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diff --git a/16282-0.txt b/16282-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7dd2d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/16282-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4262 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 *** + + [Illustration: THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR + + The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to + the stirrup leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an + avalanche upon the German lines, tearing great gaps in their massed + formations.] + + + + + COMPLETE EDITION + + HISTORY OF THE + WORLD WAR + + An Authentic Narrative of + The World’s Greatest War + + BY FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D. + In Collaboration with + RICHARD J. BEAMISH + Special War Correspondent + and Military Analyst + + With an Introduction + BY GENERAL PEYTON C. MARCH + Chief of Staff of the United States Army + + With Exclusive Photographs by + JAMES H. HARE and DONALD THOMPSON + World-Famed War Photographers + and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs + of the United States, Canadian, British, + French and Italian Governments + + MCMXIX + LESLIE-JUDGE COMPANY + NEW YORK + + + + + Copyright, 1918 + + FRANCIS A. MARCH + + + This history is an original work and is fully protected by the + copyright laws, including the right of translation. All persons are + warned against reproducing the text in whole or in part without the + permission of the publishers. + + + + +CONTENTS + +VOLUME III + + + PAGE + + CHAPTER I. NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES + + War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation + of No Man’s Land--Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over + Four Years--Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for + Every Foot of Gain 1 + + + CHAPTER II. ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA + + Her Great Decision--D’Annunzio, Poet and Patriot--Italia + Irredenta--German Indignation--The Campaigns + on the Isonzo and in the Tyrol 29 + + + CHAPTER III. GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI + + A Titanic Enterprise--Its Objects--Disasters and Deeds + of Deathless Glory--The Heroic Anzacs--Bloody Dashes up + Impregnable Slopes--Silently they Stole Away--A Successful + Failure 58 + + + CHAPTER IV. THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY + + The Battle of Jutland--Every Factor on Sea and in Sky + Favorable to the Germans--Low Visibility a Great Factor--A + Modern Sea Battle--Light Cruisers Screening Battleship + Squadron--Germans Run Away when British Fleet + Marshals Its Full Strength--Death of Lord Kitchener 78 + + + CHAPTER V. THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + + The Advance on Cracow--Von Hindenburg Strikes at + Warsaw--German Barbarism--The War in Galicia--The + Fall of Przemysl--Russia’s Ammunition Fails--The Russian + Retreat--The Fall of Warsaw--The Last Stand--Czernowitz 104 + + + CHAPTER VI. HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED + + Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany--Dramatic + Scene in the King’s Palace--The Die is Cast--Bulgaria + Succumbs to Seductions of Potsdam Gang--Greece + Mobilizes--French and British Troops at Saloniki--Serbia + Over-run--Roumania’s Disastrous Venture in the Arena of Mars 145 + + + CHAPTER VII. THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA + + British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara--After + Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders + after 143 Days of Siege--New British Expedition + Recaptures Kut--Troops Push on Up the Tigris--Fall of + Bagdad the Magnificent 187 + + + CHAPTER VIII. IMMORTAL VERDUN + + Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and + the Crown Prince--Hindenburg’s Warning--Why the Germans + Made the Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great + Fortress--Heroic France Reveals Itself to the World--“They + Shall Not Pass”--Nivelle’s Glorious Stand on + Dead Man Hill--Lord Northcliffe’s Description--A Defense + Unsurpassed in the History of France 209 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + +VOLUME III + + PAGE + + THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR _Frontispiece_ + + THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS 4 + + CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS 6 + + BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT NEUVE + CHAPELLE 10 + + CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS 12 + + AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS 18 + + ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS 30 + + WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK 38 + + TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN + MOUNTAIN FRONT 42 + + THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE” 68 + + THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR 76 + + ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS 98 + + ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY 98 + + GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR 110 + + BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH 208 + + AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS 224 + + HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED 224 + + + + +THE WORLD WAR + + + + +CHAPTER I + +NEUVE CHAPELLE AND WAR IN BLOOD-SOAKED TRENCHES + + +After the immortal stand of Joffre at the first battle of the Marne +and the sudden savage thrust at the German center which sent von Kluck +and his men reeling back in retreat to the prepared defenses along the +line of the Aisne, the war in the western theater resolved itself into +a play for position from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would come a +sudden big push by one side or the other in which artillery was massed +until hub touched hub and infantry swept to glory and death in waves +of gray, or blue or khaki as the case might be. But these tremendous +efforts and consequent slaughters did not change the long battle line +from the Alps to the North Sea materially. Here and there a bulge +would be made by the terrific pressure of men and material in some +great assault like that first push of the British at Neuve Chapelle, +like the German attack at Verdun or like the tremendous efforts by both +sides on that bloodiest of all battlefields, the Somme. + +Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention as the test in which the +British soldiers demonstrated their might in equal contest against +the enemy. There had been a disposition in England as elsewhere up to +that time to rate the Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of the +scientific equipment with which the German army had taken the field. +When the battle of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although its losses +were heavy, there was no longer any doubt in the British nation that +victory was only a question of time. + +The action came as a pendant to the attack by General de Langle de +Cary’s French army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that had been +a steady relentless pressure by artillery and infantry upon a strong +German position. To meet it heavy reinforcements had been shifted +by the Germans from the trenches between La Bassée and Lille. The +earthworks at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly depleted and only +a comparatively small body of Saxons and Bavarians defended them. +Opposite this body was the first British army. The German intrenchments +at Neuve Chapelle surrounded and defended the highlands upon which were +placed the German batteries and in their turn defended the road towards +Lille, Roubaix and Turcoing. + + [Illustration: THE BATTLE-GROUND OF NEUVE CHAPELLE] + +The task assigned to Sir John French was to make an assault with only +forty-eight thousand men on a comparatively narrow front. There was +only one practicable method for effective preparation, and this was +chosen by the British general. An artillery concentration absolutely +unprecedented up to that time was employed by him. Field pieces firing +at point-blank range were used to cut the barbed wire entanglements +defending the enemy intrenchments, while howitzers and bombing +airplanes were used to drop high explosives into the defenseless +earthworks. + +Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief of the British +forces, was in command of the first army. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien +commanded the second army. It was the first army that bore the brunt of +the attack. + + [Illustration: THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS + + An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of + eleven guns posted in a wood had caused havoc in the British ranks. The + Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of + shell from the other German batteries, cut down all the gunners, and + put every gun out of action.] + +No engagement during the years on the western front was more sudden +and surprising in its onset than that drive of the British against +Neuve Chapelle. At seven o’clock on the morning of Wednesday, March +10, 1915, the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing over +a desultory shell fire upon the German trenches. It was the usual +breakfast appetizer, and nobody on the German side took any unusual +notice of it. Really, however, the shelling was scientific “bracketing” +of the enemy’s important position. The gunners were making sure of +their ranges. + +At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar that shook the earth the +most destructive and withering artillery action of the war up to that +time was on. Field pieces sending their shells hurtling only a few +feet above the earth tore the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces +and made kindling wood of the supports. Howitzers sent high explosive +shells, containing lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber +into the doomed trenches and later into the ruined village. It was +eight o’clock in the morning, one-half hour after the beginning of the +artillery action, that the village was bombarded. During this time +British soldiers were enabled to walk about in No Man’s Land behind +the curtain of fire with absolute immunity. No German rifleman or +machine gunner left cover. The scene on the German side of the line was +like that upon the blasted surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell +holes, and with no trace of human life to be seen above ground. + +An eye-witness describing the scene said: + +“The dawn, which broke reluctantly through a veil of clouds on the +morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the +Germans behind the white and blue sandbags in their long line of +trenches curving in a hemicycle about the battered village of Neuve +Chapelle. For five months they had remained undisputed masters of the +positions they had here wrested from the British in October. Ensconced +in their comfortably-arranged trenches with but a thin outpost in their +fire trenches, they had watched day succeed day and night succeed night +without the least variation from the monotony of trench warfare, the +intermittent bark of the machine guns--rat-tat-tat-tat-tat--and the +perpetual rattle of rifle fire, with here and there a bomb, and now +and then an exploded mine. + + [Illustration: © _Illustrated London News_. + + CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS + + In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed + by the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up in + the face of a murderous German fire.] + +“For weeks past the German airmen had grown strangely shy. On this +Wednesday morning none were aloft to spy out the strange doings which, +as dawn broke, might have been descried on the desolate roads behind +the British lines. + +“From ten o’clock of the preceding evening endless files of men marched +silently down the roads leading towards the German positions through +Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast, poor shattered villages of the +dead where months of incessant bombardment have driven away the last +inhabitants and left roofless houses and rent roadways.... + +“Two days before, a quiet room, where Nelson’s Prayer stands on the +mantel-shelf, saw the ripening of the plans that sent these sturdy sons +of Britain’s four kingdoms marching all through the night. Sir John +French met the army corps commanders and unfolded to them his plans for +the offensive of the British army against the German line at Neuve +Chapelle. + +“The onslaught was to be a surprise. That was its essence. The Germans +were to be battered with artillery, then rushed before they recovered +their wits. We had thirty-six clear hours before us. Thus long, it was +reckoned (with complete accuracy as afterwards appeared), must elapse +before the Germans, whose line before us had been weakened, could rush +up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy’s being pinned down right and +left of the ‘great push,’ an attack was to be delivered north and south +of the main thrust simultaneously with the assault on Neuve Chapelle.” + +After describing the impatience of the British soldiers as they +awaited the signal to open the attack, and the actual beginning of the +engagement, the narrator continues: + +“Then hell broke loose. With a mighty, hideous, screeching burst of +noise, hundreds of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches were +deafened by the sharp reports of the field-guns spitting out their +shells at close range to cut through the Germans’ barbed wire +entanglements. In some cases the trajectory of these vicious missiles +was so flat that they passed only a few feet above the British trenches. + +“The din was continuous. An officer who had the curious idea of +putting his ear to the ground said it was as though the earth were +being smitten great blows with a Titan’s hammer. After the first few +shells had plunged screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into the +German trenches, a dense pall of smoke hung over the German lines. +The sickening fumes of lyddite blew back into the British trenches. +In some places the troops were smothered in earth and dust or even +spattered with blood from the hideous fragments of human bodies that +went hurtling through the air. At one point the upper half of a German +officer, his cap crammed on his head, was blown into one of our +trenches. + +“Words will never convey any adequate idea of the horror of those five +and thirty minutes. When the hands of officers’ watches pointed to +five minutes past eight, whistles resounded along the British lines. +At the same moment the shells began to burst farther ahead, for, by +previous arrangement, the gunners, lengthening their fuses, were +‘lifting’ on to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to leave the road +open for our infantry to rush in and finish what the guns had begun. + +“The shells were now falling thick among the houses of Neuve Chapelle, +a confused mass of buildings seen reddish through the pillars of smoke +and flying earth and dust. At the sound of the whistle--alas for the +bugle, once the herald of victory, now banished from the fray!--our +men scrambled out of the trenches and hurried higgledy-piggledy into +the open. Their officers were in front. Many, wearing overcoats and +carrying rifles with fixed bayonets, closely resembled their men. + + [Illustration: BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT + NEUVE CHAPELLE + + Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved + to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters in the Imperial + forces.] + +“It was from the center of our attacking line that the assault was +pressed home soonest. The guns had done their work well. The trenches +were blown to irrecognizable pits dotted with dead. The barbed wire +had been cut like so much twine. Starting from the Rue Tilleloy the +Lincolns and the Berkshires were off the mark first, with orders to +swerve to right and left respectively as soon as they had captured the +first line of trenches, in order to let the Royal Irish Rifles and the +Rifle Brigade through to the village. The Germans left alive in the +trenches, half demented with fright, surrounded by a welter of dead +and dying men, mostly surrendered. The Berkshires were opposed with +the utmost gallantry by two German officers who had remained alone +in a trench serving a machine gun. But the lads from Berkshire made +their way into that trench and bayoneted the Germans where they stood, +fighting to the last. The Lincolns, against desperate resistance, +eventually occupied their section of the trench and then waited for +the Irishmen and the Rifle Brigade to come and take the village ahead +of them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth Garhwalis on the right had +taken their trenches with a rush and were away towards the village and +the Biez Wood. + +“Things had moved so fast that by the time the troops were ready to +advance against the village the artillery had not finished its work. +So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled the prisoners who were +trooping out of the trenches in all directions, the infantry on whom +devolved the honor of capturing the village, waited. One saw them +standing out in the open, laughing and cracking jokes amid the terrific +din made by the huge howitzer shells screeching overhead and bursting +in the village, the rattle of machine guns all along the line, and +the popping of rifles. Over to the right where the Garhwalis had been +working with the bayonet, men were shouting hoarsely and wounded were +groaning as the stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved +swiftly to and fro over the shell-torn ground. + + [Illustration: CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS + + Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm + of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even a whiff + of the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows + the earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to keep up + with Germany’s development of gas warfare.] + +“There was bloody work in the village of Neuve Chapelle. The capture +of a place at the bayonet point is generally a grim business, in which +instant, unconditional surrender is the only means by which bloodshed, +a deal of bloodshed, can be prevented. If there is individual +resistance here and there the attacking troops cannot discriminate. +They must go through, slaying as they go such as oppose them (the +Germans have a monopoly of the finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise +the enemy’s resistance would not be broken, and the assailants would be +sniped and enfiladed from hastily prepared strongholds at half a dozen +different points. + +“The village was a sight that the men say they will never forget. It +looked as if an earthquake had struck it. The published photographs do +not give any idea of the indescribable mass of ruins to which our guns +reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very line of the streets is +all but obliterated. + +“It was indeed a scene of desolation into which the Rifle Brigade--the +first regiment to enter the village, I believe--raced headlong. Of the +church only the bare shell remained, the interior lost to view beneath +a gigantic mound of débris. The little churchyard was devastated, +the very dead plucked from their graves, broken coffins and ancient +bones scattered about amid the fresher dead, the slain of that +morning--gray-green forms asprawl athwart the tombs. Of all that once +fair village but two things remained intact--two great crucifixes +reared aloft, one in the churchyard, the other over against the +château. From the cross, that is the emblem of our faith, the figure of +Christ, yet intact though all pitted with bullet marks, looked down in +mute agony on the slain in the village. + +“The din and confusion were indescribable. Through the thick pall +of shell smoke Germans were seen on all sides, some emerging half +dazed from cellars and dugouts, their hands above their heads, others +dodging round the shattered houses, others firing from the windows, +from behind carts, even from behind the overturned tombstones. Machine +guns were firing from the houses on the outskirts, rapping out their +nerve-racking note above the noise of the rifles. + +“Just outside the village there was a scene of tremendous enthusiasm. +The Rifle Brigade, smeared with dust and blood, fell in with the Third +Gurkhas with whom they had been brigaded in India. The little brown men +were dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had very thoroughly gone +through some houses at the cross-roads on the Rue du Bois and silenced +a party of Germans who were making themselves a nuisance there with +some machine guns. Riflemen and Gurkhas cheered themselves hoarse.” + +Unfortunately for the complete success of the brilliant attack a great +delay was caused by the failure of the artillery that was to have +cleared the barbed-wire entanglements for the Twenty-third Brigade, and +because of the unlooked for destruction of the British field telephone +system by shell and rifle fire. The check of the Twenty-third Brigade +banked other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth Brigade was +obliged to fight at right angles to the line of battle. The Germans +quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific toll in British +lives. Particularly was this true at three specially strong German +positions. One called Port Arthur by the British, another at Pietre +Mill and the third was the fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek. + +Because of the lack of telephone communication it was impossible to +send reinforcements to the troops that had been held up by barbed wire +and other emplacements and upon which German machine guns were pouring +a steady stream of death. + +As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held up by unbroken barbed wire +northwest of Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of the Fourth +Corps was also checked in its action against the ridge of Aubers on +the left of Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir Douglas Haig the +Seventh Division was to have waited until the Eighth Division had +reached Neuve Chapelle, when it was to charge through Aubers. With +the tragic mistake that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly, the +plan affecting the Seventh Division went awry. The German artillery, +observing the concentration of the Seventh Division opposite Aubers, +opened a vigorous fire upon that front. During the afternoon General +Haig ordered a charge upon the German positions. The advance was made +in short rushes in the face of a fire that seemed to blaze from an +inferno. Inch by inch the ground was drenched with British blood. At +5.30 in the afternoon the men dug themselves in under the relentless +German fire. Further advance became impossible. + +The night was one of horror. Every minute the men were under heavy +bombardment. At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British infantry +rushed from the trenches in an effort to carry Aubers, but the enemy +artillery now greatly reinforced made that task an impossible one. +The trenches occupied by the British forces were consolidated and the +salient made by the push was held by the British with bulldog tenacity. + +The number of men employed in the action on the British side was +forty-eight thousand. During the early surprise of the action the loss +was slight. Had the wire in front of the Twenty-third Brigade been cut +by the artillery assigned to such action, and had the telephone system +not been destroyed the success of the thrust would have been complete. +The delay of four and a half hours between the first and second +phases of the attack caused virtually all the losses sustained by the +attacking force. The total casualties were 12,811 men of the British +forces. Of these 1,751 officers and privates were taken prisoners and +10,000 officers and men were killed and wounded. + +The action continued throughout Thursday, March 11th, with little +change in the general situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle +and their intrenchments threatened Aubers. On Friday morning, March +12th, the Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate attempt under +cover of a heavy fog to recapture the village. The effort was made in +characteristic German dense formations. The Westphalian and Bavarian +troops came out of Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be +blown to pieces by British guns already loaded and laid on the mark. +Elsewhere the British waited until the Germans were scarcely more than +fifty paces away when they opened with deadly rapid fire before +which the German waves melted like snow before steam. It was such +slaughter as the British had experienced when held up before Aubers. +Slaughter that staggered Germany. + + [Illustration: AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS + + A Bavarian battery caught in British gunfire while limbering up. Only + three guns escaped in the hail of bursting shells.] + +So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which the decision rested with the +British, a victory for which a fearful price had been paid but out of +which came a confidence that was to hearten the British nation and to +put sinews of steel into the British army for the dread days to come. + +The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated in large and in miniature many +times during the deadlock of trench warfare on the western front until +victory finally came to the Allies. During those years the western +battle-front lay like a wounded snake across France and Belgium. It +writhed and twisted, now this way, now that, as one side or the other +gambled with men and shells and airplanes for some brief advantage. +It bent back in a great bulge when von Hindenburg made his famous +retreat in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had pressed heavily +against the Teutonic front upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The +record is one of great value to military strategists, to the layman it +is only a succession of artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial +reconnaissances and combats. + +One day grew to be very much like another in that deadlock of pythons. +A play for position here was met by a counter-thrust in another place. +German inventions were outmatched and outnumbered by those coming from +the Allied side. + +Trench warfare became the daily life of the men. They learned to +fight and live in the open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal +conditions was never better exemplified than in those weary, dreary +years on the western front. + + [Illustration: SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME + + The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence. + Peronne was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17; + in the last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged + through Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with awful + losses by Marshal Foch.] + +The fighting-lines consisted generally of one, two, or three lines +of shelter-trenches lying parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five +inches in width, and varying in length according to the number they +hold; the trenches were joined together by zigzag approaches and by +a line of reinforced trenches (armed with machine guns), which were +almost completely proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire. The +ordinary German trenches were almost invisible from 350 yards away, a +distance which permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to realize that +if the enemy occupied three successive lines and a line of reinforced +intrenchments, the attacking line was likely, at the lowest estimate, +to be decimated during an advance of 350 yards--by rifle fire at a +range of 350 yards’ distance, and by the extremely quick fire of the +machine guns, each of which delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute +with absolute precision. In the field-trench, a soldier enjoyed far +greater security than he would if merely prone behind his knapsack in +an excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He had merely to stoop down +a little to disappear below the level of the ground and be immune from +infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns fired without endangering +him. In addition, this stooping position brought the man’s knapsack on +a level with his helmet, thus forming some protection against shrapnel +and shell-splinters. + +At the back of the German trenches shelters were dug for +non-commissioned officers and for the commander of the unit. + +Ever since the outbreak of the war, the French troops in Lorraine, +after severe experiences, realized rapidly the advantages of the German +trenches, and began to study those they had taken gloriously. Officers, +non-commissioned officers, and men of the engineers were straightway +detached in every unit to teach the infantry how to construct similar +shelters. The education was quick, and very soon they had completed +the work necessary for the protection of all. The tools of the enemy +“casualties,” the spades and picks left behind in deserted villages, +were all gladly piled on to the French soldiers’ knapsacks, to be +carried willingly by the very men who used to grumble at being loaded +with even the smallest regulation tool. As soon as night had set in on +the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the digging of the trenches +was begun. Sometimes, in the darkness, the men of each fighting +nation--less than 500 yards away from their enemy--would hear the noise +of the workers of the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers’ +words of encouragement; and tacitly they would agree to an armistice +during which to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they would +dash out, to fight once more. + +Commodious, indeed, were some of the trench barracks. One French +soldier wrote: + +“In really up-to-date intrenchments you may find kitchens, +dining-rooms, bedrooms, and even stables. One regiment has first class +cow-sheds. One day a whimsical ‘piou-piou,’ finding a cow wandering +about in the danger zone, had the bright idea of finding shelter for it +in the trenches. The example was quickly followed, and at this moment +the --th Infantry possess an underground farm, in which fat kine, well +cared for, give such quantities of milk that regular distributions of +butter are being made--and very good butter, too.” + +But this is not all. An officer writes home a tale of yet another one +of the comforts of home added to the equipment of the trenches: + +“We are clean people here. Thanks to the ingenuity of ----, we are able +to take a warm bath every day from ten to twelve. We call this teasing +the ‘boches,’ for this bathing-establishment of the latest type is +fitted up--would you believe it?--in the trenches!” + +Describing trenches occupied by the British in their protracted +“siege-warfare” in Northern France along and to the north of the Aisne +Valley, a British officer wrote: “In the firing-line the men sleep +and obtain shelter in the dugouts they have hollowed or ‘undercut’ in +the side of the trenches. These refuges are lightly raised above the +bottom of the trench, so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor +of the trench is also sloped for purposes of draining. Some trenches +are provided with head-cover, and others with overhead cover, the +latter, of course, giving protection from the weather as well as from +shrapnel balls and splinters of shells.... At all points subject +to shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind is provided by +communication-trenches. These are now so good that it is possible to +cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced trenches from the +billets in villages, the bivouacs in quarries, or the other places +where the headquarters of units happen to be.” + +A cavalry subaltern gave the following account of life in the trenches: +“Picnicking in the open air, day and night (you never see a roof now), +is the only real method of existence. There are loads of straw to bed +down on, and everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with shrapnel +bursting within fifty yards.” + +One English officer described the ravages of modern artillery fire, not +only upon all men, animals and buildings within its zone, but upon the +very face of nature itself: “In the trenches crouch lines of men, in +brown or gray or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed with the +continual strain.” + +“The fighting is now taking place over ground where both sides have for +weeks past been excavating in all directions,” said another letter +from the front, “until it has become a perfect labyrinth. A trench +runs straight for a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks in +three or four directions. One branch merely leads into a ditch full of +water, used in drier weather as a means of communication; another ends +abruptly in a cul-de-sac, probably an abandoned sap-head; the third +winds on, leading into galleries and passages further forward. + +“Sometimes where new ground is broken the spade turns up the +long-buried dead, ghastly relics of former fights, and on all sides the +surface of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by fragments of shell and +bombs and distorted by mines. Seen from a distance, this apparently +confused mass of passages, crossing and re-crossing one another, +resembles an irregular gridiron. + +“The life led by the infantry on both sides at close quarters is a +strange, cramped existence, with death always near, either by means +of some missile from above or some mine explosion from beneath--a +life which has one dull, monotonous background of mud and water. +Even when there is but little fighting the troops are kept hard at +work strengthening the existing defenses, constructing others, and +improvising the shelter imperative in such weather.” + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ITALY DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA + + +For many years before the great war began the great powers of Europe +were divided into two great alliances, the Triple Entente, composed +of Russia, France and England, and the Triple Alliance, composed of +Germany, Austria and Italy. When the war began Italy refused to join +with Germany and Austria. Why? The answer to this question throws a +vivid light on the origin of the war. + +Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance; she knew the facts, not +only what was given to the public, but the inside facts. According to +the terms of the alliance each member was bound to stand by each other +only in case of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria and Germany +because they were the aggressors. The constant assertions of the +German statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war had been forced +upon them were declared untrue by their associate Italy in the very +beginning, and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of the world. Not +much was said in the beginning about Italy’s abstention from war. The +Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted that some day Italy would +be made to regret her course, but now that the Teuton snake is scotched +the importance of Italy’s action has been perceived and appraised at +its true value. + +The Germans from the very beginning understood the real danger that +might come to the Central Powers through Italian action. Every effort +was made by the foreign office to keep her neutral. First threats were +used, later promises were held out of addition to Italian territory if +she would send her troops to Germany’s assistance. When this failed the +most strenuous efforts were made to keep Italy neutral, and a former +German premier, Prince von Bülow, was sent to Italy for this purpose. +Socialist leaders, too, were sent from Germany to urge the Italian +Socialists to insist upon neutrality. + + [Illustration: ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS + + When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against + Austria descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable natural + obstacles they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into + position in the mountains, as shown above, over the track that had to + be built for every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.] + +In July, 1914, the Italian Government was not taken by surprise. They +had observed the increase year by year of the German army and of +the German fleet. At the end of the Balkan wars they had been asked +whether they would agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia. They had +consequently long been deliberating as to what their course should +be in case of war, and they had made up their minds that under no +circumstances would they aid Germany against England. + +Quite independently of her long-standing friendship with England it +would be suicide to Italy in her geographical position to enter a war +which should permit her coast to be attacked by the English and French +navies, and her participation in the Triple Alliance always carried the +proviso that it did not bind her to fight England. This was well known +in the German foreign office, and, indeed, in France where the writers +upon war were reckoning confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from +the Triple Alliance, and planning to use the entire forces of France +against Germany. + +A better understanding of the Italian position will result from a +consideration of the origin of the Triple Alliance. + +After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving the quick recovery of +France, considered the advisability of attacking her again, and, to use +his own words, “bleeding her white.” He found, however, that if this +were attempted France would be joined by Russia and England and he gave +up this plan. In order, however, to render France powerless he planned +an alliance which should be able to control Europe. A league between +Germany, Austria and Russia was his desire, and for some time every +opportunity was taken to develop friendship with the Czar. Russia, +however, remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies were opposed to the +interests of Germany. Bismarck, therefore, determined, without losing +the friendship of Russia, to persuade Italy to join in the continental +combination. Italy, at the time, was the least formidable of the six +great powers, but Bismarck foresaw that she could be made good use of +in such a combination. + +At that time Italy, just after the completion of Italian unity, found +herself in great perplexity. Her treatment of the Pope had brought +about the hostility of Roman Catholics throughout the world. She feared +both France and Austria, who were strong Catholic countries, and hardly +knew where to look for friends. The great Italian leader at the time +was Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a Radical and a conspirator, +had become a constitutional statesman. Bismarck professed the greatest +friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi to understand that he approved +of Italy’s aspirations on the Adriatic and in Tunis. + +The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress, Italy’s interests +were ignored, and finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the great +indignation of the Italians. It has been shown in more recent times +that the French seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck’s +instigation. + +The Italians having been roused to wrath, Bismarck proceeded to offer +them a place in the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was an easy +argument that such an alliance would protect them against France, +and no doubt it was promised that it would free them from the danger +of attack by Austria. England, at the time, was isolated, and Italy +continued on the best understanding with her. + +The immediate result of the alliance was a growth of Italian hostility +toward France, which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France. Meanwhile +German commercial and financial enterprises were pushed throughout +the Italian peninsula. What did Italy gain by this? Her commerce was +weakened, and Austria permitted herself every possible unfriendly act +except open war. + +As time went on Germany and Austria became more and more arrogant. +Italy’s ambitions on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely ignored. +In 1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia and Herzegovina, another blow to +Italy. By this time Italy understood the situation well, and that +same year, seeing no future for herself in Europe, she swooped down on +Tripoli. In doing this she forestalled Germany herself, for Germany had +determined to seize Tripoli. + + [Illustration: HOW THE POWERS DIVIDED NORTHERN AFRICA] + +Both Germany and Austria were opposed to this action of Italy, but +Italy’s eyes were now open. Thirty years of political alliance had +created no sympathy among the Italians for the Germans. Moreover, it +was not entirely a question of policy. The lordly arrogance of the +Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The Italians were lovers of liberty; +the Germans pledged toward autocracy. They found greater sympathy in +England and in France. + +“I am a son of liberty,” said Cavour, “to her I owe all that I am.” +That, too, is Italy’s motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy +in Italy was therefore strongly in favor of the Allies. The party in +power, the Liberals, adopted the policy of neutrality for the time +being, but thousands of Italians volunteered for the French and British +service, and the anti-German feeling grew greater as time went on. + +Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian Government withdrew +its ambassador to Austria and declared war. A complete statement of +the negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary, which led to this +declaration, was delivered to the Government of the United States +by the Italian Ambassador on May 25th. This statement, of which the +following is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position: + +“The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive, and designed solely to +preserve the _status quo_, or in other words equilibrium, in Europe. +That these were its only objects and purposes is established by the +letter and spirit of the treaty, as well as by the intentions clearly +described and set forth in official acts of the ministers who created +the alliance and confirmed and renewed it in the interests of peace, +which always has inspired Italian policy. The treaty, as long as its +intents and purposes had been loyally interpreted and regarded, and +as long as it had not been used as a pretext for aggression against +others, greatly contributed to the elimination and settlement of causes +of conflict, and for many years assured to Europe the inestimable +benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary severed the treaty by her own +hands. She rejected the response of Serbia which gave to her all the +satisfaction she could legitimately claim. She refused to listen to the +conciliatory proposals presented by Italy in conjunction with other +powers in the effort to spare Europe from a vast conflict, certain to +drench the Continent with blood and to reduce it to ruin beyond the +conception of human imagination, and finally she provoked that conflict. + +“Article first of the treaty embodied the usual and necessary +obligation of such pacts--the pledge to exchange views upon any fact +and economic questions of a general nature that might arise pursuant to +its terms. None of the contracting parties had the right to undertake +without a previous agreement any step the consequence of which might +impose a duty upon the other signatories arising under the alliance, or +which would in any way whatsoever encroach upon their vital interests. +This article was violated by Austria-Hungary, when she sent to Serbia +her note dated July 23, 1914, an action taken without the previous +assent of Italy. Thus, Austria-Hungary violated beyond doubt one of the +fundamental provisions of the treaty. The obligation of Austria-Hungary +to come to a previous understanding with Italy was the greater because +her obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a situation which +directly tended toward the provocation of a European war. + + [Illustration: _Photo by James H. Hare._ + + WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK + + Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order + came to hurl themselves against the Austrians.] + +“As far back as the beginning of July, 1914, the Italian Government, +preoccupied by the prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid +before the Austro-Hungarian Government a number of suggestions +advising moderation, and warning it of the impending danger of a +European outbreak. The course adopted by Austria-Hungary against +Serbia constituted, moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general +interests of Italy both political and economical in the Balkan +peninsula. Austria-Hungary could not for a moment imagine that Italy +could remain indifferent while Serbian independence was being trodden +upon. On a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave Austria to +understand, in friendly but clear terms, that the independence of +Serbia was considered by Italy as essential to the Balkan equilibrium. +Austria-Hungary was further advised that Italy could never permit that +equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice. This warning had been +conveyed not only by her diplomats in private conversations with +responsible Austro-Hungarian officials, but was proclaimed publicly by +Italian statesmen on the floors of Parliament. + +“Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored the usual practices and +menaced Serbia by sending her ultimatum, without in any way notifying +the Italian Government of what she proposed to do, indeed leaving +that government to learn of her action through the press, rather than +through the usual channels of diplomacy, when Austria-Hungary took this +unprecedented course she not only severed her alliance with Italy but +committed an act inimical to Italy’s interests.... + +“After the European war broke out Italy sought to come to an +understanding with Austria-Hungary with a view to a settlement +satisfactory to both parties which might avert existing and future +trouble. Her efforts were in vain, notwithstanding the efforts of +Germany, which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary to +comply with Italy’s suggestion thereby recognizing the propriety and +legitimacy of the Italian attitude. Therefore Italy found herself +compelled by the force of events to seek other solutions. + +“Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary had ceased +virtually to exist and served only to prolong a state of continual +friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador at Vienna was +instructed to declare to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the +Italian Government considered itself free from the ties arising out +of the treaty of the Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary was +concerned. This communication was delivered in Vienna on May 4th. + +“Subsequently to this declaration, and after we had been obliged to +take steps for the protection of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian +Government submitted new concessions, which, however, were deemed +insufficient and by no means met our minimum demands. These offers +could not be considered under the circumstances. The Italian Government +taking into consideration what has been stated above, and supported by +the vote of Parliament and the solemn manifestation of the country +came to the decision that any further delay would be inadvisable. +Therefore, on May 23d, it was declared, in the name of the King, to +the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that, beginning the following +day, May 24th, it would consider itself in a state of war with +Austria-Hungary.” + +It was a closely reasoned argument that the Italian statesmen +presented, but there was something more than reasoned argument in +Italy’s course. She had been waiting for years for the opportunity to +bring under her flag the men of her own race still held in subjection +by hated Austria. Now was the time or never. Her people had become +roused. Mobs filled the streets. Great orators, even the great poet, +D’Annunzio, proclaimed a holy war. The sinking of the Lusitania poured +oil on the flames, and the treatment of Belgium and eastern France +added to the fury. + + [Illustration: _Photo by International Film Service._ + + TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN + FRONT + + The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of + operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during the + Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the + mountain by this means.] + +Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired, could not have +withstood the pressure. It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for +civilization, for humanity. The country had been flooded by +representatives of German propaganda, papers had been hired and, by all +report, money in large amounts distributed. But every German effort was +swept away in the flood of feeling. It was the people’s war. + +Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber of Deputies adopted by vote of +407 to 74 the bill conferring upon the government full power to make +war. All members of the Cabinet maintained absolute silence regarding +what step should follow the action of the chamber. When the chamber +reassembled on May 20th, after its long recess, there were present +482 Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining away on account of +illness. The Deputies especially applauded were those who wore military +uniforms and who had asked permission for leave from their military +duties to be present at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled to +overflowing. No representatives of Germany, Austria or Turkey were +to be seen in the diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive was +Thomas Nelson Page, the American Ambassador, who was accompanied by +his staff. M. Barrere, Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and Michel de Giers, the +French, British and Russian Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a few +minutes later and all were greeted with applause, which was shared +by the Belgian, Greek and Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan, +one-time mayor of New York, occupied a seat in the President’s tribune. + +A few minutes before the session began the poet, Gabrielle D’Annunzio, +one of the strongest advocates of war, appeared in the rear of the +public tribune which was so crowded that it seemed impossible to +squeeze in anybody else. But the moment the people saw him they lifted +him shoulder high and passed him over their heads to the first row. + +The entire chamber, and all those occupying the other tribunes, rose +and applauded for five minutes, crying “Viva D’Annunzio!” Later +thousands sent him their cards and in return received his autograph +bearing the date of this eventful day. Señor Marcora, President of +the Chamber, took his place at three o’clock. All the members of the +House, and everybody in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old +follower of Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed by all the members of +the Cabinet, entered shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment. Then a +delirium of cries broke out. + +“Viva Salandra!” roared the Deputies, and the cheering lasted for a +long time. After the formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra, +deeply moved by the demonstration, arose and said: + +“Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to you a bill to meet the +eventual expenditures of a national war.” + +The announcement was greeted by further prolonged applause. The +Premier’s speech was continually interrupted by enthusiasm, and at +times he could hardly continue on account of the wild cheering. The +climax was reached when he made a reference to the army and navy. Then +the cries seemed interminable, and those on the floor of the House +and in the galleries turned to the military tribune from which the +officers answered by waving their hands and handkerchiefs. + +At the end of the Premier’s speech there were deafening vivas for the +King, war and Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join the cheers, +even in the cry “Viva Italia!” and they were hooted and hissed. + +The action of the Italian Government created intense feeling. A +newspaper man in Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation, said: + +“The exasperation and contempt which Italy’s treacherous surprise +attack and her hypocritical justification aroused here, are quite +indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia, despite a long and costly +war, is hated. Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be +politicians and business men who offer violence to the majority of +peaceful Italian people, are unutterably hated.” On the other hand +German papers spoke with much more moderation and recognized that Italy +was acting in an entirely natural manner. + +On the very day on which war was declared active operations were +begun. Both sides had been making elaborate preparations. Austria +had prepared herself by building strong fortifications in which were +employed the latest technical improvements in defensive warfare. Upon +the Carso and around Gorizia the Austrians had placed innumerable +batteries of powerful guns mounted on rails and protected by armor +plates. They also had a great number of medium and smaller guns. A net +of trenches had been excavated and constructed in cement all along the +edge of the hills which dominated the course of the Isonzo River. + +These trenches, occupying a position nearly impregnable because so +mountainous, were defended by every modern device. They were protected +with numerous machine guns, surrounded by wire entanglements through +which ran a strong electric current. These lines of trenches followed +without interruption from the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the +mountains which dominate it; they formed a kind of formidable staircase +which had to be conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice. + +During this same period General Cadorna, then head of the Italian army, +had been bringing that army up to date, working for high efficiency and +piling up munitions. + +The Army of Italy was a formidable one. Every man in Italy is liable to +military service for a period of nineteen years from the age of twenty +to thirty-nine. + +At the time of the war the approximate war strength of the army was +as follows: Officers, 41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910; +reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial militia, +1,889,659; total strength, 3,159,836. The above number of total men +available included upward of 1,200,000 fully trained soldiers, with +perhaps another 800,000 partially trained men, the remaining million +being completely untrained men. This army was splendidly armed, its +officers well educated, and the men brave and disciplined. + +The Italian plan of campaign apparently consisted first, in +neutralizing the Trentino by capturing or covering the defenses and +cutting the two lines of communication with Austria proper, the railway +which ran south from Insbruck, and that which ran southwest from Vienna +and joined the former at Fransensfets; and second, in a movement in +force on the eastern frontier, with Trieste captured or covered on the +right flank in the direction of the Austrian fortress at Klagenfurt and +Vienna. + +The first blow was struck by Austria on the day that war was declared. +On that day bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other Adriatic ports +were shelled from air, and some from sea. The Italian armies invaded +Austria on the east with great rapidity, and by May 27th a part of the +Italian forces had moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone, sixteen +miles northwest of Trieste. Another force penetrated further to the +north in the Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisca. Reports from Italy +were that encounters with the enemy had thus far been merely outpost +skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy advantageous positions on +Austrian territory. By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the greater +part of the west bank of the Isonzo, with little opposition. The left +wing was beyond the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among the boulders +of Monte Nero, where the Austrian artillery had strong positions. +Monfalcone was kept under constant bombardment. + +A general Italian advance took place on June 7th across the Isonzo +River from Caporetto to the sea, a distance of about forty miles. +Monfalcone was taken by the Italians on June the 10th, the first +serious blow against Trieste, as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and +its electrical works operated the light and power of Trieste. + +Next day the center made a great blow against Gradisca and Sagrado, but +the river line proved too strong. The only success was won that night +at Plava, north of Borrigia, which was carried by a surprise attack. +The Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious obstacle to the onrush +of the Italians. By June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed +forward along the gulf of Trieste toward the town of Nebrosina, nine +miles from Trieste. + +Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being constantly strengthened. The +initial weakness of the Austrian defensive was due to the fact that the +armies normally assigned to the invaded region had been sent to defend +the Austrian line in Galicia against the Russians. When Italy began +her invasion the defenses of the country were chiefly in the hands +of hastily mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen, and +men above the military age of forty-two. From now on Austrian troops +began to arrive from the Galician front, some of these representing +the finest fighting material in the Austrian ranks. The chance of an +easy victory was slipping from Italy’s hands. The Italian advance was +checked. + +On the 15th of June the Italians carried an important position on Monte +Nero, climbing the rocks by night and attacking by dawn. But this +conquest did not help much. No guns of great caliber could be carried +on the mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily fortified, and +contained a garrison of some thirty thousand men, was entirely safe. +The following week there were repeated counter-attacks at Plava and on +Monte Nero, but the Italians held what they had won. + +The position was now that Cadorna’s left wing was in a strong position, +but could not do much against Tolmino. His center was facing the great +camp of Gorizia, while his right was on the edge of the Carso, and +had advanced as far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad. The +army was in position to make an attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July +an attack on a broad front was aimed directly at Gorizia. The left +was to swing around against the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the +center was directed against the Gorizia bridge head, and the right was +to swing around to the northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it +succeeded the Trieste railway would be cut and Gorizia must fall. + + [Illustration: AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS + + Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the + Italians August 9, 1916.] + +Long and confused fighting followed. The center and the right +of the Italian army slowly advanced their line, taking over one +thousand prisoners. For days there was continuous bombardment and +counter-bombardment. The fighting on the left was terrific. In the +neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found themselves opposed by +Hungarian troops, unaccustomed to mountain warfare, who at first fell +back. Austrian reserves came to their aid, and flung back three times +the Italian charge. + +Three new Italian brigades were brought up, and King Victor Emanuel +himself came to encourage his troops. The final assault carried the +heights. On the 22d of July the Italian right captured the crest of San +Michele, which dominates the Doberdo plateau. + +Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being heavily reinforced, and +General Cadorna found himself unable to make progress. Much ground +had been won but Gorizia was still unredeemed. Many important vantage +points were in Italian hands, but it was difficult to advance. The +result of the three months’ campaign was a stalemate. In the high +mountains to the north Italy’s campaign was a war of defense. To +undertake her offensive on the Isonzo it was necessary that she guard +her flanks and rear. The Tyrolese battle-ground contained three +distinct points where it was necessary to operate; the Trentino +Salient, the passes of the Dolomites, and the passes of the Carnic Alps. + +Early in June Italy had won control of the ridges of the mountains +in the two latter points, but the problem in the Trentino was more +difficult. It was necessary, because of the converging valleys, to push +her front well inland. On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of +unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle centered around the pass of +Monte Croce Carnico. + +In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating positions to the west +of the pass, but the Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great +deal of picturesque fighting went on, but not much progress was made. +Further west in the Dolomite region there was more fighting. On the +30th of May Cartina had been captured, and the Italians moved north +toward the Pusterthal Railway. Progress was slow, as the main routes to +the railway were difficult. + +By the middle of August they were only a few miles from the railway, +but all the routes led through defiles, and the neighboring heights +were in the possession of the Austrians. To capture these heights +was a most difficult feat, which the Italians performed in the most +brilliant way; but even after they had passed these defiles success was +not yet won. Each Italian column was in its own grove, with no lateral +communication. The Austrians could mass themselves where they pleased. +As a result the Italian forces were compelled to halt. + +In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon captured the passes, and +moved against Trente and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified, +as were their surrounding heights. The campaign became a series of +small fights on mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only small bodies +of troops could maneuver, and the raising of guns up steep precipices +was extremely difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded in gaining +ground, and established a chain of posts around the heights so that +often one would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments at a height of +more than ten thousand feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The +Alpini performed wonderful feats of physical endurance, but the plains +of Lombardy were still safe. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +GLORIOUS GALLIPOLI + + +If ever the true mettle and temper of a people were tried and +exemplified in the crucible of battle, that battle was the naval and +land engagement embracing Gallipoli and the Dardanelles and the people +so tested, the British race. Separated in point of time but united in +its general plan, the engagements present a picture of heroism founded +upon strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and dogged determination +against overwhelming natural and artificial odds as even the pages of +supreme British bravery cannot parallel. The immortal charge of the +Light Brigade was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely a battle +fragment and its glorious record was written in blood within the scope +of a comparatively few inspired minutes. In the mine-strewn Dardanelles +and upon the sun-baked, blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli, +death always partnered every sailor and soldier. As at Balaklava, +virtually everyone knew that some one had blundered, but the army and +the navy as one man fought to the bitter end to make the best of a bad +bargain, to tear triumph out of impossibilities. + +France co-operated with the British in the naval engagement, but the +greater sacrifice, the supreme charnel house of the war, the British +race reserved for itself. There, the yeomanry of England, the unsung +county regiments whose sacrifices and achievements have been neglected +in England’s generous desire to honor the men from “down under,” the +Australians and New Zealanders grouped under the imperishable title +of the Anzacs--there the Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted +British Army with the great fighters from the self-governing colonies +waged a battle so hopeless and so gallant that the word Gallipoli shall +always remind the world how man may triumph over the fear of death; how +with nothing but defeat and disaster before them, men may go to their +deaths as unconcernedly as in other days they go to their nightly sleep. + +On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Turkey. +Hostilities, however, had preceded the declaration. On November 3d the +combined French and British squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts. +This was merely intended to draw the fire of the forts and make an +estimate of their power. From that time on a blockade was maintained, +and on the 13th of December a submarine, commanded by Lieutenant +Holbrook, entered the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship +Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine fields. + +By the end of January the blockading fleet, through constant +reinforcement, had become very strong, and had seized the Island of +Tenedos and taken possession of Lemnos, which nominally belonged to +Greece, as bases for naval operations. On the 19th of February began +the great attack upon the forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles, +which attracted the attention of the world for nearly a year. + +The expedition against the Dardanelles had been considered with the +greatest care, and approved by the naval authorities. That their +judgment was correct, however, is another question. The history of +naval warfare seems to make very plain that a ship, however powerful, +is at a tremendous disadvantage when attacking forts on land. The badly +served cannon of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British fleet, but +Gallipoli had been fortified by German engineers, and its guns were the +Krupp cannon. The British fleet found itself opposed by unsurmountable +obstacles. Looking backward it seems possible, that if at the very +start Lord Kitchener had permitted a detachment of troops to accompany +the fleet, success might have been attained, but without the army the +navy was powerless. + +The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of land about fifty miles long, +varying in width from twelve to two or three miles. It is a mass of +rocky hills so steep that in many places it is a matter of difficulty +to reach their tops. On it are a few villages, but there are no +decent roads and little cultivated land. On the southern shore of the +Dardanelles conditions are nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a +flat and marshy plain, but east of this plain are hills three thousand +feet high. The high ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides, +and with the exception of narrow bits of beach at their base, presents +almost no opportunity for landing. + +A strong current continually sifts down the straits from the Sea of +Marmora. + + [Illustration: MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA + + Showing the various landing places, with inset of the Sari-Bair + Region.] + +Forts were placed at the entrance on both the north and south side, but +they were not heavily armed and were merely outposts. Fourteen miles +from the mouth the straits become quite narrow, making a sharp turn +directly north and then resuming their original direction. The channel +thus makes a sharp double bend. At the entrance to the strait, known as +the Narrows, were powerful fortresses, and the slopes were studded with +batteries. Along both sides of the channel the low ground was lined +with batteries. It was possible to attack the forts at fairly long +range, but there was no room to bring any large number of ships into +action at the same time. + +At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there were probably nearly +half a million of men available for a defense of the straits, men +well armed and well trained under German leadership. The first step +was comparatively easy. The operations against the other forts began +at 8 A. M. on Friday, the 19th of February. The ships engaged were +the Inflexible, the Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance and +the Triumph from the British fleet, and the Bouvet, Suffren, and +the Gaulois from the French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral +Sackville Carden. The French squadron was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette. +A flotilla of destroyers accompanied the fleet, and airplanes were sent +up to guide the fire of the battleships. + +At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle some miles out to sea +from the entrance to the strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as +the ships came along and took up position, and the picture became most +awe-inspiring when the guns began to boom. The bombardment at first +was slow. Shells from the various ships screaming through the air at +the rate of about one every two minutes. + +The Turkish batteries, however, were not to be drawn, and, seeing this, +the British Admiral sent one British ship and one French ship close in +shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr forts. As they went in they sped right +under the guns of the shore batteries, which could no longer resist +the temptation to see what they could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted +the landscape on the far shore, and dull booms echoed over the placid +water. Around the ships fountains of water sprang up into the air. The +enemy had been drawn, but his marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not +a single shot directed against the ships went within a hundred yards of +either. + +At sundown on account of the failing light Admiral Carden withdrew the +fleet. On account of the bad weather the attack was not renewed until +February 25th. It appeared that the outer forts had not been seriously +damaged on the 19th, and that what injury had been done had been +repaired. In an hour and a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced. +The Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range of six miles, which +killed three men and wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr +was attacked at close range, but not silenced till after 5 P. M. At +this time British trawlers began sweeping the entrance for mines, and +during the next day the mine field was cleared for a distance of four +miles up the straits. + +As soon as this clearance was made the Albion, Vengeance and Majestic +steamed into the strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification +some distance below the Narrows. The Turks replied vigorously, not only +from Dardanos but from batteries scattered along the shore. Believing +that the Turks had abandoned the forts at the entrance, landing parties +of marines were sent to shore. In a short time, however, they met a +detachment of the enemy and were compelled to retreat to their boats. +The outer forts, however, were destroyed, and their destruction was +extremely encouraging to the Allies. + +For a time a series of minor operations was carried on, meeting with +much success. Besides attacks on forts inside of the strait, Smyrna was +bombarded on March the 5th, and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth, +the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded the forts at Chanak on the +Asiatic side of the Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros on +the outer side of the Gallipoli Peninsula. To all of these attacks +the Turks replied vigorously and the attacking ships were repeatedly +struck, but with no loss of life. On the 7th of March Fort Dardanos was +silenced, and Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned out, only +temporarily. + +Preparations were now being made for a serious effort against the +Narrows. The date of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather +permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden was stricken down with illness +and was invalided by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck, second in +command, who had been very active in the operations, was appointed +to succeed him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial sympathy with the +purposes of the expedition and determined to attack on the 18th of +March. At a quarter to eleven that morning, the Queen Elizabeth, +Inflexible, Agamemnon, Lord Nelson, the Triumph and Prince George +steamed up the straits towards the Narrows, and bombarded the forts +of Chanak. At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting of the Suffren, +Gaulois, Charlemagne, and Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid +their English associates. + +Under the combined fire of the two squadrons the Turkish forts, which +at first replied strongly, were finally silenced. All of the ships, +however, were hit several times during this part of the action. +A third squadron, including the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion, +Ocean, Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced to relieve the six old +battleships inside the strait. + + [Illustration: THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE” + + During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship + “Irresistible” struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe + losses of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible + to force the strait by naval attack.] + +As the French squadron, which had engaged the forts in a most brilliant +fashion, was passing out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting mine +and sank in less than three minutes, carrying with her most of her +crew. At 2.36 P. M. the relief battleships renewed the attack on the +forts, which again opened fire. The Turks were now sending mines down +with the current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the line, listing +heavily, and at 5.50 she sank, having probably struck a drifting mine. +At 6.05 the Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in deep water. +Practically the whole of the crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was +damaged by gunfire; the Inflexible had her forward control position hit +by a heavy shell, which killed and wounded the majority of the men and +officers at that station and set her on fire. At sunset the forts were +still in action, and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped out +of the Dardanelles. + +Meantime, an expeditionary force was being gathered. The largest +portion of this force came from Great Britain, but France also provided +a considerable number from her marines and from her Colonial army. Both +nations avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the armies destined +for service in France. + +In the English army there were divisions from Australia and New Zealand +and there were a number of Indian troops and Territorials. The whole +force was put under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The +commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was the German General Liman von +Sanders, the former chief of the military mission at Constantinople. +The bulk of the expeditionary force, which numbered altogether about a +hundred and twenty thousand men, were, therefore, men whose presence in +the east did not weaken the Allied strength in the west. + +The great difficulty of the new plan was that it was impossible to +surprise the enemy. The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small that +a landing at any point would be promptly observed, and the nature of +the ground was of such a character that progress from any point must +necessarily be slow. The problem was therefore a simple one. + +The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt during the first half of +April, and about the middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos. +Germany was well aware of the English plans, and was doing all that it +could to provide a defense. + +On April 23d the movement began, and about five o’clock in the +afternoon the first of the transports slowly made its way through the +maze of shipping toward the entrance of Mudros Bay. + +Immediately the patent apathy, which had gradually overwhelmed +everyone, changed to the utmost enthusiasm, and as the huge liners +steamed through the fleet, their decks yellow with khaki, the crews of +the warships cheered them on to victory while the bands played them +out with an unending variety of popular airs. The soldiers in the +transports answered this last salutation from the navy with deafening +cheers, and no more inspiring spectacle has ever been seen than this +great expedition. + +The whole of the fleet from the transports had been divided up into +five divisions and there were three main landings. The 29th Division +disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr, +where its operations were covered both from the gulf of Saros and from +the Dardanelles by the fire of the covering warships. The Australian +and New Zealand contingent disembarked north of Gaba Tepe. Further +north a naval division made a demonstration. + +Awaiting the Australians was a party of Turks who had been intrenched +almost on the shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade. The +Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to the occasion. They waited +neither for orders nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing +out into the sea they went in to the shore, and forming some sort of +a rough line rushed straight on the flashes of the enemy’s rifles. In +less than a quarter of an hour the Turks were in full flight. + +While the Australians and New Zealanders, or Anzacs as they are now +generally known from the initials of the words Australian-New Zealand +Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly at Gaba Tepe, the British troops +were landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli Peninsula. The +advance was slow and difficult. The Turk was pushed back, little by +little, and the ground gained organized. The details of this progress, +though full of incidents of the greatest courage and daring, need not +be recounted. + +On June the 4th a general attack was made, preceded by heavy +bombardments by all guns, but after terrific fighting, in which many +prisoners were captured and great losses suffered, the net result was +an advance of about five hundred yards. As time went on the general +impression throughout the Allied countries was that the expedition had +failed. On June 30th the losses of the Turks were estimated at not +less than seventy thousand, and the British naval and military losses +up to June 1st, aggregated 38,635 officers and men. At that time the +British and French allies held but a small corner of the area to be +conquered. In all of these attacks the part played by the Australian +and New Zealand army corps was especially notable. Reinforcements were +repeatedly sent to the Allies, who worked more and more feverishly as +time went on with the hope of aiding Russia, which was then desperately +struggling against the great German advance. + +On August 17th it was reported that a landing had been made at Suvla +Bay, the extreme western point of the Peninsula. From this point it +was hoped to threaten the Turkish communications with their troops at +the lower end of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however, failed +to make any impression, and in the first part of September, vigorous +Turkish counter offensives gained territory from the Franco-British +troops. According to the English reports the Turks paid a terrible +price for their success. + +It had now become evident that the expedition was a failure. The +Germans were already gloating over what they called the “failure of +British sea power,” and English publicists were attempting to show +that, though the enterprise had failed, the very presence of a strong +Allied force at Saloniki had been an enormous gain. The first official +announcement of failure was made December 20, 1916, when it was +announced that the British forces at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been +withdrawn, and that only the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr were +occupied. Great Britain’s loss of officers and men at the Dardanelles +up to December 11th was 112,921, according to an announcement made in +the House of Commons by the Parliamentary Under Secretary for War. +Besides these casualties the number of sick admitted to hospitals was +96,683. The decision to evacuate Gallipoli was made in the course of +November by the British Government as the result of the early expressed +opinion of General Monro, who had succeeded General Hamilton on October +28, 1915. + +General Monro found himself confronted with a serious problem in the +attempt to withdraw an army of such a size from positions not more than +three hundred yards from the enemy’s trenches, and to embark on open +beaches every part of which was within effective range of Turkish guns. +Moreover, the evacuation must be done gradually, as it was impossible +to move the whole army at once with such means of transportation as +existed. The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies and heavy guns +by instalments, working only at night, carrying off at the same time a +large portion of the troops, but leaving certain picked battalions to +guard the trenches. Every endeavor had to be made for concealment. The +plan was splendidly successful, and the Turks apparently completely +deceived. On December 20th the embarkation of the last troops at +Suvla was accomplished. The operations at Anzac were conducted in the +same way. Only picked battalions were left to the end, and these were +carried safely off. + + [Illustration: THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL + BAHR + + An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were + sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of the + Turkish machine guns on shore.] + +The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation made the position at Cape +Helles more dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout, and it seemed +almost impossible that they could be again deceived. On January 7th an +attack was made by the Turks upon the trenches, which was beaten back. +That night more than half the troops had left the Peninsula. The +next day there was a heavy storm which made embarkation difficult, but +it was nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation was a clever and +successful bit of work. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE GREATEST NAVAL BATTLE IN HISTORY + + +Germany’s ambition for conquest at sea had been nursed and carefully +fostered for twenty years. During the decade immediately preceding the +declaration of war, it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building +that brought it into direct conflict with England’s sea policy. +Thereafter it became a race in naval construction, England piling up a +huge debt in its determination to construct two tons of naval shipping +to every one ton built by Germany. + +Notwithstanding Great Britain’s efforts in this direction, Germany’s +naval experts, with the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained +that, given a fair seaway with ideal weather conditions favoring the +low visibility tactics of the German sea command, a victory for the +Teutonic ships would follow. It was this belief that drew the ships +of the German cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the coast of +Jutland and Horn Reef into the great battle that decided the supremacy +of the sea. + +The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in history as the date of this +titanic conflict. The British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty +near Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o’clock on the afternoon of that +day, that it had sighted smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy +vessels from the direction of Helgoland Bight. Fifteen minutes later +the smoke plumes were in such number and volume that the advance of +a considerable force to the northward and eastward was indicated. It +was reasoned by Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea had sent the +news by radio, that the enemy in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably +be brought into action. The first ships of the enemy were sighted at +3.31 o’clock. These were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. Back +of these were five modern battle cruisers of the highest power and +armament. + +The report of the battle, by an eye-witness, that was issued upon +semiofficial authority of the British Government, follows: + +First Phase, 3.30 P. M. May 31st. Beatty’s battle cruisers, consisting +of the Lion, Princess Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible, +Indomitable, Invincible, Indefatigable, and New Zealand, were on a +southeasterly course, followed at about two miles distance by the four +battleships of the class known as Queen Elizabeths. + +Enemy light cruisers were sighted and shortly afterward the head of +the German battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new cruiser +Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, Lützow, Moltke, and possibly the +Salamis. + +Beatty at once began firing at a range of about 20,000 yards (twelve +miles) which shortened to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets +closed. The Germans could see the British distinctly outlined against +the light yellow sky. The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very +indistinctly made out by the British gunners. + +The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one after another as they came +within range. The German battle cruisers turned to port and drew away +to about 20,000 yards. + +Second Phase, 4.40 P. M. A destroyer screen then appeared beyond the +German battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas Fleet could be seen +approaching on the northeastern horizon in three divisions, coming to +the support of their battle cruisers. + +The German battle cruisers now turned right around 16 points and took +station in front of the battleships of the High Fleet. + +Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting battleships, therefore, +had before him the whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe was +still some distance away. + +The opposing fleets were now moving parallel to one another in opposite +directions, and but for a master maneuver on the part of Beatty the +British advance ships would have been cut off from Jellicoe’s Grand +Fleet. In order to avoid this and at the same time prepare the way so +that Jellicoe might envelop his adversary, Beatty immediately also +turned right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships parallel to +the German battle cruisers and facing the same direction. + +As soon as he was around he increased to full speed to get ahead of the +Germans and take up a tactical position in advance of their line. He +was able to do this owing to the superior speed of the British battle +cruisers. + +Just before the turning point was reached, the Indefatigable sank, and +the Queen Mary and the Invincible also were lost at the turning point, +where, of course, the High Seas Fleet concentrated their fire. + +A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers were turning, the Queen +Elizabeths had in similar manner concentrated their fire on the turning +point and destroyed a new German battle cruiser, believed to be the +Hindenburg. + +Beatty had now got around and headed away with the loss of three ships, +racing parallel to the German battle cruisers. The Queen Elizabeths +followed behind engaging the main High Seas Fleet. + +Third Phase, 5 P. M. The Queen Elizabeths now turned short to port 16 +points in order to follow Beatty. The Warspite jammed her steering +gear, failed to get around, and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who +closed in upon her. + +The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on paper she ought to have +been lost, but, as a matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by +shell fire with the water boiling up all around her, she was not +seriously hit, and was able to sink one of her opponents. Her captain +recovered control of the vessel, brought her around, and followed her +consorts. + +In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and Malaya turned short so as to +avoid the danger spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible had been +lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe arrived, fought a delaying action +against the High Seas Fleet. + +The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 o’clock, and all four ships were +so successfully maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections +of their opponents that no hits of a seriously disabling character +were suffered. They had the speed over their opponents by fully four +knots, and were able to draw away from part of the long line of German +battleships, which almost filled up the horizon. + +At this time the Queen Elizabeths were steadily firing on at the +flashes of German guns at a range which varied between 12,000 and +15,000 yards, especially against those ships which were nearest them. +The Germans were enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes were +visible. + +By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had been left out of range, and the +Queen Elizabeths were steaming fast to join hands with Jellicoe. + +To return to Beatty’s battle cruisers. They had succeeded in +outflanking the German battle cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged +to turn a full right angle to starboard to avoid being headed. + +Heavy fighting was renewed between the opposing battle cruiser +squadrons, during which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 o’clock +the German fire slackened very considerably, showing that Beatty’s +battle cruisers and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted serious damage +on their immediate opponents. + +Fourth Phase, 6 P. M. The Grand Fleet was now in sight, and, coming up +fast in three directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their course +four points to the starboard and drew in toward the enemy to allow +Jellicoe room to deploy into line. + +The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered and the very difficult +operation of deploying between the battle cruisers and the Queen +Elizabeths was perfectly timed. + +Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty’s cruisers, and followed by the +damaged but still serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right across +the head of the German fleet. + +The first of the ships to come into action were the Revenue and the +Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch guns, and the Agincourt which fired +from her seven turrets with the speed almost of a Maxim gun. + +The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. They had been +perfectly maneuvered, so as to “cross the T” of the High Seas Fleet, +and, indeed, only decent light was necessary to complete their work +of destroying the Germans in detail. The light did improve for a few +minutes, and the conditions were favorable to the British fleet, which +was now in line approximately north and south across the head of the +Germans. + +During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe smashed up the first +three German ships, but the mist came down, visibility suddenly failed, +and the defeated High Seas Fleet was able to draw off in ragged +divisions. + +Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were followed by the British, who still +had them enveloped between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty on the north, +and Evan-Thomas with his three Queen Elizabeths on the south. The +Warspite had been sent back to her base. + +During the night the torpedo-boat destroyers heavily attacked the +German ships, and, although they lost seriously themselves, succeeded +in sinking two of the enemy. + + [Illustration: HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT + + This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses + of the opposing German and British battle fleets.] + +Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was practically impossible to +keep up, and the Germans discovered by the rays of their search-lights +the three Queen Elizabeths, not more than 4,000 yards away. +Unfortunately they were then able to escape between the battleships +and Jellicoe, since the British gunners were not able to fire, as the +destroyers were in the way. + +So ended the Jutland battle, which was fought as had been planned and +very nearly a great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable weather +conditions, especially at the critical moment, when the whole British +fleet was concentrated and engaged in crushing the head of the German +line. + +Commenting on the engagement, Admiral Jellicoe said: “The battle +cruiser fleet, gallantly led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably +supported by the ships of the fifth battle squadron under Rear-Admiral +Evan-Thomas, fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous +conditions, especially in regard to light, in a manner that was in +keeping with the best traditions of the service.” + +His estimate of the German losses was: two battleships of the +dreadnought type, one of the Deutschland type, which was seen to sink; +the battle cruiser Lützow, admitted by the Germans; one battle cruiser +of the dreadnought type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely +damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; five light cruisers, +seen to sink--one of them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen to +sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was doubtful if they would be +able to reach port, and a submarine sunk. The official German report +admitted only eleven ships sunk; the first British report placed the +total at eighteen, but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one German +vessels as probably lost. + +The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German naval men: “The enemy,” +he said, “fought with the gallantry that was expected of him. We +particularly admired the conduct of those on board a disabled German +light cruiser which passed down the British line shortly after the +deployment under a heavy fire, which was returned by the only gun left +in action. The conduct of the officers and men was entirely beyond +praise. On all sides it is reported that the glorious traditions of the +past were most worthily upheld; whether in the heavy ships, cruisers, +light cruisers, or destroyers, the same admirable spirit prevailed. The +officers and men were cool and determined, with a cheeriness that would +have carried them through anything. The heroism of the wounded was the +admiration of all. I cannot adequately express the pride with which the +spirit of the fleet filled me.” + +At daylight on the 1st of June the British battle fleet, being +southward of Horn Reef, turned northward in search of the enemy +vessels. The visibility early on the first of June was three to four +miles less than on May 31st, and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out +of visual touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 A. M. The British +fleet remained in the proximity of the battlefield and near the line +of approach to the German ports until 11 A. M., in spite of the +disadvantage of long distances from fleet bases and the danger incurred +in waters adjacent to the enemy’s coasts from submarines and torpedo +craft. + +The enemy, however, made no sign, and the admiral was reluctantly +compelled to the conclusion that the High Sea Fleet had returned into +port. Subsequent events proved this assumption to have been correct. +The British position must have been known to the enemy, as at 4 A. M. +the fleet engaged a Zeppelin about five minutes, during which time she +had ample opportunity to note and subsequently report the position and +course of the British fleet. + +The Germans at first claimed a victory for their fleet. The test, of +course, was the outcome of the battle. The fact that the German fleet +retreated and nevermore ventured forth from beneath the protecting guns +and mine fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond dispute that the +British were entitled to the triumph. The German official report makes +the best presentation of the German case. It follows in full: + + The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship squadrons, five + battle cruisers, and a large number of small cruisers, with several + destroyer flotillas, was cruising in the Skagerrak on May 31 for the + purpose, as on earlier occasions, of offering battle to the British + fleet. The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o’clock in the + afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety miles west of + Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest coast of Jutland), a group of + eight of the newest cruisers of the Calliope class and fifteen or + twenty of the most modern destroyers. + + While the German light forces and the first cruiser squadron under + Vice-Admiral Hipper were following the British, who were retiring + northwestward, the German battle cruisers sighted to the westward + Vice-Admiral Beatty’s battle squadron of six ships, including four of + the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. Beatty’s squadron + developed a battle line on a southeasterly course and Vice-Admiral + Hipper formed his line ahead on the same general course and + approached for a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o’clock in the + afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 meters against + the superior enemy. The weather was clear and light, and the sea was + light with a northwest wind. + + After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion occurred on the + last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. It was caused by a heavy + shell, and destroyed the vessel. + + About 6.20 o’clock in the afternoon five warships of the Queen + Elizabeth type came from the west and joined the British battle + cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing with their fifteen-inch guns + the five British battle cruisers remaining after 6.20 o’clock. To + equalize this superiority Vice-Admiral Hipper ordered the destroyers + to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small cruisers + interposed, and a bitter engagement at close range ensued, in the + course of which a light cruiser participated. + + The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of which were rescued + by sister ships under a heavy fire. Two British destroyers were sunk + by artillery, and two others--the Nestor and Nomad--remained on the + scene in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by the main + fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued all the survivors. + + While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, caused by + a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, the third ship in line, asunder, + at 6.30 o’clock. + + Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was sighted to the + southward, steering north. The hostile fast squadrons thereupon + turned northward, closing the first part of the fight, which lasted + about an hour. + + The British retired at high speed before the German fleet, which + followed closely. The German battle cruisers continued the artillery + combat with increasing intensity, particularly with the division of + the vessels of the Queen Elizabeth type, and in this the leading + German battleship division participated intermittently. The hostile + ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead of the point of + our line and to cross it. + + At 7.45 o’clock in the evening British small cruisers and destroyers + launched an attack against our battle cruisers, who avoided the + torpedoes by manoeuvring, while the British battle cruisers retired + from the engagement, in which they did not participate further as + far as can be established. Shortly thereafter a German reconnoitring + group, which was parrying the destroyer attack, received an attack + from the northeast. The cruiser Wiesbaden was soon put out of action + in this attack. The German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the + heavy ships. + + Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the northeast was made + out a long line of at least twenty-five battleships, which at first + sought a junction with the British battle cruisers and those of the + Queen Elizabeth type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and then + turned on an easterly to southeasterly course. + + With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre consisted of + three squadrons of eight battleships each, with a fast division of + three battle cruisers of the Invincible type on the northern end, and + three of the newest vessels of the Royal Sovereign class, armed with + fifteen-inch guns, at the southern end, there began about 8 o’clock + in the evening the third section of the engagement, embracing the + combat between the main fleets. + + Vice-Admiral Scheer determined to attack the British main fleet, + which he now recognized was completely assembled and about doubly + superior. The German battleship squadron, headed by battle cruisers, + steered first toward the extensive haze bank to the northeast, + where the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still receiving a heavy + fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual fights under quickly + changing conditions now occurred. + + The light enemy forces, supported by an armored cruiser squadron of + five ships of the Minotaur, Achilles, and Duke of Edinburgh classes + coming from the northeast, were encountered and apparently surprised + on account of the decreasing visibility of our battle cruisers and + leading battleship division. The squadron came under a violent and + heavy fire, by which the small cruisers Defense and Black Prince were + sunk. The cruiser Warrior regained its own line a wreck and later + sank. Another small cruiser was damaged severely. + + Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack of German + torpedo boats against the leading British battleships and a small + cruiser and two destroyers were damaged. The German battle cruisers + and leading battleship division had in these engagements come under + increased fire of the enemy’s battleship squadron, which, shortly + after 8 o’clock, could be made out in the haze turning to the + northeastward and finally to the east. Germans observed, amid the + artillery combat and shelling of great intensity, signs of the effect + of good shooting between 8.20 and 8.30 o’clock particularly. Several + officers on German ships observed that a battleship of the Queen + Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar to that of the Queen + Mary. The Invincible sank after being hit severely. A ship of the + Iron Duke class had earlier received a torpedo hit, and one of the + Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle, its steering + apparatus apparently having been hit. + + The Lützow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells and was unable + to maintain its place in line. Vice-Admiral Hipper, therefore, + transshipped to the Moltke on a torpedo boat and under a heavy fire. + The Derfflinger meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of the + German torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy’s main fleet and heard + detonations. In the action the Germans lost a torpedo boat. An enemy + destroyer was seen in a sinking condition, having been hit by a + torpedo. + + After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the superior + enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in the smoke by powder + clouds. After a short cessation in the artillery combat Vice-Admiral + Scheer ordered a new attack by all the available forces. + + German battle cruisers, which with several light cruisers and torpedo + boats again headed the line, encountered the enemy soon after 9 + o’clock and renewed the heavy fire, which was answered by them from + the mist, and then by the leading division of the main fleet. Armored + cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset at extreme speed + against the enemy line in order to cover the attack of the torpedo + boats. They approached the enemy line, although covered with shot + from 6,000 meters distances. Several German torpedo flotillas dashed + forward to attack, delivered torpedoes, and returned, despite the + most severe counterfire, with the loss of only one boat. The bitter + artillery fire was again interrupted, after this second violent + onslaught, by the smoke from guns and funnels. + + Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack somewhat + later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, that the enemy + fleet was no longer before them; nor, when the fleet commander again + brought the German squadrons upon the southerly and southwesterly + course where the enemy was last seen, could our opponents be found. + Only once more--shortly before 10.30 o’clock--did the battle + flare up. For a short time in the late twilight German battle + cruisers sighted four enemy capital ships to seaward and opened + fire immediately. As the two German battleship squadrons attacked, + the enemy turned and vanished in the darkness. Older German light + cruisers of the fourth reconnaissance group also were engaged with + the older enemy armored cruisers in a short fight. + + This ended the day battle. + + The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the enemy, began + a night cruise in a southerly direction, were attacked until dawn by + enemy light force in rapid succession. + + The attacks were favored by the general strategic situation and the + particularly dark night. + + The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during the engagement of + the fourth reconnaissance group with a superior cruiser force, and + was lost from sight. + + One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared close to + a German battleship and was shot into fire after forty seconds, and + sank in four minutes. + + The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard to decipher in + the darkness and therefore were uncertainly established) and four + destroyers--3, 78, 06, and 27--were destroyed by our fire. One + destroyer was cut in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven + destroyers, including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged. These, + including the Tipperary and Turbulent, which after saving survivors, + were left behind in a sinking condition, drifted past our line, some + of them burning at the bow or stern. + + The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the German ships, + but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell an immediate victim to + a torpedo. The cruiser Rostock was hit, but remained afloat. + The cruiser Elbing was damaged by a German battleship during an + unavoidable maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat + the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had embarked on + torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was struck by a mine laid by the + enemy. + +ADMITTED LOSSES--BRITISH + + NAME TONNAGE PERSONNEL + + Queen Mary (battle cruiser) 27,000 1,000 + Indefatigable (battle cruiser) 18,750 800 + Invincible (battle cruiser) 17,250 750 + Defense (armored cruiser) 14,600 755 + Warrior (armored cruiser) 13,550 704 + Black Prince (armored cruiser) 13,550 704 + Tipperary (destroyer) 1,850 150 + Turbulent (destroyer) 1,850 150 + Shark (destroyer) 950 100 + Sparrowhawk (destroyer) 950 100 + Ardent (destroyer) 950 100 + Fortune (destroyer) 950 100 + Nomad (destroyer) 950 100 + Nestor (destroyer) 950 100 + + +BRITISH TOTALS + + Battle cruisers 63,000 2,550 + Armored cruisers 41,700 2,163 + Destroyers 9,400 900 + -------- ------ + Fourteen ships 114,100 5,613 + + +ADMITTED LOSSES--GERMAN[A] + + NAME TONNAGE PERSONNEL + + Lützow (battle cruiser) 26,600 1,200 + Pommern (battleship) 13,200 729 + Wiesbaden (cruiser) 5,600 450 + Frauenlob (cruiser) 2,715 264 + Elbing (cruiser) 5,000 450 + Rostock (cruiser) 4,900 373 + Five destroyers 5,000 500 + + +GERMAN TOTALS + + Battle cruisers 39,800 1,929 + Cruisers 18,215 1,537 + Destroyers 5,000 500 + ------ ------ + Eleven ships 63,015 3,966 + + [A] These figures are given for what they are worth, but no one + outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were very much + greater than admitted in the official report. + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS + + Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.] + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY + + Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.] + + +TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN + + BRITISH + + Dead or missing 6,104 + Wounded 513 + ------ + Total 6,617 + + GERMAN + + Dead or missing 2,414 + Wounded 449 + ------ + Total 2,863 + +LOSS IN MONEY VALUE (Rough Estimate) + + British $115,000,000 + German 63,000,000 + ------------ + Total $178,000,000 + +While the world was still puzzling over the conflicting reports of +the Battle of Jutland came the shocking news that Field Marshal Lord +Horatio Herbert Kitchener, the British Secretary of State for War, had +perished off the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through the sinking +of the British cruiser Hampshire. The entire crew was also lost, except +twelve men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who escaped on a raft. +Earl Kitchener was on his way to Russia, at the request of the Russian +Government, for a consultation regarding munitions to be furnished the +Russian army. He was intending to go to Archangel and visit Petrograd, +and expected to be back in London by June 20th. He was accompanied +by Hugh James O’Beirne, former Councillor of the British Embassy at +Petrograd, O. A. Fitz-Gerald, his military secretary, Brigadier-General +Ellarshaw, and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of whom were lost. + +The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire is not known. It is supposed +that it struck a mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought into +existence many stories which ascribe his death to more direct German +action. + + [Illustration: WHERE EARL KITCHENER MET HIS DEATH] + +Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes Lord Kitchener’s last +moments as follows: “Of those who left the ship, and have survived, I +was the one who saw Lord Kitchener last. He went down with the ship, +he did not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his boat’s crew to +clear away his galley. At the same time the Captain was calling to +Lord Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the noise made by the +wind and sea, Lord Kitchener could not hear him, I think. When the +explosion occurred, Kitchener walked calmly from the Captain’s cabin, +went up the ladder and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him walking +quite collectedly, talking to two of the officers. All three were +wearing khaki and had no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched the +preparations for abandoning the ship, which were going on in a steady +and orderly way. The crew just went to their stations, obeyed orders, +and did their best to get out the boats. But it was impossible. Owing +to the rough weather, no boats could be lowered. Those that were got +out were smashed up at once. No boats left the ship. What people on +the shore thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. Men did get into +the boats as these lay in their cradles, thinking that as the ship +went under the boats would float, but the ship sank by the head, and +when she went she turned a somersault forward, carrying down with her +all the boats and those in them. I do not think Kitchener got into a +boat. When I sprang to a raft he was still on the starboard side of +the quarter deck, talking with the officers. From the little time that +elapsed between my leaving the ship and her sinking I feel certain +Kitchener went down with her, and was on deck at the time she sank.” + +The British Admiralty, after investigation, gave out a statement +declaring that the vessel struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes +after. + +The news of Lord Kitchener’s death shocked the whole Allied world. He +was the most important personality in the British Empire. He had built +up the British army, and his name was one to conjure by. His efficiency +was a proverb, and he had an air of mystery about him that made him +a sort of a popular hero. He was great before the World War began; +he was the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner of the South African +campaign; the reorganizer of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of War he +had met with some criticism, but he possessed, more than any other man, +the public confidence. At the beginning of the war he was appointed +Secretary of War at the demand of an overwhelming public opinion. He +realized more than any one else what such a war would mean. When others +thought of it as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized that +there would be years of bitter conflict. He asked England to give up +its cherished tradition of a volunteer army; to go through arduous +military training; he saw the danger to the Empire, and he alone, +perhaps, had the authority to inspire his countrymen with the will to +sacrifice. But his work was done. The great British army was in the +field. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN + + +In the very beginning Russia had marked out one point for attack. This +was the city of Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas had not hoped +to be able to invest that city early. The slowness of the mobilization +of the Russian army made a certain prudence advisable at the beginning +of the campaign. But the great success of his armies in Lemberg +encouraged more daring aims. He had invested Przemysl, and Galicia lay +before him. Accordingly, he set his face toward Cracow. + +Cracow, from a military point of view, is the gate both of Vienna +and Berlin. A hundred miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia, +between the Carpathian and the Bohemian mountains, which leads down +into Austria. Through this gap runs the great railway connecting +Silesia with Vienna, and the Grand Duke knew that if he could capture +Cracow he would have an easy road before him to the Austrian capital. +Cracow also is the key of Germany. + +Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder River. An army might +enter Germany by this gate and turn the line of Germany’s frontier +fortresses. The Oder had been well fortified, but an invader coming +from Cracow might move upon the western bank. The Russian plan no doubt +was to threaten both enemy capitals. Moreover, an advance of Russia +from Cracow would take its armies into Silesia, full of coal and iron +mines, and one of the greatest manufacturing districts in the German +Empire. This would be a real success, and all Germany would feel the +blow. + +Another reason for the Russian advance in Galicia was her desire to +control the Galician oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one of +the foremost munitions of war. Since she could not obtain it from +either America or Russia she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian +oil fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself, would explain the +Galician campaign. Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains it was +possible to make frequent raids into Hungary, and Russia understood +well the feeling of Hungary toward her German allies. She hoped that +when Hungary perceived her regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun +by Russian troops, she would regret that she had allowed herself to +be sacrificed to Prussian ambition. The Russians, therefore, suddenly +moved toward Cracow. + +Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue. The supreme command of +the Austrian forces was given to him. The defenses of Cracow were +strengthened under the direction of the Germans, and a German army +advanced from the Posen frontier toward the northern bank of the +Vistula. The advance threatened the Russian right, and, accordingly, +within ten days’ march of Cracow, the Russians stopped. The German +offensive in Poland had begun. The news of the German advance came +about the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who had been fighting in +East Prussia, had at last perceived that nothing could be gained +there. The vulnerable part of Russia was the city of Warsaw. This was +the capital of Poland, with a population of about three-quarters of +a million. If he could take Warsaw, he would not only have pleasant +quarters for the winter but Russia would be so badly injured that no +further offensive from her need be anticipated for a long period. Von +Hindenburg had with him a large army. In his center he probably had +three-quarters of a million men, and on his right the Austrian army in +Cracow, which must have reached a million. + +Counting the troops operating in East Prussia and along the +Carpathians, and the garrison of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have +had two and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the other hand, though +her mobilization was still continuing, at this time could not have +had as many as two million men in the whole nine hundred miles of her +battle-front. + +The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October 16th, and continued for +three days, von Hindenburg being personally in command. On Monday +the Germans found themselves in trouble. A Russian attack on their +left wing had come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg found his left +wing thrown back, and the whole German movement thrown into disorder. +Meanwhile an attempt to cross the Vistula at Josefov had also been +a failure. The Russians allowed the Germans to pass with slight +resistance, waited until they arrived at the village Kazimirjev, a +district of low hills and swampy flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed +them. + +Next day the Russians crossed the river themselves, and advanced along +the whole line, driving the enemy before them, through great woods of +spruce out into the plains on the west. This forest region was well +known to the Russian guides, and the Germans suffered much as the +Russians had suffered in East Prussia. Ruzsky, the Russian commander, +pursued persistently; the Germans retreating first to Kielce, whence +they were driven, on the 3d of November, with great losses, and then +being broken into two pieces, with the north retiring westward and the +south wing southwest toward Cracow. + +Rennenkampf’s attack on the German left wing was equally successful, +and von Hindenburg was driven into full retreat. The only success +won during this campaign was that in the far south where Austrian +troops were sweeping eastward toward the San. This army drove back +the Russians under Ivanov, reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl. +This was a welcome relief to Przemysl, for the garrison was nearly +starved, and it was well for the garrison that the relief came, for in +a few days the Russians returned, recaptured Jaroslav and reinvested +Przemysl. As von Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction +in his wake, roads, bridges, railroad tracks, water towers, railway +stations, all were destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or sawn +through, and insulators broken to bits. + +It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature advance, and to pay +for it. Doubtless the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up to this +point had been so admirable, knew very well the danger of a new advance +in Galicia, but he realized the immense political as well as military +advantages which were to be obtained by the capture of Cracow. He +therefore attempted to move an army through Poland as well as through +Galicia, hoping that the army in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy, +while the Galician army would deal with Cracow. + +The advance was slow on account of the damaged Polish roads. It was +preceded by a cavalry screen which moved with more speed. On November +10th, the vanguard crossed the Posen frontier and cut the railway +on the Cracow-Posen line. This reconnaissance convinced the Russian +general that the German army did not propose to make a general stand, +and it seemed to him that if he struck strongly with his center along +the Warta, he might destroy the left flank of the German southern army, +while his own left flank was assaulting Cracow. He believed that even +if his attack upon the Warta failed, the Russian center could at any +rate prevent the enemy from interfering with the attack further south +upon Cracow. + + [Illustration: GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR + + A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.] + +The movement therefore began, and by November 12th, the Russian cavalry +had taken Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty miles north of +Cracow. Its main forces were still eighty miles to the east. About this +time Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg was preparing +a counter stroke. He had retreated north, and then, by means of his +railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn. Large reinforcements +were sent him, some from the western front, giving him a total of +about eight hundred thousand men. In his retreat from Warsaw, while +he had destroyed all roads and railways in the south and west, he had +carefully preserved those of the north already planning to use them in +another movement. He now was beginning an advance, once again, against +Warsaw. On account of the roads he perceived that it would be difficult +for the Russians to obtain reinforcements. Von Hindenburg had with him +as Chief of Staff General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest staff +officers in the German army, and General von Mackensen, a commander of +almost equal repute. + +The Russian army in the north had been pretty well scattered. The +Russian forces were now holding a front of nearly a thousand miles, +with about two million men. The Russian right center, which now +protected Warsaw from the new attack could hardly number more than two +hundred thousand men. Von Hindenburg’s aim was Warsaw only, and did +not affect directly the Russian advance to Cracow, which was still +going on. Indeed, by the end of the first week in December, General +Dmitrieff had cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and his main force was +on the line of the River Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had been +strongly fortified, and much entrenching had been done in a wide circle +around the city. + +The German plan was to use its field army in Cracow’s defense rather +than a garrison. Two separate forces were used; one moving southwest +of Cracow along the Carpathian hills, struck directly at Ivanov’s +left; the other, operating from Hungary, threatened the Russian rear. +These two divisions struck at the same time and the Russians found it +necessary to fight rear actions as they moved forward. They were doing +this with reasonable success and working their way toward Cracow, when, +on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces working from Hungary +carried the Dukla Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be able to +pour troops down into the rear of the Russian advance, and the Russian +army would be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly back, until +the opening of the Dukla Pass was in front of his line, and the Russian +army was once more safe. + +Meanwhile the renewed siege of Przemysl was going on with great +vigor, and attracting the general attention of the Allied world. The +Austrians attempted to follow up their successes at the Dukla Pass by +attempting to seize the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still further +to the east, but the Russians were tired of retreating. New troops had +arrived, and about the 20th of December a new advance was begun. + +With the right of the army swinging up along the river Nida, northeast +of Cracow, the Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great force, +driving Austrians back and capturing over ten thousand men. On +Christmas Day all three great western passes were in Russian hands. The +Austrian fighting, during this period, was the best they had so far +shown, the brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops, who, at this +time, were saving Germany. + +Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his movement in the direction of +Warsaw. The Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information. +Each day came the chronicle of contests, some victories, some defeats, +and it soon appeared that a strong force was crushing in the Russian +outposts from the direction of Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky +found himself faced by a superior German force, and was compelled to +retreat. The Russian aim was to fall back behind the river Bzura, which +lies between the Thorn and Warsaw. Bzura is a strong line of defense, +with many fords but no bridges. The Russian right wing passed by the +city of Lowicz, moved southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz. West +of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible for the movement of +armies. + +The first German objective was the city of Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew +that he must move quickly before the Russians should get up reserves. +His campaign of destruction had made it impossible for aid to be sent +to the Russian armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but every moment +counted. His right pushed forward and won the western crossings of the +marshes. His extreme left moved towards Plock, but the main effort was +against Piontek, where there is a famous causeway engineered for heavy +transport through the marshes. + +At first the Russians repelled the attack on the causeway, but on +November 19th the Russians broke and were compelled to fall back. +Over the causeway, then, the German troops were rushed in great +numbers, splitting the Russian army into two parts; one on the south +surrounding Lodz, and the other running east of Brezin on to the +Vistula. The Russian army around Lodz was assailed on the front flank +and rear. It looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russian army. +At the very last moment possible, Russian reinforcements appeared--a +body of Siberians from the direction of Warsaw. They were thrown at +once into the battle and succeeded in re-establishing the Russian line. +This left about ninety thousand Germans almost entirely surrounded, as +if they were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his best to close the mouth +of the sack, but he was unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by +the 26th the Germans in the sack had escaped. + +The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements and still largely +outnumbered the Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined on a new +assault. The German left wing was now far in front of the Russian city +of Lodz, one of the most important of the Polish cities. The population +was about half a million. Such a place was a constant danger, for it +was the foundation of a Russian salient. When the German movement +began the Russian general, perceiving how difficult it would have +been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew, and on December 6th the +Germans entered Lodz without opposition. + +The retreat relieved the Russians of a great embarrassment. Its capture +was considered in Germany as a great German victory, and at this time +von Hindenburg seems to have felt that he had control of the situation. +His movement, to be sure, had not interfered with the Russian advance +on Cracow, but Warsaw must have seemed to him almost in his power. +He therefore concentrated his forces for a blow at Warsaw. His first +new movement was directed at the Russian right wing, which was then +north of the Bzura River and east of Lowicz. He also directed the +German forces in East Prussia to advance and attempted to cut the main +railway line between Warsaw and Petrograd. If this attempt had been +successful it would have been a highly serious matter for the Russians. +The Russians, however, defeated it, and drove the enemy back to the +East Prussian border. The movement against the Russian right wing +was more successful, and the Russians fell back slowly. This was not +because they were defeated in battle, but because the difficult weather +interfered with communications. There had been a thaw, and the whole +country was waterlogged. The Grand Duke was willing that the Germans +should fight in the mud. + +This slow retreat continued from the 7th of December to Christmas Eve, +and involved the surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it left the +Russians in a strong position. They were able to entrench themselves so +that every attack of the enemy was broken. The Germans tried hard. Von +Hindenburg would have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas. The citizens +heard day and night the sound of the cannon, but they were entirely +safe. + +The German attack was a failure. On the whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas +had shown better strategy than the best of the German generals. +Outnumbered from the very start, his tactics had been admirable. Twice +he had saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening Cracow. The Russian +armies were fighting with courage and efficiency, and were continually +growing in numbers as the days went by. + +During the first weeks of 1915 while there were a number of attacks and +counter-attacks both armies had come to the trench warfare, so familiar +in France. The Germans in particular had constructed a most elaborate +trench system, with underground rooms containing many of the ordinary +comforts of life. Toward the end of the month the Russians began to +move in East Prussia in the north and also far south in the Bukovina. +The object of these movements was probably to prevent von Hindenburg +from releasing forces on the west. Russia was still terribly weak in +equipment and was not ready for a serious advance. An attack on sacred +East Prussia would stir up the Germans, while Hungary would be likewise +disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von Hindenburg, however, was +still full of the idea of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice but +the old Field Marshal was stubborn and moreover he knew well what the +capture of Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried again. + +The Russian front now followed the west bank of the Bzura for a few +miles, changed to the eastern bank following the river until it met +with the Rawka, from there a line of trenches passed south and east +of Balinov and from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen concentrated +a considerable army at Balinov and had on the 1st of February about +a hundred and forty thousand men there. That night, with the usual +artillery preparation, he moved from Balinov against the Russian +position at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans lost heavily but drove +forward into the enemy’s line, and by the 3d of February had almost +made a breach in it. This point, however, could be readily reinforced +and troops were hurried there from Warsaw in such force that on +February 4th the German advance was checked. Von Mackensen had lost +heavily, and by the time it was checked he had become so weak that his +forces yielded quickly to the counter-attack and were flung back. + +This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw. Von Hindenburg then +determined to attack Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed to +move forward along the whole Carpathian front, while he himself, with +strong forces, undertook to move from East Prussia behind the Polish +capital, and cut the communications between Warsaw and Petrograd. If +Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be relieved, Lemberg recaptured, +and Russia forced back so far on the south that Warsaw would have +to be abandoned. On the other hand if the East Prussia effort were +successful, the Polish capital would certainly fall. These plans, if +they had developed successfully, would have crippled the power of +Russia for at least six months. Meantime, troops could be sent to the +west front, and perhaps enable Germany to overwhelm France. By this +time almost all of Poland west of the Vistula was in the power of the +Germans, while three-fourths of Galicia was controlled by Russia. + +Von Hindenburg now returned to his old battle-ground near the Masurian +Lakes. The Russian forces, which, at the end of January, had made a +forward movement in East Prussia, had been quite successful. Their +right was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested upon the town of +Johannisburg. Further south was the Russian army of the Narev. Von +Hindenburg determined to surprise the invaders, and he gathered an army +of about three hundred thousand men to face the Russian forces which +did not number more than a hundred and twenty thousand, and which were +under the command of General Baron Sievers. The Russian army soon found +itself in a desperate position. A series of bitter fights ensued at +some of which the Kaiser himself was present. The Russians were driven +steadily back for a week, but the German stories of their tremendous +losses are obviously unfounded. They retreated steadily until February +20th, fighting courageously, and by that date the Germans began to find +themselves exhausted. + +Russian reinforcements came up, and a counter-attack was begun. The +German aim had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the main line +from Warsaw to Petrograd, which passes through that city. They had now +reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but were unable to advance +further, though the Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten miles away. +The southern portion of von Hindenburg’s army was moving against the +railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz. But Ossowietz put +up a determined resistance, and the attack was unsuccessful. By the +beginning of March, von Hindenburg ordered a gradual retreat to the +East Prussian frontier. + +While this movement to drive the Russians from East Prussia was under +way, von Hindenburg had also launched an attack against the Russian +army on the Narev. If he could force the lower Narev from that point, +too, he could cut the railroad running east from the Polish capital. He +had hoped that the attacks just described further east would distract +the Russian attention so that he would find the Narev ill guarded. +The advance began on February 22d, and after numerous battles captured +Przasnysz, and found itself with only one division to oppose its +progress to the railroad. On the 23d this force was attacked by the +German right, but resisted with the utmost courage. It held out for +more than thirty-six hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian +reinforcements began to come up, and drove the invaders north through +Przasnysz in retreat. + +It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians were unable to supply all +their troops with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men fought without +rifles, armed only with a bayonet. All they could do was to charge +with cold steel, and they did it so desperately that, though they were +outnumbered, they drove the Germans before them. By all the laws of war +the Russians should have been defeated with ease. As it was, the German +attempt to capture Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated. While the +struggle was going on in the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia +were also moving. Russia was still holding the three great passes in +the Carpathian Mountains, but had not been able to begin an offensive +in Hungary. + +The Austrians had been largely reinforced by German troops, and were +moving forward to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive Brussilov +from the Galician mountains. Brussilov’s movements had been partly +military and partly political. From the passes in those mountains +Hungary could be attacked, and unless he could be driven away there was +no security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which Germany was looking +for food supplies. Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian movement +in Galicia, northern Bukovina had been in Russian hands. Bukovina was +not only a great supply ground for petrol and grain, but she adjoined +Roumania which, while still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the +Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a Russian army on her border +might encourage her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired to +free Roumania from this pressure. The leading Austrian statesmen, at +this time, were especially interested in Hungary. The Austrian Minister +of Foreign Affairs was Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist, +belonging to the party of the Hungarian Premier, Count Tisza. It +was his own country that was threatened. The prizes of a victorious +campaign were therefore great. + +The campaign began in January amid the deepest snow, and continued +during February in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians were divided +into three separate armies. The first was charged with the relief of +Przemysl. The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg, and the +third moved upon Bukovina. The first made very little progress, after a +number of lively battles. It was held pretty safely by Brussilov. The +second army was checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however, the army +of the Bukovina crossed the Carpathian range, and made considerable +advances. This campaign was fought out in a great number of battles, +the most serious of which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa. At that +point Brussilov’s center withstood for several days the Austrian second +army which was commanded by the German General von Linsingen. The +Russian success here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of Przemysl +and gave time to send reinforcements into Bukovina. + +The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina, had the greatest Austrian +success. They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea, and +Stanislau. They did not succeed, however, in driving the Russians from +the province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting for reinforcements. +These reinforcements came, whereupon the Austrians were pushed steadily +back. The passes in the Carpathians still remained in Austrian hands, +but Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured. On March 22d +Przemysl fell. + +The capture of Przemysl was the greatest success that Russia had so far +attained. It had been besieged for about four months, and the taking of +the fortress was hailed as the first spectacular success of the war. +Its capture altered the whole situation. It released a large Russian +army, which was sent to reinforce the armies of Ivanov, where the +Austrians were vigorously attacked. + +By the end of March the Russians had captured the last Austrian +position on the Lupkow pass and were attacking vigorously the pass of +Uzzok, which maintained a stubborn defense. Brussilov tried to push +his way to the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the Austrians +delivered a vigorous counter-attack they were ultimately defeated. In +five weeks of fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand prisoners. + +During this period there was considerable activity in East Prussia, and +the Courland coast was bombarded by the German Baltic squadron. There +was every indication that Austria was near collapse, but all the time +the Germans were preparing for a mighty effort, and the secret was kept +with extraordinary success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians +and in East Prussia were meant to deceive, while a great army, with an +enormous number of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition +were being gathered. The Russian commanders were completely deceived. +There had been no change in the generals in command except that General +Ruzsky, on account of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev. The +new German army was put under the charge of von Hindenburg’s former +lieutenant, General von Mackensen. This was probably the strongest army +that Germany ever gathered, and could not have numbered less than two +millions of men, with nearly two thousand pieces in its heavy batteries. + +On April 28th, the action began. The Austro-German army lay along the +left bank of the Donajetz River to its junction with the Biala, and +along the Biala to the Carpathian Mountains. Von Mackensen’s right +moved in the direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff was compelled to +weaken his front to protect Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st +of May, the great attack began. Under cover of artillery fire such +as had never been seen before bridges were pushed across the Biala +and Ciezkowice was taken. The Russian positions were blown out of +existence. The Russian armies did what they could but their defense +collapsed and they were soon in full retreat. + +The German armies advanced steadily, and though the Russians made a +brave stand at many places they could do nothing. On the Wisloka they +hung on for five days, but they were attempting an impossibility. From +that time on each day marked a new German victory, and in spite of the +most desperate fighting the Russians were forced back until, on the +11th, the bulk of their line lay just west of the lower San as far +as Przemysl and then south to the upper Dniester. The armies were in +retreat, but were not routed. In a fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had +fallen back eighty-five miles. + +The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood the situation. He +perceived that it was impossible to make a stand. The only thing to do +was to retreat steadily until Germany’s mass of war material should +be used up, even though miles of territory should be sacrificed. +It should be a retreat in close contact with the enemy, so that the +Austro-German troops would have to fight for every mile. This meant a +retreat not for days, but perhaps for weeks. It meant that Przemysl +must be given up, and Lemberg, and even Warsaw, but the safety of the +Russian army was of more importance than a province or a city. + +On May 13th the German War Office announced their successes in the +following terms: “The army under General von Mackensen in the course +of its pursuit of the Russians reached yesterday the neighborhood of +Subiecko, on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa, northeast of Debica. +Under the pressure of this advance the Russians also retreated from +their positions north of the Vistula. In this section the troops under +General von Woyrach, closely following the enemy, penetrated as far as +the region northwest of Kielce. In the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and +German troops under General von Linsingen conquered the hills east of +the Upper Stryi, and took 3,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing +six machine guns. At the present moment, while the armies under General +von Mackensen are approaching the Przemysl fortresses and the lower +San, it is possible to form an approximate idea of the booty taken. In +the battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles during the pursuit +of these armies, we have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners, 69 +cannon, and 255 machine guns. In these figures the booty taken by the +Allied troops fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the Vistula, +is not included. This amounts to a further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl +surrendered to the Germans on June 3, 1915, only ten weeks after the +Russian capture of the fortress, which had caused such exultation.” + +General von Mackensen continued toward Lemberg, the capital of Galicia. +On June 18th, when the victorious German armies were approaching the +gates of Lemberg, the Russian losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and +wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000 lost before Marshal +von Hindenburg’s forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d Lemberg +fell. The weakness of Russia in this campaign arose from the exhaustion +of her ammunition supplies, but great shipments of such supplies were +being constantly forwarded from Vladivostock. + +When the German army crossed the San, Wilhelm II, then German Emperor, +was present. It is interesting to look back on the scene. Here is +a paragraph from the account of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: “The +Emperor had hurried forward to his troops by automobile. On the way he +was greeted with loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in wagons. +On the heights of Jaroslav the Emperor met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and +then, from several points of observation, for hours followed with keen +attention the progress of the battle for the crossing.” + +While the great offensive in Galicia was well under way, the Germans +were pushing forward in East Prussia. Finding little resistance they +ultimately invaded Courland, captured Libau, and established themselves +firmly in that province. The sweep of the victorious German armies +through Galicia was continued into Poland. On July 19th William the War +Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the Queen of Greece, to the +effect that he had “paralyzed Russia for at least six months to come,” +and was on the eve of “delivering a coup on the western front that will +make all Europe tremble.” + +It would be futile to recount the details of the various German +victories which followed the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the +German line ran from Novogard in the north, south of Przasnysz, thence +to Novogeorgievsk, then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw it +passed close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin, Chelm, and then south to +a point just east of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the jaws of +the German nutcracker. + +On July 21st, the bells in all the churches throughout Russia clanged a +call to prayer for twenty-four hours’ continual service of intercession +for victory. In spite of the heat the churches were packed. Hour after +hour the people stood wedged together, while the priests and choirs +chanted their litanies. Outside the Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass +was celebrated in the presence of an enormous crowd. But the German +victories continued. + +On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned. Up to July 29th hope was +entertained in military quarters in London and Paris that the Germans +would stand a siege in their fortresses along the Warsaw salient, +but on that date advices came from Petrograd that in order to save +the Russian armies a retreat must be made, and the Warsaw fortresses +abandoned. For some time before this the Russian resistance had +perceptibly stiffened, and many vigorous counter-attacks had been made +against the German advance, but it was the same old story, the lack of +ammunition. The armies were compelled to retire and await the munitions +necessary for a new offensive. + +The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw were days of extraordinary +interest. The inhabitants, to the number of nearly half a millions, +sought refuge in Russia. All goods that could be useful to the Germans +were either removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in the surrounding +fields. When the Germans entered they found an empty and deserted +city, with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of Jews still left. +Warsaw is a famous city, full of ancient palaces, tastefully adorned +shops, finely built streets, and fourscore church towers where the +bells are accustomed to ring melodiously for matins and vespers. In +the Ujazdowske Avenue one comes to the most charming building in all +Warsaw, the Lazienki Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in a +lovely lake. It is a beautiful city. + +The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian Poland, but Russia was +not yet defeated. Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon was in +1812. The strategy of the Grand Duke was sound; so long as he could +save the army the victories of Germany would be futile. It is true that +the German armies were not compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live +on the land. They could bring their supplies from Berlin day by day, +but every mile they advanced into hostile territory made their task +harder. The German line of communication, as it grew longer, became +weaker, and the troops needed for garrison duty in the captured towns, +seriously diminished the strength of the fighting army. The Russian +retreat was good strategy and it was carried on with most extraordinary +cleverness. + +It is unnecessary to describe the events which succeeded the fall of +Warsaw in great detail. There was a constant succession of German +victories and Russian defeats, but never was one of the Russian armies +enveloped or destroyed. Back they went, day after day, always fighting; +each great Russian fortress resisted until it saw itself in danger, and +then safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and Novogeorgievsk, and +Ivangorad, then Ossowietz was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and Grodno. +On September 5th the Emperor of Russia signed the following order: + + Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces of the sea and + land armies operating in the theater of war. With firm faith in the + clemency of God, with unshakable assurance in final victory, we + shall fulfil our sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We + will not dishonor the Russian land. + +The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy of the Caucasus, a post which +took him out of the main theater of fighting but gave him a great field +for fresh military activity. He had been bearing a heavy burden, and +had shown himself to be a great commander. He had outmaneuvered von +Hindenburg again and again, and though finally the Russian armies under +his command had been driven back, the retreat itself was a proof of his +military ability, not only in its conception, but in the way in which +it was done. + +The Emperor chose General Alexeiev as his Chief of General Staff. He +was the ablest of the great generals who had been leading the Russian +army. With this change in command a new spirit seemed to come over +Russia. The German advance, however, was not yet completely checked. It +was approaching Vilna. + +The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest in the whole long retreat. +On the 18th of September it fell, but the Russian troops were safely +removed and the Russian resistance had become strong. Munitions were +pouring into the new Russian army. The news from the battle-front began +to show improvement. On September 8th General Brussilov, further in the +south, had attacked the Germans in front of Tarnopol, and defeated them +with heavy loss. More than seventeen thousand men were captured with +much artillery. Soon the news came of other advances. Dubno was retaken +and Lutsk. + +The end of September saw the German advance definitely checked. The +Russian forces were now extended in a line from Riga on the north, +along the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk. Then turning to the east along +the river, it again turned south and so on down east of the Pripet +Marshes, it followed an almost straight line to the southern frontier. +Its two strongest points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga, which lay +under the protection of the guns of the fleet, and Dvinsk, through +which ran the great Petrograd Railway line. Against these two points +von Hindenburg directed his attack. And now, for the first time in many +months, he met with complete failure. The German fleet attempted to +assist him on the Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian Baltic +fleet with heavy losses. A bombardment turned out a failure and the +German armies were compelled to retire. + +A more serious effort was made against Dvinsk but was equally +unsuccessful and the German losses were immense. Again and again the +attempt was made to cross the Dvina River, but without success; the +German invasion was definitely stopped. By the end of October there +was complete stagnation in the northern sector of the battle line, and +though in November there were a number of battles, nothing happened of +great importance. + + [Illustration: THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD] + +Further south, however, Russia had become active. An army had been +organized at her Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was +necessary that that army should move. At this time the great question +was, what was Roumania about to do? To prevent her from being +forced to join the Central Powers she must have encouragement. It was +determined therefore that an offensive should be made in the direction +of Czernowitz. This town was the railway center of a wide region, and +lay close to Roumania’s northern frontier. + +The Russian aggressive met with great success. It is true that it +never approached the defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the +north, had been able to make great gains of ground, and the very fact +that such a powerful movement could be made so soon after the Russian +retreat was an encouragement to every friend of the Allied cause. This +offensive continued till up to the fourth week of January when it came +to an abrupt stop. A despatch from Petrograd explained the movement as +follows: “The recent Russian offensive in Bessarabia and Galicia was +carried out in accordance with the plan prepared by the Entente Allies’ +War Council to relieve the pressure on the Entente forces while they +were fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation of the Gallipoli +Peninsula.” Russia had sacrificed more than seventy thousand soldiers +for her Allies. + +During the year 1916 the Russian armies seemed to have had a new +birth. At last they were supplied with guns and munitions. They waited +until they were ready. In March a series of battles was fought in +the neighborhood of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks were +made against the German army, intrenched between Lake Narotch and +Lake Vischenebski. The Germans at first were driven back and badly +defeated. Later on, however, the Russian artillery was sent to another +section, and the Germans were able to recover their position. During +June the Russians attacked all along the southern part of their line. +In three weeks they had regained a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had +been retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds of guns, had been +captured, and the Austrian line had been pierced and shattered. Further +south the German army had been compelled to retreat, and the Russian +armies were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th of August Stanislau +fell. + +By this time two Austrian armies had been shattered, over three hundred +and fifty thousand prisoners taken, and nearly a million men put out +of action. Germany, however, was sending reinforcements as fast as +possible, and putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless everything +was encouraging for Russia and she entered upon the winter in a very +different condition from her condition in the previous year. Then she +had just ended her great retreat. Now she had behind her a series of +successes. But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of the political +harmony at home which had marked the first years of the war. Dark days +were ahead. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +HOW THE BALKANS DECIDED + + +For more than half a century the Balkans have presented a problem which +has disturbed the minds of the statesmen of Europe. Again and again, +during that period, it has seemed that in the Balkan mountains might +be kindled a blaze which might set the world afire. Balkan politics +is a labyrinth in which one might easily be lost. The inhabitants of +the Balkans represent many races, each with its own ambition, and, for +the most part, military. There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks, +and Roumanians, and Greeks, and their territorial divisions did not +correspond to their nationalities. The land was largely mountainous, +with great gaps that make it, in a sense, the highway of the world. +From 1466 to 1878 the Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks. In the +early days while the Turks were warring against Hungary, their armies +marched through the Balkan hills. The natives kept apart, and preserved +their language, religion and customs. + +In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew weaker, their subject +people began to seek independence. Greece came first, and, in 1829, +aided by France, Russia and Great Britain, she became an independent +kingdom. Serbia revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous state, +though still tributary to Turkey. In 1859, Roumania became autonomous. +The rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really the beginning of +the succession of events which ultimately led to the World War of +1914-18. The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the Turks in such +a way as to stir the indignation of the whole world. What are known +as the “Bulgarian Atrocities” seem mild today, but they led to the +Russo-Turkish War in 1877. + +The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was settled in 1878, was +one of those treaties which could only lead to trouble. It deprived +Russia of much of the benefit of her victory, and left nearly every +racial question unsettled. Roumania lost Bessarabia, which was mainly +inhabited by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to +the administration of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain Macedonia, +Albania and Thrace. Serbia was given Nish, but had no outlet to the +sea. Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province was made of the +country south of the Balkans called Eastern Rumelia. From that time +on, quarrel after quarrel made up the history of the Balkan peoples, +each of whom sought the assistance and support of some one of the great +powers. Russia and Austria were constantly intriguing with the new +states, in the hope of extending their own domains in the direction of +Constantinople. + +The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation has been continually +the center of these intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign +Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose career might almost be called +romantic. A splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman, he stands +out as an interesting figure in the sordid politics of the Balkans. +He identified himself with his new country. In 1885 he brought about a +union with Eastern Rumelia, which led to a disagreement with Russia. + +Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly declared war, +but was overwhelmed by Prince Alexander in short order. Russia then +abducted Prince Alexander, but later was forced to restore him. +However, Russian intrigues, and his failure to obtain support from one +of the great powers, forced his abdication in 1886. + +In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became the Prince of +Bulgaria. He, also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic figure +of his predecessor. He seems to have been a sort of a parody of a king. +He was fond of ostentation, and full of ambition. He was a personal +coward, but extremely cunning. During his long reign he built up +Bulgaria into a powerful, independent kingdom, and even assumed the +title of Czar of Bulgaria. During the first days of his reign he was +kept safely on the throne by his mother, the Princess Clementine, +a daughter of Louis Phillippe, who, according to Gladstone, was the +cleverest woman in Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria was at peace. +In 1908 he declared Bulgaria independent, and its independence was +recognized by Turkey on the payment of an indemnity. During this period +Russia was the protector of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian fox was looking +also for the aid of Austria. Serbia more and more relied upon Russia. + +The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a source of constant irritation +to Serbia. Roumania had a divided feeling. Her loss of Bessarabia +to Russia had caused ill feeling, but in Austria’s province of +Transylvania there were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania desired +to bring under her rule. Greece was fearful of Russia, because of +Russia’s desire for the control of Constantinople. All of these +nations, too, were deeply conscious of the Austro-German ambitions +for extension of their power through to the East. Each of these +principalities was also jealous of the other. Bulgaria and Serbia had +been at war; many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory, many +Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks in Macedonia. There was only one tie in +common, that was their hatred of Turkey. In 1912 a league was formed, +under the direction of the Greek statesman, Venizelos, having for its +object an attack on Turkey. By secret treaties arrangements were made +for the division of the land, which they hoped to obtain from Turkey. + +War was declared, and Turkey was decisively defeated, and then the +trouble began. Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious for an +outlet to the sea, and in the treaty between them it had been arranged +that Serbia should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while Bulgaria +was to obtain an outlet on the Ægean. The Triple Alliance positively +refused Serbia its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted, +therefore, on a revision of the treaty, which would enable her to have +a seaport on the Ægean. + +An attempt was made to settle the question by arbitration, but King +Ferdinand refused, whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan War +began. Bulgaria was attacked by Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took +a chance and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania, which had been +neutral in the First Baltic War, mobilized her armies and marched +toward Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th of August the +Treaty of Bucharest was signed by the Balkan States. + +As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a thoroughly dissatisfied +state of mind. She had been the leader in the war against Turkey, she +had suffered heavy losses, and she had gained almost nothing. Moreover +she had lost to Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of a million +Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece +were the big winners. Such a treaty could not be a final settlement. +The Balkans were left seething with unrest. Serbia, though she had +gained much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions, however, now turned +in the direction of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and it +was her agitation in this matter which directly brought on the Great +War. But Bulgaria was sullen and ready for revenge. When the Great +War began, therefore, Roumania, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were +strongly in sympathy with Russia, who had been their backer and friend. +Bulgaria, in spite of all she owed to Russia in the early days, was +now ready to find protection from an alliance with the Central Powers. +Her feeling was well known to the Allies, and every effort was made to +obtain her friendship and, if possible, her aid. + +Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address before the French +Chamber of Deputies, said: + + The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the war, even before + it came to the attention of the world. The Bucharest Treaty had left + in Bulgaria profound heartburnings. Neither King nor people were + resigned to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and sacrifices, + and to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they had waged upon + their former allies. From the first day, the Allied governments + took into account the dangers of such a situation, and sought a + means to remedy it. Their policy has proceeded in a spirit of + justice and generosity which has characterized the attitude of Great + Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have attempted to + re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples, and in accord with them + seek the realization of their principal national aspirations. The + equilibrium thus obtained by mutual sacrifices really made by each + would have been the best guarantee of future peace. Despite constant + efforts in which Roumania, Greece and Serbia lent their assistance, + we have been unable to obtain the sincere collaboration of the + Bulgarian Government. The difficulties respecting the negotiations + were always at Sofia. + +At the beginning of the war it appears, therefore, that Bulgaria was +entering into negotiations with the Allies, hoping to regain in this +way, some of the territory she had lost in the Second Baltic War. Many +of her leading statesmen and most distinguished generals favored the +cause of Russia, but in May came the great German advance in Galicia, +and the Allies’ stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the king, and his +supporters, found the way clear for a movement in favor of Germany. +Still protesting neutrality they signed a secret treaty with Berlin, +Vienna and Constantinople on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised +them not only what they had been asking, in Macedonia, but also the +Greek territory of Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those +Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and on the 5th of October +Bulgaria formally entered into war on the side of Germany, and began an +attack on Serbia. + +The full account of the intrigue which led to this action has never +been told. It is not improbable that King Ferdinand himself never had +any other idea than to act as he did, but he dissembled for a long +time. He set forth his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every +effort to induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia to make the concessions +that would be necessary. Such concessions were made, but not until it +was too late. In a telegram from Milan dated September 24th, an account +is given of an interview between Czar Ferdinand and a committee from +those Bulgarians who were opposed to the King’s policy. + +“Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!” are the words which the King +spoke to M. Stambulivski when he received the five opposition members +who had come to warn him of the danger to which he was exposing +himself and the nation. + +The five members were received by the King in the red room at the Royal +Palace and chairs had been placed for them around a big table. The King +entered the room, accompanied by Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and +his secretary, M. Boocovitch. + +“Be seated, gentlemen,” said the King, as he sat down himself, as if +for a very quiet talk. His secretary took a seat at the table, a little +apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately became so heated +and rapid that he was unable to write it down. + +The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader of the Democratic party, +who said: “The policy adopted by the Government is one of adventure, +tending to throw Bulgaria into the arms of Germany, and driving her to +attack Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations, feeling and +interests of the country, and if the Government obstinately continues +in this way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest gravity.” +It was the first allusion to the possibility of a revolution, but the +King listened without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded: “For these +reasons we beg your Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government, +to convoke the Chamber immediately, and we ask this convocation for the +precise object of saving the country from dangerous adventures by the +formation of a coalition Ministry.” + +The King remained silent, and, with a nod, invited M. Stambulivski to +speak. M. Stambulivski was a leader of the Agrarian party, a man of +sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed to speak out his mind boldly, and +exceedingly popular among the peasant population. He grew up himself +as a peasant, and wore the laborer’s blouse up till very recently. He +stood up and looking the King straight in the face said in resolute +tones: “In the name of every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M. +Malinoff has just said, that the Bulgarian people hold you personally +responsible more than your Government, for the disastrous adventure of +1913. If a similar adventure were to be repeated now its gravity this +time would be irreparable. The responsibility would once more fall on +your policy, which is contrary to the welfare of our country, and the +nation would not hesitate to call you personally to account. That there +may be no mistake as to the real wishes of the country I present to +your Majesty my country’s demand in writing.” + +He handed the King a letter containing the resolution voted by the +Agrarians. The King read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of the +Radical Democrats, and asked him to speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking +very slowly and impressively, and also looking the King straight in the +face: “Sire, I had sworn never again to set foot inside your palace, +and if I come today it is because the interests of my country are above +personal questions, and have compelled me. Your Majesty may read what +I have to say in this letter, which I submit to you in behalf of our +party.” + +He handed the letter and the King read it and still remained silent. +Then he said, turning to his former Prime Minister and ablest +politician: “Gueshoff, it is now your turn to speak.” + +M. Gueshoff got up and said: “I also am fully in accord with what M. +Stambulivski has just said. No matter how severe his words may have +been in their simple unpolished frankness, which ignores the ordinary +formalities of etiquette, they entirely express our unanimous opinion. +We all, as representing the opposition, consider the present policy of +the Government contrary to the sentiments and interests of the country, +because by driving it to make common cause with Germany it makes us +the enemies of Russia, which was our deliverer, and the adventure +into which we are thus thrown compromises our future. We disapprove +most absolutely of such a policy, and we also ask that the Chamber be +convoked, and a Ministry formed with the co-operation of all parties.” + +After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M. Daneff also spoke, and +associated himself with what had already been said. + +The King remained still silent for a while, then he, also, stood up +and said: “Gentlemen, I have listened to your threats, and will refer +them to the President of the Council of Ministers, that he may know and +decide what to do.” + +All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed. The King had +evidently taken the frank warning given him as a threat to him +personally, and he walked up and down nervously for a while. Prince +Boris turned aside to talk with the Secretary, who had resumed taking +notes. The King continued pacing to and fro, evidently very nettled. +Then, approaching M. Zanoff, and as if to change the conversation, he +asked him for news about this season’s harvest. + +M. Zanoff abruptly replied: “Your Majesty knows that we have not come +here to talk about the harvest, but of something far more important at +present, namely, the policy of your Government, which is on the point +of ruining our country. We can on no account approve the policy that +is anti-Russian. If the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their +policy we shall not answer for the consequences. We have not desired +to seek out those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because other +grave events have been precipitated. But it was a disaster due to +criminal folly. It must not be repeated by an attack on Serbia by +Bulgaria, as seems contemplated by M. Radoslavoff, and which according +to all appearances, has the approval of your Majesty. It would be a +premeditated crime, and deserve to be punished.” + +The King hesitated a moment, and then held out his hand to M. Zanoff, +saying: “All right. At all events I thank you for your frankness.” +Then, approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated to him his question +about the harvest. + +M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at first allowed himself to be +led into a discussion of this secondary matter, and had expressed the +hope that the prohibition on the export of cereals would be removed, +when he suddenly remembered, and said: “But this is not the moment to +speak of these things. I again repeat to your Majesty that the country +does not want a policy of adventure which cost it so dear in 1913. +It was your own policy too. Before 1913 we thought you were a great +diplomatist, but since then we have seen what fruits your diplomacy +bears. You took advantage of all the loopholes in the Constitution to +direct the country according to your own views. Your Ministers are +nothing. You alone are the author of this policy and you will have to +bear the responsibility.” + +The King replied frigidly, “The policy which I have decided to follow +is that which I consider the best for the welfare of the country.” + +“It is a policy which will only bring misfortune,” replied the sturdy +Agrarian. “It will lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not only +the future of our country, but that of your dynasty, and may cost you +your head.” + +It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered before a King, and +Ferdinand looked astonished at the peasant who was thus speaking to +him. He said, “Do not mind my head; it is already old. Rather mind +your own!” he added with a disdainful smile, and turned away. + +M. Stambulivski retorted: “My head matters little, Sire. What matters +more is the good of our country.” + +The King paid no more attention to him, and took M. Gueshoff and M. +Daneff apart, who again insisted on convoking the Chamber, and assured +him that M. Radoslavoff’s government would be in a minority. They also +referred to the Premier’s oracular utterances. + +“Ah!” said the King. “Has Radoslavoff spoken to you, and what has he +said?” + +“He has said--” replied the leaders, “that Bulgaria would march with +Germany and attack Serbia.” + +The King made a vague gesture, and then said: “Oh, I did not know.” + +This incident throws a strong light upon the conflict which was going +on in the Balkan states, between those Kings who were of German +origin, and who believed in the German power, and their people who +loved Russia. King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not listen, +and he lost his throne. All this, however, took place before the +Bulgarian declaration of war. Yet much had already shown what King +Ferdinand was about to do. The Allies, to be sure, were incredulous, +and were doing their best to cultivate the good will of the treacherous +King. On September 23rd the official order was given for Bulgaria’s +mobilization. She, however, officially declared that her position was +that of armed neutrality and that she had no aggressive intentions. As +it has developed, she was acting under the direction of the German High +Command. + +It was at this period that Germany had failed to crush Russia in the +struggle on the Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy when +one plan failed, another was undertaken. It seemed to her, therefore, +that the punishment of Serbia would make up for other failures, and +moreover would enable her to assist Turkey, which needed munitions, +besides releasing for Germany supplies of food and other material +which might come from Turkey. They therefore entrusted an expedition +against Serbia to Field Marshal von Mackensen, and had begun to gather +an army for that purpose, north of the Danube. + +This army of course was mainly composed of Austrian troops, but was +stiffened throughout by some of the best regiments from the German +army. To assist this new army they counted upon Bulgaria, with whom +they had already a secret treaty, and in spite of the falsehoods issued +from Sofia, the Bulgarian mobilization was meant for an attack on +Serbia. The condition of affairs was well understood in Russia. + +On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, +issued the following statement: “The situation in the Balkans is very +grave. The whole Russian nation is aroused by the unthinkable treachery +of Ferdinand and his Government to the Slavic cause. Bulgaria owes her +independence to Russia, and yet seems willing now to become a vassal +of Russia’s enemies. In her attitude towards Serbia, when Serbia is +fighting for her very existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class +with Turkey. We do not believe that the Bulgarian people sympathize +with the action of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed +to give them time for reflection. If they persist in their present +treacherous course they must answer to Russia.” The next day the +following ultimatum from Russia was handed the Bulgarian Prime Minister: + + Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this moment give + evidence of the definite decision of King Ferdinand’s Government to + place the fate of its country in the hands of Germany. The presence + of German and Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the + staffs of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone bordering + on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted from her + enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer leave any doubt as to the + object of the present military preparations of Bulgaria. The powers + of the Entente, who have at heart the realization of the aspirations + of the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned M. Radoslavoff + that any hostile act against Serbia would be considered as directed + against themselves. The assurances given by the head of the Bulgarian + Cabinet in reply to these warnings are contradicted by facts. The + representative of Russia, bound to Bulgaria by the imperishable + memory of her liberation from the Turkish yoke, cannot sanction by + his presence preparations for fratricidal aggression against a Slav + and allied people. The Russian Minister has, therefore, received + orders to leave Bulgaria with all the staffs of the Legation and the + Consulates if the Bulgarian Government does not within twenty-four + hours openly break with the enemies of the Slav cause and of Russia, + and does not at once proceed to send away the officers belonging to + the armies of states who are at war with the powers of the Entente. + +Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives of France and +Great Britain. Bulgaria’s reply to these ultimatums was described as +bold to the verge of insolence. In substance she denied that German +officers were on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that if they +were present that fact concerned only Bulgaria, which reserved the +right to invite whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government then +issued a manifesto to the nation, announcing its decision to enter the +war on the side of the Central Powers. The manifesto reads as follows: + + The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia, creating an + Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely necessary for + Bulgaria’s independence of the Serbians. We do not believe in the + promises of the Quadruple Entente. Italy, one of the Allies, + treacherously broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in + Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her treaty + with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor’s side. The Germans + and Austro-Hungarians are victorious on all fronts. Russia soon will + have collapsed entirely. Then will come the turn of France, Italy + and Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not fight on + the side of the Central Powers, which offer the only possibility of + realizing her desire for a union of all Bulgarian peoples. + +The manifesto also stated that Russia was fighting for Constantinople +and the Dardanelles; Great Britain to destroy Germany’s competition; +France for Alsace and Lorraine, and the other allies to rob foreign +countries; the Central Powers were declared to be fighting to defend +property and assure peaceful progress. The manifesto filled seven +columns in the newspapers, and discussed at some length Bulgaria’s +trade interests. It attacked Serbia most bitterly, declaring that +Serbia had oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia in a most +barbarous manner; that she had attacked Bulgarian territory and that +the Bulgarian troops had been forced to fight for the defense of their +own soil. In fact it was written in quite the usual German manner. + +Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek Premier, had perceived what +was coming. Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if she were +attacked by Bulgaria. On September 21st, Venizelos asked France and +Britain for a hundred and fifty thousand troops. On the 24th, the +Allies agreed to this and Greece at once began to mobilize. His policy +was received with great enthusiasm in the Greek Chamber, and former +Premier Gounaris, amid great applause, expressed his support of the +government. + +On October 6th an announcement from Athens stated that Premier +Venizelos had resigned, the King having informed him that he was +unable to support the policy of his Minister. King Constantine was +a brother-in-law of the German Emperor, and although professing +neutrality he had steadily opposed M. Venizelos’ policy. He had once +before forced M. Venizelos’ resignation, but at the general elections +which followed, the Greek statesman was returned to power by a +decisive majority. + + [Illustration: SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA + IN SEPTEMBER, 1918] + +Intense indignation was caused by the King’s action, though the King +was able to procure the support of a considerable party. Venizelos’ +resignation was precipitated by the landing of the Allied troops +in Saloniki. They had come at the invitation of Venizelos, but the +opposition protested against the occupation of Greek territory by +foreign troops. After a disorderly session in which Venizelos explained +to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances connected with the +landing, the Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the Government +by 142 to 102. The substance of his argument may be found in his +conclusion: + +“We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are honest we will leave nothing +undone to insure its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we are +rogues may we find excuses to avoid our obligations.” + +Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed Premier, and +declared for a policy of armed neutrality. This position was sharply +criticised by Venizelos, but for a time became the policy of the Greek +Government. Meantime the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki. On +October 3d, seventy thousand French troops arrived. A formal protest +was made by the Greek commandant, who then directed the harbor +officials to assist in arranging the landing. In a short time the +Allied forces amounted to a hundred and fifty thousand men, but the +German campaign was moving rapidly. + +The German Balkan army captured Belgrade on the 9th of October, and by +that date two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian frontier. Serbia +found herself opposed by two hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a +quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and Roumania fully mobilized +and were watching the conflict, and the small allied contingent at +Saloniki was preparing to march inland to the aid of Serbia. + +The conduct of Greece on this occasion has led to universal criticism. +The King himself, no doubt, was mainly moved by his German wife and the +influence of his Imperial brother-in-law. Those that were associated +with him were probably moved by fear. They had been much impressed by +the strength of the German armies. They had seen the success of the +great German offensive in Russia, while the French and British were +being held in the West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria. The +national characteristic of the Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be +denied that there was great reason to suppose that the armies of Greece +would not be able to resist the new attack. With these views Venizelos, +the greatest statesman that Greece had produced for many years, did not +agree, and the election seemed to show that he was supported by the +majority of the Greek people. + +This was another case where the Allies, faced by a dangerous situation, +were acting with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had failed, +because at the very beginning they had not used their full strength. +Now, again, knowing as they did all that depended upon it, bound as +they were to the most loyal support of Serbia, the aid they sent was +too small to be more than a drop in the bucket. It must be remembered, +however, that the greatest leaders among the Allies were at all +times opposed to in any way scattering their strength. They believed +that the war was to be won in France. Military leaders in particular +yielded under protest to the political leaders when expeditions of this +character were undertaken. + +Certainly this is true, that the world believed that Serbia had a right +to Allied assistance. The gallant little nation was fighting for her +life, and public honor demanded that she should be aided. It was this +strong feeling that led to the action that was taken, in spite of the +military opinions. It was, however, too late. + +In the second week of October Serbia found herself faced by an enemy +which was attacking her on three sides. She herself had been greatly +weakened. Her losses in 1914, when she had driven Austria from her +border, must have been at least two hundred thousand men. She had +suffered from pestilence and famine. Her strength now could not have +been more than two hundred thousand, and though she was fairly well +supplied with munitions, she was so much outnumbered that she could +hardly hope for success. On her west she was facing the Austro-German +armies; on her east Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source of +supplies was Saloniki and this was really her only hope. If the Allies +at Saloniki could stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians might face +again the Austro-Germans. They expected this help from the Allies. + +At Nish the town was decorated and the school children waited outside +the station with bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements. But +the Allies did not come. + +Von Mackensen’s plan was simple enough. His object was to win a way +to Constantinople. This could be done either by the control of the +Danube or the Ottoman Railroad. To control the Danube he had to seize +northeastern Serbia for the length of the river. This was comparatively +easy and would give him a clear water way to the Bulgarian railways +connected with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway was a harder route +to win. It meant an advance to the southeast, which would clear the +Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava valley up to Bulgaria. +The movements involved were somewhat complex, but easily carried out +on account of the very great numerical superiority of von Mackensen’s +forces. + +On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded. The Serbian positions were +gradually destroyed. On the 7th of October the German armies crossed +the Danube, and on the 8th the Serbians began to retreat. There was +great destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian General, Mishitch, was +forced slowly back to the foothills of the Tser range. + +For a time von Mackensen moved slowly. He did not wish to drive the +Serbians too far south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian army began +its attack. At first it was held, but by October 17th was pushing +forward all along the line. On the 20th they entered Uskub, a central +point of all the routes of southern Serbia. This practically separated +the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian armies further north. +Disaster followed disaster. On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction of +Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was completed in the Dobravodo +mountains. General von Gallwitz announced that a moment of world +significance has come, that the “Orient and Occident had been united, +and on the basis of this firm and indissoluble union a new and mighty +vierbund comes into being, created by the victory of our arms.” + + [Illustration: GERMANY’S DREAM: “THE + BREMEN-BERLIN-BOSPORUS-BAGDAD-BAHN”] + +The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria to Turkey +lay open. On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on November 2nd, +Kraguyevac surrendered, the decisive battle of the war. On November +7th, Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced: “After fierce and +sanguinary fighting the fortress of Nish has been conquered by our +brave victorious troops and the Bulgarian flag has been hoisted to +remain forever.” + +The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat, until on November 8th, +advancing Franco-British troops almost joined with them, presenting a +line from Prilep to Dorolovo on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time +the Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor and also at Strumitza. +The Allied armies were now reported to number three hundred thousand +men. The Austro-Germans by this time had reached the mountainous region +of Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance. + +On November 13th, German despatches from the front claimed the capture +of 54,000 Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of Serbia was in full +flight, followed by the Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were still +fighting and on November 15th, made a stand on the western bank of the +Morava River, and recaptured the town of Tatova. + +At this time the Allied world was watching the Serbian struggle +with interest and sympathy. In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne +in a discussion of the English effort to give them aid said: “It +is impossible to think or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the +wondrous gallantry with which that little country withstood two +separate invasions, and has lately been struggling against a third. She +repelled the first two invasions by an effort which I venture to think +formed one of the most glorious chapters in the history of this Great +War.” + +Serbia, however, was compelled once more to retreat, and their retreat +soon became a rout. Their guns were abandoned and the roads were strewn +with fainting, starving men. The sufferings of the Serbian people +during this time are indescribable. Men, women, and children struggled +along in the wake of the armies without food or shelter. King Peter +himself was able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By traveling +on horseback and mule back in disguise he finally reached Scutari and +crossed to Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New Year’s Day, +crippled and almost blind, but still full of fight. + +“I believe,” he said, “in the liberty of Serbia, as I believe in God. +It was the dream of my youth. It was for that I fought throughout +manhood. It has become the faith of the twilight of my life. I live +only to see Serbia free. I pray that God may let me live until the day +of redemption of my people. On that day I am ready to die, if the Lord +wills. I have struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired, bruised +and broken from it, but I will see, I shall see, this triumph. I shall +not die before the victory of my country.” + +The Serbian army had been driven out of Serbia. But the Allies who +had come up from Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October 12th, the +French General Serrail arrived and moved with the French forces, as +has already been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with a number +of successes. On October 19th they seized the Bulgarian town of +Struminitza, and occupied strong positions on the left bank of the +Vardar. On October 27th they occupied Krivolak, with the British Tenth +Division, which had joined them on their right. They then occupied the +summit of Karahodjali, which commanded the whole section of the valley. +This the Bulgarians attacked in force on the 5th of November, but +were badly repulsed. They then attempted to move toward Babuna Pass, +twenty-five miles west of Krivolak, where they hoped to join hands with +the Serbian column at that point. + +They were being faced by a Bulgarian army numbering one hundred and +twenty-five thousand men, and found themselves in serious danger. They +were compelled to fall back into what is called the “Entrenched Camp +of Kavodar” without bringing the aid to the Serbian army that they had +hoped. The Allied expedition to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless +from the start, and, if anything, had injured Serbia by raising false +expectations which had interfered with their plans. + +During the whole of this disastrous campaign a desperate political +struggle was going on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis Cabinet +tendered its resignation to King Constantine. The trouble was over +a bill for extra pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate +discussion of the Greek war policy. M. Venizelos made two long speeches +defending his policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents in +regard to the Balkan situation. He said that he deplored the fact that +Serbia was being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece’s hereditary +enemy, who would not scruple later to fall on Greece herself. He spoke +of the King in a friendly way, criticizing, however, his position. He +had been twice removed from the Premiership, although he had a majority +behind him in the Greek Chamber. + +“Our State,” he said, “is a democracy, presided over by the King, and +the whole responsibility rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the Crown +has a right to disagree with the responsible Government if he thinks +the latter is not in agreement with the national will. But after the +recent election, non-agreement is out of the question, and now the +Crown has not the right to disagree again on the same question. It is +not a question of patriotism but of constitutional liberty.” + +When the vote was taken the Government was defeated by 147 to 114. +Instead of appointing Venizelos Premier, King Constantine gave the +position to M. Skouloudis, and then dissolved the Greek Chamber by +royal decree. Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be neutrality +with the character of sincerest benevolence toward the Entente Powers. +The general conditions at Athens during this whole time were causing +great anxiety in the Allied capitals, and the Allied expedition were +in continual fear of an attack in the rear in case of reverse. They +endeavored to obtain satisfactory assurances on this point, and while +assurances were given, during the whole period of King Constantine’s +reign aggressive action was prevented because of the doubt as to what +course King Constantine would take. + +In the end Constantine was compelled to abdicate. Venizelos became +Premier, and Greece formally declared war on the Central Powers. + +It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania cast aside her rôle +of neutral and entered the war with a declaration of hostilities on +Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were founded upon the supposedly +well-trained Roumanian army and upon the nation which, because of its +alertness and discipline, was known as “the policeman of Europe.” The +belief was general in Paris and London that the weight of men and +material thrown into the scale by Roumania would bring the war to a +speedy, victorious end. + +Germany, however, was confident. A spy system excelling in its detailed +reports anything that had heretofore been attempted, made smooth the +path of the German army. Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a +drive in force into Transylvania on August 30th, when the message +spread from Bucharest “von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army. Draft +all males of military age. Prepare for the worst.” + +And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania. A vast force of military +engineers moving like a human screen in front of von Mackensen’s +army, followed routes carefully mapped out by German spies during the +period of Roumania’s neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the +inch, had been prepared to carry cannon, material and men over streams +and ravines. Every Roumanian oil well, mine and store-house had been +located and mapped. German scientists had studied Roumanian weather +conditions and von Mackensen attacked while the roads were at their +best and the weather most favorable. As the Germans swept forward, +spies met them giving them military information of the utmost value. +A swarm of airplanes spied out the movements of the Roumanians and no +Roumanian airplanes rose to meet them. + +General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with von Mackensen, smashed his +way through Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to Bucharest +at Craiova. The Dobrudja region was overrun and the central Roumanian +plain was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition to the German +advance. The seat of government was transferred from Bucharest to Jassy +on November 28, 1916, and on December 6th Bucharest was entered by von +Mackensen, definitely putting an end to Roumania as a factor in the war. + +The immediate result of the fall of Roumania was to release immense +stores of petroleum for German use. British and Roumanian engineers +had done their utmost by the use of explosives to make useless the +great Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers soon had the precious +fluid in full flow. This furnished the fuel which Germany had long and +ardently desired. The oil-burning submarine now came into its own. It +was possible to plan a great fleet of submersibles to attempt execution +of von Tirpitz’s plan for unrestricted submarine warfare. This was +decided upon by the German High Command the day Bucharest fell. It was +realized that such a policy would bring the United States into the +war, but the Kaiser and his advisers hoped the submarine on sea and a +great western front offensive on land would force a decision in favor +of Germany before America could get ready. How that hope failed was +revealed at Château-Thierry and in the humiliation of Germany. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA + + +In our previous discussion of the British campaign in Mesopotamia we +left the British forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying Basra, +the port of Bagdad. The object of the Mesopotamia Expedition was +primarily to keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of Persia. If +the English had been satisfied with that, the misfortune which was to +come to them might never have occurred, but the whole expedition was +essentially political rather than military in its nature. + +The British were defending India. The Germans, unable to attack the +British Empire by sea, were hoping to attack her by land. They had +already attempted to stir up a Holy War with the full expectation that +it would lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had failed, for the +millions of Mohammedans in India cared little for the Turkish Sultan +or his proclamations. Through Bagdad, however, they hoped to strike +a blow at the English influence on the Persian Gulf. The English, +therefore, felt strongly that it was not enough to sit safely astride +the Tigris, but that a blow at Bagdad would produce a tremendous +political effect. It would practically prevent German communication +with Persia, and the Indian frontier. + +As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and the oil fields were safe so +long as the English held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of no +special consequence. The real reason for the expedition was probably +that about this time matters were moving badly for the Allies. Serbia +was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli was a failure, something it +seemed ought to be done to restore the British prestige. Up to this +time the Mesopotamia Expedition had been a great success, but it had +made no great impression on the world. The little villages in the hands +of the British had unknown names, but if Bagdad should be captured +Great Britain would have something to boast of; something that would +keep up its prestige among its Mohammedan subjects. + +Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined on, there had been +several lively fights between the English forces and the Turks. On +March 3d a Turkish force numbering about twelve thousand appeared at +Ahwaz where the British had placed a small garrison to protect the pipe +line of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. The British retirement led to +heavy fighting, with severe losses. + +A number of lively skirmishes followed, and then came the serious +attack against Shaiba. The Turkish army numbered about eighteen +thousand men, of whom eleven thousand were regulars. The fighting +lasted for several days, the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of +April, however, the English attacked in turn and put the whole enemy +force to flight. The British lost about seven hundred officers and men, +and reported a Turkish loss of about six thousand. In their retreat +the Turks were attacked by their Arab allies, and suffered additional +losses. From that time till summer there were no serious contests, +although there were occasional skirmishes which turned out favorably to +the British. + +By this time the Turks had collected a considerable army north of +Kurna, and on May 31st an expedition was made to disperse it. On +June 3d the British captured Amara, seventy-five miles above Kurna, +scattering the Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition was +sent against Nasiriyeh, which led to serious fighting, the Turks being +badly defeated with a loss of over two thousand five hundred men. + +Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in August an expedition was +directed against that point. The Turks were found in great force, well +intrenched, and directed by German officers. The battle lasted for four +days. The English suffered great hardship on account of the scarcity of +water and the blinding heat, but on September 29th they drove the enemy +from the city and took possession. More than two thousand prisoners +were taken. The town was found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate +system of trenches extending for miles, built in the true German +fashion. Its capture was the end of the summer campaign. + + [Illustration: THE MESOPOTAMIAN SECTOR, WHERE THE BRITISH ROUTED THE + TURKISH ARMY] + +The British now had at last made up their minds to push on to Bagdad. +General Townshend, whose work so far had been admirable, protested, +but Sir John Nixon, and the Indian military authorities, were strongly +in favor of the expedition. By October, Turkey was able to gather a +large army. She was fighting in Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and +Mesopotamia. Little was going on in the first three of these fronts, +and she was able therefore to send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a +million men. + +To meet these, General Townshend had barely fifteen thousand men, of +whom only one-third were white soldiers. He was backed by a flotilla +of boats of almost every kind,--river boats, motor launches, paddle +steamers, native punts. The British army was almost worn out by the +fighting during the intense heat of the previous summer. But their +success had given them confidence. + +In the early days of October the advance began. For some days it +proceeded with no serious fighting. On the 23d of October it reached +Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish force numbering about four +thousand. These were soon routed, and the advance continued until +General Townshend arrived at Lajj, about seven miles from Ctesiphon, +where the Turks were found heavily intrenched and in great numbers. +Ctesiphon was a famous old city which had been the battle-ground of +Romans and Parthians, but was now mainly ruins. In these ruins, +however, the Turks found admirable shelter for nests of machine guns. +On the 21st of November General Townshend made his attack. + +The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments, and had about twenty +thousand men, the English about twelve thousand. General Townshend’s +plan was to divide his army into three columns. The first was to attack +the center of the first Turkish position. A second was directed at the +left of that position, and a third was to swing widely around and come +in on the rear of the Turkish force. This plan was entirely successful, +but the Turkish army was not routed, and retreated fighting desperately +to its second line. There it was reinforced and counter-attacked with +such vigor that it drove the British back to its old first trenches. +The next day the Turks were further reinforced and attacked again. The +British drove them back over and over, but found themselves unable to +advance. The Turks had lost enormously but the English had lost about +one-third of their strength, and were compelled to fall back. They +therefore returned on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately, after continual +rear guard actions, to Kut. There they found themselves surrounded, and +there was nothing to do but to wait for help. + +By this time the eyes of the world were upon the beleaguered British +army. Help was being hurried to them from India, but Germany also was +awake and Marshal von Der Goltz, who had been military instructor in +the Turkish army, was sent down to take command of the Turkish forces. +The town of Kut lies in the loop of the Tigris, making it almost an +island. There was an intrenched line across the neck of land on the +north, and the place could resist any ordinary assault. The great +difficulty was one of supplies. However, as the relieving force was on +the way, no great anxiety was felt. For some days there was constant +bombardment, which did no great damage. On the 23d an attempt was made +to carry the place by assault, but this too failed. The relieving +force, however, was having its troubles. These were the days of +floods, and progress was slow and at times almost impossible. Moreover, +the Turks were constantly resisting. + +The relief expedition was composed of thirty thousand Indian troops, +two Anglo-Indian divisions, and the remnants of Townshend’s expedition, +a total of about ninety thousand men. General Sir Percy Lake was in +command of the entire force. The march began on January 6th. By January +8th the British had reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated +in two pitched battles. On January 22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna, +where the Turks had intrenched themselves. + +After artillery bombardment the Turkish positions were attacked, but +heavy rains had converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering +rapid movement impossible. The enemy’s fire was heavy and effective, +inflicting severe losses, and though every effort was made, the assault +failed. + +For days the British troops bivouacked in driving rain on soaked and +sodden ground. Three times they were called upon to advance over a +perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and absolutely devoid of cover +against well-constructed and well-planned trenches, manned by a brave +and stubborn enemy, approximately their equal in numbers. They showed a +spirit of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their country may well +be proud. + +But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage the British army. It was +decided to move up the left bank of the Tigris and attack the Turkish +position at the Dujailah redoubt. This meant a night march across the +desert with great danger that there would be no water supply and that, +unless the enemy was routed, the army would be in great danger. + +General Lake says: “On the afternoon of March 7th, General Aylmer +assembled his subordinate commanders and gave his final instructions, +laying particular stress on the fact that the operation was designed to +effect a surprise, and that to prevent the enemy forestalling us, it +was essential that the first phase of the operation should be pushed +through with the utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly, as +follows: The greater part of a division under General Younghusband, +assisted by naval gunboats, controlled the enemy on the left bank. The +remaining troops were formed into two columns, under General Kemball +and General Keary respectively, a reserve of infantry, and the cavalry +brigade, being held at the Corps Commander’s own disposal. Kemball’s +column covered on the outer flank by the cavalry brigade was to make +a turning movement to attack the Dujailah redoubt from the south, +supported by the remainder of the force, operating from a position to +the east of the redoubt. The night march by this large force, which +led across the enemy’s front to a position on his right flank, was +a difficult operation, entailing movement over unknown ground, and +requiring most careful arrangement to attain success.” + +Thanks to excellent staff work and good march discipline the troops +reached their allotted position apparently undiscovered by the enemy, +but while Keary’s column was in position at daybreak, ready to support +Kemball’s attack, the latter’s command did not reach the point selected +for its deployment in the Dujailah depression until more than an +hour later. This delay was highly prejudicial to the success of the +operation. + +When, nearly three hours later, Kemball’s troops advanced to the +attack, they were strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches cleverly +concealed in the brushwood, and were unable to make further ground for +some time, though assisted by Keary’s attack upon the redoubt from the +east. The southern attack was now reinforced, and by 1 P. M. had pushed +forward to within five hundred yards of the redoubt, but concealed +trenches again stopped further progress and the Turks made several +counter-attacks with reinforcements which had by now arrived from the +direction of Magasis. + +It was about this time that the Corps Commander received from his +engineer officers the unwelcome news that the water supply contained +in rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression, upon which he had +reckoned, was insufficient and could not be increased by digging. It +was clear, therefore, that unless the Dujailah redoubt could be carried +that day the scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the troops to +fall back. Preparations were accordingly made for a further assault on +the redoubt, and attacks were launched from the south and east under +cover of a heavy bombardment. + +The attacking forces succeeded in gaining a foothold in the +redoubt. But here they were heavily counter-attacked by large enemy +reinforcements, and being subjected to an extremely rapid and accurate +shrapnel fire from concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After, they +were forced to fall back to the position from which they started. The +troops who had been under arms for some thirty hours, including a long +night march, were now much exhausted, and General Aylmer considered +that a renewal of the assault during the night could not be made with +any prospect of success. Next morning the enemy’s position was found +to be unchanged and General Aylmer, finding himself faced with the +deficiency of order already referred to, decided upon the immediate +withdrawal of his troops to Wadi, which was reached the same night. + +For the next month the English were held in their positions by the +Tigris floods. On April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to +permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna, which this time was +successful. On April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat was +attacked, but the English were repulsed. They then determined to +make another attempt to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On April +17th the fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles from Es Sinn, on the left +bank, was captured after heavy bombardment, and held against serious +counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st the Sanna-i-yat position was +bombarded and a vigorous assault was made, which met with some success. +The Turks, however, delivered a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in +forcing the British troops back. + +General Lake says: “Persistent and repeated attempts on both banks +have thus failed, and it was known that at the outside not more than +six days’ supplies remained to the Kut garrison. The British troops +were nearly worn out. The same troops had advanced time and again +to assault positions strong by art and held by a determined enemy. +For eighteen consecutive days they had done all that men could do +to overcome, not only the enemy, but also exceptional climatic and +physical obstacles, and this on a scale of rations which was far from +being sufficient in view of the exertions they had undergone, but which +the shortage of river transports, had made it impossible to augment. +The need for rest was imperative.” + +On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara surrendered +unconditionally, after a heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three +days. According to British figures the surrendered army was composed of +2,970 English and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish figures are 13,300. +The Turks also captured a large amount of booty, although General +Townshend destroyed most of his guns and munitions. + +During the period in which Kut-el-Amara was besieged by the Turks, the +British troops had suffered much. The enemy bombarded the town almost +every day, but did little damage. The real foe was starvation. At first +the British were confident that a relief expedition would soon reach +them, and they amused themselves by cricket and hockey and fishing +in the river. By early February, however, it was found necessary +to reduce the rations, and a month later they were suffering from +hunger. Some little help was given them by airplanes, which brought +tobacco and some small quantities of supplies. Soon the horses and +the mules were slaughtered and eaten. As time went on the situation +grew desperate; till almost the end, however, they did not lose hope. +Through the wireless they were informed about the progress of the +relief expeditions and had even heard their guns in the distance. They +gradually grew, however, weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender +the troops in the first lines were too weak to march back with their +kits. + +The Turks treated the prisoners in a chivalric manner; food and tobacco +was at once distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia, except +General Townshend and his staff, who were taken to Constantinople. +Later on it was General Townshend who was to have the honor of carrying +the Turkish plea for an armistice in the closing days of the war. + +The surrender of Kut created a world-wide sensation. The loss of eight +thousand troops was, of course, not a serious matter, and the road to +India was still barred, but the moral effect was most unfortunate. +That the great British nation, whose power had been so respected in +the Orient, should now be forced to yield, was a great blow to its +prestige. In England, of course, there was a flood of criticism. It was +very plain that a mistake had been made. A commission was appointed to +inquire into the whole business. This committee reported to Parliament +on June 26, 1917, and the report created a great sensation. The +substance of the report was, that while the expedition was justifiable +from a political point of view, it was undertaken with insufficient +forces and inadequate preparation, and it sharply criticized those that +were responsible. + +It seems plain that the military authorities in India under-estimated +their opponent. The report especially criticized General Sir +John Eccles Nixon, the former commander of the British forces in +Mesopotamia, who had urged the expedition, in spite of the objection of +General Townshend. Others sharing the blame were the Viceroy of India, +Baron Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff, Commander-in-Chief of the +British forces in India, and, in England, Major-General Sir Edmund +Barrow, Military Secretary of the India office, J. Austin Chamberlain, +Secretary for India, and the War Committee of the Cabinet. According +to the report, beside the losses incurred by the surrender more than +twenty-three thousand men were lost in the relieving expedition. +The general armament and equipment were declared to be not only +insufficient, but not up to the standard. + +In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain resigned as secretary +for India. In the House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary of Foreign +Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge, who, at the time of the report, +was Under Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared the criticism of +Baron Hardinge to be grossly unjust. After some discussion the House +of Commons supported Mr. Balfour’s refusal to accept Baron Hardinge’s +resignation, by a vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that the +civil administration of India were not responsible for the blunders +of the expedition. Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter +controversy with Lord Curzon, had made the military side of the Indian +Government free of all civilian criticism and control. The blunders +here were military blunders. + +The English, of course, were not satisfied to leave the situation in +such a condition, and at once began their plans for a new attempt to +capture Bagdad. The summer campaign, however, was uneventful, though on +May 18th a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in Persia joined +the British camp. A few days afterwards the British army went up the +Tigris and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they had been so badly +defeated on the 8th of March. They then approached close to Kut, but +the weather was unsuitable, and there was now no object in capturing +the city. + +In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Sir +Frederick Stanley Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded to +prepare for an expedition which should capture Bagdad. A dispatch +from General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a full account of this +expedition. It was thoroughly successful. This time with a sufficient +army and a thorough equipment the British found no difficulties, and +on February 26th they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought +battle, but as the result of a successful series of small engagements. +The Turks kept up a steady resistance, but the British blood was up. +They were remembering General Townshend’s surrender, and the Turks were +driven before them in great confusion. + +The capture of Kut, however, was not an object in itself, and the +British pushed steadily on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally made +a stand, but without effect. On the 28th of February the English had +arrived at Azizie, half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made. On the +5th of March the advance was renewed. The Ctesiphon position, which +had defied General Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched, +but empty. On March 7th the enemy made a stand on the River Diala, +which enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad. Some lively fighting +followed, the enemy resisting four attempts to cross the Diala. +However, on March 10th the British forces crossed, and were now close +to Bagdad. The enemy suddenly retired and the British troops found that +their main opponent was a dust storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad, +and on March 11th the city was occupied by the English. + +The fall of Bagdad was an important event. It cheered the Allies, and +proved, especially to the Oriental world, the power of the British +army. Those who originally planned its capture had been right, but +those who were to carry out the plan had not done their duty. Under +General Maude it was a comparatively simple operation, though full of +admirable details, and it produced all the good effects expected. The +British, of course, did not stop at Bagdad. The city itself is not +of strategic importance. The surrounding towns were occupied and an +endeavor was made to conciliate the inhabitants. The real object of the +expedition was attained. + + [Illustration: BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH + + Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of + the British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the + ancient city at the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +IMMORTAL VERDUN + + +France was revealed to herself, to Germany and to the world as the +heroic defender of civilization, as a defender defying death in the +victory of Verdun. There, with the gateway to Paris lying open at its +back, the French army, in the longest pitched battle in all history, +held like a cold blue rock against the uttermost man-power and +resources of the German army. + +General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German General Staff and military +dictator of the Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace. There +the mettle of the Crown Prince was tested and he was found to be merely +a thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was under the domination +of von Falkenhayn. + +For the tremendous offensive which was planned to end the war by one +terrific thrust, von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other fronts of +effective men and munitions. Field Marshal von Hindenburg and his +crafty Chief of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a campaign +against Russia designed to put that tottering military Colossus out +of the war. The plans were upon a scale that might well have proved +successful. The Kaiser, influenced by the Crown Prince and by von +Falkenhayn, decreed that the Russian campaign must be postponed and +that von Hindenburg must send his crack troops to join the army of the +Crown Prince fronting Verdun. Ludendorff promptly resigned as Chief +of Staff to von Hindenburg and suggested that the Field Marshal also +resign. That grim old warrior declined to take this action, preferring +to remain idle in East Prussia and watch what he predicted would be a +useless effort on the western front. His warning to the General Staff +was explicit, but von Falkenhayn coolly ignored the message. + + [Illustration: IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS WITH + THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, “THEY SHALL NOT PASS”] + +Why did Germany select this particular point for its grand offensive? +The answer is to be found in a demand made by the great Junker +associations of Germany in May, 1915, nine months before the attack +was undertaken. That demand was to the effect that Verdun should be +attacked and captured. They declared that the Verdun fortifications +made a menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields of the Briey +basin. From this metalliferous field of Lorraine came the ore that +supplied eighty per cent of the steel required for German and Austrian +guns and munitions. These fields of Briey were only twenty miles from +the great guns of Verdun. They were French territory at the beginning +of the war and had been seized by the army of the Crown Prince, +co-operating with the Army of Metz because of their immense value to +the Germans in war making. + +As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn placed a semicircle of +huge howitzers and rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling +the vast forces drained from all the fronts and having erected +ammunition dumps covering many acres, the great battle commenced with +a surprise attack upon the village of Haumont on February 21, 1916. + +The first victory of the Germans at that point was an easy one. The +great fort of Douaumont was the next objective. This was taken on +February 25th after a concentrated bombardment that for intensity +surpassed anything that heretofore had been shown in the war. + +Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending the disposition of guns and +men, had now penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun. The tide was +running against the French, and shells, more shells for the guns of all +caliber; men, more men for the earthworks surrounding the devoted city +were needed. The narrow-gauge railway connecting Verdun with the great +French depots of supplies was totally inadequate for the transportation +burdens suddenly cast upon it. In this desperate emergency a transport +system was born of necessity, a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet +upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles; anything that could +pack a few shells or a handful of men was utilized. The backbone of +the system was a great fleet of trucks driven by men whose average +daily rest was four hours, and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the +stains of snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were indelibly fixed +through the winter, spring, summer and fall of 1916, for the glorious +engagement continued from February 21st until November 2d, when the +Germans were forced into full retreat from the field of honor, the +evacuation of Fort Vaux putting a period to Germany’s disastrous plan +and to von Falkenhayn’s military career. + +Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days of the immortal battle, +wrote: + +“Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary of battles. The +mass of metal used on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the +transformation on the Douaumont Ridge was more suddenly dramatic than +even the battle of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the +conflict already looks as if it would surpass anything in history. More +than a month has elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre and +General Pétain, I was able to watch the struggle from various vital +viewpoints. The battle had then been raging with great intensity for +a fortnight, and, as I write, four to five thousand guns are still +thundering round Verdun. Impossible, therefore, any man to describe the +entire battle. The most one can do is to set down one’s impressions of +the first phases of a terrible conflict, the end of which cannot be +foreseen. + +“My chief impression is one of admiration for the subtle powers of +mind of the French High Command. General Joffre and General Castelnau +are men with especially fine intellects tempered to terrible keenness. +Always they have had to contend against superior numbers. In 1870, +when they were subalterns, their country lost the advantage of its +numerous population by abandoning general military service at a time +when Prussia was completely realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In +1914, when they were commanders, France was inferior to a still greater +degree in point of numbers to Prussianized Germany. In armament, also, +France was inferior at first to her enemy. The French High Command +has thus been trained by adversity to do all that human intellect can +against almost overwhelming hostile material forces. General Joffre, +General Castelnau--and, later, General Pétain, who at a moment’s notice +displaced General Herr--had to display genius where the Germans were +exhibiting talent, and the result is to be seen at Verdun. They there +caught the enemy in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown in +modern warfare--something elemental, and yet subtle, neo-primitive, and +befitting the atavistic character of the Teuton. They caught him in a +web of his own unfulfilled boasts. + +“The enemy began by massing a surprising force on the western front. +Tremendous energy and organizing power were the marks of his supreme +efforts to obtain a decision. It was usually reckoned that the Germans +maintain on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four and a half +army corps, which at full strength number three million men. Yet, while +holding the Russians from Riga to the south of the Pripet Marshes, +and maintaining a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems to have +succeeded in bringing up nearly two millions and a half of men for her +grand spring offensive in the west. At one time her forces in France +and Flanders were only ninety divisions. But troops and guns were +withdrawn in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia in December, +1915, until there were, it is estimated, a hundred and eighteen +divisions on the Franco-British-Belgian front. A large number of +six-inch and twelve-inch Austrian howitzers were added to the enormous +Krupp batteries. Then a large proportion of new recruits of the 1916 +class were moved into Rhineland depots to serve as drafts for the +fifty-nine army corps, and it is thought that nearly all the huge shell +output that had accumulated during the winter was transported westward. + +“The French Staff reckoned that Verdun would be attacked when the +ground had dried somewhat in the March winds. It was thought that the +enemy movement would take place against the British front in some of +the sectors of which there were chalk undulations, through which the +rains of winter quickly drained. The Germans skilfully encouraged this +idea by making an apparent preliminary attack at Lions, on a five-mile +front with rolling gas-clouds and successive waves of infantry. During +this feint the veritable offensive movement softly began on Saturday, +February 19, 1916, when the enormous masses of hostile artillery west, +east, and north of the Verdun salient started registering on the French +positions. Only in small numbers did the German guns fire, in order not +to alarm their opponents. But even this trial bombardment by shifts +was a terrible display of power, calling forth all the energies of +the outnumbered French gunners to maintain the artillery duels that +continued day and night until Monday morning, February 21st. + +“The enemy seems to have maintained a bombardment all round General +Herr’s lines on February 21, 1916, but this general battering was +done with a thousand pieces of field artillery. The grand masses of +heavy howitzers were used in a different way. At a quarter past seven +in the morning they concentrated on the small sector of advanced +intrenchments near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch shells fell +with terrible precision every few yards, according to the statements +made by the French troops. I afterwards saw a big German shell, from +at least six miles distant from my place of observation, hit quite a +small target. So I can well believe that, in the first bombardment of +French positions, which had been photographed from the air and minutely +measured and registered by the enemy gunners in the trial firing, the +great, destructive shots went home with extraordinary effect. The +trenches were not bombarded--they were obliterated. In each small +sector of the six-mile northward bulge of the Verdun salient the work +of destruction was done with surprising quickness. + +“After the line from Brabant to Haumont was smashed, the main fire +power was directed against the other end of the bow at Herbebois, +Ornes, and Maucourt. Then when both ends of the bow were severely +hammered, the central point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods, was +smothered in shells of all sizes, poured in from east, north and west. +In this manner almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery was +centered upon mile after mile of the French front. When the great guns +lifted over the lines of craters, the lighter field artillery, placed +row after row in front of the wreckage, maintained an unending fire +curtain over the communicating saps and support intrenchments. + +“Then came the second surprising feature in the new German system of +attack. No waves of storming infantry swept into the battered works. +Only strong patrols at first came cautiously forward, to discover if +it were safe for the main body of troops to advance and reorganize the +French line so as to allow the artillery to move onward. There was thus +a large element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards told by +German prisoners. Their commanders thought it would be possible to do +all the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving the infantry to +act as squatters to the great guns and occupy and rebuild line after +line of the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand struggles. +All they had to do was to protect the gunners from surprise attack, +while the guns made an easy path for them and also beat back any +counter-attack in force. + +“But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving the man-power of +Germany by an unparalleled expenditure of shell, it required for full +success the co-operation of the French troops. But the French did not +co-operate. Their High Command had continually improved their system +of trench defense in accordance with the experiences of their own +hurricane bombardments in Champagne and the Carency sector. General +Castelnau, the acting Commander-in-Chief on the French front, was +indeed the inventor of hurricane fire tactics, which he had used for +the first time in February, 1915, in Champagne. When General Joffre +took over the conduct of all French operations, leaving to General +Castelnau the immediate control of the front in France, the victor of +the battle of Nancy weakened his advance lines and then his support +lines, until his troops actually engaged in fighting were very little +more than a thin covering body, such as is thrown out towards the +frontier while the main forces connect well behind. + +“We shall see the strategical effect of this extraordinary measure in +the second phase of the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to +leave remarkably few French troops exposed to the appalling tempest +of German and Austrian shells. The fire-trench was almost empty, and +in many cases the real defenders of the French line were men with +machine guns, hidden in dugouts at some distance from the photographed +positions at which the German gunners aimed. The batteries of light +guns, which the French handled with the flexibility and continuity of +fire of Maxims, were also concealed in widely scattered positions. The +main damage caused by the first intense bombardment was the destruction +of all the telephone wires along the French front. In one hour the +German guns plowed up every yard of ground behind the observing +posts and behind the fire-trench. Communications could only be slowly +re-established by messengers, so that many parties of men had to fight +on their own initiative, with little or no combination of effort with +their comrades. + +“Yet, desperate as were their circumstances, they broke down the German +plan for capturing trenches without an infantry attack. They caught the +patrols and annihilated them, and then swept back the disillusioned +and reluctant main bodies of German troops. First, the bombing parties +were felled, then the sappers as they came forward to repair the line +for their infantry, and at last the infantry itself in wave after wave +of field-gray. The small French garrison of every center of resistance +fought with cool, deadly courage, and often to the death. + +“Artillery fire was practically useless against them, for though +their tunnel shelters were sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch +shells, which they regarded as their special terror by reason of their +penetrative power and wide blast, even the Germans had not sufficient +shells to search out all their underground chambers, every one of which +have two or three exits. + +“The new organization of the French Machine-gun Corps was a fine factor +in the eventual success. One gun fired ten thousand rounds daily for +a week, most of the positions selected being spots from which each +German infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered. Then the +French 75’s which had been masked during the overwhelming fire of the +enemy howitzers, came unexpectedly into action when the German infantry +attacks increased in strength. Near Haumont, for example, eight +successive furious assaults were repulsed by three batteries of 75’s. +One battery was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch guns, but it +remained in action until all its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners +then blew up their guns and retired, with the loss of only one man. + + [Illustration: AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS + + Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a + shattered village.] + + [Illustration: HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED + + The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of + action.] + +“Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown Prince’s army from the fourteen +divisions--that battled at Douaumont Fort--to twenty-five divisions. +In April he added five more divisions to the forces around Verdun by +weakening the effectives in other sectors and drawing more troops from +the Russian front. It was rumored that von Hindenburg was growing +restive and complaining that the wastage at Verdun would tell against +the success of the campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was to open +when the Baltic ice melted. + +“Great as was the wastage of life, it was in no way immediately +decisive. But when the expenditure of shells almost outran the highest +speed of production of the German munition factories, and the wear +on the guns was more than Krupp and Skoda could make good, there was +danger to the enemy in beginning another great offensive likely to +overtax his shellmakers and gunmakers.” + +Immortal and indomitable France had won over her foe more power than +she had possessed even after the battle of the Marne. If her Allies, +with the help of Japan and the United States, could soon overtake +the production of the German and Austrian munition factories, it +was possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan, might become one of the +turning points of the war. + +Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with the whole population of +France roused to the supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like a +rock. Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green lines were sent against +the twenty-five miles of earthworks, while the French guns took their +toll of the crack German regiments. German dead lay upon the field +until exposed flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms. No +Man’s Land around Verdun was a waste and a stench. + +General Joffre’s plan was very simple. It was to hold out. As was +afterwards revealed, much to the satisfaction of the French people, Sir +Douglas Haig had placed himself completely at the service of the French +Commander-in-Chief, and had suggested that he should use the British +army to weaken the thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had refused the +proffered help. No man knew better than he what his country, with its +exceedingly low birthrate, was suffering on the Meuse. He had but to +send a telegram to British Headquarters, and a million Britons, with +thousands of heavy guns, would fling themselves upon the German lines +and compel Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy artillery, +and his millions of men between Verdun and the Somme. But General +Joffre, instead of sending the telegram in question, merely dispatched +officers to British Headquarters to assure and calm the chafing +Scotsman commanding the military forces of the British Empire. + +Throughout that long summer the battle cry of Verdun, “_Ne passeront +pas!_” (“They shall not pass!”), was an inspiration to the French army +and to the world. Then as autumn drifted its red foliage over the +heights surrounding the bloody field, the French struck back. General +Nivelle, who had taken command at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a +series of attacks and a persistent pressure against the German forces +on both sides of the Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden +sweeping attack which on October 24th, resulted in the recapture by +Nivelle’s forces of Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the recapture +of Fort Vaux. + +Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle in the long and honorable +history of France. + + + + +TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: + + + Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. + + Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. + + Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized. + + Archaic or variant spelling has been retained. + + New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the + public domain. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 *** |