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diff --git a/16282-h/16282-h.htm b/16282-h/16282-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9b0d0c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/16282-h/16282-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6277 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + History of the World War (Volume 3 of 7) | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .51em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .49em; +} + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; +} + +hr.small {width: 30%; margin-left: 35%; margin-right: 35%;} +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} +h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +table.equal {width: 100%; table-layout: fixed;} + +td {padding-left: 0.5em;} +th {text-align: left;} +.tdl {text-align: left; padding-left: 2em;} +.tdr {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} +.tdh {text-align: left; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -1em;} +.tdc {text-align: center;} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; +} + +p.drop-cap { + text-indent: -0.35em; +} +p.drop-cap2 { + text-indent: -0.75em; +} +p.drop-cap:first-letter, p.drop-cap2:first-letter +{ + float: left; + margin: 0em 0.15em 0em 0em; + font-size: 250%; + line-height:0.85em; + text-indent: 0em; +} +.x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap, .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap2 { + text-indent: 0em; +} +.x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap:first-letter, .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap2:first-letter +{ + float: none; + margin: 0; + font-size: 100%; +} + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .blockquot { + margin-left: 7.5%; + margin-right: 7.5%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + +.ph1 {text-align: center; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;} +.ph2 {text-align: center; font-size: xx-large; font-weight: bold;} + +div.titlepage {text-align: center; page-break-before: always; page-break-after: always;} +div.titlepage p {text-align: center; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: 2em;} + +.xlarge {font-size: 150%;} +.large {font-size: 125%;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold; text-align: center;} + +.x-ebookmaker .hide {display: none; visibility: hidden;} + +img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; +} +img.w100 {width: 100%;} + + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; +} + +.footnote {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 75%; text-align: right;} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +.poetry-container {display: flex; justify-content: center;} +.poetry-container {text-align: center;} +.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} + +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; + padding: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + +.illowe28_125 {width: 28.125em;} +.illowe40 {width: 40em;} +.illowe42_75 {width: 42.75em;} +.illowe42_9375 {width: 42.9375em;} +.illowe45 {width: 45em;} + +.illowe46_0625 {width: 46.0625em;} + + </style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***</div> + +<div class="figcenter hide"><img src="images/coversmall.jpg" width="450" alt="cover"></div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_0"></span> +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_frontispiece"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_frontispiece.jpg" alt="THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE THRILL OF OLD-TIME WAR</p> + +<p>The stirrup charge of the Scots Greys at St. Quentin. Holding on to the stirrup +leathers of the cavalry the Highlanders crashed like an avalanche upon the German +lines, tearing great gaps in their massed formations.</p></figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i_title.jpg" alt="title page"></div> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="titlepage"> +<p class="ph1">COMPLETE EDITION</p> +<hr class="small"> +<h1><small>HISTORY OF THE</small><br> +WORLD WAR</h1> + +<p><span class="xlarge">An Authentic Narrative of<br> +The World’s Greatest War</span></p> + +<p><span class="large"><span class="smcap">By</span> FRANCIS A. MARCH, Ph.D.</span><br> + +In Collaboration with<br> + +RICHARD J. BEAMISH<br> + +Special War Correspondent<br> +and Military Analyst</p> + +<p>With an Introduction<br> +<span class="large"><span class="smcap">By</span> GENERAL PEYTON C. MARCH</span><br> +Chief of Staff of the United States Army</p> + +<p>With Exclusive Photographs by<br> +JAMES H. HARE and DONALD THOMPSON<br> +World-Famed War Photographers<br> + +and with Reproductions from the Official Photographs<br> +of the United States, Canadian, British,<br> +French and Italian Governments</p> + +<p>MCMXIX<br> +<span class="large">LESLIE-JUDGE COMPANY<br> +<span class="smcap">New York</span></span></p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center">Copyright, 1918<br> + +<span class="smcap">Francis A. March</span></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> +<p>This history is an original work and is fully<br> +protected by the copyright laws, including the<br> +right of translation. All persons are warned<br> +against reproducing the text in whole or in<br> +part without the permission of the publishers.</p> +</div></div></div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[iii]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS<br> + +<small>VOLUME III</small></h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<table> +<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. Neuve Chapelle and War +in Blood-Soaked Trenches</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">War Amid Barbed-Wire Entanglements and the Desolation +of No Man’s Land—Subterranean Tactics Continuing Over +Four Years—Attacks that Cost Thousands of Lives for +Every Foot of Gain</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1"> 1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter II. Italy Declares War on +Austria</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">Her Great Decision—D’Annunzio, Poet and Patriot—Italia +Irredenta—German Indignation—The Campaigns +on the Isonzo and in the Tyrol</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29"> 29</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter III. Glorious Gallipoli</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">A Titanic Enterprise—Its Objects—Disasters and Deeds +of Deathless Glory—The Heroic Anzacs—Bloody Dashes up +Impregnable Slopes—Silently they Stole Away—A Successful +Failure</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58"> 58</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV. The Greatest Naval +Battle in History</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">The Battle of Jutland—Every Factor on Sea and in Sky +Favorable to the Germans—Low Visibility a Great Factor—A +Modern Sea Battle—Light Cruisers Screening Battleship +Squadron—Germans Run Away when British Fleet +Marshals Its Full Strength—Death of Lord Kitchener</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78"> 78</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter V. The Russian Campaign</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">The Advance on Cracow—Von Hindenburg Strikes at +Warsaw—German Barbarism—The War in Galicia—The +Fall of Przemysl—Russia’s Ammunition Fails—The Russian +Retreat—The Fall of Warsaw—The Last Stand—Czernowitz</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_104"> 104</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI. How the Balkans Decided</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">Ferdinand of Bulgaria Insists Upon Joining Germany—Dramatic +Scene in the King’s Palace—The Die is Cast—Bulgaria +Succumbs to Seductions of Potsdam Gang—Greece +Mobilizes—French and British Troops at Saloniki—Serbia +Over-run—Roumania’s Disastrous Venture in the Arena +of Mars</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_145"> 145</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII. The Campaign in Mesopotamia</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">British Army Threatening Bagdad Besieged in Kut-el-Amara—After +Heroic Defense General Townshend Surrenders +after 143 Days of Siege—New British Expedition +Recaptures Kut—Troops Push on Up the Tigris—Fall of +Bagdad the Magnificent</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187"> 187</a></td></tr> + +<tr><th colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII. Immortal Verdun</span></th></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdl">Grave of the Military Reputations of von Falkenhayn and +the Crown Prince—Hindenburg’s Warning—Why the Germans +Made the Disastrous Attempt to Capture the Great +Fortress—Heroic France Reveals Itself to the World—“They +Shall Not Pass”—Nivelle’s Glorious Stand on +Dead Man Hill—Lord Northcliffe’s Description—A Defense +Unsurpassed in the History of France</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_209"> 209</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">ILLUSTRATIONS<br> + +<small>VOLUME III</small></h2> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<table> +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Thrill of Old-Time War</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_0"> <i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="allsmcap">PAGE</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Glorious Charge of the Ninth Lancers</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_4"> 4</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charging Through Barbed-Wire Entanglements</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_6"> 6</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">British Indian Troops Charging the German +Trenches at Neuve Chapelle</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10"> 10</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Charging on German Trenches in Gas Masks</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_12"> 12</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">An Incident of the War in Flanders</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18"> 18</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Italy’s Titanic Labor to Conquer the Alps</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30"> 30</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Waiting the Order to Attack</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_38"> 38</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Transporting Wounded Amid the Difficulties +of the Italian Mountain Front</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_42"> 42</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Loss of the “Irresistible”</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_68"> 68</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">The Historic Landing from the “River Clyde” +at Seddul Bahr</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_76"> 76</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Admiral William S. Sims</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98"> 98</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Admiral Sir David Beatty</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_98"> 98</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">German Frightfulness from the Air</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_110"> 110</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Bagdad the Magnificent Falls to the British</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_208"> 208</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">Ammunition for the Guns</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224"> 224</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdh"><span class="smcap">How Verdun was Saved</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_224"> 224</a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span> + +<p class="ph2">THE WORLD WAR</p> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br> + + +<span class="smcap">Neuve Chapelle and War in Blood-Soaked +Trenches</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap2">AFTER the immortal stand of Joffre at +the first battle of the Marne and the sudden +savage thrust at the German center which +sent von Kluck and his men reeling back in +retreat to the prepared defenses along the +line of the Aisne, the war in the western theater +resolved itself into a play for position +from deep intrenchments. Occasionally would +come a sudden big push by one side or the +other in which artillery was massed until hub +touched hub and infantry swept to glory and +death in waves of gray, or blue or khaki as the +case might be. But these tremendous efforts +and consequent slaughters did not change the +long battle line from the Alps to the North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> +Sea materially. Here and there a bulge would +be made by the terrific pressure of men and +material in some great assault like that first +push of the British at Neuve Chapelle, like the +German attack at Verdun or like the tremendous +efforts by both sides on that bloodiest of +all battlefields, the Somme.</p> + +<p>Neuve Chapelle deserves particular mention +as the test in which the British soldiers demonstrated +their might in equal contest against the +enemy. There had been a disposition in England +as elsewhere up to that time to rate the +Germans as supermen, to exalt the potency of +the scientific equipment with which the German +army had taken the field. When the battle +of Neuve Chapelle had been fought, although +its losses were heavy, there was no +longer any doubt in the British nation that victory +was only a question of time.</p> + +<p>The action came as a pendant to the attack +by General de Langle de Cary’s French +army during February, 1915, at Perthes, that +had been a steady relentless pressure by artillery +and infantry upon a strong German position.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> +To meet it heavy reinforcements had +been shifted by the Germans from the trenches +between La Bassée and Lille. The earthworks +at Neuve Chapelle had been particularly +depleted and only a comparatively small body +of Saxons and Bavarians defended them. Opposite +this body was the first British army. +The German intrenchments at Neuve Chapelle +surrounded and defended the highlands upon +which were placed the German batteries and +in their turn defended the road towards Lille, +Roubaix and Turcoing.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_003"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_003.jpg" alt="The Battle-Ground of Neuve Chapelle"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Battle-Ground of Neuve Chapelle</span></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>The task assigned to Sir John French was +to make an assault with only forty-eight thousand +men on a comparatively narrow front. +There was only one practicable method for effective +preparation, and this was chosen by +the British general. An artillery concentration +absolutely unprecedented up to that time +was employed by him. Field pieces firing at +point-blank range were used to cut the barbed +wire entanglements defending the enemy intrenchments, +while howitzers and bombing airplanes +were used to drop high explosives into +the defenseless earthworks.</p> + +<p>Sir Douglas Haig, later to become the commander-in-chief +of the British forces, was in +command of the first army. Sir Horace +Smith-Dorrien commanded the second army. +It was the first army that bore the brunt of +the attack.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_004"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS<"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE GLORIOUS CHARGE OF THE NINTH LANCERS</p> + +<p>An incident of the retreat from Mons to Cambrai. A German battery of eleven guns posted in a wood had caused havoc in the +British ranks. The Ninth Lancers rode straight at them, across the open, through a hail of shell from the other German batteries, +cut down all the gunners, and put every gun out of action.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>No engagement during the years on the +western front was more sudden and surprising +in its onset than that drive of the British +against Neuve Chapelle. At seven o’clock on +the morning of Wednesday, March 10, 1915,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> +the British artillery was lazily engaged in lobbing +over a desultory shell fire upon the German +trenches. It was the usual breakfast appetizer, +and nobody on the German side took +any unusual notice of it. Really, however, the +shelling was scientific “bracketing” of the enemy’s +important position. The gunners were +making sure of their ranges.</p> + +<p>At 7.30 range finding ended, and with a roar +that shook the earth the most destructive and +withering artillery action of the war up to that +time was on. Field pieces sending their shells +hurtling only a few feet above the earth tore +the wire emplacements of the enemy to pieces +and made kindling wood of the supports. +Howitzers sent high explosive shells, containing +lyddite, of 15-inch, 9.2-inch and 6-inch caliber +into the doomed trenches and later into the +ruined village. It was eight o’clock in the +morning, one-half hour after the beginning of +the artillery action, that the village was bombarded. +During this time British soldiers +were enabled to walk about in No Man’s Land +behind the curtain of fire with absolute immunity.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> +No German rifleman or machine +gunner left cover. The scene on the German +side of the line was like that upon the blasted +surface of the moon, pock-marked with shell +holes, and with no trace of human life to be +seen above ground.</p> + +<p>An eye-witness describing the scene said:</p> + +<p>“The dawn, which broke reluctantly through +a veil of clouds on the morning of Wednesday, +March 10, 1915, seemed as any other to the +Germans behind the white and blue sandbags +in their long line of trenches curving in a hemicycle +about the battered village of Neuve Chapelle. +For five months they had remained undisputed +masters of the positions they had here +wrested from the British in October. Ensconced +in their comfortably-arranged trenches +with but a thin outpost in their fire trenches, +they had watched day succeed day and night +succeed night without the least variation from +the monotony of trench warfare, the intermittent +bark of the machine guns—rat-tat-tat-tat-tat—and +the perpetual rattle of rifle fire, with +here and there a bomb, and now and then an +exploded mine.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_006"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_006.jpg" alt="CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><small>© <i>Illustrated London News</i>.</small></p> + +<p class="center">CHARGING THROUGH BARBED-WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS</p> + +<p>In one sector at Givenchy, the wire had not been sufficiently smashed by the artillery preparation and the infantry attack was held up +in the face of a murderous German fire.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>“For weeks past the German airmen had +grown strangely shy. On this Wednesday +morning none were aloft to spy out the strange +doings which, as dawn broke, might have been +descried on the desolate roads behind the British +lines.</p> + +<p>“From ten o’clock of the preceding evening +endless files of men marched silently down the +roads leading towards the German positions +through Laventie and Richebourg St. Vaast, +poor shattered villages of the dead where +months of incessant bombardment have driven +away the last inhabitants and left roofless +houses and rent roadways....</p> + +<p>“Two days before, a quiet room, where +Nelson’s Prayer stands on the mantel-shelf, +saw the ripening of the plans that sent these +sturdy sons of Britain’s four kingdoms marching +all through the night. Sir John French +met the army corps commanders and unfolded +to them his plans for the offensive of the British<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> +army against the German line at Neuve +Chapelle.</p> + +<p>“The onslaught was to be a surprise. That +was its essence. The Germans were to be +battered with artillery, then rushed before they +recovered their wits. We had thirty-six clear +hours before us. Thus long, it was reckoned +(with complete accuracy as afterwards appeared), +must elapse before the Germans, +whose line before us had been weakened, could +rush up reinforcements. To ensure the enemy’s +being pinned down right and left of the +‘great push,’ an attack was to be delivered +north and south of the main thrust simultaneously +with the assault on Neuve Chapelle.”</p> + +<p>After describing the impatience of the British +soldiers as they awaited the signal to open +the attack, and the actual beginning of the engagement, +the narrator continues:</p> + +<p>“Then hell broke loose. With a mighty, +hideous, screeching burst of noise, hundreds +of guns spoke. The men in the front trenches +were deafened by the sharp reports of the +field-guns spitting out their shells at close<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> +range to cut through the Germans’ barbed wire +entanglements. In some cases the trajectory +of these vicious missiles was so flat that they +passed only a few feet above the British +trenches.</p> + +<p>“The din was continuous. An officer who +had the curious idea of putting his ear to the +ground said it was as though the earth were +being smitten great blows with a Titan’s hammer. +After the first few shells had plunged +screaming amid clouds of earth and dust into +the German trenches, a dense pall of smoke +hung over the German lines. The sickening +fumes of lyddite blew back into the British +trenches. In some places the troops were +smothered in earth and dust or even spattered +with blood from the hideous fragments of +human bodies that went hurtling through the +air. At one point the upper half of a German +officer, his cap crammed on his head, was +blown into one of our trenches.</p> + +<p>“Words will never convey any adequate +idea of the horror of those five and thirty minutes. +When the hands of officers’ watches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> +pointed to five minutes past eight, whistles resounded +along the British lines. At the same +moment the shells began to burst farther +ahead, for, by previous arrangement, the gunners, +lengthening their fuses, were ‘lifting’ on +to the village of Neuve Chapelle so as to leave +the road open for our infantry to rush in and +finish what the guns had begun.</p> + +<p>“The shells were now falling thick among +the houses of Neuve Chapelle, a confused mass +of buildings seen reddish through the pillars +of smoke and flying earth and dust. At the +sound of the whistle—alas for the bugle, once +the herald of victory, now banished from the +fray!—our men scrambled out of the trenches +and hurried higgledy-piggledy into the open. +Their officers were in front. Many, wearing +overcoats and carrying rifles with fixed bayonets, +closely resembled their men.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_011"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_011.jpg" alt="BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">BRITISH INDIAN TROOPS CHARGING THE GERMAN TRENCHES AT NEUVE CHAPELLE</p> + +<p>Germany counted on a revolution in India, but the Indian troops proved to be among the most loyal and brilliant fighters +in the Imperial forces.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“It was from the center of our attacking +line that the assault was pressed home soonest. +The guns had done their work well. The +trenches were blown to irrecognizable pits +dotted with dead. The barbed wire had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> +cut like so much twine. Starting from the +Rue Tilleloy the Lincolns and the Berkshires +were off the mark first, with orders to swerve +to right and left respectively as soon as they +had captured the first line of trenches, in order +to let the Royal Irish Rifles and the Rifle +Brigade through to the village. The Germans +left alive in the trenches, half demented +with fright, surrounded by a welter of dead +and dying men, mostly surrendered. The +Berkshires were opposed with the utmost gallantry +by two German officers who had remained +alone in a trench serving a machine +gun. But the lads from Berkshire made their +way into that trench and bayoneted the Germans +where they stood, fighting to the last. +The Lincolns, against desperate resistance, +eventually occupied their section of the trench +and then waited for the Irishmen and the Rifle +Brigade to come and take the village ahead of +them. Meanwhile the second Thirty-ninth +Garhwalis on the right had taken their trenches +with a rush and were away towards the village +and the Biez Wood.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>“Things had moved so fast that by the time +the troops were ready to advance against the +village the artillery had not finished its work. +So, while the Lincolns and the Berks assembled +the prisoners who were trooping out of +the trenches in all directions, the infantry on +whom devolved the honor of capturing the village, +waited. One saw them standing out in +the open, laughing and cracking jokes amid +the terrific din made by the huge howitzer +shells screeching overhead and bursting in the +village, the rattle of machine guns all along +the line, and the popping of rifles. Over to +the right where the Garhwalis had been working +with the bayonet, men were shouting +hoarsely and wounded were groaning as the +stretcher-bearers, all heedless of bullets, moved +swiftly to and fro over the shell-torn ground.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe46_0625" id="i_013"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">CHARGING ON GERMAN TRENCHES IN GAS MASKS</p> + +<p>Each British soldier carried two gas-proof helmets. At the first alarm of gas the helmet was instantly adjusted, for breathing even +a whiff of the yellow cloud meant death or serious injury. This picture shows the earlier type before the respirator mask was devised to +keep up with Germany’s development of gas warfare.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“There was bloody work in the village of +Neuve Chapelle. The capture of a place at +the bayonet point is generally a grim business, +in which instant, unconditional surrender is the +only means by which bloodshed, a deal of +bloodshed, can be prevented. If there is individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> +resistance here and there the attacking +troops cannot discriminate. They must +go through, slaying as they go such as oppose +them (the Germans have a monopoly of the +finishing-off of wounded men), otherwise the +enemy’s resistance would not be broken, and +the assailants would be sniped and enfiladed +from hastily prepared strongholds at half a +dozen different points.</p> + +<p>“The village was a sight that the men say +they will never forget. It looked as if an +earthquake had struck it. The published +photographs do not give any idea of the indescribable +mass of ruins to which our guns +reduced it. The chaos is so utter that the very +line of the streets is all but obliterated.</p> + +<p>“It was indeed a scene of desolation into +which the Rifle Brigade—the first regiment to +enter the village, I believe—raced headlong. +Of the church only the bare shell remained, +the interior lost to view beneath a gigantic +mound of débris. The little churchyard was +devastated, the very dead plucked from their +graves, broken coffins and ancient bones scattered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> +about amid the fresher dead, the slain of +that morning—gray-green forms asprawl +athwart the tombs. Of all that once fair village +but two things remained intact—two +great crucifixes reared aloft, one in the churchyard, +the other over against the château. +From the cross, that is the emblem of our +faith, the figure of Christ, yet intact though +all pitted with bullet marks, looked down in +mute agony on the slain in the village.</p> + +<p>“The din and confusion were indescribable. +Through the thick pall of shell smoke Germans +were seen on all sides, some emerging +half dazed from cellars and dugouts, their +hands above their heads, others dodging round +the shattered houses, others firing from the +windows, from behind carts, even from behind +the overturned tombstones. Machine guns +were firing from the houses on the outskirts, +rapping out their nerve-racking note above the +noise of the rifles.</p> + +<p>“Just outside the village there was a scene +of tremendous enthusiasm. The Rifle Brigade, +smeared with dust and blood, fell in with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> +the Third Gurkhas with whom they had been +brigaded in India. The little brown men were +dirty but radiant. Kukri in hand they had +very thoroughly gone through some houses at +the cross-roads on the Rue du Bois and silenced +a party of Germans who were making themselves +a nuisance there with some machine +guns. Riflemen and Gurkhas cheered themselves +hoarse.”</p> + +<p>Unfortunately for the complete success of +the brilliant attack a great delay was caused +by the failure of the artillery that was to have +cleared the barbed-wire entanglements for the +Twenty-third Brigade, and because of the unlooked +for destruction of the British field telephone +system by shell and rifle fire. The +check of the Twenty-third Brigade banked +other commands back of it, and the Twenty-fifth +Brigade was obliged to fight at right +angles to the line of battle. The Germans +quickly rallied at these points, and took a terrific +toll in British lives. Particularly was this +true at three specially strong German positions. +One called Port Arthur by the British,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> +another at Pietre Mill and the third was the +fortified bridge over Des Layes Creek.</p> + +<p>Because of the lack of telephone communication +it was impossible to send reinforcements +to the troops that had been held up by barbed +wire and other emplacements and upon which +German machine guns were pouring a steady +stream of death.</p> + +<p>As the Twenty-third Brigade had been held +up by unbroken barbed wire northwest of +Neuve Chapelle, so the Seventh Division of +the Fourth Corps was also checked in its action +against the ridge of Aubers on the left of +Neuve Chapelle. Under the plan of Sir +Douglas Haig the Seventh Division was to +have waited until the Eighth Division had +reached Neuve Chapelle, when it was to charge +through Aubers. With the tragic mistake +that cost the Twenty-third Brigade so dearly, +the plan affecting the Seventh Division went +awry. The German artillery, observing the +concentration of the Seventh Division opposite +Aubers, opened a vigorous fire upon that front. +During the afternoon General Haig ordered a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> +charge upon the German positions. The advance +was made in short rushes in the face of +a fire that seemed to blaze from an inferno. +Inch by inch the ground was drenched with +British blood. At 5.30 in the afternoon the +men dug themselves in under the relentless +German fire. Further advance became impossible.</p> + +<p>The night was one of horror. Every minute +the men were under heavy bombardment. +At dawn on March 11th the dauntless British +infantry rushed from the trenches in an effort +to carry Aubers, but the enemy artillery now +greatly reinforced made that task an impossible +one. The trenches occupied by the British +forces were consolidated and the salient +made by the push was held by the British with +bulldog tenacity.</p> + +<p>The number of men employed in the action +on the British side was forty-eight thousand. +During the early surprise of the action the loss +was slight. Had the wire in front of the +Twenty-third Brigade been cut by the artillery +assigned to such action, and had the telephone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> +system not been destroyed the success of the +thrust would have been complete. The delay +of four and a half hours between the first and +second phases of the attack caused virtually +all the losses sustained by the attacking force. +The total casualties were 12,811 men of the +British forces. Of these 1,751 officers and +privates were taken prisoners and 10,000 officers +and men were killed and wounded.</p> + +<p>The action continued throughout Thursday, +March 11th, with little change in the general +situation. The British still held Neuve Chapelle +and their intrenchments threatened Aubers. +On Friday morning, March 12th, the +Crown Prince of Bavaria made a desperate +attempt under cover of a heavy fog to recapture +the village. The effort was made in characteristic +German dense formations. The +Westphalian and Bavarian troops came out of +Biez Wood in waves of gray-green, only to be +blown to pieces by British guns already loaded +and laid on the mark. Elsewhere the British +waited until the Germans were scarcely more +than fifty paces away when they opened with +deadly rapid fire before which the German +waves melted like snow before steam. It was +such slaughter as the British had experienced +when held up before Aubers. Slaughter that +staggered Germany.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_018"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AN INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN FLANDERS</p> + +<p>A Bavarian battery caught in British gunfire while limbering up. Only three guns escaped in the hail of bursting shells.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>So ended Neuve Chapelle, a battle in which +the decision rested with the British, a victory +for which a fearful price had been paid but out +of which came a confidence that was to hearten +the British nation and to put sinews of steel +into the British army for the dread days to +come.</p> + +<p>The story of Neuve Chapelle was repeated +in large and in miniature many times during +the deadlock of trench warfare on the western +front until victory finally came to the Allies. +During those years the western battle-front lay +like a wounded snake across France and Belgium. +It writhed and twisted, now this way, +now that, as one side or the other gambled with +men and shells and airplanes for some brief +advantage. It bent back in a great bulge +when von Hindenburg made his famous retreat +in the winter of 1916 after the Allies had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> +pressed heavily against the Teutonic front +upon the ghastly field of the Somme. The +record is one of great value to military strategists, +to the layman it is only a succession of +artillery barrages, of gas attacks, of aerial reconnaissances +and combats.</p> + +<p>One day grew to be very much like another +in that deadlock of pythons. A play for position +here was met by a counter-thrust in another +place. German inventions were outmatched +and outnumbered by those coming +from the Allied side.</p> + +<p>Trench warfare became the daily life of the +men. They learned to fight and live in the +open. The power of human adaptation to abnormal +conditions was never better exemplified +than in those weary, dreary years on the western +front.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_021"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">SCENE OF THE BLOODY BATTLES OF THE SOMME</p> + +<p>The tide of war swept over this terrain with terrific violence. +Peronne was taken by the British in their great offensive of 1916-17; +in the last desperate effort of the Germans in 1918 they plunged +through Peronne, advancing 35 miles, only to be hurled back with +awful losses by Marshal Foch.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The fighting-lines consisted generally of one, +two, or three lines of shelter-trenches lying +parallel, measuring twenty or twenty-five inches +in width, and varying in length according +to the number they hold; the trenches were +joined together by zigzag approaches and by a +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span>line of reinforced trenches (armed with machine +guns), which were almost completely +proof against rifle, machine gun, or gun fire. +The ordinary German trenches were almost invisible +from 350 yards away, a distance which +permitted a very deadly fire. It is easy to +realize that if the enemy occupied three successive +lines and a line of reinforced intrenchments, +the attacking line was likely, at the +lowest estimate, to be decimated during an +advance of 350 yards—by rifle fire at a range +of 350 yards’ distance, and by the extremely +quick fire of the machine guns, each of which +delivered from 300 to 600 bullets a minute +with absolute precision. In the field-trench, a +soldier enjoyed far greater security than he +would if merely prone behind his knapsack in +an excavation barely fifteen inches deep. He +had merely to stoop down a little to disappear +below the level of the ground and be immune +from infantry fire; moreover, his machine guns +fired without endangering him. In addition, +this stooping position brought the man’s knapsack +on a level with his helmet, thus forming<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> +some protection against shrapnel and shell-splinters.</p> + +<p>At the back of the German trenches shelters +were dug for non-commissioned officers and for +the commander of the unit.</p> + +<p>Ever since the outbreak of the war, the +French troops in Lorraine, after severe experiences, +realized rapidly the advantages of +the German trenches, and began to study those +they had taken gloriously. Officers, non-commissioned +officers, and men of the engineers +were straightway detached in every unit to +teach the infantry how to construct similar +shelters. The education was quick, and very +soon they had completed the work necessary +for the protection of all. The tools of the +enemy “casualties,” the spades and picks left +behind in deserted villages, were all gladly +piled on to the French soldiers’ knapsacks, to +be carried willingly by the very men who used +to grumble at being loaded with even the smallest +regulation tool. As soon as night had set +in on the occasion of a lull in the fighting, the +digging of the trenches was begun. Sometimes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> +in the darkness, the men of each fighting +nation—less than 500 yards away from their +enemy—would hear the noise of the workers of +the foe: the sounds of picks and axes; the officers’ +words of encouragement; and tacitly +they would agree to an armistice during which +to dig shelters from which, in the morning, they +would dash out, to fight once more.</p> + +<p>Commodious, indeed, were some of the +trench barracks. One French soldier wrote:</p> + +<p>“In really up-to-date intrenchments you +may find kitchens, dining-rooms, bedrooms, +and even stables. One regiment has first class +cow-sheds. One day a whimsical ‘piou-piou,’ +finding a cow wandering about in the danger +zone, had the bright idea of finding shelter for +it in the trenches. The example was quickly +followed, and at this moment the —th Infantry +possess an underground farm, in which fat +kine, well cared for, give such quantities of +milk that regular distributions of butter are +being made—and very good butter, too.”</p> + +<p>But this is not all. An officer writes home a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> +tale of yet another one of the comforts of home +added to the equipment of the trenches:</p> + +<p>“We are clean people here. Thanks to the +ingenuity of ——, we are able to take a warm +bath every day from ten to twelve. We call +this teasing the ‘boches,’ for this bathing-establishment +of the latest type is fitted up—would +you believe it?—in the trenches!”</p> + +<p>Describing trenches occupied by the British +in their protracted “siege-warfare” in Northern +France along and to the north of the Aisne +Valley, a British officer wrote: “In the firing-line +the men sleep and obtain shelter in the +dugouts they have hollowed or ‘undercut’ in +the side of the trenches. These refuges are +lightly raised above the bottom of the trench, +so as to remain dry in wet weather. The floor +of the trench is also sloped for purposes of +draining. Some trenches are provided with +head-cover, and others with overhead cover, +the latter, of course, giving protection from the +weather as well as from shrapnel balls and +splinters of shells.... At all points subject<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> +to shell-fire access to the firing-line from behind +is provided by communication-trenches. +These are now so good that it is possible to +cross in safety the fire-swept zone to the advanced +trenches from the billets in villages, the +bivouacs in quarries, or the other places where +the headquarters of units happen to be.”</p> + +<p>A cavalry subaltern gave the following account +of life in the trenches: “Picnicking in +the open air, day and night (you never see a +roof now), is the only real method of existence. +There are loads of straw to bed down on, and +everyone sleeps like a log, in turn, even with +shrapnel bursting within fifty yards.”</p> + +<p>One English officer described the ravages of +modern artillery fire, not only upon all men, +animals and buildings within its zone, but upon +the very face of nature itself: “In the +trenches crouch lines of men, in brown or gray +or blue, coated with mud, unshaven, hollow-eyed +with the continual strain.”</p> + +<p>“The fighting is now taking place over +ground where both sides have for weeks past +been excavating in all directions,” said another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> +letter from the front, “until it has become a +perfect labyrinth. A trench runs straight for +a considerable distance, then it suddenly forks +in three or four directions. One branch +merely leads into a ditch full of water, used in +drier weather as a means of communication; +another ends abruptly in a cul-de-sac, probably +an abandoned sap-head; the third winds on, +leading into galleries and passages further forward.</p> + +<p>“Sometimes where new ground is broken the +spade turns up the long-buried dead, ghastly +relics of former fights, and on all sides the surface +of the earth is ploughed and furrowed by +fragments of shell and bombs and distorted by +mines. Seen from a distance, this apparently +confused mass of passages, crossing and re-crossing +one another, resembles an irregular +gridiron.</p> + +<p>“The life led by the infantry on both sides +at close quarters is a strange, cramped existence, +with death always near, either by means +of some missile from above or some mine explosion +from beneath—a life which has one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> +dull, monotonous background of mud and +water. Even when there is but little fighting +the troops are kept hard at work strengthening +the existing defenses, constructing others, and +improvising the shelter imperative in such +weather.”</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br> + +<span class="smcap">Italy Declares War on Austria</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">FOR many years before the great war began +the great powers of Europe were divided +into two great alliances, the Triple Entente, +composed of Russia, France and England, +and the Triple Alliance, composed of Germany, +Austria and Italy. When the war began +Italy refused to join with Germany and +Austria. Why? The answer to this question +throws a vivid light on the origin of the war.</p> + +<p>Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance; +she knew the facts, not only what was given +to the public, but the inside facts. According +to the terms of the alliance each member +was bound to stand by each other only in case +of attack. Italy refused to join with Austria +and Germany because they were the aggressors. +The constant assertions of the German +statesmen, and of the Kaiser himself, that war<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> +had been forced upon them were declared untrue +by their associate Italy in the very beginning, +and the verdict of Italy was the verdict of +the world. Not much was said in the beginning +about Italy’s abstention from war. The +Germans, indeed, sneered a little and hinted +that some day Italy would be made to regret +her course, but now that the Teuton snake is +scotched the importance of Italy’s action has +been perceived and appraised at its true value.</p> + +<p>The Germans from the very beginning understood +the real danger that might come to +the Central Powers through Italian action. +Every effort was made by the foreign office +to keep her neutral. First threats were used, +later promises were held out of addition to +Italian territory if she would send her troops +to Germany’s assistance. When this failed +the most strenuous efforts were made to keep +Italy neutral, and a former German premier, +Prince von Bülow, was sent to Italy for this +purpose. Socialist leaders, too, were sent from +Germany to urge the Italian Socialists to insist +upon neutrality.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_031"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">ITALY’S TITANIC LABOR TO CONQUER THE ALPS</p> + +<p>When the Italians were making their first mighty advance against Austria descriptions came through of the almost unbelievable +natural obstacles they were conquering. Getting one of the monster guns into position in the mountains, as shown above, over the +track that had to be built for every foot of its progress, was one such handicap.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>In July, 1914, the Italian Government was +not taken by surprise. They had observed the +increase year by year of the German army and +of the German fleet. At the end of the Balkan +wars they had been asked whether they would +agree to an Austrian attack upon Serbia. +They had consequently long been deliberating +as to what their course should be in case of +war, and they had made up their minds that +under no circumstances would they aid Germany +against England.</p> + +<p>Quite independently of her long-standing +friendship with England it would be suicide to +Italy in her geographical position to enter a +war which should permit her coast to be attacked +by the English and French navies, and +her participation in the Triple Alliance always +carried the proviso that it did not bind her to +fight England. This was well known in the +German foreign office, and, indeed, in France +where the writers upon war were reckoning +confidently on the withdrawing of Italy from +the Triple Alliance, and planning to use the +entire forces of France against Germany.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>A better understanding of the Italian position +will result from a consideration of the +origin of the Triple Alliance.</p> + +<p>After the war of 1870, Bismarck, perceiving +the quick recovery of France, considered +the advisability of attacking her again, and, to +use his own words, “bleeding her white.” He +found, however, that if this were attempted +France would be joined by Russia and England +and he gave up this plan. In order, +however, to render France powerless he +planned an alliance which should be able to +control Europe. A league between Germany, +Austria and Russia was his desire, and for +some time every opportunity was taken to develop +friendship with the Czar. Russia, however, +remained cool. Her Pan-Slavonic sympathies +were opposed to the interests of Germany. +Bismarck, therefore, determined, without +losing the friendship of Russia, to persuade +Italy to join in the continental combination. +Italy, at the time, was the least formidable +of the six great powers, but Bismarck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> +foresaw that she could be made good use of +in such a combination.</p> + +<p>At that time Italy, just after the completion +of Italian unity, found herself in great perplexity. +Her treatment of the Pope had +brought about the hostility of Roman Catholics +throughout the world. She feared both +France and Austria, who were strong Catholic +countries, and hardly knew where to look for +friends. The great Italian leader at the time +was Francesco Crispi, who, beginning as a +Radical and a conspirator, had become a constitutional +statesman. Bismarck professed the +greatest friendship for Crispi, and gave Crispi +to understand that he approved of Italy’s aspirations +on the Adriatic and in Tunis.</p> + +<p>The next year, however, at the Berlin Congress, +Italy’s interests were ignored, and +finally, in 1882, France seized Tunis, to the +great indignation of the Italians. It has been +shown in more recent times that the French +seizure of Tunis was directly due to Bismarck’s +instigation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>The Italians having been roused to wrath, +Bismarck proceeded to offer them a place in +the councils of the Triple Alliance. It was +an easy argument that such an alliance would +protect them against France, and no doubt it +was promised that it would free them from the +danger of attack by Austria. England, at the +time, was isolated, and Italy continued on the +best understanding with her.</p> + +<p>The immediate result of the alliance was a +growth of Italian hostility toward France, +which led, in 1889, to a tariff war on France. +Meanwhile German commercial and financial +enterprises were pushed throughout the Italian +peninsula. What did Italy gain by this? +Her commerce was weakened, and Austria permitted +herself every possible unfriendly act except +open war.</p> + +<p>As time went on Germany and Austria became +more and more arrogant. Italy’s ambitions +on the Balkan peninsula were absolutely +ignored. In 1908 Austria appropriated Bosnia +and Herzegovina, another blow to Italy. +By this time Italy understood the situation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> +well, and that same year, seeing no future for +herself in Europe, she swooped down on Tripoli. +In doing this she forestalled Germany +herself, for Germany had determined to seize +Tripoli.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_035"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="How the Powers Divided Northern Africa"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">How the Powers Divided Northern Africa</span></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Both Germany and Austria were opposed to +this action of Italy, but Italy’s eyes were now +open. Thirty years of political alliance had +created no sympathy among the Italians for the +Germans. Moreover, it was not entirely a +question of policy. The lordly arrogance of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> +the Prussians caused sharp antagonism. The +Italians were lovers of liberty; the Germans +pledged toward autocracy. They found +greater sympathy in England and in France.</p> + +<p>“I am a son of liberty,” said Cavour, “to +her I owe all that I am.” That, too, is Italy’s +motto. When the war broke out popular sympathy +in Italy was therefore strongly in favor +of the Allies. The party in power, the Liberals, +adopted the policy of neutrality for the +time being, but thousands of Italians volunteered +for the French and British service, and +the anti-German feeling grew greater as time +went on.</p> + +<p>Finally, on the 23rd of May, 1915, the Italian +Government withdrew its ambassador to Austria +and declared war. A complete statement +of the negotiations between Italy and Austria-Hungary, +which led to this declaration, was +delivered to the Government of the United +States by the Italian Ambassador on May +25th. This statement, of which the following +is an extract, lucidly presented the Italian position:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>“The Triple Alliance was essentially defensive, +and designed solely to preserve the <i>status +quo</i>, or in other words equilibrium, in Europe. +That these were its only objects and purposes +is established by the letter and spirit of the +treaty, as well as by the intentions clearly described +and set forth in official acts of the ministers +who created the alliance and confirmed +and renewed it in the interests of peace, which +always has inspired Italian policy. The +treaty, as long as its intents and purposes had +been loyally interpreted and regarded, and as +long as it had not been used as a pretext for +aggression against others, greatly contributed +to the elimination and settlement of causes of +conflict, and for many years assured to Europe +the inestimable benefits of peace. But Austria-Hungary +severed the treaty by her own +hands. She rejected the response of Serbia +which gave to her all the satisfaction she could +legitimately claim. She refused to listen to +the conciliatory proposals presented by Italy +in conjunction with other powers in the effort +to spare Europe from a vast conflict, certain to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> +drench the Continent with blood and to reduce +it to ruin beyond the conception of human imagination, +and finally she provoked that conflict.</p> + +<p>“Article first of the treaty embodied the +usual and necessary obligation of such pacts—the +pledge to exchange views upon any fact +and economic questions of a general nature +that might arise pursuant to its terms. None +of the contracting parties had the right to undertake +without a previous agreement any step +the consequence of which might impose a duty +upon the other signatories arising under the +alliance, or which would in any way whatsoever +encroach upon their vital interests. This +article was violated by Austria-Hungary, +when she sent to Serbia her note dated July 23, +1914, an action taken without the previous assent +of Italy. Thus, Austria-Hungary violated +beyond doubt one of the fundamental +provisions of the treaty. The obligation of +Austria-Hungary to come to a previous understanding +with Italy was the greater because her +obstinate policy against Serbia gave rise to a +situation which directly tended toward the +provocation of a European war.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_038"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><small><i>Photo by James H. Hare.</i></small></p> + +<p class="caption">WAITING THE ORDER TO ATTACK</p> + +<p>Italian shock troops, young picked soldiers, resting before the order came to hurl +themselves against the Austrians.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>“As far back as the beginning of July, 1914, +the Italian Government, preoccupied by the +prevailing feeling in Vienna, caused to be laid +before the Austro-Hungarian Government a +number of suggestions advising moderation, +and warning it of the impending danger of a +European outbreak. The course adopted by +Austria-Hungary against Serbia constituted, +moreover, a direct encroachment upon the general +interests of Italy both political and economical +in the Balkan peninsula. Austria-Hungary +could not for a moment imagine that +Italy could remain indifferent while Serbian +independence was being trodden upon. On +a number of occasions theretofore, Italy gave +Austria to understand, in friendly but clear +terms, that the independence of Serbia was considered +by Italy as essential to the Balkan +equilibrium. Austria-Hungary was further +advised that Italy could never permit that +equilibrium to be disturbed through a prejudice. +This warning had been conveyed not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> +only by her diplomats in private conversations +with responsible Austro-Hungarian officials, +but was proclaimed publicly by Italian statesmen +on the floors of Parliament.</p> + +<p>“Therefore, when Austria-Hungary ignored +the usual practices and menaced Serbia by +sending her ultimatum, without in any way notifying +the Italian Government of what she +proposed to do, indeed leaving that government +to learn of her action through the press, +rather than through the usual channels of diplomacy, +when Austria-Hungary took this unprecedented +course she not only severed her alliance +with Italy but committed an act inimical +to Italy’s interests....</p> + +<p>“After the European war broke out Italy +sought to come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary +with a view to a settlement satisfactory +to both parties which might avert existing +and future trouble. Her efforts were in +vain, notwithstanding the efforts of Germany, +which for months endeavored to induce Austria-Hungary +to comply with Italy’s suggestion +thereby recognizing the propriety and legitimacy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> +of the Italian attitude. Therefore +Italy found herself compelled by the force of +events to seek other solutions.</p> + +<p>“Inasmuch as the treaty of alliance with +Austria-Hungary had ceased virtually to exist +and served only to prolong a state of continual +friction and mutual suspicion, the Italian Ambassador +at Vienna was instructed to declare +to the Austro-Hungarian Government that the +Italian Government considered itself free +from the ties arising out of the treaty of the +Triple Alliance in so far as Austria-Hungary +was concerned. This communication was delivered +in Vienna on May 4th.</p> + +<p>“Subsequently to this declaration, and after +we had been obliged to take steps for the protection +of our interests, the Austro-Hungarian +Government submitted new concessions, which, +however, were deemed insufficient and by no +means met our minimum demands. These +offers could not be considered under the circumstances. +The Italian Government taking +into consideration what has been stated above, +and supported by the vote of Parliament and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> +the solemn manifestation of the country came +to the decision that any further delay would +be inadvisable. Therefore, on May 23d, it +was declared, in the name of the King, to the +Austro-Hungarian Ambassador at Rome, that, +beginning the following day, May 24th, it +would consider itself in a state of war with +Austria-Hungary.”</p> + +<p>It was a closely reasoned argument that the +Italian statesmen presented, but there was +something more than reasoned argument in +Italy’s course. She had been waiting for years +for the opportunity to bring under her flag +the men of her own race still held in subjection +by hated Austria. Now was the time or never. +Her people had become roused. Mobs filled +the streets. Great orators, even the great poet, +D’Annunzio, proclaimed a holy war. The +sinking of the Lusitania poured oil on the +flames, and the treatment of Belgium and eastern +France added to the fury.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe46_0625" id="i_043"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p><small><i>Photo by International Film Service.</i></small></p> + +<p class="caption">TRANSPORTING WOUNDED AMID THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE ITALIAN MOUNTAIN FRONT</p> + +<p>The isolated mountain positions were only accessible to the bases of operations by these aerial cable cars. This picture, taken during +the Austrian retreat, shows a wounded soldier being taken down the mountain by this means.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Italian statesmen, even if they had so desired, +could not have withstood the pressure. +It was a crusade for Italia Irredenta, for civilization,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> +for humanity. The country had been +flooded by representatives of German propaganda, +papers had been hired and, by all report, +money in large amounts distributed. +But every German effort was swept away in +the flood of feeling. It was the people’s +war.</p> + +<p>Amid tremendous enthusiasm the Chamber +of Deputies adopted by vote of 407 to 74 the +bill conferring upon the government full power +to make war. All members of the Cabinet +maintained absolute silence regarding what +step should follow the action of the chamber. +When the chamber reassembled on May 20th, +after its long recess, there were present 482 +Deputies out of 500, the absentees remaining +away on account of illness. The Deputies especially +applauded were those who wore military +uniforms and who had asked permission +for leave from their military duties to be present +at the sitting. All the tribunes were filled +to overflowing. No representatives of Germany, +Austria or Turkey were to be seen in +the diplomatic tribune. The first envoy to arrive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> +was Thomas Nelson Page, the American +Ambassador, who was accompanied by his +staff. M. Barrere, Sir J. Bennell Rodd, and +Michel de Giers, the French, British and Russian +Ambassadors, respectively, appeared a +few minutes later and all were greeted with applause, +which was shared by the Belgian, Greek +and Roumanian ministers. George B. McClellan, +one-time mayor of New York, occupied +a seat in the President’s tribune.</p> + +<p>A few minutes before the session began the +poet, Gabrielle D’Annunzio, one of the strongest +advocates of war, appeared in the rear of +the public tribune which was so crowded that +it seemed impossible to squeeze in anybody else. +But the moment the people saw him they lifted +him shoulder high and passed him over their +heads to the first row.</p> + +<p>The entire chamber, and all those occupying +the other tribunes, rose and applauded for five +minutes, crying “Viva D’Annunzio!” Later +thousands sent him their cards and in return +received his autograph bearing the date of this +eventful day. Señor Marcora, President of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> +the Chamber, took his place at three o’clock. +All the members of the House, and everybody +in the galleries, stood up to acclaim the old +follower of Garibaldi. Premier Salandra, followed +by all the members of the Cabinet, entered +shortly afterward. It was a solemn moment. +Then a delirium of cries broke out.</p> + +<p>“Viva Salandra!” roared the Deputies, and +the cheering lasted for a long time. After the +formalities of the opening, Premier Salandra, +deeply moved by the demonstration, arose and +said:</p> + +<p>“Gentlemen, I have the honor to present to +you a bill to meet the eventual expenditures of +a national war.”</p> + +<p>The announcement was greeted by further +prolonged applause. The Premier’s speech +was continually interrupted by enthusiasm, +and at times he could hardly continue on account +of the wild cheering. The climax was +reached when he made a reference to the army +and navy. Then the cries seemed interminable, +and those on the floor of the House and +in the galleries turned to the military tribune<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> +from which the officers answered by waving +their hands and handkerchiefs.</p> + +<p>At the end of the Premier’s speech there +were deafening vivas for the King, war and +Italy. Thirty-four Socialists refused to join +the cheers, even in the cry “Viva Italia!” and +they were hooted and hissed.</p> + +<p>The action of the Italian Government created +intense feeling. A newspaper man in +Vienna, describing the Austrian indignation, +said:</p> + +<p>“The exasperation and contempt which +Italy’s treacherous surprise attack and her +hypocritical justification aroused here, are +quite indescribable. Neither Serbia nor Russia, +despite a long and costly war, is hated. +Italy, however, or rather those Italian would-be +politicians and business men who offer violence +to the majority of peaceful Italian people, +are unutterably hated.” On the other +hand German papers spoke with much more +moderation and recognized that Italy was acting +in an entirely natural manner.</p> + +<p>On the very day on which war was declared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> +active operations were begun. Both sides had +been making elaborate preparations. Austria +had prepared herself by building strong +fortifications in which were employed the latest +technical improvements in defensive warfare. +Upon the Carso and around Gorizia +the Austrians had placed innumerable batteries +of powerful guns mounted on rails and +protected by armor plates. They also had a +great number of medium and smaller guns. +A net of trenches had been excavated and constructed +in cement all along the edge of the +hills which dominated the course of the Isonzo +River.</p> + +<p>These trenches, occupying a position nearly +impregnable because so mountainous, were defended +by every modern device. They were +protected with numerous machine guns, surrounded +by wire entanglements through which +ran a strong electric current. These lines of +trenches followed without interruption from +the banks of the Isonzo to the summit of the +mountains which dominate it; they formed a +kind of formidable staircase which had to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> +conquered step by step with enormous sacrifice.</p> + +<p>During this same period General Cadorna, +then head of the Italian army, had been bringing +that army up to date, working for high +efficiency and piling up munitions.</p> + +<p>The Army of Italy was a formidable one. +Every man in Italy is liable to military service +for a period of nineteen years from the age of +twenty to thirty-nine.</p> + +<p>At the time of the war the approximate war +strength of the army was as follows: Officers, +41,692; active army with the colors, 289,910; +reserve, 638,979; mobile militia, 299,956; territorial +militia, 1,889,659; total strength, +3,159,836. The above number of total men +available included upward of 1,200,000 fully +trained soldiers, with perhaps another 800,000 +partially trained men, the remaining million being +completely untrained men. This army +was splendidly armed, its officers well educated, +and the men brave and disciplined.</p> + +<p>The Italian plan of campaign apparently +consisted first, in neutralizing the Trentino by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> +capturing or covering the defenses and cutting +the two lines of communication with Austria +proper, the railway which ran south from Insbruck, +and that which ran southwest from +Vienna and joined the former at Fransensfets; +and second, in a movement in force on the eastern +frontier, with Trieste captured or covered +on the right flank in the direction of the Austrian +fortress at Klagenfurt and Vienna.</p> + +<p>The first blow was struck by Austria on the +day that war was declared. On that day +bombs were dropped on Venice, and five other +Adriatic ports were shelled from air, and some +from sea. The Italian armies invaded Austria +on the east with great rapidity, and by +May 27th a part of the Italian forces had +moved across the Isonzo River to Monfalcone, +sixteen miles northwest of Trieste. Another +force penetrated further to the north in the +Crown land of Gorizia, and Gradisca. Reports +from Italy were that encounters with +the enemy had thus far been merely outpost +skirmishes, but had allowed Italy to occupy +advantageous positions on Austrian territory.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> +By June 1st, the Italians had occupied the +greater part of the west bank of the Isonzo, +with little opposition. The left wing was beyond +the Isonzo, at Caporetto, fighting among +the boulders of Monte Nero, where the Austrian +artillery had strong positions. Monfalcone +was kept under constant bombardment.</p> + +<p>A general Italian advance took place on +June 7th across the Isonzo River from Caporetto +to the sea, a distance of about forty miles. +Monfalcone was taken by the Italians on June +the 10th, the first serious blow against Trieste, +as Monfalcone was a railway junction, and its +electrical works operated the light and power +of Trieste.</p> + +<p>Next day the center made a great blow +against Gradisca and Sagrado, but the river +line proved too strong. The only success was +won that night at Plava, north of Borrigia, +which was carried by a surprise attack. The +Isonzo was in flood, and presented a serious +obstacle to the onrush of the Italians. By +June 14th the Italian eastern army had pushed +forward along the gulf of Trieste toward the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> +town of Nebrosina, nine miles from Trieste.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the Austrian armies were being +constantly strengthened. The initial weakness +of the Austrian defensive was due to the +fact that the armies normally assigned to the invaded +region had been sent to defend the Austrian +line in Galicia against the Russians. +When Italy began her invasion the defenses of +the country were chiefly in the hands of hastily +mobilized youths below the military age of nineteen, +and men above the military age of forty-two. +From now on Austrian troops began +to arrive from the Galician front, some of these +representing the finest fighting material in the +Austrian ranks. The chance of an easy victory +was slipping from Italy’s hands. The +Italian advance was checked.</p> + +<p>On the 15th of June the Italians carried an +important position on Monte Nero, climbing +the rocks by night and attacking by dawn. +But this conquest did not help much. No +guns of great caliber could be carried on the +mountain, and Tolmino, which had been heavily +fortified, and contained a garrison of some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> +thirty thousand men, was entirely safe. The +following week there were repeated counter-attacks +at Plava and on Monte Nero, but the +Italians held what they had won.</p> + +<p>The position was now that Cadorna’s left +wing was in a strong position, but could not do +much against Tolmino. His center was facing +the great camp of Gorizia, while his right was +on the edge of the Carso, and had advanced as +far as Dueno, on the Monfalcone-Trieste Railroad. +The army was in position to make an +attack upon Gorizia. On the 2d of July an +attack on a broad front was aimed directly at +Gorizia. The left was to swing around against +the defenses of Gorizia to the north; the center +was directed against the Gorizia bridge +head, and the right was to swing around to the +northeast through the Doberdo plateau. If it +succeeded the Trieste railway would be cut and +Gorizia must fall.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_053"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AREA OF CADORNA’S OPERATIONS</p> + +<p>Showing the Isonzo Valley and the town of Gorizia which fell to the +Italians August 9, 1916.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Long and confused fighting followed. The +center and the right of the Italian army slowly +advanced their line, taking over one thousand +prisoners. For days there was continuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> +bombardment and counter-bombardment. +The fighting on the left was terrific. In the +neighborhood of Plava the Italian forces found +themselves opposed by Hungarian troops, unaccustomed +to mountain warfare, who at first +fell back. Austrian reserves came to their aid, +and flung back three times the Italian charge.</p> + +<p>Three new Italian brigades were brought up, +and King Victor Emanuel himself came to encourage +his troops. The final assault carried +the heights. On the 22d of July the Italian +right captured the crest of San Michele, which +dominates the Doberdo plateau.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Austrian armies were being +heavily reinforced, and General Cadorna found +himself unable to make progress. Much +ground had been won but Gorizia was still unredeemed. +Many important vantage points +were in Italian hands, but it was difficult to +advance. The result of the three months’ campaign +was a stalemate. In the high mountains +to the north Italy’s campaign was a war of +defense. To undertake her offensive on the +Isonzo it was necessary that she guard her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> +flanks and rear. The Tyrolese battle-ground +contained three distinct points where it was +necessary to operate; the Trentino Salient, the +passes of the Dolomites, and the passes of the +Carnic Alps.</p> + +<p>Early in June Italy had won control of the +ridges of the mountains in the two latter points, +but the problem in the Trentino was more difficult. +It was necessary, because of the converging +valleys, to push her front well inland. +On the Carnic Alps the fighting consisted of +unimportant skirmishes. The main struggle +centered around the pass of Monte Croce +Carnico.</p> + +<p>In two weeks the Alpini had seized dominating +positions to the west of the pass, but the +Austrians clung to the farther slopes. A great +deal of picturesque fighting went on, but not +much progress was made. Further west in +the Dolomite region there was more fighting. +On the 30th of May Cartina had been captured, +and the Italians moved north toward the Pusterthal +Railway. Progress was slow, as the +main routes to the railway were difficult.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>By the middle of August they were only a +few miles from the railway, but all the routes +led through defiles, and the neighboring +heights were in the possession of the Austrians. +To capture these heights was a most difficult +feat, which the Italians performed in the most +brilliant way; but even after they had passed +these defiles success was not yet won. Each +Italian column was in its own grove, with no +lateral communication. The Austrians could +mass themselves where they pleased. As a result +the Italian forces were compelled to halt.</p> + +<p>In the Trentino campaign the Italians soon +captured the passes, and moved against Trente +and Roverito. These towns were heavily fortified, +as were their surrounding heights. The +campaign became a series of small fights on +mountain peaks and mountain ridges. Only +small bodies of troops could maneuver, and the +raising of guns up steep precipices was extremely +difficult. The Italians slowly succeeded +in gaining ground, and established a +chain of posts around the heights so that often +one would see guns and barbed wire entrenchments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span> +at a height of more than ten thousand +feet among the crevasses of the glaciers. The +Alpini performed wonderful feats of physical +endurance, but the plains of Lombardy were +still safe.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br> + +<span class="smcap">Glorious Gallipoli</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">IF ever the true mettle and temper of a +people were tried and exemplified in the +crucible of battle, that battle was the naval +and land engagement embracing Gallipoli and +the Dardanelles and the people so tested, the +British race. Separated in point of time but +united in its general plan, the engagements +present a picture of heroism founded upon +strategic mistakes; of such perseverance and +dogged determination against overwhelming +natural and artificial odds as even the pages +of supreme British bravery cannot parallel. +The immortal charge of the Light Brigade +was of a piece with Gallipoli, but it was merely +a battle fragment and its glorious record was +written in blood within the scope of a comparatively +few inspired minutes. In the +mine-strewn Dardanelles and upon the sun-baked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> +blood-drenched rocky slopes of Gallipoli, +death always partnered every sailor and +soldier. As at Balaklava, virtually everyone +knew that some one had blundered, but the +army and the navy as one man fought to the +bitter end to make the best of a bad bargain, +to tear triumph out of impossibilities.</p> + +<p>France co-operated with the British in the +naval engagement, but the greater sacrifice, +the supreme charnel house of the war, the +British race reserved for itself. There, the +yeomanry of England, the unsung county regiments +whose sacrifices and achievements have +been neglected in England’s generous desire +to honor the men from “down under,” the Australians +and New Zealanders grouped under +the imperishable title of the Anzacs—there the +Scotch, Welsh and Irish knit in one devoted +British Army with the great fighters from the +self-governing colonies waged a battle so hopeless +and so gallant that the word Gallipoli +shall always remind the world how man may +triumph over the fear of death; how with nothing +but defeat and disaster before them, men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> +may go to their deaths as unconcernedly as in +other days they go to their nightly sleep.</p> + +<p>On November 5, 1914, Great Britain declared +war upon Turkey. Hostilities, however, +had preceded the declaration. On November +3d the combined French and British +squadrons had bombarded the entrance forts. +This was merely intended to draw the fire of +the forts and make an estimate of their power. +From that time on a blockade was maintained, +and on the 13th of December a submarine, +commanded by Lieutenant Holbrook, entered +the straits and torpedoed the Turkish warship +Messoudieh, which was guarding the mine +fields.</p> + +<p>By the end of January the blockading fleet, +through constant reinforcement, had become +very strong, and had seized the Island of Tenedos +and taken possession of Lemnos, which +nominally belonged to Greece, as bases for +naval operations. On the 19th of February +began the great attack upon the forts at the +entrance to the Dardanelles, which attracted +the attention of the world for nearly a year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>The expedition against the Dardanelles had +been considered with the greatest care, and +approved by the naval authorities. That their +judgment was correct, however, is another +question. The history of naval warfare seems +to make very plain that a ship, however powerful, +is at a tremendous disadvantage when attacking +forts on land. The badly served cannon +of Alexandria fell, indeed, before a British +fleet, but Gallipoli had been fortified by +German engineers, and its guns were the +Krupp cannon. The British fleet found itself +opposed by unsurmountable obstacles. +Looking backward it seems possible, that if at +the very start Lord Kitchener had permitted +a detachment of troops to accompany the fleet, +success might have been attained, but without +the army the navy was powerless.</p> + +<p>The Peninsula of Gallipoli is a tongue of +land about fifty miles long, varying in width +from twelve to two or three miles. It is a +mass of rocky hills so steep that in many places +it is a matter of difficulty to reach their tops. +On it are a few villages, but there are no decent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> +roads and little cultivated land. On the southern +shore of the Dardanelles conditions are +nearly the same. Here, the entrance is a flat +and marshy plain, but east of this plain are +hills three thousand feet high. The high +ground overhangs the sea passage on both sides, +and with the exception of narrow bits of beach +at their base, presents almost no opportunity +for landing.</p> + +<p>A strong current continually sifts down the +straits from the Sea of Marmora.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_063"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">MAP OF THE GALLIPOLI PENINSULA</p> + +<p>Showing the various landing places, with inset of the Sari-Bair Region.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Forts were placed at the entrance on both +the north and south side, but they were not +heavily armed and were merely outposts. +Fourteen miles from the mouth the straits become +quite narrow, making a sharp turn directly +north and then resuming their original +direction. The channel thus makes a sharp +double bend. At the entrance to the strait, +known as the Narrows, were powerful fortresses, +and the slopes were studded with batteries. +Along both sides of the channel the +low ground was lined with batteries. It was +possible to attack the forts at fairly long range,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> +but there was no room to bring any large number +of ships into action at the same time.</p> + +<p>At the time of the Gallipoli adventure there +were probably nearly half a million of men +available for a defense of the straits, men well +armed and well trained under German leadership. +The first step was comparatively easy. +The operations against the other forts began +at 8 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> on Friday, the 19th of February. +The ships engaged were the Inflexible, the +Agamemnon, the Cornwallis, the Vengeance +and the Triumph from the British fleet, and the +Bouvet, Suffren, and the Gaulois from the +French, all under the command of Vice-Admiral +Sackville Carden. The French squadron +was under Rear-Admiral Gueprette. A +flotilla of destroyers accompanied the fleet, and +airplanes were sent up to guide the fire of the +battleships.</p> + +<p>At first the fleet was arranged in a semicircle +some miles out to sea from the entrance to the +strait. It afforded an inspiring spectacle as +the ships came along and took up position, and +the picture became most awe-inspiring when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> +the guns began to boom. The bombardment +at first was slow. Shells from the various +ships screaming through the air at the rate of +about one every two minutes.</p> + +<p>The Turkish batteries, however, were not +to be drawn, and, seeing this, the British Admiral +sent one British ship and one French +ship close in shore toward the Sedd-el-Bahr +forts. As they went in they sped right under +the guns of the shore batteries, which could +no longer resist the temptation to see what they +could do. Puffs of white smoke dotted the +landscape on the far shore, and dull booms +echoed over the placid water. Around the +ships fountains of water sprang up into the +air. The enemy had been drawn, but his +marksmanship was obviously very bad. Not +a single shot directed against the ships went +within a hundred yards of either.</p> + +<p>At sundown on account of the failing light +Admiral Carden withdrew the fleet. On account +of the bad weather the attack was not +renewed until February 25th. It appeared +that the outer forts had not been seriously damaged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> +on the 19th, and that what injury had +been done had been repaired. In an hour and +a half the Cape Helles fort was silenced. The +Agamemnon was hit by a shell fired at a range +of six miles, which killed three men and +wounded five. Early in the afternoon Sedd-el-Bahr +was attacked at close range, but not +silenced till after 5 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> At this time British +trawlers began sweeping the entrance for +mines, and during the next day the mine field +was cleared for a distance of four miles up +the straits.</p> + +<p>As soon as this clearance was made the Albion, +Vengeance and Majestic steamed into the +strait and attacked Fort Dardanos, a fortification +some distance below the Narrows. The +Turks replied vigorously, not only from Dardanos +but from batteries scattered along the +shore. Believing that the Turks had abandoned +the forts at the entrance, landing parties +of marines were sent to shore. In a short +time, however, they met a detachment of the +enemy and were compelled to retreat to their +boats. The outer forts, however, were destroyed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> +and their destruction was extremely +encouraging to the Allies.</p> + +<p>For a time a series of minor operations was +carried on, meeting with much success. Besides +attacks on forts inside of the strait, +Smyrna was bombarded on March the 5th, +and on March the 6th the Queen Elizabeth, +the Agamemnon and the Ocean bombarded +the forts at Chanak on the Asiatic side of the +Narrows, from a position in the gulf of Saros +on the outer side of the Gallipoli Peninsula. +To all of these attacks the Turks replied vigorously +and the attacking ships were repeatedly +struck, but with no loss of life. On the +7th of March Fort Dardanos was silenced, and +Fort Chanak ceased firing, but, as it turned +out, only temporarily.</p> + +<p>Preparations were now being made for a +serious effort against the Narrows. The date +of the attack was fixed for March 17th, weather +permitting. On the 16th Admiral Carden +was stricken down with illness and was invalided +by medical authority. Admiral de Roebeck, +second in command, who had been very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> +active in the operations, was appointed to succeed +him. Admiral de Roebeck was in cordial +sympathy with the purposes of the expedition +and determined to attack on the 18th +of March. At a quarter to eleven that morning, +the Queen Elizabeth, Inflexible, Agamemnon, +Lord Nelson, the Triumph and +Prince George steamed up the straits towards +the Narrows, and bombarded the forts of Chanak. +At 12.22 the French squadron, consisting +of the Suffren, Gaulois, Charlemagne, and +Bouvet, advanced up the Dardanelles to aid +their English associates.</p> + +<p>Under the combined fire of the two squadrons +the Turkish forts, which at first replied +strongly, were finally silenced. All of the +ships, however, were hit several times during +this part of the action. A third squadron, including +the Vengeance, Irresistible, Albion, +Ocean, Swiftshore and Majestic, then advanced +to relieve the six old battleships inside +the strait.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_068"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE LOSS OF THE “IRRESISTIBLE”</p> + +<p>During an attack on the Dardanelles the British battleship “Irresistible” struck a Turkish mine and sank in a few minutes. Severe losses +of similar character demonstrated that it would be impossible to force the strait by naval attack.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>As the French squadron, which had engaged +the forts in a most brilliant fashion, was passing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> +out the Bouvet was blown up by a drifting +mine and sank in less than three minutes, +carrying with her most of her crew. At 2.36 +<span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> the relief battleships renewed the attack +on the forts, which again opened fire. The +Turks were now sending mines down with the +current. At 4.09 the Irresistible quitted the +line, listing heavily, and at 5.50 she sank, having +probably struck a drifting mine. At 6.05 +the Ocean, also having struck a mine, sank in +deep water. Practically the whole of the +crews were removed safely. The Gaulois was +damaged by gunfire; the Inflexible had her +forward control position hit by a heavy shell, +which killed and wounded the majority of the +men and officers at that station and set her on +fire. At sunset the forts were still in action, +and during the twilight the Allied fleet slipped +out of the Dardanelles.</p> + +<p>Meantime, an expeditionary force was being +gathered. The largest portion of this force +came from Great Britain, but France also provided +a considerable number from her marines +and from her Colonial army. Both nations<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> +avoided, as far as possible, drawing upon the +armies destined for service in France.</p> + +<p>In the English army there were divisions +from Australia and New Zealand and there +were a number of Indian troops and Territorials. +The whole force was put under the +command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. The +commander-in-chief on the Turkish side was +the German General Liman von Sanders, the +former chief of the military mission at Constantinople. +The bulk of the expeditionary +force, which numbered altogether about a hundred +and twenty thousand men, were, therefore, +men whose presence in the east did not +weaken the Allied strength in the west.</p> + +<p>The great difficulty of the new plan was +that it was impossible to surprise the enemy. +The whole Gallipoli Peninsula was so small +that a landing at any point would be promptly +observed, and the nature of the ground was of +such a character that progress from any point +must necessarily be slow. The problem was +therefore a simple one.</p> + +<p>The expeditionary force gathered in Egypt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> +during the first half of April, and about the +middle of the month was being sent to Lemnos. +Germany was well aware of the English plans, +and was doing all that it could to provide a +defense.</p> + +<p>On April 23d the movement began, and +about five o’clock in the afternoon the first +of the transports slowly made its way through +the maze of shipping toward the entrance of +Mudros Bay.</p> + +<p>Immediately the patent apathy, which had +gradually overwhelmed everyone, changed to +the utmost enthusiasm, and as the huge liners +steamed through the fleet, their decks yellow +with khaki, the crews of the warships cheered +them on to victory while the bands played +them out with an unending variety of popular +airs. The soldiers in the transports answered +this last salutation from the navy with deafening +cheers, and no more inspiring spectacle has +ever been seen than this great expedition.</p> + +<p>The whole of the fleet from the transports +had been divided up into five divisions and +there were three main landings. The 29th<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> +Division disembarked off the point of the Gallipoli +Peninsula near Sedd-el-Bahr, where its +operations were covered both from the gulf +of Saros and from the Dardanelles by the fire +of the covering warships. The Australian and +New Zealand contingent disembarked north +of Gaba Tepe. Further north a naval division +made a demonstration.</p> + +<p>Awaiting the Australians was a party of +Turks who had been intrenched almost on the +shore and had opened up a terrific fusillade. +The Australian volunteers rose, as a man, to +the occasion. They waited neither for orders +nor for the boats to reach the beach, but springing +out into the sea they went in to the shore, +and forming some sort of a rough line rushed +straight on the flashes of the enemy’s rifles. In +less than a quarter of an hour the Turks were +in full flight.</p> + +<p>While the Australians and New Zealanders, +or Anzacs as they are now generally known +from the initials of the words Australian-New +Zealand Army Corps, were fighting so gallantly +at Gaba Tepe, the British troops were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> +landing at the southern end of the Gallipoli +Peninsula. The advance was slow and difficult. +The Turk was pushed back, little by +little, and the ground gained organized. The +details of this progress, though full of incidents +of the greatest courage and daring, need +not be recounted.</p> + +<p>On June the 4th a general attack was made, +preceded by heavy bombardments by all guns, +but after terrific fighting, in which many prisoners +were captured and great losses suffered, +the net result was an advance of about five hundred +yards. As time went on the general impression +throughout the Allied countries was +that the expedition had failed. On June 30th +the losses of the Turks were estimated at not +less than seventy thousand, and the British +naval and military losses up to June 1st, aggregated +38,635 officers and men. At that +time the British and French allies held but a +small corner of the area to be conquered. In +all of these attacks the part played by the Australian +and New Zealand army corps was especially +notable. Reinforcements were repeatedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> +sent to the Allies, who worked more and +more feverishly as time went on with the hope +of aiding Russia, which was then desperately +struggling against the great German advance.</p> + +<p>On August 17th it was reported that a landing +had been made at Suvla Bay, the extreme +western point of the Peninsula. From this +point it was hoped to threaten the Turkish communications +with their troops at the lower end +of the Peninsula. This new enterprise, however, +failed to make any impression, and in +the first part of September, vigorous Turkish +counter offensives gained territory from the +Franco-British troops. According to the +English reports the Turks paid a terrible price +for their success.</p> + +<p>It had now become evident that the expedition +was a failure. The Germans were already +gloating over what they called the “failure +of British sea power,” and English publicists +were attempting to show that, though +the enterprise had failed, the very presence +of a strong Allied force at Saloniki had been +an enormous gain. The first official announcement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> +of failure was made December 20, 1916, +when it was announced that the British forces +at Anzac and Suvla Bay had been withdrawn, +and that only the minor positions near Sedd-el-Bahr +were occupied. Great Britain’s loss +of officers and men at the Dardanelles up to +December 11th was 112,921, according to an +announcement made in the House of Commons +by the Parliamentary Under Secretary +for War. Besides these casualties the number +of sick admitted to hospitals was 96,683. +The decision to evacuate Gallipoli was made +in the course of November by the British Government +as the result of the early expressed +opinion of General Monro, who had succeeded +General Hamilton on October 28, 1915.</p> + +<p>General Monro found himself confronted +with a serious problem in the attempt to withdraw +an army of such a size from positions not +more than three hundred yards from the +enemy’s trenches, and to embark on open +beaches every part of which was within effective +range of Turkish guns. Moreover, the +evacuation must be done gradually, as it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> +impossible to move the whole army at once +with such means of transportation as existed. +The plan was to remove the munitions, supplies +and heavy guns by instalments, working +only at night, carrying off at the same time a +large portion of the troops, but leaving certain +picked battalions to guard the trenches. +Every endeavor had to be made for concealment. +The plan was splendidly successful, +and the Turks apparently completely deceived. +On December 20th the embarkation of the last +troops at Suvla was accomplished. The operations +at Anzac were conducted in the same +way. Only picked battalions were left to the +end, and these were carried safely off.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_077"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE HISTORIC LANDING FROM THE “RIVER CLYDE” AT SEDDUL BAHR</p> + +<p>An incident of the Dardanelles Expedition. Terrible losses were sustained by the Allied troops from the concentrated fire of +the Turkish machine guns on shore.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The success of the Suvla and Anzac evacuation +made the position at Cape Helles more +dangerous. The Turks were on the lookout, +and it seemed almost impossible that they +could be again deceived. On January 7th an +attack was made by the Turks upon the +trenches, which was beaten back. That night +more than half the troops had left the Peninsula.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span> +The next day there was a heavy storm +which made embarkation difficult, but it was +nevertheless accomplished. The whole evacuation +was a clever and successful bit of work.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br> + +<span class="smcap">The Greatest Naval Battle in History</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">GERMANY’S ambition for conquest +at sea had been nursed and carefully +fostered for twenty years. During the decade +immediately preceding the declaration of war, +it had embarked upon a policy of naval up-building +that brought it into direct conflict +with England’s sea policy. Thereafter it became +a race in naval construction, England +piling up a huge debt in its determination to +construct two tons of naval shipping to every +one ton built by Germany.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding Great Britain’s efforts in +this direction, Germany’s naval experts, with +the ruthless von Tirpitz at their head, maintained +that, given a fair seaway with ideal +weather conditions favoring the low visibility +tactics of the German sea command, a victory +for the Teutonic ships would follow. It was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> +this belief that drew the ships of the German +cruiser squadron and High Seas Fleet off the +coast of Jutland and Horn Reef into the great +battle that decided the supremacy of the sea.</p> + +<p>The 31st of May, 1916, will go down in +history as the date of this titanic conflict. The +British light cruiser Galatea on patrol duty +near Horn Reef reported at 2.20 o’clock on +the afternoon of that day, that it had sighted +smoke plumes denoting the advance of enemy +vessels from the direction of Helgoland Bight. +Fifteen minutes later the smoke plumes were +in such number and volume that the advance +of a considerable force to the northward and +eastward was indicated. It was reasoned by +Vice-Admiral Beatty, to whom the Galatea +had sent the news by radio, that the enemy +in rounding Horn Reef would inevitably be +brought into action. The first ships of the +enemy were sighted at 3.31 o’clock. These +were the battle screen of fast light cruisers. +Back of these were five modern battle cruisers +of the highest power and armament.</p> + +<p>The report of the battle, by an eye-witness,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> +that was issued upon semiofficial authority of +the British Government, follows:</p> + +<p>First Phase, 3.30 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> May 31st. Beatty’s +battle cruisers, consisting of the Lion, Princess +Royal, Queen Mary, Tiger, Inflexible, Indomitable, +Invincible, Indefatigable, and New +Zealand, were on a southeasterly course, followed +at about two miles distance by the four +battleships of the class known as Queen Elizabeths.</p> + +<p>Enemy light cruisers were sighted and +shortly afterward the head of the German +battle cruiser squadron, consisting of the new +cruiser Hindenburg, the Seydlitz, Derfflinger, +Lützow, Moltke, and possibly the Salamis.</p> + +<p>Beatty at once began firing at a range of +about 20,000 yards (twelve miles) which shortened +to 16,000 yards (nine miles) as the fleets +closed. The Germans could see the British +distinctly outlined against the light yellow sky. +The Germans, covered by a haze, could be very +indistinctly made out by the British gunners.</p> + +<p>The Queen Elizabeths opened fire on one +after another as they came within range. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> +German battle cruisers turned to port and +drew away to about 20,000 yards.</p> + +<p>Second Phase, 4.40 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> A destroyer +screen then appeared beyond the German +battle cruisers. The whole German High Seas +Fleet could be seen approaching on the northeastern +horizon in three divisions, coming to +the support of their battle cruisers.</p> + +<p>The German battle cruisers now turned +right around 16 points and took station in front +of the battleships of the High Fleet.</p> + +<p>Beatty, with his battle cruisers and supporting +battleships, therefore, had before him the +whole of the German battle fleet, and Jellicoe +was still some distance away.</p> + +<p>The opposing fleets were now moving parallel +to one another in opposite directions, and +but for a master maneuver on the part of +Beatty the British advance ships would have +been cut off from Jellicoe’s Grand Fleet. In +order to avoid this and at the same time prepare +the way so that Jellicoe might envelop +his adversary, Beatty immediately also turned +right around 16 points, so as to bring his ships<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> +parallel to the German battle cruisers and facing +the same direction.</p> + +<p>As soon as he was around he increased to +full speed to get ahead of the Germans and +take up a tactical position in advance of their +line. He was able to do this owing to the superior +speed of the British battle cruisers.</p> + +<p>Just before the turning point was reached, +the Indefatigable sank, and the Queen Mary +and the Invincible also were lost at the turning +point, where, of course, the High Seas +Fleet concentrated their fire.</p> + +<p>A little earlier, as the German battle cruisers +were turning, the Queen Elizabeths had in similar +manner concentrated their fire on the turning +point and destroyed a new German battle +cruiser, believed to be the Hindenburg.</p> + +<p>Beatty had now got around and headed +away with the loss of three ships, racing parallel +to the German battle cruisers. The Queen +Elizabeths followed behind engaging the main +High Seas Fleet.</p> + +<p>Third Phase, 5 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> The Queen Elizabeths +now turned short to port 16 points in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> +order to follow Beatty. The Warspite +jammed her steering gear, failed to get around, +and drew the fire of six of the enemy, who +closed in upon her.</p> + +<p>The Germans claimed her as a loss, since on +paper she ought to have been lost, but, as a +matter of act, though repeatedly straddled by +shell fire with the water boiling up all around +her, she was not seriously hit, and was able +to sink one of her opponents. Her captain +recovered control of the vessel, brought her +around, and followed her consorts.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Barham, Valiant and +Malaya turned short so as to avoid the danger +spot where the Queen Mary and the Invincible +had been lost, and for an hour, until Jellicoe +arrived, fought a delaying action against the +High Seas Fleet.</p> + +<p>The Warspite joined them at about 5.15 +o’clock, and all four ships were so successfully +maneuvered in order to upset the spotting corrections +of their opponents that no hits of a +seriously disabling character were suffered. +They had the speed over their opponents by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> +fully four knots, and were able to draw away +from part of the long line of German battleships, +which almost filled up the horizon.</p> + +<p>At this time the Queen Elizabeths were +steadily firing on at the flashes of German +guns at a range which varied between 12,000 +and 15,000 yards, especially against those ships +which were nearest them. The Germans were +enveloped in a mist and only smoke and flashes +were visible.</p> + +<p>By 5.45 half of the High Seas Fleet had +been left out of range, and the Queen Elizabeths +were steaming fast to join hands with +Jellicoe.</p> + +<p>To return to Beatty’s battle cruisers. They +had succeeded in outflanking the German battle +cruisers, which were, therefore, obliged to +turn a full right angle to starboard to avoid being +headed.</p> + +<p>Heavy fighting was renewed between the +opposing battle cruiser squadrons, during +which the Derfflinger was sunk; but toward 6 +o’clock the German fire slackened very considerably, +showing that Beatty’s battle cruisers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> +and the Queen Elizabeths had inflicted +serious damage on their immediate opponents.</p> + +<p>Fourth Phase, 6 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> The Grand Fleet +was now in sight, and, coming up fast in three +directions, the Queen Elizabeths altered their +course four points to the starboard and drew in +toward the enemy to allow Jellicoe room to +deploy into line.</p> + +<p>The Grand Fleet was perfectly maneuvered +and the very difficult operation of deploying +between the battle cruisers and the Queen +Elizabeths was perfectly timed.</p> + +<p>Jellicoe came up, fell in behind Beatty’s +cruisers, and followed by the damaged but still +serviceable Queen Elizabeths, steamed right +across the head of the German fleet.</p> + +<p>The first of the ships to come into action were +the Revenue and the Royal Oak with their fifteen-inch +guns, and the Agincourt which fired +from her seven turrets with the speed almost +of a Maxim gun.</p> + +<p>The whole British fleet had now become concentrated. +They had been perfectly maneuvered,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> +so as to “cross the T” of the High Seas +Fleet, and, indeed, only decent light was necessary +to complete their work of destroying the +Germans in detail. The light did improve for +a few minutes, and the conditions were favorable +to the British fleet, which was now in line +approximately north and south across the head +of the Germans.</p> + +<p>During the few minutes of good light Jellicoe +smashed up the first three German ships, +but the mist came down, visibility suddenly +failed, and the defeated High Seas Fleet was +able to draw off in ragged divisions.</p> + +<p>Fifth Phase, Night. The Germans were +followed by the British, who still had them enveloped +between Jellicoe on the west, Beatty +on the north, and Evan-Thomas with his three +Queen Elizabeths on the south. The Warspite +had been sent back to her base.</p> + +<p>During the night the torpedo-boat destroyers +heavily attacked the German ships, and, although +they lost seriously themselves, succeeded +in sinking two of the enemy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_087"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">HOW THE GREAT NAVAL BATTLE OF JUTLAND WAS FOUGHT</p> + +<p>This chart must be taken only as a general indication of the courses +of the opposing German and British battle fleets.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Co-ordination of the units of the fleet was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> +practically impossible to keep up, and the Germans +discovered by the rays of their search-lights +the three Queen Elizabeths, not more +than 4,000 yards away. Unfortunately they +were then able to escape between the battleships +and Jellicoe, since the British gunners +were not able to fire, as the destroyers were in +the way.</p> + +<p>So ended the Jutland battle, which was +fought as had been planned and very nearly a +great success. It was spoiled by the unfavorable +weather conditions, especially at the critical +moment, when the whole British fleet was +concentrated and engaged in crushing the head +of the German line.</p> + +<p>Commenting on the engagement, Admiral +Jellicoe said: “The battle cruiser fleet, gallantly +led by Vice-Admiral Beatty, and admirably +supported by the ships of the fifth +battle squadron under Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas, +fought the action under, at times, disadvantageous +conditions, especially in regard +to light, in a manner that was in keeping with +the best traditions of the service.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span>His estimate of the German losses was: two +battleships of the dreadnought type, one of the +Deutschland type, which was seen to sink; the +battle cruiser Lützow, admitted by the Germans; +one battle cruiser of the dreadnought +type, one battle cruiser seen to be so severely +damaged that its return was extremely doubtful; +five light cruisers, seen to sink—one of +them possibly a battleship; six destroyers seen +to sink, three destroyers so damaged that it was +doubtful if they would be able to reach port, +and a submarine sunk. The official German +report admitted only eleven ships sunk; the +first British report placed the total at eighteen, +but Admiral Jellicoe enumerated twenty-one +German vessels as probably lost.</p> + +<p>The Admiral paid a fine tribute to the German +naval men: “The enemy,” he said, +“fought with the gallantry that was expected +of him. We particularly admired the conduct +of those on board a disabled German light +cruiser which passed down the British line +shortly after the deployment under a heavy +fire, which was returned by the only gun left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> +in action. The conduct of the officers and men +was entirely beyond praise. On all sides it is +reported that the glorious traditions of the past +were most worthily upheld; whether in the +heavy ships, cruisers, light cruisers, or destroyers, +the same admirable spirit prevailed. The +officers and men were cool and determined, with +a cheeriness that would have carried them +through anything. The heroism of the +wounded was the admiration of all. I cannot +adequately express the pride with which the +spirit of the fleet filled me.”</p> + +<p>At daylight on the 1st of June the British +battle fleet, being southward of Horn Reef, +turned northward in search of the enemy vessels. +The visibility early on the first of June +was three to four miles less than on May 31st, +and the torpedo-boat destroyers, being out of +visual touch, did not rejoin the fleet until 9 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> +The British fleet remained in the proximity of +the battlefield and near the line of approach +to the German ports until 11 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span>, in spite of +the disadvantage of long distances from fleet +bases and the danger incurred in waters adjacent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> +to the enemy’s coasts from submarines and +torpedo craft.</p> + +<p>The enemy, however, made no sign, and the +admiral was reluctantly compelled to the conclusion +that the High Sea Fleet had returned +into port. Subsequent events proved this assumption +to have been correct. The British +position must have been known to the enemy, +as at 4 <span class="allsmcap">A. M.</span> the fleet engaged a Zeppelin about +five minutes, during which time she had ample +opportunity to note and subsequently report +the position and course of the British fleet.</p> + +<p>The Germans at first claimed a victory for +their fleet. The test, of course, was the outcome +of the battle. The fact that the German +fleet retreated and nevermore ventured forth +from beneath the protecting guns and mine +fields around Helgoland, demonstrates beyond +dispute that the British were entitled to the +triumph. The German official report makes +the best presentation of the German case. It +follows in full:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The High Sea Fleet, consisting of three battleship +squadrons, five battle cruisers, and a large number of +small cruisers, with several destroyer flotillas, was cruising<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> +in the Skagerrak on May 31 for the purpose, as on +earlier occasions, of offering battle to the British fleet. +The vanguard of the small cruisers at 4.30 o’clock in the +afternoon (German time) suddenly encountered ninety +miles west of Hanstholm, (a cape on the northwest +coast of Jutland), a group of eight of the newest cruisers +of the Calliope class and fifteen or twenty of the +most modern destroyers.</p> + +<p>While the German light forces and the first cruiser +squadron under Vice-Admiral Hipper were following the +British, who were retiring northwestward, the German +battle cruisers sighted to the westward Vice-Admiral +Beatty’s battle squadron of six ships, including four of +the Lion type and two of the Indefatigable type. +Beatty’s squadron developed a battle line on a southeasterly +course and Vice-Admiral Hipper formed his +line ahead on the same general course and approached for +a running fight. He opened fire at 5.49 o’clock in the +afternoon with heavy artillery at a range of 13,000 +meters against the superior enemy. The weather was +clear and light, and the sea was light with a northwest +wind.</p> + +<p>After about a quarter of an hour a violent explosion +occurred on the last cruiser of the Indefatigable type. +It was caused by a heavy shell, and destroyed the vessel.</p> + +<p>About 6.20 o’clock in the afternoon five warships of +the Queen Elizabeth type came from the west and joined +the British battle cruiser line, powerfully reinforcing +with their fifteen-inch guns the five British battle cruisers +remaining after 6.20 o’clock. To equalize this superiority +Vice-Admiral Hipper ordered the destroyers +to attack the enemy. The British destroyers and small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> +cruisers interposed, and a bitter engagement at close +range ensued, in the course of which a light cruiser participated.</p> + +<p>The Germans lost two torpedo boats, the crews of +which were rescued by sister ships under a heavy fire. +Two British destroyers were sunk by artillery, and two +others—the Nestor and Nomad—remained on the scene +in a crippled condition. These later were destroyed by +the main fleet after German torpedo boats had rescued +all the survivors.</p> + +<p>While this engagement was in progress, a mighty explosion, +caused by a big shell, broke the Queen Mary, +the third ship in line, asunder, at 6.30 o’clock.</p> + +<p>Soon thereafter the German main battleship fleet was +sighted to the southward, steering north. The hostile +fast squadrons thereupon turned northward, closing the +first part of the fight, which lasted about an hour.</p> + +<p>The British retired at high speed before the German +fleet, which followed closely. The German battle cruisers +continued the artillery combat with increasing intensity, +particularly with the division of the vessels of the +Queen Elizabeth type, and in this the leading German +battleship division participated intermittently. The +hostile ships showed a desire to run in a flat curve ahead +of the point of our line and to cross it.</p> + +<p>At 7.45 o’clock in the evening British small cruisers +and destroyers launched an attack against our battle +cruisers, who avoided the torpedoes by manoeuvring, +while the British battle cruisers retired from the engagement, +in which they did not participate further as far as +can be established. Shortly thereafter a German reconnoitring +group, which was parrying the destroyer attack,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> +received an attack from the northeast. The cruiser +Wiesbaden was soon put out of action in this attack. +The German torpedo flotillas immediately attacked the +heavy ships.</p> + +<p>Appearing shadow-like from the haze bank to the +northeast was made out a long line of at least twenty-five +battleships, which at first sought a junction with +the British battle cruisers and those of the Queen Elizabeth +type on a northwesterly to westerly course, and +then turned on an easterly to southeasterly course.</p> + +<p>With the advent of the British main fleet, whose centre +consisted of three squadrons of eight battleships each, +with a fast division of three battle cruisers of the Invincible +type on the northern end, and three of the newest +vessels of the Royal Sovereign class, armed with fifteen-inch +guns, at the southern end, there began about 8 +o’clock in the evening the third section of the engagement, +embracing the combat between the main fleets.</p> + +<p>Vice-Admiral Scheer determined to attack the British +main fleet, which he now recognized was completely assembled +and about doubly superior. The German battleship +squadron, headed by battle cruisers, steered first +toward the extensive haze bank to the northeast, where +the crippled cruiser Wiesbaden was still receiving a +heavy fire. Around the Wiesbaden stubborn individual +fights under quickly changing conditions now occurred.</p> + +<p>The light enemy forces, supported by an armored +cruiser squadron of five ships of the Minotaur, Achilles, +and Duke of Edinburgh classes coming from the northeast, +were encountered and apparently surprised on account +of the decreasing visibility of our battle cruisers +and leading battleship division. The squadron came<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> +under a violent and heavy fire, by which the small cruisers +Defense and Black Prince were sunk. The cruiser +Warrior regained its own line a wreck and later sank. +Another small cruiser was damaged severely.</p> + +<p>Two destroyers already had fallen victims to the attack +of German torpedo boats against the leading British +battleships and a small cruiser and two destroyers +were damaged. The German battle cruisers and leading +battleship division had in these engagements come under +increased fire of the enemy’s battleship squadron, which, +shortly after 8 o’clock, could be made out in the haze +turning to the northeastward and finally to the east. +Germans observed, amid the artillery combat and shelling +of great intensity, signs of the effect of good shooting +between 8.20 and 8.30 o’clock particularly. Several +officers on German ships observed that a battleship of +the Queen Elizabeth class blew up under conditions similar +to that of the Queen Mary. The Invincible sank +after being hit severely. A ship of the Iron Duke class +had earlier received a torpedo hit, and one of the +Queen Elizabeth class was running around in a circle, +its steering apparatus apparently having been hit.</p> + +<p>The Lützow was hit by at least fifteen heavy shells +and was unable to maintain its place in line. Vice-Admiral +Hipper, therefore, transshipped to the Moltke on +a torpedo boat and under a heavy fire. The Derfflinger +meantime took the lead temporarily. Parts of the German +torpedo flotilla attacked the enemy’s main fleet and +heard detonations. In the action the Germans lost a +torpedo boat. An enemy destroyer was seen in a sinking +condition, having been hit by a torpedo.</p> + +<p>After the first violent onslaught into the mass of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> +superior enemy the opponents lost sight of each other in +the smoke by powder clouds. After a short cessation +in the artillery combat Vice-Admiral Scheer ordered a +new attack by all the available forces.</p> + +<p>German battle cruisers, which with several light +cruisers and torpedo boats again headed the line, encountered +the enemy soon after 9 o’clock and renewed +the heavy fire, which was answered by them from the +mist, and then by the leading division of the main fleet. +Armored cruisers now flung themselves in a reckless onset +at extreme speed against the enemy line in order to +cover the attack of the torpedo boats. They approached +the enemy line, although covered with shot from 6,000 +meters distances. Several German torpedo flotillas +dashed forward to attack, delivered torpedoes, and returned, +despite the most severe counterfire, with the loss +of only one boat. The bitter artillery fire was again +interrupted, after this second violent onslaught, by the +smoke from guns and funnels.</p> + +<p>Several torpedo flotillas, which were ordered to attack +somewhat later, found, after penetrating the smoke cloud, +that the enemy fleet was no longer before them; nor, +when the fleet commander again brought the German +squadrons upon the southerly and southwesterly course +where the enemy was last seen, could our opponents be +found. Only once more—shortly before 10.30 o’clock—did +the battle flare up. For a short time in the late +twilight German battle cruisers sighted four enemy capital +ships to seaward and opened fire immediately. As +the two German battleship squadrons attacked, the +enemy turned and vanished in the darkness. Older +German light cruisers of the fourth reconnaissance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> +group also were engaged with the older enemy armored +cruisers in a short fight.</p> + +<p>This ended the day battle.</p> + +<p>The German divisions, which, after losing sight of the +enemy, began a night cruise in a southerly direction, +were attacked until dawn by enemy light force in rapid +succession.</p> + +<p>The attacks were favored by the general strategic +situation and the particularly dark night.</p> + +<p>The cruiser Frauenlob was injured severely during +the engagement of the fourth reconnaissance group with +a superior cruiser force, and was lost from sight.</p> + +<p>One armored cruiser of the Cressy class suddenly appeared +close to a German battleship and was shot into +fire after forty seconds, and sank in four minutes.</p> + +<p>The Florent (?) Destroyer 60, (the names were hard +to decipher in the darkness and therefore were uncertainly +established) and four destroyers—3, 78, 06, and +27—were destroyed by our fire. One destroyer was cut +in two by the ram of a German battleship. Seven destroyers, +including the G-30, were hit and severely damaged. +These, including the Tipperary and Turbulent, +which after saving survivors, were left behind in a +sinking condition, drifted past our line, some of them +burning at the bow or stern.</p> + +<p>The tracks of countless torpedoes were sighted by the +German ships, but only the Pommern (a battleship) fell +an immediate victim to a torpedo. The cruiser Rostock +was hit, but remained afloat. The cruiser Elbing was +damaged by a German battleship during an unavoidable +maneuver. After vain endeavors to keep the ship afloat +the Elbing was blown up, but only after her crew had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span> +embarked on torpedo boats. A post torpedo boat was +struck by a mine laid by the enemy.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center">ADMITTED LOSSES—BRITISH</p> + +<table> +<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">NAME</span></td><td class="tdc"> <span class="allsmcap">TONNAGE</span></td><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">PERSONNEL</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Queen Mary (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 27,000</td><td class="tdr"> 1,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>Indefatigable (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 18,750</td><td class="tdr"> 800</td></tr> +<tr><td>Invincible (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 17,250</td><td class="tdr"> 750</td></tr> +<tr><td>Defense (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 14,600</td><td class="tdr"> 755</td></tr> +<tr><td>Warrior (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 13,550</td><td class="tdr"> 704</td></tr> +<tr><td>Black Prince (armored cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 13,550</td><td class="tdr"> 704</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tipperary (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 1,850</td><td class="tdr"> 150</td></tr> +<tr><td>Turbulent (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 1,850</td><td class="tdr"> 150</td></tr> +<tr><td>Shark (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sparrowhawk (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ardent (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Fortune (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nomad (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> +<tr><td>Nestor (destroyer)</td><td class="tdr"> 950</td><td class="tdr"> 100</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">British Totals</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Battle cruisers</td><td class="tdr"> 63,000</td><td class="tdr"> 2,550</td></tr> +<tr><td>Armored cruisers</td><td class="tdr"> 41,700</td><td class="tdr"> 2,163</td></tr> +<tr><td>Destroyers</td><td class="tdr"> 9,400</td><td class="tdr"> 900</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr">———</td><td class="tdr"> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Fourteen ships</td><td class="tdr"> 114,100</td><td class="tdr"> 5,613</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3">ADMITTED LOSSES—GERMAN<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">NAME</span></td><td class="tdc"> <span class="allsmcap">TONNAGE</span></td><td class="tdc"><span class="allsmcap">PERSONNEL</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Lützow (battle cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 26,600</td><td class="tdr"> 1,200</td></tr> +<tr><td>Pommern (battleship)</td><td class="tdr"> 13,200</td><td class="tdr"> 729</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wiesbaden (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 5,600</td><td class="tdr"> 450</td></tr> +<tr><td>Frauenlob (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 2,715</td><td class="tdr"> 264</td></tr> +<tr><td>Elbing (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 5,000</td><td class="tdr"> 450</td></tr> +<tr><td>Rostock (cruiser)</td><td class="tdr"> 4,900</td><td class="tdr"> 373</td></tr> +<tr><td>Five destroyers</td><td class="tdr"> 5,000</td><td class="tdr"> 500</td></tr> + + + +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">German Totals</span></td></tr> + + +<tr><td>Battle cruisers</td><td class="tdr"> 39,800</td><td class="tdr"> 1,929</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cruisers</td><td class="tdr"> 18,215</td><td class="tdr"> 1,537</td></tr> +<tr><td>Destroyers</td><td class="tdr"> 5,000</td><td class="tdr"> 500</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr">———</td><td class="tdr"> ———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Eleven ships</td><td class="tdr"> 63,015</td><td class="tdr"> 3,966</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[A]</a> These figures are given for what they are worth, but no +one outside of Germany doubted but that their losses were +very much greater than admitted in the official report.</p> +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_098"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_098.jpg" alt="ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS and ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY<"> + <figcaption class="caption"> + +<table class="equal"> +<tr><td class="tdc"><b>ADMIRAL WILLIAM S. SIMS</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>ADMIRAL SIR DAVID BEATTY</b></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc"><b>Commander-in-Chief of United States Naval Forces in European waters.</b></td><td class="tdc"><b>Commander-in-Chief of the British Grand Fleet.</b></td></tr> + +</table> +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span></p> + +<table> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">TOTAL LOSSES OF MEN</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">British</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Dead or missing</td><td class="tdr"> 6,104</td></tr> + +<tr><td>Wounded</td><td class="tdr"> 513</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> 6,617</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">German</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td>Dead or missing</td><td class="tdr"> 2,414</td></tr> +<tr><td>Wounded </td><td class="tdr"> 449</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> 2,863</td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc" colspan="2">LOSS IN MONEY VALUE<br>(Rough Estimate)</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +<tr><td>British</td><td class="tdr"> $115,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td>German </td><td class="tdr"> 63,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdr" colspan="2">——————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdl">Total</td><td class="tdr"> $178,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>While the world was still puzzling over the +conflicting reports of the Battle of Jutland +came the shocking news that Field Marshal +Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener, the British +Secretary of State for War, had perished off +the West Orkney Islands on June 5th, through +the sinking of the British cruiser Hampshire. +The entire crew was also lost, except twelve +men, a warrant officer and eleven seamen, who +escaped on a raft. Earl Kitchener was on his +way to Russia, at the request of the Russian +Government, for a consultation regarding munitions +to be furnished the Russian army. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> +was intending to go to Archangel and visit +Petrograd, and expected to be back in London +by June 20th. He was accompanied by Hugh +James O’Beirne, former Councillor of the British +Embassy at Petrograd, O. A. Fitz-Gerald, +his military secretary, Brigadier-General Ellarshaw, +and Sir Frederick Donaldson, all of +whom were lost.</p> + +<p>The cause of the sinking of the Hampshire +is not known. It is supposed that it struck a +mine, but the tragedy very naturally brought +into existence many stories which ascribe his +death to more direct German action.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_101"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="Where Earl Kitchener Met His Death"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Where Earl Kitchener Met His Death</span></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Seaman Rogerson, one of the survivors, describes +Lord Kitchener’s last moments as follows: +“Of those who left the ship, and have +survived, I was the one who saw Lord Kitchener +last. He went down with the ship, he did +not leave her. I saw Captain Seville help his +boat’s crew to clear away his galley. At the +same time the Captain was calling to Lord +Kitchener to come to the boat, but owing to the +noise made by the wind and sea, Lord Kitchener +could not hear him, I think. When the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> +explosion occurred, Kitchener walked calmly +from the Captain’s cabin, went up the ladder +and on to the quarter deck. There I saw him +walking quite collectedly, talking to two of the +officers. All three were wearing khaki and had +no overcoats on. Kitchener calmly watched +the preparations for abandoning the ship, which +were going on in a steady and orderly way. +The crew just went to their stations, obeyed +orders, and did their best to get out the boats. +But it was impossible. Owing to the rough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> +weather, no boats could be lowered. Those +that were got out were smashed up at once. +No boats left the ship. What people on the +shore thought to be boats leaving, were rafts. +Men did get into the boats as these lay in their +cradles, thinking that as the ship went under +the boats would float, but the ship sank by the +head, and when she went she turned a somersault +forward, carrying down with her all the +boats and those in them. I do not think Kitchener +got into a boat. When I sprang to a raft +he was still on the starboard side of the quarter +deck, talking with the officers. From the little +time that elapsed between my leaving the ship +and her sinking I feel certain Kitchener went +down with her, and was on deck at the time she +sank.”</p> + +<p>The British Admiralty, after investigation, +gave out a statement declaring that the vessel +struck a mine, and sank about fifteen minutes +after.</p> + +<p>The news of Lord Kitchener’s death shocked +the whole Allied world. He was the most important +personality in the British Empire.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> +He had built up the British army, and his name +was one to conjure by. His efficiency was a +proverb, and he had an air of mystery about +him that made him a sort of a popular hero. +He was great before the World War began; +he was the conqueror of the Soudan; the winner +of the South African campaign; the reorganizer +of Egypt. In his work as Secretary of +War he had met with some criticism, but he possessed, +more than any other man, the public +confidence. At the beginning of the war he +was appointed Secretary of War at the demand +of an overwhelming public opinion. He +realized more than any one else what such a +war would mean. When others thought of it +as an adventure to be soon concluded, he recognized +that there would be years of bitter conflict. +He asked England to give up its cherished +tradition of a volunteer army; to go +through arduous military training; he saw the +danger to the Empire, and he alone, perhaps, +had the authority to inspire his countrymen +with the will to sacrifice. But his work was +done. The great British army was in the field.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br> +<span class="smcap">The Russian Campaign</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">IN the very beginning Russia had marked out +one point for attack. This was the city of +Cracow. No doubt the Grand Duke Nicholas +had not hoped to be able to invest that city +early. The slowness of the mobilization of the +Russian army made a certain prudence advisable +at the beginning of the campaign. But +the great success of his armies in Lemberg encouraged +more daring aims. He had invested +Przemysl, and Galicia lay before him. Accordingly, +he set his face toward Cracow.</p> + +<p>Cracow, from a military point of view, is the +gate both of Vienna and Berlin. A hundred +miles west of it is the famous gap of Moravia, +between the Carpathian and the Bohemian +mountains, which leads down into Austria. +Through this gap runs the great railway connecting +Silesia with Vienna, and the Grand<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> +Duke knew that if he could capture Cracow he +would have an easy road before him to the Austrian +capital. Cracow also is the key of Germany.</p> + +<p>Seventy miles from the city lies the Oder +River. An army might enter Germany by this +gate and turn the line of Germany’s frontier +fortresses. The Oder had been well fortified, +but an invader coming from Cracow might +move upon the western bank. The Russian +plan no doubt was to threaten both enemy capitals. +Moreover, an advance of Russia from +Cracow would take its armies into Silesia, full +of coal and iron mines, and one of the greatest +manufacturing districts in the German Empire. +This would be a real success, and all +Germany would feel the blow.</p> + +<p>Another reason for the Russian advance in +Galicia was her desire to control the Galician +oil wells. To Germany petrol had become one +of the foremost munitions of war. Since she +could not obtain it from either America or Russia +she must get it from Austria, and the Austrian +oil fields were all in Galicia. This, in itself,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> +would explain the Galician campaign. +Moreover, through the Carpathian Mountains +it was possible to make frequent raids into +Hungary, and Russia understood well the feeling +of Hungary toward her German allies. +She hoped that when Hungary perceived her +regiments sacrificed and her plains overrun by +Russian troops, she would regret that she had +allowed herself to be sacrificed to Prussian ambition. +The Russians, therefore, suddenly +moved toward Cracow.</p> + +<p>Then von Hindenburg came to the rescue. +The supreme command of the Austrian forces +was given to him. The defenses of Cracow +were strengthened under the direction of the +Germans, and a German army advanced from +the Posen frontier toward the northern bank +of the Vistula. The advance threatened the +Russian right, and, accordingly, within ten +days’ march of Cracow, the Russians stopped. +The German offensive in Poland had begun. +The news of the German advance came about +the fifth of October. Von Hindenburg, who +had been fighting in East Prussia, had at last<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> +perceived that nothing could be gained there. +The vulnerable part of Russia was the city of +Warsaw. This was the capital of Poland, +with a population of about three-quarters of a +million. If he could take Warsaw, he would +not only have pleasant quarters for the winter +but Russia would be so badly injured that no +further offensive from her need be anticipated +for a long period. Von Hindenburg had with +him a large army. In his center he probably +had three-quarters of a million men, and on his +right the Austrian army in Cracow, which must +have reached a million.</p> + +<p>Counting the troops operating in East Prussia +and along the Carpathians, and the garrison +of Przemysl, the Teuton army must have had +two and a half million soldiers. Russia, on the +other hand, though her mobilization was still +continuing, at this time could not have had as +many as two million men in the whole nine hundred +miles of her battle-front.</p> + +<p>The fight for Warsaw began Friday, October +16th, and continued for three days, von +Hindenburg being personally in command.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> +On Monday the Germans found themselves in +trouble. A Russian attack on their left wing +had come with crushing force. Von Hindenburg +found his left wing thrown back, and the +whole German movement thrown into disorder. +Meanwhile an attempt to cross the Vistula at +Josefov had also been a failure. The Russians +allowed the Germans to pass with slight resistance, +waited until they arrived at the village +Kazimirjev, a district of low hills and swampy +flats, and then suddenly overwhelmed them.</p> + +<p>Next day the Russians crossed the river +themselves, and advanced along the whole line, +driving the enemy before them, through great +woods of spruce out into the plains on the west. +This forest region was well known to the Russian +guides, and the Germans suffered much as +the Russians had suffered in East Prussia. +Ruzsky, the Russian commander, pursued persistently; +the Germans retreating first to +Kielce, whence they were driven, on the 3d of +November, with great losses, and then being +broken into two pieces, with the north retiring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> +westward and the south wing southwest toward +Cracow.</p> + +<p>Rennenkampf’s attack on the German left +wing was equally successful, and von Hindenburg +was driven into full retreat. The only +success won during this campaign was that in +the far south where Austrian troops were +sweeping eastward toward the San. This +army drove back the Russians under Ivanov, +reoccupied Jaroslav and relieved Przemysl. +This was a welcome relief to Przemysl, for the +garrison was nearly starved, and it was well +for the garrison that the relief came, for in a +few days the Russians returned, recaptured +Jaroslav and reinvested Przemysl. As von +Hindenburg retreated he left complete destruction +in his wake, roads, bridges, railroad +tracks, water towers, railway stations, all were +destroyed; even telegraph posts, broken or +sawn through, and insulators broken to bits.</p> + +<p>It was now the turn of Russia to make a premature +advance, and to pay for it. Doubtless +the Grand Duke Nicholas, whose strategy up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> +to this point had been so admirable, knew very +well the danger of a new advance in Galicia, +but he realized the immense political as well as +military advantages which were to be obtained +by the capture of Cracow. He therefore attempted +to move an army through Poland as +well as through Galicia, hoping that the army +in Poland would keep von Hindenburg busy, +while the Galician army would deal with Cracow.</p> + +<p>The advance was slow on account of the damaged +Polish roads. It was preceded by a +cavalry screen which moved with more speed. +On November 10th, the vanguard crossed the +Posen frontier and cut the railway on the Cracow-Posen +line. This reconnaissance convinced +the Russian general that the German +army did not propose to make a general stand, +and it seemed to him that if he struck strongly +with his center along the Warta, he might destroy +the left flank of the German southern +army, while his own left flank was assaulting +Cracow. He believed that even if his attack +upon the Warta failed, the Russian center +could at any rate prevent the enemy from interfering +with the attack further south upon Cracow.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe45" id="i_111"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">GERMAN FRIGHTFULNESS FROM THE AIR</p> + +<p class="caption">A gas attack on the eastern front photographed by a Russian airman.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>The movement therefore began, and by November +12th, the Russian cavalry had taken +Miechow on the German frontier, about twenty +miles north of Cracow. Its main forces were +still eighty miles to the east. About this time +Grand Duke Nicholas perceived that von Hindenburg +was preparing a counter stroke. He +had retreated north, and then, by means of his +railways, was gathering a large army at Thorn. +Large reinforcements were sent him, some +from the western front, giving him a total of +about eight hundred thousand men. In his retreat +from Warsaw, while he had destroyed all +roads and railways in the south and west, he +had carefully preserved those of the north already +planning to use them in another movement. +He now was beginning an advance, +once again, against Warsaw. On account of +the roads he perceived that it would be difficult +for the Russians to obtain reinforcements. +Von Hindenburg had with him as Chief of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> +Staff General von Ludendorff, one of the cleverest +staff officers in the German army, and +General von Mackensen, a commander of almost +equal repute.</p> + +<p>The Russian army in the north had been +pretty well scattered. The Russian forces +were now holding a front of nearly a thousand +miles, with about two million men. The Russian +right center, which now protected Warsaw +from the new attack could hardly number more +than two hundred thousand men. Von Hindenburg’s +aim was Warsaw only, and did not +affect directly the Russian advance to Cracow, +which was still going on. Indeed, by the end +of the first week in December, General Dmitrieff +had cavalry in the suburbs of Cracow, and +his main force was on the line of the River +Rava about twelve miles away. Cracow had +been strongly fortified, and much entrenching +had been done in a wide circle around the city.</p> + +<p>The German plan was to use its field army in +Cracow’s defense rather than a garrison. Two +separate forces were used; one moving southwest +of Cracow along the Carpathian hills,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> +struck directly at Ivanov’s left; the other, operating +from Hungary, threatened the Russian +rear. These two divisions struck at the same +time and the Russians found it necessary to +fight rear actions as they moved forward. +They were doing this with reasonable success +and working their way toward Cracow, when, +on the 12th of December, the Austrian forces +working from Hungary carried the Dukla +Pass. This meant that the Austrians would be +able to pour troops down into the rear of the +Russian advance, and the Russian army would +be cut off. Dmitrieff, therefore, fell rapidly +back, until the opening of the Dukla Pass was +in front of his line, and the Russian army was +once more safe.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the renewed siege of Przemysl +was going on with great vigor, and attracting +the general attention of the Allied world. The +Austrians attempted to follow up their successes +at the Dukla Pass by attempting to seize +the Lupkow Pass, and the Uzzok Pass, still +further to the east, but the Russians were tired +of retreating. New troops had arrived, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> +about the 20th of December a new advance was +begun.</p> + +<p>With the right of the army swinging up +along the river Nida, northeast of Cracow, the +Russian left attacked the Dukla Pass in great +force, driving Austrians back and capturing +over ten thousand men. On Christmas Day +all three great western passes were in Russian +hands. The Austrian fighting, during this +period, was the best they had so far shown, the +brunt of it being upon the Hungarian troops, +who, at this time, were saving Germany.</p> + +<p>Meantime von Hindenburg was pursuing his +movement in the direction of Warsaw. The +Russian generals found it difficult to obtain information. +Each day came the chronicle of +contests, some victories, some defeats, and it +soon appeared that a strong force was crushing +in the Russian outposts from the direction of +Thorn and moving toward Warsaw. Ruzsky +found himself faced by a superior German +force, and was compelled to retreat. The Russian +aim was to fall back behind the river +Bzura, which lies between the Thorn and Warsaw.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> +Bzura is a strong line of defense, with +many fords but no bridges. The Russian right +wing passed by the city of Lowicz, moved +southwest to Strykov and then on past Lodz. +West of Lowicz is a great belt of marshes impossible +for the movement of armies.</p> + +<p>The first German objective was the city of +Lodz. Von Hindenburg knew that he must +move quickly before the Russians should get up +reserves. His campaign of destruction had +made it impossible for aid to be sent to the Russian +armies from Ivanov, far in the south, but +every moment counted. His right pushed forward +and won the western crossings of the +marshes. His extreme left moved towards +Plock, but the main effort was against Piontek, +where there is a famous causeway engineered +for heavy transport through the marshes.</p> + +<p>At first the Russians repelled the attack on +the causeway, but on November 19th the Russians +broke and were compelled to fall back. +Over the causeway, then, the German troops +were rushed in great numbers, splitting the +Russian army into two parts; one on the south<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> +surrounding Lodz, and the other running east +of Brezin on to the Vistula. The Russian +army around Lodz was assailed on the front +flank and rear. It looked like an overwhelming +defeat for the Russian army. At the very +last moment possible, Russian reinforcements +appeared—a body of Siberians from the direction +of Warsaw. They were thrown at once +into the battle and succeeded in re-establishing +the Russian line. This left about ninety thousand +Germans almost entirely surrounded, as +if they were in a huge sack. Ruzsky tried his +best to close the mouth of the sack, but he was +unsuccessful. The fighting was terrific, but by +the 26th the Germans in the sack had escaped.</p> + +<p>The Germans were continually receiving reinforcements +and still largely outnumbered the +Russians. Von Hindenburg therefore determined +on a new assault. The German left +wing was now far in front of the Russian city +of Lodz, one of the most important of the +Polish cities. The population was about half +a million. Such a place was a constant danger, +for it was the foundation of a Russian salient.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> +When the German movement began the Russian +general, perceiving how difficult it would +have been to hold the city, deliberately withdrew, +and on December 6th the Germans entered +Lodz without opposition.</p> + +<p>The retreat relieved the Russians of a great +embarrassment. Its capture was considered in +Germany as a great German victory, and at +this time von Hindenburg seems to have felt +that he had control of the situation. His +movement, to be sure, had not interfered with +the Russian advance on Cracow, but Warsaw +must have seemed to him almost in his power. +He therefore concentrated his forces for a blow +at Warsaw. His first new movement was directed +at the Russian right wing, which was +then north of the Bzura River and east of +Lowicz. He also directed the German forces +in East Prussia to advance and attempted to +cut the main railway line between Warsaw and +Petrograd. If this attempt had been successful +it would have been a highly serious matter +for the Russians. The Russians, however, defeated +it, and drove the enemy back to the East<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span> +Prussian border. The movement against the +Russian right wing was more successful, and +the Russians fell back slowly. This was not +because they were defeated in battle, but because +the difficult weather interfered with communications. +There had been a thaw, and the +whole country was waterlogged. The Grand +Duke was willing that the Germans should +fight in the mud.</p> + +<p>This slow retreat continued from the 7th of +December to Christmas Eve, and involved the +surrender of a number of Polish towns, but it +left the Russians in a strong position. They +were able to entrench themselves so that every +attack of the enemy was broken. The Germans +tried hard. Von Hindenburg would +have liked to enter Warsaw on Christmas. +The citizens heard day and night the sound of +the cannon, but they were entirely safe.</p> + +<p>The German attack was a failure. On the +whole, the Grand Duke Nicholas had shown +better strategy than the best of the German +generals. Outnumbered from the very start, +his tactics had been admirable. Twice he had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> +saved Warsaw, and he was still threatening +Cracow. The Russian armies were fighting +with courage and efficiency, and were continually +growing in numbers as the days went +by.</p> + +<p>During the first weeks of 1915 while there +were a number of attacks and counter-attacks +both armies had come to the trench warfare, so +familiar in France. The Germans in particular +had constructed a most elaborate trench +system, with underground rooms containing +many of the ordinary comforts of life. Toward +the end of the month the Russians began +to move in East Prussia in the north and also +far south in the Bukovina. The object of +these movements was probably to prevent von +Hindenburg from releasing forces on the west. +Russia was still terribly weak in equipment +and was not ready for a serious advance. An +attack on sacred East Prussia would stir up the +Germans, while Hungary would be likewise +disturbed by the advance on Bukovina. Von +Hindenburg, however, was still full of the idea +of capturing Warsaw. He had failed twice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> +but the old Field Marshal was stubborn and +moreover he knew well what the capture of +Warsaw would mean to Russia, and so he tried +again.</p> + +<p>The Russian front now followed the west +bank of the Bzura for a few miles, changed to +the eastern bank following the river until it +met with the Rawka, from there a line of +trenches passed south and east of Balinov and +from there to Skiernievice. Von Mackensen +concentrated a considerable army at Balinov +and had on the 1st of February about a hundred +and forty thousand men there. That +night, with the usual artillery preparation, he +moved from Balinov against the Russian position +at the Borzymov Crest. The Germans +lost heavily but drove forward into the enemy’s +line, and by the 3d of February had almost +made a breach in it. This point, however, +could be readily reinforced and troops were +hurried there from Warsaw in such force that +on February 4th the German advance was +checked. Von Mackensen had lost heavily, +and by the time it was checked he had become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> +so weak that his forces yielded quickly to the +counter-attack and were flung back.</p> + +<p>This was the last frontal attack upon Warsaw. +Von Hindenburg then determined to attack +Warsaw by indirection. Austria was instructed +to move forward along the whole Carpathian +front, while he himself, with strong +forces, undertook to move from East Prussia +behind the Polish capital, and cut the communications +between Warsaw and Petrograd. +If Austria could succeed, Przemysl might be +relieved, Lemberg recaptured, and Russia +forced back so far on the south that Warsaw +would have to be abandoned. On the other +hand if the East Prussia effort were successful, +the Polish capital would certainly fall. These +plans, if they had developed successfully, would +have crippled the power of Russia for at least +six months. Meantime, troops could be sent +to the west front, and perhaps enable Germany +to overwhelm France. By this time almost all +of Poland west of the Vistula was in the power +of the Germans, while three-fourths of Galicia +was controlled by Russia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span>Von Hindenburg now returned to his old +battle-ground near the Masurian Lakes. The +Russian forces, which, at the end of January, +had made a forward movement in East Prussia, +had been quite successful. Their right +was close upon Tilsit, and their left rested +upon the town of Johannisburg. Further +south was the Russian army of the Narev. +Von Hindenburg determined to surprise the +invaders, and he gathered an army of about +three hundred thousand men to face the Russian +forces which did not number more than a +hundred and twenty thousand, and which were +under the command of General Baron Sievers. +The Russian army soon found itself in a desperate +position. A series of bitter fights ensued +at some of which the Kaiser himself was +present. The Russians were driven steadily +back for a week, but the German stories of their +tremendous losses are obviously unfounded. +They retreated steadily until February 20th, +fighting courageously, and by that date the +Germans began to find themselves exhausted.</p> + +<p>Russian reinforcements came up, and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> +counter-attack was begun. The German aim +had evidently been to reach Grodno and cut the +main line from Warsaw to Petrograd, which +passes through that city. They had now +reached Suwalki, a little north of Grodno, but +were unable to advance further, though the +Warsaw-Petrograd railway was barely ten +miles away. The southern portion of von +Hindenburg’s army was moving against the +railway further west, in the direction of Ossowietz. +But Ossowietz put up a determined resistance, +and the attack was unsuccessful. By +the beginning of March, von Hindenburg +ordered a gradual retreat to the East Prussian +frontier.</p> + +<p>While this movement to drive the Russians +from East Prussia was under way, von Hindenburg +had also launched an attack against +the Russian army on the Narev. If he could +force the lower Narev from that point, too, he +could cut the railroad running east from the +Polish capital. He had hoped that the attacks +just described further east would distract +the Russian attention so that he would find the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> +Narev ill guarded. The advance began on +February 22d, and after numerous battles captured +Przasnysz, and found itself with only one +division to oppose its progress to the railroad. +On the 23d this force was attacked by the German +right, but resisted with the utmost courage. +It held out for more than thirty-six +hours, until, on the evening of the 24th, Russian +reinforcements began to come up, and +drove the invaders north through Przasnysz in +retreat.</p> + +<p>It was an extraordinary fight. The Russians +were unable to supply all their troops +with munitions and arms. At Przasnysz men +fought without rifles, armed only with a bayonet. +All they could do was to charge with +cold steel, and they did it so desperately that, +though they were outnumbered, they drove the +Germans before them. By all the laws of war +the Russians should have been defeated with +ease. As it was, the German attempt to capture +Warsaw by a flank movement was defeated. +While the struggle was going on in +the north, the Austrian armies in Galicia were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> +also moving. Russia was still holding the +three great passes in the Carpathian Mountains, +but had not been able to begin an offensive +in Hungary.</p> + +<p>The Austrians had been largely reinforced +by German troops, and were moving forward +to the relief of Przemysl, and also to drive +Brussilov from the Galician mountains. Brussilov’s +movements had been partly military and +partly political. From the passes in those +mountains Hungary could be attacked, and +unless he could be driven away there was no +security for the Hungarian cornfields, to which +Germany was looking for food supplies. +Moreover, from the beginning of the Russian +movement in Galicia, northern Bukovina had +been in Russian hands. Bukovina was not +only a great supply ground for petrol and +grain, but she adjoined Roumania which, while +still neutral, had a strong sympathy with the +Allies, especially Italy. The presence of a +Russian army on her border might encourage +her to join the Allies. Austria naturally desired +to free Roumania from this pressure.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> +The leading Austrian statesmen, at this time, +were especially interested in Hungary. The +Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs was +Baron Stephen Burian, the Hungarian diplomatist, +belonging to the party of the Hungarian +Premier, Count Tisza. It was his +own country that was threatened. The prizes +of a victorious campaign were therefore great.</p> + +<p>The campaign began in January amid the +deepest snow, and continued during February +in the midst of blizzards. The Austrians +were divided into three separate armies. The +first was charged with the relief of Przemysl. +The second advanced in the direction of Lemberg, +and the third moved upon Bukovina. +The first made very little progress, after a +number of lively battles. It was held pretty +safely by Brussilov. The second army was +checked by Dmitrieff. Further east, however, +the army of the Bukovina crossed the +Carpathian range, and made considerable advances. +This campaign was fought out in a +great number of battles, the most serious of +which, perhaps, was the battle of Koziowa.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> +At that point Brussilov’s center withstood +for several days the Austrian second army +which was commanded by the German General +von Linsingen. The Russian success +here saved Lemberg, prevented the relief of +Przemysl and gave time to send reinforcements +into Bukovina.</p> + +<p>The Austrian third army, moving on Bukovina, +had the greatest Austrian success. +They captured in succession Czernowitz, Kolomea, +and Stanislau. They did not succeed, +however, in driving the Russians from the +province. The Russians retired slowly, waiting +for reinforcements. These reinforcements +came, whereupon the Austrians were +pushed steadily back. The passes in the Carpathians +still remained in Austrian hands, but +Przemysl was not relieved or Lemberg recaptured. +On March 22d Przemysl fell.</p> + +<p>The capture of Przemysl was the greatest +success that Russia had so far attained. It +had been besieged for about four months, and +the taking of the fortress was hailed as the first +spectacular success of the war. Its capture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> +altered the whole situation. It released a +large Russian army, which was sent to reinforce +the armies of Ivanov, where the Austrians +were vigorously attacked.</p> + +<p>By the end of March the Russians had captured +the last Austrian position on the Lupkow +pass and were attacking vigorously the +pass of Uzzok, which maintained a stubborn +defense. Brussilov tried to push his way to +the rear of the Uzzok position, and though the +Austrians delivered a vigorous counter-attack +they were ultimately defeated. In five weeks +of fighting Ivanov captured over seventy thousand +prisoners.</p> + +<p>During this period there was considerable +activity in East Prussia, and the Courland +coast was bombarded by the German Baltic +squadron. There was every indication that +Austria was near collapse, but all the time the +Germans were preparing for a mighty effort, +and the secret was kept with extraordinary +success. The little conflicts in the Carpathians +and in East Prussia were meant to deceive, +while a great army, with an enormous number<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> +of guns of every caliber, and masses of ammunition +were being gathered. The Russian +commanders were completely deceived. There +had been no change in the generals in command +except that General Ruzsky, on account +of illness, was succeeded by General Alexeiev. +The new German army was put under the +charge of von Hindenburg’s former lieutenant, +General von Mackensen. This was probably +the strongest army that Germany ever gathered, +and could not have numbered less than +two millions of men, with nearly two thousand +pieces in its heavy batteries.</p> + +<p>On April 28th, the action began. The +Austro-German army lay along the left bank +of the Donajetz River to its junction with the +Biala, and along the Biala to the Carpathian +Mountains. Von Mackensen’s right moved +in the direction of Gorlice. General Dmitrieff +was compelled to weaken his front to protect +Gorlice and then, on Saturday, the 1st of May, +the great attack began. Under cover of artillery +fire such as had never been seen before +bridges were pushed across the Biala and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> +Ciezkowice was taken. The Russian positions +were blown out of existence. The Russian +armies did what they could but their defense +collapsed and they were soon in full retreat.</p> + +<p>The German armies advanced steadily, and +though the Russians made a brave stand at +many places they could do nothing. On the +Wisloka they hung on for five days, but they +were attempting an impossibility. From that +time on each day marked a new German victory, +and in spite of the most desperate fighting +the Russians were forced back until, on +the 11th, the bulk of their line lay just west +of the lower San as far as Przemysl and then +south to the upper Dniester. The armies +were in retreat, but were not routed. In a +fortnight the army of Dmitrieff had fallen +back eighty-five miles.</p> + +<p>The Grand Duke Nicholas by this time understood +the situation. He perceived that it +was impossible to make a stand. The only +thing to do was to retreat steadily until Germany’s +mass of war material should be used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> +up, even though miles of territory should be +sacrificed. It should be a retreat in close contact +with the enemy, so that the Austro-German +troops would have to fight for every mile. +This meant a retreat not for days, but perhaps +for weeks. It meant that Przemysl must be +given up, and Lemberg, and even Warsaw, +but the safety of the Russian army was of +more importance than a province or a city.</p> + +<p>On May 13th the German War Office announced +their successes in the following terms: +“The army under General von Mackensen in +the course of its pursuit of the Russians +reached yesterday the neighborhood of Subiecko, +on the lower Wisloka, and Kolbuezowa, +northeast of Debica. Under the pressure of +this advance the Russians also retreated from +their positions north of the Vistula. In this +section the troops under General von Woyrach, +closely following the enemy, penetrated +as far as the region northwest of Kielce. In +the Carpathians Austro-Hungarian and German +troops under General von Linsingen conquered +the hills east of the Upper Stryi, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> +took 3,660 men prisoners, as well as capturing +six machine guns. At the present moment, +while the armies under General von Mackensen +are approaching the Przemysl fortresses +and the lower San, it is possible to form an approximate +idea of the booty taken. In the +battles of Tarno and Gorlika, and in the battles +during the pursuit of these armies, we +have so far taken 103,500 Russian prisoners, +69 cannon, and 255 machine guns. In these +figures the booty taken by the Allied troops +fighting in the Carpathians, and north of the +Vistula, is not included. This amounts to a +further 40,000 prisoners. Przemysl surrendered +to the Germans on June 3, 1915, only +ten weeks after the Russian capture of the +fortress, which had caused such exultation.”</p> + +<p>General von Mackensen continued toward +Lemberg, the capital of Galicia. On June +18th, when the victorious German armies were +approaching the gates of Lemberg, the Russian +losses were estimated at 400,000 dead and +wounded, and 300,000 prisoners, besides 100,000 +lost before Marshal von Hindenburg’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> +forces in Poland and Courland. On June 23d +Lemberg fell. The weakness of Russia in this +campaign arose from the exhaustion of her +ammunition supplies, but great shipments of +such supplies were being constantly forwarded +from Vladivostock.</p> + +<p>When the German army crossed the San, +Wilhelm II, then German Emperor, was present. +It is interesting to look back on the +scene. Here is a paragraph from the account +of the Wolff Telegraphic Bureau: “The Emperor +had hurried forward to his troops by +automobile. On the way he was greeted with +loud hurrahs by the wounded, riding back in +wagons. On the heights of Jaroslav the Emperor +met Prince Eitel Friedrich, and then, +from several points of observation, for hours +followed with keen attention the progress of +the battle for the crossing.”</p> + +<p>While the great offensive in Galicia was well +under way, the Germans were pushing forward +in East Prussia. Finding little resistance +they ultimately invaded Courland, captured +Libau, and established themselves firmly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> +in that province. The sweep of the victorious +German armies through Galicia was continued +into Poland. On July 19th William the War +Lord bombastically telegraphed his sister, the +Queen of Greece, to the effect that he had +“paralyzed Russia for at least six months to +come,” and was on the eve of “delivering a coup +on the western front that will make all Europe +tremble.”</p> + +<p>It would be futile to recount the details of +the various German victories which followed +the advance into Poland. On July 24th, the +German line ran from Novogard in the north, +south of Przasnysz, thence to Novogeorgievsk, +then swinging to the southeast below Warsaw +it passed close to the west of Ivangorad, Lublin, +Chelm, and then south to a point just east +of Lemberg. Warsaw at that time was in the +jaws of the German nutcracker.</p> + +<p>On July 21st, the bells in all the churches +throughout Russia clanged a call to prayer for +twenty-four hours’ continual service of intercession +for victory. In spite of the heat the +churches were packed. Hour after hour the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> +people stood wedged together, while the priests +and choirs chanted their litanies. Outside the +Kamian Cathedral an open-air mass was celebrated +in the presence of an enormous crowd. +But the German victories continued.</p> + +<p>On August 5th Warsaw was abandoned. +Up to July 29th hope was entertained in military +quarters in London and Paris that the +Germans would stand a siege in their fortresses +along the Warsaw salient, but on that date advices +came from Petrograd that in order to +save the Russian armies a retreat must be +made, and the Warsaw fortresses abandoned. +For some time before this the Russian resistance +had perceptibly stiffened, and many vigorous +counter-attacks had been made against the +German advance, but it was the same old story, +the lack of ammunition. The armies were +compelled to retire and await the munitions +necessary for a new offensive.</p> + +<p>The last days of Russian rule in Warsaw +were days of extraordinary interest. The inhabitants, +to the number of nearly half a millions, +sought refuge in Russia. All goods that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> +could be useful to the Germans were either +removed or burned. Crops were destroyed in +the surrounding fields. When the Germans +entered they found an empty and deserted city, +with only a few Poles and the lowest classes of +Jews still left. Warsaw is a famous city, full +of ancient palaces, tastefully adorned shops, +finely built streets, and fourscore church towers +where the bells are accustomed to ring +melodiously for matins and vespers. In the +Ujazdowske Avenue one comes to the most +charming building in all Warsaw, the Lazienki +Palace, with its delicious gardens mirrored in +a lovely lake. It is a beautiful city.</p> + +<p>The fall of Warsaw meant the fall of Russian +Poland, but Russia was not yet defeated. +Von Hindenburg was to be treated as Napoleon +was in 1812. The strategy of the Grand +Duke was sound; so long as he could save the +army the victories of Germany would be futile. +It is true that the German armies were not +compelled, like those of Napoleon, to live on +the land. They could bring their supplies +from Berlin day by day, but every mile they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> +advanced into hostile territory made their task +harder. The German line of communication, +as it grew longer, became weaker, and the +troops needed for garrison duty in the captured +towns, seriously diminished the strength of the +fighting army. The Russian retreat was +good strategy and it was carried on with most +extraordinary cleverness.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to describe the events +which succeeded the fall of Warsaw in great +detail. There was a constant succession of +German victories and Russian defeats, but +never was one of the Russian armies enveloped +or destroyed. Back they went, day after day, +always fighting; each great Russian fortress +resisted until it saw itself in danger, and then +safely withdrew its troops. Kovno fell and +Novogeorgievsk, and Ivangorad, then Ossowietz +was abandoned, and Brest-Litovsk and +Grodno. On September 5th the Emperor of +Russia signed the following order:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Today I have taken supreme command of all the forces +of the sea and land armies operating in the theater of +war. With firm faith in the clemency of God, with unshakable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> +assurance in final victory, we shall fulfil our +sacred duty to defend our country to the last. We will +not dishonor the Russian land.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Grand Duke Nicholas was made Viceroy +of the Caucasus, a post which took him out +of the main theater of fighting but gave him a +great field for fresh military activity. He had +been bearing a heavy burden, and had shown +himself to be a great commander. He had +outmaneuvered von Hindenburg again and +again, and though finally the Russian armies +under his command had been driven back, the +retreat itself was a proof of his military ability, +not only in its conception, but in the way in +which it was done.</p> + +<p>The Emperor chose General Alexeiev as his +Chief of General Staff. He was the ablest +of the great generals who had been leading the +Russian army. With this change in command +a new spirit seemed to come over Russia. The +German advance, however, was not yet completely +checked. It was approaching Vilna.</p> + +<p>The fighting around Vilna was the bitterest +in the whole long retreat. On the 18th of September<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> +it fell, but the Russian troops were +safely removed and the Russian resistance had +become strong. Munitions were pouring into +the new Russian army. The news from the +battle-front began to show improvement. On +September 8th General Brussilov, further in +the south, had attacked the Germans in front of +Tarnopol, and defeated them with heavy loss. +More than seventeen thousand men were captured +with much artillery. Soon the news +came of other advances. Dubno was retaken +and Lutsk.</p> + +<p>The end of September saw the German advance +definitely checked. The Russian forces +were now extended in a line from Riga on the +north, along the river Dvina, down to Dvinsk. +Then turning to the east along the river, it +again turned south and so on down east of the +Pripet Marshes, it followed an almost straight +line to the southern frontier. Its two strongest +points were Riga, on the Gulf of Riga, +which lay under the protection of the guns of +the fleet, and Dvinsk, through which ran the +great Petrograd Railway line. Against these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> +two points von Hindenburg directed his attack. +And now, for the first time in many +months, he met with complete failure. The +German fleet attempted to assist him on the +Gulf of Riga, but was defeated by the Russian +Baltic fleet with heavy losses. A bombardment +turned out a failure and the German +armies were compelled to retire.</p> + +<p>A more serious effort was made against +Dvinsk but was equally unsuccessful and the +German losses were immense. Again and +again the attempt was made to cross the Dvina +River, but without success; the German invasion +was definitely stopped. By the end of +October there was complete stagnation in the +northern sector of the battle line, and though +in November there were a number of battles, +nothing happened of great importance.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_141"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_141.jpg" alt="THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">THE GERMAN ATTACK ON THE ROAD TO PETROGRAD</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Further south, however, Russia had become +active. An army had been organized at her +Black Sea bases, and for political reasons it was +necessary that that army should move. At this +time the great question was, what was Roumania +about to do? To prevent her from being<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> +forced to join the Central Powers she must +have encouragement. It was determined +therefore that an offensive should be made in +the direction of Czernowitz. This town was +the railway center of a wide region, and lay +close to Roumania’s northern frontier.</p> + +<p>The Russian aggressive met with great success. +It is true that it never approached the +defenses of Czernowitz, but Brussilov, on the +north, had been able to make great gains of +ground, and the very fact that such a powerful +movement could be made so soon after the +Russian retreat was an encouragement to +every friend of the Allied cause. This offensive +continued till up to the fourth week of +January when it came to an abrupt stop. A +despatch from Petrograd explained the movement +as follows: “The recent Russian offensive +in Bessarabia and Galicia was carried out +in accordance with the plan prepared by the +Entente Allies’ War Council to relieve the +pressure on the Entente forces while they were +fortifying Saloniki and during the evacuation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> +of the Gallipoli Peninsula.” Russia had sacrificed +more than seventy thousand soldiers for +her Allies.</p> + +<p>During the year 1916 the Russian armies +seemed to have had a new birth. At last they +were supplied with guns and munitions. They +waited until they were ready. In March a +series of battles was fought in the neighborhood +of Lake Narotch, and eight successive attacks +were made against the German army, intrenched +between Lake Narotch and Lake +Vischenebski. The Germans at first were +driven back and badly defeated. Later on, +however, the Russian artillery was sent to another +section, and the Germans were able to +recover their position. During June the Russians +attacked all along the southern part of +their line. In three weeks they had regained +a whole province. Lutsk and Dubno had been +retaken; two hundred thousand men and hundreds +of guns, had been captured, and the Austrian +line had been pierced and shattered. +Further south the German army had been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> +compelled to retreat, and the Russian armies +were in Bukovina and Galicia. On the 10th +of August Stanislau fell.</p> + +<p>By this time two Austrian armies had been +shattered, over three hundred and fifty thousand +prisoners taken, and nearly a million men +put out of action. Germany, however, was +sending reinforcements as fast as possible, and +putting up a desperate defense. Nevertheless +everything was encouraging for Russia and she +entered upon the winter in a very different condition +from her condition in the previous year. +Then she had just ended her great retreat. +Now she had behind her a series of successes. +But a new difficulty had arisen in the loss of +the political harmony at home which had +marked the first years of the war. Dark days +were ahead.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br> + +<span class="smcap">How the Balkans Decided</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">FOR more than half a century the Balkans +have presented a problem which has disturbed +the minds of the statesmen of Europe. +Again and again, during that period, it has +seemed that in the Balkan mountains might be +kindled a blaze which might set the world afire. +Balkan politics is a labyrinth in which one +might easily be lost. The inhabitants of the +Balkans represent many races, each with its +own ambition, and, for the most part, military. +There were Serbs, and Bulgarians, and Turks, +and Roumanians, and Greeks, and their territorial +divisions did not correspond to their nationalities. +The land was largely mountainous, +with great gaps that make it, in a sense, +the highway of the world. From 1466 to 1878 +the Balkans was in the dominion of the Turks. +In the early days while the Turks were warring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> +against Hungary, their armies marched +through the Balkan hills. The natives kept +apart, and preserved their language, religion +and customs.</p> + +<p>In the nineteenth century, as the Turks grew +weaker, their subject people began to seek independence. +Greece came first, and, in 1829, +aided by France, Russia and Great Britain, +she became an independent kingdom. Serbia +revolted in 1804, and by 1820 was an autonomous +state, though still tributary to Turkey. +In 1859, Roumania became autonomous. The +rising of Bulgaria in 1876, however, was really +the beginning of the succession of events which +ultimately led to the World War of 1914-18. +The Bulgarian insurrection was crushed by the +Turks in such a way as to stir the indignation +of the whole world. What are known as the +“Bulgarian Atrocities” seem mild today, but +they led to the Russo-Turkish War in 1877.</p> + +<p>The treaty of Berlin, by which that war was +settled in 1878, was one of those treaties which +could only lead to trouble. It deprived Russia +of much of the benefit of her victory, and left<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> +nearly every racial question unsettled. Roumania +lost Bessarabia, which was mainly inhabited +by Roumanians. Bosnia and Herzegovina +were handed over to the administration +of Austria. Turkey was allowed to retain +Macedonia, Albania and Thrace. Serbia was +given Nish, but had no outlet to the sea. +Greece obtained Thessaly, and a new province +was made of the country south of the Balkans +called Eastern Rumelia. From that time on, +quarrel after quarrel made up the history of +the Balkan peoples, each of whom sought the +assistance and support of some one of the great +powers. Russia and Austria were constantly +intriguing with the new states, in the hope of +extending their own domains in the direction +of Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The history of Bulgaria shows that that nation +has been continually the center of these +intrigues. In 1879 they elected as their sovereign +Prince Alexander of Battenburg, whose +career might almost be called romantic. A +splendid soldier and an accomplished gentleman, +he stands out as an interesting figure in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> +the sordid politics of the Balkans. He identified +himself with his new country. In 1885 he +brought about a union with Eastern Rumelia, +which led to a disagreement with Russia.</p> + +<p>Serbia, doubtless at Russian instigation, suddenly +declared war, but was overwhelmed by +Prince Alexander in short order. Russia +then abducted Prince Alexander, but later was +forced to restore him. However, Russian intrigues, +and his failure to obtain support from +one of the great powers, forced his abdication +in 1886.</p> + +<p>In 1887 Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +became the Prince of Bulgaria. He, +also, was a remarkable man, but not the romantic +figure of his predecessor. He seems +to have been a sort of a parody of a king. He +was fond of ostentation, and full of ambition. +He was a personal coward, but extremely cunning. +During his long reign he built up Bulgaria +into a powerful, independent kingdom, +and even assumed the title of Czar of Bulgaria. +During the first days of his reign he was kept +safely on the throne by his mother, the Princess<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> +Clementine, a daughter of Louis Phillippe, +who, according to Gladstone, was the cleverest +woman in Europe, and for a few years Bulgaria +was at peace. In 1908 he declared Bulgaria +independent, and its independence was +recognized by Turkey on the payment of an +indemnity. During this period Russia was +the protector of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian +fox was looking also for the aid of Austria. +Serbia more and more relied upon Russia.</p> + +<p>The Austrian treatment of the Slavs was a +source of constant irritation to Serbia. Roumania +had a divided feeling. Her loss of +Bessarabia to Russia had caused ill feeling, but +in Austria’s province of Transylvania there +were millions of Roumanians, whom Roumania +desired to bring under her rule. Greece was +fearful of Russia, because of Russia’s desire +for the control of Constantinople. All of +these nations, too, were deeply conscious of the +Austro-German ambitions for extension of +their power through to the East. Each of +these principalities was also jealous of the +other. Bulgaria and Serbia had been at war;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> +many Bulgarians were in the Roumanian territory, +many Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks +in Macedonia. There was only one tie in common, +that was their hatred of Turkey. In +1912 a league was formed, under the direction +of the Greek statesman, Venizelos, having for +its object an attack on Turkey. By secret +treaties arrangements were made for the division +of the land, which they hoped to obtain +from Turkey.</p> + +<p>War was declared, and Turkey was decisively +defeated, and then the trouble began. +Serbia and Bulgaria had been particularly anxious +for an outlet to the sea, and in the treaty +between them it had been arranged that Serbia +should have an outlet on the Adriatic, while +Bulgaria was to obtain an outlet on the Ægean. +The Triple Alliance positively refused Serbia +its share of the Adriatic coast. Serbia insisted, +therefore, on a revision of the treaty, which +would enable her to have a seaport on the +Ægean.</p> + +<p>An attempt was made to settle the question +by arbitration, but King Ferdinand refused,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> +whereupon, in July, 1913, the Second Balkan +War began. Bulgaria was attacked by +Greece and Serbia, and Turkey took a chance +and regained Adrianople, and even Roumania, +which had been neutral in the First Baltic War, +mobilized her armies and marched toward +Sofia. Bulgaria surrendered, and on the 10th +of August the Treaty of Bucharest was signed +by the Balkan States.</p> + +<p>As a result of this Bulgaria was left in a +thoroughly dissatisfied state of mind. She had +been the leader in the war against Turkey, she +had suffered heavy losses, and she had gained +almost nothing. Moreover she had lost to +Roumania, a territory containing a quarter of +a million Bulgarians, and a splendid harbor on +the Black Sea. Serbia and Greece were the +big winners. Such a treaty could not be a +final settlement. The Balkans were left seething +with unrest. Serbia, though she had +gained much, was still dissatisfied. Her ambitions, +however, now turned in the direction +of the Jugoslavs under the rule of Austria, and +it was her agitation in this matter which directly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span> +brought on the Great War. But Bulgaria +was sullen and ready for revenge. When +the Great War began, therefore, Roumania, +Serbia, Montenegro and Greece were strongly +in sympathy with Russia, who had been their +backer and friend. Bulgaria, in spite of all +she owed to Russia in the early days, was now +ready to find protection from an alliance with +the Central Powers. Her feeling was well +known to the Allies, and every effort was made +to obtain her friendship and, if possible, her +aid.</p> + +<p>Viviani, then Premier of France, in an address +before the French Chamber of Deputies, +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Balkan question was raised at the outset of the +war, even before it came to the attention of the world. +The Bucharest Treaty had left in Bulgaria profound +heartburnings. Neither King nor people were resigned +to the loss of the fruits of their efforts and sacrifices, and +to the consequences of the unjustifiable war they had +waged upon their former allies. From the first day, the +Allied governments took into account the dangers of +such a situation, and sought a means to remedy it. +Their policy has proceeded in a spirit of justice and +generosity which has characterized the attitude of Great +Britain, Russia and Italy as well as France. We have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> +attempted to re-establish the union of the Baltic peoples, +and in accord with them seek the realization of +their principal national aspirations. The equilibrium +thus obtained by mutual sacrifices really made by each +would have been the best guarantee of future peace. +Despite constant efforts in which Roumania, Greece and +Serbia lent their assistance, we have been unable to obtain +the sincere collaboration of the Bulgarian Government. +The difficulties respecting the negotiations were +always at Sofia.</p> +</div> + +<p>At the beginning of the war it appears, +therefore, that Bulgaria was entering into negotiations +with the Allies, hoping to regain +in this way, some of the territory she had lost +in the Second Baltic War. Many of her leading +statesmen and most distinguished generals +favored the cause of Russia, but in May came +the great German advance in Galicia, and the +Allies’ stalemate in the Dardanelles, and the +king, and his supporters, found the way clear +for a movement in favor of Germany. Still +protesting neutrality they signed a secret +treaty with Berlin, Vienna and Constantinople +on July 17th. The Central Powers had promised +them not only what they had been asking, +in Macedonia, but also the Greek territory of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> +Epirus. This treaty was concealed from those +Bulgarian leaders who still held to Russia, and +on the 5th of October Bulgaria formally entered +into war on the side of Germany, and +began an attack on Serbia.</p> + +<p>The full account of the intrigue which led +to this action has never been told. It is not +improbable that King Ferdinand himself never +had any other idea than to act as he did, but +he dissembled for a long time. He set forth +his claims in detail to the Allies, who used every +effort to induce Roumania, Greece and Serbia +to make the concessions that would be necessary. +Such concessions were made, but not +until it was too late. In a telegram from +Milan dated September 24th, an account is +given of an interview between Czar Ferdinand +and a committee from those Bulgarians who +were opposed to the King’s policy.</p> + +<p>“Mind your own head. I shall mind mine!” +are the words which the King spoke to M. +Stambulivski when he received the five opposition +members who had come to warn him of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> +the danger to which he was exposing himself +and the nation.</p> + +<p>The five members were received by the King +in the red room at the Royal Palace and chairs +had been placed for them around a big table. +The King entered the room, accompanied by +Prince Boris, the heir apparent, and his secretary, +M. Boocovitch.</p> + +<p>“Be seated, gentlemen,” said the King, as he +sat down himself, as if for a very quiet talk. +His secretary took a seat at the table, a little +apart to take notes, but the conversation immediately +became so heated and rapid that he +was unable to write it down.</p> + +<p>The first to speak was M. Malinoff, leader +of the Democratic party, who said: “The +policy adopted by the Government is one of +adventure, tending to throw Bulgaria into the +arms of Germany, and driving her to attack +Serbia. This policy is contrary to the aspirations, +feeling and interests of the country, and +if the Government obstinately continues in this +way it will provoke disturbances of the greatest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> +gravity.” It was the first allusion to the +possibility of a revolution, but the King listened +without flinching. M. Malinoff concluded: +“For these reasons we beg your +Majesty, after having vainly asked the Government, +to convoke the Chamber immediately, +and we ask this convocation for the precise object +of saving the country from dangerous adventures +by the formation of a coalition +Ministry.”</p> + +<p>The King remained silent, and, with a nod, +invited M. Stambulivski to speak. M. Stambulivski +was a leader of the Agrarian party, a +man of sturdy, rustic appearance, accustomed +to speak out his mind boldly, and exceedingly +popular among the peasant population. He +grew up himself as a peasant, and wore the +laborer’s blouse up till very recently. He +stood up and looking the King straight in the +face said in resolute tones: “In the name of +every farmer in Bulgaria I add to what M. +Malinoff has just said, that the Bulgarian +people hold you personally responsible more +than your Government, for the disastrous adventure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> +of 1913. If a similar adventure were +to be repeated now its gravity this time would +be irreparable. The responsibility would once +more fall on your policy, which is contrary to +the welfare of our country, and the nation +would not hesitate to call you personally to account. +That there may be no mistake as to +the real wishes of the country I present to your +Majesty my country’s demand in writing.”</p> + +<p>He handed the King a letter containing the +resolution voted by the Agrarians. The King +read it and then turned to M. Zanoff, leader of +the Radical Democrats, and asked him to +speak. M. Zanoff did so, speaking very slowly +and impressively, and also looking the King +straight in the face: “Sire, I had sworn never +again to set foot inside your palace, and if I +come today it is because the interests of my +country are above personal questions, and +have compelled me. Your Majesty may read +what I have to say in this letter, which I submit +to you in behalf of our party.”</p> + +<p>He handed the letter and the King read it +and still remained silent. Then he said, turning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> +to his former Prime Minister and ablest +politician: “Gueshoff, it is now your turn to +speak.”</p> + +<p>M. Gueshoff got up and said: “I also am +fully in accord with what M. Stambulivski +has just said. No matter how severe his +words may have been in their simple unpolished +frankness, which ignores the ordinary +formalities of etiquette, they entirely express +our unanimous opinion. We all, as representing +the opposition, consider the present policy +of the Government contrary to the sentiments +and interests of the country, because by driving +it to make common cause with Germany +it makes us the enemies of Russia, which was +our deliverer, and the adventure into which +we are thus thrown compromises our future. +We disapprove most absolutely of such a policy, +and we also ask that the Chamber be convoked, +and a Ministry formed with the co-operation +of all parties.”</p> + +<p>After M. Gueshoff, the former Premier, M. +Daneff also spoke, and associated himself +with what had already been said.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>The King remained still silent for a while, +then he, also, stood up and said: “Gentlemen, +I have listened to your threats, and will refer +them to the President of the Council of Ministers, +that he may know and decide what to +do.”</p> + +<p>All present bowed, and a chilly silence followed. +The King had evidently taken the +frank warning given him as a threat to him +personally, and he walked up and down nervously +for a while. Prince Boris turned aside +to talk with the Secretary, who had resumed +taking notes. The King continued pacing to +and fro, evidently very nettled. Then, approaching +M. Zanoff, and as if to change the +conversation, he asked him for news about this +season’s harvest.</p> + +<p>M. Zanoff abruptly replied: “Your Majesty +knows that we have not come here to talk +about the harvest, but of something far more +important at present, namely, the policy of +your Government, which is on the point of +ruining our country. We can on no account +approve the policy that is anti-Russian. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> +the Crown and M. Radoslavoff persist in their +policy we shall not answer for the consequences. +We have not desired to seek out +those responsible for the disaster of 1913, because +other grave events have been precipitated. +But it was a disaster due to criminal +folly. It must not be repeated by an attack +on Serbia by Bulgaria, as seems contemplated +by M. Radoslavoff, and which according to all +appearances, has the approval of your Majesty. +It would be a premeditated crime, and +deserve to be punished.”</p> + +<p>The King hesitated a moment, and then held +out his hand to M. Zanoff, saying: “All right. +At all events I thank you for your frankness.” +Then, approaching M. Stambulivski, he repeated +to him his question about the harvest.</p> + +<p>M. Stambulivski, as a simple peasant, at +first allowed himself to be led into a discussion +of this secondary matter, and had expressed +the hope that the prohibition on the export of +cereals would be removed, when he suddenly +remembered, and said: “But this is not the +moment to speak of these things. I again repeat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> +to your Majesty that the country does +not want a policy of adventure which cost it so +dear in 1913. It was your own policy too. +Before 1913 we thought you were a great diplomatist, +but since then we have seen what +fruits your diplomacy bears. You took advantage +of all the loopholes in the Constitution +to direct the country according to your +own views. Your Ministers are nothing. +You alone are the author of this policy and you +will have to bear the responsibility.”</p> + +<p>The King replied frigidly, “The policy +which I have decided to follow is that which +I consider the best for the welfare of the country.”</p> + +<p>“It is a policy which will only bring misfortune,” +replied the sturdy Agrarian. “It will +lead to fresh catastrophes, and compromise not +only the future of our country, but that of +your dynasty, and may cost you your head.”</p> + +<p>It was as bold a saying as ever was uttered +before a King, and Ferdinand looked astonished +at the peasant who was thus speaking to +him. He said, “Do not mind my head; it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> +already old. Rather mind your own!” he +added with a disdainful smile, and turned +away.</p> + +<p>M. Stambulivski retorted: “My head matters +little, Sire. What matters more is the +good of our country.”</p> + +<p>The King paid no more attention to him, +and took M. Gueshoff and M. Daneff apart, +who again insisted on convoking the Chamber, +and assured him that M. Radoslavoff’s government +would be in a minority. They also referred +to the Premier’s oracular utterances.</p> + +<p>“Ah!” said the King. “Has Radoslavoff +spoken to you, and what has he said?”</p> + +<p>“He has said—” replied the leaders, “that +Bulgaria would march with Germany and attack +Serbia.”</p> + +<p>The King made a vague gesture, and then +said: “Oh, I did not know.”</p> + +<p>This incident throws a strong light upon the +conflict which was going on in the Balkan +states, between those Kings who were of German +origin, and who believed in the German +power, and their people who loved Russia.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> +King Ferdinand got his warning. He did not +listen, and he lost his throne. All this, however, +took place before the Bulgarian declaration +of war. Yet much had already shown +what King Ferdinand was about to do. The +Allies, to be sure, were incredulous, and were +doing their best to cultivate the good will of +the treacherous King. On September 23rd +the official order was given for Bulgaria’s +mobilization. She, however, officially declared +that her position was that of armed neutrality +and that she had no aggressive intentions. +As it has developed, she was acting +under the direction of the German High Command.</p> + +<p>It was at this period that Germany had +failed to crush Russia in the struggle on the +Vilna, and, in accordance with her usual strategy +when one plan failed, another was undertaken. +It seemed to her, therefore, that the +punishment of Serbia would make up for other +failures, and moreover would enable her to assist +Turkey, which needed munitions, besides +releasing for Germany supplies of food and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> +other material which might come from Turkey. +They therefore entrusted an expedition against +Serbia to Field Marshal von Mackensen, and +had begun to gather an army for that purpose, +north of the Danube.</p> + +<p>This army of course was mainly composed +of Austrian troops, but was stiffened throughout +by some of the best regiments from the +German army. To assist this new army they +counted upon Bulgaria, with whom they had +already a secret treaty, and in spite of the +falsehoods issued from Sofia, the Bulgarian +mobilization was meant for an attack on Serbia. +The condition of affairs was well understood +in Russia.</p> + +<p>On October 2, 1915, M. Sazonov, Russian +Minister of Foreign Affairs, issued the following +statement: “The situation in the Balkans +is very grave. The whole Russian nation is +aroused by the unthinkable treachery of Ferdinand +and his Government to the Slavic cause. +Bulgaria owes her independence to Russia, and +yet seems willing now to become a vassal of +Russia’s enemies. In her attitude towards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> +Serbia, when Serbia is fighting for her very +existence, Bulgaria puts herself in the class +with Turkey. We do not believe that the +Bulgarian people sympathize with the action +of their ruler therefore, the Allies are disposed +to give them time for reflection. If they persist +in their present treacherous course they +must answer to Russia.” The next day the +following ultimatum from Russia was handed +the Bulgarian Prime Minister:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Events which are taking place in Bulgaria at this +moment give evidence of the definite decision of King +Ferdinand’s Government to place the fate of its country +in the hands of Germany. The presence of German and +Austrian officers at the Ministry of War and on the staffs +of the army, the concentration of troops in the zone bordering +on Serbia, and the extensive financial support accepted +from her enemies by the Sofia Cabinet, no longer +leave any doubt as to the object of the present military +preparations of Bulgaria. The powers of the Entente, +who have at heart the realization of the aspirations of +the Bulgarian people, have on many occasions warned M. +Radoslavoff that any hostile act against Serbia would +be considered as directed against themselves. The assurances +given by the head of the Bulgarian Cabinet in +reply to these warnings are contradicted by facts. The +representative of Russia, bound to Bulgaria by the imperishable +memory of her liberation from the Turkish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> +yoke, cannot sanction by his presence preparations for +fratricidal aggression against a Slav and allied people. +The Russian Minister has, therefore, received orders to +leave Bulgaria with all the staffs of the Legation and +the Consulates if the Bulgarian Government does not +within twenty-four hours openly break with the enemies +of the Slav cause and of Russia, and does not at once +proceed to send away the officers belonging to the armies +of states who are at war with the powers of the +Entente.</p> +</div> + +<p>Similar ultimatums were presented by representatives +of France and Great Britain. +Bulgaria’s reply to these ultimatums was described +as bold to the verge of insolence. In +substance she denied that German officers were +on the staffs of Bulgarian armies, but said that +if they were present that fact concerned only +Bulgaria, which reserved the right to invite +whomsoever she liked. The Bulgarian Government +then issued a manifesto to the nation, +announcing its decision to enter the war on the +side of the Central Powers. The manifesto +reads as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The Central Powers have promised us parts of Serbia, +creating an Austro-Hungarian border line, which is absolutely +necessary for Bulgaria’s independence of the Serbians. +We do not believe in the promises of the Quadruple<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> +Entente. Italy, one of the Allies, treacherously +broke her treaty of thirty-three years. We believe in +Germany, which is fighting the whole world to fulfill her +treaty with Austria. Bulgaria must fight at the victor’s +side. The Germans and Austro-Hungarians are victorious +on all fronts. Russia soon will have collapsed entirely. +Then will come the turn of France, Italy and +Serbia. Bulgaria would commit suicide if she did not +fight on the side of the Central Powers, which offer the +only possibility of realizing her desire for a union of all +Bulgarian peoples.</p> +</div> + +<p>The manifesto also stated that Russia was +fighting for Constantinople and the Dardanelles; +Great Britain to destroy Germany’s +competition; France for Alsace and Lorraine, +and the other allies to rob foreign countries; +the Central Powers were declared to be fighting +to defend property and assure peaceful +progress. The manifesto filled seven columns +in the newspapers, and discussed at some +length Bulgaria’s trade interests. It attacked +Serbia most bitterly, declaring that Serbia had +oppressed the Bulgarian population of Macedonia +in a most barbarous manner; that she +had attacked Bulgarian territory and that the +Bulgarian troops had been forced to fight for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> +the defense of their own soil. In fact it was +written in quite the usual German manner.</p> + +<p>Long before this M. Venizelos, the Greek +Premier, had perceived what was coming. +Greece was bound by treaty to assist Serbia if +she were attacked by Bulgaria. On September +21st, Venizelos asked France and Britain +for a hundred and fifty thousand troops. On +the 24th, the Allies agreed to this and Greece +at once began to mobilize. His policy was received +with great enthusiasm in the Greek +Chamber, and former Premier Gounaris, amid +great applause, expressed his support of the +government.</p> + +<p>On October 6th an announcement from +Athens stated that Premier Venizelos had resigned, +the King having informed him that he +was unable to support the policy of his Minister. +King Constantine was a brother-in-law +of the German Emperor, and although professing +neutrality he had steadily opposed M. +Venizelos’ policy. He had once before forced +M. Venizelos’ resignation, but at the general +elections which followed, the Greek statesman<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> +was returned to power by a decisive majority.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe40" id="i_169"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">SCENE OF GREAT ALLIED OFFENSIVE THAT DEFEATED BULGARIA IN +SEPTEMBER, 1918</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>Intense indignation was caused by the +King’s action, though the King was able to +procure the support of a considerable party. +Venizelos’ resignation was precipitated by the +landing of the Allied troops in Saloniki. +They had come at the invitation of Venizelos, +but the opposition protested against the occupation +of Greek territory by foreign troops. +After a disorderly session in which Venizelos +explained to the Chamber of Deputies the circumstances +connected with the landing, the +Chamber passed a vote of confidence in the +Government by 142 to 102. The substance of +his argument may be found in his conclusion:</p> + +<p>“We have a treaty with Serbia. If we are +honest we will leave nothing undone to insure +its fulfillment in letter and spirit. Only if we +are rogues may we find excuses to avoid our +obligations.”</p> + +<p>Upon his first resignation M. Zaimis was appointed +Premier, and declared for a policy of +armed neutrality. This position was sharply +criticised by Venizelos, but for a time became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> +the policy of the Greek Government. Meantime +the Allied troops were arriving at Saloniki. +On October 3d, seventy thousand French +troops arrived. A formal protest was made +by the Greek commandant, who then directed +the harbor officials to assist in arranging the +landing. In a short time the Allied forces +amounted to a hundred and fifty thousand +men, but the German campaign was moving +rapidly.</p> + +<p>The German Balkan army captured Belgrade +on the 9th of October, and by that date +two Bulgarian armies were on the Serbian +frontier. Serbia found herself opposed by two +hundred thousand Austro-Germans and a +quarter of a million Bulgarians. Greece and +Roumania fully mobilized and were watching +the conflict, and the small allied contingent at +Saloniki was preparing to march inland to the +aid of Serbia.</p> + +<p>The conduct of Greece on this occasion has +led to universal criticism. The King himself, +no doubt, was mainly moved by his German +wife and the influence of his Imperial brother-in-law.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> +Those that were associated with him +were probably moved by fear. They had been +much impressed by the strength of the German +armies. They had seen the success of the +great German offensive in Russia, while the +French and British were being held in the +West. They knew, too, the strength of Bulgaria. +The national characteristic of the +Greeks is prudence, and it cannot be denied +that there was great reason to suppose that the +armies of Greece would not be able to resist the +new attack. With these views Venizelos, the +greatest statesman that Greece had produced +for many years, did not agree, and the election +seemed to show that he was supported by the +majority of the Greek people.</p> + +<p>This was another case where the Allies, +faced by a dangerous situation, were acting +with too great caution. In Gallipoli they had +failed, because at the very beginning they had +not used their full strength. Now, again, +knowing as they did all that depended upon it, +bound as they were to the most loyal support +of Serbia, the aid they sent was too small to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> +be more than a drop in the bucket. It must +be remembered, however, that the greatest +leaders among the Allies were at all times opposed +to in any way scattering their strength. +They believed that the war was to be won in +France. Military leaders in particular yielded +under protest to the political leaders when expeditions +of this character were undertaken.</p> + +<p>Certainly this is true, that the world believed +that Serbia had a right to Allied assistance. +The gallant little nation was fighting for her +life, and public honor demanded that she +should be aided. It was this strong feeling +that led to the action that was taken, in spite +of the military opinions. It was, however, too +late.</p> + +<p>In the second week of October Serbia found +herself faced by an enemy which was attacking +her on three sides. She herself had been +greatly weakened. Her losses in 1914, when +she had driven Austria from her border, must +have been at least two hundred thousand men. +She had suffered from pestilence and famine. +Her strength now could not have been more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> +than two hundred thousand, and though she +was fairly well supplied with munitions, she +was so much outnumbered that she could +hardly hope for success. On her west she was +facing the Austro-German armies; on her east +Bulgaria; on the south Albania. Her source +of supplies was Saloniki and this was really her +only hope. If the Allies at Saloniki could +stop the Bulgarian movement, the Serbians +might face again the Austro-Germans. They +expected this help from the Allies.</p> + +<p>At Nish the town was decorated and the +school children waited outside the station with +bouquets to present to the coming reinforcements. +But the Allies did not come.</p> + +<p>Von Mackensen’s plan was simple enough. +His object was to win a way to Constantinople. +This could be done either by the control of the +Danube or the Ottoman Railroad. To control +the Danube he had to seize northeastern +Serbia for the length of the river. This was +comparatively easy and would give him a clear +water way to the Bulgarian railways connected +with Constantinople. The Ottoman railway<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> +was a harder route to win. It meant an advance +to the southeast, which would clear the +Moravo valley up to Nish, and then the Nishava +valley up to Bulgaria. The movements +involved were somewhat complex, but easily +carried out on account of the very great numerical +superiority of von Mackensen’s forces.</p> + +<p>On September 19th Belgrade was bombarded. +The Serbian positions were gradually +destroyed. On the 7th of October the German +armies crossed the Danube, and on the 8th +the Serbians began to retreat. There was +great destruction in Belgrade and the Bulgarian +General, Mishitch, was forced slowly +back to the foothills of the Tser range.</p> + +<p>For a time von Mackensen moved slowly. +He did not wish to drive the Serbians too far +south. On the 12th of October the Bulgarian +army began its attack. At first it was held, +but by October 17th was pushing forward all +along the line. On the 20th they entered +Uskub, a central point of all the routes of +southern Serbia. This practically separated +the Allied forces at Saloniki from the Serbian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> +armies further north. Disaster followed disaster. +On Tuesday, October 26th, a junction +of Bulgarian and Austro-German patrols was +completed in the Dobravodo mountains. General +von Gallwitz announced that a moment +of world significance +has come, +that the “Orient +and Occident +had been united, +and on the +basis of +this firm +and indissoluble +union a new and +mighty vierbund +comes into being, created by the victory of our +arms.”</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe42_75" id="i_176"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="The Bremen-Berlin-Bosporus-Bagdad-Bahn"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Germany’s Dream: “The Bremen-Berlin-Bosporus-Bagdad-Bahn”</span></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The road from Germany, through Austria-Hungary +and Bulgaria to Turkey lay open. +On October 31st, Milanovac was lost, and on +November 2nd, Kraguyevac surrendered, the +decisive battle of the war. On November 7th,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> +Nish was captured. General Jecoff announced: +“After fierce and sanguinary fighting +the fortress of Nish has been conquered +by our brave victorious troops and the Bulgarian +flag has been hoisted to remain forever.”</p> + +<p>The Serbian army continued steadily to retreat, +until on November 8th, advancing +Franco-British troops almost joined with +them, presenting a line from Prilep to Dorolovo +on the Bulgarian frontier. At this time +the Bulgarian army suffered a defeat at Izvor +and also at Strumitza. The Allied armies +were now reported to number three hundred +thousand men. The Austro-Germans by this +time had reached the mountainous region of +Serbia, and were meeting with strong resistance.</p> + +<p>On November 13th, German despatches +from the front claimed the capture of 54,000 +Serbian prisoners. The aged King Peter of +Serbia was in full flight, followed by the +Crown Prince. The Serbians, however, were +still fighting and on November 15th, made a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> +stand on the western bank of the Morava +River, and recaptured the town of Tatova.</p> + +<p>At this time the Allied world was watching +the Serbian struggle with interest and sympathy. +In the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne +in a discussion of the English effort to +give them aid said: “It is impossible to think +or speak of Serbia without a tribute to the +wondrous gallantry with which that little country +withstood two separate invasions, and has +lately been struggling against a third. She +repelled the first two invasions by an effort +which I venture to think formed one of the +most glorious chapters in the history of this +Great War.”</p> + +<p>Serbia, however, was compelled once more +to retreat, and their retreat soon became a rout. +Their guns were abandoned and the roads were +strewn with fainting, starving men. The sufferings +of the Serbian people during this time +are indescribable. Men, women, and children +struggled along in the wake of the armies without +food or shelter. King Peter himself was +able to escape, with the greatest difficulty. By<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> +traveling on horseback and mule back in disguise +he finally reached Scutari and crossed to +Brindisi and finally arrived at Saloniki on New +Year’s Day, crippled and almost blind, but still +full of fight.</p> + +<p>“I believe,” he said, “in the liberty of Serbia, +as I believe in God. It was the dream of my +youth. It was for that I fought throughout +manhood. It has become the faith of the twilight +of my life. I live only to see Serbia free. +I pray that God may let me live until the day +of redemption of my people. On that day I +am ready to die, if the Lord wills. I have +struggled a great deal in my life, and am tired, +bruised and broken from it, but I will see, I +shall see, this triumph. I shall not die before +the victory of my country.”</p> + +<p>The Serbian army had been driven out of +Serbia. But the Allies who had come up from +Saloniki were still unbeaten. On October +12th, the French General Serrail arrived and +moved with the French forces, as has already +been said, to the Serbian aid. They met with +a number of successes. On October 19th they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> +seized the Bulgarian town of Struminitza, and +occupied strong positions on the left bank of +the Vardar. On October 27th they occupied +Krivolak, with the British Tenth Division, +which had joined them on their right. They +then occupied the summit of Karahodjali, +which commanded the whole section of the valley. +This the Bulgarians attacked in force on +the 5th of November, but were badly repulsed. +They then attempted to move toward Babuna +Pass, twenty-five miles west of Krivolak, where +they hoped to join hands with the Serbian column +at that point.</p> + +<p>They were being faced by a Bulgarian army +numbering one hundred and twenty-five thousand +men, and found themselves in serious danger. +They were compelled to fall back into +what is called the “Entrenched Camp of Kavodar” +without bringing the aid to the Serbian +army that they had hoped. The Allied expedition +to aid Serbia had failed. It was hopeless +from the start, and, if anything, had injured +Serbia by raising false expectations +which had interfered with their plans.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span>During the whole of this disastrous campaign +a desperate political struggle was going +on in Greece. On November 3rd, the Zaimis +Cabinet tendered its resignation to King Constantine. +The trouble was over a bill for extra +pay to army officers, but it led to an elaborate +discussion of the Greek war policy. M. Venizelos +made two long speeches defending his +policy, and condemning the policy of his opponents +in regard to the Balkan situation. He +said that he deplored the fact that Serbia was +being left to be crushed by Bulgaria, Greece’s +hereditary enemy, who would not scruple later +to fall on Greece herself. He spoke of the +King in a friendly way, criticizing, however, +his position. He had been twice removed from +the Premiership, although he had a majority +behind him in the Greek Chamber.</p> + +<p>“Our State,” he said, “is a democracy, presided +over by the King, and the whole responsibility +rests with the Cabinet. I admit that the +Crown has a right to disagree with the responsible +Government if he thinks the latter is +not in agreement with the national will. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> +after the recent election, non-agreement is out +of the question, and now the Crown has not the +right to disagree again on the same question. +It is not a question of patriotism but of constitutional +liberty.”</p> + +<p>When the vote was taken the Government +was defeated by 147 to 114. Instead of appointing +Venizelos Premier, King Constantine +gave the position to M. Skouloudis, and then +dissolved the Greek Chamber by royal decree. +Premier Skouloudis declared his policy to be +neutrality with the character of sincerest benevolence +toward the Entente Powers. The +general conditions at Athens during this whole +time were causing great anxiety in the Allied +capitals, and the Allied expedition were in continual +fear of an attack in the rear in case of +reverse. They endeavored to obtain satisfactory +assurances on this point, and while assurances +were given, during the whole period of +King Constantine’s reign aggressive action was +prevented because of the doubt as to what +course King Constantine would take.</p> + +<p>In the end Constantine was compelled to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> +abdicate. Venizelos became Premier, and +Greece formally declared war on the Central +Powers.</p> + +<p>It was not till August 27th, 1916, that Roumania +cast aside her rôle of neutral and entered +the war with a declaration of hostilities on +Austria-Hungary. Great expectations were +founded upon the supposedly well-trained +Roumanian army and upon the nation which, +because of its alertness and discipline, was +known as “the policeman of Europe.” The +belief was general in Paris and London that +the weight of men and material thrown into the +scale by Roumania would bring the war to a +speedy, victorious end.</p> + +<p>Germany, however, was confident. A spy +system excelling in its detailed reports anything +that had heretofore been attempted, +made smooth the path of the German army. +Scarcely had the Roumanian army launched a +drive in force into Transylvania on August +30th, when the message spread from Bucharest +“von Mackensen is coming. Recall the army.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> +Draft all males of military age. Prepare for +the worst.”</p> + +<p>And the worst fell upon hapless Roumania. +A vast force of military engineers moving like +a human screen in front of von Mackensen’s +army, followed routes carefully mapped out by +German spies during the period of Roumania’s +neutrality. Military bridges, measured to the +inch, had been prepared to carry cannon, material +and men over streams and ravines. +Every Roumanian oil well, mine and store-house +had been located and mapped. German +scientists had studied Roumanian weather conditions +and von Mackensen attacked while the +roads were at their best and the weather most +favorable. As the Germans swept forward, +spies met them giving them military information +of the utmost value. A swarm of airplanes +spied out the movements of the Roumanians +and no Roumanian airplanes rose to +meet them.</p> + +<p>General von Falkenhayn, co-operating with +von Mackensen, smashed his way through +Vulkan Pass, and cut the main line running to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> +Bucharest at Craiova. The Dobrudja region +was overrun and the central Roumanian plain +was swept clear of all Roumanian opposition +to the German advance. The seat of government +was transferred from Bucharest to Jassy +on November 28, 1916, and on December 6th +Bucharest was entered by von Mackensen, +definitely putting an end to Roumania as a +factor in the war.</p> + +<p>The immediate result of the fall of Roumania +was to release immense stores of petroleum +for German use. British and Roumanian +engineers had done their utmost by +the use of explosives to make useless the great +Roumanian oil wells, but German engineers +soon had the precious fluid in full flow. This +furnished the fuel which Germany had long +and ardently desired. The oil-burning submarine +now came into its own. It was possible +to plan a great fleet of submersibles to +attempt execution of von Tirpitz’s plan for +unrestricted submarine warfare. This was +decided upon by the German High Command +the day Bucharest fell. It was realized that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> +such a policy would bring the United States +into the war, but the Kaiser and his advisers +hoped the submarine on sea and a great western +front offensive on land would force a decision +in favor of Germany before America +could get ready. How that hope failed was +revealed at Château-Thierry and in the humiliation +of Germany.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br> + +<span class="smcap">Campaign in Mesopotamia</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">IN our previous discussion of the British campaign +in Mesopotamia we left the British +forces intrenched at Kurna, and also occupying +Basra, the port of Bagdad. The object of +the Mesopotamia Expedition was primarily to +keep the enemy from the shores of the Gulf of +Persia. If the English had been satisfied with +that, the misfortune which was to come to them +might never have occurred, but the whole expedition +was essentially political rather than +military in its nature.</p> + +<p>The British were defending India. The +Germans, unable to attack the British Empire +by sea, were hoping to attack her by land. +They had already attempted to stir up a Holy +War with the full expectation that it would +lead to an Indian revolution. In this they had +failed, for the millions of Mohammedans in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> +India cared little for the Turkish Sultan or his +proclamations. Through Bagdad, however, +they hoped to strike a blow at the English influence +on the Persian Gulf. The English, +therefore, felt strongly that it was not enough +to sit safely astride the Tigris, but that a blow +at Bagdad would produce a tremendous political +effect. It would practically prevent German +communication with Persia, and the Indian +frontier.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact the Persian Gulf and +the oil fields were safe so long as the English +held Kurna and Basra, and the Arabs were of +no special consequence. The real reason for +the expedition was probably that about this +time matters were moving badly for the Allies. +Serbia was in trouble in the Balkans, Gallipoli +was a failure, something it seemed ought to be +done to restore the British prestige. Up to +this time the Mesopotamia Expedition had +been a great success, but it had made no great +impression on the world. The little villages in +the hands of the British had unknown names, +but if Bagdad should be captured Great Britain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> +would have something to boast of; something +that would keep up its prestige among its +Mohammedan subjects.</p> + +<p>Before the expedition to Bagdad was determined +on, there had been several lively fights +between the English forces and the Turks. +On March 3d a Turkish force numbering about +twelve thousand appeared at Ahwaz where the +British had placed a small garrison to protect +the pipe line of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. +The British retirement led to heavy +fighting, with severe losses.</p> + +<p>A number of lively skirmishes followed, and +then came the serious attack against Shaiba. +The Turkish army numbered about eighteen +thousand men, of whom eleven thousand were +regulars. The fighting lasted for several days, +the Turks being reinforced. On the 14th of +April, however, the English attacked in turn +and put the whole enemy force to flight. The +British lost about seven hundred officers and +men, and reported a Turkish loss of about six +thousand. In their retreat the Turks were attacked +by their Arab allies, and suffered additional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> +losses. From that time till summer +there were no serious contests, although there +were occasional skirmishes which turned out +favorably to the British.</p> + +<p>By this time the Turks had collected a considerable +army north of Kurna, and on May +31st an expedition was made to disperse it. +On June 3d the British captured Amara, seventy-five +miles above Kurna, scattering the +Turkish army. Early in July a similar expedition +was sent against Nasiriyeh, which led +to serious fighting, the Turks being badly defeated +with a loss of over two thousand five +hundred men.</p> + +<p>Kut-el-Amara still remained, and early in +August an expedition was directed against that +point. The Turks were found in great force, +well intrenched, and directed by German officers. +The battle lasted for four days. The +English suffered great hardship on account of +the scarcity of water and the blinding heat, but +on September 29th they drove the enemy from +the city and took possession. More than two +thousand prisoners were taken. The town was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> +found thoroughly fortified, with an elaborate +system of trenches extending for miles, built +in the true German fashion. Its capture was +the end of the summer campaign.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe42_9375" id="i_191"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="The Mesopotamian Sector"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Mesopotamian Sector, Where the British Routed the +Turkish Army</span></p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The British now had at last made up their +minds to push on to Bagdad. General Townshend, +whose work so far had been admirable, +protested, but Sir John Nixon, and the Indian +military authorities, were strongly in favor of +the expedition. By October, Turkey was able +to gather a large army. She was fighting in +Transcaucasia, Egypt, Gallipoli and Mesopotamia.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span> +Little was going on in the first three +of these fronts, and she was able therefore to +send to Mesopotamia almost a quarter of a million +men.</p> + +<p>To meet these, General Townshend had +barely fifteen thousand men, of whom only one-third +were white soldiers. He was backed by +a flotilla of boats of almost every kind,—river +boats, motor launches, paddle steamers, native +punts. The British army was almost worn +out by the fighting during the intense heat of +the previous summer. But their success had +given them confidence.</p> + +<p>In the early days of October the advance began. +For some days it proceeded with no +serious fighting. On the 23d of October it +reached Azizie, and was halted by a Turkish +force numbering about four thousand. These +were soon routed, and the advance continued +until General Townshend arrived at Lajj, +about seven miles from Ctesiphon, where the +Turks were found heavily intrenched and in +great numbers. Ctesiphon was a famous old +city which had been the battle-ground of Romans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> +and Parthians, but was now mainly ruins. +In these ruins, however, the Turks found admirable +shelter for nests of machine guns. On +the 21st of November General Townshend +made his attack.</p> + +<p>The Turks occupied two lines of intrenchments, +and had about twenty thousand men, +the English about twelve thousand. General +Townshend’s plan was to divide his army into +three columns. The first was to attack the +center of the first Turkish position. A second +was directed at the left of that position, +and a third was to swing widely around and +come in on the rear of the Turkish force. +This plan was entirely successful, but the Turkish +army was not routed, and retreated fighting +desperately to its second line. There it +was reinforced and counter-attacked with such +vigor that it drove the British back to its old +first trenches. The next day the Turks were +further reinforced and attacked again. The +British drove them back over and over, but +found themselves unable to advance. The +Turks had lost enormously but the English had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> +lost about one-third of their strength, and were +compelled to fall back. They therefore returned +on the 26th to Lajj, and ultimately, +after continual rear guard actions, to Kut. +There they found themselves surrounded, and +there was nothing to do but to wait for help.</p> + +<p>By this time the eyes of the world were upon +the beleaguered British army. Help was being +hurried to them from India, but Germany +also was awake and Marshal von Der Goltz, +who had been military instructor in the Turkish +army, was sent down to take command of +the Turkish forces. The town of Kut lies in +the loop of the Tigris, making it almost an +island. There was an intrenched line across +the neck of land on the north, and the place +could resist any ordinary assault. The great +difficulty was one of supplies. However, as +the relieving force was on the way, no great +anxiety was felt. For some days there was +constant bombardment, which did no great +damage. On the 23d an attempt was made to +carry the place by assault, but this too failed. +The relieving force, however, was having its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> +troubles. These were the days of floods, and +progress was slow and at times almost impossible. +Moreover, the Turks were constantly +resisting.</p> + +<p>The relief expedition was composed of thirty +thousand Indian troops, two Anglo-Indian divisions, +and the remnants of Townshend’s expedition, +a total of about ninety thousand men. +General Sir Percy Lake was in command of +the entire force. The march began on January +6th. By January 8th the British had +reached Sheikh Saad, where the Turks were defeated +in two pitched battles. On January +22d he had arrived at Umm-el-Hanna, where +the Turks had intrenched themselves.</p> + +<p>After artillery bombardment the Turkish +positions were attacked, but heavy rains had +converted the ground into a sea of mud, rendering +rapid movement impossible. The enemy’s +fire was heavy and effective, inflicting +severe losses, and though every effort was +made, the assault failed.</p> + +<p>For days the British troops bivouacked in +driving rain on soaked and sodden ground.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> +Three times they were called upon to advance +over a perfectly flat country, deep in mud, and +absolutely devoid of cover against well-constructed +and well-planned trenches, manned +by a brave and stubborn enemy, approximately +their equal in numbers. They showed a spirit +of endurance and self-sacrifice of which their +country may well be proud.</p> + +<p>But the repulse at Hanna did not discourage +the British army. It was decided to move up +the left bank of the Tigris and attack the +Turkish position at the Dujailah redoubt. +This meant a night march across the desert +with great danger that there would be no water +supply and that, unless the enemy was routed, +the army would be in great danger.</p> + +<p>General Lake says: “On the afternoon of +March 7th, General Aylmer assembled his subordinate +commanders and gave his final instructions, +laying particular stress on the fact +that the operation was designed to effect a surprise, +and that to prevent the enemy forestalling +us, it was essential that the first phase of the +operation should be pushed through with the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> +utmost vigor. His dispositions were, briefly, +as follows: The greater part of a division +under General Younghusband, assisted by +naval gunboats, controlled the enemy on the +left bank. The remaining troops were formed +into two columns, under General Kemball and +General Keary respectively, a reserve of infantry, +and the cavalry brigade, being held at +the Corps Commander’s own disposal. Kemball’s +column covered on the outer flank by the +cavalry brigade was to make a turning movement +to attack the Dujailah redoubt from the +south, supported by the remainder of the force, +operating from a position to the east of the redoubt. +The night march by this large force, +which led across the enemy’s front to a position +on his right flank, was a difficult operation, entailing +movement over unknown ground, and +requiring most careful arrangement to attain +success.”</p> + +<p>Thanks to excellent staff work and good +march discipline the troops reached their allotted +position apparently undiscovered by the +enemy, but while Keary’s column was in position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> +at daybreak, ready to support Kemball’s +attack, the latter’s command did not reach the +point selected for its deployment in the Dujailah +depression until more than an hour later. +This delay was highly prejudicial to the success +of the operation.</p> + +<p>When, nearly three hours later, Kemball’s +troops advanced to the attack, they were +strongly opposed by the enemy from trenches +cleverly concealed in the brushwood, and were +unable to make further ground for some time, +though assisted by Keary’s attack upon the +redoubt from the east. The southern attack +was now reinforced, and by 1 <span class="allsmcap">P. M.</span> had pushed +forward to within five hundred yards of the redoubt, +but concealed trenches again stopped +further progress and the Turks made several +counter-attacks with reinforcements which had +by now arrived from the direction of Magasis.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that the Corps Commander +received from his engineer officers the +unwelcome news that the water supply contained +in rain-water pools and in Dujailah depression, +upon which he had reckoned, was insufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> +and could not be increased by digging. +It was clear, therefore, that unless the +Dujailah redoubt could be carried that day the +scarcity of water would, of itself, compel the +troops to fall back. Preparations were accordingly +made for a further assault on the redoubt, +and attacks were launched from the +south and east under cover of a heavy bombardment.</p> + +<p>The attacking forces succeeded in gaining +a foothold in the redoubt. But here they were +heavily counter-attacked by large enemy reinforcements, +and being subjected to an extremely +rapid and accurate shrapnel fire from +concealed guns in the vicinity of Sinn After, +they were forced to fall back to the position +from which they started. The troops who had +been under arms for some thirty hours, including +a long night march, were now much exhausted, +and General Aylmer considered that +a renewal of the assault during the night could +not be made with any prospect of success. +Next morning the enemy’s position was found +to be unchanged and General Aylmer, finding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> +himself faced with the deficiency of order already +referred to, decided upon the immediate +withdrawal of his troops to Wadi, which +was reached the same night.</p> + +<p>For the next month the English were held +in their positions by the Tigris floods. On +April 4th the floods had sufficiently receded to +permit of another attack upon Umm-el-Hanna, +which this time was successful. On +April 8th the Turkish position at Sanna-i-yat +was attacked, but the English were repulsed. +They then determined to make another attempt +to capture the Sinn After redoubt. On +April 17th the fort of Beit-Aiessa, four miles +from Es Sinn, on the left bank, was captured +after heavy bombardment, and held against +serious counter-attacks. On the 20th and 21st +the Sanna-i-yat position was bombarded and +a vigorous assault was made, which met with +some success. The Turks, however, delivered +a strong counter-attack, and succeeded in forcing +the British troops back.</p> + +<p>General Lake says: “Persistent and repeated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> +attempts on both banks have thus +failed, and it was known that at the outside not +more than six days’ supplies remained to the +Kut garrison. The British troops were nearly +worn out. The same troops had advanced +time and again to assault positions strong by +art and held by a determined enemy. For +eighteen consecutive days they had done all +that men could do to overcome, not only the +enemy, but also exceptional climatic and physical +obstacles, and this on a scale of rations +which was far from being sufficient in view of +the exertions they had undergone, but which +the shortage of river transports, had made it +impossible to augment. The need for rest was +imperative.”</p> + +<p>On April 28th the British garrison at Kut-el-Amara +surrendered unconditionally, after a +heroic resistance of a hundred and forty-three +days. According to British figures the surrendered +army was composed of 2,970 English +and 6,000 Indian troops. The Turkish +figures are 13,300. The Turks also captured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> +a large amount of booty, although General +Townshend destroyed most of his guns and +munitions.</p> + +<p>During the period in which Kut-el-Amara +was besieged by the Turks, the British troops +had suffered much. The enemy bombarded +the town almost every day, but did little +damage. The real foe was starvation. At +first the British were confident that a relief +expedition would soon reach them, and they +amused themselves by cricket and hockey and +fishing in the river. By early February, however, +it was found necessary to reduce the +rations, and a month later they were suffering +from hunger. Some little help was given +them by airplanes, which brought tobacco and +some small quantities of supplies. Soon the +horses and the mules were slaughtered and +eaten. As time went on the situation grew +desperate; till almost the end, however, they +did not lose hope. Through the wireless they +were informed about the progress of the relief +expeditions and had even heard their guns in +the distance. They gradually grew, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> +weaker and weaker, so that on the surrender +the troops in the first lines were too weak to +march back with their kits.</p> + +<p>The Turks treated the prisoners in a +chivalric manner; food and tobacco was at once +distributed, and all were interned in Anatolia, +except General Townshend and his staff, who +were taken to Constantinople. Later on it +was General Townshend who was to have the +honor of carrying the Turkish plea for an +armistice in the closing days of the war.</p> + +<p>The surrender of Kut created a world-wide +sensation. The loss of eight thousand troops +was, of course, not a serious matter, and the +road to India was still barred, but the moral +effect was most unfortunate. That the great +British nation, whose power had been so respected +in the Orient, should now be forced to +yield, was a great blow to its prestige. In +England, of course, there was a flood of +criticism. It was very plain that a mistake +had been made. A commission was appointed +to inquire into the whole business. This committee +reported to Parliament on June 26,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> +1917, and the report created a great sensation. +The substance of the report was, that +while the expedition was justifiable from a +political point of view, it was undertaken with +insufficient forces and inadequate preparation, +and it sharply criticized those that were +responsible.</p> + +<p>It seems plain that the military authorities +in India under-estimated their opponent. +The report especially criticized General Sir +John Eccles Nixon, the former commander of +the British forces in Mesopotamia, who had +urged the expedition, in spite of the objection +of General Townshend. Others sharing the +blame were the Viceroy of India, Baron +Hardinge, General Sir Beauchamp Duff, +Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in +India, and, in England, Major-General Sir +Edmund Barrow, Military Secretary of the +India office, J. Austin Chamberlain, Secretary +for India, and the War Committee of the +Cabinet. According to the report, beside the +losses incurred by the surrender more than +twenty-three thousand men were lost in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> +relieving expedition. The general armament +and equipment were declared to be not only +insufficient, but not up to the standard.</p> + +<p>In consequence of this report Mr. Chamberlain +resigned as secretary for India. In the +House of Commons, Mr. Balfour, Secretary +of Foreign Affairs, supported Lord Hardinge, +who, at the time of the report, was Under +Secretary of Foreign Affairs. He declared +the criticism of Baron Hardinge to be grossly +unjust. After some discussion the House of +Commons supported Mr. Balfour’s refusal to +accept Baron Hardinge’s resignation, by a +vote of 176 to 81. It seems to be agreed that +the civil administration of India were not responsible +for the blunders of the expedition. +Ten years before, Lord Kitchener, after a bitter +controversy with Lord Curzon, had made +the military side of the Indian Government +free of all civilian criticism and control. The +blunders here were military blunders.</p> + +<p>The English, of course, were not satisfied +to leave the situation in such a condition, and +at once began their plans for a new attempt to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> +capture Bagdad. The summer campaign, +however, was uneventful, though on May 18th +a band of Cossacks from the Russian armies in +Persia joined the British camp. A few days +afterwards the British army went up the Tigris +and captured the Dujailah redoubt, where they +had been so badly defeated on the 8th of +March. They then approached close to Kut, +but the weather was unsuitable, and there was +now no object in capturing the city.</p> + +<p>In August Sir Percy Lake was succeeded +by Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley +Maude, who carefully and thoroughly proceeded +to prepare for an expedition which +should capture Bagdad. A dispatch from +General Maude dated July 10, 1917, gives a +full account of this expedition. It was thoroughly +successful. This time with a sufficient +army and a thorough equipment the British +found no difficulties, and on February 26th +they captured Kut-el-Amara, not after a hard-fought +battle, but as the result of a successful +series of small engagements. The Turks +kept up a steady resistance, but the British<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span> +blood was up. They were remembering General +Townshend’s surrender, and the Turks +were driven before them in great confusion.</p> + +<p>The capture of Kut, however, was not an +object in itself, and the British pushed steadily +on up the Tigris. The Turks occasionally +made a stand, but without effect. On the 28th +of February the English had arrived at Azizie, +half way to Bagdad, where a halt was made. +On the 5th of March the advance was renewed. +The Ctesiphon position, which had defied General +Townshend, was found to be strongly intrenched, +but empty. On March 7th the +enemy made a stand on the River Diala, which +enters the Tigris eight miles below Bagdad. +Some lively fighting followed, the enemy resisting +four attempts to cross the Diala. +However, on March 10th the British forces +crossed, and were now close to Bagdad. The +enemy suddenly retired and the British troops +found that their main opponent was a dust +storm. The enemy retired beyond Bagdad, +and on March 11th the city was occupied by +the English.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>The fall of Bagdad was an important event. +It cheered the Allies, and proved, especially to +the Oriental world, the power of the British +army. Those who originally planned its capture +had been right, but those who were to +carry out the plan had not done their duty. +Under General Maude it was a comparatively +simple operation, though full of admirable details, +and it produced all the good effects expected. +The British, of course, did not stop +at Bagdad. The city itself is not of strategic +importance. The surrounding towns were +occupied and an endeavor was made to conciliate +the inhabitants. The real object of the +expedition was attained.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_208"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_208.jpg" alt="BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">BAGDAD THE MAGNIFICENT FALLS TO THE BRITISH</p> + +<p>Lieutenant-General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude, Commander-in-Chief of the +British Mesopotamian Army, making his triumphal entry into the ancient city at +the head of his victorious army on March 11, 1917.</p></figcaption> +</figure> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> + +<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br> + +<span class="smcap">Immortal Verdun</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap">FRANCE was revealed to herself, to Germany +and to the world as the heroic defender +of civilization, as a defender defying +death in the victory of Verdun. There, with +the gateway to Paris lying open at its back, +the French army, in the longest pitched battle +in all history, held like a cold blue rock against +the uttermost man-power and resources of the +German army.</p> + +<p>General von Falkenhayn, Chief of the German +General Staff and military dictator of the +Teutonic allies, there met disaster and disgrace. +There the mettle of the Crown Prince +was tested and he was found to be merely a +thing of straw, a weak creature whose mind was +under the domination of von Falkenhayn.</p> + +<p>For the tremendous offensive which was +planned to end the war by one terrific thrust,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> +von Falkenhayn had robbed all the other +fronts of effective men and munitions. Field +Marshal von Hindenburg and his crafty Chief +of Staff, General Ludendorff, had planned a +campaign against Russia designed to put that +tottering military Colossus out of the war. +The plans were upon a scale that might well +have proved successful. The Kaiser, influenced +by the Crown Prince and by von Falkenhayn, +decreed that the Russian campaign must +be postponed and that von Hindenburg must +send his crack troops to join the army of the +Crown Prince fronting Verdun. Ludendorff +promptly resigned as Chief of Staff to von +Hindenburg and suggested that the Field Marshal +also resign. That grim old warrior declined +to take this action, preferring to remain +idle in East Prussia and watch what he predicted +would be a useless effort on the western +front. His warning to the General Staff was +explicit, but von Falkenhayn coolly ignored +the message.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_211"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="IMMORTAL VERDUN"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">IMMORTAL VERDUN, WHERE THE FRENCH HELD THE GERMANS +WITH THE INSPIRING SLOGAN, “THEY SHALL NOT +PASS”</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Why did Germany select this particular +point for its grand offensive? The answer is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> +to be found in a demand made by the great +Junker associations of Germany in May, 1915, +nine months before the attack was undertaken. +That demand was to the effect that Verdun +should be attacked and captured. They declared +that the Verdun fortifications made a +menacing salient thrust into the rich iron fields +of the Briey basin. From this metalliferous +field of Lorraine came the ore that supplied +eighty per cent of the steel required for German +and Austrian guns and munitions. These +fields of Briey were only twenty miles from +the great guns of Verdun. They were French +territory at the beginning of the war and had +been seized by the army of the Crown Prince, +co-operating with the Army of Metz because +of their immense value to the Germans in war +making.</p> + +<p>As a preliminary to the battle, von Falkenhayn +placed a semicircle of huge howitzers and +rifles around the field of Briey. Then assembling +the vast forces drained from all the fronts +and having erected ammunition dumps covering +many acres, the great battle commenced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span> +with a surprise attack upon the village of Haumont +on February 21, 1916.</p> + +<p>The first victory of the Germans at that +point was an easy one. The great fort of Douaumont +was the next objective. This was +taken on February 25th after a concentrated +bombardment that for intensity surpassed anything +that heretofore had been shown in the +war.</p> + +<p>Von Falkenhayn, personally superintending +the disposition of guns and men, had now +penetrated the outer defenses of Verdun. +The tide was running against the French, and +shells, more shells for the guns of all caliber; +men, more men for the earthworks surrounding +the devoted city were needed. The narrow-gauge +railway connecting Verdun with +the great French depots of supplies was totally +inadequate for the transportation burdens suddenly +cast upon it. In this desperate emergency +a transport system was born of necessity, +a system that saved Verdun. It was fleet +upon fleet of motor trucks, all sizes, all styles; +anything that could pack a few shells or a handful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> +of men was utilized. The backbone of the +system was a great fleet of trucks driven by +men whose average daily rest was four hours, +and upon whose horizon-blue uniforms the +stains of snow and sleet, of dust and mud, were +indelibly fixed through the winter, spring, summer +and fall of 1916, for the glorious engagement +continued from February 21st until November 2d, +when the Germans were forced into +full retreat from the field of honor, the evacuation +of Fort Vaux putting a period to Germany’s +disastrous plan and to von Falkenhayn’s +military career.</p> + +<p>Lord Northcliffe, describing the early days +of the immortal battle, wrote:</p> + +<p>“Verdun is, in many ways, the most extraordinary +of battles. The mass of metal used +on both sides is far beyond all parallel; the +transformation on the Douaumont Ridge was +more suddenly dramatic than even the battle +of the Marne; and, above all, the duration of the +conflict already looks as if it would surpass anything +in history. More than a month has +elapsed since, by the kindness of General Joffre<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> +and General Pétain, I was able to watch the +struggle from various vital viewpoints. The +battle had then been raging with great intensity +for a fortnight, and, as I write, four to five +thousand guns are still thundering round Verdun. +Impossible, therefore, any man to describe +the entire battle. The most one can do +is to set down one’s impressions of the first +phases of a terrible conflict, the end of which +cannot be foreseen.</p> + +<p>“My chief impression is one of admiration +for the subtle powers of mind of the French +High Command. General Joffre and General +Castelnau are men with especially fine intellects +tempered to terrible keenness. Always +they have had to contend against superior numbers. +In 1870, when they were subalterns, +their country lost the advantage of its numerous +population by abandoning general military +service at a time when Prussia was completely +realizing the idea of a nation in arms. In 1914, +when they were commanders, France was inferior +to a still greater degree in point of numbers +to Prussianized Germany. In armament,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> +also, France was inferior at first to her enemy. +The French High Command has thus been +trained by adversity to do all that human intellect +can against almost overwhelming hostile +material forces. General Joffre, General +Castelnau—and, later, General Pétain, who +at a moment’s notice displaced General Herr—had +to display genius where the Germans +were exhibiting talent, and the result is to be +seen at Verdun. They there caught the enemy +in a series of traps of a kind hitherto unknown +in modern warfare—something elemental, and +yet subtle, neo-primitive, and befitting the atavistic +character of the Teuton. They caught +him in a web of his own unfulfilled boasts.</p> + +<p>“The enemy began by massing a surprising +force on the western front. Tremendous energy +and organizing power were the marks of +his supreme efforts to obtain a decision. It +was usually reckoned that the Germans maintain +on all fronts a field army of about seventy-four +and a half army corps, which at full +strength number three million men. Yet, +while holding the Russians from Riga to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> +south of the Pripet Marshes, and maintaining +a show of force in the Balkans, Germany seems +to have succeeded in bringing up nearly two +millions and a half of men for her grand spring +offensive in the west. At one time her forces +in France and Flanders were only ninety divisions. +But troops and guns were withdrawn +in increasing numbers from Russia and Serbia +in December, 1915, until there were, it is estimated, +a hundred and eighteen divisions on +the Franco-British-Belgian front. A large +number of six-inch and twelve-inch Austrian +howitzers were added to the enormous Krupp +batteries. Then a large proportion of new recruits +of the 1916 class were moved into Rhineland +depots to serve as drafts for the fifty-nine +army corps, and it is thought that nearly all +the huge shell output that had accumulated +during the winter was transported westward.</p> + +<p>“The French Staff reckoned that Verdun +would be attacked when the ground had dried +somewhat in the March winds. It was thought +that the enemy movement would take place +against the British front in some of the sectors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> +of which there were chalk undulations, through +which the rains of winter quickly drained. The +Germans skilfully encouraged this idea by +making an apparent preliminary attack at +Lions, on a five-mile front with rolling gas-clouds +and successive waves of infantry. During +this feint the veritable offensive movement +softly began on Saturday, February 19, 1916, +when the enormous masses of hostile artillery +west, east, and north of the Verdun salient +started registering on the French positions. +Only in small numbers did the German guns +fire, in order not to alarm their opponents. +But even this trial bombardment by shifts was +a terrible display of power, calling forth all +the energies of the outnumbered French gunners +to maintain the artillery duels that continued +day and night until Monday morning, +February 21st.</p> + +<p>“The enemy seems to have maintained a +bombardment all round General Herr’s lines +on February 21, 1916, but this general battering +was done with a thousand pieces of field +artillery. The grand masses of heavy howitzers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> +were used in a different way. At a +quarter past seven in the morning they concentrated +on the small sector of advanced intrenchments +near Brabant and the Meuse; twelve-inch +shells fell with terrible precision every few +yards, according to the statements made by the +French troops. I afterwards saw a big German +shell, from at least six miles distant from +my place of observation, hit quite a small +target. So I can well believe that, in the first +bombardment of French positions, which had +been photographed from the air and minutely +measured and registered by the enemy gunners +in the trial firing, the great, destructive shots +went home with extraordinary effect. The +trenches were not bombarded—they were obliterated. +In each small sector of the six-mile +northward bulge of the Verdun salient the +work of destruction was done with surprising +quickness.</p> + +<p>“After the line from Brabant to Haumont +was smashed, the main fire power was directed +against the other end of the bow at Herbebois, +Ornes, and Maucourt. Then when both ends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> +of the bow were severely hammered, the central +point of the Verdun salient, Caures Woods, +was smothered in shells of all sizes, poured in +from east, north and west. In this manner +almost the whole enormous force of heavy artillery +was centered upon mile after mile of the +French front. When the great guns lifted +over the lines of craters, the lighter field artillery, +placed row after row in front of the wreckage, +maintained an unending fire curtain over +the communicating saps and support intrenchments.</p> + +<p>“Then came the second surprising feature in +the new German system of attack. No waves +of storming infantry swept into the battered +works. Only strong patrols at first came cautiously +forward, to discover if it were safe for +the main body of troops to advance and reorganize +the French line so as to allow the artillery +to move onward. There was thus a large +element of truth in the marvelous tales afterwards +told by German prisoners. Their commanders +thought it would be possible to do all +the fighting with long-range artillery, leaving<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span> +the infantry to act as squatters to the great +guns and occupy and rebuild line after line of +the French defenses without any serious hand-to-hand +struggles. All they had to do was to +protect the gunners from surprise attack, +while the guns made an easy path for them and +also beat back any counter-attack in force.</p> + +<p>“But, ingenious as was this scheme for saving +the man-power of Germany by an unparalleled +expenditure of shell, it required for full +success the co-operation of the French troops. +But the French did not co-operate. Their +High Command had continually improved their +system of trench defense in accordance with +the experiences of their own hurricane bombardments +in Champagne and the Carency +sector. General Castelnau, the acting Commander-in-Chief +on the French front, was indeed +the inventor of hurricane fire tactics, +which he had used for the first time in February, +1915, in Champagne. When General +Joffre took over the conduct of all French +operations, leaving to General Castelnau the +immediate control of the front in France, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> +victor of the battle of Nancy weakened his advance +lines and then his support lines, until his +troops actually engaged in fighting were very +little more than a thin covering body, such as +is thrown out towards the frontier while the +main forces connect well behind.</p> + +<p>“We shall see the strategical effect of this +extraordinary measure in the second phase of +the Verdun battle, but its tactical effect was to +leave remarkably few French troops exposed +to the appalling tempest of German and Austrian +shells. The fire-trench was almost empty, +and in many cases the real defenders of the +French line were men with machine guns, hidden +in dugouts at some distance from the +photographed positions at which the German +gunners aimed. The batteries of light guns, +which the French handled with the flexibility +and continuity of fire of Maxims, were also concealed +in widely scattered positions. The main +damage caused by the first intense bombardment +was the destruction of all the telephone +wires along the French front. In one hour +the German guns plowed up every yard of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> +ground behind the observing posts and behind +the fire-trench. Communications could only +be slowly re-established by messengers, so that +many parties of men had to fight on their own +initiative, with little or no combination of effort +with their comrades.</p> + +<p>“Yet, desperate as were their circumstances, +they broke down the German plan for capturing +trenches without an infantry attack. They +caught the patrols and annihilated them, and +then swept back the disillusioned and reluctant +main bodies of German troops. First, the +bombing parties were felled, then the sappers +as they came forward to repair the line for +their infantry, and at last the infantry itself +in wave after wave of field-gray. The small +French garrison of every center of resistance +fought with cool, deadly courage, and often +to the death.</p> + +<p>“Artillery fire was practically useless against +them, for though their tunnel shelters were +sometimes blown in by the twelve-inch shells, +which they regarded as their special terror by +reason of their penetrative power and wide<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> +blast, even the Germans had not sufficient shells +to search out all their underground chambers, +every one of which have two or three exits.</p> + +<p>“The new organization of the French Machine-gun +Corps was a fine factor in the eventual +success. One gun fired ten thousand +rounds daily for a week, most of the positions +selected being spots from which each German +infantry advance would be enfiladed and shattered. +Then the French 75’s which had been +masked during the overwhelming fire of the +enemy howitzers, came unexpectedly into action +when the German infantry attacks increased +in strength. Near Haumont, for example, +eight successive furious assaults were +repulsed by three batteries of 75’s. One battery +was then spotted by the Austrian twelve-inch +guns, but it remained in action until all +its ammunition was exhausted. The gunners +then blew up their guns and retired, with the +loss of only one man.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_225a"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_225a.jpg" alt="AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">AMMUNITION FOR THE GUNS</p> + +<p>Canadian narrow-gauge line taking ammunition up the line through a shattered village.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe28_125" id="i_225b"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_225b.jpg" alt="HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED"> + <figcaption class="caption"><p class="caption">HOW VERDUN WAS SAVED</p> + +<p>The motor transport never faltered when the railroads were put out of action.</p></figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>“Von Falkenhayn had increased the Crown +Prince’s army from the fourteen divisions—that +battled at Douaumont Fort—to twenty-five<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span> +divisions. In April he added five more divisions +to the forces around Verdun by weakening +the effectives in other sectors and drawing +more troops from the Russian front. It was +rumored that von Hindenburg was growing +restive and complaining that the wastage at +Verdun would tell against the success of the +campaign on the Riga-Dvinsk front, which was +to open when the Baltic ice melted.</p> + +<p>“Great as was the wastage of life, it was in +no way immediately decisive. But when the +expenditure of shells almost outran the highest +speed of production of the German munition +factories, and the wear on the guns was +more than Krupp and Skoda could make good, +there was danger to the enemy in beginning +another great offensive likely to overtax his +shellmakers and gunmakers.”</p> + +<p>Immortal and indomitable France had won +over her foe more power than she had possessed +even after the battle of the Marne. If her +Allies, with the help of Japan and the United +States, could soon overtake the production of +the German and Austrian munition factories,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> +it was possible that Verdun, so close to Sedan, +might become one of the turning points of the +war.</p> + +<p>Throughout the entire summer Verdun, with +the whole population of France roused to the +supreme heights of heroism behind it, held like +a rock. Wave after wave of Germans in gray-green +lines were sent against the twenty-five +miles of earthworks, while the French guns +took their toll of the crack German regiments. +German dead lay upon the field until exposed +flesh became the same ghastly hue of their uniforms. +No Man’s Land around Verdun was +a waste and a stench.</p> + +<p>General Joffre’s plan was very simple. It +was to hold out. As was afterwards revealed, +much to the satisfaction of the French people, +Sir Douglas Haig had placed himself completely +at the service of the French Commander-in-Chief, +and had suggested that he +should use the British army to weaken the +thrust at Verdun. But General Joffre had +refused the proffered help. No man knew better +than he what his country, with its exceedingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> +low birthrate, was suffering on the +Meuse. He had but to send a telegram to +British Headquarters, and a million Britons, +with thousands of heavy guns, would fling +themselves upon the German lines and compel +Falkenhayn to divide his shell output, his heavy +artillery, and his millions of men between Verdun +and the Somme. But General Joffre, instead +of sending the telegram in question, +merely dispatched officers to British Headquarters +to assure and calm the chafing Scotsman +commanding the military forces of the +British Empire.</p> + +<p>Throughout that long summer the battle cry +of Verdun, “<i>Ne passeront pas!</i>” (“They shall +not pass!”), was an inspiration to the French +army and to the world. Then as autumn +drifted its red foliage over the heights surrounding +the bloody field, the French struck +back. General Nivelle, who had taken command +at Verdun under Joffre, commenced a +series of attacks and a persistent pressure +against the German forces on both sides of the +Meuse. These thrusts culminated in a sudden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> +sweeping attack which on October 24th, +resulted in the recapture by Nivelle’s forces of +Fort Douaumont and on November 2d, in the +recapture of Fort Vaux.</p> + +<p>Thus ended in glory the most inspiring battle +in the long and honorable history of France.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote"> +<p class="ph1">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:</p> + +<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.</p> + +<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.</p> + +<p>Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.</p> + +<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.</p> +</div></div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 16282 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/16282-h/images/cover.jpg b/16282-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..62eedd9 --- /dev/null +++ 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