper Stryi, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>
+took 3,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing
+six machine guns. At the present moment,
+while the armies under General von Mackensen
+are approaching the Przemysl fortresses
+and the lower San, it is possible to form an approximate
+idea of the booty taken. In the
+battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles
+during the pursuit of these armies, we
+have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners,
+69 cannon, and 255 machine guns. In these
+figures the booty taken by the Allied troops
+fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the
+Vistula, is not included. This amounts to a
+further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl surrendered
+to the Germans on June 3, 1915, only
+ten weeks after the Russian capture of the
+fortress, which had caused such exultation.”</p>
+
+<p>General von Mackensen continued toward
+Lemberg, the capital of Galicia. On June
+18th, when the victorious German armies were
+approaching the gates of Lemberg, the Russian
+losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and
+wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000
+lost before Marshal von Hindenburg’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>
+forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d
+Lemberg fell. The weakness of Russia in this
+campaign arose from the exhaustion of her
+ammunition supplies, but great shipments of
+such supplies were being constantly forwarded
+from Vladivostock.</p>
+
+<p>When the German army crossed the San,
+Wilhelm II, then German Emperor, was present.
+It is interesting to look back on the
+scene. Here is a paragraph from the account
+of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: “The Emperor
+had hurried forward to his troops by
+automobile. On the way he was greeted with
+loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in
+wagons. On the heights of Jaroslav the Emperor
+met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and then,
+from several points of observation, for hours
+followed with keen attention the progress of
+the battle for the crossing.”</p>
+
+<p>While the great offensive in Galicia was well
+under way, the Germans were pushing forward
+in East Prussia. Finding little resistance
+they ultimately invaded Courland, captured
+Libau, and established themselves firmly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>
+in that province. The sweep of the victorious
+German armies through Galicia was continued
+into Poland. On July 19th William the War
+Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the
+Queen of Greece, to the effect that he had
+“paralyzed Russia for at least six months to
+come,” and was on the eve of “delivering a coup
+on the western front that will make all Europe
+tremble.”</p>
+
+<p>It would be futile to recount the details of
+the various German victories which followed
+the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the
+German line ran from Novogard in the north,
+south of Przasnysz, thence to Novogeorgievsk,
+then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw
+it passed close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin,
+Chelm, and then south to a point just east
+of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the
+jaws of the German nutcracker.</p>
+
+<p>On July 21st, the bells in all the churches
+throughout Russia clanged a call to prayer for
+twenty-four hours’ continual service of intercession
+for victory. In spite of the heat the
+churches were packed. Hour after hour the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>
+people stood wedged together, while the priests
+and choirs chanted their litanies. Outside the
+Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass was celebrated
+in the presence of an enormous crowd.
+But the German victories continued.</p>
+
+<p>On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned.
+Up to July 29th hope was entertained in military
+quarters in London and Paris that the
+Germans would stand a siege in their fortresses
+along the Warsaw salient, but on that date advices
+came from Petrograd that in order to
+save the Russian armies a retreat must be
+made, and the Warsaw fortresses abandoned.
+For some time before this the Russian resistance
+had perceptibly stiffened, and many vigorous
+counter-attacks had been made against the
+German advance, but it was the same old story,
+the lack of ammunition. The armies were
+compelled to retire and await the munitions
+necessary for a new offensive.</p>
+
+<p>The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw
+were days of extraordinary interest. The inhabitants,
+to the number of nearly half a millions,
+sought refuge in Russia. All goods that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>
+could be useful to the Germans were either
+removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in
+the surrounding fields. When the Germans
+entered they found an empty and deserted city,
+with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of
+Jews still left. Warsaw is a famous city, full
+of ancient palaces, tastefully adorned shops,
+finely built streets, and fourscore church towers
+where the bells are accustomed to ring
+melodiously for matins and vespers. In the
+Ujazdowske Avenue one comes to the most
+charming building in all Warsaw, the Lazienki
+Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in
+a lovely lake. It is a beautiful city.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian
+Poland, but Russia was not yet defeated.
+Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon
+was in 1812. The strategy of the Grand
+Duke was sound; so long as he could save the
+army the victories of Germany would be futile.
+It is true that the German armies were not
+compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live on
+the land. They could bring their supplies
+from Berlin day by day, but every mile they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>
+advanced into hostile territory made their task
+harder. The German line of communication,
+as it grew longer, became weaker, and the
+troops needed for garrison duty in the captured
+towns, seriously diminished the strength of the
+fighting army. The Russian retreat was
+good strategy and it was carried on with most
+extraordinary cleverness.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to describe the events
+which succeeded the fall of Warsaw in great
+detail. There was a constant succession of
+German victories and Russian defeats, but
+never was one of the Russian armies enveloped
+or destroyed. Back they went, day after day,
+always fighting; each great Russian fortress
+resisted until it saw itself in danger, and then
+safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and
+Novogeorgievsk, and Ivangorad, then Ossowietz
+was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and
+Grodno. On September 5th the Emperor of
+Russia signed the following order:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces
+of the sea and land armies operating in the theater of
+war. With firm faith in the clemency of God, with unshakable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>
+assurance in final victory, we shall fulfil our
+sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We will
+not dishonor the Russian land.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy
+of the Caucasus, a post which took him out
+of the main theater of fighting but gave him a
+great field for fresh military activity. He had
+been bearing a heavy burden, and had shown
+himself to be a great commander. He had
+outmaneuvered von Hindenburg again and
+again, and though finally the Russian armies
+under his command had been driven back, the
+retreat itself was a proof of his military ability,
+not only in its conception, but in the way in
+which it was done.</p>
+
+<p>The Emperor chose General Alexeiev as his
+Chief of General Staff. He was the ablest
+of the great generals who had been leading the
+Russian army. With this change in command
+a new spirit seemed to come over Russia. The
+German advance, however, was not yet completely
+checked. It was approaching Vilna.</p>
+
+<p>The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest
+in the whole long retreat. On the 18th of September<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>
+it fell, but the Russian troops were
+safely removed and the Russian resistance had
+become strong. Munitions were pouring into
+the new Russian army. The news from the
+battle-front began to show improvement. On
+September 8th General Brussilov, further in
+the south, had attacked the Germans in front of
+Tarnopol, and defeated them with heavy loss.
+More than seventeen thousand men were captured
+with much artillery. Soon the news
+came of other advances. Dubno was retaken
+and Lutsk.</p>
+
+<p>The end of September saw the German advance
+definitely checked. The Russian forces
+were now extended in a line from Riga on the
+north, along the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk.
+Then turning to the east along the river, it
+again turned south and so on down east of the
+Pripet Marshes, it followed an almost straight
+line to the southern frontier. Its two strongest
+points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga,
+which lay under the protection of the guns of
+the fleet, and Dvinsk, through which ran the
+great Petrograd Railway line. Against these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>
+two points von Hindenburg directed his attack.
+And now, for the first time in many
+months, he met with complete failure. The
+German fleet attempted to assist him on the
+Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian
+Baltic fleet with heavy losses. A bombardment
+turned out a failure and the German
+armies were compelled to retire.</p>
+
+<p>A more serious effort was made against
+Dvinsk but was equally unsuccessful and the
+German losses were immense. Again and
+again the attempt was made to cross the Dvina
+River, but without success; the German invasion
+was definitely stopped. By the end of
+October there was complete stagnation in the
+northern sector of the battle line, and though
+in November there were a number of battles,
+nothing happened of great importance.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_141">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_141.jpg" alt="THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Further south, however, Russia had become
+active. An army had been organized at her
+Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was
+necessary that that army should move. At this
+time the great question was, what was Roumania
+about to do? To prevent her from being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>
+forced to join the Central Powers she must
+have encouragement. It was determined
+therefore that an offensive should be made in
+the direction of Czernowitz. This town was
+the railway center of a wide region, and lay
+close to Roumania’s northern frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The Russian aggressive met with great success.
+It is true that it never approached the
+defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the
+north, had been able to make great gains of
+ground, and the very fact that such a powerful
+movement could be made so soon after the
+Russian retreat was an encouragement to
+every friend of the Allied cause. This offensive
+continued till up to the fourth week of
+January when it came to an abrupt stop. A
+despatch from Petrograd explained the movement
+as follows: “The recent Russian offensive
+in Bessarabia and Galicia was carried out
+in accordance with the plan prepared by the
+Entente Allies’ War Council to relieve the
+pressure on the Entente forces while they were
+fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>
+of the Gallipoli Peninsula.” Russia had sacrificed
+more than seventy thousand soldiers for
+her Allies.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1916 the Russian armies
+seemed to have had a new birth. At last they
+were supplied with guns and munitions. They
+waited until they were ready. In March a
+series of battles was fought in the neighborhood
+of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks
+were made against the German army, intrenched
+between Lake Narotch and Lake
+Vischenebski. The Germans at first were
+driven back and badly defeated. Later on,
+however, the Russian artillery was sent to another
+section, and the Germans were able to
+recover their position. During June the Russians
+attacked all along the southern part of
+their line. In three weeks they had regained
+a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had been
+retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds
+of guns, had been captured, and the Austrian
+line had been pierced and shattered.
+Further south the German army had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>
+compelled to retreat, and the Russian armies
+were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th
+of August Stanislau fell.</p>
+
+<p>By this time two Austrian armies had been
+shattered, over three hundred and fifty thousand
+prisoners taken, and nearly a million men
+put out of action. Germany, however, was
+sending reinforcements as fast as possible, and
+putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless
+everything was encouraging for Russia and she
+entered upon the winter in a very different condition
+from her condition in the previous year.
+Then she had just ended her great retreat.
+Now she had behind her a series of successes.
+But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of
+the political harmony at home which had
+marked the first years of the war. Dark days
+were ahead.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">How the Balkans Decided</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">FOR more than half a century the Balkans
+have presented a problem which has disturbed
+the minds of the statesmen of Europe.
+Again and again, during that period, it has
+seemed that in the Balkan mountains might be
+kindled a blaze which might set the world afire.
+Balkan politics is a labyrinth in which one
+might easily be lost. The inhabitants of the
+Balkans represent many races, each with its
+own ambition, and, for the most part, military.
+There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks,
+and Roumanians, and Greeks, and their territorial
+divisions did not correspond to their nationalities.
+The land was largely mountainous,
+with great gaps that make it, in a sense,
+the highway of the world. From 1466 to 1878
+the Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks.
+In the early days while the Turks were warring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>
+against Hungary, their armies marched
+through the Balkan hills. The natives kept
+apart, and preserved their language, religion
+and customs.</p>
+
+<p>In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew
+weaker, their subject people began to seek independence.
+Greece came first, and, in 1829,
+aided by France, Russia and Great Britain,
+she became an independent kingdom. Serbia
+revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous
+state, though still tributary to Turkey.
+In 1859, Roumania became autonomous. The
+rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really
+the beginning of the succession of events which
+ultimately led to the World War of 1914-18.
+The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the
+Turks in such a way as to stir the indignation
+of the whole world. What are known as the
+“Bulgarian Atrocities” seem mild today, but
+they led to the Russo-Turkish War in 1877.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was
+settled in 1878, was one of those treaties which
+could only lead to trouble. It deprived Russia
+of much of the benefit of her victory, and left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>
+nearly every racial question unsettled. Roumania
+lost Bessarabia, which was mainly inhabited
+by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina
+were handed over to the administration
+of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain
+Macedonia, Albania and Thrace. Serbia was
+given Nish, but had no outlet to the sea.
+Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province
+was made of the country south of the Balkans
+called Eastern Rumelia. From that time on,
+quarrel after quarrel made up the history of
+the Balkan peoples, each of whom sought the
+assistance and support of some one of the great
+powers. Russia and Austria were constantly
+intriguing with the new states, in the hope of
+extending their own domains in the direction
+of Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation
+has been continually the center of these
+intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign
+Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose
+career might almost be called romantic. A
+splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman,
+he stands out as an interesting figure in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>
+the sordid politics of the Balkans. He identified
+himself with his new country. In 1885 he
+brought about a union with Eastern Rumelia,
+which led to a disagreement with Russia.</p>
+
+<p>Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly
+declared war, but was overwhelmed by
+Prince Alexander in short order. Russia
+then abducted Prince Alexander, but later was
+forced to restore him. However, Russian intrigues,
+and his failure to obtain support from
+one of the great powers, forced his abdication
+in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
+became the Prince of Bulgaria. He,
+also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic
+figure of his predecessor. He seems
+to have been a sort of a parody of a king. He
+was fond of ostentation, and full of ambition.
+He was a personal coward, but extremely cunning.
+During his long reign he built up Bulgaria
+into a powerful, independent kingdom,
+and even assumed the title of Czar of Bulgaria.
+During the first days of his reign he was kept
+safely on the throne by his mother, the Princess<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>
+Clementine, a daughter of Louis Phillippe,
+who, according to Gladstone, was the cleverest
+woman in Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria
+was at peace. In 1908 he declared Bulgaria
+independent, and its independence was
+recognized by Turkey on the payment of an
+indemnity. During this period Russia was
+the protector of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian
+fox was looking also for the aid of Austria.
+Serbia more and more relied upon Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a
+source of constant irritation to Serbia. Roumania
+had a divided feeling. Her loss of
+Bessarabia to Russia had caused ill feeling, but
+in Austria’s province of Transylvania there
+were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania
+desired to bring under her rule. Greece was
+fearful of Russia, because of Russia’s desire
+for the control of Constantinople. All of
+these nations, too, were deeply conscious of the
+Austro-German ambitions for extension of
+their power through to the East. Each of
+these principalities was also jealous of the
+other. Bulgaria and Serbia had been at war;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>
+many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory,
+many Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks
+in Macedonia. There was only one tie in common,
+that was their hatred of Turkey. In
+1912 a league was formed, under the direction
+of the Greek statesman, Venizelos, having for
+its object an attack on Turkey. By secret
+treaties arrangements were made for the division
+of the land, which they hoped to obtain
+from Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>War was declared, and Turkey was decisively
+defeated, and then the trouble began.
+Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious
+for an outlet to the sea, and in the treaty
+between them it had been arranged that Serbia
+should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while
+Bulgaria was to obtain an outlet on the Ægean.
+The Triple Alliance positively refused Serbia
+its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted,
+therefore, on a revision of the treaty, which
+would enable her to have a seaport on the
+Ægean.</p>
+
+<p>An attempt was made to settle the question
+by arbitration, but King Ferdinand refused,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>
+whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan
+War began. Bulgaria was attacked by
+Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took a chance
+and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania,
+which had been neutral in the First Baltic War,
+mobilized her armies and marched toward
+Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th
+of August the Treaty of Bucharest was signed
+by the Balkan States.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a
+thoroughly dissatisfied state of mind. She had
+been the leader in the war against Turkey, she
+had suffered heavy losses, and she had gained
+almost nothing. Moreover she had lost to
+Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of
+a million Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on
+the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece were the
+big winners. Such a treaty could not be a
+final settlement. The Balkans were left seething
+with unrest. Serbia, though she had
+gained much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions,
+however, now turned in the direction
+of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and
+it was her agitation in this matter which directly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>
+brought on the Great War. But Bulgaria
+was sullen and ready for revenge. When
+the Great War began, therefore, Roumania,
+Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were strongly
+in sympathy with Russia, who had been their
+backer and friend. Bulgaria, in spite of all
+she owed to Russia in the early days, was now
+ready to find protection from an alliance with
+the Central Powers. Her feeling was well
+known to the Allies, and every effort was made
+to obtain her friendship and, if possible, her
+aid.</p>
+
+<p>Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address
+before the French Chamber of Deputies,
+said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the
+war, even before it came to the attention of the world.
+The Bucharest Treaty had left in Bulgaria profound
+heartburnings. Neither King nor people were resigned
+to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and sacrifices, and
+to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they had
+waged upon their former allies. From the first day, the
+Allied governments took into account the dangers of
+such a situation, and sought a means to remedy it.
+Their policy has proceeded in a spirit of justice and
+generosity which has characterized the attitude of Great
+Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>
+attempted to re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples,
+and in accord with them seek the realization of
+their principal national aspirations. The equilibrium
+thus obtained by mutual sacrifices really made by each
+would have been the best guarantee of future peace.
+Despite constant efforts in which Roumania, Greece and
+Serbia lent their assistance, we have been unable to obtain
+the sincere collaboration of the Bulgarian Government.
+The difficulties respecting the negotiations were
+always at Sofia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the war it appears,
+therefore, that Bulgaria was entering into negotiations
+with the Allies, hoping to regain
+in this way, some of the territory she had lost
+in the Second Baltic War. Many of her leading
+statesmen and most distinguished generals
+favored the cause of Russia, but in May came
+the great German advance in Galicia, and the
+Allies’ stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the
+king, and his supporters, found the way clear
+for a movement in favor of Germany. Still
+protesting neutrality they signed a secret
+treaty with Berlin, Vienna and Constantinople
+on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised
+them not only what they had been asking,
+in Macedonia, but also the Greek territory of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>
+Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those
+Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and
+on the 5th of October Bulgaria formally entered
+into war on the side of Germany, and
+began an attack on Serbia.</p>
+
+<p>The full account of the intrigue which led
+to this action has never been told. It is not
+improbable that King Ferdinand himself never
+had any other idea than to act as he did, but
+he dissembled for a long time. He set forth
+his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every
+effort to induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia
+to make the concessions that would be necessary.
+Such concessions were made, but not
+until it was too late. In a telegram from
+Milan dated September 24th, an account is
+given of an interview between Czar Ferdinand
+and a committee from those Bulgarians who
+were opposed to the King’s policy.</p>
+
+<p>“Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!”
+are the words which the King spoke to M.
+Stambulivski when he received the five opposition
+members who had come to warn him of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>
+the danger to which he was exposing himself
+and the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The five members were received by the King
+in the red room at the Royal Palace and chairs
+had been placed for them around a big table.
+The King entered the room, accompanied by
+Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and his secretary,
+M. Boocovitch.</p>
+
+<p>“Be seated, gentlemen,” said the King, as he
+sat down himself, as if for a very quiet talk.
+His secretary took a seat at the table, a little
+apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately
+became so heated and rapid that he
+was unable to write it down.</p>
+
+<p>The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader
+of the Democratic party, who said: “The
+policy adopted by the Government is one of
+adventure, tending to throw Bulgaria into the
+arms of Germany, and driving her to attack
+Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations,
+feeling and interests of the country, and
+if the Government obstinately continues in this
+way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span>
+gravity.” It was the first allusion to the
+possibility of a revolution, but the King listened
+without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded:
+“For these reasons we beg your
+Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government,
+to convoke the Chamber immediately,
+and we ask this convocation for the precise object
+of saving the country from dangerous adventures
+by the formation of a coalition
+Ministry.”</p>
+
+<p>The King remained silent, and, with a nod,
+invited M. Stambulivski to speak. M. Stambulivski
+was a leader of the Agrarian party, a
+man of sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed
+to speak out his mind boldly, and exceedingly
+popular among the peasant population. He
+grew up himself as a peasant, and wore the
+laborer’s blouse up till very recently. He
+stood up and looking the King straight in the
+face said in resolute tones: “In the name of
+every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M.
+Malinoff has just said, that the Bulgarian
+people hold you personally responsible more
+than your Government, for the disastrous adventure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>
+of 1913. If a similar adventure were
+to be repeated now its gravity this time would
+be irreparable. The responsibility would once
+more fall on your policy, which is contrary to
+the welfare of our country, and the nation
+would not hesitate to call you personally to account.
+That there may be no mistake as to
+the real wishes of the country I present to your
+Majesty my country’s demand in writing.”</p>
+
+<p>He handed the King a letter containing the
+resolution voted by the Agrarians. The King
+read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of
+the Radical Democrats, and asked him to
+speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking very slowly
+and impressively, and also looking the King
+straight in the face: “Sire, I had sworn never
+again to set foot inside your palace, and if I
+come today it is because the interests of my
+country are above personal questions, and
+have compelled me. Your Majesty may read
+what I have to say in this letter, which I submit
+to you in behalf of our party.”</p>
+
+<p>He handed the letter and the King read it
+and still remained silent. Then he said, turning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>
+to his former Prime Minister and ablest
+politician: “Gueshoff, it is now your turn to
+speak.”</p>
+
+<p>M. Gueshoff got up and said: “I also am
+fully in accord with what M. Stambulivski
+has just said. No matter how severe his
+words may have been in their simple unpolished
+frankness, which ignores the ordinary
+formalities of etiquette, they entirely express
+our unanimous opinion. We all, as representing
+the opposition, consider the present policy
+of the Government contrary to the sentiments
+and interests of the country, because by driving
+it to make common cause with Germany
+it makes us the enemies of Russia, which was
+our deliverer, and the adventure into which
+we are thus thrown compromises our future.
+We disapprove most absolutely of such a policy,
+and we also ask that the Chamber be convoked,
+and a Ministry formed with the co-operation
+of all parties.”</p>
+
+<p>After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M.
+Daneff also spoke, and associated himself
+with what had already been said.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>The King remained still silent for a while,
+then he, also, stood up and said: “Gentlemen,
+I have listened to your threats, and will refer
+them to the President of the Council of Ministers,
+that he may know and decide what to
+do.”</p>
+
+<p>All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed.
+The King had evidently taken the
+frank warning given him as a threat to him
+personally, and he walked up and down nervously
+for a while. Prince Boris turned aside
+to talk with the Secretary, who had resumed
+taking notes. The King continued pacing to
+and fro, evidently very nettled. Then, approaching
+M. Zanoff, and as if to change the
+conversation, he asked him for news about this
+season’s harvest.</p>
+
+<p>M. Zanoff abruptly replied: “Your Majesty
+knows that we have not come here to talk
+about the harvest, but of something far more
+important at present, namely, the policy of
+your Government, which is on the point of
+ruining our country. We can on no account
+approve the policy that is anti-Russian. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>
+the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their
+policy we shall not answer for the consequences.
+We have not desired to seek out
+those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because
+other grave events have been precipitated.
+But it was a disaster due to criminal
+folly. It must not be repeated by an attack
+on Serbia by Bulgaria, as seems contemplated
+by M. Radoslavoff, and which according to all
+appearances, has the approval of your Majesty.
+It would be a premeditated crime, and
+deserve to be punished.”</p>
+
+<p>The King hesitated a moment, and then held
+out his hand to M. Zanoff, saying: “All right.
+At all events I thank you for your frankness.”
+Then, approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated
+to him his question about the harvest.</p>
+
+<p>M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at
+first allowed himself to be led into a discussion
+of this secondary matter, and had expressed
+the hope that the prohibition on the export of
+cereals would be removed, when he suddenly
+remembered, and said: “But this is not the
+moment to speak of these things. I again repeat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span>
+to your Majesty that the country does
+not want a policy of adventure which cost it so
+dear in 1913. It was your own policy too.
+Before 1913 we thought you were a great diplomatist,
+but since then we have seen what
+fruits your diplomacy bears. You took advantage
+of all the loopholes in the Constitution
+to direct the country according to your
+own views. Your Ministers are nothing.
+You alone are the author of this policy and you
+will have to bear the responsibility.”</p>
+
+<p>The King replied frigidly, “The policy
+which I have decided to follow is that which
+I consider the best for the welfare of the country.”</p>
+
+<p>“It is a policy which will only bring misfortune,”
+replied the sturdy Agrarian. “It will
+lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not
+only the future of our country, but that of
+your dynasty, and may cost you your head.”</p>
+
+<p>It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered
+before a King, and Ferdinand looked astonished
+at the peasant who was thus speaking to
+him. He said, “Do not mind my head; it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>
+already old. Rather mind your own!” he
+added with a disdainful smile, and turned
+away.</p>
+
+<p>M. Stambulivski retorted: “My head matters
+little, Sire. What matters more is the
+good of our country.”</p>
+
+<p>The King paid no more attention to him,
+and took M. Gueshoff and M. Daneff apart,
+who again insisted on convoking the Chamber,
+and assured him that M. Radoslavoff’s government
+would be in a minority. They also referred
+to the Premier’s oracular utterances.</p>
+
+<p>“Ah!” said the King. “Has Radoslavoff
+spoken to you, and what has he said?”</p>
+
+<p>“He has said—” replied the leaders, “that
+Bulgaria would march with Germany and attack
+Serbia.”</p>
+
+<p>The King made a vague gesture, and then
+said: “Oh, I did not know.”</p>
+
+<p>This incident throws a strong light upon the
+conflict which was going on in the Balkan
+states, between those Kings who were of German
+origin, and who believed in the German
+power, and their people who loved Russia.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>
+King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not
+listen, and he lost his throne. All this, however,
+took place before the Bulgarian declaration
+of war. Yet much had already shown
+what King Ferdinand was about to do. The
+Allies, to be sure, were incredulous, and were
+doing their best to cultivate the good will of
+the treacherous King. On September 23rd
+the official order was given for Bulgaria’s
+mobilization. She, however, officially declared
+that her position was that of armed neutrality
+and that she had no aggressive intentions.
+As it has developed, she was acting
+under the direction of the German High Command.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this period that Germany had
+failed to crush Russia in the struggle on the
+Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy
+when one plan failed, another was undertaken.
+It seemed to her, therefore, that the
+punishment of Serbia would make up for other
+failures, and moreover would enable her to assist
+Turkey, which needed munitions, besides
+releasing for Germany supplies of food and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>
+other material which might come from Turkey.
+They therefore entrusted an expedition against
+Serbia to Field Marshal von Mackensen, and
+had begun to gather an army for that purpose,
+north of the Danube.</p>
+
+<p>This army of course was mainly composed
+of Austrian troops, but was stiffened throughout
+by some of the best regiments from the
+German army. To assist this new army they
+counted upon Bulgaria, with whom they had
+already a secret treaty, and in spite of the
+falsehoods issued from Sofia, the Bulgarian
+mobilization was meant for an attack on Serbia.
+The condition of affairs was well understood
+in Russia.</p>
+
+<p>On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, issued the following
+statement: “The situation in the Balkans
+is very grave. The whole Russian nation is
+aroused by the unthinkable treachery of Ferdinand
+and his Government to the Slavic cause.
+Bulgaria owes her independence to Russia, and
+yet seems willing now to become a vassal of
+Russia’s enemies. In her attitude towards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>
+Serbia, when Serbia is fighting for her very
+existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class
+with Turkey. We do not believe that the
+Bulgarian people sympathize with the action
+of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed
+to give them time for reflection. If they persist
+in their present treacherous course they
+must answer to Russia.” The next day the
+following ultimatum from Russia was handed
+the Bulgarian Prime Minister:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this
+moment give evidence of the definite decision of King
+Ferdinand’s Government to place the fate of its country
+in the hands of Germany. The presence of German and
+Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the staffs
+of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone bordering
+on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted
+from her enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer
+leave any doubt as to the object of the present military
+preparations of Bulgaria. The powers of the Entente,
+who have at heart the realization of the aspirations of
+the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned M.
+Radoslavoff that any hostile act against Serbia would
+be considered as directed against themselves. The assurances
+given by the head of the Bulgarian Cabinet in
+reply to these warnings are contradicted by facts. The
+representative of Russia, bound to Bulgaria by the imperishable
+memory of her liberation from the Turkish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>
+yoke, cannot sanction by his presence preparations for
+fratricidal aggression against a Slav and allied people.
+The Russian Minister has, therefore, received orders to
+leave Bulgaria with all the staffs of the Legation and
+the Consulates if the Bulgarian Government does not
+within twenty-four hours openly break with the enemies
+of the Slav cause and of Russia, and does not at once
+proceed to send away the officers belonging to the armies
+of states who are at war with the powers of the
+Entente.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives
+of France and Great Britain.
+Bulgaria’s reply to these ultimatums was described
+as bold to the verge of insolence. In
+substance she denied that German officers were
+on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that
+if they were present that fact concerned only
+Bulgaria, which reserved the right to invite
+whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government
+then issued a manifesto to the nation,
+announcing its decision to enter the war on the
+side of the Central Powers. The manifesto
+reads as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia,
+creating an Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely
+necessary for Bulgaria’s independence of the Serbians.
+We do not believe in the promises of the Quadruple<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>
+Entente. Italy, one of the Allies, treacherously
+broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in
+Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her
+treaty with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor’s
+side. The Germans and Austro-Hungarians are victorious
+on all fronts. Russia soon will have collapsed entirely.
+Then will come the turn of France, Italy and
+Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not
+fight on the side of the Central Powers, which offer the
+only possibility of realizing her desire for a union of all
+Bulgarian peoples.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The manifesto also stated that Russia was
+fighting for Constantinople and the Dardanelles;
+Great Britain to destroy Germany’s
+competition; France for Alsace and Lorraine,
+and the other allies to rob foreign countries;
+the Central Powers were declared to be fighting
+to defend property and assure peaceful
+progress. The manifesto filled seven columns
+in the newspapers, and discussed at some
+length Bulgaria’s trade interests. It attacked
+Serbia most bitterly, declaring that Serbia had
+oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia
+in a most barbarous manner; that she
+had attacked Bulgarian territory and that the
+Bulgarian troops had been forced to fight for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span>
+the defense of their own soil. In fact it was
+written in quite the usual German manner.</p>
+
+<p>Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek
+Premier, had perceived what was coming.
+Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if
+she were attacked by Bulgaria. On September
+21st, Venizelos asked France and Britain
+for a hundred and fifty thousand troops. On
+the 24th, the Allies agreed to this and Greece
+at once began to mobilize. His policy was received
+with great enthusiasm in the Greek
+Chamber, and former Premier Gounaris, amid
+great applause, expressed his support of the
+government.</p>
+
+<p>On October 6th an announcement from
+Athens stated that Premier Venizelos had resigned,
+the King having informed him that he
+was unable to support the policy of his Minister.
+King Constantine was a brother-in-law
+of the German Emperor, and although professing
+neutrality he had steadily opposed M.
+Venizelos’ policy. He had once before forced
+M. Venizelos’ resignation, but at the general
+elections which followed, the Greek statesman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span>
+was returned to power by a decisive majority.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_169">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA IN
+SEPTEMBER, 1918</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>Intense indignation was caused by the
+King’s action, though the King was able to
+procure the support of a considerable party.
+Venizelos’ resignation was precipitated by the
+landing of the Allied troops in Saloniki.
+They had come at the invitation of Venizelos,
+but the opposition protested against the occupation
+of Greek territory by foreign troops.
+After a disorderly session in which Venizelos
+explained to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances
+connected with the landing, the
+Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the
+Government by 142 to 102. The substance of
+his argument may be found in his conclusion:</p>
+
+<p>“We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are
+honest we will leave nothing undone to insure
+its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we
+are rogues may we find excuses to avoid our
+obligations.”</p>
+
+<p>Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed
+Premier, and declared for a policy of
+armed neutrality. This position was sharply
+criticised by Venizelos, but for a time became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>
+the policy of the Greek Government. Meantime
+the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki.
+On October 3d, seventy thousand French
+troops arrived. A formal protest was made
+by the Greek commandant, who then directed
+the harbor officials to assist in arranging the
+landing. In a short time the Allied forces
+amounted to a hundred and fifty thousand
+men, but the German campaign was moving
+rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>The German Balkan army captured Belgrade
+on the 9th of October, and by that date
+two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian
+frontier. Serbia found herself opposed by two
+hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a
+quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and
+Roumania fully mobilized and were watching
+the conflict, and the small allied contingent at
+Saloniki was preparing to march inland to the
+aid of Serbia.</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of Greece on this occasion has
+led to universal criticism. The King himself,
+no doubt, was mainly moved by his German
+wife and the influence of his Imperial brother-in-law.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> 
+Those that were associated with him
+were probably moved by fear. They had been
+much impressed by the strength of the German
+armies. They had seen the success of the
+great German offensive in Russia, while the
+French and British were being held in the
+West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria.
+The national characteristic of the
+Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be denied
+that there was great reason to suppose that the
+armies of Greece would not be able to resist the
+new attack. With these views Venizelos, the
+greatest statesman that Greece had produced
+for many years, did not agree, and the election
+seemed to show that he was supported by the
+majority of the Greek people.</p>
+
+<p>This was another case where the Allies,
+faced by a dangerous situation, were acting
+with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had
+failed, because at the very beginning they had
+not used their full strength. Now, again,
+knowing as they did all that depended upon it,
+bound as they were to the most loyal support
+of Serbia, the aid they sent was too small to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>
+be more than a drop in the bucket. It must
+be remembered, however, that the greatest
+leaders among the Allies were at all times opposed
+to in any way scattering their strength.
+They believed that the war was to be won in
+France. Military leaders in particular yielded
+under protest to the political leaders when expeditions
+of this character were undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly this is true, that the world believed
+that Serbia had a right to Allied assistance.
+The gallant little nation was fighting for her
+life, and public honor demanded that she
+should be aided. It was this strong feeling
+that led to the action that was taken, in spite
+of the military opinions. It was, however, too
+late.</p>
+
+<p>In the second week of October Serbia found
+herself faced by an enemy which was attacking
+her on three sides. She herself had been
+greatly weakened. Her losses in 1914, when
+she had driven Austria from her border, must
+have been at least two hundred thousand men.
+She had suffered from pestilence and famine.
+Her strength now could not have been more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>
+than two hundred thousand, and though she
+was fairly well supplied with munitions, she
+was so much outnumbered that she could
+hardly hope for success. On her west she was
+facing the Austro-German armies; on her east
+Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source
+of supplies was Saloniki and this was really her
+only hope. If the Allies at Saloniki could
+stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians
+might face again the Austro-Germans. They
+expected this help from the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>At Nish the town was decorated and the
+school children waited outside the station with
+bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements.
+But the Allies did not come.</p>
+
+<p>Von Mackensen’s plan was simple enough.
+His object was to win a way to Constantinople.
+This could be done either by the control of the
+Danube or the Ottoman Railroad. To control
+the Danube he had to seize northeastern
+Serbia for the length of the river. This was
+comparatively easy and would give him a clear
+water way to the Bulgarian railways connected
+with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>
+was a harder route to win. It meant an advance
+to the southeast, which would clear the
+Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava
+valley up to Bulgaria. The movements
+involved were somewhat complex, but easily
+carried out on account of the very great numerical
+superiority of von Mackensen’s forces.</p>
+
+<p>On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded.
+The Serbian positions were gradually
+destroyed. On the 7th of October the German
+armies crossed the Danube, and on the 8th
+the Serbians began to retreat. There was
+great destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian
+General, Mishitch, was forced slowly
+back to the foothills of the Tser range.</p>
+
+<p>For a time von Mackensen moved slowly.
+He did not wish to drive the Serbians too far
+south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian
+army began its attack. At first it was held,
+but by October 17th was pushing forward all
+along the line. On the 20th they entered
+Uskub, a central point of all the routes of
+southern Serbia. This practically separated
+the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>
+armies further north. Disaster followed disaster.
+On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction
+of Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was
+completed in the Dobravodo mountains. General
+von Gallwitz announced that a moment
+of world significance
+has come,
+that the “Orient
+and Occident
+had been united,
+and on the
+basis of
+this firm
+and indissoluble
+union a new and
+mighty vierbund
+comes into being, created by the victory of our
+arms.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe42_75" id="i_176">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="The Bremen-Berlin-Bosporus-Bagdad-Bahn">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Germany’s Dream: “The Bremen-Berlin-Bosporus-Bagdad-Bahn”</span></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary
+and Bulgaria to Turkey lay open.
+On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on
+November 2nd, Kraguyevac surrendered, the
+decisive battle of the war. On November 7th,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>
+Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced:
+“After fierce and sanguinary fighting
+the fortress of Nish has been conquered
+by our brave victorious troops and the Bulgarian
+flag has been hoisted to remain forever.”</p>
+
+<p>The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat,
+until on November 8th, advancing
+Franco-British troops almost joined with
+them, presenting a line from Prilep to Dorolovo
+on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time
+the Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor
+and also at Strumitza. The Allied armies
+were now reported to number three hundred
+thousand men. The Austro-Germans by this
+time had reached the mountainous region of
+Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance.</p>
+
+<p>On November 13th, German despatches
+from the front claimed the capture of 54,000
+Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of
+Serbia was in full flight, followed by the
+Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were
+still fighting and on November 15th, made a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span>
+stand on the western bank of the Morava
+River, and recaptured the town of Tatova.</p>
+
+<p>At this time the Allied world was watching
+the Serbian struggle with interest and sympathy.
+In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne
+in a discussion of the English effort to
+give them aid said: “It is impossible to think
+or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the
+wondrous gallantry with which that little country
+withstood two separate invasions, and has
+lately been struggling against a third. She
+repelled the first two invasions by an effort
+which I venture to think formed one of the
+most glorious chapters in the history of this
+Great War.”</p>
+
+<p>Serbia, however, was compelled once more
+to retreat, and their retreat soon became a rout.
+Their guns were abandoned and the roads were
+strewn with fainting, starving men. The sufferings
+of the Serbian people during this time
+are indescribable. Men, women, and children
+struggled along in the wake of the armies without
+food or shelter. King Peter himself was
+able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>
+traveling on horseback and mule back in disguise
+he finally reached Scutari and crossed to
+Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New
+Year’s Day, crippled and almost blind, but still
+full of fight.</p>
+
+<p>“I believe,” he said, “in the liberty of Serbia,
+as I believe in God. It was the dream of my
+youth. It was for that I fought throughout
+manhood. It has become the faith of the twilight
+of my life. I live only to see Serbia free.
+I pray that God may let me live until the day
+of redemption of my people. On that day I
+am ready to die, if the Lord wills. I have
+struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired,
+bruised and broken from it, but I will see, I
+shall see, this triumph. I shall not die before
+the victory of my country.”</p>
+
+<p>The Serbian army had been driven out of
+Serbia. But the Allies who had come up from
+Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October
+12th, the French General Serrail arrived and
+moved with the French forces, as has already
+been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with
+a number of successes. On October 19th they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>
+seized the Bulgarian town of Struminitza, and
+occupied strong positions on the left bank of
+the Vardar. On October 27th they occupied
+Krivolak, with the British Tenth Division,
+which had joined them on their right. They
+then occupied the summit of Karahodjali,
+which commanded the whole section of the valley.
+This the Bulgarians attacked in force on
+the 5th of November, but were badly repulsed.
+They then attempted to move toward Babuna
+Pass, twenty-five miles west of Krivolak, where
+they hoped to join hands with the Serbian column
+at that point.</p>
+
+<p>They were being faced by a Bulgarian army
+numbering one hundred and twenty-five thousand
+men, and found themselves in serious danger.
+They were compelled to fall back into
+what is called the “Entrenched Camp of Kavodar”
+without bringing the aid to the Serbian
+army that they had hoped. The Allied expedition
+to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless
+from the start, and, if anything, had injured
+Serbia by raising false expectations
+which had interfered with their plans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>During the whole of this disastrous campaign
+a desperate political struggle was going
+on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis
+Cabinet tendered its resignation to King Constantine.
+The trouble was over a bill for extra
+pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate
+discussion of the Greek war policy. M. Venizelos
+made two long speeches defending his
+policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents
+in regard to the Balkan situation. He
+said that he deplored the fact that Serbia was
+being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece’s
+hereditary enemy, who would not scruple later
+to fall on Greece herself. He spoke of the
+King in a friendly way, criticizing, however,
+his position. He had been twice removed from
+the Premiership, although he had a majority
+behind him in the Greek Chamber.</p>
+
+<p>“Our State,” he said, “is a democracy, presided
+over by the King, and the whole responsibility
+rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the
+Crown has a right to disagree with the responsible
+Government if he thinks the latter is
+not in agreement with the national will. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span>
+after the recent election, non-agreement is out
+of the question, and now the Crown has not the
+right to disagree again on the same question.
+It is not a question of patriotism but of constitutional
+liberty.”</p>
+
+<p>When the vote was taken the Government
+was defeated by 147 to 114. Instead of appointing
+Venizelos Premier, King Constantine
+gave the position to M. Skouloudis, and then
+dissolved the Greek Chamber by royal decree.
+Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be
+neutrality with the character of sincerest benevolence
+toward the Entente Powers. The
+general conditions at Athens during this whole
+time were causing great anxiety in the Allied
+capitals, and the Allied expedition were in continual
+fear of an attack in the rear in case of
+reverse. They endeavored to obtain satisfactory
+assurances on this point, and while assurances
+were given, during the whole period of
+King Constantine’s reign aggressive action was
+prevented because of the doubt as to what
+course King Constantine would take.</p>
+
+<p>In the end Constantine was compelled to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>
+abdicate. Venizelos became Premier, and
+Greece formally declared war on the Central
+Powers.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania
+cast aside her rôle of neutral and entered
+the war with a declaration of hostilities on
+Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were
+founded upon the supposedly well-trained
+Roumanian army and upon the nation which,
+because of its alertness and discipline, was
+known as “the policeman of Europe.” The
+belief was general in Paris and London that
+the weight of men and material thrown into the
+scale by Roumania would bring the war to a
+speedy, victorious end.</p>
+
+<p>Germany, however, was confident. A spy
+system excelling in its detailed reports anything
+that had heretofore been attempted,
+made smooth the path of the German army.
+Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a
+drive in force into Transylvania on August
+30th, when the message spread from Bucharest
+“von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span>
+Draft all males of military age. Prepare for
+the worst.”</p>
+
+<p>And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania.
+A vast force of military engineers moving like
+a human screen in front of von Mackensen’s
+army, followed routes carefully mapped out by
+German spies during the period of Roumania’s
+neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the
+inch, had been prepared to carry cannon, material
+and men over streams and ravines.
+Every Roumanian oil well, mine and store-house
+had been located and mapped. German
+scientists had studied Roumanian weather conditions
+and von Mackensen attacked while the
+roads were at their best and the weather most
+favorable. As the Germans swept forward,
+spies met them giving them military information
+of the utmost value. A swarm of airplanes
+spied out the movements of the Roumanians
+and no Roumanian airplanes rose to
+meet them.</p>
+
+<p>General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with
+von Mackensen, smashed his way through
+Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>
+Bucharest at Craiova. The Dobrudja region
+was overrun and the central Roumanian plain
+was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition
+to the German advance. The seat of government
+was transferred from Bucharest to Jassy
+on November 28, 1916, and on December 6th
+Bucharest was entered by von Mackensen,
+definitely putting an end to Roumania as a
+factor in the war.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate result of the fall of Roumania
+was to release immense stores of petroleum
+for German use. British and Roumanian
+engineers had done their utmost by
+the use of explosives to make useless the great
+Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers
+soon had the precious fluid in full flow. This
+furnished the fuel which Germany had long
+and ardently desired. The oil-burning submarine
+now came into its own. It was possible
+to plan a great fleet of submersibles to
+attempt execution of von Tirpitz’s plan for
+unrestricted submarine warfare. This was
+decided upon by the German High Command
+the day Bucharest fell. It was realized that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>
+such a policy would bring the United States
+into the war, but the Kaiser and his advisers
+hoped the submarine on sea and a great western
+front offensive on land would force a decision
+in favor of Germany before America
+could get ready. How that hope failed was
+revealed at Château-Thierry and in the humiliation
+of Germany.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">Campaign in Mesopotamia</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">IN our previous discussion of the British campaign
+in Mesopotamia we left the British
+forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying
+Basra, the port of Bagdad. The object of
+the Mesopotamia Expedition was primarily to
+keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of
+Persia. If the English had been satisfied with
+that, the misfortune which was to come to them
+might never have occurred, but the whole expedition
+was essentially political rather than
+military in its nature.</p>
+
+<p>The British were defending India. The
+Germans, unable to attack the British Empire
+by sea, were hoping to attack her by land.
+They had already attempted to stir up a Holy
+War with the full expectation that it would
+lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had
+failed, for the millions of Mohammedans in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>
+India cared little for the Turkish Sultan or his
+proclamations. Through Bagdad, however,
+they hoped to strike a blow at the English influence
+on the Persian Gulf. The English,
+therefore, felt strongly that it was not enough
+to sit safely astride the Tigris, but that a blow
+at Bagdad would produce a tremendous political
+effect. It would practically prevent German
+communication with Persia, and the Indian
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and
+the oil fields were safe so long as the English
+held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of
+no special consequence. The real reason for
+the expedition was probably that about this
+time matters were moving badly for the Allies.
+Serbia was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli
+was a failure, something it seemed ought to be
+done to restore the British prestige. Up to
+this time the Mesopotamia Expedition had
+been a great success, but it had made no great
+impression on the world. The little villages in
+the hands of the British had unknown names,
+but if Bagdad should be captured Great Britain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>
+would have something to boast of; something
+that would keep up its prestige among its
+Mohammedan subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined
+on, there had been several lively fights
+between the English forces and the Turks.
+On March 3d a Turkish force numbering about
+twelve thousand appeared at Ahwaz where the
+British had placed a small garrison to protect
+the pipe line of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.
+The British retirement led to heavy
+fighting, with severe losses.</p>
+
+<p>A number of lively skirmishes followed, and
+then came the serious attack against Shaiba.
+The Turkish army numbered about eighteen
+thousand men, of whom eleven thousand were
+regulars. The fighting lasted for several days,
+the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of
+April, however, the English attacked in turn
+and put the whole enemy force to flight. The
+British lost about seven hundred officers and
+men, and reported a Turkish loss of about six
+thousand. In their retreat the Turks were attacked
+by their Arab allies, and suffered additional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>
+losses. From that time till summer
+there were no serious contests, although there
+were occasional skirmishes which turned out
+favorably to the British.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the Turks had collected a considerable
+army north of Kurna, and on May
+31st an expedition was made to disperse it.
+On June 3d the British captured Amara, seventy-five
+miles above Kurna, scattering the
+Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition
+was sent against Nasiriyeh, which led
+to serious fighting, the Turks being badly defeated
+with a loss of over two thousand five
+hundred men.</p>
+
+<p>Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in
+August an expedition was directed against that
+point. The Turks were found in great force,
+well intrenched, and directed by German officers.
+The battle lasted for four days. The
+English suffered great hardship on account of
+the scarcity of water and the blinding heat, but
+on September 29th they drove the enemy from
+the city and took possession. More than two
+thousand prisoners were taken. The town was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>
+found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate
+system of trenches extending for miles, built
+in the true German fashion. Its capture was
+the end of the summer campaign.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe42_9375" id="i_191">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="The Mesopotamian Sector">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Mesopotamian Sector, Where the British Routed the
+Turkish Army</span></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The British now had at last made up their
+minds to push on to Bagdad. General Townshend,
+whose work so far had been admirable,
+protested, but Sir John Nixon, and the Indian
+military authorities, were strongly in favor of
+the expedition. By October, Turkey was able
+to gather a large army. She was fighting in
+Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and Mesopotamia.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span>
+Little was going on in the first three
+of these fronts, and she was able therefore to
+send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a million
+men.</p>
+
+<p>To meet these, General Townshend had
+barely fifteen thousand men, of whom only one-third
+were white soldiers. He was backed by
+a flotilla of boats of almost every kind,—river
+boats, motor launches, paddle steamers, native
+punts. The British army was almost worn
+out by the fighting during the intense heat of
+the previous summer. But their success had
+given them confidence.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of October the advance began.
+For some days it proceeded with no
+serious fighting. On the 23d of October it
+reached Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish
+force numbering about four thousand. These
+were soon routed, and the advance continued
+until General Townshend arrived at Lajj,
+about seven miles from Ctesiphon, where the
+Turks were found heavily intrenched and in
+great numbers. Ctesiphon was a famous old
+city which had been the battle-ground of Romans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span>
+and Parthians, but was now mainly ruins.
+In these ruins, however, the Turks found admirable
+shelter for nests of machine guns. On
+the 21st of November General Townshend
+made his attack.</p>
+
+<p>The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments,
+and had about twenty thousand men,
+the English about twelve thousand. General
+Townshend’s plan was to divide his army into
+three columns. The first was to attack the
+center of the first Turkish position. A second
+was directed at the left of that position,
+and a third was to swing widely around and
+come in on the rear of the Turkish force.
+This plan was entirely successful, but the Turkish
+army was not routed, and retreated fighting
+desperately to its second line. There it
+was reinforced and counter-attacked with such
+vigor that it drove the British back to its old
+first trenches. The next day the Turks were
+further reinforced and attacked again. The
+British drove them back over and over, but
+found themselves unable to advance. The
+Turks had lost enormously but the English had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>
+lost about one-third of their strength, and were
+compelled to fall back. They therefore returned
+on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately,
+after continual rear guard actions, to Kut.
+There they found themselves surrounded, and
+there was nothing to do but to wait for help.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the eyes of the world were upon
+the beleaguered British army. Help was being
+hurried to them from India, but Germany
+also was awake and Marshal von Der Goltz,
+who had been military instructor in the Turkish
+army, was sent down to take command of
+the Turkish forces. The town of Kut lies in
+the loop of the Tigris, making it almost an
+island. There was an intrenched line across
+the neck of land on the north, and the place
+could resist any ordinary assault. The great
+difficulty was one of supplies. However, as
+the relieving force was on the way, no great
+anxiety was felt. For some days there was
+constant bombardment, which did no great
+damage. On the 23d an attempt was made to
+carry the place by assault, but this too failed.
+The relieving force, however, was having its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>
+troubles. These were the days of floods, and
+progress was slow and at times almost impossible.
+Moreover, the Turks were constantly
+resisting.</p>
+
+<p>The relief expedition was composed of thirty
+thousand Indian troops, two Anglo-Indian divisions,
+and the remnants of Townshend’s expedition,
+a total of about ninety thousand men.
+General Sir Percy Lake was in command of
+the entire force. The march began on January
+6th. By January 8th the British had
+reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated
+in two pitched battles. On January
+22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna, where
+the Turks had intrenched themselves.</p>
+
+<p>After artillery bombardment the Turkish
+positions were attacked, but heavy rains had
+converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering
+rapid movement impossible. The enemy’s
+fire was heavy and effective, inflicting
+severe losses, and though every effort was
+made, the assault failed.</p>
+
+<p>For days the British troops bivouacked in
+driving rain on soaked and sodden ground.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span>
+Three times they were called upon to advance
+over a perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and
+absolutely devoid of cover against well-constructed
+and well-planned trenches, manned
+by a brave and stubborn enemy, approximately
+their equal in numbers. They showed a spirit
+of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their
+country may well be proud.</p>
+
+<p>But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage
+the British army. It was decided to move up
+the left bank of the Tigris and attack the
+Turkish position at the Dujailah redoubt.
+This meant a night march across the desert
+with great danger that there would be no water
+supply and that, unless the enemy was routed,
+the army would be in great danger.</p>
+
+<p>General Lake says: “On the afternoon of
+March 7th, General Aylmer assembled his subordinate
+commanders and gave his final instructions,
+laying particular stress on the fact
+that the operation was designed to effect a surprise,
+and that to prevent the enemy forestalling
+us, it was essential that the first phase of the
+operation should be pushed through with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>
+utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly,
+as follows: The greater part of a division
+under General Younghusband, assisted by
+naval gunboats, controlled the enemy on the
+left bank. The remaining troops were formed
+into two columns, under General Kemball and
+General Keary respectively, a reserve of infantry,
+and the cavalry brigade, being held at
+the Corps Commander’s own disposal. Kemball’s
+column covered on the outer flank by the
+cavalry brigade was to make a turning movement
+to attack the Dujailah redoubt from the
+south, supported by the remainder of the force,
+operating from a position to the east of the redoubt.
+The night march by this large force,
+which led across the enemy’s front to a position
+on his right flank, was a difficult operation, entailing
+movement over unknown ground, and
+requiring most careful arrangement to attain
+success.”</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to excellent staff work and good
+march discipline the troops reached their allotted
+position apparently undiscovered by the
+enemy, but while Keary’s column was in position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>
+at daybreak, ready to support Kemball’s
+attack, the latter’s command did not reach the
+point selected for its deployment in the Dujailah
+depression until more than an hour later.
+This delay was highly prejudicial to the success
+of the operation.</p>
+
+<p>When, nearly three hours later, Kemball’s
+troops advanced to the attack, they were
+strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches
+cleverly concealed in the brushwood, and were
+unable to make further ground for some time,
+though assisted by Keary’s attack upon the
+redoubt from the east. The southern attack
+was now reinforced, and by 1 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> had pushed
+forward to within five hundred yards of the redoubt,
+but concealed trenches again stopped
+further progress and the Turks made several
+counter-attacks with reinforcements which had
+by now arrived from the direction of Magasis.</p>
+
+<p>It was about this time that the Corps Commander
+received from his engineer officers the
+unwelcome news that the water supply contained
+in rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression,
+upon which he had reckoned, was insufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>
+and could not be increased by digging.
+It was clear, therefore, that unless the
+Dujailah redoubt could be carried that day the
+scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the
+troops to fall back. Preparations were accordingly
+made for a further assault on the redoubt,
+and attacks were launched from the
+south and east under cover of a heavy bombardment.</p>
+
+<p>The attacking forces succeeded in gaining
+a foothold in the redoubt. But here they were
+heavily counter-attacked by large enemy reinforcements,
+and being subjected to an extremely
+rapid and accurate shrapnel fire from
+concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After,
+they were forced to fall back to the position
+from which they started. The troops who had
+been under arms for some thirty hours, including
+a long night march, were now much exhausted,
+and General Aylmer considered that
+a renewal of the assault during the night could
+not be made with any prospect of success.
+Next morning the enemy’s position was found
+to be unchanged and General Aylmer, finding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>
+himself faced with the deficiency of order already
+referred to, decided upon the immediate
+withdrawal of his troops to Wadi, which
+was reached the same night.</p>
+
+<p>For the next month the English were held
+in their positions by the Tigris floods. On
+April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to
+permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna,
+which this time was successful. On
+April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat
+was attacked, but the English were repulsed.
+They then determined to make another attempt
+to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On
+April 17th the fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles
+from Es Sinn, on the left bank, was captured
+after heavy bombardment, and held against
+serious counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st
+the Sanna-i-yat position was bombarded and
+a vigorous assault was made, which met with
+some success. The Turks, however, delivered
+a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in forcing
+the British troops back.</p>
+
+<p>General Lake says: “Persistent and repeated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>
+attempts on both banks have thus
+failed, and it was known that at the outside not
+more than six days’ supplies remained to the
+Kut garrison. The British troops were nearly
+worn out. The same troops had advanced
+time and again to assault positions strong by
+art and held by a determined enemy. For
+eighteen consecutive days they had done all
+that men could do to overcome, not only the
+enemy, but also exceptional climatic and physical
+obstacles, and this on a scale of rations
+which was far from being sufficient in view of
+the exertions they had undergone, but which
+the shortage of river transports, had made it
+impossible to augment. The need for rest was
+imperative.”</p>
+
+<p>On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara
+surrendered unconditionally, after a
+heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three
+days. According to British figures the surrendered
+army was composed of 2,970 English
+and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish
+figures are 13,300. The Turks also captured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>
+a large amount of booty, although General
+Townshend destroyed most of his guns and
+munitions.</p>
+
+<p>During the period in which Kut-el-Amara
+was besieged by the Turks, the British troops
+had suffered much. The enemy bombarded
+the town almost every day, but did little
+damage. The real foe was starvation. At
+first the British were confident that a relief
+expedition would soon reach them, and they
+amused themselves by cricket and hockey and
+fishing in the river. By early February, however,
+it was found necessary to reduce the
+rations, and a month later they were suffering
+from hunger. Some little help was given
+them by airplanes, which brought tobacco and
+some small quantities of supplies. Soon the
+horses and the mules were slaughtered and
+eaten. As time went on the situation grew
+desperate; till almost the end, however, they
+did not lose hope. Through the wireless they
+were informed about the progress of the relief
+expeditions and had even heard their guns in
+the distance. They gradually grew, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>
+weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender
+the troops in the first lines were too weak to
+march back with their kits.</p>
+
+<p>The Turks treated the prisoners in a
+chivalric manner; food and tobacco was at once
+distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia,
+except General Townshend and his staff, who
+were taken to Constantinople. Later on it
+was General Townshend who was to have the
+honor of carrying the Turkish plea for an
+armistice in the closing days of the war.</p>
+
+<p>The surrender of Kut created a world-wide
+sensation. The loss of eight thousand troops
+was, of course, not a serious matter, and the
+road to India was still barred, but the moral
+effect was most unfortunate. That the great
+British nation, whose power had been so respected
+in the Orient, should now be forced to
+yield, was a great blow to its prestige. In
+England, of course, there was a flood of
+criticism. It was very plain that a mistake
+had been made. A commission was appointed
+to inquire into the whole business. This committee
+reported to Parliament on June 26,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>
+1917, and the report created a great sensation.
+The substance of the report was, that
+while the expedition was justifiable from a
+political point of view, it was undertaken with
+insufficient forces and inadequate preparation,
+and it sharply criticized those that were
+responsible.</p>
+
+<p>It seems plain that the military authorities
+in India under-estimated their opponent.
+The report especially criticized General Sir
+John Eccles Nixon, the former commander of
+the British forces in Mesopotamia, who had
+urged the expedition, in spite of the objection
+of General Townshend. Others sharing the
+blame were the Viceroy of India, Baron
+Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff,
+Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in
+India, and, in England, Major-General Sir
+Edmund Barrow, Military Secretary of the
+India office, J. Austin Chamberlain, Secretary
+for India, and the War Committee of the
+Cabinet. According to the report, beside the
+losses incurred by the surrender more than
+twenty-three thousand men were lost in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>
+relieving expedition. The general armament
+and equipment were declared to be not only
+insufficient, but not up to the standard.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain
+resigned as secretary for India. In the
+House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary
+of Foreign Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge,
+who, at the time of the report, was Under
+Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared
+the criticism of Baron Hardinge to be grossly
+unjust. After some discussion the House of
+Commons supported Mr. Balfour’s refusal to
+accept Baron Hardinge’s resignation, by a
+vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that
+the civil administration of India were not responsible
+for the blunders of the expedition.
+Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter
+controversy with Lord Curzon, had made
+the military side of the Indian Government
+free of all civilian criticism and control. The
+blunders here were military blunders.</p>
+
+<p>The English, of course, were not satisfied
+to leave the situation in such a condition, and
+at once began their plans for a new attempt to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span>
+capture Bagdad. The summer campaign,
+however, was uneventful, though on May 18th
+a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in
+Persia joined the British camp. A few days
+afterwards the British army went up the Tigris
+and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they
+had been so badly defeated on the 8th of
+March. They then approached close to Kut,
+but the weather was unsuitable, and there was
+now no object in capturing the city.</p>
+
+<p>In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded
+by Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley
+Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded
+to prepare for an expedition which
+should capture Bagdad. A dispatch from
+General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a
+full account of this expedition. It was thoroughly
+successful. This time with a sufficient
+army and a thorough equipment the British
+found no difficulties, and on February 26th
+they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought
+battle, but as the result of a successful
+series of small engagements. The Turks
+kept up a steady resistance, but the British<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>
+blood was up. They were remembering General
+Townshend’s surrender, and the Turks
+were driven before them in great confusion.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of Kut, however, was not an
+object in itself, and the British pushed steadily
+on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally
+made a stand, but without effect. On the 28th
+of February the English had arrived at Azizie,
+half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made.
+On the 5th of March the advance was renewed.
+The Ctesiphon position, which had defied General
+Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched,
+but empty. On March 7th the
+enemy made a stand on the River Diala, which
+enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad.
+Some lively fighting followed, the enemy resisting
+four attempts to cross the Diala.
+However, on March 10th the British forces
+crossed, and were now close to Bagdad. The
+enemy suddenly retired and the British troops
+found that their main opponent was a dust
+storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad,
+and on March 11th the city was occupied by
+the English.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>The fall of Bagdad was an important event.
+It cheered the Allies, and proved, especially to
+the Oriental world, the power of the British
+army. Those who originally planned its capture
+had been right, but those who were to
+carry out the plan had not done their duty.
+Under General Maude it was a comparatively
+simple operation, though full of admirable details,
+and it produced all the good effects expected.
+The British, of course, did not stop
+at Bagdad. The city itself is not of strategic
+importance. The surrounding towns were
+occupied and an endeavor was made to conciliate
+the inhabitants. The real object of the
+expedition was attained.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_208">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_208.jpg" alt="BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of the
+British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the ancient city at
+the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br>
+
+<span class="smcap">Immortal Verdun</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap">FRANCE was revealed to herself, to Germany
+and to the world as the heroic defender
+of civilization, as a defender defying
+death in the victory of Verdun. There, with
+the gateway to Paris lying open at its back,
+the French army, in the longest pitched battle
+in all history, held like a cold blue rock against
+the uttermost man-power and resources of the
+German army.</p>
+
+<p>General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German
+General Staff and military dictator of the
+Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace.
+There the mettle of the Crown Prince
+was tested and he was found to be merely a
+thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was
+under the domination of von Falkenhayn.</p>
+
+<p>For the tremendous offensive which was
+planned to end the war by one terrific thrust,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>
+von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other
+fronts of effective men and munitions. Field
+Marshal von Hindenburg and his crafty Chief
+of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a
+campaign against Russia designed to put that
+tottering military Colossus out of the war.
+The plans were upon a scale that might well
+have proved successful. The Kaiser, influenced
+by the Crown Prince and by von Falkenhayn,
+decreed that the Russian campaign must
+be postponed and that von Hindenburg must
+send his crack troops to join the army of the
+Crown Prince fronting Verdun. Ludendorff
+promptly resigned as Chief of Staff to von
+Hindenburg and suggested that the Field Marshal
+also resign. That grim old warrior declined
+to take this action, preferring to remain
+idle in East Prussia and watch what he predicted
+would be a useless effort on the western
+front. His warning to the General Staff was
+explicit, but von Falkenhayn coolly ignored
+the message.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_211">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="IMMORTAL VERDUN">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS
+WITH THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, “THEY SHALL NOT
+PASS”</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Why did Germany select this particular
+point for its grand offensive? The answer is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>
+to be found in a demand made by the great
+Junker associations of Germany in May, 1915,
+nine months before the attack was undertaken.
+That demand was to the effect that Verdun
+should be attacked and captured. They declared
+that the Verdun fortifications made a
+menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields
+of the Briey basin. From this metalliferous
+field of Lorraine came the ore that supplied
+eighty per cent of the steel required for German
+and Austrian guns and munitions. These
+fields of Briey were only twenty miles from
+the great guns of Verdun. They were French
+territory at the beginning of the war and had
+been seized by the army of the Crown Prince,
+co-operating with the Army of Metz because
+of their immense value to the Germans in war
+making.</p>
+
+<p>As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn
+placed a semicircle of huge howitzers and
+rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling
+the vast forces drained from all the fronts
+and having erected ammunition dumps covering
+many acres, the great battle commenced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>
+with a surprise attack upon the village of Haumont
+on February 21, 1916.</p>
+
+<p>The first victory of the Germans at that
+point was an easy one. The great fort of Douaumont
+was the next objective. This was
+taken on February 25th after a concentrated
+bombardment that for intensity surpassed anything
+that heretofore had been shown in the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending
+the disposition of guns and men, had now
+penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun.
+The tide was running against the French, and
+shells, more shells for the guns of all caliber;
+men, more men for the earthworks surrounding
+the devoted city were needed. The narrow-gauge
+railway connecting Verdun with
+the great French depots of supplies was totally
+inadequate for the transportation burdens suddenly
+cast upon it. In this desperate emergency
+a transport system was born of necessity,
+a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet
+upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles;
+anything that could pack a few shells or a handful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>
+of men was utilized. The backbone of the
+system was a great fleet of trucks driven by
+men whose average daily rest was four hours,
+and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the
+stains of snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were
+indelibly fixed through the winter, spring, summer
+and fall of 1916, for the glorious engagement
+continued from February 21st until November 2d,
+when the Germans were forced into
+full retreat from the field of honor, the evacuation
+of Fort Vaux putting a period to Germany’s
+disastrous plan and to von Falkenhayn’s
+military career.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days
+of the immortal battle, wrote:</p>
+
+<p>“Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary
+of battles. The mass of metal used
+on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the
+transformation on the Douaumont Ridge was
+more suddenly dramatic than even the battle
+of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the
+conflict already looks as if it would surpass anything
+in history. More than a month has
+elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>
+and General Pétain, I was able to watch the
+struggle from various vital viewpoints. The
+battle had then been raging with great intensity
+for a fortnight, and, as I write, four to five
+thousand guns are still thundering round Verdun.
+Impossible, therefore, any man to describe
+the entire battle. The most one can do
+is to set down one’s impressions of the first
+phases of a terrible conflict, the end of which
+cannot be foreseen.</p>
+
+<p>“My chief impression is one of admiration
+for the subtle powers of mind of the French
+High Command. General Joffre and General
+Castelnau are men with especially fine intellects
+tempered to terrible keenness. Always
+they have had to contend against superior numbers.
+In 1870, when they were subalterns,
+their country lost the advantage of its numerous
+population by abandoning general military
+service at a time when Prussia was completely
+realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In 1914,
+when they were commanders, France was inferior
+to a still greater degree in point of numbers
+to Prussianized Germany. In armament,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>
+also, France was inferior at first to her enemy.
+The French High Command has thus been
+trained by adversity to do all that human intellect
+can against almost overwhelming hostile
+material forces. General Joffre, General
+Castelnau—and, later, General Pétain, who
+at a moment’s notice displaced General Herr—had
+to display genius where the Germans
+were exhibiting talent, and the result is to be
+seen at Verdun. They there caught the enemy
+in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown
+in modern warfare—something elemental, and
+yet subtle, neo-primitive, and befitting the atavistic
+character of the Teuton. They caught
+him in a web of his own unfulfilled boasts.</p>
+
+<p>“The enemy began by massing a surprising
+force on the western front. Tremendous energy
+and organizing power were the marks of
+his supreme efforts to obtain a decision. It
+was usually reckoned that the Germans maintain
+on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four
+and a half army corps, which at full
+strength number three million men. Yet,
+while holding the Russians from Riga to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>
+south of the Pripet Marshes, and maintaining
+a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems
+to have succeeded in bringing up nearly two
+millions and a half of men for her grand spring
+offensive in the west. At one time her forces
+in France and Flanders were only ninety divisions.
+But troops and guns were withdrawn
+in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia
+in December, 1915, until there were, it is estimated,
+a hundred and eighteen divisions on
+the Franco-British-Belgian front. A large
+number of six-inch and twelve-inch Austrian
+howitzers were added to the enormous Krupp
+batteries. Then a large proportion of new recruits
+of the 1916 class were moved into Rhineland
+depots to serve as drafts for the fifty-nine
+army corps, and it is thought that nearly all
+the huge shell output that had accumulated
+during the winter was transported westward.</p>
+
+<p>“The French Staff reckoned that Verdun
+would be attacked when the ground had dried
+somewhat in the March winds. It was thought
+that the enemy movement would take place
+against the British front in some of the sectors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>
+of which there were chalk undulations, through
+which the rains of winter quickly drained. The
+Germans skilfully encouraged this idea by
+making an apparent preliminary attack at
+Lions, on a five-mile front with rolling gas-clouds
+and successive waves of infantry. During
+this feint the veritable offensive movement
+softly began on Saturday, February 19, 1916,
+when the enormous masses of hostile artillery
+west, east, and north of the Verdun salient
+started registering on the French positions.
+Only in small numbers did the German guns
+fire, in order not to alarm their opponents.
+But even this trial bombardment by shifts was
+a terrible display of power, calling forth all
+the energies of the outnumbered French gunners
+to maintain the artillery duels that continued
+day and night until Monday morning,
+February 21st.</p>
+
+<p>“The enemy seems to have maintained a
+bombardment all round General Herr’s lines
+on February 21, 1916, but this general battering
+was done with a thousand pieces of field
+artillery. The grand masses of heavy howitzers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>
+were used in a different way. At a
+quarter past seven in the morning they concentrated
+on the small sector of advanced intrenchments
+near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch
+shells fell with terrible precision every few
+yards, according to the statements made by the
+French troops. I afterwards saw a big German
+shell, from at least six miles distant from
+my place of observation, hit quite a small
+target. So I can well believe that, in the first
+bombardment of French positions, which had
+been photographed from the air and minutely
+measured and registered by the enemy gunners
+in the trial firing, the great, destructive shots
+went home with extraordinary effect. The
+trenches were not bombarded—they were obliterated.
+In each small sector of the six-mile
+northward bulge of the Verdun salient the
+work of destruction was done with surprising
+quickness.</p>
+
+<p>“After the line from Brabant to Haumont
+was smashed, the main fire power was directed
+against the other end of the bow at Herbebois,
+Ornes, and Maucourt. Then when both ends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>
+of the bow were severely hammered, the central
+point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods,
+was smothered in shells of all sizes, poured in
+from east, north and west. In this manner
+almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery
+was centered upon mile after mile of the
+French front. When the great guns lifted
+over the lines of craters, the lighter field artillery,
+placed row after row in front of the wreckage,
+maintained an unending fire curtain over
+the communicating saps and support intrenchments.</p>
+
+<p>“Then came the second surprising feature in
+the new German system of attack. No waves
+of storming infantry swept into the battered
+works. Only strong patrols at first came cautiously
+forward, to discover if it were safe for
+the main body of troops to advance and reorganize
+the French line so as to allow the artillery
+to move onward. There was thus a large
+element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards
+told by German prisoners. Their commanders
+thought it would be possible to do all
+the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>
+the infantry to act as squatters to the great
+guns and occupy and rebuild line after line of
+the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand
+struggles. All they had to do was to
+protect the gunners from surprise attack,
+while the guns made an easy path for them and
+also beat back any counter-attack in force.</p>
+
+<p>“But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving
+the man-power of Germany by an unparalleled
+expenditure of shell, it required for full
+success the co-operation of the French troops.
+But the French did not co-operate. Their
+High Command had continually improved their
+system of trench defense in accordance with
+the experiences of their own hurricane bombardments
+in Champagne and the Carency
+sector. General Castelnau, the acting Commander-in-Chief
+on the French front, was indeed
+the inventor of hurricane fire tactics,
+which he had used for the first time in February,
+1915, in Champagne. When General
+Joffre took over the conduct of all French
+operations, leaving to General Castelnau the
+immediate control of the front in France, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>
+victor of the battle of Nancy weakened his advance
+lines and then his support lines, until his
+troops actually engaged in fighting were very
+little more than a thin covering body, such as
+is thrown out towards the frontier while the
+main forces connect well behind.</p>
+
+<p>“We shall see the strategical effect of this
+extraordinary measure in the second phase of
+the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to
+leave remarkably few French troops exposed
+to the appalling tempest of German and Austrian
+shells. The fire-trench was almost empty,
+and in many cases the real defenders of the
+French line were men with machine guns, hidden
+in dugouts at some distance from the
+photographed positions at which the German
+gunners aimed. The batteries of light guns,
+which the French handled with the flexibility
+and continuity of fire of Maxims, were also concealed
+in widely scattered positions. The main
+damage caused by the first intense bombardment
+was the destruction of all the telephone
+wires along the French front. In one hour
+the German guns plowed up every yard of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>
+ground behind the observing posts and behind
+the fire-trench. Communications could only
+be slowly re-established by messengers, so that
+many parties of men had to fight on their own
+initiative, with little or no combination of effort
+with their comrades.</p>
+
+<p>“Yet, desperate as were their circumstances,
+they broke down the German plan for capturing
+trenches without an infantry attack. They
+caught the patrols and annihilated them, and
+then swept back the disillusioned and reluctant
+main bodies of German troops. First, the
+bombing parties were felled, then the sappers
+as they came forward to repair the line for
+their infantry, and at last the infantry itself
+in wave after wave of field-gray. The small
+French garrison of every center of resistance
+fought with cool, deadly courage, and often
+to the death.</p>
+
+<p>“Artillery fire was practically useless against
+them, for though their tunnel shelters were
+sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch shells,
+which they regarded as their special terror by
+reason of their penetrative power and wide<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>
+blast, even the Germans had not sufficient shells
+to search out all their underground chambers,
+every one of which have two or three exits.</p>
+
+<p>“The new organization of the French Machine-gun
+Corps was a fine factor in the eventual
+success. One gun fired ten thousand
+rounds daily for a week, most of the positions
+selected being spots from which each German
+infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered.
+Then the French 75’s which had been
+masked during the overwhelming fire of the
+enemy howitzers, came unexpectedly into action
+when the German infantry attacks increased
+in strength. Near Haumont, for example,
+eight successive furious assaults were
+repulsed by three batteries of 75’s. One battery
+was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch
+guns, but it remained in action until all
+its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners
+then blew up their guns and retired, with the
+loss of only one man.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_225a">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_225a.jpg" alt="AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS</p>
+
+<p>Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a shattered village.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_225b">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_225b.jpg" alt="HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED</p>
+
+<p>The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of action.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown
+Prince’s army from the fourteen divisions—that
+battled at Douaumont Fort—to twenty-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>
+divisions. In April he added five more divisions
+to the forces around Verdun by weakening
+the effectives in other sectors and drawing
+more troops from the Russian front. It was
+rumored that von Hindenburg was growing
+restive and complaining that the wastage at
+Verdun would tell against the success of the
+campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was
+to open when the Baltic ice melted.</p>
+
+<p>“Great as was the wastage of life, it was in
+no way immediately decisive. But when the
+expenditure of shells almost outran the highest
+speed of production of the German munition
+factories, and the wear on the guns was
+more than Krupp and Skoda could make good,
+there was danger to the enemy in beginning
+another great offensive likely to overtax his
+shellmakers and gunmakers.”</p>
+
+<p>Immortal and indomitable France had won
+over her foe more power than she had possessed
+even after the battle of the Marne. If her
+Allies, with the help of Japan and the United
+States, could soon overtake the production of
+the German and Austrian munition factories,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>
+it was possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan,
+might become one of the turning points of the
+war.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with
+the whole population of France roused to the
+supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like
+a rock. Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green
+lines were sent against the twenty-five
+miles of earthworks, while the French guns
+took their toll of the crack German regiments.
+German dead lay upon the field until exposed
+flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms.
+No Man’s Land around Verdun was
+a waste and a stench.</p>
+
+<p>General Joffre’s plan was very simple. It
+was to hold out. As was afterwards revealed,
+much to the satisfaction of the French people,
+Sir Douglas Haig had placed himself completely
+at the service of the French Commander-in-Chief,
+and had suggested that he
+should use the British army to weaken the
+thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had
+refused the proffered help. No man knew better
+than he what his country, with its exceedingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>
+low birthrate, was suffering on the
+Meuse. He had but to send a telegram to
+British Headquarters, and a million Britons,
+with thousands of heavy guns, would fling
+themselves upon the German lines and compel
+Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy
+artillery, and his millions of men between Verdun
+and the Somme. But General Joffre, instead
+of sending the telegram in question,
+merely dispatched officers to British Headquarters
+to assure and calm the chafing Scotsman
+commanding the military forces of the
+British Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout that long summer the battle cry
+of Verdun, “<i>Ne passeront pas!</i>” (“They shall
+not pass!”), was an inspiration to the French
+army and to the world. Then as autumn
+drifted its red foliage over the heights surrounding
+the bloody field, the French struck
+back. General Nivelle, who had taken command
+at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a
+series of attacks and a persistent pressure
+against the German forces on both sides of the
+Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span>
+sweeping attack which on October 24th,
+resulted in the recapture by Nivelle’s forces of
+Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the
+recapture of Fort Vaux.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle
+in the long and honorable history of France.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote">
+<p class="ph1">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:</p>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.</p>
+
+<p>Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.</p>
+
+<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, History of the World War, Vol. 3, by Francis
+A. March and Richard J. Beamish, Illustrated by James H. Hare and Donald
+Thompson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: History of the World War, Vol. 3
+
+
+Author: Francis A. March and Richard J. Beamish
+
+
+
+Release Date: July 13, 2005  [eBook #16282]
+
+Language: en
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOL. 3***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Jennifer Zickerman, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 16282-h.htm or 16282-h.zip:
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/2/8/16282/16282-h/16282-h.htm)
+      or
+      (https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/6/2/8/16282/16282-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+Complete Edition
+
+HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOLUME III
+
+An Authentic Narrative of the World's Greatest War
+
+by
+
+FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D.
+
+In Collaboration with
+
+RICHARD J. BEAMISH
+Special War Correspondent and Military Analyst
+
+With an Introduction by General Peyton C. March
+Chief of Staff of the United States Army
+
+With Exclusive Photographs by James H. Hare and Donald Thompson
+World-Famed War Photographers
+and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs of the
+United States, Canadian, British, French and Italian Governments
+
+Leslie-Judge Company
+New York
+
+MCMXIX
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR
+
+The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to the
+stirrup leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an
+avalanche upon the German lines, tearing great gaps in their massed
+formations.]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+CHAPTER I. NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR
+IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation
+of No Man's Land--Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over
+Four Years--Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for
+Every Foot of Gain                                                   1
+
+
+CHAPTER II. ITALY DECLARES WAR ON
+AUSTRIA
+
+Her Great Decision--D'Annunzio, Poet and Patriot--Italia
+Irredenta--German Indignation--The Campaigns on the Isonzo
+and in the Tyrol                                                    29
+
+CHAPTER III. GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+A Titanic Enterprise--Its Objects--Disasters and Deeds
+of Deathless Glory--The Heroic Anzacs--Bloody Dashes up
+Impregnable Slopes--Silently they Stole Away--A Successful
+Failure                                                             58
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE GREATEST NAVAL
+BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+The Battle of Jutland--Every Factor on Sea and in Sky
+Favorable to the Germans--Low Visibility a Great Factor--A
+Modern Sea Battle--Light Cruisers Screening Battleship
+Squadron--Germans Run Away when British Fleet Marshals Its
+Full Strength--Death of Lord Kitchener                              78
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+The Advance on Cracow--Von Hindenburg Strikes at
+Warsaw--German Barbarism--The War in Galicia--The
+Fall of Przemysl--Russia's Ammunition Fails--The Russian
+Retreat--The Fall of Warsaw--The Last Stand--Czernowitz            104
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany--Dramatic
+Scene in the King's Palace--The Die is Cast--Bulgaria Succumbs
+to Seductions of Potsdam Gang--Greece Mobilizes--French and
+British Troops at Saloniki--Serbia Over-run--Roumania's
+Disastrous Venture in the Arena of Mars                            145
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara--After
+Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders after 143 Days of
+Siege--New British Expedition Recaptures Kut--Troops Push on Up
+the Tigris--Fall of Bagdad the Magnificent                         187
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and the
+Crown Prince--Hindenburg's Warning--Why the Germans Made the
+Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great Fortress--Heroic
+France Reveals Itself to the World--"They Shall Not
+Pass"--Nivelle's Glorious Stand on Dead Man Hill--Lord
+Northcliffe's Description--A Defense Unsurpassed in the
+History of France                                                  209
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+VOLUME III
+
+
+THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR                              _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS                             4
+
+CHARGING THROUGH BARBED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS                           6
+
+BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN
+  TRENCHES AT NEUVE CHAPELLE                                        10
+
+CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS                            12
+
+AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS                                  18
+   [Transcriber's Note: This illustration was missing from
+   the source for this e-book.]
+
+ITALY'S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS                           30
+
+WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK                                         38
+
+TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES
+  OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT                                     42
+
+THE LOSS OF THE "IRRESISTIBLE"                                      68
+
+THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE "RIVER CLYDE"
+  AT SEDDUL BAHR                                                    76
+
+ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS                                             98
+
+ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY                                            98
+
+GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR                                  110
+
+BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH                        208
+
+AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS                                            224
+
+HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED                                               224
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES
+
+
+After the immortal stand of Joffre at the first battle of the Marne and
+the sudden savage thrust at the German center which sent von Kluck and
+his men reeling back in retreat to the prepared defenses along the line
+of the Aisne, the war in the western theater resolved itself into a play
+for position from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would come a sudden
+big push by one side or the other in which artillery was massed until
+hub touched hub and infantry swept to glory and death in waves of gray,
+or blue or khaki as the case might be. But these tremendous efforts and
+consequent slaughters did not change the long battle line from the Alps
+to the North Sea materially. Here and there a bulge would be made by
+the terrific pressure of men and material in some great assault like
+that first push of the British at Neuve Chapelle, like the German attack
+at Verdun or like the tremendous efforts by both sides on that bloodiest
+of all battlefields, the Somme.
+
+Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention as the test in which the
+British soldiers demonstrated their might in equal contest against the
+enemy. There had been a disposition in England as elsewhere up to that
+time to rate the Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of the
+scientific equipment with which the German army had taken the field.
+When the battle of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although its losses
+were heavy, there was no longer any doubt in the British nation that
+victory was only a question of time.
+
+[Illustration: THE BATTLE GROUND OF NEUVE CHAPELLE]
+
+The action came as a pendant to the attack by General de Langle de
+Cary's French army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that had been a
+steady relentless pressure by artillery and infantry upon a strong
+German position. To meet it heavy reinforcements had been shifted by
+the Germans from the trenches between La Bassee and Lille. The
+earthworks at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly depleted and only a
+comparatively small body of Saxons and Bavarians defended them. Opposite
+this body was the first British army. The German intrenchments at Neuve
+Chapelle surrounded and defended the highlands upon which were placed
+the German batteries and in their turn defended the road towards Lille,
+Roubaix and Turcoing.
+
+The task assigned to Sir John French was to make an assault with only
+forty-eight thousand men on a comparatively narrow front. There was only
+one practicable method for effective preparation, and this was chosen by
+the British general. An artillery concentration absolutely unprecedented
+up to that time was employed by him. Field pieces firing at point-blank
+range were used to cut the barbed wire entanglements defending the enemy
+intrenchments, while howitzers and bombing airplanes were used to drop
+high explosives into the defenseless earthworks.
+
+Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief of the British
+forces, was in command of the first army. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien
+commanded the second army. It was the first army that bore the brunt of
+the attack.
+
+No engagement during the years on the western front was more sudden and
+surprising in its onset than that drive of the British against Neuve
+Chapelle. At seven o'clock on the morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915,
+the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing over a desultory
+shell fire upon the German trenches. It was the usual breakfast
+appetizer, and nobody on the German side took any unusual notice of it.
+Really, however, the shelling was scientific "bracketing" of the enemy's
+important position. The gunners were making sure of their ranges.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS
+
+An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of
+eleven guns posted in a wood, had caused havoc in the British ranks. The
+Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of
+shell from the other German batteries, cut down all the gunners, and put
+every gun out of action.]
+
+At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar that shook the earth the
+most destructive and withering artillery action of the war up to that
+time was on. Field pieces sending their shells hurtling only a few feet
+above the earth tore the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces and
+made kindling wood of the supports. Howitzers sent high explosive
+shells, containing lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber into
+the doomed trenches and later into the ruined village. It was eight
+o'clock in the morning, one-half hour after the beginning of the
+artillery action, that the village was bombarded. During this time
+British soldiers were enabled to walk about in No Man's Land behind the
+curtain of fire with absolute immunity. No German rifleman or machine
+gunner left cover. The scene on the German side of the line was like
+that upon the blasted surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell holes,
+and with no trace of human life to be seen above ground.
+
+An eye witness describing the scene said:
+
+"The dawn, which broke reluctantly through a veil of clouds on the
+morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the
+Germans behind the white and blue sandbags in their long line of
+trenches curving in a hemi-cycle about the battered village of
+Neuve Chapelle. For five months they had remained undisputed
+masters of the positions they had here wrested from the British in
+October. Ensconced in their comfortably-arranged trenches with but
+a thin outpost in their fire trenches, they had watched day succeed
+day and night succeed night without the least variation from the
+monotony of trench warfare, the intermittent bark of the machine
+guns--rat-tat-tat-tat-tat--and the perpetual rattle of rifle fire,
+with here and there a bomb, and now and then an exploded mine.
+
+[Illustration: _Illustrated London News_.
+
+CHARGING THROUGH BARBED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS
+
+In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed by
+the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up in the
+face of a murderous German fire.]
+
+"For weeks past the German airmen had grown strangely shy. On this
+Wednesday morning none were aloft to spy out the strange doings
+which, as dawn broke, might have been descried on the desolate
+roads behind the British lines.
+
+"From ten o'clock of the preceding evening endless files of men
+marched silently down the roads leading towards the German
+positions through Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast, poor shattered
+villages of the dead where months of incessant bombardment have
+driven away the last inhabitants and left roofless houses and rent
+roadways....
+
+"Two days before, a quiet room, where Nelson's Prayer stands on the
+mantel-shelf, saw the ripening of the plans that sent these sturdy
+sons of Britain's four kingdoms marching all through the night. Sir
+John French met the army corps commanders and unfolded to them his
+plans for the offensive of the British army against the German
+line at Neuve Chapelle.
+
+"The onslaught was to be a surprise. That was its essence. The
+Germans were to be battered with artillery, then rushed before they
+recovered their wits. We had thirty-six clear hours before us. Thus
+long, it was reckoned (with complete accuracy as afterwards
+appeared), must elapse before the Germans, whose line before us had
+been weakened, could rush up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy's
+being pinned down right and left of the 'great push,' an attack was
+to be delivered north and south of the main thrust simultaneously
+with the assault on Neuve Chapelle."
+
+After describing the impatience of the British soldiers as they awaited
+the signal to open the attack, and the actual beginning of the
+engagement, the narrator continues:
+
+"Then hell broke loose. With a mighty, hideous, screeching burst of
+noise, hundreds of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches were
+deafened by the sharp reports of the field-guns spitting out their
+shells at close range to cut through the Germans' barbed wire
+entanglements. In some cases the trajectory of these vicious
+missiles was so flat that they passed only a few feet above the
+British trenches.
+
+"The din was continuous. An officer who had the curious idea of
+putting his ear to the ground said it was as though the earth were
+being smitten great blows with a Titan's hammer. After the first
+few shells had plunged screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into
+the German trenches, a dense pall of smoke hung over the German
+lines. The sickening fumes of lyddite blew back into the British
+trenches. In some places the troops were smothered in earth and
+dust or even spattered with blood from the hideous fragments of
+human bodies that went hurtling through the air. At one point the
+upper half of a German officer, his cap crammed on his head, was
+blown into one of our trenches.
+
+"Words will never convey any adequate idea of the horror of those
+five and thirty minutes. When the hands of officers' watches
+pointed to five minutes past eight, whistles resounded along the
+British lines. At the same moment the shells began to burst farther
+ahead, for, by previous arrangement, the gunners, lengthening their
+fuses, were 'lifting' on to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to
+leave the road open for our infantry to rush in and finish what the
+guns had begun.
+
+"The shells were now falling thick among the houses of Neuve
+Chapelle, a confused mass of buildings seen reddish through the
+pillars of smoke and flying earth and dust. At the sound of the
+whistle--alas for the bugle, once the herald of victory, now
+banished from the fray!--our men scrambled out of the trenches and
+hurried higgledy-piggledy into the open. Their officers were in
+front. Many, wearing overcoats and carrying rifles with fixed
+bayonets, closely resembled their men.
+
+[Illustration: BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT
+NEUVE CHAPELLE
+
+Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved
+to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters in the Imperial
+forces.]
+
+"It was from the center of our attacking line that the assault was
+pressed home soonest. The guns had done their work well. The
+trenches were blown to irrecognizable pits dotted with dead. The
+barbed wire had been cut like so much twine. Starting from the
+Rue Tilleloy the Lincolns and the Berkshires were off the mark
+first, with orders to swerve to right and left respectively as soon
+as they had captured the first line of trenches, in order to let
+the Royal Irish Rifles and the Rifle Brigade through to the
+village. The Germans left alive in the trenches, half demented with
+fright, surrounded by a welter of dead and dying men, mostly
+surrendered. The Berkshires were opposed with the utmost gallantry
+by two German officers who had remained alone in a trench serving a
+machine gun. But the lads from Berkshire made their way into that
+trench and bayoneted the Germans where they stood, fighting to the
+last. The Lincolns, against desperate resistance, eventually
+occupied their section of the trench and then waited for the
+Irishmen and the Rifle Brigade to come and take the village ahead
+of them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth Garhwalis on the right
+had taken their trenches with a rush and were away towards the
+village and the Biez Wood.
+
+"Things had moved so fast that by the time the troops were ready
+to advance against the village the artillery had not finished its
+work. So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled the prisoners
+who were trooping out of the trenches in all directions, the
+infantry on whom devolved the honor of capturing the village,
+waited. One saw them standing out in the open, laughing and
+cracking jokes amid the terrific din made by the huge howitzer
+shells screeching overhead and bursting in the village, the rattle
+of machine guns all along the line, and the popping of rifles. Over
+to the right where the Garhwalis had been working with the bayonet,
+men were shouting hoarsely and wounded were groaning as the
+stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved swiftly to and
+fro over the shell-torn ground.
+
+"There was bloody work in the village of Neuve Chapelle. The
+capture of a place at the Bayonet point is generally a grim
+business, in which instant, unconditional surrender is the only
+means by which bloodshed, a deal of bloodshed, can be prevented. If
+there is individual resistance here and there the attacking
+troops cannot discriminate. They must go through, slaying as they
+go such as oppose them (the Germans have a monopoly of the
+finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise the enemy's resistance
+would not be broken, and the assailants would be sniped and
+enfiladed from hastily prepared strongholds at half a dozen
+different points.
+
+[Illustration: CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS
+
+Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm
+of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even a whiff of
+the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows the
+earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to keep up with
+Germany's development of gas warfare.]
+
+"The village was a sight that the men say they will never forget.
+It looked as if an earthquake had struck it. The published
+photographs do not give any idea of the indescribable mass of ruins
+to which our guns reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very
+line of the streets is all but obliterated.
+
+"It was indeed a scene of desolation into which the Rifle
+Brigade--the first regiment to enter the village, I believe--raced
+headlong. Of the church only the bare shell remained, the interior
+lost to view beneath a gigantic mound of debris. The little
+churchyard was devastated, the very dead plucked from their graves,
+broken coffins and ancient bones scattered about amid the fresher
+dead, the slain of that morning--gray-green forms asprawl athwart
+the tombs. Of all that once fair village but two things remained
+intact--two great crucifixes reared aloft, one in the churchyard,
+the other over against the chateau. From the cross, that is the
+emblem of our faith, the figure of Christ, yet intact though all
+pitted with bullet marks, looked down in mute agony on the slain in
+the village.
+
+"The din and confusion were indescribable. Through the thick pall
+of shell smoke Germans were seen on all sides, some emerging half
+dazed from cellars and dugouts, their hands above their heads,
+others dodging round the shattered houses, others firing from the
+windows, from behind carts, even from behind the overturned
+tombstones. Machine guns were firing from the houses on the
+outskirts, rapping out their nerve-racking note above the noise of
+the rifles.
+
+"Just outside the village there was a scene of tremendous
+enthusiasm. The Rifle Brigade, smeared with dust and blood, fell in
+with the Third Gurkhas with whom they had been brigaded in India.
+The little brown men were dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had
+very thoroughly gone through some houses at the cross-roads on the
+Rue du Bois and silenced a party of Germans who were making
+themselves a nuisance there with some machine guns. Riflemen and
+Gurkhas cheered themselves hoarse."
+
+Unfortunately for the complete success of the brilliant attack a great
+delay was caused by the failure of the artillery that was to have
+cleared the barbed wire entanglements for the Twenty-third Brigade, and
+because of the unlooked for destruction of the British field telephone
+system by shell and rifle fire. The check of the Twenty-third Brigade
+banked other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth Brigade was
+obliged to fight at right angles to the line of battle. The Germans
+quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific toll in British
+lives. Particularly was this true at three specially strong German
+positions. One called Port Arthur by the British, another at Pietre
+Mill and the third was the fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek.
+
+Because of the lack of telephone communication it was impossible to send
+reinforcements to the troops that had been held up by barbed wire and
+other emplacements and upon which German machine guns were pouring a
+steady stream of death.
+
+As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held up by unbroken barbed wire
+northwest of Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of the Fourth Corps
+was also checked in its action against the ridge of Aubers on the left
+of Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir Douglas Haig the Seventh
+Division was to have waited until the Eighth Division had reached Neuve
+Chapelle, when it was to charge through Aubers. With the tragic mistake
+that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly, the plan affecting the
+Seventh Division went awry. The German artillery, observing the
+concentration of the Seventh Division opposite Aubers, opened a vigorous
+fire upon that front. During the afternoon General Haig ordered a
+charge upon the German positions. The advance was made in short rushes
+in the face of a fire that seemed to blaze from an inferno. Inch by inch
+the ground was drenched with British blood. At 5.30 in the afternoon the
+men dug themselves in under the relentless German fire. Further advance
+became impossible.
+
+The night was one of horror. Every minute the men were under heavy
+bombardment. At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British infantry rushed
+from the trenches in an effort to carry Aubers, but the enemy artillery
+now greatly reinforced made that task an impossible one. The trenches
+occupied by the British forces were consolidated and the salient made by
+the push was held by the British with bulldog tenacity.
+
+The number of men employed in the action on the British side was
+forty-eight thousand. During the early surprise of the action the loss
+was slight. Had the wire in front of the Twenty-third Brigade been cut
+by the artillery assigned to such action, and had the telephone system
+not been destroyed the success of the thrust would have been complete.
+The delay of four and a half hours between the first and second phases
+of the attack caused virtually all the losses sustained by the attacking
+force. The total casualties were 12,811 men of the British forces. Of
+these 1,751 officers and privates were taken prisoners and 10,000
+officers and men were killed and wounded.
+
+The action continued throughout Thursday, March 11th, with little change
+in the general situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle and
+their intrenchments threatened Aubers. On Friday morning, March 12th,
+the Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate attempt under cover of a
+heavy fog to recapture the village. The effort was made in
+characteristic German dense formations. The Westphalian and Bavarian
+troops came out of Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be blown to
+pieces by British guns already loaded and laid on the mark. Elsewhere
+the British waited until the Germans were scarcely more than fifty paces
+away when they opened with deadly rapid fire before which the German
+waves melted like snow before steam. It was such slaughter as the
+British had experienced when held up before Aubers. Slaughter that
+staggered Germany.
+
+So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which the decision rested with the
+British, a victory for which a fearful price had been paid but out of
+which came a confidence that was to hearten the British nation and to
+put sinews of steel into the British army for the dread days to come.
+
+The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated in large and in miniature many
+times during the deadlock of trench warfare on the western front until
+victory finally came to the Allies. During those years the western
+battle front lay like a wounded snake across France and Belgium. It
+writhed and twisted, now this way, now that, as one side or the other
+gambled with men and shells and airplanes for some brief advantage. It
+bent back in a great bulge when von Hindenburg made his famous retreat
+in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had pressed heavily against the
+Teutonic front upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The record is one of
+great value to military strategists, to the layman it is only a
+succession of artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial
+reconnaissances and combats.
+
+One day grew to be very much like another in that deadlock of pythons. A
+play for position here was met by a counter-thrust in another place.
+German inventions were out-matched and outnumbered by those coming from
+the Allied side.
+
+Trench warfare became the daily life of the men. They learned to fight
+and live in the open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal
+conditions was never better exemplified than in those weary, dreary
+years on the western front.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME
+
+The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence. Peronne
+was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17; in the
+last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged through
+Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with awful losses by
+Marshal Foch.]
+
+The fighting-lines consisted generally of one, two, or three lines of
+shelter-trenches lying parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five inches
+in width, and varying in length according to the number they hold; the
+trenches were joined together by zigzag approaches and by a line of
+reinforced trenches (armed with machine guns), which were almost
+completely proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire. The ordinary
+German trenches were almost invisible from 350 yards away, a distance
+which permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to realize that if the
+enemy occupied three successive lines and a line of reinforced
+intrenchments, the attacking line was likely, at the lowest estimate, to
+be decimated during an advance of 350 yards--by rifle fire at a range of
+350 yards' distance, and by the extremely quick fire of the machine
+guns, each of which delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute with
+absolute precision. In the field-trench, a soldier enjoyed far greater
+security than he would if merely prone behind his knapsack in an
+excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He had merely to stoop down a
+little to disappear below the level of the ground and be immune from
+infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns fired without endangering him.
+In addition, this stooping position brought the man's knapsack on a
+level with his helmet, thus forming some protection against shrapnel
+and shell-splinters.
+
+At the back of the German trenches shelters were dug for
+non-commissioned officers and for the commander of the unit.
+
+Ever since the outbreak of the war, the French troops in Lorraine, after
+severe experiences, realized rapidly the advantages of the German
+trenches, and began to study those they had taken gloriously. Officers,
+non-commissioned officers, and men of the engineers were straightway
+detached in every unit to teach the infantry how to construct similar
+shelters. The education was quick, and very soon they had completed the
+work necessary for the protection of all. The tools of the enemy
+"casualties," the spades and picks left behind in deserted villages,
+were all gladly piled on to the French soldiers' knapsacks, to be
+carried willingly by the very men who used to grumble at being loaded
+with even the smallest regulation tool. As soon as night had set in on
+the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the digging of the trenches was
+begun. Sometimes, in the darkness, the men of each fighting
+nation--less than 500 yards away from their enemy--would hear the noise
+of the workers of the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers'
+words of encouragement; and tacitly they would agree to an armistice
+during which to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they would dash
+out, to fight once more.
+
+Commodious, indeed, were some of the trench barracks. One French soldier
+wrote:
+
+"In really up-to-date intrenchments you may find kitchens,
+dining-rooms, bedrooms, and even stables. One regiment has first
+class cow-sheds. One day a whimsical 'piou-piou,' finding a cow
+wandering about in the danger zone, had the bright idea of finding
+shelter for it in the trenches. The example was quickly followed,
+and at this moment the ----th Infantry possess an underground farm,
+in which fat kine, well cared for, give such quantities of milk
+that regular distributions of butter are being made--and very good
+butter, too."
+
+But this is not all. An officer writes home a tale of yet another one
+of the comforts of home added to the equipment of the trenches:
+
+"We are clean people here. Thanks to the ingenuity of ----, we are
+able to take a warm bath every day from ten to twelve. We call this
+teasing the 'boches,' for this bathing-establishment of the latest
+type is fitted up--would you believe it?--in the trenches!"
+
+Describing trenches occupied by the British in their protracted
+"siege-warfare" in Northern France along and to the north of the Aisne
+Valley, a British officer wrote: "In the firing-line the men sleep and
+obtain shelter in the dugouts they have hollowed or 'undercut' in the
+side of the trenches. These refuges are slightly raised above the
+bottom of the trench, so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor of
+the trench is also sloped for purposes of draining. Some trenches
+are provided with head-cover, and others with overhead cover, the
+latter, of course, giving protection from the weather as well as from
+shrapnel balls and splinters of shells.... At all points subject to
+shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind is provided by
+communication-trenches. These are now so good that it is possible to
+cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced trenches from the
+billets in villages, the bivouacs in quarries, or the other places where
+the headquarters of units happen to be."
+
+A cavalry subaltern gave the following account of life in the trenches:
+"Picnicking in the open air, day and night (you never see a roof now),
+is the only real method of existence. There are loads of straw to bed
+down on, and everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with shrapnel
+bursting within fifty yards."
+
+One English officer described the ravages of modern artillery fire, not
+only upon all men, animals and buildings within its zone, but upon the
+very face of nature itself: "In the trenches crouch lines of men, in
+brown or gray or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed with the
+continual strain."
+
+"The fighting is now taking place over ground where both sides have for
+weeks past been excavating in all directions," said another letter from
+the front, "until it has become a perfect labyrinth. A trench runs
+straight for a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks in three or
+four directions. One branch merely leads into a ditch full of water,
+used in drier weather as a means of communication; another ends abruptly
+in a cul-de-sac, probably an abandoned sap-head; the third winds on,
+leading into galleries and passages further forward.
+
+"Sometimes where new ground is broken the spade turns up the
+long-buried dead, ghastly relics of former fights, and on all sides
+the surface of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by fragments of
+shell and bombs and distorted by mines. Seen from a distance, this
+apparently confused mass of passages, crossing and recrossing one
+another, resembles an irregular gridiron.
+
+"The life led by the infantry on both sides at close quarters is a
+strange, cramped existence, with death always near, either by means
+of some missile from above or some mine explosion from beneath--a
+life which has one dull, monotonous background of mud and water.
+Even when there is but little fighting the troops are kept hard at
+work strengthening the existing defenses, constructing others, and
+improvising the shelter imperative in such weather."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA
+
+
+For many years before the great war began the great powers of Europe
+were divided into two great alliances, the Triple Entente, composed of
+Russia, France and England, and the Triple Alliance, composed of
+Germany, Austria and Italy. When the war began Italy refused to join
+with Germany and Austria. Why? The answer to this question throws a
+vivid light on the origin of the war.
+
+Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance; she knew the facts, not only
+what was given to the public, but the inside facts. According to the
+terms of the alliance each member was bound to stand by each other only
+in case of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria and Germany
+because they were the aggressors. The constant assertions of the German
+statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war had been forced upon
+them were declared untrue by their associate Italy in the very
+beginning, and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of the world. Not
+much was said in the beginning about Italy's abstention from war. The
+Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted that some day Italy would
+be made to regret her course, but now that the Teuton snake is scotched
+the importance of Italy's action has been perceived and appraised at its
+true value.
+
+The Germans from the very beginning understood the real danger that
+might come to the Central Powers through Italian action. Every effort
+was made by the foreign office to keep her neutral. First threats were
+used, later promises were held out of addition to Italian territory if
+she would send her troops to Germany's assistance. When this failed the
+most strenuous efforts were made to keep Italy neutral, and a former
+German premier, Prince von Buelow, was sent to Italy for this purpose.
+Socialist leaders, too, were sent from Germany to urge the Italian
+Socialists to insist upon neutrality.
+
+[Illustration: ITALY'S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS
+
+When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against Austria
+descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable natural obstacles
+they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into position in
+the mountains, as shown above, over the track that had to be built for
+every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.]
+
+In July, 1914, the Italian Government was not taken by surprise. They
+had observed the increase year by year of the German army and of the
+German fleet. At the end of the Balkan wars they had been asked whether
+they would agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia. They had
+consequently long been deliberating as to what their course should be in
+case of war, and they had made up their minds that under no
+circumstances would they aid Germany against England.
+
+Quite independently of her long-standing friendship with England it
+would be suicide to Italy in her geographical position to enter a war
+which should permit her coast to be attacked by the English and French
+navies, and her participation in the Triple Alliance always carried the
+proviso that it did not bind her to fight England. This was well known
+in the German foreign office, and, indeed, in France where the writers
+upon war were reckoning confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from the
+Triple Alliance, and planning to use the entire forces of France against
+Germany.
+
+A better understanding of the Italian position will result from a
+consideration of the origin of the Triple Alliance.
+
+After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving the quick recovery of
+France, considered the advisability of attacking her again, and, to use
+his own words, "bleeding her white." He found, however, that if this
+were attempted France would be joined by Russia and England and he gave
+up this plan. In order, however, to render France powerless he planned
+an alliance which should be able to control Europe. A league between
+Germany, Austria and Russia was his desire, and for some time every
+opportunity was taken to develop friendship with the Czar. Russia,
+however, remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies were opposed to the
+interests of Germany. Bismarck, therefore, determined, without losing
+the friendship of Russia, to persuade Italy to join in the continental
+combination. Italy, at the time, was the least formidable of the six
+great powers, but Bismarck foresaw that she could be made good use of
+in such a combination.
+
+At that time Italy, just after the completion of Italian unity, found
+herself in great perplexity. Her treatment of the Pope had brought about
+the hostility of Roman Catholics throughout the world. She feared both
+France and Austria, who were strong Catholic countries, and hardly knew
+where to look for friends. The great Italian leader at the time was
+Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a Radical and a conspirator, had
+become a constitutional statesman. Bismarck professed the greatest
+friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi to understand that he approved of
+Italy's aspirations on the Adriatic and in Tunis.
+
+The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress, Italy's interests were
+ignored, and finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the great
+indignation of the Italians. It has been shown in more recent times that
+the French seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck's instigation.
+
+The Italians having been roused to wrath, Bismarck proceeded to offer
+them a place in the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was an easy
+argument that such an alliance would protect them against France, and no
+doubt it was promised that it would free them from the danger of attack
+by Austria. England, at the time, was isolated, and Italy continued on
+the best understanding with her.
+
+The immediate result of the alliance was a growth of Italian hostility
+toward France, which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France. Meanwhile
+German commercial and financial enterprises were pushed throughout the
+Italian peninsula. What did Italy gain by this? Her commerce was
+weakened, and Austria permitted herself every possible unfriendly act
+except open war.
+
+As time went on Germany and Austria became more and more arrogant.
+Italy's ambitions on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely ignored. In
+1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia and Herzegovina, another blow to Italy.
+By this time Italy understood the situation well, and that same year,
+seeing no future for herself in Europe, she swooped down on Tripoli. In
+doing this she forestalled Germany herself, for Germany had determined
+to seize Tripoli.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE POWERS DIVIDED NORTHERN AFRICA]
+
+Both Germany and Austria were opposed to this action of Italy, but
+Italy's eyes were now open. Thirty years of political alliance had
+created no sympathy among the Italians for the Germans. Moreover, it was
+not entirely a question of policy. The lordly arrogance of the
+Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The Italians were lovers of liberty;
+the Germans pledged toward autocracy. They found greater sympathy in
+England and in France.
+
+"I am a son of liberty," said Cavour, "to her I owe all that I am."
+That, too, is Italy's motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy in
+Italy was therefore strongly in favor of the Allies. The party in power,
+the Liberals, adopted the policy of neutrality for the time being, but
+thousands of Italians volunteered for the French and British service,
+and the anti-German feeling grew greater as time went on.
+
+Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian Government withdrew its
+ambassador to Austria and declared war. A complete statement of the
+negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary, which led to this
+declaration, was delivered to the Government of the United States by the
+Italian Ambassador on May 25th. This statement, of which the following
+is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position:
+
+"The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive, and designed solely
+to preserve the _status quo_, or in other words equilibrium, in
+Europe. That these were its only objects and purposes is
+established by the letter and spirit of the treaty, as well as by
+the intentions clearly described and set forth in official acts of
+the ministers who created the alliance and confirmed and renewed it
+in the interests of peace, which always has inspired Italian
+policy. The treaty, as long as its intents and purposes had been
+loyally interpreted and regarded, and as long as it had not been
+used as a pretext for aggression against others, greatly
+contributed to the elimination and settlement of causes of
+conflict, and for many years assured to Europe the inestimable
+benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary severed the treaty by her
+own hands. She rejected the response of Serbia which gave to her
+all the satisfaction she could legitimately claim. She refused to
+listen to the conciliatory proposals presented by Italy in
+conjunction with other powers in the effort to spare Europe from a
+vast conflict, certain to drench the Continent with blood and to
+reduce it to ruin beyond the conception of human imagination, and
+finally she provoked that conflict.
+
+"Article first of the treaty embodied the usual and necessary
+obligation of such pacts--the pledge to exchange views upon any
+fact and economic questions of a general nature that might arise
+pursuant to its terms. None of the contracting parties had the
+right to undertake without a previous agreement any step the
+consequence of which might impose a duty upon the other signatories
+arising under the alliance, or which would in any way whatsoever
+encroach upon their vital interests. This article was violated by
+Austria-Hungary, when she sent to Serbia her note dated July 23,
+1914, an action taken without the previous assent of Italy. Thus,
+Austria-Hungary violated beyond doubt one of the fundamental
+provisions of the treaty. The obligation of Austria-Hungary to come
+to a previous understanding with Italy was the greater because her
+obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a situation which
+directly tended toward the provocation of a European war.
+
+[Illustration: _Photo by James H. Hare_.
+
+WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK
+
+Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order
+came to hurl themselves against the Austrians.]
+
+"As far back as the beginning of July, 1914, the Italian Government,
+preoccupied by the prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid
+before the Austro-Hungarian Government a number of suggestions
+advising moderation, and warning it of the impending danger of a
+European outbreak. The course adopted by Austria-Hungary against
+Serbia constituted, moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general
+interests of Italy both political and economical in the Balkan
+peninsula. Austria-Hungary could not for a moment imagine that Italy
+could remain indifferent while Serbian independence was being trodden
+upon. On a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave Austria to
+understand, in friendly but clear terms, that the independence of
+Serbia was considered by Italy as essential to the Balkan equilibrium.
+Austria-Hungary was further advised that Italy could never permit that
+equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice. This warning had been
+conveyed not only by her diplomats in private conversations with
+responsible Austro-Hungarian officials, but was proclaimed publicly
+by Italian statesmen on the floors of Parliament.
+
+"Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored the usual practices and
+menaced Serbia by sending her ultimatum, without in any way
+notifying the Italian Government of what she proposed to do, indeed
+leaving that government to learn of her action through the press,
+rather than through the usual channels of diplomacy, when
+Austria-Hungary took this unprecedented course she not only severed
+her alliance with Italy but committed an act inimical to Italy's
+interests....
+
+"After the European war broke out Italy sought to come to an
+understanding with Austria-Hungary with a view to a settlement
+satisfactory to both parties which might avert existing and future
+trouble. Her efforts were in vain, notwithstanding the efforts of
+Germany, which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary to
+comply with Italy's suggestion thereby recognizing the propriety
+and legitimacy of the Italian attitude. Therefore Italy found
+herself compelled by the force of events to seek other solutions.
+
+"Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary had ceased
+virtually to exist and served only to prolong a state of continual
+friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador at Vienna was
+instructed to declare to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the
+Italian Government considered itself free from the ties arising out
+of the treaty of the Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary
+was concerned. This communication was delivered in Vienna on May
+4th.
+
+"Subsequently to this declaration, and after we had been obliged to
+take steps for the protection of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian
+Government submitted new concessions, which, however, were deemed
+insufficient and by no means met our minimum demands. These offers
+could not be considered under the circumstances. The Italian
+Government taking into consideration what has been stated above, and
+supported by the vote of Parliament and the solemn manifestation of
+the country came to the decision that any further delay would be
+inadvisable. Therefore, on May 23d, it was declared, in the name of
+the King, to the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that, beginning
+the following day, May 24th, it would consider itself in a state of
+war with Austria-Hungary."
+
+It was a closely reasoned argument that the Italian statesmen presented,
+but there was something more than reasoned argument in Italy's course.
+She had been waiting for years for the opportunity to bring under her
+flag the men of her own race still held in subjection by hated Austria.
+Now was the time or never. Her people had become roused. Mobs filled the
+streets. Great orators, even the great poet, D'Annunzio, proclaimed a
+holy war. The sinking of the Lusitania poured oil on the flames, and the
+treatment of Belgium and eastern France added to the fury.
+
+[Illustration: _Photo by International Film Service_.
+
+TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT
+
+The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of
+operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during the
+Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the mountain
+by this means.]
+
+Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired, could not have withstood
+the pressure. It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for
+civilization, for humanity. The country had been flooded by
+representatives of German propaganda, papers had been hired and, by all
+report, money in large amounts distributed. But every German effort was
+swept away in the flood of feeling. It was the people's war.
+
+Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber of Deputies adopted by vote of
+407 to 74 the bill conferring upon the government full power to make
+war. All members of the Cabinet maintained absolute silence regarding
+what step should follow the action of the chamber. When the chamber
+reassembled on May 20th, after its long recess, there were present 482
+Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining away on account of illness.
+The Deputies especially applauded were those who wore military uniforms
+and who had asked permission for leave from their military duties to be
+present at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled to overflowing. No
+representatives of Germany, Austria or Turkey were to be seen in the
+diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive was Thomas Nelson Page,
+the American Ambassador, who was accompanied by his staff. M. Barrere,
+Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and Michel de Giers, the French, British and
+Russian Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a few minutes later and all
+were greeted with applause, which was shared by the Belgian, Greek and
+Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan, one-time mayor of New York,
+occupied a seat in the President's tribune.
+
+A few minutes before the session began the poet, Gabrielle D'Annunzio,
+one of the strongest advocates of war, appeared in the rear of the
+public tribune which was so crowded that it seemed impossible to squeeze
+in anybody else. But the moment the people saw him they lifted him
+shoulder high and passed him over their heads to the first row.
+
+The entire chamber, and all those occupying the other tribunes, rose and
+applauded for five minutes, crying "Viva D'Annunzio!" Later thousands
+sent him their cards and in return received his autograph bearing the
+date of this eventful day. Senor Marcora, President of the Chamber,
+took his place at three o'clock. All the members of the House, and
+everybody in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old follower of
+Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed by all the members of the Cabinet,
+entered shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment. Then a delirium of
+cries broke out.
+
+"Viva Salandra!" roared the Deputies, and the cheering lasted for a long
+time. After the formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra, deeply
+moved by the demonstration, arose and said:
+
+"Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to you a bill to meet the
+eventual expenditures of a national war."
+
+The announcement was greeted by further prolonged applause. The
+Premier's speech was continually interrupted by enthusiasm, and at times
+he could hardly continue on account of the wild cheering. The climax was
+reached when he made a reference to the army and navy. Then the cries
+seemed interminable, and those on the floor of the House and in the
+galleries turned to the military tribune from which the officers
+answered by waving their hands and handkerchiefs.
+
+At the end of the Premier's speech there were deafening vivas for the
+King, war and Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join the cheers,
+even in the cry "Viva Italia!" and they were hooted and hissed.
+
+The action of the Italian Government created intense feeling. A
+newspaper man in Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation, said:
+
+"The exasperation and contempt which Italy's treacherous surprise attack
+and her hypocritical justification aroused here, are quite
+indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia, despite a long and costly war,
+is hated. Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be politicians
+and business men who offer violence to the majority of peaceful Italian
+people, are unutterably hated." On the other hand German papers spoke
+with much more moderation and recognized that Italy was acting in an
+entirely natural manner.
+
+On the very day on which war was declared active operations were begun.
+Both sides had been making elaborate preparations. Austria had prepared
+herself by building strong fortifications in which were employed the
+latest technical improvements in defensive warfare. Upon the Garso and
+around Gorizia the Austrians had placed innumerable batteries of
+powerful guns mounted on rails and protected by armor plates. They also
+had a great number of medium and smaller guns. A net of trenches had
+been excavated and constructed in cement all along the edge of the hills
+which dominated the course of the Isonzo River.
+
+These trenches, occupying a position nearly impregnable because so
+mountainous, were defended by every modern device. They were protected
+with numerous machine guns, surrounded by wire entanglements through
+which ran a strong electric current. These lines of trenches followed
+without interruption from the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the
+mountains which dominate it; they formed a kind of formidable staircase
+which had to be conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice.
+
+During this same period General Cadorna, then head of the Italian army,
+had been bringing that army up to date, working for high efficiency and
+piling up munitions.
+
+The Army of Italy was a formidable one. Every man in Italy is liable to
+military service for a period of nineteen years from the age of twenty
+to thirty-nine.
+
+At the time of the war the approximate war strength of the army was as
+follows: Officers, 41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910;
+reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial militia,
+1,889,659; total strength, 3,159,836. The above number of total men
+available included upward of 1,200,000 fully trained soldiers, with
+perhaps another 800,000 partially trained men, the remaining million
+being completely untrained men. This army was splendidly armed, its
+officers well educated, and the men brave and disciplined.
+
+The Italian plan of campaign apparently consisted first, in neutralizing
+the Trentino by capturing or covering the defenses and cutting the two
+lines of communication with Austria proper, the railway which ran south
+from Insbruck, and that which ran southwest from Vienna and joined the
+former at Fransensfets; and second, in a movement in force on the
+eastern frontier, with Trieste captured or covered on the right flank in
+the direction of the Austrian fortress at Klagenfurt and Vienna.
+
+The first blow was struck by Austria on the day that war was declared.
+On that day bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other Adriatic ports
+were shelled from air, and some from sea. The Italian armies invaded
+Austria on the east with great rapidity, and by May 27th a part of the
+Italian forces had moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone, sixteen
+miles northwest of Trieste. Another force penetrated further to the
+north in the Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisco. Reports from Italy
+were that encounters with the enemy had thus far been merely outpost
+skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy advantageous positions on
+Austrian territory. By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the greater
+part of the west bank of the Isonzo, with little opposition. The left
+wing was beyond the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among the boulders of
+Monte Nero, where the Austrian artillery had strong positions.
+Monfalcone was kept under constant bombardment.
+
+A general Italian advance took place on June 7th across the Isonzo River
+from Caporetto to the sea, a distance of about forty miles. Monfalcone
+was taken by the Italians on June the 10th, the first serious blow
+against Trieste, as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and its
+electrical works operated the light and power of Trieste.
+
+Next day the center made a great blow against Gradisca and Sagrado, but
+the river line proved too strong. The only success was won that night at
+Plava, north of Borrigia, which was carried by a surprise attack. The
+Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious obstacle to the onrush of
+the Italians. By June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed forward
+along the gulf of Trieste toward the town of Nebrosina, nine miles from
+Trieste.
+
+Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being constantly strengthened. The
+initial weakness of the Austrian defensive was due to the fact that the
+armies normally assigned to the invaded region had been sent to defend
+the Austrian line in Galicia against the Russians. When Italy began her
+invasion the defenses of the country were chiefly in the hands of
+hastily mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen, and men
+above the military age of forty-two. From now on Austrian troops began
+to arrive from the Galician front, some of these representing the finest
+fighting material in the Austrian ranks. The chance of an easy victory
+was slipping from Italy's hands. The Italian advance was checked.
+
+On the 15th of June the Italians carried an important position on Monte
+Nero, climbing the rocks by night and attacking by dawn. But this
+conquest did not help much. No guns of great caliber could be carried on
+the mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily fortified, and
+contained a garrison of some thirty thousand men, was entirely safe.
+The following week there were repeated counter-attacks at Plava and on
+Monte Nero, but the Italians held what they had won.
+
+The position was now that Cadorna's left wing was in a strong position,
+but could not do much against Tolmino. His center was facing the great
+camp of Gorizia, while his right was on the edge of the Carso, and had
+advanced as far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad. The army
+was in position to make an attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July an
+attack on a broad front was aimed directly at Gorizia. The left was to
+swing around against the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the center
+was directed against the Gorizia bridge head, and the right was to swing
+around to the northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it succeeded the
+Trieste railway would be cut and Gorizia must fall.
+
+[Illustration: AREA OF CADORNA'S OPERATIONS
+
+Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the
+Italians August 9, 1916.]
+
+Long and confused fighting followed. The center and the right of the
+Italian army slowly advanced their line, taking over one thousand
+prisoners. For days there was continuous bombardment and
+counter-bombardment. The fighting on the left was terrific. In the
+neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found themselves opposed by
+Hungarian troops, unaccustomed to mountain warfare, who at first fell
+back. Austrian reserves came to their aid, and flung back three times
+the Italian charge.
+
+Three new Italian brigades were brought up, and King Victor Emanuel
+himself came to encourage his troops. The final assault carried the
+heights. On the 22d of July the Italian right captured the crest of San
+Michele, which dominates the Doberdo plateau.
+
+Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being heavily reinforced, and General
+Cadorna found himself unable to make progress. Much ground had been won
+but Gorizia was still unredeemed. Many important vantage points were in
+Italian hands, but it was difficult to advance. The result of the three
+months' campaign was a stalemate. In the high mountains to the north
+Italy's campaign was a war of defense. To undertake her offensive on the
+Isonzo it was necessary that she guard her flanks and rear. The
+Tyrolese battle-ground contained three distinct points where it was
+necessary to operate; the Trentino Salient, the passes of the Dolomites,
+and the passes of the Carnic Alps.
+
+Early in June Italy had won control of the ridges of the mountains in
+the two latter points, but the problem in the Trentino was more
+difficult. It was necessary, because of the converging valleys, to push
+her front well inland. On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of
+unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle centered around the pass of
+Monte Croce Carnico.
+
+In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating positions to the west of
+the pass, but the Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great deal of
+picturesque fighting went on, but not much progress was made. Further
+west in the Dolomite region there was more fighting. On the 30th of May
+Cartina had been captured, and the Italians moved north toward the
+Pusterthal Railway. Progress was slow, as the main routes to the railway
+were difficult.
+
+By the middle of August they were only a few miles from the railway,
+but all the routes led through defiles, and the neighboring heights were
+in the possession of the Austrians. To capture these heights was a most
+difficult feat, which the Italians performed in the most brilliant way;
+but even after they had passed these defiles success was not yet won.
+Each Italian column was in its own grove, with no lateral communication.
+The Austrians could mass themselves where they pleased. As a result the
+Italian forces were compelled to halt.
+
+In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon captured the passes, and
+moved against Trente and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified,
+as were their surrounding heights. The campaign became a series of small
+fights on mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only small bodies of
+troops could maneuver, and the raising of guns up steep precipices was
+extremely difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded in gaining ground,
+and established a chain of posts around the heights so that often one
+would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments at a height of more than
+ten thousand feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The Alpini
+performed wonderful feats of physical endurance, but the plains of
+Lombardy were still safe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI
+
+
+If ever the true mettle and temper of a people were tried and
+exemplified in the crucible of battle, that battle was the naval and
+land engagement embracing Gallipoli and the Dardanelles and the people
+so tested, the British race. Separated in point of time but united in
+its general plan, the engagements present a picture of heroism founded
+upon strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and dogged determination
+against overwhelming natural and artificial odds as even the pages of
+supreme British bravery cannot parallel. The immortal charge of the
+Light Brigade was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely a battle
+fragment and its glorious record was written in blood within the scope
+of a comparatively few inspired minutes. In the mine-strewn Dardanelles
+and upon the sun-baked, blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli, death
+always partnered every sailor and soldier. As at Balaklava, virtually
+everyone knew that some one had blundered, but the army and the navy as
+one man fought to the bitter end to make the best of a bad bargain, to
+tear triumph out of impossibilities.
+
+France co-operated with the British in the naval engagement, but the
+greater sacrifice, the supreme charnel house of the war, the British
+race reserved for itself. There, the yeomanry of England, the unsung
+county regiments whose sacrifices and achievements have been neglected
+in England's generous desire to honor the men from "down under," the
+Australians and New Zealanders grouped under the imperishable title of
+the Anzacs--there the Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted
+British Army with the great fighters from the self-governing colonies
+waged a battle so hopeless and so gallant that the word Gallipoli shall
+always remind the world how man may triumph over the fear of death; how
+with nothing but defeat and disaster before them, men may go to their
+deaths as unconcernedly as in other days they go to their nightly sleep.
+
+On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Turkey.
+Hostilities, however, had preceded the declaration. On November 3d the
+combined French and British squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts.
+This was merely intended to draw the fire of the forts and make an
+estimate of their power. From that time on a blockade was maintained,
+and on the 13th of December a submarine, commanded by Lieutenant
+Holbrook, entered the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship
+Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine fields.
+
+By the end of January the blockading fleet, through constant
+reinforcement, had become very strong, and had seized the Island of
+Tenedos and taken possession of Lemnos, which nominally belonged to
+Greece, as bases for naval operations. On the 19th of February began the
+great attack upon the forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles, which
+attracted the attention of the world for nearly a year.
+
+The expedition against the Dardanelles had been considered with the
+greatest care, and approved by the naval authorities. That their
+judgment was correct, however, is another question. The history of naval
+warfare seems to make very plain that a ship, however powerful, is at a
+tremendous disadvantage when attacking forts on land. The badly served
+cannon of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British fleet, but Gallipoli
+had been fortified by German engineers, and its guns were the Krupp
+cannon. The British fleet found itself opposed by unsurmountable
+obstacles. Looking backward it seems possible, that if at the very start
+Lord Kitchener had permitted a detachment of troops to accompany the
+fleet, success might have been attained, but without the army the navy
+was powerless.
+
+The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of land about fifty miles long,
+varying in width from twelve to two or three miles. It is a mass of
+rocky hills so steep that in many places it is a matter of difficulty to
+reach their tops. On it are a few villages, but there are no decent
+roads and little cultivated land. On the southern shore of the
+Dardanelles conditions are nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a flat
+and marshy plain, but east of this plain are hills three thousand feet
+high. The high ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides, and with
+the exception of narrow bits of beach at their base, presents almost no
+opportunity for landing.
+
+A strong current continually sifts down the straits from the Sea of
+Marmora.
+
+Forts were placed at the entrance on both the north and south side, but
+they were not heavily armed and were merely outposts. Fourteen miles
+from the mouth the straits become quite narrow, making a sharp turn
+directly north and then resuming their original direction. The channel
+thus makes a sharp double bend. At the entrance to the strait, known as
+the Narrows, were powerful fortresses, and the slopes were studded with
+batteries. Along both sides of the channel the low ground was lined with
+batteries. It was possible to attack the forts at fairly long range,
+but there was no room to bring any large number of ships into action
+at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
+
+Showing the various landing-places, with inset of the Sari-Bair Region.]
+
+At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there were probably nearly half a
+million of men available for a defense of the straits, men well armed
+and well trained under German leadership. The first step was
+comparatively easy. The operations against the other forts began at 8
+A.M. on Friday, the 19th of February. The ships engaged were the
+Inflexible, the Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance and the Triumph
+from the British fleet, and the Bouvet, Suffren, and the Gaulois from
+the French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral Sackville Carden. The
+French squadron was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette. A flotilla of
+destroyers accompanied the fleet, and airplanes were sent up to guide
+the fire of the battleships.
+
+At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle some miles out to sea
+from the entrance to the strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as
+the ships came along and took up position, and the picture became most
+awe-inspiring when the guns began to boom. The bombardment at first was
+slow. Shells from the various ships screaming through the air at the
+rate of about one every two minutes.
+
+The Turkish batteries, however, were not to be drawn, and, seeing this,
+the British Admiral sent one British ship and one French ship close in
+shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr forts. As they went in they sped right
+under the guns of the shore batteries, which could no longer resist the
+temptation to see what they could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted the
+landscape on the far shore, and dull booms echoed over the placid water.
+Around the ships fountains of water sprang up into the air. The enemy
+had been drawn, but his marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not a
+single shot directed against the ships went within a hundred yards of
+either.
+
+At sundown on account of the failing light Admiral Carden withdrew the
+fleet. On account of the bad weather the attack was not renewed until
+February 25th. It appeared that the outer forts had not been seriously
+damaged on the 19th, and that what injury had been done had been
+repaired. In an hour and a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced. The
+Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range of six miles, which killed
+three men and wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr was
+attacked at close range, but not silenced till after 5 P.M. At this time
+British trawlers began sweeping the entrance for mines, and during the
+next day the mine field was cleared for a distance of four miles up the
+straits.
+
+As soon as this clearance was made the Albion, Vengeance and Majestic
+steamed into the strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification some
+distance below the Narrows. The Turks replied vigorously, not only from
+Dardanos but from batteries scattered along the shore. Believing that
+the Turks had abandoned the forts at the entrance, landing parties of
+marines were sent to shore. In a short time, however, they met a
+detachment of the enemy and were compelled to retreat to their boats.
+The outer forts, however, were destroyed, and their destruction was
+extremely encouraging to the Allies.
+
+For a time a series of minor operations was carried on, meeting with
+much success. Besides attacks on forts inside of the strait, Smyrna was
+bombarded on March the 5th, and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth,
+the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded the forts at Chanak on the Asiatic
+side of the Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros on the outer
+side of the Gallipoli Peninsula. To all of these attacks the Turks
+replied vigorously and the attacking ships were repeatedly struck, but
+with no loss of life. On the 7th of March Fort Dardanos was silenced,
+and Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned out, only temporarily.
+
+Preparations were now being made for a serious effort against the
+Narrows. The date of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather
+permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden was stricken down with illness
+and was invalided by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck, second in
+command, who had been very active in the operations, was appointed to
+succeed him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial sympathy with the
+purposes of the expedition and determined to attack on the 18th of
+March. At a quarter to eleven that morning, the Queen Elizabeth,
+Inflexible, Agamemnon, Lord Nelson, the Triumph and Prince George
+steamed up the straits towards the Narrows, and bombarded the forts of
+Chanak. At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting of the Suffren,
+Gaulois, Charlemagne, and Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid
+their English associates.
+
+Under the combined fire of the two squadrons the Turkish forts, which at
+first replied strongly, were finally silenced. All of the ships,
+however, were hit several times during this part of the action. A third
+squadron, including the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion, Ocean,
+Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced to relieve the six old
+battleships inside the strait.
+
+[Illustration: THE LOSS OF THE "IRRESISTIBLE"
+
+During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship
+"Irresistible" struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe
+losses of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible to
+force the strait by naval attack.]
+
+As the French squadron, which had engaged the forts in a most brilliant
+fashion, was passing out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting mine
+and sank in less than three minutes, carrying with her most of her crew.
+At 2.36 P.M. the relief battleships renewed the attack on the forts,
+which again opened fire. The Turks were now sending mines down with the
+current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the line, listing heavily, and
+at 5.50 she sank, having probably struck a drifting mine. At 6.05 the
+Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in deep water. Practically the
+whole of the crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was damaged by
+gunfire; the Inflexible had her forward control position hit by a heavy
+shell, which killed and wounded the majority of the men and officers at
+that station and set her on fire. At sunset the forts were still in
+action, and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped out of the
+Dardanelles.
+
+Meantime, an expeditionary force was being gathered. The largest portion
+of this force came from Great Britain, but France also provided a
+considerable number from her marines and from her Colonial army. Both
+nations avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the armies destined
+for service in France.
+
+In the English army there were divisions from Australia and New Zealand
+and there were a number of Indian troops and Territorials. The whole
+force was put under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The
+commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was the German General Liman von
+Sanders, the former chief of the military mission at Constantinople. The
+bulk of the expeditionary force, which numbered altogether about a
+hundred and twenty thousand men, were, therefore, men whose presence in
+the east did not weaken the Allied strength in the west.
+
+The great difficulty of the new plan was that it was impossible to
+surprise the enemy. The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small that a
+landing at any point would be promptly observed, and the nature of the
+ground was of such a character that progress from any point must
+necessarily be slow. The problem was therefore a simple one.
+
+The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt during the first half of
+April, and about the middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos.
+Germany was well aware of the English plans, and was doing all that it
+could to provide a defense.
+
+On April 28d the movement began, and about five o'clock in the afternoon
+the first of the transports slowly made its way through the maze of
+shipping toward the entrance of Mudros Bay.
+
+Immediately the patent apathy, which had gradually overwhelmed everyone,
+changed to the utmost enthusiasm, and as the liners steamed through the
+fleet, their decks yellow with khaki, the crews of the warships cheered
+them on to victory while the bands played them out with an unending
+variety of popular airs. The soldiers in the transports answered this
+last salutation from the navy with deafening cheers, and no more
+inspiring spectacle has ever been seen than this great expedition.
+
+The whole of the fleet from the transports had been divided up into five
+divisions and there were three main landings. The 29th Division
+disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr,
+where its operations were covered both from the gulf of Saros and from
+the Dardanelles by the fire of the covering warships. The Australian and
+New Zealand contingent disembarked north of Gaba Tepe. Further north a
+naval division made a demonstration.
+
+Awaiting the Australians was a party of Turks who had been intrenched
+almost on the shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade. The
+Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to the occasion. They waited
+neither for orders nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing
+out into the sea they went in to the shore, and forming some sort of a
+rough line rushed straight on the flashes of the enemy's rifles. In less
+than a quarter of an hour the Turks were in full flight.
+
+While the Australians and New Zealanders, or Anzacs as they are now
+generally known from the initials of the words Australian-New Zealand
+Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly at Gaba Tepe, the British troops
+were landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The
+advance was slow and difficult. The Turk was pushed back, little by
+little, and the ground gained organized. The details of this progress,
+though full of incidents of the greatest courage and daring, need not be
+recounted.
+
+On June the 4th a general attack was made, preceded by heavy
+bombardments by all guns, but after terrific fighting, in which many
+prisoners were captured and great losses suffered, the net result was an
+advance of about five hundred yards. As time went on the general
+impression throughout the Allied countries was that the expedition had
+failed. On June 30th the losses of the Turks were estimated at not less
+than seventy thousand, and the British naval and military losses up to
+June 1st, aggregated 38,635 officers and men. At that time the British
+and French allies held but a small corner of the area to be conquered.
+In all of these attacks the part played by the Australian and New
+Zealand army corps was especially notable. Reinforcements were
+repeatedly sent to the Allies, who worked more and more feverishly as
+time went on with the hope of aiding Russia, which was then desperately
+struggling against the great German advance.
+
+On August 17th it was reported that a landing had been made at Suvla
+Bay, the extreme western point of the Peninsula. From this point it was
+hoped to threaten the Turkish communications with their troops at the
+lower end of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however, failed to make
+any impression, and in the first part of September, vigorous Turkish
+counter, offensives gained territory from the Franco-British troops.
+According to the English reports the Turks paid a terrible price for
+their success.
+
+It had now become evident that the expedition was a failure. The Germans
+were already gloating over what they called the "failure of British sea
+power," and English publicists were attempting to show that, though the
+enterprise had failed, the very presence of a strong Allied force at
+Saloniki had been an enormous gain. The first official announcement of
+failure was made December 20, 1916, when it was announced that the
+British forces at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been withdrawn, and that only
+the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr were occupied. Great Britain's
+loss of officers and men at the Dardanelles up to December 11th was
+112,921, according to an announcement made in the House of Commons by
+the Parliamentary Under Secretary for War. Besides these casualties the
+number of sick admitted to hospitals was 96,688. The decision to
+evacuate Gallipoli was made in the course of November by the British
+Government as the result of the early expressed opinion of General
+Monro, who had succeeded General Hamilton on October 28, 1915.
+
+General Monro found himself confronted with a serious problem in the
+attempt to withdraw an army of such a size from positions not more than
+three hundred yards from the enemy's trenches, and to embark on open
+beaches every part of which was within effective range of Turkish guns.
+Moreover, the evacuation must be done gradually, as it was impossible
+to move the whole army at once with such means of transportation as
+existed. The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies and heavy guns
+by instalments, working only at night, carrying off at the same time a
+large portion of the troops, but leaving certain picked battalions to
+guard the trenches. Every endeavor had to be made for concealment. The
+plan was splendidly successful, and the Turks apparently completely
+deceived. On December 20th the embarkation of the last troops at Suvla
+was accomplished. The operations at Anzac were conducted in the same
+way. Only picked battalions were left to the end, and these were carried
+safely off.
+
+[Illustration: THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE "RIVER CLYDE" AT SEDDUL
+BAHR
+
+An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were
+sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of the Turkish
+machine guns on shore.]
+
+The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation made the position at Cape
+Helles more dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout, and it seemed
+almost impossible that they could be again deceived. On January 7th an
+attack was made by the Turks upon the trenches, which was beaten back.
+That night more than half the troops had left the Peninsula. The next
+day there was a heavy storm which made embarkation difficult, but it was
+nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation was a clever and
+successful bit of work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY
+
+
+Germany's ambition for conquest at sea had been nursed and carefully
+fostered for twenty years. During the decade immediately preceding the
+declaration of war, it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building
+that brought it into direct conflict with England's sea policy.
+Thereafter it became a race in naval construction, England piling up a
+huge debt in its determination to construct two tons of naval shipping
+to every one ton built by Germany.
+
+Notwithstanding Great Britain's efforts in this direction, Germany's
+naval experts, with the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained
+that, given a fair seaway with ideal weather conditions favoring the low
+visibility tactics of the German sea command, a victory for the Teutonic
+ships would follow. It was this belief that drew the ships of the
+German cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the coast of Jutland and
+Horn Reef into the great battle that decided the supremacy of the sea.
+
+The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in history as the date of this
+titanic conflict. The British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty near
+Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o'clock on the afternoon of that day, that it
+had sighted smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy vessels from the
+direction of Helgoland Bight. Fifteen minutes later the smoke plumes
+were in such number and volume that the advance of a considerable force
+to the northward and eastward was indicated. It was reasoned by
+Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea had sent the news by radio,
+that the enemy in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably be brought into
+action. The first ships of the enemy were sighted at 3.31 o'clock. These
+were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. Back of these were five
+modern battle cruisers of the highest power and armament.
+
+The report of the battle, by an eye-witness, that was issued upon
+semiofficial authority of the British Government, follows:
+
+First Phase, 3.30 P.M. May 31st. Beatty's battle cruisers, consisting
+of the Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible, Indomitable,
+Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand, were on a southeasterly
+course, followed at about two miles distance by the four battleships of
+the class known as Queen Elizabeths.
+
+Enemy light cruisers were sighted and shortly afterward the head of the
+German battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new cruiser
+Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, Luetzow, Moltke, and possibly the
+Salamis.
+
+Beatty at once began firing at a range of about 20,000 yards (twelve
+miles) which shortened to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets
+closed. The Germans could see the British distinctly outlined against
+the light yellow sky. The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very
+indistinctly made out by the British gunners.
+
+The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one after another as they came
+within range. The German battle cruisers turned to port and drew away
+to about 20,000 yards.
+
+Second Phase, 4.40 P.M. A destroyer screen then appeared beyond the
+German battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen
+approaching on the northeastern horizon in three divisions, coming to
+the support of their battle cruisers.
+
+The German battle cruisers now turned right around 16 points and took
+station in front of the battleships of the High Fleet.
+
+Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting battleships, therefore,
+had before him the whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe was
+still some distance away.
+
+The opposing fleets were now moving parallel to one another in opposite
+directions, and but for a master maneuver on the part of Beatty the
+British advance ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe's Grand
+Fleet. In order to avoid this and at the same time prepare the way so
+that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary, Beatty immediately also
+turned right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships parallel to the
+German battle cruisers and facing the same direction.
+
+As soon as he was around he increased to full speed to get ahead of the
+Germans and take up a tactical position in advance of their line. He was
+able to do this owing to the superior speed of the British battle
+cruisers.
+
+Just before the turning point was reached, the Indefatigable sank, and
+the Queen Mary and the Invincible also were lost at the turning point,
+where, of course, the High Seas Fleet concentrated their fire.
+
+A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers were turning the Queen
+Elizabeths had in similar manner concentrated their fire on the turning
+point and destroyed a new German battle cruiser, believed to be the
+Hindenburg.
+
+Beatty had now got around and headed away with the loss of three ships,
+racing parallel to the German battle cruisers. The Queen Elizabeths
+followed behind engaging the main Seas Fleet.
+
+Third Phase, 5 P.M. The Queen Elizabeths now turned short to port 16
+points in order to follow Beatty. The Warspite jammed her steering
+gear, failed to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who
+closed in upon her.
+
+The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have been
+lost, but, as a matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by shell fire
+with the water boiling up all around her, she was not seriously hit, and
+was able to sink one of her opponents. Her captain recovered control of
+the vessel, brought her around, and followed her consorts.
+
+In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and Malaya turned short so as to
+avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible had been
+lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe arrived, fought a delaying action
+against the High Seas Fleet.
+
+The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 o'clock, and all four ships were
+so successfully maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections of
+their opponents that no hits of a seriously disabling character were
+suffered. They had the speed over their opponents by fully four knots,
+and were able to draw away from part of the long line of German
+battleships, which almost filled up the horizon.
+
+At this time the Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing on at the flashes
+of German guns at a range which varied between 12,000 and 15,000 yards,
+especially against those ships which were nearest them. The Germans were
+enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes were visible.
+
+By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had been left out of range, and the
+Queen Elizabeths were steaming fast to join hands with Jellicoe.
+
+To return to Beatty's battle cruisers. They had succeeded in outflanking
+the German battle cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged to turn a
+full right angle to starboard to avoid being headed.
+
+Heavy fighting was renewed between the opposing battle cruiser
+squadrons, during which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 o'clock
+the German fire slackened very considerably, showing that Beatty's
+battle cruisers and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted serious damage
+on their immediate opponents.
+
+Fourth Phase, 6 P.M. The Grand Fleet was now in sight, and, coming up
+fast in three directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their course four
+points to the starboard and drew in toward the enemy to allow Jellicoe
+room to deploy into line.
+
+The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered and the very difficult
+operation of deploying between the battle cruisers and the Queen
+Elizabeths was perfectly timed.
+
+Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty's cruisers, and followed by the
+damaged but still serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right across the
+head of the German fleet.
+
+The first of the ships to come into action were the Revenue and the
+Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch guns, and the Agincourt which fired
+from her seven turrets with the speed almost of a Maxim gun.
+
+The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. They had been
+perfectly maneuvered, so as to "cross the T" of the High Seas Fleet,
+and, indeed, only decent light was necessary to complete their work of
+destroying the Germans in detail. The light did improve for a few
+minutes, and the conditions were favorable to the British fleet, which
+was now in line approximately north and south across the head of the
+Germans.
+
+During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe smashed up the first three
+German ships, but the mist came down, visibility suddenly failed, and
+the defeated High Seas Fleet was able to draw off in ragged divisions.
+
+Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were followed by the British, who still
+had them enveloped between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty on the north,
+and Evan Thomas with his three Queen Elizabeths on the south. The
+Warspite had been sent back to her base.
+
+During the night the torpedo boat destroyers heavily attacked the German
+ships, and, although they lost seriously themselves, succeeded in
+sinking two of the enemy.
+
+[Illustration: HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT
+
+This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses of
+the opposing German and British battle fleets.]
+
+Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was practically impossible to
+keep up, and the Germans discovered by the rays of their searchlights
+the three Queen Elizabeths, not more than 4,000 yards away.
+Unfortunately they were then able to escape between the battleships and
+Jellicoe, since the British gunners were not able to fire, as the
+destroyers were in the way.
+
+So ended the Jutland battle, which was fought as had been planned and
+very nearly a great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable weather
+conditions, especially at the critical moment, when the whole British
+fleet was concentrated and engaged in crushing the head of the German
+line.
+
+Commenting on the engagement, Admiral Jellicoe said: "The battle cruiser
+fleet, gallantly led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably supported by
+the ships of the fifth battle squadron under Rear Admiral Evan-Thomas,
+fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous conditions,
+especially in regard to light, in a manner that was in keeping with the
+best traditions of the service."
+
+His estimate of the German losses was: two battleships of the
+dreadnought type, one of the Deutschland type, which was seen to sink;
+the battle cruiser Luetzow, admitted by the Germans; one battle cruiser
+of the dreadnought type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely
+damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; five light cruisers,
+seen to sink--one of them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen to
+sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was doubtful if they would be
+able to reach port, and a submarine sunk. The official German report
+admitted only eleven ships sunk; the first British report placed the
+total at eighteen, but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one German
+vessels as probably lost.
+
+The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German naval men: "The enemy," he
+said, "fought with the gallantry that was expected of him. We
+particularly admired the conduct of those on board a disabled German
+light cruiser which passed down the British line shortly after the
+deployment under a heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun left
+in action. The conduct of the officers and men war entirely beyond
+praise. On all sides it is reported that the glorious traditions of the
+past were most worthily upheld; whether in the heavy ships, cruisers,
+light cruisers, or destroyers, the same admirable spirit prevailed. The
+officers and men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness that would
+have carried them through anything. The heroism of the wounded was the
+'admiration' of all. I cannot adequately express the pride with which
+the spirit of the fleet filled me."
+
+At daylight on the 1st of June the British battle fleet, being
+southward of Horn Reef, turned northward in search of the enemy vessels.
+The visibility early on the first of June was three to four miles less
+than on May 31st, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out of visual
+touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 A.M. The British fleet remained
+in the proximity of the battlefield and near the line of approach to the
+German ports until 11 A.M., in spite of the disadvantage of long
+distances from fleet bases and the danger incurred in waters adjacent
+to the enemy's coasts from submarines and torpedo craft.
+
+The enemy, however, made no sign, and the admiral was reluctantly
+compelled to the conclusion that the High Sea Fleet had returned into
+port. Subsequent events proved this assumption to have been correct. The
+British position must have been known to the enemy, as at 4 A.M. the
+fleet engaged a Zeppelin about five minutes, during which time she had
+ample opportunity to note and subsequently report the position and
+course of the British fleet.
+
+The Germans at first claimed a victory for their fleet. The test, of
+course, was the outcome of the battle. The fact that the German fleet
+retreated and nevermore ventured forth from beneath the protecting guns
+and mine fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond dispute that the
+British were entitled to the triumph. The German official report makes
+the best presentation of the German case. It follows in full:
+
+     The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship squadrons, five
+     battle cruisers, and a large number of small cruisers, with several
+     destroyer flotillas, was cruising in the Skagerrak on May 31 for
+     the purpose, as on earlier occasions, of offering battle to the
+     British fleet. The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o'clock
+     in the afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety miles
+     west of Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest coast of Jutland), a
+     group of eight of the newest cruisers of the Calliope class and
+     fifteen or twenty of the most modern destroyers.
+
+     While the German light forces and the first cruiser squadron under
+     Vice Admiral Hipper were following the British, who were retiring
+     north-westward, the German battle cruisers sighted to the westward
+     Vice Admiral Beatty's battle squadron of six ships, including four
+     of the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. Beatty's
+     squadron developed a battle line on a southeasterly course and Vice
+     Admiral Hipper formed his line ahead on the same general course and
+     approached for a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o'clock in
+     the afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 meters
+     against the superior enemy. The weather was clear and light, and
+     the sea was light with a northwest wind.
+
+     After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion occurred on
+     the last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. It was caused by a
+     heavy shell, and destroyed the vessel.
+
+     About 6.20 o'clock in the afternoon five warships of the Queen
+     Elizabeth type came from the west and joined the British battle
+     cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing with their fifteen-inch guns
+     the five British battle cruisers remaining after 6.20 o'clock. To
+     equalize this superiority Vice Admiral Hipper ordered the
+     destroyers to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small
+     cruisers interposed, and a bitter engagement at close range
+     ensued, in the course of which a light cruiser participated.
+
+     The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of which were rescued
+     by sister ships under a heavy fire. Two British destroyers were
+     sunk by artillery, and two others--the Nestor and Nomad--remained
+     on the scene in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by
+     the main fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued all the
+     survivors.
+
+     While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, caused
+     by a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, the third ship in line,
+     asunder, at 6.30 o'clock.
+
+     Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was sighted to the
+     southward, steering north. The hostile fast squadrons thereupon
+     turned northward, closing the first part of the fight, which lasted
+     about an hour.
+
+     The British retired at high speed before the German fleet, which
+     followed closely. The German battle cruisers continued the
+     artillery combat with increasing intensity, particularly with the
+     division of the vessels of the Queen Elizabeth type, and in this
+     the leading German battleship division participated intermittently.
+     The hostile ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead of
+     the point of our line and to cross it.
+
+     At 7.45 o'clock in the evening British small cruisers and
+     destroyers launched an attack against our battle cruisers, who
+     avoided the torpedoes by manoeuvring, while the British battle
+     cruisers retired from the engagement, in which they did not
+     participate further as far as can be established. Shortly
+     thereafter a German reconnoitring group, which was parrying the
+     destroyer attack, received an attack from the northeast. The
+     cruiser Wiesbaden was soon put out of action in this attack. The
+     German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the heavy ships.
+
+     Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the northeast was made
+     out a long line of at least twenty-five battleships, which at first
+     sought a junction with the British battle cruisers and those of the
+     Queen Elizabeth type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and
+     then turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.
+
+     With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre consisted
+     of three squadrons of eight battleships each, with a fast division
+     of three battle cruisers of the Invincible type on the
+     northern-end, and three of the newest vessels of the Royal
+     Sovereign class, armed with fifteen-inch guns, at the southern end,
+     there began about 8 o'clock in the evening the third section of the
+     engagement, embracing the combat between the main fleets.
+
+     Vice Admiral Seheer determined to attack the British main fleet,
+     which he now recognised was completely assembled and about doubly
+     superior. The German battleship squadron, headed by battle
+     cruisers, steered first toward the extensive haze bank to the
+     northeast, where the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still
+     receiving a heavy fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual
+     fights under quickly changing conditions now occurred.
+
+     The light enemy forces, supported by an armored cruiser squadron of
+     five ships of the Minatour, Achilles, and Duke of Edinburgh classes
+     coming from the northeast, were encountered and apparently
+     surprised on account of the decreasing visibility of our battle
+     cruisers and leading battleship division. The squadron came under
+     a violent and heavy fire by which the small cruisers Defense and
+     Black Prince were sunk. The cruiser Warrior regained its own line a
+     wreck and later sank. Another small cruiser was damaged severely.
+
+     Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack of German
+     torpedo boats against the leading British battleships and a small
+     cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The German battle cruisers
+     and leading battleship division had in these engagements come under
+     increased fire of the enemy's battleship squadron, which, shortly
+     after 8 o'clock, could be made out in the haze turning to the
+     north-eastward and finally to the east, Germans observed, amid the
+     artillery combat and shelling of great intensity, signs of the
+     effect of good shooting between 8.20 and 8.30 o'clock particularly.
+     Several officers on German ships observed that a battleship of the
+     Queen Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar to that of
+     the Queen Mary. The Invincible sank after being hit severely. A
+     ship of the Iron Duke class had earlier received a torpedo hit, and
+     one of the Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle,
+     its steering apparatus apparently having been hit.
+
+     The Luetzow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells and was unable
+     to maintain its place in line. Vice Admiral Hipper, therefore,
+     transshipped to the Moltke on a torpedo boat and under a heavy
+     fire. The Derfflinger meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of
+     the German torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy's main fleet and
+     heard detonations. In the action the Germans lost a torpedo boat.
+     An enemy destroyer was seen in a sinking condition, having been hit
+     by a torpedo.
+
+     After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the superior
+     enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in the smoke by powder
+     clouds. After a short cessation in the artillery combat Vice
+     Admiral Scheer ordered a new attack by all the available forces.
+
+     German battle cruisers, which with several light cruisers and
+     torpedo boats again headed the line, encountered the enemy soon
+     after 9 o'clock and renewed the heavy fire, which was answered by
+     them from the mist, and then by the leading division of the main
+     fleet. Armored cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset at
+     extreme speed against the enemy line in order to cover the attack
+     of the torpedo boats. They approached the enemy line, although
+     covered with shot from 6,000 meters distances. Several German
+     torpedo flotillas dashed forward to attack, delivered torpedoes,
+     and returned, despite the most severe counterfire, with the loss of
+     only one boat. The bitter artillery fire was again interrupted,
+     after this second violent onslaught, by the smoke from guns and
+     funnels.
+
+     Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack somewhat
+     later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, that the enemy
+     fleet was no longer before them; nor, when the fleet commander
+     again brought the German squadrons upon the southerly and
+     southwesterly course where the enemy was last seen, could our
+     opponents be found. Only once more--shortly before 10.30
+     o'clock--did the battle flare up. For a short time in the late
+     twilight German battle cruisers sighted four enemy capital ships to
+     seaward and opened fire immediately. As the two German battleship
+     squadrons attacked, the enemy turned and vanished in the darkness.
+     Older German light cruisers of the fourth reconnoissance group
+     also were engaged with the older enemy armored cruisers in a short
+     fight.
+
+     This ended the day battle.
+
+     The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the enemy, began
+     a night cruise in a southerly direction, were attacked until dawn
+     by enemy light force in rapid succession.
+
+     The attacks were favored by the general strategic situation and the
+     particularly dark night.
+
+     The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during the engagement of
+     the fourth reconnoissance group with a superior cruiser force, and
+     was lost from sight.
+
+     One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared close to
+     a German battleship and was shot into fire after forty seconds, and
+     sank in four minutes.
+
+     The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard to decipher in
+     the darkness and therefore were uncertainly established) and four
+     destroyers--3, 78, 06, and 27--were destroyed by our fire. One
+     destroyer was cut in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven
+     destroyers, including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged.
+     These, including the Tipperary and Turbulent, which after saving
+     survivors, were left behind in a sinking condition, drifted past
+     our line, some of them burning at the bow or stern.
+
+     The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the German ships,
+     but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell an immediate victim to a
+     torpedo. The cruiser Rostock was hit, but remained afloat. The
+     cruiser Elbing was damaged by a German battleship during an
+     unavoidable maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat
+     the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had embarked on
+     torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was struck by a mine laid by the
+     enemy.
+
+                   ADMITTED LOSSES--BRITISH
+
+  NAME                                TONNAGE  PERSONNEL
+
+  Queen Mary (battle cruiser)          27,000      1,000
+  Indefatigable (battle cruiser)       18,750        800
+  Invincible (battle cruiser)          17,250        750
+  Defense (armored cruiser)            14,600        755
+  Warrior (armored cruiser)            13,550        704
+  Black Prince (armored cruiser)       13,550        704
+  Tipperary (destroyer)                 1,850        150
+  Turbulent (destroyer)                 1,850        150
+  Shark (destroyer)                       950        100
+  Sparrowhawk (destroyer)                 950        100
+  Ardent  (destroyer)                     950        100
+  Fortune (destroyer)                     950        100
+  Nomad (destroyer)                       950        100
+  Nestor (destroyer)                      950        100
+
+                        BRITISH TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                      63,000      2,550
+  Armored cruisers                     41,700      2,163
+  Destroyers                            9,400        900
+
+  Fourteen ships                      114,100      5,613
+
+
+                  ADMITTED LOSSES--GERMAN[A]
+
+  NAME                                TONNAGE  PERSONNEL
+
+  Lutzow (battle cruiser)              26,600      1,200
+  Pommern (battleship)                 13,200        729
+  Wiesbaden (cruiser)                   5,600        450
+  Frauenlob (cruiser)                   2,715        264
+  Elbing (cruiser)                      5,000        450
+  Rostock (cruiser)                     4,900        373
+  Five destroyers                       5,000        500
+
+                         GERMAN TOTALS
+
+  Battle cruisers                      39,800      1,929
+  Cruisers                             18,215      1,537
+  Destroyers                            5,000        500
+
+  Eleven ships                         63,015      3,966
+
+[Footnote A: These figures are given for what they are worth, but no one
+outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were very much greater
+than admitted in the official report.]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS
+
+Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY
+
+Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.]
+
+                   TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN
+
+                        BRITISH
+
+  Dead or missing.............................. 6,104
+  Wounded......................................   513
+
+  Total........................................ 6,617
+
+                         GERMAN
+
+  Dead or missing.............................. 2,414
+  Wounded .....................................   449
+
+  Total........................................ 2,863
+
+
+                 LOSS IN MONEY VALUE
+                  (Rough Estimate)
+
+  British ............................... $115,000,000
+  German ................................   63,000,000
+
+  Total.................................. $178,000,000
+
+
+While the world was still puzzling over the conflicting reports of the
+Battle of Jutland came the shocking news that Field Marshal Lord Horatio
+Herbert Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, had perished
+off the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through the sinking of the
+British cruiser Hampshire. The entire crew was also lost, except twelve
+men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who escaped on a raft. Earl
+Kitchener was on his way to Russia, at the request of the Russian
+Government, for a consultation regarding munitions to be furnished the
+Russian army. He was intending to go to Archangel and visit Petrograd,
+and expected to be back in London by June 20th. He was accompanied
+by Hugh James O'Beirne, former Councillor of the British Embassy at
+Petrograd, O.A. Fitz-Gerald, his military secretary, Brigadier-General
+Ellarshaw, and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of whom were lost.
+
+The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire is not known. It is supposed
+that it struck a mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought into
+existence many stories which ascribe his death to more direct German
+action.
+
+Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes Lord Kitchener's last
+moments as follows: "Of those who left the ship, and have survived, I
+was the one who saw Lord Kitchener last. He went down with the ship, he
+did not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his boat's crew to clear
+away his galley. At the same time the Captain was calling to Lord
+Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the noise made by the wind
+and sea, Lord Kitchener could not hear him, I think. When the explosion
+occurred, Kitchener walked calmly from the Captain's cabin, went up
+the ladder and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him walking quite
+collectedly, talking to two of the officers. All three were wearing
+khaki and had no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched the preparations
+for abandoning the ship, which were going on in a steady and orderly
+way. The crew just went to their stations, obeyed orders, and did their
+best to get out the boats. But it was impossible. Owing to the rough
+weather, no boats could be lowered. Those that were got out were
+smashed up at once. No boats left the ship. What people on the shore
+thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. Men did get into the boats as
+these lay in their cradles, thinking that as the ship went under the
+boats would float, but the ship sank by the head, and when she went she
+turned a somersault forward, carrying down with her all the boats and
+those in them. I do not think Kitchener got into a boat. When I sprang
+to a raft he was still on the starboard side of the quarter deck,
+talking with the officers. From the little time that elapsed between my
+leaving the ship and her sinking I feel certain Kitchener went down with
+her, and was on deck at the time she sank."
+
+[Illustration: WHERE EARL KITCHENER MET HIS DEATH]
+
+The British Admiralty, after investigation, gave out a statement
+declaring that the vessel struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes
+after.
+
+The news of Lord Kitchener's death shocked the whole Allied world. He
+was the most important personality in the British Empire. He had built
+up the British army, and his name was one to conjure by. His efficiency
+was a proverb, and he had an air of mystery about him that made him a
+sort of a popular hero. He was great before the World War began; he was
+the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner of the South African campaign;
+the reorganizer of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of War he had
+met with some criticism, but he possessed, more than any other man,
+the public confidence. At the beginning of the war he was appointed
+Secretary of War at the demand of an overwhelming public opinion. He
+realized more than any one else what such a war would mean. When others
+thought of it as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized that
+there would be years of bitter conflict. He asked England to give up its
+cherished tradition of a volunteer army; to go through arduous military
+training; he saw the danger to the Empire, and he alone, perhaps, had
+the authority to inspire his countrymen with the will to sacrifice. But
+his work was done. The great British army was in the field.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+
+
+In the very beginning Russia had marked out one point for attack. This
+was the city of Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas had not hoped
+to be able to invest that city early. The slowness of the mobilization
+of the Russian army made a certain prudence advisable at the beginning
+of the campaign. But the great success of his armies in Lemberg
+encouraged more daring aims. He had invested Przemysl, and Galicia lay
+before him. Accordingly, he set his face toward Cracow.
+
+Cracow, from a military point of view, is the gate both of Vienna
+and Berlin. A hundred miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia,
+between the Carpathian and the Bohemian mountains, which leads down into
+Austria. Through this gap runs the great railway connecting Silesia
+with Vienna, and the Grand Duke knew that if he could capture Cracow he
+would have an easy road before him to the Austrian capital. Cracow also
+is the key of Germany.
+
+Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder River. An army might enter
+Germany by this gate and turn the line of Germany's frontier fortresses.
+The Oder had been well fortified, but an invader coming from Cracow
+might move upon the western bank. The Russian plan no doubt was to
+threaten both enemy capitals. Moreover, an advance of Russia from Cracow
+would take its armies into Silesia, full of coal and iron mines, and one
+of the greatest manufacturing districts in the German Empire. This would
+be a real success, and all Germany would feel the blow.
+
+Another reason for the Russian advance in Galicia was her desire to
+control the Galician oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one of the
+foremost munitions of war. Since she could not obtain it from either
+America or Russia she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian oil
+fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself, would explain the Galician
+campaign. Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains it was possible
+to make frequent raids into Hungary, and Russia understood well the
+feeling of Hungary toward her German allies. She hoped that when Hungary
+perceived her regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun by Russian
+troops, she would regret that she had allowed herself to be sacrificed
+to Prussian ambition. The Russians, therefore, suddenly, moved toward
+Cracow.
+
+Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue. The supreme command of the
+Austrian forces was given to him. The defenses of Cracow were
+strengthened under the direction of the Germans, and a German army
+advanced from the Posen frontier toward the northern bank of the
+Vistula. The advance threatened the Russian right, and, accordingly,
+within ten days' march of Cracow, the Russians stopped. The German
+offensive in Poland had begun. The news of the German advance came about
+the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who had been fighting in East
+Prussia, had at last perceived that nothing could be gained there. The
+vulnerable part of Russia was the city of Warsaw. This was the capital
+of Poland, with a population of about three-quarters of a million. If
+he could take Warsaw, he would not only have pleasant quarters for the
+winter but Russia would be so badly injured that no further offensive
+from her need be anticipated for a long period. Von Hindenburg had with
+him a large army. In his center he probably had three-quarters of a
+million men, and on his right the Austrian army in Cracow, which must
+have reached a million.
+
+Counting the troops operating in East Prussia and along the Carpathians,
+and the garrison of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have had two
+and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the other hand, though her
+mobilization was still continuing, at this time could not have had as
+many as two million men in the whole nine hundred miles of her battle
+front.
+
+The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October 16th, and continued for three
+days, von Hindenburg being personally in command. On Monday the Germans
+found themselves in trouble. A Russian attack on their left wing had
+come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg found his left wing thrown
+back, and the whole German movement thrown into disorder. Meanwhile an
+attempt to cross the Vistula at Josefov had also been a failure. The
+Russians allowed the Germans to pass with slight resistance, waited
+until they arrived at the village Kazimirjev, a district of low hills
+and swampy flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed them.
+
+Next day the Russians crossed the river themselves, and advanced along
+the whole line, driving the enemy before them, through great woods of
+spruce out into the plains on the west. This forest region was well
+known to the Russian guides, and the Germans suffered much as the
+Russians had suffered in East Prussia. Ruzsky, the Russian commander,
+pursued persistently; the Germans retreating first to Kielce, whence
+they were driven, on the 3d of November, with great losses, and then
+being broken into two pieces, with the north retiring westward and the
+south wing southwest toward Cracow.
+
+Rennenkampf's attack on the German left wing was equally successful, and
+von Hindenburg was driven into full retreat. The only success won during
+this campaign was that in the far south where Austrian troops were
+sweeping eastward toward the San. This army drove back the Russians
+under Ivanov, reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl. This was a
+welcome relief to Przemysl, for the garrison was nearly starved, and it
+was well for the garrison that the relief came, for in a few days the
+Russians returned, recaptured Jaroslav and reinvested Przemysl. As von
+Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction in his wake, roads,
+bridges, railroad tracks, water towers, railway stations, all were
+destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or sawn through, and insulators
+broken to bits.
+
+It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature advance, and to pay
+for it. Doubtless the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up to this
+point had been so admirable, knew very well the danger of a new advance
+in Galicia, but he realized the immense political as well as military
+advantages which were to be obtained by the capture of Cracow. He
+therefore attempted to move an army through Poland as well as through
+Galicia, hoping that the army in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy,
+while the Galician army would deal with Cracow.
+
+The advance was slow on account of the damaged Polish roads. It was
+preceded by a cavalry screen which moved with more speed. On November
+10th, the vanguard crossed the Posen frontier and cut the railway on the
+Cracow-Posen line. This reconnaissance convinced the Russian general
+that the German army did not propose to make a general stand, and it
+seemed to him that if he struck strongly with his center along the
+Warta, he might destroy the left flank of the German southern army,
+while his own left flank was assaulting Cracow. He believed that even if
+his attack upon the Warta failed, the Russian center could at any
+rate prevent the enemy from interfering with the attack further south
+upon Cracow.
+
+[Illustration: GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR
+
+A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.]
+
+The movement therefore began, and by November 12th, the Russian cavalry
+had taken Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty miles north of
+Cracow. Its main forces were still eighty miles to the east. About this
+time Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg was preparing a
+counter stroke. He had retreated north, and then, by means of his
+railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn. Large reinforcements were
+sent him, some from the western front, giving him a total of about eight
+hundred thousand men. In his retreat from Warsaw, while he had destroyed
+all roads railways in the south and west, he had carefully preserved
+those of the north already planning to use them in another movement. He
+now was beginning an advance, once again, against Warsaw. On account of
+the roads he perceived that it would be difficult for the Russians to
+obtain reinforcements. Von Hindenburg had with him as Chief of Staff
+General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest staff officers in the
+German army, and General von Mackensen, a commander of almost equal
+repute.
+
+The Russian army in the north had been pretty well scattered. The
+Russian forces were now holding a front of nearly a thousand miles, with
+about two million men. The Russian right center, which now protected
+Warsaw from the new attack could hardly number more than two hundred
+thousand men. Von Hindenburg's aim was Warsaw only, and did not affect
+directly the Russian advance to Cracow, which was still going on.
+Indeed, by the end of the first week in December, General Dmitrieff had
+cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and his main force was on the line of
+the River Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had been strongly
+fortified, and much entrenching had been done in a wide circle around
+the city.
+
+The German plan was to use its field army in Cracow's defense rather
+than a garrison. Two separate forces were used; one moving southwest of
+Cracow along the Carpathian hills, struck directly at Ivanov's left;
+the other, operating from Hungary, threatened the Russian rear. These
+two divisions struck at the same time and the Russians found it
+necessary to fight rear actions as they moved forward. They were doing
+this with reasonable success and working their way toward Cracow, when,
+on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces working from Hungary
+carried the Dukla Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be able to
+pour troops down into the rear of the Russian advance, and the Russian
+army would be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly back, until
+the opening of the Dukla Pass was in front of his line, and the Russian
+army was once more safe.
+
+Meanwhile the renewed seige of Przemysl was going on with great vigor,
+and attracting the general attention of the Allied world. The Austrians
+attempted to follow up their successes at the Dukla Pass by attempting
+to seize the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still further to the east,
+but the Russians were tired of retreating. New troops had arrived, and
+about the 20th of December a new advance was begun.
+
+With the right of the army swinging up along the river Nida, northeast
+of Cracow, the Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great force,
+driving Austrians back and capturing over ten thousand men. On Christmas
+Day all three great western passes were in Russian hands. The Austrian
+fighting, during this period, was the best they had so far shown, the
+brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops, who, at this time, were
+saving Germany.
+
+Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his movement in the direction of
+Warsaw. The Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information.
+Each day came the chronicle of contests, some victories, some defeats,
+and it soon appeared that a strong force was crushing in the Russian
+outposts from the direction of Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky
+found himself faced by a superior German force, and was compelled to
+retreat. The Russian aim was to fall back behind the river Bzura, which
+lies between the Thorn and Warsaw. Bzura is a strong line of defense,
+with many fords but no bridges. The Russian right wing passed by the
+city of Lowicz, moved southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz. West
+of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible for the movement of
+armies.
+
+The first German objective was the city of Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew
+that he must move quickly before the Russians should get up reserves.
+His campaign of destruction had made it impossible for aid to be sent to
+the Russian armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but every moment
+counted. His right pushed forward and won the western crossings of the
+marshes. His extreme left moved towards Plock, but the main effort was
+against Piontek, where there is a famous causeway engineered for heavy
+transport through the marshes.
+
+At first the Russians repelled the attack on the causeway, but on
+November 19th the Russians broke and were compelled to fall back. Over
+the causeway, then, the German troops were rushed in great numbers,
+splitting the Russian army into two parts; one on the south surrounding
+Lodz, and the other running east of Brezin on to the Vistula. The
+Russian army around Lodz was assailed on the front flank and rear. It
+looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russian army. At the very
+last moment possible, Russian reinforcements appeared--a body of
+Siberians from the direction of Warsaw. They were thrown at once into
+the battle and succeeded in re-establishing the Russian line. This left
+about ninety thousand Germans almost entirely surrounded, as if they
+were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his best to close the mouth of the
+sack, but he was unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by the
+26th the Germans in the sack had escaped.
+
+The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements and still largely
+outnumbered the Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined on a new
+assault. The German left wing was now far in front of the Russian city
+of Lodz, one of the most important of the Polish cities. The population
+was about half a million. Such a place was a constant danger, for it was
+the foundation of a Russian salient.
+
+When the German movement began the Russian general, perceiving how
+difficult it would have been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew,
+and on December 6th the Germans entered Lodz without opposition.
+
+The retreat relieved the Russians of a great embarrassment. Its capture
+was considered in Germany as a great German victory, and at this time
+von Hindenburg seems to have felt that he had control of the situation.
+His movement, to be sure, had not interfered with the Russian advance on
+Cracow, but Warsaw must have seemed to him almost in his power. He
+therefore concentrated his forces for a blow at Warsaw. His first new
+movement was directed at the Russian right wing, which was then north of
+the Bzura River and east of Lowicz. He also directed the German forces
+in East Prussia to advance and attempted to cut the main railway line
+between Warsaw and Petrograd. If this attempt had been successful it
+would have been a highly serious matter for the Russians. The Russians,
+however, defeated it, and drove the enemy back to the East Prussian
+border. The movement against the Russian right wing was more successful,
+and the Russians fell back slowly. This was not because they were
+defeated in battle, but because the difficult weather interfered with
+communications. There had been a thaw, and the whole country was
+waterlogged. The Grand Duke was willing that the Germans should fight in
+the mud.
+
+This slow retreat continued from the 7th of December to Christmas Eve,
+and involved the surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it left the
+Russians in a strong position. They were able to entrench themselves so
+that every attack of the enemy Was broken. The Germans tried hard. Von
+Hindenburg would have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas. The citizens
+heard day and night the sound of the cannon, but they were entirely
+safe.
+
+The German attack was a failure. On the whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas
+had shown better strategy than the best of the German generals.
+Outnumbered from the very start, his tactics had been admirable. Twice
+he had saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening Cracow. The Russian
+armies were fighting with courage and efficiency, and were continually
+growing in numbers as the days went by.
+
+During the first weeks of 1915 while there were a number of attacks and
+counter attacks both armies had come to the trench warfare, so familiar
+in France. The Germans in particular had constructed a most elaborate
+trench system, with underground rooms containing many of the ordinary
+comforts of life. Toward the end of the month the Russians began to move
+in East Prussia in the north and also far south in the Bukovina. The
+object of these movements was probably to prevent von Hindenburg from
+releasing forces on the west. Russia was still terribly weak in
+equipment and was not ready for a serious advance. An attack on sacred
+East Prussia would stir up the Germans, while Hungary would be likewise
+disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von Hindenburg, however, was still
+full of the idea of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice but the old
+Field Marshal was stubborn and moreover he knew well what the capture of
+Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried again.
+
+The Russian front now followed the west bank of the Bzura for a few
+miles, changed to the eastern bank following the river until it met with
+the Rawka, from there a line of trenches passed south and east, of
+Balinov and from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen concentrated a
+considerable army at Balinov and had on the 1st of February about a
+hundred and forty thousand men there. That night, with the usual
+artillery preparation, he moved from Balinov against the Russian
+position at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans lost heavily but drove
+forward into the enemy's line, and by the 3d of February had almost made
+a breach in it. This point, however, could be readily reinforced and
+troops were hurried there from Warsaw in such force that on February 4th
+the German advance was checked. Von Mackensen had lost heavily, and by
+the time it was checked he had become so weak that his forces yielded
+quickly to the counter-attack and were flung back.
+
+This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw. Von Hindenburg then
+determined to attack Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed to
+move forward along the whole Carpathian front, while he himself, with
+strong forces, undertook to move from East Prussia behind the Polish
+capital, and cut the communications between Warsaw and Petrograd. If
+Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be relieved, Lemberg recaptured,
+and Russia forced back so far on the south that Warsaw would have to be
+abandoned. On the other hand if the East Prussia effort were successful,
+the Polish capital would certainly fall. These plans, if they had
+developed successfully, would have crippled the power of Russia for at
+least six months. Meantime, troops could be sent to the west front, and
+perhaps enable Germany to overwhelm France. By this time almost all of
+Poland west of the Vistula was in the power of the Germans, while
+three-fourths of Galicia was controlled by Russia.
+
+Von Hindenburg now returned to his old battle-ground near the Masurian
+Lakes. The Russian forces, which, at the end of January, had made a
+forward movement in East Prussia, had been quite successful. Their right
+was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested upon the town of
+Johannisburg. Further south was the Russian army of the Narev. Von
+Hindenburg determined to surprise the invaders, and he gathered an army
+of about three hundred thousand men to face the Russian forces which did
+not number more than a hundred and twenty thousand, and which were under
+the command of General Baron Sievers. The Russian army soon found itself
+in a desperate position. A series of bitter fights ensued, at some of
+which the Kaiser himself was present. The Russians were driven steadily
+back for a week, but the German stories of their tremendous losses are
+obviously unfounded They retreated steadily until February 20th,
+fighting courageously, and by that date the Germans began to find
+themselves exhausted.
+
+Russian reinforcements came up, and a counter-attack was begun. The
+German aim had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the main line from
+Warsaw to Petrograd, which passes through that city. They had now
+reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but were unable to advance
+further, though the Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten miles away.
+The southern portion of von Hindenburg's army was moving against the
+railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz. But Ossowietz put
+up a determined resistance, and the attack was unsuccessful. By the
+beginning of March, von Hindenburg ordered a gradual retreat to the East
+Prussian frontier.
+
+While this movement to drive the Russians from East Prussia was under
+way, von Hindenburg had also launched an attack against the Russian army
+on the Narev. If he could force the lower Narev from that point, too, he
+could cut the railroad running east from the Polish capital. He had
+hoped that the attacks just described further east would distract the
+Russian attention so that he would find the Narev ill guarded. The
+advance began on February 22d, and after numerous battles captured
+Przasnysz, and found itself with only one division to oppose its
+progress to the railroad. On the 23d this force was attacked by the
+German right, but resisted with the utmost courage. It held out for more
+than thirty-six hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian
+reinforcements began to come up, and drove the invaders north through
+Przasnysz in retreat.
+
+It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians were unable to supply all
+their troops with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men fought without
+rifles, armed only with a bayonet. All they could do was to charge with
+cold steel, and they did it so desperately that, though they were
+outnumbered, they drove the Germans before them. By all the laws of war
+the Russians should have been defeated with ease. As it was, the German
+attempt to capture Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated. While the
+struggle was going on in the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia were
+also moving, Russia was still holding the three great passes in the
+Carpathian Mountains, but had not been able to begin an offensive in
+Hungary.
+
+The Austrians had been largely reinforced by German troops, and were
+moving forward to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive Brussilov
+from the Galician mountains. Brussilov's movements had been partly
+military and partly political. From the passes, in those mountains
+Hungary could be attacked, and unless he could be driven away there was
+no security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which Germany was looking
+for food supplies. Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian movement
+in Galicia, northern Bukovina had been in Russian hands. Bukovina was
+not only a great supply ground for petrol and grain, but she adjoined
+Roumania which, while still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the
+Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a Russian army on her border
+might encourage her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired to
+free Roumania from this pressure. The leading Austrian statesmen, at
+this time, were especially interested in Hungary. The Austrian Minister
+of Foreign Affairs was Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist,
+belonging to the party of the Hungarian Premier, Count Tisza. It was his
+own country that was threatened. The prizes of a victorious campaign
+were therefore great.
+
+The campaign began in January amid the deepest snow, and continued
+during February in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians were divided
+into three separate armies. The first was charged with the relief of
+Przemysl. The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg, and the third
+moved upon Bukovina. The first made very little progress, after a number
+of lively battles. It was held pretty safely by Brussilov. The second
+army was checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however, the army of the
+Bukovina crossed the Carpathian range, and made considerable advances.
+This campaign was fought out in a great number of battles, the most
+serious of which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa. At that point
+Brussilov's center withstood for several days the Austrian second army
+which was commanded by the German General von Linsengen. The Russian
+success here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of Przemysl and gave
+time to send reinforcements into Bukovina.
+
+The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina, had the greatest Austrian
+success. They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea, and Stanislau.
+They did not succeed, however, in driving the Russians from the
+province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting for reinforcements. These
+reinforcements came, whereupon the Austrians were pushed steadily back.
+The passes in the Carpathians still remained in Austrian hands, but
+Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured. On March 22d Przemysl
+fell.
+
+The capture of Przemysl was the greatest success that Russia had so far
+attained. It had been besieged for about four months, and the taking of
+the fortress was hailed as the first spectacular success of the war. Its
+capture altered the whole situation. It released a large Russian army,
+which was sent to reinforce the armies of Ivanov, where the Austrians
+were vigorously attacked.
+
+By the end of March the Russians had captured the last Austrian position
+on the Lupkow pass and were attacking vigorously the pass of Uzzok,
+which maintained a stubborn defense. Brussilov tried to push his way to
+the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the Austrians delivered a
+vigorous counter-attack they were ultimately defeated. In fire weeks of
+fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand prisoners.
+
+During this period there was considerable activity in East Prussia, and
+the Courland coast was bombarded by the German Baltic squadron. There
+was every indication that Austria was near collapse, but all the time
+the Germans were preparing for a mighty effort, and the secret was kept
+with extraordinary success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians and
+in East Prussia were meant to deceive, while a great army, with an
+enormous number of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition,
+were being gathered. The Russian commanders were completely deceived.
+There had been no change in the generals in command except that General
+Ruzsky, on account of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev. The
+new German army was put under the charge of von Hindenburg's former
+lieutenant, General von Mackensen. This was probably the strongest army
+that Germany ever gathered, and could not have numbered less than two
+millions of men, with nearly two thousand pieces in its heavy batteries.
+
+On April 28th, the action began. The Austro-German army lay along the
+left of the Donajetz River to its junction with the Biala, and along the
+Biala to the Carpathian Mountains. Von Mackensen's right moved in the
+direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff was compelled to weaken his
+front to protect Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st of May, the
+great attack began. Under cover of artillery fire such as had never been
+seen before bridges were pushed across the Biala and Ciezkowice was
+taken. The Russian positions were blown out of existence. The Russian
+armies did what they could but their defense collapsed and they were
+soon in full retreat.
+
+The German armies advanced steadily, and though the Russians made a
+brave stand at many places they could do nothing. On the Wisloka they
+hung on for five days, but they were attempting an impossibility. From
+that time on each day marked a new German victory, and in spite of the
+most desperate fighting the Russians were forced back until, on the
+11th, the bulk of their line lay just west of the lower San as far as
+Przemysl and then south to the upper Dniester. The armies were in
+retreat, but were not routed. In a fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had
+fallen back eighty-five miles.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood the situation. He
+perceived that it was impossible to make a stand. The only thing to do
+was to retreat steadily until Germany's mass of war material should be
+used up, even though miles of territory should be sacrificed. It should
+be a retreat in close contact with the enemy, so that the Austro-German
+troops would have to fight for every mile. This meant a retreat not for
+days, but perhaps for weeks. It meant that Przemysl must be given up,
+and Lemberg, and even Warsaw, but the safety of the Russian army was of
+more importance than a province or a city.
+
+On May 18th the German War Office announced their successes in the
+following terms: "The army under General von Mackensen in the course of
+its pursuit of the Russians reached yesterday the neighborhood of
+Subiecko, on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa, northeast of Debica.
+Under the pressure of this advance the Russians also retreated from
+their positions north of the Vistula. In this section the troops under
+General von Woyrach, closely following the enemy, penetrated as far as
+the region northwest of Kielce. In the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and
+German troops under General von Linsingen conquered the hills east of
+the Upper Stryi, and took 8,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing six
+machine guns. At the present moment, while the armies under General von
+Mackensen are approaching the Przemysl fortresses and the lower San, it
+is possible to form an approximate idea of the booty taken. In the
+battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles during the pursuit of
+these armies, we have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners, 69 cannon,
+and 255 machine guns. In these figures the booty taken by the Allied
+troops fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the Vistula, is not
+included. This amounts to a further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl
+surrendered to the German's on June 3, 1915, only ten weeks after the
+Russian capture of the fortress, which had caused such exultation."
+
+General von Mackensen continued toward Lemberg, the capital of Galicia.
+On June 18th, when the victorious German armies were approaching the
+gates of Lemberg, the Russian losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and
+wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000 lost before Marshal von
+Hindenburg's forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d Lemberg fell.
+The weakness of Russia in this campaign arose from the exhaustion of her
+ammunition supplies, but great shipments of such supplies were being
+constantly forwarded from Vladivostock.
+
+When the German army crossed the San, Wilhelm II, then German Emperor,
+was present. It is interesting to look back on the scene. Here is a
+paragraph from the account of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: "The Emperor
+had hurried forward to his troops by automobile. On the way he was
+greeted with loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in wagons. On the
+heights of Jaroslav the Emperor met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and then,
+from several points of observation, for hours followed with keen
+attention the progress of the battle for the crossing."
+
+While the great offensive in Galicia was well under way, the Germans
+were pushing forward in East Prussia. Finding little resistance they
+ultimately invaded Courland, captured Libau, and established themselves
+firmly in that province. The sweep of the victorious German armies
+through Galicia was continued into Poland. On July 19th William the War
+Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the Queen of Greece, to the
+effect that he had "paralyzed Russia for at least six months to come"
+and was on the eve of "delivering a coup on the western front that will
+make all Europe tremble."
+
+It would be futile to recount the details of the various German
+victories which followed the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the
+German line ran from Novogard in the north, south of Przasnysz, thence
+to Novogeorgievsk, then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw it passed
+close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin, Chelm, and then south to a point
+just east of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the jaws of the German
+nutcracker.
+
+On July 21st, the bells in all the churches throughout Russia clanged a
+call to prayer for twenty-four hours' continual service of intercession
+for victory. In spite of the heat the churches were packed. Hour after
+hour the people stood wedged together, while the priests and choirs
+chanted their litanies. Outside the Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass
+was celebrated in the presence of an enormous crowd. But the German
+victories continued.
+
+On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned. Up to July 29th hope was entertained
+in military quarters in London and Paris that the Germans would stand a
+siege in their fortresses along the Warsaw salient, but on that date
+advices came from Petrograd that in order to save the Russian armies a
+retreat must be made, and the Warsaw fortresses abandoned. For some time
+before this the Russian resistance had perceptibly stiffened, and many
+vigorous counter-attacks had been made against the German advance, but
+it was the same old story, the lack of ammunition. The armies were
+compelled to retire and await the munitions necessary for a new
+offensive.
+
+The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw were days of extraordinary
+interest. The inhabitants, to the number of nearly half a million,
+sought refuge in Russia. All goods that could be useful to the Germans
+were either removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in the surrounding
+fields. When the Germans entered they found an empty and deserted city,
+with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of Jews still left. Warsaw
+is a famous city, full of ancient palaces, tastefully, adorned shops,
+finely built streets, and fourscore church towers where the bells are
+accustomed to ring melodiously for matins and vespers. In the Ujazdowske
+Avenue one comes to the most charming building in all Warsaw, the
+Lazienki Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in a lovely lake.
+It is a beautiful city.
+
+The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian Poland, but Russia was not
+yet defeated. Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon was in 1812,
+The strategy of the Grand Duke was sound; so long as he could save the
+army the victories of Germany would be futile, It is true that the
+German armies were not compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live on the
+land. They could bring their supplies from Berlin day by day, but every
+mile they advanced into hostile territory made their task harder. The
+German line of communication, as it grew longer, became weaker and the
+troops needed for garrison duty in the captured towns, seriously
+diminished the strength of the fighting army, The Russian retreat was
+good strategy and it was carried on with extraordinary cleverness.
+
+It is unnecessary to describe the events which succeeded the fall of
+Warsaw in great detail. There was a constant succession of German
+victories and Russian defeats, but never one of the Russian armies
+enveloped or destroyed. Back they went, day after day, always fighting;
+each great Russian fortress resisted until it saw itself in danger, and
+then safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and Novogeorgievsk, and
+Ivangorad, then Ossowietz was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and Grodno.
+On September 5th the Emperor of Russia the following order:
+
+     Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces of the sea and
+     land armies operating in the theater of war. With firm faith in the
+     clemency of God, with unshakable assurance in final victory, we
+     shall fulfil our sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We
+     will not dishonor the Russian land.
+
+The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy of the Caucasus, a post which
+took him out of the main theater of fighting but gave him a great field
+for fresh military activity. He had been bearing a heavy burden, and had
+shown himself to be a great commander. He had outmaneuvered von
+Hindenberg again and again, and though finally the Russian armies under
+his command had been driven back, the retreat itself was a proof of his
+military ability, not only in its conception, but in the way in which it
+was done.
+
+The Emperor chose General Alexieff as his Chief of General Staff. He was
+the ablest of the great generals who had been leading the Russian army.
+With this change in command a new spirit seemed to come over Russia. The
+German advance, however, was not yet completely checked. It was
+approaching Vilna.
+
+The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest in the whole long retreat.
+On the 18th of September it fell, but the Russian troops were safely
+removed and the Russian resistance had become strong. Munitions were
+pouring into the new Russian army. The news from the battle-front began
+to show improvement. On September 8th General Brussilov, further in the
+south, had attacked the Germans in front of Tarnopol, and defeated them
+with heavy loss. More than seventeen thousand men were captured with
+much artillery. Soon the news came of other advances. Dubno was retaken
+and Lutsk.
+
+The end of September saw the German advance definitely checked. The
+Russian forces were now extended in a line from Riga on the north, along
+the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk. Then turning to the east along the
+river, it again turned south and so on down east of the Pripet Marshes,
+it followed an almost straight line to the southern frontier. Its two
+strongest points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga, which lay under the
+protection of the guns of the fleet, and Dvinsk, through which ran the
+great Petrograd Railway line. Against these two points von Hindenburg
+directed his attack. And now, for the first time in many months, he met
+with complete failure. The German fleet attempted to assist him on the
+Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian Baltic fleet with heavy
+losses. A bombardment turned out a failure and the German armies were
+compelled to retire.
+
+A more serious effort was made against Dvinsk but was equally
+unsuccessful and the German losses were immense. Again and again the
+attempt was made to cross the Dvina River, but without success; the
+German invasion was definitely stopped. By the end of October there was
+complete stagnation in the northern sector of the battle line, and
+though in November there were a number of battles, nothing happened of
+great importance.
+
+Further south, however, Russia become active. An army had been organized
+at her Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was necessary that
+that army should move. At this time the great question was, what was
+Roumania about to do? To prevent her from being forced to join the
+Central Powers she must have encouragement. It was determined therefore
+that an offensive should be made in the direction of Czernowitz. This
+town was the railway center of a wide region, and lay close to
+Roumania's northern frontier.
+
+[Illustration: THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD]
+
+The Russian aggressive met with great success. It is true that it never
+approached the defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the north, had
+been able to make great gains of ground, and the very fact that such a
+powerful movement could be made so soon after the Russian retreat was an
+encouragement to every friend of the Allied cause. This offensive
+continued till up to the fourth week of January when it came to an
+abrupt stop. A despatch from Petrograd explained the movement as
+follows: "The recent Russian offensive in Bessarabia and Galicia was
+carried out in accordance with the plan prepared by the Entente Allies'
+War Council to relieve the pressure on the Entente forces while they
+were fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation of the Gallipoli
+Peninsula." Russia had sacrificed more than seventy thousand soldiers for
+her Allies.
+
+During the year 1916 the Russian armies seemed to have had a new birth.
+At last they were supplied with guns and munitions. They waited until
+they were ready. In March a series of battles was fought in the
+neighborhood of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks were made
+against the German army, intrenched between Lake Narotch and Lake
+Vischenebski. The Germans at first were driven back and badly defeated.
+Later on, however, the Russian artillery was sent to another section,
+and the Germans were able to recover their position. During June the
+Russians attacked all along the southern part of their line. In three
+weeks they had regained a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had been
+retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds of guns, had been
+captured, and the Austrian line had been pierced and shattered. Further
+south the German army had been compelled to retreat and the Russian
+armies were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th of August Stanislau
+fell.
+
+By this time two Austrian armies had been shattered, over three hundred
+and fifty thousand prisoners taken, and nearly a million men put out of
+action. Germany, however, was sending reinforcements as fast as
+possible, and putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless everything
+was encouraging for Russia and she entered upon the winter in a very
+different condition from her condition in the previous year. Then she
+had just ended her great retreat. Now she had behind her a series of
+successes. But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of the political
+harmony at home which had marked the first years of the war. Dark days
+were ahead.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED
+
+
+For more than half a century the Balkans have presented a problem which
+disturbed the minds of the statesmen of Europe. Again and again, during
+that period, it seemed that in the Balkan mountains might be kindled a
+blaze which might set the world afire. Balkan politics is a labyrinth in
+which one might easily be lost. The inhabitants of the Balkans represent
+many races, each with its own ambition, and, for the most part,
+military. There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks, and Roumanians,
+and Greeks, and their territorial divisions did not correspond to their
+nationalities. The land was largely mountainous, with great gaps that
+make it, in a sense, the highway of the world. From 1466 to 1878 the
+Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks. In the early days while the
+Turks were warring against Hungary, their armies marched through the
+Balkan hills. The natives kept apart, and preserved their language,
+religion and customs.
+
+In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew weaker, their subject
+people began to seek independence. Greece came first, and, in 1829,
+aided by France, Russia and Great Britain, she became an independent
+kingdom. Serbia revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous state,
+though still tributary to Turkey. In 1859, Roumania became autonomous.
+The rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really the beginning of the
+succession of events which ultimately led to the World War of 1914-18.
+The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the Turks in such a way as to
+stir the indignation of the whole world. What are known as the
+"Bulgarian Atrocities" seem mild today, but they led to the
+Russo-Turkish War in 1877.
+
+The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was settled in 1878, was one of
+those treaties which could only lead to trouble. It deprived Russia of
+much of the benefit of her victory, and left nearly every racial
+question unsettled. Roumania lost Bessarabia, which was mainly inhabited
+by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to the
+administration of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain Macedonia,
+Albania and Thrace. Serbia was given Nish, but had no outlet to the sea.
+Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province was made of the country
+south of the Balkans called Eastern Rumelia. From that time on, quarrel
+after quarrel made up the history of the Balkan peoples, each of whom
+sought the assistance and support of some one of the great powers.
+Russia and Austria were constantly intriguing with the new states, in
+the hope of extending their own domains in the direction of
+Constantinople.
+
+The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation has been continually the
+center of these intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign
+Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose career might almost be called
+romantic. A splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman, he stands
+out as an interesting figure in the sordid politics of the Balkans. He
+identified himself with his new country. In 1885 he brought about a
+union with Eastern Rumelia, which led to a disagreement with Russia.
+
+Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly declared war, but was
+overwhelmed by Prince Alexander in short order. Russia then abducted
+Prince Alexander, but later was forced to restore him. However, Russian
+intrigues, and his failure to obtain support from one of the great
+powers, forced his abdication in 1886.
+
+In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became the Prince of
+Bulgaria. He, also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic of his
+predecessor. He seems to have been a sort of a parody of a king. He was
+fond of ostentation, and full of ambition. He was a personal coward, but
+extremely cunning. During his long reign he built up Bulgaria into a
+powerful, independent kingdom, and even assumed the title of Czar of
+Bulgaria. During the first days of his reign he was kept safely on the
+throne by his mother, the Princess Clementine, a daughter of Louis
+Phillippe, who, according to Gladstone, was the cleverest woman in
+Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria was at peace. In 1908 he declared
+Bulgaria independent, and its independence was recognized by Turkey on
+the payment of an indemnity. During this period Russia was the protector
+of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian fox was looking also for the aid of
+Austria. Serbia more and more relied upon Russia.
+
+The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a source of constant
+irritation to Serbia. Roumania had a divided feeling. Her loss of
+Bessarabia to Russia had caused ill feeling, but in Austria's province
+of Transylvania there were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania
+desired to bring under her rule. Greece was fearful of Russia, because
+of Russia's desire for the control of Constantinople. All of these
+nations, too, were deeply conscious of the Austro-German ambitions
+for extension of their power through to the East. Each of these
+principalities was also jealous of the other. Bulgaria and Serbia
+had been at war; many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory,
+many Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia. There was only
+one tie in common, that was their hatred of Turkey. In 1912 a league
+was formed, under the direction of the Greek statesman, Venizelos,
+having for its object an attack on Turkey. By secret treaties
+arrangements were made for the division of the land, which they
+hoped to obtain from Turkey.
+
+War was declared, and Turkey was decisively defeated, and then the
+trouble began. Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious for an
+outlet to the sea, and in the treaty between them it had been arranged
+that Serbia should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while Bulgaria was to
+obtain an outlet on the AEgean. The Triple Alliance positively refused
+Serbia its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted, therefore, on a
+revision of the treaty, which would enable her to have a seaport on the
+AEgean.
+
+An attempt was made to settle the question by arbitration, but King
+Ferdinand refused, whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan War
+began. Bulgaria was attacked by Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took a
+chance and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania, which had been
+neutral in the First Baltic War, mobilized her armies and marched toward
+Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th of August the Treaty of
+Bucharest was signed by the Balkan States.
+
+As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a thoroughly dissatisfied state
+of mind. She had been the leader in the war against Turkey, she had
+suffered heavy losses, and she had gained almost nothing. Moreover she
+had lost to Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of a million
+Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece
+were the big winners. Such a treaty could not be a final settlement. The
+Balkans were left seething with unrest. Serbia, though she had gained
+much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions, however, now turned in the
+direction of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and it was her
+agitation in this matter which directly brought on the Great War. But
+Bulgaria was sullen and ready for revenge. When the Great War began,
+therefore, Roumania, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were strongly in
+sympathy with Russia, who had been their backer and friend. Bulgaria, in
+spite of all she owed to Russia in the early days, was now ready to find
+protection from an alliance with the Central Powers. Her feeling was
+well known to the Allies, and every effort was made to obtain her
+friendship and, if possible, her aid.
+
+Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address before the French Chamber
+of Deputies, said:
+
+     The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the war, even
+     before it came to the attention of the world. The Bucharest Treaty
+     had left in Bulgaria profound heartburnings. Neither King nor
+     people were resigned to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and
+     sacrifices, and to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they
+     had waged upon their former allies. From the first day, the Allied
+     governments took into account the dangers of such a situation, and
+     sought a means to remedy it. Their policy has proceeded in a spirit
+     of justice and generosity which has characterized the attitude of
+     Great Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have
+     attempted to re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples, and in
+     accord with them seek the realization of their principal national
+     aspirations. The equilibrium thus obtained by mutual sacrifices
+     really made by each would have been the best guarantee of future
+     peace. Despite constant efforts in which Roumania, Greece and
+     Serbia lent their assistance, we have been unable to obtain the
+     sincere collaboration of the Bulgarian Government. The difficulties
+     respecting the negotiations were always at Sofia.
+
+At the beginning of the war it appears, therefore, that Bulgaria was
+entering into negotiations with the Allies, hoping to regain in this
+way, some of the territory she had lost in the Second Baltic War. Many
+of her leading statesmen and most distinguished generals favored the
+cause of Russia, but in May came the great German advance in Galicia,
+and the Allies' stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the king, and his
+supporters, found the way clear for a movement in favor of Germany.
+Still protesting neutrality they signed a secret treaty with Berlin,
+Vienna and Constantinople on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised
+them not only what they had been asking, in Macedonia, but also the
+Greek territory of Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those
+Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and on the 5th of October
+Bulgaria formally entered into war on the side of Germany, and began an
+attack on Serbia.
+
+The full account of the intrigue which led to this action has never been
+told. It is not improbable that King Ferdinand himself never had any
+other idea than to act as he did, but he dissembled for a long time. He
+set forth his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every effort to
+induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia to make the concessions that would be
+necessary. Such concessions were made, but not until it was too late. In
+a telegram from Milan dated September 24th, an account is given of an
+interview between Czar Ferdinand and a committee from those Bulgarians
+who were opposed to the King's policy.
+
+"Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!" are the words which the King
+spoke to M. Stambulivski when he received the five opposition members
+who had come to warn him of the danger to which he was exposing himself
+and the nation.
+
+The five members were received by the King in the red room at the Royal
+Palace and chairs had been placed for them around a big table. The King
+entered the room, accompanied by Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and
+his secretary, M. Boocovitch.
+
+"Be seated, gentlemen," said the King, as he sat down himself, as if for
+a very quiet talk. His secretary took a seat at the table, a little
+apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately became so heated
+and rapid that he was unable to write it down.
+
+The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader of the Democratic party, who
+said: "The policy adopted by the Government is one of adventure, tending
+to throw Bulgaria into the arms of Germany, and driving her to attack
+Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations, feeling and
+interests of the country, and if the Government obstinately continues in
+this way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest gravity." It was
+the first allusion to the possibility of a revolution, but the King
+listened without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded: "For these reasons we
+beg your Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government, to convoke
+the Chamber immediately, and we ask this convocation for the precise
+object of saving the country from dangerous adventures by the formation
+of a coalition Ministry."
+
+The King remained silent, and, with a nod, invited M. Stambulivski to
+speak. M. Stambulivski was a leader of the Agrarian party, a man of
+sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed to speak out his mind boldly, and
+exceedingly popular among the peasant population. He grew up himself as
+a peasant, and wore the laborer's blouse up till very recently. He stood
+up and looking the King straight in the face said in resolute tones: "In
+the name of every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M. Malinoff has just
+said, that the Bulgarian people hold you personally responsible more
+than your Government, for the disastrous adventure of 1913. If a
+similar adventure were to be repeated now its gravity this time would be
+irreparable. The responsibility would once more fall on your policy,
+which is contrary to the welfare of our country, and the nation would
+not hesitate to call you personally to account. That there may be no
+mistake as to the real wishes of the country I present to your Majesty
+my country's demand in writing."
+
+He handed the King a letter containing the resolution voted by the
+Agrarians. The King read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of the
+Radical Democrats, and asked him to speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking
+very slowly and impressively, and also looking the King straight in the
+face: "Sire, I had sworn never again to set foot inside your palace, and
+if I come today it is because the interests of my country are above
+personal questions, and have compelled me. Your Majesty may read what I
+have to say in this letter, which I submit to you in behalf of our
+party."
+
+He handed the letter and the King read it and still remained silent.
+Then he said, turning to his former Prime Minister and ablest
+politician: "Gueshoff, it is now your turn to speak."
+
+M. Gueshoff got up and said: "I also am fully in accord with what M.
+Stambulivski has just said. No matter how severe his words may have been
+in their simple unpolished frankness, which ignores the ordinary
+formalities of etiquette, they entirely express our unanimous opinion.
+We all, as representing the opposition, consider the present policy of
+the Government contrary to the sentiments and interests of the country,
+because by driving it to make common cause with Germany it makes us the
+enemies of Russia, which was our deliverer, and the adventure into which
+we are thus thrown compromises our future. We disapprove most absolutely
+of such a policy, and we also ask that the Chamber be convoked, and a
+Ministry formed with the co-operation of all parties."
+
+After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M. Daneff also spoke, and
+associated himself with what had already been said.
+
+The King remained still silent for a while, then he, also, stood up and
+said: "Gentlemen, I have listened to your threats, and will refer them
+to the President of the Council of Ministers, that he may know and
+decide what to do."
+
+All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed. The King had evidently
+taken the frank warning given him as a threat to him personally, and he
+walked up and down nervously for a while. Prince Boris turned aside to
+talk with the Secretary, who had resumed taking notes. The King
+continued pacing to and fro, evidently very nettled. Then, approaching
+M. Zanoff, and as if to change the conversation, he asked him for news
+about this season's harvest.
+
+M. Zanoff abruptly replied: "Your Majesty knows that we have not come
+here to talk about the harvest, but of something far more important at
+present, namely, the policy of your Government, which is on the point of
+ruining our country. We can on no account approve the policy that is
+anti-Russian. If the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their policy
+we shall not answer for the consequences. We have not desired to seek
+out those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because other grave
+events have been precipitated. But it was a disaster due to criminal
+folly. It must not be repeated by an attack on Serbia by Bulgaria, as
+seems contemplated by M. Radoslavoff, and which according to all
+appearances, has the approval of your Majesty. It would be a
+premeditated crime, and deserve to be punished."
+
+The King hesitated a moment, and then held out his hand to M. Zanoff,
+saying: "All right. At all events I thank you for your frankness." Then,
+approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated to him his question about the
+harvest.
+
+M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at first allowed himself to be led
+into a discussion of this secondary matter, and had expressed the hope
+that the prohibition on the export of cereals would be removed, when he
+suddenly remembered, and said: "But this is not the moment to speak of
+these things. I again repeat to your Majesty that the country does not
+want a policy of adventure which cost it so dear in 1913. It was your
+own policy too. Before 1913 we thought you were a great diplomatist, but
+since then we have seen what fruits your diplomacy bears. You took
+advantage of all the loopholes in the Constitution to direct the country
+according to your own views. Your Ministers are nothing. You alone are
+the author of this policy and you will have to bear the responsibility."
+
+The King replied frigidly, "The policy which I have decided to follow is
+that which I consider the best for the welfare of the country."
+
+"It is a policy which will only bring misfortune," replied the sturdy
+Agrarian. "It will lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not only
+the future of our country, but that of your dynasty, and may cost you
+your head."
+
+It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered before a King, and Ferdinand
+looked astonished at the peasant who was thus speaking to him. He said,
+"Do not mind my head; it is already old. Rather mind your own!" he
+added with a disdainful smile, and turned away.
+
+M. Stambulivski retorted: "My head matters little, Sire. What matters
+more is the good of our country."
+
+The King paid no more attention to him, and took M. Gueshoff and M.
+Danoff apart, who again insisted on convoking the Chamber, and assured
+him that M. Radoslavoff's government would be in a minority. They also
+referred to the Premier's oracular utterances.
+
+"Ah!" said the King. "Has Radoslavoff spoken to you, and what has he
+said?"
+
+"He has said--" replied the leaders, "that Bulgaria would march with
+Germany and attack Serbia."
+
+The King made a vague gesture, and then said: "Oh, I did not know."
+
+This incident throws a strong light upon the conflict which was going on
+in the Balkan states, between those Kings who were of German origin, and
+who believed in the German power, and their people who loved Russia.
+King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not listen, and he lost his
+throne. All this, however, took place before the Bulgarian declaration
+of war. Yet much had already shown what King Ferdinand was about to do.
+The Allies, to be sure, were incredulous, and were doing their best to
+cultivate the good will of the treacherous King, On September 23rd the
+official order was given for Bulgaria's mobilization. She, however,
+officially declared that her position was that of armed neutrality and
+that she had no aggressive intentions. As it has developed, she was
+acting under the direction of the German High Command.
+
+It was at this period that Germany had failed to crash Russia in the
+struggle on the Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy when
+one plan failed, another was undertaken. It seemed to her, therefore,
+that the punishment of Serbia would make up for other failures, and
+moreover would enable her to assist Turkey, which needed munitions,
+besides releasing for Germany supplies of food and other material which
+might come from Turkey.
+
+They therefore entrusted an expedition against Serbia to Field Marshal
+von Mackensen, and had begun to gather an army for that purpose, north
+of the Danube.
+
+This army of course was mainly composed of Austrian troops, but was
+stiffened throughout by some of the best regiments from the German army.
+To assist this new army they counted upon Bulgaria, with whom they had
+already a secret treaty, and in spite of the falsehoods issued from
+Sofia, the Bulgarian mobilization was meant for an attack on Serbia. The
+condition of affairs was well understood in Russia.
+
+On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs,
+issued the following statement: "The situation in the Balkans is very
+grave. The whole Russian nation is aroused by the unthinkable treachery
+of Ferdinand and his Government to the Slavic cause. Bulgaria owes her
+independence to Russia, and yet seems willing now to become a vassal of
+Russia's enemies. In her attitude towards Serbia, when Serbia is
+fighting for her very existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class with
+Turkey. We do not believe that the Bulgarian people sympathize with the
+action of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed to give them
+time for reflection. If they persist in their present treacherous course
+they must answer to Russia." The next day the following ultimatum from
+Russia was handed the Bulgarian Prime Minister:
+
+     Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this moment give
+     evidence of the definite decision of King Ferdinand's Government to
+     place the fate of its country in the hands of Germany. The presence
+     of German and Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the
+     staffs of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone
+     bordering on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted
+     from her enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer leave any doubt as
+     to the object of the present military preparations of Bulgaria. The
+     powers of the Entente, who have at heart the realization of the
+     aspirations of the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned
+     M. Radoslavoff that any hostile act against Serbia would be
+     considered as directed against themselves. The assurances given by
+     the head of the Bulgarian Cabinet in reply to these warnings are
+     contradicted by facts. The representative of Russia, bound to
+     Bulgaria by the imperishable memory of her liberation from the
+     Turkish yoke, cannot sanction by his presence preparations for
+     fratricidal aggression against a Slav and allied people. The
+     Russian Minister has, therefore, received orders to leave Bulgaria
+     with all the staffs of the Legation and the Consulates if the
+     Bulgarian Government does not within twenty-four hours openly break
+     with the enemies of the Slav cause and of Russia, and does not at
+     once proceed to send away the officers belonging to the armies of
+     states who are at war with the powers of the Entente.
+
+Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives of France and Great
+Britain. Bulgaria's reply to these ultimatums was described as bold to
+the verge of insolence. In substance she denied that German officers
+were on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that if they were
+present that fact concerned only Bulgaria, which reserved the right to
+invite whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government then issued a
+manifesto to the nation, announcing its decision to enter the war on the
+side of the Central Powers. The manifesto reads as follows:
+
+     The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia, creating an
+     Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely necessary for
+     Bulgaria's independence of the Serbians. We do not believe in the
+     promises of the Quadruple Entente. Italy, one of the Allies,
+     treacherously broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in
+     Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her treaty
+     with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor's side. The Germans
+     and Austro-Hungarians are victorious on all fronts. Russia soon
+     will have collapsed entirely. Then will come the turn of France.
+     Italy and Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not
+     fight on the side of the Central Powers, which offer the only
+     possibility of realizing her desire for a union of all Bulgarian
+     peoples.
+
+The manifesto also stated that Russia was fighting for Constantinople
+and the Dardanelles; Great Britain to destroy Germany's competition;
+France for Alsace and Lorraine, and the other allies to rob foreign
+countries; the Central Powers were declared to be fighting to defend
+property and assure peaceful progress. The manifesto filled seven
+columns in the newspapers, and discussed at some length Bulgaria's trade
+interests. It attacked Serbia most bitterly, declaring that Serbia had
+oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia in a most barbarous
+manner; that she had attacked Bulgarian territory and that the Bulgarian
+troops had been forced to fight for the defense of their own soil. In
+fact it was written in quite the usual German manner.
+
+Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek Premier, had perceived what was
+coming. Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if she were attacked
+by Bulgaria. On September 21st, Venizelos asked France and Britain for a
+hundred and fifty thousand troops. On the 24th, the Allies agreed to
+this and Greece at once began to mobilize. His policy was received with
+great enthusiasm in the Greek Chamber, and former Premier Gounaris, amid
+applause, expressed his support of the government.
+
+On October 6th an announcement from Athens stated that Premier Venizelos
+had resigned, the King having informed him that he was unable to support
+the policy of his Minister. King Constantine was a brother-in-law of the
+German Emperor, and although professing neutrality he had steadily
+opposed M. Venizelos' policy. He had once before forced M. Venizelos'
+resignation, but at the general elections which followed, the Greek
+statesman was returned to power by a decisive majority.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA IN
+SEPTEMBER, 1918]
+
+Intense indignation was caused by the King's action, though the King was
+able to procure the support of a considerable party. Venizelos'
+resignation was precipitated by the landing of the Allied troops in
+Saloniki. They had come at the invitation of Venizelos, but the
+opposition protested against the occupation of Greek territory by
+foreign troops. After a disorderly session in which Venizelos explained
+to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances connected with the landing,
+the Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the Government by 142 to 102.
+The substance of his argument may be found in his conclusion:
+
+"We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are honest we will leave nothing
+undone to insure its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we are
+rogues may we find excuses to avoid our obligations."
+
+Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed Premier, and declared
+for a policy of armed neutrality. This position was sharply criticised
+by Venizelos, but for a time became the policy of the Greek Government.
+Meantime the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki. On October 3d,
+seventy thousand French troops arrived. A formal protest was made by the
+Greek commandant, who then directed the harbor officials to assist in
+arranging the landing. In a short time the Allied forces amounted to a
+hundred and fifty thousand men, but the German campaign was moving
+rapidly.
+
+The German Balkan army captured Belgrade on the 9th of October, and by
+that date two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian frontier. Serbia
+found herself opposed by two hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a
+quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and Roumania fully mobilized and
+were watching the conflict, and the small allied contingent at Saloniki
+was preparing to march inland to the aid of Serbia.
+
+The conduct of Greece on this occasion has led to universal criticism.
+The King himself, no doubt, was mainly moved by his German wife and the
+influence of his Imperial brother-in-law. Those that were associated
+with him were probably moved by fear. They had been much impressed by
+the strength of the German armies. They had seen the success of the
+great German offensive in Russia, while the French and British were
+being held in the West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria. The
+national characteristic of the Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be
+denied that there was great reason to suppose that the armies of Greece
+would not be able to resist the new attack. With these views Venizelos,
+the greatest statesman that Greece had produced for many years, did not
+agree, and the election seemed to show that he was supported by the
+majority of the Greek people.
+
+This was another case where the Allies, faced by a dangerous situation,
+were acting with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had failed,
+because at the very beginning they had not used their full strength.
+Now, again, knowing as they did all that depended upon it, bound as they
+were to the most loyal support of Serbia, the aid they sent was too
+small to be more than a drop in the bucket. It must be remembered,
+however, that the greatest leaders among the Allies were at all times
+opposed to in any way scattering their strength. They believed that the
+war was to be won in France. Military leaders in particular yielded
+under protest to the political leaders when expeditions of this
+character were undertaken.
+
+Certainly this is true, that the world believed that Serbia had a right
+to Allied assistance. The gallant little nation was fighting for her
+life, and public honor demanded that she should be aided. It was this
+strong feeling that led to the action that was taken, in spite of the
+military opinions. It was, however, too late.
+
+In the second week of October Serbia found herself faced by an enemy
+which was attacking her on three sides. She herself had been greatly
+weakened. Her losses in 1914, when she had driven Austria from her
+border, must have been at least two hundred thousand men. She had
+suffered from pestilence and famine. Her strength now could not have
+been more than two hundred thousand, and though she was fairly well
+supplied with munitions, she was so much outnumbered that she could
+hardly hope for success. On her west she was facing the Austro-German
+armies; on her east Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source of
+supplies was Saloniki and this was really her only hope. If the Allies
+at Saloniki could stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians might face
+again the Austro-Germans. They expected this help from the Allies.
+
+At Nish the town was decorated and the school children waited outside
+the station with bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements. But
+the Allies did not come.
+
+Von Mackensen's plan was simple enough. His object was to win a way to
+Constantinople. This could be done either by the control of the Danube
+or the Ottoman Railroad. To control the Danube he had to seize
+northeastern Serbia for the length of the river. This was comparatively
+easy and would give him a clear water way to the Bulgarian railways
+connected with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway was a harder route
+to win. It meant an advance to the southeast, which would clear the
+Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava valley up to Bulgaria.
+The movements involved were somewhat complex, but easily carried out on
+account of the very great numerical superiority of von Mackensen's
+forces.
+
+On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded. The Serbian positions were
+gradually destroyed. On the 7th of October the German armies crossed the
+Danube, and on the 8th the Serbians began to retreat. There was great
+destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian General, Mishitch, was forced
+slowly back to the foothills of the Tser range.
+
+For a time von Mackensen moved slowly. He did not wish to drive the
+Serbians too far south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian army began
+its attack. At first it was held, but by October 17th was pushing
+forward all along the line. On the 20th they entered Uskub, a central
+point of all the routes of southern Serbia. This practically separated
+the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian armies further north.
+Disaster followed disaster. On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction of
+Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was completed in the Dobravodo
+mountains. General von Gallwitz announced that a moment of world
+significance had come, that the "Orient and Occident had been united,
+and on the basis of this firm and indissoluble union a new and mighty
+vierbund comes into being, created by the victory of our arms."
+
+[Illustration: GERMANY'S DREAM: "THE
+BREMEN-BERLIN-BOSPORUS-BAGDAD-BAHN"]
+
+The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria to Turkey
+lay open. On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on November 2nd,
+Kraguyevac surrendered, the decisive battle of the war. On November
+7th, Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced: "After fierce and
+sanguinary fighting the fortress of Nish has been conquered by our brave
+victorious troops and the Bulgarian flag has been hoisted to remain
+forever."
+
+The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat, until on November 8th,
+advancing Franco-British troops almost joined with them, presenting a
+line from Prilep to Dorolovo on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time the
+Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor, and also at Strumitza. The
+Allied armies were now reported to number three hundred thousand men.
+The Austro-Germans by this time had reached the mountainous region of
+Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance.
+
+On November 13th, German despatches from the front claimed the capture
+of 54,000 Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of Serbia was in full
+flight, followed by the Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were still
+fighting and on November 15th, made a stand on the western bank of the
+Morava River, and recaptured the town of Tatova.
+
+At this time the Allied world was watching the Serbian struggle with
+interest and sympathy. In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne in a
+discussion of the English effort to give them aid said: "It is
+impossible to think or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the wondrous
+gallantry with which that little country withstood two separate
+invasions, and has lately been struggling against a third. She repelled
+the first two invasions by an effort which I venture to think formed one
+of the most glorious chapters in the history of this Great War."
+
+Serbia, however, was compelled once more to retreat, and their retreat
+soon became a rout. Their guns were abandoned and the roads were strewn
+with fainting, starving men. The sufferings of the Serbian people during
+this time are indescribable. Men, women, and children struggled along in
+the wake of the armies without food or shelter. King Peter himself was
+able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By traveling on horseback
+and mule back in disguise he finally reached Scutari and crossed to
+Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New Year's Day, crippled and
+almost blind, but still full of fight.
+
+"I believe," he said, "in the liberty of Serbia, as I believe in God. It
+was the dream of my youth. It was for that I fought throughout manhood.
+It has become the faith of the twilight of my life, I live only to see
+Serbia free. I pray that God may let me live until the day of redemption
+of my people. On that day I am ready to die, if the Lord wills. I have
+struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired, bruised and broken from
+it, but I will see, I shall see, this triumph. I shall not die before
+the victory of my country."
+
+The Serbian army had been driven out of Serbia. But the Allies who had
+come up from Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October 12th, the French
+General Serrail arrived and moved with the French forces, as has already
+been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with a number of successes. On
+October 19th they seized the Bulgarian town of Struminitza, and
+occupied strong positions on the left bank of the Vardar. On October
+27th they occupied Krivolak, with the British Tenth Division, which had
+joined them on their right. They then occupied the summit of
+Karahodjali, which commanded the whole section of the valley. This the
+Bulgarians attacked in force on the 5th of November, but were badly
+repulsed. They then attempted to move toward Babuna Pass, twenty-five
+miles west of Krivolak, where they hoped to join hands with the Serbian
+column at that point.
+
+They were being faced by a Bulgarian army numbering one hundred and
+twenty-five thousand men, and found themselves in serious danger. They
+were compelled to fall back into what is called the "Entrenched Camp of
+Kavodar" without bringing the aid to the Serbian army that they had
+hoped. The Allied expedition to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless
+from the start, and, if anything, had injured Serbia by raising false
+expectations which had interfered with their plans.
+
+During the whole of this disastrous campaign a desperate political
+struggle was going on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis Cabinet
+tendered its resignation to King Constantine. The trouble was over a
+bill for extra pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate
+discussion of the Greek war policy, M. Venizelos made two long speeches
+defending his policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents in
+regard to the Balkan situation. He said that he deplored the fact that
+Serbia was being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece's hereditary
+enemy, who would not scruple later to fall on Greece herself. He spoke
+of the King in a friendly way, criticizing, however, his position. He
+had been twice removed from the Premiership, although he had a majority
+behind him in the Greek Chamber.
+
+"Our State," he said, "is a democracy, presided over by the King, and
+the whole responsibility rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the Crown
+has a right to disagree with the responsible Government if he thinks the
+latter is not in agreement with the national will. But after the recent
+election, non-agreement is out of the question, and now the Crown has
+not the right to disagree again on the same question. It is not a
+question of patriotism but of constitutional liberty."
+
+When the vote was taken the Government was defeated by 147 to 114.
+Instead of appointing Venizelos Premier, King Constantine gave the
+position to M. Skouloudis, and then dissolved the Greek Chamber by royal
+decree. Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be neutrality with the
+character of sincerest benevolence toward the Entente Powers. The
+general conditions at Athens during this whole time were causing great
+anxiety in the Allied capitals, and the Allied expedition were in
+continual fear of an attack in the rear in case of reverse. They
+endeavored to obtain satisfactory assurances on this point, and while
+assurances were given, during the whole period of King Constantine's
+reign aggressive action was prevented because of the doubt as to what
+course King Constantine would take.
+
+In the end Constantine was compelled to abdicate. Venizelos became
+Premier, and Greece formally declared war on the Central Powers.
+
+It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania cast aside her role of
+neutral and entered the war with a declaration of hostilities on
+Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were founded upon the supposedly
+well-trained Roumanian army and upon the nation which, because of its
+alertness and discipline, was known as "the policeman of Europe." The
+belief was general in Paris and London that the weight of men and
+material thrown into the scale by Roumania would bring the to a speedy,
+victorious end.
+
+Germany, however, was confident. A spy system excelling in its detailed
+reports anything that had heretofore been attempted, made smooth the
+path of the German army. Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a
+drive in force into Transylvania on August 30th, when the message spread
+from Bucharest "von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army. Draft all
+males of military age. Prepare for the worst."
+
+And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania. A vast force of military
+engineers moving like a human screen in front of von Mackensen's array,
+followed routes carefully mapped out by German spies during the period
+of Roumanians neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the inch, had
+been prepared to carry cannon, material and men over streams and
+ravines. Every Roumanian oil well, mine and storehouse had been located
+and mapped. German scientists had studied Roumanian weather conditions
+and von Mackensen attacked while the roads were at their best and the
+weather most favorable. As the Germans swept forward, spies met them
+giving them military information of the utmost value. A swarm of
+airplanes spied out the movements of the Roumanians and no Roumanian
+airplanes rose to meet them.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with von Mackensen, smashed his way
+through Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to Bucharest at
+Craiova. The Dobrudja region was over-run and the central Roumanian
+plain was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition to the German advance.
+The seat of government transferred from Bucharest to Jassy on November
+28, 1916, and on December 6th Bucharest was entered by von Mackensen,
+definitely putting an end to Roumania as a factor in the war.
+
+The result of the fall of Roumania was to release immense stores of
+petroleum for German use. British and Roumanian engineers had done
+their utmost by the use of explosives to make useless the great
+Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers soon the precious fluid in
+full flow. This furnished the fuel which Germany had long and ardently
+desired. The oil-burning submarine now came into its own. It was
+possible to plan a great fleet of submersibles to attempt execution of
+von Tirpitz's plan for unrestricted submarine warfare. This was decided
+upon by the German High Command, the day Bucharest fell. It was realized
+that such a policy would bring the United States into the war, but the
+Kaiser and his advisers hoped the submarine on sea and a great western
+front offensive on land would force a decision in favor of Germany
+before America could get ready. How that hope failed was revealed at
+Chateau-Thierry and in the humiliation of Germany.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA
+
+
+In our previous discussion of the British campaign in Mesopotamia we
+left the British forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying Basra,
+the port of Bagdad. The object of the Mesopotamia Expedition was
+primarily to keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of Persia. If
+the English had been satisfied with that, the misfortune which was to
+come to them might never have occurred, but the whole expedition was
+essentially political rather than military in its nature.
+
+The British were defending India. The Germans, unable to attack the
+British Empire by sea, were hoping to attack her by land. They had
+already attempted to stir up a Holy War with the full expectation that
+it would lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had failed, for the
+millions of Mohammedans in India cared little for the Turkish Sultan or
+his proclamations. Through Bagdad, however, they hoped to strike a blow
+at the English influence on the Persian Gulf. The English, therefore,
+felt strongly that it was not enough to sit safely astride the Tigris,
+but that a blow at Bagdad would produce a tremendous political effect.
+It would practically prevent German communication with Persia, and the
+Indian frontier.
+
+As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and the oil fields were safe so
+long as the English held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of no
+special consequence. The real reason for the expedition was probably
+that about this time matters were moving badly for the Allies. Serbia
+was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli was a failure, something it
+seemed ought to be done to restore the British prestige. Up to this time
+the Mesopotamia Expedition had been a great success, but it had made no
+great impression on the world. The little villages in the hands of the
+British had unknown names, but if Bagdad should be captured Great
+Britain would have something to boast of; something would keep up its
+prestige among its Mohammedan subjects.
+
+Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined on, there had been
+several lively fights between the English forces and the Turks. On March
+3d a Turkish force numbering about twelve thousand appeared at Ahwaz
+where the British had placed a small garrison to protect the pipe line
+of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The British retirement led to heavy
+fighting, with severe losses.
+
+A number of lively skirmishes followed, and then the serious attack
+against Shaiba. The Turkish army numbered about eighteen thousand men,
+of whom eleven thousand were regulars. The fighting lasted for several
+days, the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of April, however, the
+English attacked in turn and put the whole enemy force to flight. The
+British lost about seven hundred officers and men, reported a Turkish
+loss of about six thousand. In their retreat the Turks were attacked by
+their Arab allies, and suffered additional losses. From that time till
+summer there were no serious contests, although there were occasional
+skirmishes which turned out favorably to the British.
+
+By this time the Turks had collected a considerable army north of Kurna,
+and on May 31st an expedition was made to disperse it. On June 3d the
+British captured Amara, seventy-five miles above Kurna, scattering the
+Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition was sent against
+Nasiriyeh, which led to serious fighting, the Turks being badly defeated
+with a loss of over two thousand five hundred men.
+
+Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in August an expedition was
+directed against that point. The Turks were found in great force, well
+intrenched, and directed by German officers. The battle lasted for four
+days. The English suffered great hardship on account of the scarcity of
+water and the blinding heat, but on September 29th they drove the enemy
+from the city and took possession. More than two thousand prisoners were
+taken. The town was found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate
+system of trenches extending for miles, built in the true German
+fashion. Its capture was the end of the summer campaign.
+
+[Illustration: THE MESOPOTAMIAN SECTOR, WHERE THE BRITISH ROUTED THE
+TURKISH ARMY]
+
+The British now had at last made up their minds to push on to Bagdad.
+General Townshend, whose work so far had been admirable, protested, but
+Sir John Nixon, and the Indian military authorities, were strongly in
+favor of the expedition. By October, Turkey was able to gather a large
+army. She was fighting in Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and
+Mesopotamia. Little was going on in the first three of these fronts,
+and she was able therefore to send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a
+million men.
+
+To meet these, General Townshend had barely fifteen thousand men, of
+whom only one-third were white soldiers. He was backed by a flotilla of
+boats of almost every kind,--river boats, motor launches, paddle
+steamers, native punts. The British army was almost worn out by the
+fighting during the intense heat of the previous summer. But their
+success had given them confidence.
+
+In the early days of October the advance began. For some days it
+proceeded with no serious fighting. On the 23d of October it reached
+Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish force numbering about four thousand.
+These were soon routed, and the advance continued until General
+Townshend arrived at Lajj, about seven miles from Ctesiphon, where the
+Turks were found heavily intrenched and in great numbers. Ctesiphon was
+a famous old city which had been the battle ground of Romans and
+Parthians, but was now mainly ruins. In these ruins, however, the Turks
+found admirable shelter for nests of machine guns. On the 21st of
+November General Townshend made his attack.
+
+The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments, and had about twenty
+thousand men, the English about twelve thousand. General Townshend's
+plan was to divide his army into three columns. The first was to attack
+the center of the first Turkish position. A second was directed at the
+left of that position, and a third was to swing widely around and come
+in on the rear of the Turkish force. This plan was entirely successful,
+but the Turkish army was not routed, and retreated fighting desperately
+to its second line. There it was reinforced and counter-attacked with
+such vigor that it drove the British back to its old first trenches. The
+next day the Turks were further reinforced and attacked again. The
+British drove them back over and over, but found themselves unable to
+advance. The Turks had lost enormously but the English had lost about
+one-third of their strength, and were compelled to fall back. They
+therefore returned on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately, after continual
+rear guard actions, to Kut. There they found themselves surrounded, and
+there was nothing to do but to wait for help. By this time the eyes of
+the world were upon the beleaguered British army. Help was being hurried
+to them from India, but Germany also was awake and Marshal von Der
+Goltz, who had been military instructor in the Turkish army, was sent
+down to take command of the Turkish forces. The town of Kut lies in the
+loop of the Tigris, making it almost an island. There was an intrenched
+line across the neck of land on the north, and the place could resist
+any ordinary assault. The great difficulty was one of supplies. However,
+as the relieving force was on the way, no great anxiety was felt. For
+some days there was constant bombardment, which did no great damage. On
+the 23d an attempt was made to carry the place by assault, but this too
+failed. The relieving force, however, was having its troubles. These
+were the days of floods, and progress was slow and at times almost
+impossible. Moreover, the Turks were constantly resisting.
+
+The relief expedition was composed of thirty thousand Indian troops, two
+Anglo-Indian divisions, and the remnants of Townshend's expedition, a
+total of about ninety thousand men. General Sir Percy Lake was in
+command of the entire force. The march began on January 6th. By January
+8th the British had reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated
+in two pitched battles. On January 22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna,
+where the Turks had intrenched themselves.
+
+After artillery bombardment the Turkish positions were attacked, but
+heavy rains had converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering rapid
+movement impossible. The enemy's fire was heavy and effective,
+inflicting severe losses, and though every effort was made, the assault
+failed.
+
+For days the British troops bivouacked in driving rain on soaked and
+sodden ground. Three times they were called upon to advance over a
+perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and absolutely devoid of cover
+against well-constructed and well-planned trenches, manned by a brave
+and stubborn enemy, approximately their equal in numbers. They showed a
+spirit of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their country may well
+be proud.
+
+But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage the British army. It was
+decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish
+position at the Dujailah redoubt. This meant a night march across the
+desert with great danger that there would be no water supply and that,
+unless the enemy was routed, the army would be in great danger.
+
+General Lake says: "On the afternoon of March 7th, General Aylmer
+assembled his subordinate commanders and gave his final instructions,
+laying particular stress on the fact that the operation was designed to
+effect a surprise, and that to prevent the enemy forestalling us, it was
+essential that the first phase of the operation should be pushed through
+with the utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly, as follows: The
+greater part of a division under General Younghusband, assisted by naval
+gunboats, controlled the enemy on the left bank. The remaining troops
+were formed into two columns, under General Kemball and General Keary
+respectively, a reserve of infantry, and the cavalry brigade, being held
+at the Corps Commander's own disposal. Kemball's column covered on the
+outer flank by the cavalry brigade was to make a turning movement to
+attack the Dujailah redoubt from the south, supported by the remainder
+of the force, operating from a position to the east of the redoubt. The
+night march by this large force, which led across the enemy's front to a
+position on his right flank, was a difficult operation, entailing
+movement over unknown ground, and requiring most careful arrangement to
+attain success."
+
+Thanks to excellent staff work and good march discipline the troops
+reached their allotted position apparently undiscovered by the enemy,
+but while Keary's column was in position at daybreak, ready to support
+Kemball's attack, the latter's command did not reach the point selected
+for its deployment in the Dujailah depression until more than an hour
+later. This delay was highly prejudicial to the success of the
+operation.
+
+When, nearly three hours later, Kemball's troops advanced to the attack,
+they were strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches cleverly concealed
+in the brushwood, and were unable to make further ground for some time,
+though assisted by Keary's attack upon the redoubt from the east. The
+southern attack was now reinforced, and by 1 P.M. had pushed forward to
+within five hundred yards of the redoubt, but concealed trenches again
+stopped further progress and the Turks made several counter-attacks with
+reinforcements which had by now arrived from the direction of Magasis.
+
+It was about this time that the Corps Commander received from his
+engineer officers the unwelcome news that the water supply contained in
+rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression, upon which he had reckoned,
+was insufficient and could not be increased by digging. It was clear,
+therefore, that unless the Dujailah redoubt could be carried that day
+the scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the troops to fall back.
+Preparations were accordingly made for a further assault on the redoubt,
+and attacks were launched from the south and east under cover of a heavy
+bombardment.
+
+The attacking forces succeeded in gaining a foothold in the redoubt. But
+here they were heavily counter-attacked by large enemy reinforcements,
+and being subjected to an extremely rapid and accurate shrapnel fire
+from concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After, they were forced to
+fall back to the position from which they started. The troops who had
+been under arms for some thirty hours, including a long night march,
+were now much exhausted, and General Aylmer considered that a renewal of
+the assault during the night could not be made with any prospect of
+success. Next morning the enemy's position was found to be unchanged and
+General Aylmer, finding himself faced with the deficiency of order
+already referred to, decided upon the immediate withdrawal of his troops
+to Wadi, which was reached the same night.
+
+For the next month the English were held in their positions by the
+Tigris floods. On April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to
+permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna, which this time was
+successful. On April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat was
+attacked, but the English were repulsed. They then determined to make
+another attempt to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On April 17th the
+fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles from Es Sinn, on the left bank, was
+captured after heavy bombardment, and held against serious
+counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st the Sanna-i-yat position was
+bombarded and a vigorous assault was made, which met with some success.
+The Turks, however, delivered a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in
+forcing the British troops back.
+
+General Lake says: "Persistent and repeated attempts on both banks have
+thus failed, and it was known that at the outside not more than six
+days' supplies remained to the Kut garrison. The British troops were
+nearly worn out. The same troops had advanced time and again to assault
+positions strong by art and held by a determined enemy. For eighteen
+consecutive days they had done all that men could do to overcome, not
+only the enemy, but also exceptional climatic and physical obstacles,
+and this on a scale of rations which was far from being sufficient in
+view of the exertions they had undergone but which the shortage of river
+transports, had made it impossible to augment. The need for rest was
+imperative."
+
+On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara surrendered
+unconditionally, after a heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three
+days. According to British figures the surrendered army was composed of
+2,970 English and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish figures are 13,300.
+The Turks also captured a large amount of booty, although General
+Townshend destroyed most of his guns and munitions.
+
+During the period in which Kut-el-Amara was besieged by the Turks, the
+British troops had suffered much. The enemy bombarded the town almost
+every day, but did little damage. The real foe was starvation. At first
+the British were confident that a relief expedition would soon reach
+them, and they amused themselves by cricket and hockey and fishing in
+the river. By early February, however, it was found necessary to reduce
+the rations, and a month later they were suffering from hunger. Some
+little help was given them by airplanes, which brought tobacco and some
+small quantities of supplies. Soon the horses and the mules were
+slaughtered and eaten. As time went on the situation grew desperate;
+till almost the end, however, they did not lose hope. Through the
+wireless they were informed about the progress of the relief expeditions
+and had even heard their guns in the distance. They gradually grew,
+however, weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender the troops in the
+first lines were too weak to march back with their kits.
+
+The Turks treated the prisoners in a chivalric manner; food and tobacco
+was at once distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia, except
+General Townshend and his staff, who were taken to Constantinople. Later
+on it was General Townshend who was to have the honor of carrying the
+Turkish plea for an armistice in the closing days of the war.
+
+The surrender of Kut created a world-wide sensation. The loss of eight
+thousand troops was, of course, not a serious matter, and the road to
+India was still barred, but the moral effect was most unfortunate. That
+the great British nation, whose power had been so respected in the
+Orient, should now be forced to yield, was a great blow to its prestige.
+In England, of course, there was a flood of criticism. It was very plain
+that a mistake had been made. A commission was appointed to inquire into
+the whole business. This committee reported to Parliament on June 26,
+1917, and the report created a great sensation. The substance of the
+report was, that while the expedition was justifiable from a political
+point of view, it was undertaken with insufficient forces and inadequate
+preparation, and it sharply criticized those that were responsible.
+
+It seems plain that the military authorities in India under-estimated
+their opponent. The report especially criticized General Sir John Eccles
+Nixon, the former commander of the British forces in Mesopotamia, who
+had urged the expedition, in spite of the objection of General
+Townshend. Others sharing the blame were the Viceroy of India, Baron
+Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff, Commander-in-Chief of the British
+forces in India, and, in England, Major-General Sir Edmund Barrow,
+Military Secretary of the India office, J. Austin Chamberlain, Secretary
+for India, and the War Committee of the Cabinet. According to the
+report, beside the losses incurred by the surrender more than
+twenty-three thousand men were lost in the relieving expedition. The
+general armament and equipment were declared to be not only
+insufficient, but not up to the standard.
+
+In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain resigned as secretary for
+India. In the House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge, who, at the time of the report, was
+Under Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared the criticism of Baron
+Hardinge to be grossly unjust. After some discussion the House of
+Commons supported Mr. Balfour's refusal to accept Baron Hardinge's
+resignation, by a vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that the
+civil administration of India were not responsible for the blunders of
+the expedition. Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter
+controversy with Lord Curzon, had made the military side of the Indian
+Government free of all civilian criticism and control. The blunders here
+were military blunders.
+
+The English, of course, were not satisfied to leave the situation in
+such a condition, and at once began their plans for a new attempt to
+capture Bagdad. The summer campaign, however, was uneventful, though on
+May 18th a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in Persia joined the
+British camp. A few days afterwards the British army went up the Tigris
+and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they had been so badly defeated
+on the 8th of March. They then approached close to Kut, but the weather
+was unsuitable, and there was now no object in capturing the city.
+
+In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Sir
+Frederick Stanley Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded to
+prepare for an expedition which should capture Bagdad. A dispatch from
+General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a full account of this
+expedition. It was thoroughly successful. This time with a sufficient
+army and a thorough equipment the British found no difficulties, and on
+February 26th they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought
+battle, but as the result of a successful series of small engagements.
+The Turks kept up a steady resistance, but the British blood was up.
+They were remembering General Townshend's surrender, and the Turks were
+driven before them in great confusion.
+
+The capture of Kut, however, was not an object in itself, and the
+British pushed steadily on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally made a
+stand, but without effect. On the 28th of February the English had
+arrived at Azizie, half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made. On the 5th
+of March the advance was renewed. The Ctesiphon position, which had
+defied General Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched, but
+empty. On March 7th the enemy made a stand on the River Diala, which
+enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad. Some lively fighting
+followed, the enemy resisting four attempts to cross the Diala. However,
+on March 10th the British forces crossed, and were now close to Bagdad.
+The enemy suddenly retired and the British troops found that their main
+opponent was a dust storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad, and on March
+11th the city was occupied by the English.
+
+The fall of Bagdad was an important event. It cheered the Allies, and
+proved, especially to the Oriental world, the power of the British army.
+Those who originally planned its capture had been right, but those who
+were to carry out the plan had not done their duty. Under General Maude
+it was a comparatively simple operation, though full of admirable
+details, and it produced all the good effects expected. The British, of
+course, did not stop at Bagdad. The city itself is not of strategic
+importance. The surrounding towns were occupied and an endeavor was made
+to conciliate the inhabitants. The real object of the expedition was
+attained.
+
+[Illustration: BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH
+
+Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of
+the British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the
+ancient city at the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+IMMORTAL VERDUN
+
+
+France was revealed to herself, to Germany and to the world as the
+heroic defender of civilization, as a defender defying death in the
+victory of Verdun. There, with the gateway to Paris lying open at its
+back, the French army, in the longest pitched battle in all history,
+held like a cold blue rock against the uttermost man power and resources
+of the German army.
+
+General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff and military
+dictator of the Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace. There
+the mettle of the Crown Prince was tested and he was found to be merely
+a thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was under the domination of
+von Falkenhayn.
+
+For the tremendous offensive which was planned to end the war by one
+terrific thrust, von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other fronts of
+effective men and munitions. Field Marshal von Hindenburg and his crafty
+Chief of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a campaign against
+Russia designed to put that tottering military Colossus out of the war.
+The plans were upon a scale that might well have proved successful. The
+Kaiser, influenced by the Crown Prince and by von Falkenhayn, decreed
+that the Russian campaign must be postponed and that von Hindenburg must
+send his crack troops to join the army of the Crown Prince fronting
+Verdun. Ludendorff promptly resigned as Chief of Staff to von Hindenburg
+and suggested that the Field Marshal also resign. That grim old warrior
+declined to take this action, preferring to remain idle in East Prussia
+and watch what he predicted would be a useless effort on the western
+front. His warning to the General Staff was explicit, but von Falkenhayn
+coolly ignored the message.
+
+[Illustration: IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS WITH
+THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, "THEY SHALL NOT PASS"]
+
+Why did Germany select this particular point for its grand offensive?
+The answer is to be found in a demand made by the great Junker
+associations of Germany in May, 1915, nine months before the attack was
+undertaken. That demand was to the effect that Verdun should be attacked
+and captured. They declared that the Verdun fortifications made a
+menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields of the Briey basin.
+From this metalliferous field of Lorraine came the ore that supplied
+eighty per cent of the steel required for German and Austrian guns and
+munitions. These fields of Briey were only twenty miles from the great
+guns of Verdun. They were French territory at the beginning of the war
+and had been seized by the army of the Crown Prince, co-operating with
+the Army of Metz because of their immense value to the Germans in war
+making.
+
+As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn placed a semicircle of
+huge howitzers and rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling the
+vast forces drained from all the fronts and having erected ammunition
+dumps covering many acres, the great battle commenced with a surprise
+attack upon the village of Haumont on February 21, 1916.
+
+The first victory of the Germans at that point was an easy one. The
+great fort of Douaumont was the next objective. This was taken on
+February 25th after a concentrated bombardment that for intensity
+surpassed anything that heretofore had been shown in the war.
+
+Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending the disposition of guns and
+men, had now penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun. The tide was
+running against the French, and shells, more shells for the guns of all
+caliber; men, more men for the earthworks surrounding the devoted city
+were needed. The narrow-gauge railway connecting Verdun with the great
+French depots of supplies was totally inadequate for the transportation
+burdens suddenly cast upon it. In this desperate emergency a transport
+system was born of necessity, a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet
+upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles; anything that could
+pack a few shells or a handful of men was utilized. The backbone of the
+system was a great fleet of trucks driven by men whose average daily
+rest was four hours, and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the stains of
+snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were indelibly fixed through the
+winter, spring, summer and fall of 1916, for the glorious engagement
+continued from February 21st until November 2d, when the Germans were
+forced into full retreat from the field of honor, the evacuation of Fort
+Vaux putting a period to Germany's disastrous plan and to von
+Falkenhayn's military career.
+
+Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days of the immortal battle,
+wrote:
+
+"Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary of battles. The mass of
+metal used on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the transformation
+on the Douaumont Ridge was more suddenly dramatic than even the battle
+of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the conflict already looks
+as if it would surpass anything in history. More than a month has
+elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre and General Petain, I
+was able to watch the struggle from various vital viewpoints. The battle
+had then been raging with great intensity for a fortnignt, and, as I
+write, four to five thousand guns are still thundering round Verdun.
+Impossible, therefore, any man to describe the entire battle. The most
+one can do is to set down one's impressions of the first phases of a
+terrible conflict, the end of which cannot be foreseen.
+
+"My chief impression is one of admiration for the subtle powers of mind
+of the French High Command. General Joffre and General Castelnau are men
+with especially fine intellects tempered to terrible keenness. Always
+they have had to contend against superior numbers. In 1870, when they
+were subalterns, their country lost the advantage of its numerous
+population by abandoning general military service at a time when Prussia
+was completely realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In 1914, when
+they were commanders, France was inferior to a still greater degree in
+point of numbers to Prussianized Germany. In armament, France was
+inferior at first to her enemy. The French High Command has thus been
+trained by adversity to do all that human intellect can against almost
+overwhelming hostile material forces. General Joffre, General
+Castelnau--and, later, General Petain, who at a moment's notice
+displaced General Herr--had to display genius where the Germans were
+exhibiting talent, and the result is to be seen at Verdun. They there
+caught the enemy in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown in
+modern warfare--something elemental, and yet subtle, neo-primitive,
+and befitting the atavistic character of the Teuton. They caught him in
+a web of his own unfulfilled boasts.
+
+"The enemy began by massing a surprising force on the western front.
+Tremendous energy and organizing power were the marks of his supreme
+efforts to obtain a decision. It was usually reckoned that the Germans
+maintain on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four and a half
+army corps, which at full strength number three million men. Yet, while
+holding the Russians from Riga to the south of the Pripet Marshes, and
+maintaining a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems to have
+succeeded in bringing up nearly two millions and a half of men for her
+grand spring offensive in the west. At one time her forces in France and
+Flanders were only ninety divisions. But troops and guns were withdrawn
+in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia in December, 1915, until
+there were, it is estimated, a hundred and eighteen divisions on the
+Franco-British-Belgian front. A large number of six-inch and twelve-inch
+Austrian howitzers were added to the enormous Krupp batteries. Then a
+large proportion of new recruits of the 1916 class were moved into
+Rhine-land depots to serve as drafts for the fifty-nine army corps, and
+it is thought that nearly all the huge shell output that had accumulated
+during the winter was transported westward.
+
+"The French Staff reckoned that Verdun would be attacked when the ground
+had dried somewhat in the March winds. It was thought that the enemy
+movement would take place against the British front in some of the
+sectors of which there were chalk undulations, through which the rains
+of winter quickly drained. The Germans skilfully encouraged this idea by
+making an apparent preliminary attack at Lions, on a five-mile front
+with rolling gas-clouds and successive waves of infantry. During this
+feint the veritable offensive movement softly began on Saturday,
+February 19, 1916, when the enormous masses of hostile artillery west,
+east, and north of the Verdun salient started registering on the French
+positions. Only in small numbers did the German guns fire, in order not
+to alarm their opponents. But even this trial bombardment by shifts was
+a terrible display of power, calling forth all the energies of the
+outnumbered French gunners to maintain the artillery duels that
+continued day and night until Monday morning, February 21st.
+
+"The enemy seems to have maintained a bombardment all round General
+Herr's lines on February 21, 1916, but this general battering was done
+with a thousand pieces of field artillery. The grand masses of heavy
+howitzers were used in a different way. At a quarter past seven in the
+morning they concentrated on the small sector of advanced intrenchments
+near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch shells fell with terrible
+precision every few yards, according to the statements made by the
+French troops. I afterwards saw a big German shell, from at least six
+miles distant from my place of observation, hit quite a small target. So
+I can well believe that, in the first bombardment of French positions,
+which had been photographed from the air and minutely measured and
+registered by the enemy gunners in the trial firing, the great,
+destructive shots went home with extraordinary effect. The trenches were
+not bombarded--they were obliterated. In each small sector of the
+six-mile northward bulge of the Verdun salient the work of destruction
+was done with surprising quickness.
+
+"After the line from Brabant to Haumont was smashed, the main fire power
+was directed against the other end of the bow at Herbebois, Ornes, and
+Maucourt. Then when both ends of the bow were severely hammered, the
+central point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods, was smothered in
+shells of all sizes, poured in from east, north and west. In this manner
+almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery was centered upon
+mile after mile of the French front. When the great guns lifted over the
+lines of craters, the lighter field artillery placed row after row in
+front of the wreckage, maintained an unending fire curtain over the
+communicating saps and support intrenchments.
+
+"Then came the second surprising feature in the new German system of
+attack. No waves of storming infantry swept into the battered works.
+Only strong patrols at first came cautiously forward, to discover if it
+were safe for the main body of troops to advance and reorganize the
+French line so as to allow the artillery to move onward. There was thus
+a large element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards told by
+German prisoners. Their commanders thought it would be possible to do
+all the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving the infantry to act
+as squatters to the great guns and occupy and rebuild line after line of
+the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand struggles. All they
+had to do was to protect the gunners from surprise attack, while the
+guns made an easy path for them and also beat back any counter-attack in
+force.
+
+"But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving the man-power of Germany
+by an unparalleled expenditure of shell, it required for full success
+the co-operation of the French troops. But the French did not
+co-operate. Their High Command had continually improved their system of
+trench defense in accordance with the experiences of their own hurricane
+bombardments in Champagne and the Carency sector. General Castelnau, the
+acting Commander-in-Chief on the French front, was indeed the inventor
+of hurricane fire tactics, which he had used for the first time in
+February, 1915, in Champagne. When General Joffre took over the conduct
+of all French operations, leaving to General Castelnau the immediate
+control of the front in France, the victor of the battle of Nancy
+weakened his advance lines and then his support lines, until his troops
+actually engaged in fighting were very little more than a thin covering
+body, such as is thrown out towards the frontier while the main forces
+connect well behind.
+
+"We shall see the strategical effect of this extraordinary measure in
+the second phase of the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to
+leave remarkably few French troops exposed to the appalling tempest of
+German and Austrian shells. The fire-trench was almost empty, and in
+many cases the real defenders of the French line were men with machine
+guns, hidden in dug-outs at some distance from the photographed
+positions at which the German gunners aimed. The batteries of light
+guns, which the French handled with the flexibility and continuity of
+fire of Maxims, were also concealed in widely scattered positions. The
+main damage caused by the first intense bombardment was the destruction
+of all the telephone wires along the French front. In one hour the
+German guns plowed up every yard of ground behind the observing posts
+and behind the fire trench. Communications could only be slowly
+re-established by messengers, so that many parties of men had to fight
+on their own initiative, with little or no combination of effort with
+their comrades.
+
+"Yet, desperate as were their circumstances, they broke down the German
+plan for capturing trenches without an infantry attack. They caught the
+patrols and annihilated them, and then swept back the disillusioned and
+reluctant main bodies of German troops. First, the bombing parties were
+felled, then the sappers as they came forward to repair the line for
+their infantry, and at last the infantry itself in wave after wave of
+field-gray. The small French garrison of every center of resistance
+fought with cool, deadly courage, and often to the death.
+
+"Artillery fire was practically useless against them, for though their
+tunnel shelters were sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch shells, which
+they regarded as their special terror by reason of their penetrative
+power and wide blast, even the Germans had not sufficient shells to
+search out all their underground chambers, every one of which have two
+or three exits.
+
+"The new organization of the French Machine-gun Corps was a fine factor
+in the eventual success. One gun fired ten thousand rounds daily for a
+week, most of the positions selected being spots from which each German
+infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered. Then the French 75's
+which had been masked during the overwhelming fire of the enemy
+howitzers, came unexpectedly into action when the German infantry
+attacks increased in strength. Near Haumont, for example, eight
+successive furious assaults were repulsed by three batteries of 75's.
+One battery was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch guns, but it
+remained in action until all its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners
+then blew up their guns and retired, with the loss of only one man.
+
+[Illustration: AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS
+
+Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a
+shattered village.]
+
+[Illustration: HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED
+
+The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of
+action.]
+
+"Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown Prince's army from the fourteen
+divisions--that battled at Douaumont Fort--to twenty-five divisions.
+In April he added five more divisions to the forces around Verdun by
+weakening the effectives in other sectors and drawing more troops from
+the Russian front. It was rumored that von Hindenburg was growing
+restive and complaining that the wastage at Verdun would tell against
+the success of the campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was to open
+when the Baltic ice melted.
+
+"Great as was the wastage of life, it was in no way immediately
+decisive. But when the expenditure of shells almost outran the highest
+speed of production of the German munition factories, and the wear on
+the guns was more than Krupp and Skoda could make good, there was danger
+to the enemy in beginning another great offensive likely to overtax his
+shellmakers and gunmakers."
+
+Immortal and indomitable France had won over her foe more power than she
+had possessed even after the battle of the Marne. If her Allies, with
+the help of Japan and the United States, could soon overtake the
+production of the German and Austrian munition factories, it was
+possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan, might become one of the turning
+points of the war.
+
+Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with the whole population of France
+roused to the supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like a rock.
+Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green lines were sent against the
+twenty-five miles of earthworks, while the French guns took their toll
+of the crack German regiments. German dead lay upon the field until
+exposed flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms. No Man's
+Land around Verdun was a waste and a stench.
+
+General Joffre's plan was very simple. It was to hold out. As was
+afterwards revealed, much to the satisfaction of the French people, Sir
+Douglas Haig had placed himself completely at the service of the French
+Commander-in-Chief, and had suggested that he should use the British
+army to weaken the thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had refused the
+proffered help. No man knew better than he what his country, with its
+exceedingly low birthrate, was suffering on the Meuse. He had but to
+send a telegram to British Headquarters, and a million Britons, with
+thousands of heavy guns, would fling themselves upon the German lines
+and compel Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy artillery,
+and his millions of men between Verdun and the Somme. But General
+Joffre, instead of sending the telegram in question, merely dispatched
+officers to British Headquarters to assure and calm the chafing Scotsman
+commanding the military forces of the British Empire.
+
+Throughout that long summer the battle cry of Verdun, "_Ne passeront
+pas_!" ("They shall not pass!"), was an inspiration to the French army
+and to the world. Then as autumn drifted its red foliage over the
+heights surrounding the bloody field, the French struck back. General
+Nivelle, who had taken command at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a
+series of attacks and a persistent pressure against the German forces on
+both sides of the Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden sweeping
+attack which on October 24th, resulted in the recapture by Nivelle's
+forces of Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the recapture of Fort
+Vaux.
+
+Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle in the long and honorable
+history of France.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE WORLD WAR, VOL. 3***
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+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #16282 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16282)